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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR . . . BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN AVIATION OCCUPATIONS Duties, Qualifications, Earnings and Working Conditions Cover picture — Air-line mechanics installing a newly overhauled engine on a test stand, where it will be given a test run before being put back into service. PHOTOGRAPH B Y C O U R T E S Y O F C A P IT A L A IR L IN E S . UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR L. B . Schwellenbach, Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Ewan Clague, Commissioner EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN AVIATION OCCUPATIONS Part 2 .— Duties, Qualifications, Earnings, and W orking Conditions Bulletin No. 837-2 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing: Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price 20 cents LETTER O F TRAN SM ITTA L U S n it e d D ta tes B epa r tm en t u rea u o f L o f abor L abor St , a t is t ic s , Washington, D. C., August 22, 1946. T h e Sec r eta r y o f L a bo r : I have the honor to transmit herewith the second of two repoyts on a study of employment opportunities in aviation occupations. This is one of a series of studies which are being conducted in the Bureau’s Occu pational Outlook Division. They are designed for use in vocational counseling of veterans, young people in school, and others interested in choosing a field of work. The study was conducted under the supervision of Helen Wood. Samuel Vernoff had major responsibility for the field work. The report was prepared by Miss Wood, Hilda L. Pearlman, Mr. Vernoff, and Gloria Count. The Bureau wishes to acknowledge the generous assistance re ceived from many members of the staffs of the Civil Aeronautics Administration, Civil Aeronautics Board, Federal Communications Com mission, and National Mediation Board, and from officials of many companies, trade associations, and trade-unions. E H o n . L. B. S c h w ellen b a c h , Secretary of Labor. Ill w an C la g u e , Commissioner. CO N TEN TS Page Summaries, by occupation ................................................................................................ 1 Chapter 1.—Duties and qualifications for employment............... ............................. 8 P ilots....................................... , ................................................................................ 8 Flight engineers and flight mechanics................................................................... 14 Navigators and flight radio operators................................... . ............................. 15 Flight stewards and stewardesses........................................................................... 18 Dispatchers and assistants....................................................................................... IV Meteorologists ............................................................................................................ 19 Mechanics.................................................................................................................... 20 Stock and stores clerks.......................................................................................... 26 Ground radio and teletype operators................................................................... 27 Airport and airway traffic controllers................................................................... 29 Chapter 2.—Hours of work, earnings, and vacations.................................................. 31 Air lin e s...................................................................................................................... 31 Hours of work..................................................................................................... 31 P ilots................................................................................. Other flight personnel............................................................................ 32 Ground personnel....................................................................................... 33 Earnings ............................................................................................................ 33 P ilots............................................................................................................ 33 Other flight person I* ! 34 Dispatchers and meteorologists........................................................... 35 Mechanics, stock -lerks, and ground communications operators.... 35 Vacation and leave provisions................................................. Fixed-base operators ... Hours of work.................................................................................................... 36 Earnings............................................................................................................ 37 Civil Aeronautics Administration......................................................................... 37 Chapter 3.—Labor organization...................................................................... Chapter 4.—Occupational hazards and related problems............................................ 41 Accident hazards ........................................................ 41 Health problems...................................................................................................... 42 Problem of physical disqualification.................................................................... 42 Where to apply for jobs and obtain information on openings.................................... 43 Index.................................................................................................................................... 44 31 36 39 36 m a V-.* % , - :‘:i. 1 ■. V § fi - , 'i , V^ ' &-4o i *** | '•'I■***** ,1 .'.'i^ . . .1 ‘i Captain and co-pilot making a pre-flight cockpit check on a 4-engine plane. BY C O UR TES Y O F TR A N S W O R L D AIRLINE EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN AVIATION OCCUPATIONS Duties, Qualifications, Earnings, and Working Conditions “What are my chances of finding a satisfac tory job in aviation?” This is a question of urgent concern to many air-force veterans and young people leaving school. Part of the answer is to be found in an earlier pamphlet which discusses the employment outlook in aviation occupations.1 The major conclusion reached there is that, despite the prospect of rapidly expanding employment opportunities, there will be a surplus of qualified applicants during the next few years in practically all aviation occu pations and therefore very stiff competition for jobs. A man who wants to know if a certain occu pation will suit his interests and abilities and if he has a good chance of getting" ar job in the face of the expected competition -needs answers also to the following questions: What are the duties of this occupation? What licenses and other qualifications are needed? How much will military aviation experience help in getting a job? What are the earnings, hours of work, and other working conditions? This pamphlet gives information on all these questions—for all flight occupations and many other opera tions and communications jobs, both with the air lines and in other aviation services. The summaries which follow give the high lights of the data for each occupation. First, there is a brief statement on the employment outlook in the particular occupation (based mainly on the earlier report).1 Then, some of the most important facts from this report are presented (with page references to the fuller discussions). Summaries, by Occupation Pilots Employment outlook .—Employment of pilots is increasing rapidly, both with the air lines and in other commercial flying services and flying schools. Nevertheless, all but the most highly qualified men will find it hard to get pilot jobs during the next couple of years. In mid-1945, the total number employed was less than 10,000. By 1950, it may reach 35,000 or 40,000, and it will continue to rise thereafter. There were, however, 200,000 pilots in the armed forces during the last months of the war. 1 U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin No. 837-1: Employment Opportunities in Aviation Occupations, Part 1—Postwar Employment Outlook. Washington, 1945. The number of these and other men with flying experience who are in the market for jobs will far exceed the number of openings for a year or two and probably longer. Duties.—Air-line captains and co-pilots not only share the job of piloting planes but also have to prepare flight plans and handle other ground duties. Pilots outside the air lines do many different types of work—for example, transport flying, flight instruction, and demon strating and selling planes. Those employed by the Civil Aeronautics Administration are mainly inspectors. (See p. 8.) Qualifications.—Every pilot must have a CAA certificate. In addition, air lines have strict hiring standards with respect to flying I experience, education, age, physical condition, height, and other personal characteristics. Fixed-base operators generally emphasize ex perience and flying skill in hiring pilots. For CAA inspector jobs, long and varied flying ex perience is required. To retain their certificates and stay in the occupation, pilots must pass periodic, rigid physical examinations. (See p. 10.) Hours oj work.—Air-line pilots normally fly a little less than 85 hours a month on domestic routes, but their ground duties also take up considerable time. Pilots in fixed-base opera tions tend to have long and irregular working hours. CAA inspectors are on a 40-hour week. (See pp. 31, 36, and 37.) Earnings.—Best paid are air-line captains, who had typical earnings of $600 to $850 a month in domestic flying at the end of 1945, compared with $220 to $380 for co-pilots. Earn ings were considerably higher in international flying. Pilots employed by some fixed-base op erators in the Northeast made from $3,000 to $5,000 in 1945. Those who are CAA inspectors earn from $4,150 to well over $6,000 a year. (See pp. 33, 37, and 38.) Vacations.—Pilots in domestic air-line flying are generally allowed a 2-week vacation with pay; those in international flying, a month’s paid vacation. CAA pilots receive 26 days of “annual leave” per year. (See pp. 36 and 38.) Unionization.—Virtually all air-line pilots are represented by the Air Line Pilots Asso ciation (AFL). (See p. 39.) and handle other duties. Flight mechanics are strictly maintenance personnel. (See p. 14.) Qualifications.—For flight-engineer jobs, the air lines require CAA mechanic certificates with both “A” (aircraft) and “E” (aircraftengine) ratings, broad experience in aircraft maintenance and inspection, and specified per sonal characteristics and education. Require ments for flight-mechanic jobs emphasize main tenance experience. Men must pass rigid physi cal examinations to enter either occupation, and at intervals thereafter to retain their jobs. Air-force veterans will practically always need experience in air-line ground maintenance work to qualify for flight jobs. (See p. 14.) Hours of work.—Flight-hours generally aver age between 85 and 100 a month. Some time must also be spent in ground duties. (See p. 32.) Earnings.—Typical earnings of fully quali fied flight engineers late in 1945 ranged from $250 to $500 a month, depending mainly on length of experience. (See p. 34.) Vacations.—Men in international operations generally get a month’s paid vacation each year; those in domestic flying, 2 weeks. (See p. 36.) Unionization.—Flight engineers are repre sented on one air line by the Air Line Mechanics Department (UAW-CIO) ; on another by the Air Transport Employees’ Union (UMWA FL); and on two other lines by system asso ciations. (See p. 40.) Navigators Flight Engineers and Flight Mechanics —Jobs will be few and difficult to obtain in these occupations for some time to come. Less than 1,000 flight engineers and mechanics were employed in early 1945. In all probability, less than 2,000 will be employed in 1950. The numbers of air-force veterans, air line ground mechanics, and others seeking to enter these occupations will no doubt be much greater than the number of openings indefi nitely. Duties.—A flight engineer or mechanic is carried only on some four-engine air-line planes. Flight engineers operate certain con trols while in flight, make emergency repairs, Employment outlook. 2 Employment outlook.—Few job opportuni ties can be expected in this small occupation. Furthermore, the oversupply of trained work ers seeking jobs is great and will continue to be so indefinitely. There were about 35,000 nav igators (including navigator-bombardiers) in the armed forces in the last months of the war. In contrast, the total number of navigators em ployed by the air lines is only a few hundred. This number will not increase as fast as air line employment generally—in fact, is likely to decline—because of technological and other factors which even threaten to bring about complete elimination of navigators from flight crews. Duties.—Flight radio operators are carried —Navigators are employed only in only on international air-line flights. Their international air-line flying. Their work in cludes preparing the flight plan and, after duties include obtaining radio bearings, send take-off, using all available navigational meth ing and receiving messages, making emergency repairs, and inspecting equipment between ods to determine the course. (See p. 15.) flights. (See p. 15.) Qualifications.—Air lines demand a compre hensive knowledge of navigation and related Qualifications.-—A Federal Communications subjects and at least a high-school—preferably Commission radiotelegraph license of second a college—education. Personal characteristics grade or higher is necessary. Applicants must and flight experience are also emphasized in also meet other air-line requirements, par hiring. Strict physical examinations must be ticularly with respect to physical condition and passed to enter and stay in the occupation. (See personal characteristics. Periodic physical ex p. 16.) aminations must be passed to stay in this as in Hours.—Flight time usually averages be other flight occupations. (See p. 16.) tween 85 and 100 hours a month. Only a few Hours of tvork.—Flying time usually aver additional hours have to be spent in ground ages between 85 and 100 hours a month. A few duties. (See p. 32.) additional hours must be spent in ground Earnings.—The beginning salary for fully duties. (See p. 32.) qualified men was typically $325 a month in Earnings.—Salaries usually ranged from late 1945; the maximum, generally $500. (See $250 to $450 a month in late 1945, depending p. 34.) on length of service and whether the employee Vacations.—One month’s vacation with pay was a junior or a senior operator. (See p. 34.) is usually given. (See p. 36.) Vacations .—One month’s vacation with pay Unionization.—Navigators are represented is generally allowed. (See p. 36.) by the Association of Air Navigators, a branch Unionization.—Flight radio operators are of the National Air Line Navigators’ Associa not covered by an agreement on any line now tion, on one air line; by a system association employing such workers. (See p. 40.) on another. (See p. 39.) Duties. Flight Radio Operators Flight Stewardesses —This occupation also is a very small one, in which there will be few openings and an oversupply of job seekers in definitely. Employment was in the hundreds in mid-1945. It is not expected to rise substantially —certainly not as fast as employment in most other air-line occupations. It may even decline. On at least one route, the position of flight radio operator was recently eliminated, and this is likely to be done increasingly. Since there were more than 50,000 flight radio opera tors in the armed forces during the last months of the war, the potential labor surplus is large, even though only a very small proportion of these men wish comparable civilian employ ment. There will also be competition for the few available jobs from persons trained for radio-operator work of other types and espe cially from air-line ground radio operators, for whom flight jobs represent a promotion. Employment outlook.—There will be a good many job openings for flight stewardesses (or “hostesses”) in the next few years. As of early 1945, the total number employed was in the neighborhood of 1,000. It may reach 5,000 or 6,000 by 1950. In addition, in this occupation openings frequently arise owing to turn-over. Competition for positions is likely to be keen, however. Duties.—Hostesses are carried on most air line passenger flights within this country and on some overseas flights. They are responsible for attending to passengers’ needs and comfort while in flight—by serving meals and in other ways—and they also have to keep some records. (See p. 16.) Qualifications.—Applicants must be unmar ried girls, with a pleasing personality, in excel lent physical condition, and within specified age, height, and weight limits. Some college Employment outlook. 711<i4U— 47-------‘ 3 education is generally required unless the ap plicant is a registered nurse. (See p. 17.) Hours of work. — Flight time averages around 85 to 100 hours a month. Very little time is spent in ground duties. (See p. 32.) Earnings.—The beginning salary on domes tic lines was about $125 or $130 a month as of late 1945; the top salary for experienced stew ardesses; about $165 to $180. These rates have since been raised on some lines. (See p. 34.) Vacations.—Domestic lines generally give hostesses 2 weeks’ vacation with pay each year. International lines give them 1 month. (See p. 36.) Unionization.—Stewardesses are covered by agreements only on one international line, being represented by the International Association of Machinists on one division of that line and by a system association on another division. (See p. 39.) factors considered in hiring are personality, appearance, physical condition, height, and ex perience in handling food. (See p. 17.) Hours o f work .—Flight time varies but gen erally averages about 85 to 100 hours a month. Stewards have sometimes had to do consider able work between flights. (See p. 32.) Earnings.—Pay typically ranged from about $170 to $235 a month in international opera tions late in 1945. (See p. 34.) Vacations.—A month’s paid vacation is gen erally allowed in international flying. (See p. 36.) Unionization.-—Stewards are represented by the International Association of Machinists (AFL) on one division of an international line; by a system association on another division of the same line. (See p. 39.) FligHf Stewards Employment outlook.—Air-line dispatchers (also known as “flight superintendents”) get their jobs by promotion from within the com pany. Outsiders are sometimes hired as assist ant dispatchers, but openings of this type are likely to be very few compared with the number of qualified applicants, at least for a year or two and probably longer. Only a few hundred dispatchers and assistants were em ployed early in 1945, and their number is not expected to be more than three times as large, at the most, by 1950. In contrast, there are thousands of potential competitors for assist ant-dispatcher jobs—including many former air-force operations officers and still greater numbers of former pilots and meteorologists. Duties.—Dispatchers’ responsibilities include authorizing take-offs, following the progress of flights as reported by radio, and keeping the captains informed of changing weather condi tions and other developments affecting their flights. (See p. 17.) Qualifications.—A CAA certificate is re quired for work as a dispatcher though not as an assistant. Dispatchers are promoted from pilot, meteorologist, assistant-dispatcher, or other positions with the same line. For assistant jobs, college training, aviation experience, and personality count heavily. (See p. 19.) .—There will be some openings for flight stewards, but the occupation will remain small. The total number of stew ards employed was in the hundreds in early 1945, and will probably not rise by as much as 1,000 up to 1950. On the other hand, there is only a small group of present and former armed-forces personnel with duties comparable to those of air-line stewards—the enlisted flight clerks and orderlies, who numbered about 1,700 in the last months of the war. The great ma jority of these men probably do not want air line employment. Those who do should receive preference for jobs and have a fairly good chance of finding work, if they have the neces sary personal qualifications and are willing to live in one of the few localities (mainly sea board cities) where flight stewards are based. Duties.—Most flight stewards are employed in international air-line flying; some on domes tic routes. The work includes serving meals while aloft, attending to the comfort of the passengers in other ways, and keeping records. In international flying, stewards generally have charge of the cargo. (See p. 16.) Qualifications.—Stewards must have at least a high-school education and, for international flying, knowledge of a foreign language. Other Employment outlook 4 Dispatchers and Assistants Hours.—The normal workweek was usually 44 hours at the end of 1945. It has since been lowered to 40 hours on many lines. Daily hours are irregular and sometimes very long. (See p. 33.) Earnings. — Licensed dispatchers earned from about $250 to $450 or $500 a month on most lines in the latter part of 1945. Assistants generally earned less. (See p. 35.) Vacations.—Two weeks’ vacation with pay is usually given. (See p. 36.) Unionization.—The Air Line Dispatchers’ Association (AFL) has agreements with 10 air lines. (See p. 40.) Meteorologists Employment outlook.—An oversupply of ap plicants for meteorologist positions in this country is likely for a few years, but job chances for qualified persons will probably im prove later on. In overseas work, there are and may well continue to be some vacancies. Most meteorologists work either for the air lines or for the United States Weather Bureau. As of early 1945, the total number employed by the air lines was only a few hundred, and a tripling of this number is the largest increase that can reasonably be expected up to 1950. Openings with the Weather Bureau will likewise be few compared with the numbers of men who gained experience and training in the profession dur ing the war. The field is not likely to be over crowded in the long run, however, since the number graduated each year from college meteorology courses is normally quite small. Duties.—Air-line meteorologists have the job of analyzing weather data and forecasting fly ing conditions for their sectors of the line. (See p. 19.) Qualifications.—Thorough college training in meteorology and related technical subjects is generally required by the air lines. For senior positions, experience as a forecaster is neces sary. Age limits are usually set. (See p. 20.) Hours of work .—An 8-hour day and a 40hour week is the usual work schedule. (See p. 33.) Earnings.—Air-line pay was generally from $150 to $200 a month for junior meteorologists and from $200 to $300 a month or slightly higher for senior positions late in 1945. (See p. 35.) Vacation.—A 2-week paid vacation is usually allowed. (See p. 36.) Unionization.—Meteorologists do not have union representation on any line. (See p. 40.) Mechanics Employment outlook.—Competition for avia tion mechanic jobs is keen in many areas, since applicants outnumber openings, taking the country as a whole. This situation will probably continue for at least a couple of years, although employment in the occupation is rising rapidly. By 1950, the total number employed—including radio, instrument, and other specialists as well as airplane and engine mechanics—may be as much as 40,000 or 50,000 greater than in 1945, and it is likely to rise still further thereafter. There were, however, 570,000 mechanics and specialists in the armed forces late in the war, of whom at least 85,000 hoped to stay in avia tion, according to a War Department survey. Some of the many civilian mechanics employed by the Army, Navy, and aircraft factories are also competing for positions in air transporta tion. The chances of employment will be best for highly skilled, all-round mechanics, espe cially those with licenses. Totally inexperienced persons will, for several years, find it almost impossible to get trainee jobs. Duties.—There are two main groups of air line mechanics: (1) those assigned to “line maintenance,” who service and inspect the air liners and make adjustments and minor re pairs; and (2) those at the major overhaul base, who usually specialize in one division of the work, such as engine, radio, or instrument overhaul. In most fixed-base operations, me chanics’ work is roughly comparable to that of air-line line-maintenance men. Most CAA per sonnel with mechanic training have jobs as in spectors. (See p. 20.) Qualifications.—To qualify as a skilled me chanic or specialist, a 4-year apprenticeship or its equivalent is usually required. For many air-line jobs, a CAA mechanic certificate with an “A” or “E” rating or both is needed. Fixedbase operators frequently require both “A” 5 Hours of work.—The usual work schedule and “E” ratings. For CAA inspector positions, many years’ experience and both “A” and “E” with the air lines is a 40-hour week and an 8hour day. (See p. 33.) ratings are necessary. (See p. 24.) Earnings.—Typical wages of non-superviHours.—Air-line mechanics are generally on a 40-hour week. In fixed-base operations, the sory clerks ranged from 55 or 60 cents up to workweek varies but is often 48 hours. CAA 95 cents an hour with the air lines in late 1945. employees have a basic 40-hour, 5-day week. When the workweek was cut from 48 to 40 hours, these rates were raised so as to maintain (See pp. 33, 36, and 37.) at least the same take-home pay. (See p. 35.) Earnings.—The wages of mechanics and Vacations .—A 2-week vacation with pay is specialists now start at $1.20 or $1.26 an hour on most major air lines. Mechanics in fixed- usually given. (See p. 36.) Unionization.—Stock clerks are organized base operations are likely to make as much as this or more at least in the Northeast. Salaries on most air lines. They are represented by sev of CAA inspectors range from $2,469 to well eral different unions. (See p. 40.) over $6,000 a year. (See pp. 35, 37, and 38.) Vacation.—Air-line mechanics generally re Ground Radio Operators and Teletypists ceive 2 weeks’ vacation with pay. CAA em ployees are given 26 days of “annual leave” Employment outlook.—There will be limited per year. (See pp. 36 and 38.) numbers of openings in these occupations— Unionization.—Mechanics are organized on probably several thousands with the air lines practically all air lines but are represented by up to 1950 and a smaller number with CAA. several different unions. (See p. 40.) Competition for radio-operator jobs is marked in some parts of the country, only moderate or absent in others. However, the potential sur Stock and Stores Clerks plus of qualified operators is large; there were about 100,000 radio operators in the military Employment outlook .—Some openings may be expected but probably also considerable and naval air forces toward the end of the war competition for jobs. The air lines had in the and many other men received radio-operator neighborhood of 2,000 stock clerks in early training in less directly related fields. So far, 1945; this number may double by 1950. There relatively few of the wartime trainees have will also be a few new jobs with fixed-base applied for jobs in this occupation. But if pay operators. Veterans with experience as avia scales were increased or other changes took tion stock clerks in the armed forces will gen place, the number seeking positions might rise erally receive preference in hiring and a siz rapidly and jobs become much more, difficult to able proportion of those desiring jobs in the obtain. In the case of teletypists, applicants for occupation should find openings — although positions will probably tend to outnumber many workers with experience as stock clerks openings. Duties.—Radio operators working for air in aircraft factories, other industries, and other branches of the armed forces may also be com lines send and receive messages between flight crews and ground personnel and between dif peting for the available jobs. ferent points on the ground, using radiotele Duties.—Stock clerks are employed in air line maintenance departments and in some phone, radiotelegraph, or both. Air-line ground large fixed-base operations, to receive supplies, communications are also handled by teletypists, issue these to mechanics and other personnel, who operate a machine with a keyboard much keep records, and perform related tasks. (See like that of a typewriter. The radio operators and teletypists employed as “aircraft communi p. 26.) cators” by CAA collect and relay information Qualifications.—A high-school diploma is re quired by some lines. Previous clerical experi on weather conditions and other matters affect ence, especially in aviation or automotive stock ing flights. (See p. 27.) Qualifications. — For radio-operator posi and stores work, is desired, and there may be age limits and other requirements. (See p. 26.) tions with air lines, applicants must usually 6 have at least a second-class radiotelephone or telegraph license from FCC, ability to type, and specified educational and other qualifications. The chief requirements for teletypist jobs are with respect to typing speed and education. To qualify for trainee positions as CAA aircraft communicators, applicants must meet civil service requirements, including at least 1 year in aeronautical communications work or other specified experience. All permanent appoint ments to CAA jobs will be made on the basis of competitive civil service examinations. (See P. 27.) Hours of work .—The basic workweek is 40 hours both with the air lines and with CAA. (See pp. 33 and 37.) Earnings.—For air-line radio operators, typ ical earnings were about $130 to $245 a month and sometimes higher in the latter part of 1945; for teletypists, about $125 to $160 a month. The minimum salaries of CAA aircraft communicators range from $2,168 to $4,150. (See pp. 35 and 38.) Vacations.—Air-line operators usually get 2 weeks’ paid vacation. CAA employees receive 26 days of “annual leave.” (See pp. 36 and 38.) Unionization.—Radio operators are repre sented by the Air Line Communications Em ployees Association (ACA-CIO) on four lines and on one other line by a system association. (See p. 40.) Airport and Airway Traffic Controllers Employment outlook.—There will be some openings in both these occupations, though probably not enough in the next few years for all qualified applicants. About 1,000 airport traffic controllers were employed in early 1945, and this number will probably double or con ceivably triple by 1950. Several hundred new jobs for airway traffic controllers are also likely by 1950. In addition, there will probably be a good many openings in both occupations owing to turn-over. Veterans with experience as traf fic-control-tower operators, as pilots, or in cer tain other aviation occupations will have the best chance for these jobs. Duties.—Most airport traffic-control tower operators are now employed by the CAA’s Fed eral Airways Service; the remainder, by the airports. All airway traffic controllers are CAA employees. Airport traffic controllers give di rections regarding take-offs and landings and other instructions to planes within a specified “flight control area” around the airport. Air way traffic controllers regulate air traffic out side the flight control areas. (See p. 29.) Qualifications. — Every traffic-control tower operator above the level of trainee must have a CAA certificate, good only for work at the particular airport. For all CAA jobs, applicants must meet civil service requirements, includ ing, in the case of trainee applicants, at least 1 year in military aviation communications work or other specified experience. Permanent appointments to these as to other CAA jobs will be made on the basis of competitive civil service examinations. (See p. 29.) Hours of work .—All CAA employees have a basic 40-hour week but airway traffic control lers often have to work 4 or 5 hours overtime in a week. (See p. 37.) Earnings.—Minimum salaries range from $2,645 to $4,150 a year for CAA airport traffic controllers and from $2,645 to $4,526 for air way traffic controllers, depending on the grade of the job. (See p. 38.) Vacations.—All CAA employees receive 26 days of “annual leave” per year. (See p. 38.) 7 Chapter 1.—Duties and Qualifications for Employment Brief descriptions of the duties involved in all flight occupations and in many other opera tions, maintenance, and communications jobs are given in this chapter. The legal require ments for entry into each occupation and the additional standards followed by employers in hiring are discussed, and special attention is also paid to the usefulness of military and naval experience in applying for civilian jobs. The main legal requirements for aviation jobs are contained in the Civil Air Regulations. These provide that, in order to work as an “air man,” a person must get a certificate issued by the Civil Aeronautics Administration.1 “Air men” are defined to include pilots, flight engi neers, navigators, flight radio operators, air craft and aircraft-engine mechanics, dispatch ers, and airport traffic-control tower operators. Equally important are the standards set by employers in hiring workers for each type of job. The descriptions of employers’ hiring standards and also of duties given in this chap ter are based partly on published information ;12 partly on interviews with officials of certain air lines and other companies, of employer and employee organizations, and of the CAA; and partly on unpublished data made available by these agencies and by the U. S. Employment Service of the Department of Labor. In pre senting this information, the aim has been to portray the typical situation in each occupa tion. It should be remembered in interpreting the data that even the relatively few major air lines differ to some extent in the way in which they divide duties between occupational groups and in their hiring specifications. Differences are even greater in the case of the many small 1The information regarding these certificates was obtained partly from the Civil Air Regulations and partly through interviews with CAA officials. Similarly, the information as to the Federal Com munications Commission licenses, required for all personnel oper ating radio transmitters, came from the official publications regard ing these licenses, supplemented by interviews with FCC staff members. 2 Much use has been made throughout this chapter of the Dic tionary of Occupational Titles, Part I (June 1939), and Supplement, Edition II (July 1943), prepared by the U. S. Employment Service, Washington; and An Educational Guide in Air Transportation, pre pared by Ralph E. Hinkel and Leo Baron (1944), Transcontinental and Western Air, Incorporated, Kansas City, Mo. 8 enterprises engaged in nonscheduled commer cial flying and related activities—among which there is as yet little standardization of employ ment policies. Another thing to bear in mind is that the air lines’ hiring standards are not rigid. Appli cants who are outstandingly qualified in most re spects have sometimes been hired even though they do not meet a certain specification (for example, the height limit in the case of pilots). On the other hand, having all the minimum qualifications for a job will by no means be a guaranty of employment during the next few years of labor surplus in aviation. In most oc cupations, only the most highly qualified indi viduals will have a chance of being hired in the near future. This report discusses not only entry jobs but also those of higher grade in each occupation, to which men may be promoted. Thus, the sec tion on pilots covers both co-pilots and cap tains; that on mechanics, all grades from ap prentices through crew chiefs. On the other hand, jobs still farther up the ladder, which are essentially administrative or supervisory —such as those of chief pilot or shop foreman —have not been covered. The air lines follow a policy of promotion from withii; the company in filling positions of this type, but openings are few and only the most outstanding and experienced individuals can hope to be selected. Pilots Dufies of Air-Line Pilots Piloting an air-line plane is an exacting, technical job, involving great responsibility for life and property. Although the work has become standardized—even routine, in many of its aspects—emergencies which critically test the pilot’s judgment and skill are still a con stant possibility. During flights, the pilot’s primary task is, of course, to operate the controls of the plane. Other typical flight duties include keeping close watch on the multitude of instruments, and observing the functioning of the engines and operating the radio. How these duties are di operates some of the controls. Specialized flight vided between the captain (or first pilot) and radio operators and navigators of course handle the first officer (or co-pilot) is determined by most of the work in these spheres. It is also the former, who has complete authority over possible that, in the future, some extremely the plane, crew, passengers, and cargo while in large planes may have captains who are in ad the air. The co-pilot acts as his assistant and is dition to the regular pilots and do none of the regarded as a “captain in training.” A new actual flying. co-pilot is generally permitted only limited re To insure that all pilots constantly meet the sponsibility, such as operating the controls in requirements with respect to flying skill and good weather over safe terrain. His respon other matters, the air lines employ check pilots. sibilities are gradually increased as he gains in At least one company rotates this assignment experience and skill and approaches the point among its more experienced captains. Other where he will qualify for a captain’s job. lines designate one or more of the senior men Both captain and co-pilot have extensive as check pilots. ground duties. Before each flight, they must study weather reports and maps for the region Duties of Airplane Pilots Outside where they will be flying, in consultation with the A ir Lines the company meteorologist, and prepare the flight plan detailing the route to be followed, in Pilots employed outside the air lines—in cooperation with the air-line dispatcher. The fixed-base operations,3 by business firms own pilots also make a pre-flight check on the condi ing and operating their own fleets of planes, tion and loading of the aircraft and the func or by Government agencies—have a wide vari tioning of engines and instruments. If the cap ety of jobs. tain is not satisfied as to the “airworthiness” of Most pilots who work for or are themselves the plane or as to weather conditions, the flight fixed-base operators engage in several different is cancelled, normally by mutual agreement be types of flying services—generally flight in tween the captain and the dispatcher. However, struction and either transportation of if such agreement cannot be reached, the cap passengers and cargocharter or other special flight tain may refuse to take off, and, according to services (such as aerial photography and sur air-line custom, he may not be overruled in this veying, sky-writing, advertising-banner decision even by the president of his company. ing, crop dusting and spraying, and foresttow At intermediate stops, the pilot’s duties are other patrol work). Often flight instructors and act likely to include studying the weather again also as demonstrator-salesmen. However, there and supervising the loading and refueling of are many pilots employed exclusively in flight the plane. After each completed flight, detailed instruction and smaller numbers of others em reports have to be made out. Other duties, to ployed only in charter or other work. In most which captains as well as co-pilots are subject, these types of services, much smaller air include practice in instrument flying in the of craft are customarily used than in scheduled Link trainer and keeping up with changes in air transport; planes may have no radio; and routes and with airport and airways proce little long-distance flying or flying by instru dures. ment is done. These do not hold This description applies most closely to pilots true, however, for the statements rapidly growing group flying two-motored planes in this country, with of men engaged in contract transportation of the usual crew of captain, co-pilot, and steward ess (or steward). The employment of additional 3 “Fixed-base operations,0 as the term is used in this report, include all of the wide variety of commercial aviation services not crew members in international flying and, to conducted on a scheduled basis. Their activities include transporta some extent, on four-motored planes on domes tion of passengers, cargo, or both in charter, taxi, ferry, and flight; instruction of student pilots; and specialized tic routes means greater specialization of work. sightseeing services of many types. In addition, many operators store, Where there is a flight engineer, he takes over flight service, and repair planes belonging to others and have sales much of the responsibility for checking and agencies for light pleasure-type aircraft. 9 passengers or cargo, who may fly planes as large as DC-4’s and may even make trans continental flights. The ground duties of pilots employed by fixed-base operators are seldom extensive. Those doing transport work may be responsible for obtaining weather reports before take-offs (since the great majority of operations are too small to employ specialized dispatchers or me teorologists) and for some other tasks, such as filling out brief reports. Those engaged in flight instruction or in demonstrating and sell ing planes may have to interview prospective students or customers and keep some records. But the amount of time involved is likely to be small. The situation is very different, however, for the large number of pilots who have their own fixed-base operations. These men have business and managerial responsibilities simi lar to those of small businessmen in other in dustries. Also, operators who start in business on a small scale often have to perform, or at least supervise, the maintenance work on their planes. In business flying, pilots often have the job of taking executives from place to place, in which case their duties are comparable to those of private chauffeurs. However, some men are assigned to quite different types of work—for example, pipeline inspections or transport of equipment and personnel to and from remote mining or construction operations. Pilots on the staff of the Civil Aeronautics Administration, chief Government employer of civilian flyers, are engaged almost entirely in inspection work of various types. “Patrol pilots” patrol and inspect the air-navigation facilities of the Federal airways. Those with the title of “aeronautical inspector” examine applicants for pilot and other “airman” cer tificates; inspect civil aircraft, flying schools, and repair stations; investigate accidents to aircraft other than air-line planes; and per form other related duties. Those designated as “air carrier inspectors (operations)” are re sponsible for examining air-line personnel and investigating many other phases of air-carrier operations. They also investigate the facilities and functioning of the airways system and of airport traffic-control towers. A few CAA pilots 10 are not inspectors but do flight-testing of equip ment at experimental stations and other work. While the CAA’s pilot-training service was in existence, there were also many flight instruc tors on the staff. Qualifications for Employment The qualifications for pilot jobs are estab lished in part by legal requirements and in part by employers’ even more stringent hiring standards. Legal requirements To take any plane off the ground in solo flight, a civilian must hold a pilot certificate issued by the CAA. No pilot may do flying which involves the transportation of persons or property for pay or any flying in connection with the operation of a business except for his own personal transportation, without a rating of “commercial” grade or higher. Before serv ing as co-pilot With an air line, a man must have not only a commercial rating but also an instrument rating (needed for all flying by in strument, whether scheduled or nonscheduled). He must also obtain at least a restricted radio telephone operator’s permit from the Federal Communications Commission, needed by all non-Government pilots flying planes with radio transmitters. A radio-operating authorization, to be issued by CAA may, however, be required in place of this permit in the near future. Air line captains must have a CAA certificate with an air-line transport pilot rating. Finally, there is a special instructor rating, without which no one may give flight instruction. The require ments for the CAA ratings are summarized in table 1; those for the FCC license in table 2. Commercial pilot ratings must be renewed every 2 years, and applicants must each time have passed a physical examination within the preceding 12 months. Air-line transport pilots must take a physical examination every 6 months. A man no longer able to meet the rigid physical standards loses his certificate, unless “his aeronautical experience, ability, and judg ment compensate for his physical deficiency.”'1 5 Civil Air Regulations, Part 29-2. Table I .— Major requirements for specified C A A pilot ratings1 Type of requirement Commercial pilot rating12 Instrument rating 3 Air-line transport pilot rating Citizenship............................... Loyal citizen of the United Same as for commercial Same as for commercial pilot........ States or of a friendly pilot. foreign government which grants reciprocal privi17_____ ________ ________ 28............................. .......................... 18-Tl. Education................................. A b ility to read, w rite, Same as for commercial High-school graduate or equiva lent. Ability to read and write speak, and understand pilot. English. English and to speak English without accent or speech im pediment which would interfere with two-way radio conversa tion. Physical standards.................. Excellent physical condi- Good physical condition, Very excellent physical condition, tion, meeting second-class meeting third-class stand meeting first-class standards set standards set by CAR, ards set by CAR, Part 29. by CAR, Part 29. Part 29. Aeronautical knowledge......... Must pass written examina Must pass written examina Must pass comprehensive written tion covering meteorology, tion on use of instruments examinations covering many navigation, theory and and other navigational parts of CAR and such subjects practice of flight, mainte aids. If a private pilot, as navigation, use of instru nance of aircraft and en m ust be able to meet ments, weather conditions and gines, and Parts 43 and 60 knowledge requirements weather maps and reports, me of CAR on general opera for commercial rating ex teorology, air-navigation facili cept those relating to ties, and influence of terrain tion and air-traffic rules. maintenance of aircraft. upon meteorological conditions and relation thereof to flight operations. Aeronautical experience......... Minimum of 200 hours of Must be commercial pilot, Must have commercial pilot rat solo flying, including 5 or private pilot who meets ing or equivalent, instrument hoi.rs flown in past 60 days experience requirements rating, and at least 1,200 hours and at least 20 hours of for commercial rating. Ex of certified solo flying within cross-country flying. perience must include at last 8 years, including 5 hours least 40 hours of instruc within past 60 days, and speci tion and practice in instru fied amounts of cross-country, ment flying, including no night, and instrument flying. more than 20 hours under simulated conditions. Aeronautical and radio skill <_ Must demonstrate ability Must competently perform Must demonstrate ability to pilot to perform competently by reference to instru aircraft in specified maneuvers specified maneuvers, such ments such maneuvers as more difficult than those re as landings, spirals, on- level flight, moderately required for a commercial rat pylon figure eights, and banked turns, and a dem ing. In addition, must pass two-turn spins. onstration of estimating flight tests similar to those re arrival time. Must also quired for instrument rating, demonstrate radio skill, demonstrating ability to fly by while flying solely by in instruments and also radio skill. struments, with respect to operating along a radio range leg, and other speci fied items. ..................... 1 The requirements listed are those for powered aircraft given in Parts 20, 21, and 29 of the Civil Air Regulations. Additional information on the requirements and how to secure certificates may be obtained from the Civil Aeronautics Administration, Washington 25, D. C., or any CAA regional office. 2 An applicant who presents reliable documentary evidence that he is or was within the last 12 months a member of the armed forces of the United States or an allied country (or a civilian employee of the ferrying or transport services of such forces) and, as such, had solo flying status for at least 6 con secutive months will be deemed to have met the aeronautical knowledge, experience, and skill requirements for a commercial rating if he passes a written examination on the CAR, Parts 43 and 60. Aircraft type and class ratings will be granted for each type and class on which the applicant had at least 10 hours of solo flying time within the preceding 12 months. 711649—47------3 Flight instructor rating Same as for comm ercial pilot. 18. Same as for com m ercial pilot. Same as for instrument rat ing. Must pass theoretical and practical examination on competency to instruct stu dents in flight. Must be commercial pilot or private pilot who can meet experience requirements for commercial rating. Must demonstrate ability to perform and teach flight maneuvers. 3 An instrument rating will be granted to a present or former forces pilot, in connection with a pilot certificate, if he holds an effective military instru ment rating and if the requirements for this rating and the privileges author ized by it are not less than those involved in the CAA rating. 4 A CAA pilot certificate permits the holder to pilot only such “types” and “classes” of aircraft as he has demonstrated his competency to fly. The CAA issues the following aircraft-type ratings of (a) airplane, (b) glider, (c) autogiro, (d) helicopter: and the following airplane-class ratings: (a) single engine land, (b) single engine sea, (c) multi-engine land, (d) multiengine sea. An air-line transport rating is limited also to the range of horse power in which the pilot has shown his competency. Men wishing to obtain ratings for types or classes of aircraft or for horsepower ranges not covered by their original certificates must take additional flight tests. II Table 2.— Major requirements for specified F C C radio-operator licenses1 Typo of requirement \ \ Radiotelephone Restricted operator permit12* Second-class operator license First-class operator license Radiotelegraph Restricted operator permit2 Second-class operator license First-class operator license Citizenship................. Loyal citizen of the Loyal citizen of the Loyal citizen of the Loyal citizen of the Loyal citizen of the ! Loyal citizen of the United States. United States. United States. United States. United States. United States. None......................... None.......... ............. None.......................... None........................ 21. Age__ ____________ None................... Education and expe Ability to transmit Ability to transmit Ability to transmit None......................... Ability to transmit Ability to transmit rience. and receive spo and receive spo and receive spo and receive spo and receive spo ken messages in ken messages in ken messages in ken messages in ken messages in English. English. English. English. English. Must also have had 1 year of satisfac tory service as a j radiotelegraph op erator manipulat in g th e k ey of manually operated radiotelegraph sta tion on board a ship in a manually s or operated coastal telegraph station. "Written examination Basic law—provi Same as for a re Same as for second- Same as for restrict Same as for restrict Same as for secondelements. sions of Commu stricted permit. class license. In ed radiotelephone ed radiotelegraph class rad io tele nications Act and Also questions on addition, ques operator. In ad operator permit. graph operator li basic radio theory tions on advanced dition, questions In addition, ques cense. F CC. regulations. and practice and radiotelephone, on legal and tech tions on advanced on legal and tech theory and prac nical matters of radiotelegraph, nical matters of tice applicable to radiotelegraph, including theory radiotelephone. broadcasting op including theory and practice of eration. and practice, and wider scope, par on basic radio ticularly with re theory and prac spect to ship radio matters. tice. flnrlfi sppp.ri 3 None___ ________ None__________ __ None... 1 The requirements listed are those given in Parts 9 and 13 of the Rules and Regulations of the Federal Communications Commission. Further infor mation regarding the requirements and how to secure licenses may be ob tained from the Federal Communications Commission, Washington 25, D.C. 2 Operators with restricted radiotelephone and restricted radiotelegraph permits are prohibited from making adjustments that may result in im proper transmitter operation. Employers' hiring standards In hiring co-pilots, the air lines set standards which are in many respects higher than those legally required. They demand far more than the 200 hours of solo flying needed for a com mercial license. As of early 1946, most success ful applicants for jobs were men who had had at least 2,000 hours on multi-engine aircraft. High-school graduation is another “must,” and heavy preference is given to men with at least 2 years—in some cases, 4 years—of col lege education. It is also specified that men should be between certain age limits (fre quently 21 to 29 years, though some lines have different standards, for example 22 to 32 years); over 5 feet 7 (or 8 or 9) inches tall and 12 Transmitting and Same as for restrict Transmitting and re code text ed radiotelegraph ceiving code test of j receiving 25 words per min of 16 code groups permit. ute plain language per minute.4 1 and 20 code groups | per minute. ! 3 An applicant is required to transmit correctly in International Morse Code for 1 minute at the rate of speed prescribed for the class of license de sired. He must receive same code by ear and legibly transcribe consecutive words or code groups for 1 minute without error at specified speed. 4 Each five characters are counted as one word or code group. under 6 feet 1 or 2 inches; in particularly ex cellent physical condition; and within a certain weight range, for example, 140 to 200 pounds. In addition, applicants’ personality and ap pearance are considered, since ability to inspire confidence in passengers and work harmoni ously with other crew members are important aspects of an air-line pilot’s job. Prospective co-pilots hired by the air lines go through a short training period—in the class room, in the Link trainer, and riding as an observer on the extra seat in the cockpit— before they are “checked out” as regular co pilots. Men whose work is not satisfactory dur ing this training period or later on, particularly during their first months of co-pilot service, are of course subject to dismissal. Before being promoted to captain, a co-pilot must not only have obtained the air-line trans port pilot rating legally necessary but gener ally must have had at least 2 years’ experience with the particular air line. He must be certi fied as ready for promotion by the captains with whom he has been flying and must meet other tests. Co-pilots are given an opportunity to qualify for promotion on the basis of their pilot seniority with the particular line. Those failing to qualify within a reasonable time are not retained as pilots. Fixed-base operators and other private em ployers outside the air lines seldom have for malized hiring qualifications in addition to the legal requirements. They place great emphasis on an applicant’s flying experience and skill, since pilots engaged in charter and sightseeing work and flight instruction have an obvious responsibility for the safety of passengers and students, and some of the specialized services such as crop dusting require flying technique of a particularly high order. Personal qualifica tions often weigh heavily also, especially in the selection of flight instructors, charter and sight seeing pilots, and demonstrator-salesmen, whose jobs involve constant dealings with the public. All CAA positions are civil service jobs and are being filled only on a temporary basis, until competitive examinations are held. To be admitted to the examinations for aeronautical inspectors and air carrier inspectors (opera tions), as well as to qualify for temporary ap pointments in these occupations, applicants will be required to have had very long and varied flying experience in either civilian life or the armed forces or both. They will also have to hold specified CAA pilot ratings—al though military pilots will be permitted to take the examinations without such ratings under some circumstances, with the proviso that they must obtain the needed certificates before they are appointed to jobs. Relationship of military experience to civilian requirements Most pilots leaving the armed forces will be able to obtain commercial ratings without dif ficulty if they so desire. Men who have had at least 6 months’ solo flying status in the armed forces and who are still in the service or have been out for less than a year will, in general, need only to pass physical examinations and tests on certain sections of the Civil Air Regu lations in order to qualify. They will, however, be granted ratings only for the types and classes of aircraft on which they have had at least 10 hours of solo flying time within the preceding 12 months.7 Instrument ratings are issued automatically to holders of effective military instrument rat ings “if the requirements for the issuance of such rating and the privileges authorized by it are not less than the requirements of the Civil Air Regulations for the issuance of an instru ment rating and the privileges authorized by such rating.”8 In practice, pilots with the high est grade of military instrument rating (those holding a “green card”) can qualify automati cally for CAA ratings. Those with military ratings of lower grade must take the written examination and flight test normally prescribed by the CAA. The air lines have in some in stances hired veterans with lower-grade mili tary ratings and allowed them to perfect their instrument-flying technique and take the speci fied tests while “co-pilots in training.” How ever, the trend is toward requiring pilot ap plicants to have a CAA instrument rating prior to employment. To qualify for civilian jobs, former armedforces pilots must not only satisfy the legal requirements but also meet employers’ hiring standards with respect to education, personal characteristics, and other factors discussed above. Other things being equal, the men best equipped for air-line employment are of course those who have been piloting multi-engine trans port aircraft with the Air Transport Com mand, the Naval Air Transport Service, and other units, while those with experience on heavy bombers come next. Fighter and divebomber pilots rank high from the viewpoint of flying technique. However, for air-line jobs, they would in general require additional train ing in handling multi-engine aircraft with varying loads, in flying the airways, and in pre cision instrument work. They are likely to be 7 See table 1, footnote 2. 8 Civil Air Regulations, Part 20.561. 13 best adapted to flying services such as crop dusting, sky writing, aerial photography, and, in some instances, primary flight instruction. Flight Engineers and Flight Mechanics Duties the pilots, and there is no station for a flight engineer. On such planes, a flight mechanic may be carried instead, especially if the en gines can be reached from within the plane and engine repairs can therefore be made in flight. In addition, some lines are planning to carry both a flight engineer and a flight mechanic on extremely large planes. The professional as pects of the flight engineer’s job would be in creased under these circumstances, and the actual maintenance work would be given over to the mechanic. Flight engineers and flight mechanics are relative newcomers to aviation. Outside the armed forces, they are employed only by the air lines on four-engine planes and, so far, mainly in overseas flying. Qualifications for Employment Flight engineers’ duties during flights in clude watching and keeping logs on engine per “Each flight engineer must be familiar with formance and operating certain controls under the model of aircraft to which he is assigned direction of the captain. It is their job to make any repairs needed while in the air or at stops and must be competent to repair or to super where there is no mechanic and to direct the vise repairs of all the major components of the servicing of the plane at intermediate stations aircraft, engines, propellers, and accessories,” where there are maintenance crews. They also under the. Civil Air Regulations.9 A recent oversee the loading of cargo and sign the amendment to the regulations also provides for “weight and balance sheet” ; make pre-flight the issuance of flight-engineer certificates, but checks on the airplane, engines, and instru this provision is not yet in effect, since the re quirements for the certificates are still being ments ; and perform other related duties. On some four-engine planes, the controls are formulated. In the meantime, CAA inspectors so arranged that they must all be operated by (or other persons designated by the CAA) check the experience and other qualifications of all flight engineers. No legal requirements The flight engineer of an overseas air liner noting dial readings on his log. His post is directly behind that of the co-pilot. for flight mechanics are under consideration as yet. However, the air lines have made the hold ing of CAA aircraft (“A”) and aircraft-engine (“E”) mechanic ratings101a minimum qualifica tion for this occupation, as well as for that of flight engineer. The men now working as flight engineers have come mostly from the air-line mainte nance departments. To qualify for such jobs, mechanics have generally been required not only to hold “A” and “E” certificates but also to have had at least 3 or 4 years of broad ex perience in aircraft maintenance and inspec tion and, sometimes, to hold a restricted radio telephone operator permit (see table 2).11 They must be in good physical condition and between about 22 and 32 or 35 years of age. Neatness of appearance, ability to meet the public, and BY COURTESY OF AM ERICAN AV IATIO N A SSO CIATES. 9 Civil Air Regulations, Part 41.322. 10 The requirements for these ratings are discussed on p. 25. 11 This last requirement may be affected by the change in FCC regulations indicated for pilots. See p. 10. 14 at least a high-school education are insisted plan and advising the captain as to revisions upon. It is likely that men with 2 to 4 years of in routing made necessary by changing weather college engineering training will increasingly conditions or other unforeseen circumstances. be given preference, especially if the profes In his work, he uses all available navigational sional aspects of the job expand as anticipated. methods — dead reckoning, celestial naviga Hiring standards for flight mechanics are likely tion, radio bearings, and pilotage. He also keeps to be similar in many respects to those for the flight log, showing the courses flown, flight engineers but to involve less emphasis on ground and air speeds, and numerous related education and more on practical maintenance items. Because of the importance of the plane’s experience. Openings in these occupations will be ex radio direction-finding equipment in naviga tremely limited during the next few years com tion, the work of the flight radio operator (who pared with the numbers of veterans at least often has the title of “flight radio officer” or “flight communications officer”) is closely re partially qualified for the work. On the other hand, the proportion of military flight engi lated to that of the navigator. In fact, the em neers and mechanics likely to be considered ployment of combined navigator-radio opera tors, in place of specialists in the two occupa fully qualified for comparable civilian jobs is also very small. It is possible that a few indi tions, is now being considered by some lines. viduals with particularly good experience on The operators’ duties include obtaining radio transport planes, engineering training, or other bearings, sending and receiving weather infor exceptional qualifications may meet the require mation and other messages in International ments for air-line flight jobs without further Morse Code or by radiotelephone, and listening training. The great majority, however, will in on the international distress-signal fre need a period of employment in air-line ground quency twice an hour at the prescribed times. maintenance work before they can qualify for He makes all needed adjustments and emer the few flight engineer and mechanic positions gency repairs on radio equipment while in flight that will be available. Navigators and Flight Radio Operators Duties Navigators and flight radio operators are employed only in air-line operations over in ternational routes, where airways equipped with radio-range beams have not yet been established and the course must be determined by other means. The navigator often has the title of “second officer,” ranking after the co-pilot. Prior to de parture, he prepares the flight plan for the captain’s approval, based on a complex tabular flight analysis which takes account of ground speed, aircraft and engine performance rela tive to the expected weather conditions, and other factors that might influence the flight. Another of his duties is seeing that all needed navigational equipment is in good condition and aboard the plane. Once under way, he be comes responsible for knowing at all times whether the flight is progressing according to 15 A navigator plotting a position— at his desk behind the pilots' cockpit in a trans-Atlantic air liner. Above his right shoulder is the radio altimeter, which indicates the exact height of the plane above the earth's surface. B Y C O U R TE S Y O F AM ERICAN A IR LIN E S. or at stops where no radio maintenance man is available. He also inspects and tests the equipment between flights. number of opportunities will, in fact, be quite insignificant compared with the numbers of trained and experienced men likely to be seek ing work. Qualifications for Employment CAA certificates for navigators and flight radio operators are now provided for by the Civil Air Regulations. As in the case of flight engineers, this provision is not effective as yet, but it will be in force as soon as the require ments for the certificates are officially deter mined. In the interim, CAA representatives check the qualifications of employees in both occupations. The air lines require navigators to be highschool graduates and prefer a college education. A comprehensive knowledge of radio and celes tial navigation, pilotage, dead reckoning, and related subjects is necessary, and preference is given to men with actual flight experience. Flight radio operators have, in many in stances, been promoted from ground radio-op erator jobs with the same air line. They are required to have a radiotelegraph license of second grade or higher from the FCC (see table 2). Among other specific requirements made by some lines are ability to send and re ceive 20 or 25 words per minute in Morse code, and thorough knowledge of the adjustment and maintenance of radio transmitters and re ceivers and of the use and maintenance of radio direction-finding equipment. Some knowledge of celestial navigation, dead reckoning, and me teorology may also be required. Personal characteristics weigh heavily in the selection of navigators and flight radio opera tors, as in that of all other members of air-line flight crews. At least one line specifies that applicants for both positions should be between 21 and 35 years of age, in excellent physical condition, and between certain height and weight limits—for navigators, 5 feet 4 inches to 6 feet 2 and 120 to 200 pounds; for flight radio operators, 5 feet 7 inches to 6 feet 2 and 140 to 200 pounds. Men who were navigators or flight radio op erators in the armed forces may meet some or all of the indicated requirements for air-line jobs, but it must be emphasized that there will be very few openings in these occupations. The 16 Flight Stewards and Stewardesses Duties Stewardesses (often known as “hostesses”) or stewards are carried on all but the very smallest air-line planes. Most lines employ only stewardesses in domestic operations. In inter national operations, stewards predominate, though women are being used increasingly on some routes. Attending to the physical comfort of the pas sengers — by serving food (pre-cooked . by ground personnel), giving minor medical aid, helping to adjust seats, and other means—is one important phase of the work. Another is answering questions—for example, regarding the plane, its schedule, and connecting air-line routes—talking with passengers, supplying them with reading matter, and even playing bridge or other games with them on request. There are also various reports to be made on such matters as passengers’ ticket numbers, places of departure, and destinations; medica tions given; and lost and found articles. In ad dition, stewards in international operations generally have charge of the cargo and have to fill out the declarations and other forms with regard to it. Part of this “paper work” is done while in flight, part on the ground. In addition, stewards have sometimes had to do a considerable amount of work of other types on the ground, especially helping to prepare the food and load ing it on the planes. This has not been true of hostesses, however, and is becoming less and less true of stewards. On very large planes which some lines now have on order, a number of service personnel will be carried, and there will be greater spe cialization of work than is here indicated. If, as expected, these planes have kitchen facili ties, a cook will be carried. There will be a purser, in charge of all service personnel and responsible for the records with regard to pas sengers and cargo. It is likely that some of the employees will be men and some of them women, the former handling the heavier work and the latter being particularly responsible for serv ices to women and children among the passen gers. Already, some planes carry both a stew ard and a stewardess, with this general divi sion of work. Qualifications for Employment No license is required for steward and stew ardess positions. The air lines’ main emphasis in hiring is on personal qualifications rather than special skills or previous experience, espe cially in the case of stewardesses. Because the job involves constant contact with the public, a hostess must have a pleasing personality and appearance. She should also be between about 5 feet 2 inches and 5 feet 5 or 6 inches tall, between 100 and 125 or 130 pounds in weight, within specified narrow age limits (for example, 21 to 26, 21 to 28, or 24 to 28 years, according to different lines), and able to pass a rigid physical examination. All lines hire only unmarried girls. Graduation from high school is required, and generally also at least 1 or 2 years of college training unless the applicant is a registered nurse. Before the war, all hostesses had to be graduate nurses, but this requirement was dropped by practically all lines during the war and will probably not be generally resumed, though nurses may be given preference. For jobs in overseas operations, there are usually additional qualifications, such as knowledge of French or Spanish, ability to swim well, and at least 1 year of previous ex perience as hostess with another air line. Stewards are also selected partly on the basis of their personality and appearance and must be in fine physical condition and not be too tall. High-school graduation is a minimum requirement, and some college education is pre ferred. As in the case of hostesses, knowledge of at least one foreign language is needed for overseas jobs, though during the war men were hired without it and taught the essentials of another language while on the pay roll. Also important is experience in handling food; many of the flight stewards now employed were for merly restaurant cooks or waiters. 17 The only group of present and former armedforces personnel with duties directly related to flight-steward jobs are the comparatively small numbers who were trained and assigned as flight clerks and flight orderlies. These men should be able to obtain special consideration for air-line steward positions if they so desire, provided that they have the specified personal and educational qualifications. Dispatchers and Assistants Duties An air-line dispatcher (or “flight superin tendent”) has control over all of his company’s flights within his sector. Before each flight, the captain and co-pilot plan the flight in detail, in consultation with him and with the meteorolo gist. The plane may not leave until he has signed the flight authorization sheet and to do this, he must not only be satisfied as to weather conditions and the flight plan but must have obtained assurance that the plane is in perfect flying condition, serviced with gasoline and oil, An air-line hostess serving lunch. BY C O U R TE S Y O F C A P ITA L AIR LINES. BY C O U R T E S Y O F A M ER IC A N A IR LIN E S. Assistant dispatchers at work in an air-line flight dispatcher's office— telephoning a C A A airways traffic-control center, entering the estimated time of arrival of a plane on the board, and reading a teletype report on weather conditions. and properly loaded. It is also the dispatcher’s job to follow closely the progress of each flight, as reported by radio, until it passes into an adjoining sector where another dispatcher takes over. He follows weather conditions and other factors affecting the safety or progress of the flight and keeps the captain informed of any developments which might make it neces sary to depart from the original flight plan. In addition, the dispatcher is responsible for keep ing records on the aircraft and engines avail able, on the amount of time logged by each, and on the number of hours flown by flight person 18FRASER Digitized for nel based at his station. Crew members are notified when to report for duty by his office. Assistant dispatchers and various grades of clerical employees aid in this work. Among the duties which may be assumed by an assistant air-line dispatcher are securing weather infor mation, helping to keep track of the progress of aircraft in the sector, and handling commu nications with the planes. A few of the largest nonscheduled flying serv ices also employ dispatchers with duties gen erally comparable to those of air-line personnel. Qualifications for Employment A CAA aircraft dispatcher certificate is re quired for work as a dispatcher, though not for work as an assistant. To qualify for this certificate, an applicant must be at least 28 years of age, a citizen of the United States or of a friendly foreign government which grants reciprocal privileges, and able to read and write English and speak it without any accent or speech impediment that would interfere with two-way radio conversation. The basic experi ence requirement for the certificate is one of the following: (a) Two of the last three years in scheduled air-line or scheduled military operations as a pilot, a flight or ground radio operator, a flight navigator, a meteorologist in an aircraft dis patching organization, a technical supervisor of aircraft dispatchers, or an assistant in dis patching of scheduled military aircraft; (b) Two of the last three years as an airtraffic controller; (c) Any combination of the types of experi ence listed under (a) and (6), provided each was of at least 1 year’s duration; (d) One year within the last two as an as sistant in the dispatching of scheduled air-line planes; or ( e) Graduation from an aircraft dispatcher course approved by the Administrator of Civil Aeronautics. The applicant must also have been employed for at least 90 days within the last 6 months in connection with the dispatching of air-line planes under supervision of a certificated dis patcher. He must pass a written examination testing his knowledge of such subjects as the parts of the Civil Air Regulations relating to air-carrier operations and traffic rules, the characteristics of at least one model of air craft, systems of collecting and disseminating weather data and of weather analysis, weather conditions adversely affecting flight operations and radio communications, air-navigation facil ities and principles, and airway and airport traffic procedures. Furthermore, he must dem onstrate his skill in weather forecasting and certain other operations involved in dispatch ing work. 711649—47-------1 According to the Civil Air Regulations, dis patchers must also be familiar with the routes over which they dispatch planes and with the weather conditions, terrain, and air-navigation facilities of the region. In line with this re quirement, it is air-line policy to fill dispatcher positions only by promotions from within the company. Most present dispatchers were for merly employed as pilots or meteorologists by the same line and were selected as particularly adapted to dispatching work. However, out siders are sometimes hired as assistant dis patchers and may be promoted to regular dis patcher jobs after they have had a training period of 1 to 3 years and have obtained their certificates. For assistant jobs, 2 years of college is gen erally insisted on by the carriers, and men who have completed a 4-year college course—includ ing training in mathematics, physics, chem istry, meteorology, and related subjects—are likely to receive preference. Experience in fly ing, weather forecasting, and business adminis tration is particularly advantageous. Person ality factors also count heavily. A large number of men with armed-forces training and experience as pilots, meteorolo gists, and flight-control and other operations officers would no doubt be. able to meet the minimum qualifications for assistant dispatcher jobs. But it must be reiterated, with respect to this occupation also, that the number of open ings will be very limited during the next few years. The competition for these jobs is likely to be so great that only the most highly quali fied men will be considered for employment in the near future. Meteorologists Duties Meteorologists are employed in air-line op erations departments to analyze weather data and forecast flight conditions for their sectors of the line. They must constantly study weather trends, revising their forecasts as necessary and providing up-to-the-minute information to captains, dispatchers, and other supervisory personnel responsible for controlling flights. 19 junior positions after a brief period of inten sive training. Applicants with some experience in weather observation work, as well as the desired education, of course have an advantage. Senior meteorologist positions are usually filled by promotion of junior men, although ap plicants with advanced training and experience have sometimes been hired directly for senior jobs. To qualify for promotion, at least 1 year’s experience as a forecaster and 6 months’ ex perience with the company is generally re quired. Many Army- and Navy-trained meteorolo gists would qualify for the few air-line posi tions that will be open in the next few years. Those who completed certain college courses (the “A course”) as part of their training are regarded as having the best preparation. BY C O U R T E S Y O F AM ERICAN A IR LINES. An air-line meteorologist briefing pilots on weather conditions before a flight. Their work is done in close cooperation with the United States Weather Bureau (which of course has many meteorologists on its own staff) and with the local CAA office. Qualifications for Employment Since there are no licensing requirements for this occupation, air-line hiring standards are all-important in determining the qualifica tions needed. In general, applicants must be 21 years of age or over, and some lines have an upper age limit—for example, 30 years for junior and 35 or 40 years for senior meteorologists. Before the war only men were hired, but during the war some lines accepted young women for junior positions. The minimum educational requirement is generally 2 years of college, but some lines insist on 4 years. The courses taken should in clude mathematics through calculus, physics, chemistry, and many hours of meteorology and related technical subjects. Persons with this educational preparation were often hired di rectly from college during the war and put into 20 Mechanics Behind every airplane in flight stand the mechanics who serviced, overhauled, and in spected it, and certified that it was airworthy. They carry a responsibility much greater than that of mechanics working, for example, on motor vehicles, which can have break-downs without endangering either the driver or the public. Only on certain very large “air liners” can engine repairs be made in flight, and even a plane of this type would have to make a forced landing or crash if there were, for ex ample, a major accident to the controls. For this reason, aviation mechanics’ main function is not to make repairs but to prevent anything from going wrong with planes, their engines, and other equipment—through frequent, care ful inspections and servicing and through very thorough overhauling at regular intervals. However, mechanics also make any necessary repairs and modifications in aircraft.12 Duties of Air-Line Mechanics Mechanics working for an air line are as signed either to “line maintenance” or to over haul work. 12 For a more detailed discussion of airplane mechanics’ work, see Aviation Mechanic, by Carl Norcross and James D. Quinn (McGraw, Hill Publishing Co., New York City), 1941. The term “line maintenance’' was originally coined to cover the servicing and maintenance work that can be done on a plane at the “line” from which it takes off or at which it comes to a stop, although much of the work is actually done in a hangar. Before each flight, line-main tenance mechanics warm up the engines, watch the functioning of many controls, and check the radios and other items. They also tow or taxi the plane to the passenger-loading station. At every stop, a mechanic at least checks the gaso line and oil and inspects the plane externally for damage that might have been done in land ing or in the previous take-off. At the end of every 8 or 10 hours of flying, the plane receives a “routine check” covering well over 100 items. The engines are started and their operation is carefully observed. Landing gear, tail, and heating, ventilating, and electrical systems are carefully gone over; the fuselage is inspected inside and out; and a detailed check is made on the controls and instruments in the cockpit. At specified longer intervals—for example, every 50 hours—checks are made which are still more thorough. New spark plugs are then installed; many parts not covered in the more frequent checks are oiled or greased; cabin floors are removed for cleaning and to facilitate inspection; and so forth. Line-maintenance crews not only handle these checks bjut make any relatively minor repairs and adjustments which they find to be needed or which are called for to remedy troubles reported by a captain at the end of a flight or at, an intermediate stop. They also re move engines and other parts to be sent to the main base for major repairs or for overhauling and install overhauled or new equipment in their place. Most line-maintenance men are all-round aircraft and engine mechanics, who may be called on to work on any part of the aircraft, engines, and accessories. However, some car riers employ separate crews of engine mechan ics and of aircraft mechanics at their larger service stations to work respectively on power plants and on other parts of the aircraft. In addition, line-maintenance crews sometimes in clude a few specialists, such as electricians and radio and instrument mechanics. At specified intervals, usually after every 21 500 or 600 flying hours, the engines and many other parts, such as pumps, starters, light switches, and instruments, are removed from the plane and sent to the company’s mainte nance base for overhauling. At still longer in tervals, usually after 3,000 to 4,000 flying hours, the ship itself goes in for a general overhaul. Equipment requiring major repairs before the time for its regular overhaul is of course sent to the base at once. Any modifications needed, such as the refitting of planes released to the air lines by the armed forces, are handled there also. In contrast to the situation in line mainte nance, overhaul bases are highly department alized. The number of departments and shops varies from one company to another, but a typical large air line would be likely to have about the following divisions of work: Engine overhaul; machine shop; propeller; hydraulics, wheel and brake; electrical; radio; instru ments; battery and plating; sheet metal, rivet ing, welding, and tubing; fabric and dope, and paint shop; upholstery. Within the scope of this study, it is possible only to suggest very briefly some of the types of work done in these departments. When an An engine mechanic reassembling an air-line engine, which had been torn down for overhauling. B Y C O U R T E S Y O F AM ER ICAN AIR LIN E S. engine comes into the base, it is of course routed to the engine shop. There, the first step is to dismantle it completely. Each separate part is then very carefully cleaned and inspected. If it is found to be at all defective, it is either re paired or replaced (often by a new part manu factured in the machine shop). Frequently, cylinders must be rebored, valves ground, and new piston rings fitted. After all parts are in satisfactory condition, the engine is reassem bled, given a test run on a testing stand, and inspected and adjusted once more. The same meticulous care is used in over hauling the plane and other equipment. In the case of the plane itself, wings, tail surfaces, cabin chairs, and flooring are removed. Clean ing is most thorough, and all parts subject to wear are carefully inspected. Scores of parts are replaced; often, sections of the plane’s aluminum skin have to be removed and new ones, which have been cut and formed in the sheet-metal shop, have to be riveted into place. Planes are so thoroughly rebuilt with each over hauling that, for all practical purposes, they never wear out. Mechanics at the base usually specialize in engine or in airplane overhaul, or in some other division of the work, such as radio or instru ment overhaul. However, men may know and be called on to perform several types of related work in addition to their primary specialty. For example, an upholsterer may help to sew the fabric covering on rudders and elevators and to spray this fabric with “dope” (in order to tighten and protect it). Besides welding, men often do sheet-metal work and riveting and sometimes also tube-bending. On the other hand, there may be specialization within de partments. In many large instrument shops, for example, the skilled men spend all their time in repairing and adjusting a few of the many types of instruments or in installation work. This contrasts with the situation in small shops, where a single mechanic may overhaul all types of instruments and also handle in stallations. Radio mechanics assigned to the overhaul base thoroughly test and repair airborne radios and may install them in place after they have been overhauled. In addition, as already noted, 22 line-maintenance crews often include men in this specialty. Still another type of work done by air-line radio mechanics is maintenance and repair of the companies’ ground transmitting and receiving equipment. In both engine and aircraft work and in all the different specialties, mechanics with widely differing degrees of skill and responsibility are employed. The classifications of mechanics are by no means uniform from line to line, but most companies distinguish between apprentices, junior mechanics, mechanics (or specialists), and various higher grades ranging from senior mechanic to crew chief. Apprentice mechanics work under close and continuous supervision, with the instruction and work experience so arranged as to provide for steady progression to more and more re sponsible tasks. Sometimes they are rotated through various sections of the maintenance and overhaul departments in order to give them a broad knowledge of both aircraft and engine mechanics’ work, and sometimes they are al lowed to specialize in one or more divisions of the trade. Junior mechanics, designated also as “assistant mechanics” or “mechanic’s helpers,” likewise work under close supervision. In de gree of productiveness, they generally fall be tween all or most of the apprentices and the full mechanics. With a number of lines, the junior classification is permanent. In fact, some companies transfer apprentices to this category during their fourth year of training. On many other lines, however, junior mechanics have been employed only as a temporary stop gap until skilled men are available either directly or through apprentice-training programs. Men classified as mechanics or specialists are skilled workers requiring only occasional super vision. Senior mechanics, the next grade on some lines, are regarded as having a higher degree of skill and ability to assume greater responsibility, In many instances they are re sponsible for instruction of apprentices and junior men, and they may also do planning .and lay-out work of various types. Still higher grades are “lead mechanics” (who work as leaders of small groups of less skilled men), “master mechanics” (a classification used only by certain air lines, to include a small number of very highly skilled men with varied duties), “inspectors” (who inspect aircraft, engines, radios, and accessories before and after over haul and after maintenance repairs and certify to the airworthiness of the equipment in ac cordance with the Civil Air Regulations), and “crew chiefs” (who are working foremen). Duties of Aviation Mechanics Outside the A ir Lines Outside the air lines, aviation mechanics work mostly for nonscheduled or intrastate flying services, flying schools, repair shops, and other fixed-base operators, and for aircraft manufacturers. A few are employed by large companies owning fleets of planes and some by Government agencies, notably the CAA. A small number of others are instructors of avia tion-mechanic courses. As a rule, in commercial flying services and schools and also in most operations which sell, garage, and service private planes, the me chanics’ work is roughly comparable to that of air-line “line maintenance” men. A few large charter operators, contract cargo lines, and fly ing schools have repair shops equipped to handle overhaul work or major repairs, but the majority of fixed-base operations are too small for this. When a plane needs major repairs or overhauling, they either send it back to the manufacturer or take it to a repair shop spe cializing in such work, if there happens to be one in the neighborhood. Inspections—including pre-flight warmingup tests, routine “daily flight checks,” and still more thorough periodic inspections—are an important part of maintenance mechanics’ work in fixed-base operations, as of air-line Radio mechanics testing a radio compass and other equipment in the rad io -e le ctrical departm ent of an air-line overhaul base. by c o u r te s y o f u n ite d a ir l in e s . line-maintenance work. In addition, both groups handle adjustments and minor repairs. The differences between air-line and nonair-line work are perhaps greater than the similarities, however. Planes handled by me chanics in nonscheduled flying services and other fixed-base operations are very small com pared to air liners (with a few exceptions, es pecially on cargo lines). Often they have only a few comparatively simple instruments, a fixed-pitch propeller (without any of the elab orate control mechanism that goes with the adjustable-pitch propeller used on all air-line planes), and no radio. These and other factors greatly reduce and simplify the work of in specting and servicing the planes in comparison with that required on air liners. A single me chanic, instead of a large crew or several crews, usually handles the entire job with little super vision. Moreover, he is likely to have to work on many different types of planes and engines, whereas an air-line mechanic generally works on only one—or, at the most, two or three— types of aircraft. As mentioned above, some large flying serv ices and flying schools have repair shops that do overhaul work. There are also some inde pendent repair shops, belonging in most in stances to mechanics who have gone into busi ness for themselves and who have, as a result, many business and administrative duties to handle in addition to any mechanic’s work they may do. Though both engine and aircraft over haul is done by certain comparatively large repair stations, it is more usual for a shop to handle only one of these two types of work. In addition, there are about a dozen shops in the country which specialize in instrument over haul and repair. That some instrument specialists are em ployed in shops handling only this work goes without saying. The larger general repair shops also may have on their staffs a very few special ists of this type and perhaps some others, such as radio mechanics, propeller mechanics (if they handle planes with adjustable-pitch pro pellers), machinists, and sheet-metal workers (although sheet-metal work has much less rela tive importance in connection with small planes, many of which are fabric covered, than with air liners). However, the great majority of 24 mechanics employed at non-air-line repair sta tions must be able to handle all phases of en gine or of aircraft work and frequently of both. Even shops that do only aircraft overhaul are likely to require some of their mechanics to be skilled also in engine work, so that they can install engines overhauled in other shops. With respect to levels of skill, there are nat urally no such elaborate gradations in fixedbase operations as in the air lines’ vastly larger maintenance departments. The proportion of skilled men is high in the general repair and specialty shops just discussed and probably still higher in the inspection and maintenance work described in earlier paragraphs. How ever, helpers are employed in all but the very smallest operations, and even small shops may have some apprentices. In the CAA, most men with mechanic train ing are employed as inspectors. Those known as “aircraft inspectors” have such duties as inspection of civil aircraft (other than air-line planes) and of commercial repair stations and mechanics’ schools and investigation of acci dents to non-air-line aircraft. The work of “air carrier maintenance inspectors” includes periodic checks on the air lines’ maintenance personnel and facilities and inspections of their aircraft. The CAA also employs some me chanics as factory inspectors and some others to handle the maintenance work on its own planes. Qualifications for Employment Legal requirements Under the Civil Air Regulations, all mainte nance, overhaul, and repair work on aircraft, aircraft engines, propellers, and instruments must be performed either by mechanics holding CAA certificates with appropriate ratings or under the direct supervision of such workers.13 In addition, only licensed mechanics (or CAA inspectors) have authority to certify to the air worthiness of planes, as required before a new, overhauled, or repaired plane may be flown. 13 Certificated repair stations having the proper rating and the manufacturers of the particular type of aircraft or parts to be repaired are also authorized to perform these functions. All applicants for mechanic certificates must with ratings for each subject in which instruc be at least 18 years of age, citizens of the tion is to be given. United States or a friendly foreign govern ment, and able to read, write, speak, and under Employers' hiring standards stand English.14 Separate ratings are given for aircraft, aircraft-engine, and factory me The standards used by the air lines in hiring chanics. mechanics of course depend on the grade of to be filled. For apprentice positions, ap Requirements for the aircraft mechanic job plicants should usually be 20 to 30 years of age. (“A”) rating include at least 1 year of prac Most lines require a generally rigid pre-em tical experience in the construction, inspection, ployment physical examination, though waivers maintenance, or repair of aircraft and aircraft are allowed in some instances. A high-school appliances. Knowledge of aircraft structure or trade-school education—including such sub and rigging—including their inspection, main jects as mathematics, physics, chemistry, tenance, and repair—and of certain parts of machine shop—is a great advantage, when and not the Civil Air Regulations which deal with air a definite requirement. Experience in automo craft airworthiness and maintenance is also repair or other mechanical work is also required. For aircraft-engine (“E”) ratings, tive helpful. In addition, it is customary for appren applicants must have a year’s experience in tices to own or rapidly acquire a sizable kit of work on aircraft engines, propellers, and ap tools. For junior positions, previous training pliances, and must have knowledge of these or experience in aircraft work or types of equipment as well as of certain parts in jobs involving closely mechanical related skills in of the Civil Air Regulations. For both “A” and sisted on; otherwise, the requirements areissimi “E” ratings, applicants must show they have most respects to those for apprentices. the required knowledge by passing written, larAinman can qualify as a “mechanic” or “spe oral, and practical tests. No such examinations cialist” through a 4-year apprenticeship (2 are required for factory mechanic ratings, how years on a few lines) or its equivalent in ex ever. These are issued to mechanics who are perience and training. For air-line maintenance shown to be competent by their experience and work, skilled mechanics generally need at least employment record and are designated by a an “A” or an “E” rating from the and manufacturer as in direct charge of inspection, usually both. An “E” rating is usuallyCAA required maintenance, overhaul, or repair of aircraft, also for skilled work in an engine overhaul engines, or parts produced by that particular shop; an “A” rating, for work in a sheet-metal company.15 shop and in some other departments of an over In addition, limited mechanic certificates haul base. Men may, however, be fully qualified with a propeller or aircraft appliance rating for jobs the radio, electrical, instrument, or are being issued—so far, on a temporary basis propeller indepartments without holding a certifi only—to applicants who are directly in charge cate. It is generally preferred and sometimes of the inspection, overhaul, or repair of pro required that radio specialists have a pellers or aircraft appliances in CAA-approved second-class radiotelephone operatorat least license repair stations or factories.16 An additional re from the FCC (see table 2). Often, competence quirement is that instructors of courses for must be shown by passing trade tests. In addi mechanics at approved aviation ground schools tion, mechanics have to own kits of tools con must hold not only mechanic certificates but siderably larger than those required of appren also special “ground instructor” certificates tices. Positions above the level of mechanic are The requirements with respect to knowledge of English may be waived in the case of air-line mechanics employed outside the generally filled by promotions from within the United States. company. In many instances, senior mechanics 15 Information on how to secure certificates may be obtained from the Civil Aeronautics Administration. Washington 25, D. C., or any are required to have both “A” and “E” ratings. CAA regional office. Lead mechanics and inspectors are usually “A” 1,5 Special Civil Air Regulation No. 340. This regulation will expire on December 31, 1946, unless further extended. and “E” men also, unless their work is limited 14 25 to the engine shop or some other overhaul de partment, in which case they may hold only one rating. Fixed-base operators also demand a high de gree of skill for full-fledged mechanic jobs. Applicants generally have to be “A” and “E” men, except for work in specialized repair shops. Often, some air-line experience is neces sary. Where a radio mechanic is employed, he may need a second-class radio operator permit. For apprentice positions, hiring standards are seldom if ever formalized, but applicants with the types of qualifications desired by the air lines would no doubt be given preference. As with pilots, all mechanics on the CAA staff are civil service employees. To be ad mitted to the competitive examination which will be held for aircraft inspector positions or to qualify for temporary jobs in the interim, applicants must have had at least 5 years of broad and varied experience in aircraft and engine maintenance and overhaul (according to tentative standards drawn up by the Civil Serv ice Commission). For air carrier maintenance inspector positions, the suggested minimum re quirement is 10 years of experience. Applicants for either position will probably be required to have held both “A” and “E” ratings for at least 5 years—except that veterans who are other wise qualified may be admitted to the examina tions without such ratings, although they must obtain them before being appointed to jobs. Relationship of military experience to civilian requirements Most mechanic veterans who never had any civilian experience or training in the trade will probably find that they cannot qualify for skilled jobs or for CAA mechanic certificates without further experience or training. This is due partly to the much greater specialization of work in military aircraft maintenance than in air-line maintenance departments, and partly to other differences. The additional training needed can be obtained by working for a time as a junior mechanic, helper, or advanced ap prentice ; by attending a mechanics’ school; or, in the case of many AAF mechanics, by taking brief intensive courses given by the AAF in cooperation with the CAA. Only thoroughly 26 trained and experienced military airplane and engine mechanics are admitted to these courses. Men who have completed them have usually been able to qualify immediately for CAA cer tificates, often with both an “A” and an “E” rating. Many have obtained skilled jobs with air lines or fixed-base operators. It should be remembered, however, that competition for mechanic positions is likely to be stiff at least in the next few years. Stock and Stores Clerks Duties Most stock and stores clerks are employed by the air lines, in the store rooms at the main overhaul bases and, to a less extent, at “service stations” where line-maintenance work is done. Their duties include receiving and unpacking the tremendous numbers of different parts and supplies, issuing these to the mechanics and other personnel, packing and shipping mate rials and equipment, and keeping records and inventory controls. In the larger stock rooms, different groups of clerks may specialize in dif ferent phases of the work. In general, there are three grades of clerks: (1) those variously designated as apprentice, helper, or junior clerk; (2) senior clerks; and (3) the supervisory group, with titles such as lead stock clerk or station storekeeper. The first two groups perform the same tasks but work under varying degrees of supervision. Em ployees in the third category must also be able to perform these duties but are responsible, in addition, for supervising one or more sections of the stock and stores department. There are also a few stock clerks in the larger nonscheduled flying services and other fixedbase operations. The general nature of the work is very similar to that in air-line stockrooms, but since the operations are on a much smaller scale, there is likely to be little if any specializa tion of work or distinction between grades of clerks. Often only one clerk is employed. Qualifications for Employment There are no legal requirements for work in this occupation, and the standards used in hir ing junior clerks vary considerably from one carrier to another. Some air lines require a high-school diploma; others do not; and still others prefer applicants with some college or business-school education. Ability to read and to write legibly is always essential. The mini mum age limit is usually 18; the maximum may vary from 35 to 50. On a few air lines, passing of a physical examination is necessary. Pre vious clerical experience, especially in aircraft or automotive stock and stores work, is always an asset, sometimes a prerequisite for the job. In general, positions above the level of junior clerk are filled by promotions from within the company. Outside the air lines, there is even less stand ardization of hiring policies. Men with the edu cation, experience, and other qualifications out lined will no doubt have an advantage in ap plying for jobs in fixed-base operations as well as with the major lines. Veterans who were aviation stock clerks in the armed forces will receive particular con sideration for comparable civilian work, if they are qualified in other respects. Already, a num ber of men with this background have been hired by the air lines for stock and stores jobs. Ground Radio and Teletype Operators Duties Practically all ground radio operators and teletypists in the field of aviation are employed either by the air lines or by CAA. Radio operators working for the air lines send and receive messages between the aircraft and the ground and also between different sta tions and offices of the particular air line. They may use radiotelephone, radiotelegraph, or both. Messages received are usually typed and a log is kept of them in accordance with Gov ernment regulations. Senior operators are gen erally required to do routine servicing of equip ment and make necessary adjustments. In air-line ground communications, radio telegraph is being replaced more and more by teletype. Operators of this kind of equipment use a machine which has a keyboard very simi lar to that of the typewriter and which is elec trically connected to a machine of the same kind at another sending and receiving point. To send messages, the worker operates the key board just as in regular typing. Receiving communications merely involves arranging in letter form the strips of paper bearing the messages. The CAA employs considerable numbers of radio operators and teletypists in “aircraft communicator” positions. The radio operators relay to aircraft information on weather con ditions, location, and other factors of interest to pilots of planes flying over the airways. The teletypists handle ground communications on the same subjects. In the higher-grade aircraftcommunicator positions, employees may also be called upon to do work in compiling and inter preting data which involves some knowledge of navigation, meteorology, and air-traffic-control methods. Qualifications for Employment Air-line positions For air-line radio-operator positions, appli cants must usually have at least a second-class radiotelephone or radiotelegraph license from the FCC. Table 2 gives the requirements for these licenses. Many lines also insist on a typing speed of 40 or 45 words a minute. High-school graduates are preferred, and ability to spell correctly is essential. For positions involving use of radiotelephone—as do practically all air line radio-operator jobs—clear and correct speech and normal hearing are additional “musts,” and all would-be operators have to know or be able to learn CAA, FCC, and com pany rules and regulations pertaining to their work. In general, only men are hired, and age limits are frequently set, though these vary widely. One line, for example, specifies 21 to 35 years of age; another, 18 to 50. The chief requirements for teletype operator jobs are with respect to typing ability and edu cation. Typing speeds required by most of the carriers range from 35 to 45 words per minute. A speed of not less than 10 words per minute in reading teletype tape is likely to be demanded also, either as a hiring requirement or after 6 months’ service. Often, 2 to 4 years of high school is a prerequisite. Both men and women 27 BY COURTESY OF U N ITE D AIR LIN ES. Teletype operators in an air-line communications center. are hired. With respect to age, there are no uniform standards, but some lines set a mini mum of 18 to 21 and a maximum of 35 or thereabouts. CAA positions Aircraft communicators, like other CAA em ployees, have civil service jobs. To be admitted to the competitive examinations which will be held for these positions or to qualify for tem porary appointments in the meantime, appli cants should be between 18 and 40 years of age, although these age limits may be waived in the case of veterans.17 The most important physical requirements are good vision and hearing (meeting specified standards) and clear speech. These requirements are never waived. Newcomers to aircraft communicator work are usually hired as trainees but sometimes directly for higher-grade jobs. The Civil Serv ice Commission requires one of the following alternative types of experience for admission to the examinations for trainee positions or temporary appointments at this level: (1) 1 year of aeronautical communications or air17 This and following information regarding requirements for aircraft-communicator jobs is based on Civil Aeronautics Adminis tration, Outline of Aircraft Communicator Examination Specifica tions, CAF--4 and CAF-5. Washington, November 1, 1945. Mimeo graphed. 28 traffic-controller experience, military or com mercial; (2) 18 months of non-aeronautical radio com m unications experience; (3) 6 months of dispatcher experience, military or commercial; (4) 150 hours of flight radio op eration; (5) 100 hours of flying time as a pilot, co-pilot, or navigator, military or air lin6, or a valid pilot certificate of commercial or higher grade; (6) 6 months’ study of aeronautical meteorology or navigation at an approved school; (7) successful completion of a War Training Service ground course—elementary, secondary, and cross-country; or (8) 2 years’ study at a recognized college or university. For higher-grade positions, experience of any one of these same types except the last is acceptable, but it must be of longer duration. For example, 18 months in aeronautical com munications work are required for “assistant” jobs as against 1 year for trainees. Moreover, applicants must not only meet the experience requirement but be able to send and receive Morse code at a speed of at least 15 words per minute and have a minimum typing speed of 35 words per minute. They must also take a code test and a written examination covering such subjects as fundamentals of airway weather reports and weather-reporting instru ments, the Civil Air Regulations, radiotele phone procedures, and navigation principles. For jobs above the level of assistant, a CAA certificate is required, and openings are prac tically always filled by promotions from within. Radio operators at work in a C A A communications center. BY COURTESY OF C IV IL A E R O N A U TIC S A D M IN IS TR A TIO N . Relationship of military experience to civilian requirements Army- and Navy-trained radio operators and teletypists will generally be able to meet the re quirements for air-line jobs, provided that they have the needed typing skill. Most of them can also qualify for CAA aircraft-communicator positions, at least as trainees and sometimes as assistants. The CAA definitely invites persons with physical handicaps which do not involve vision, hearing, or speech defects and which they think will not affect their work perform ance to apply for such positions. It must be emphasized, however, that openings both with the air lines and the CAA may be fewer than the numbers of radio-operator veterans seeking work. In the case of CAA jobs, there will of course be additional competition from persons with the other types of experience listed. Airport and Airway Traffic Controllers Duties Airport traffic controllers ing and all communications and other facilities are kept in good condition and that information regarding flights is regularly obtained from and relayed to airways traffic-control centers in the vicinity. Airway traffic controllers All workers in this category are CAA em ployees. They operate “control centers” located at strategic points on the airways, which regu late air traffic outside the flight-control areas around airports. The controllers do not com municate directly with planes but constantly receive information regarding the progress of flights and related matters from air-line dis patchers, airport traffic controllers, other con trol centers, and CAA communications stations. In return, instructions, advice, and information are given as to the conditions under which flights may be commenced or continued and as to the progress of flights under way. Telephone, interphone, and teletype equipment is used in transmitting these messages. Qualifications for Employment Most airport traffic-control tower operators Legal requirements are now employed by the CAA’s Federal Air All traffic-control tower operators, whether ways Service though assigned to particular air employed by CAA or by an airport, must have ports. The remainder are on airport pay rolls. a CAA certificate, good only for duty at the It is the responsibility of these operators to particular airport specified therein. To qualify supervise all flights within a carefully defined for a certificate, an applicant must be at least “flight control area” around their airport. They 21 years of age, a citizen of the United States issue directions by radio to planes taking off, or a friendly foreign government, and able to landing, and flying within the area, including read and write English and speak it clearly. He instructions as to course and flying levels as must also pass a rigid physical examination, well as when to take off and land. Planes with meeting second-class standards prescribed by out radios are signalled by means of electric- Part 29 of the Civil Air Regulations. To hold ray guns or flags. Other tasks include giving his certificate, he will have to pass an equally weather and position information to planes in strict physical examination once every year the vicinity and keeping records of messages thereafter. received from aircraft for inspection by the Both junior and senior ratings are issued, proper authorities. the former authorizing the holder to control air “Senior operators” have responsibility for traffic only under supervision of a senior opera all aspects of the work. “Junior operators” tor (except in emergencies). For a junior rat (considered to be in training for senior posi ing, there are no experience requirements. tions) assist them in specific duties. In their However, the applicant must take a written supervisory capacity, the senior controllers are examination given by CAA, covering such sub also responsible for seeing that all airport light jects as airport and airway traffic and radio 29 procedures, weather observation, pertinent meteorological or communications work or FCC rules and regulations, certain provisions as an air-crew member in the armed forces; of the Civil Air Regulations, the rules of the (2) 9 months as a dispatcher at a military airport for which the rating is sought, the tele base; (3) 200 hours of flying time, plus a cur type symbols and weather sequences of the rently effective pilot certificate (except when airways converging on it, and aircraft opera the flying time was acquired in the armed serv ices) ; or (4) 1 year of college credits. tions in the area. For the assistant classifications, there are The examinations for a senior rating cover all the subjects required for one of junior grade similar requirements except that the experience and in addition test the applicant’s knowledge must have been longer. For example, 2 (instead of instrument approach and departure proce of 1) years’ service in aeronautical meteorolog dures at the given airport, of air-navigation ical work is needed to qualify for assistant facilities within a 200-mile radius of it, and of airport traffic-control jobs, and 3 years, for airway traffic-control procedures in the area. assistant airway controller positions. Jobs at Moreover, persons seeking a senior rating must grades higher than “trainee” and “assistant” have had satisfactory experience of one of the are filled mainly by promotion from within, following types: (1) 6 months as a senior op though sometimes by direct appointment. In erator at any airport; (2) 6 months as a junior any case, no person may hold a status in airport operator at the particular airport; (B) 6 work higher than that of trainee without the months as a Federal air-traffic control trainee; CAA rating previously discussed. As in the case of aircraft communicator jobs, (4) 1 of the 2 years preceding application as a junior operator at another airport or at a land there are age limits and requirements respect ing area under military or naval jurisdiction. ing physical condition for all traffic-controller Finally, the applicant must give a practical positions. demonstration of his ability to supervise all activities of his airport control tower. Relationship of military experience to civilian requirements Employer standards Information on hand permits a discussion only of Federal Civil Service Commission stand ards for CAA traffic-controller jobs, but air ports employing control-tower operators are likely to have similar requirements. For admission to the civil service examina tions for trainee positions in either airport or airway traffic-control work or for temporary appointments of this type, the minimum ex perience requirement is one of the following: (1) 1 year’s service in military aeronautical 30 Men trained as air-traffic control-tower op erators in the armed forces will generally be able to qualify as civilian airport and airway traffic controllers at one level of responsibility or another. The duties of military and naval operators are very similar to those of the civilian operators, as was recognized in estab lishing the specifications for civil service jobs cited above. It should be noted, however, that men with many types of aeronautical experi ence besides traffic-control work may also qual ify for these jobs. Chapter 2.~Hours of Work, Earnings, and Vacations What earnings and working conditions can a man expect as a pilot or in some other avia tion occupation? This will depend first of all, on who his prospective employer is. The pres ent chapter is therefore divided into three major sections, dealing with the air lines, with nonscheduled flying services and other fixedbase operations, and with the CAA, the main Government employer of nonmilitary aviation personnel.1 Wages and working conditions with the air lines have been considerably standardized through collective bargaining, legal controls over the working hours of some groups, and wartime wage stabilization policies, aided by the fact that this is a relatively small and closely knit industry. It is therefore possible to give a reasonably good over-all picture of the conditions applying to air-line personnel, even though no comprehensive statistical study of this subject has been made in recent years. The major sources relied on are unpublished data compiled by the Railway Labor Panel in con nection with its administration of the wagestabilization program, union contracts, and in terviews with company and union officials. To provide a basis for sketching the much less standardized working conditions and earn ings of fixed-base operators and their em ployees, visits were made to a small number of operations in northeastern metropolitan areas. The information thus obtained was used to sup plement the meager data available with regard to this segment of aviation activities. State ments as to the salaries and other working conditions of CAA personnel come from pub lished and unpublished information made avail able by that agency. 1 Working conditions of aviation personnel employed by other Government agencies, by private companies not in an aviation business, and by aircraft manufacturers are not discussed. However, as indicated in the previous report (Bulletin No. 837-1), none of these fields will offer a substantial number of job opportunities for flight or ground personnel during the next few years. A ir lines Hours of Work Pilots The flight-hours of air-line pilots have been legally restricted in the interest of public safety since 1931, when the air-transport industry was but 5 years old. At that time, a flight-time limitation of 110 hours a month was put into effect for captains in domestic operations. In 1934, 85 hours of flying became the monthly maximum for both pilots and co-pilots on domestic routes,2 and this has remained the peacetime standard ever since. During the war (in April 1942), the act was amended to allow 100 hours of flying per month and also, with CAB authorization, whatever time is necessary “to complete a particular flight for military purposes.” However, this amendment remains in force only until 6 months after the official termination of hostili ties, and even during the war the air lines took advantage of the 100-hour provision only to the extent that wartime emergency conditions made necessary. Many company officials, as well as the Air Line Pilots’ Association, believe that if flight time exceeds 85 hours a month, the pilot’s efficiency is likely to be adversely affected. Actual flying hours are generally even fewer—seldom over 80 hours a month in nor mal times; in order to stay within the 85-hour limit, it is necessary to stop short of the maxi mum in assigning pilots to flights. In international operations also, pilots’ fly ing hours are unlikely to average more than 85 a month in the future, although they were often much longer than this during the war, especially in military contract operations. How- Under Decision 83 of the National Labor Board and later under the Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938. The phraseology of Decision 83 does not clearly include co-pilots, but such was the intent and it was so construed and acted upon by the air lines. 31 ever, there will no doubt continue to be irregu larity in hours from month to month. In this branch of the industry, men frequently fly more than 85 hours in 1 month in order to complete a long trip and then have correspond ingly shorter hours later on. The Civil Air Regulations make allowance for such irregularity, particularly when a relief crew is carried. Under provisions which are being reexamined and may perhaps be revised, no monthly limit is placed on the hours of pilots in aircraft having at least 3 pilots and either a flight engineer, a navigator, or a flight radio operator. However, in such circum stances, a pilot may not fly over 350 hours in any 90 days, nor over 1,000 hours in a year (1,200 hours during World War II and for 6 months thereafter). When only 2 pilots and an additional crew member (other than a steward) are carried, the pilot’s flight time may not ex ceed 120 hours in any 30 days, 300 hours in any 90 days, nor 1,000 hours a year (with cer tain exceptions during the war period). Still more rigid limits are provided if the technical flight crew consists only of 1 or 2 pilots.8 Legal limits are also placed on daily and weekly flying hours. According to the Civil Air Regulations, a pilot in domestic operations may not be scheduled to fly more than 8 hours during any consecutive 24 without a rest period. If he exceeds this limit, as may easily happen when a flight is delayed owing to adverse wind con ditions or when he has to spend a long time “in the stack” over an airport waiting for his turn to land, he must be given at least 24 hours of rest before being assigned any flight or ground duty. On a weekly basis, his flighthours may not exceed 30, and he must be al lowed at least 1 day of rest in every 7. In the case of pilots in international operations, rest periods are likewise required and limits are set on daily flying hours under some circum stances; but these requirements are more flex ible than those applying to the domestic branch of the industry, especially when more than two pilots are carried. No up-to-date statistics are available regard ing the number of hours pilots have to spend on duty on the ground, either handling the 3 Civil Air Regulations amendment 41.0. Effective, September 1, 1945. 32 tasks outlined in the preceding chapter or wait ing to take off when weather is bad or plane repairs are needed. Estimates of the amount of time thus consumed were, however, obtained from a number of company and trade-union officials. These ranged from “less than half as many hours as are spent in flight” to “close to an hour for every hour in the air.” Other flight personnel The flying hours of flight engineers, naviga tors, and flight radio operators in international operations—in which all such workers except a few flight engineers are found at present— are governed by provisions already cited with respect to pilots. For all navigators, flight time is limited to 350 hours in any 90 days and 1,000 hours in a year (1,200 hours until 6 months after the war). These standards apply also to flight engineers on planes carrying two or more crew members in this occupation, and to flight radio operators under the same circumstances. When there is only one flight engineer or flight radio operator on the aircraft, his flight time is limited to 120 hours in 30 days, 300 hours in 90 days, and 1,000 hours in a year (with certain relaxations until 6 months after the war). In addition, specified rest periods must be given. As these provisions suggest, workers in these occupations—like the pilots with whom they fly—-tend to have irregular working hours, sometimes flying long hours 1 month and being permitted extra time off duty later on. Most men apparently average between 85 and 100 flying hours a month under peacetime condi tions. In all three occupations, ground duties are less extensive and time-consuming than those of pilots. It has been estimated that navi gators, for example, do only about 50 to 100 hours’ work on the ground during a year. There are no legal controls on the flighthours of stewards and stewardesses, whose functions are not significantly related to flight safety. However, the flying hours of these workers appear to be very similar to those of the other flight personnel just discussed—about 85 to 100 hours a month, on the average, with some variation from 1 month to another. Stew ardesses, as a rule, spend very little time in ground duties. This is true also of many stew ards, although, as noted in the preceding chap ter, men in this occupation have sometimes had to do considerable work between flights. Earnings Pilots Air-line captains are the most highly paid of the occupational groups covered by this Ground personnel study. The pay of captains in domestic operations, Until after the war ended, all ground per like their flight time, is still governed by Deci sonnel covered by this study, with the exception sion of the National Labor Board, issued in of dispatchers, were on an 8-hour day and a 1934.83The wage scale which this decision set 48-hour, 6-day week throughout the air trans up, and which was made the legal minimum for port industry. In late 1945 and early 1946, how such captains by the Civil Aeronautics Act of ever, the industry changed to a 40-hour week. 1938, consists of four elements: (1) “Annual Mechanics and stock and stores employees, base pay,” beginning $1,600 and increasing like all other personnel paid on an hourly basis, $200 with each year ofat service to a maxi receive time and one-half for overtime above mum of $3,000; (2) additional up “hourly 40 hours, as they did for work above 48 hours which varies with the speed of the planepay,” and under the old schedule. They are also paid time is higher for night than for daytime flying; and one-half for work above 8 hours a day and, (3) additional “mileage pay” ; and (4) on a on some lines, double time for work above 12 few certain further differentials in hours and for any work on the seventh day in hourlylinesor only, mileage pay for flying over hazard a week. These provisions have the effect of ous terrain.4 restricting overtime, which, even during the Typical earnings under this wage scale were war, was the exception rather than the rule in about to $850 a month in domestic flying air-line maintenance departments. For me at the $600 end In general, new captains chanics in domestic operations, overtime is earned aboutofthe1945. minimum amount; those with further limited by the requirement of the Civil long experience and therefore greater base pay Air Regulations that they must have at least approached the maximum. Though varia one full day (24 consecutive hours) off duty tions occurred in earnings betweensome men with every week. the same length of experience—as a result of The normal workweek for dispatchers was differing hourly or mileage pay—these were usually 44 hours, in some instances 48 hours, not of great importance for several reasons. at the end of 1945. It was subsequently lowered Most captains were flying about the same num to 40 hours on a number of lines. Dispatchers ber of hours a month; practically all the planes have, however, an irregular workday; they are then in use were two-engine aircraft in the often on duty 9 or 9y% hours and sometimes same speed class; and it is the policy of each even 10 to 12 hours. Although compensatory air line to share the more remunerative night time off is given for overtime by some com flying as evenly as possible among its captains. panies and extra pay by others, still others situation has been changed, however, make no such provision. The requirements of byThis the introduction of four-engine aircraft on the Civil Air Regulations with regard to dis domestic routes. Since these planes are in patchers’ working hours are very flexible and apply only, to domestic operations. If a dis 4 Decisions of the National Labor Board, Part II, April 1934July 1934, In the Matter of the Air Line Pilots' Wage Dispute, patcher in this branch of the industry is sched No. decided May 10, 1934 (pp. 20-21). In July 1946, an emer uled to be on duty more than 10 hours out of gency83,board (created by the President under the Railway Labor Act) found that the formula of Decision 83 was still an equitable any 24, he must be given a rest period of at method computing pilots* pay. However, the board recommended least 8 hours (with exceptions in emergencies). that theofspeed brackets used in computing hourly pay be revised to provide higher pay for pilots flying very high-speed planes. In addition, dispatchers must have the equiva soAnasincrease mileage pay under certain circumstances was also lent of 1 day of rest out of 7, which may be recommended.inWhen this bulletin went to press, the recommenda given at any time during the calendar month. tions had not been put into general affect. 33 higher speed classes than the DC-3's and other two-motored air liners, their pilots receive higher hourly pay. In addition, the Air Line Pilots’ Association is seeking a general upward revision in wage scales for pilots of four-engine planes and is in process of obtaining some in creases. Captains employed in overseas operations have, as a rule, higher earnings than those in the domestic branch of the industry, although the only legal requirement with regard to their pay is that it must be “not less, upon an annual basis, than the compensation required to be paid” for comparable service within the con tinental United States.5 In late 1945 and early 1946, these men generally earned $850 to $1,100 a month6 and their pay will probably be raised in the near future. Co-pilots’ pay, which represents the entry wage for all air-line pilot work, is only a frac tion of the salary these men may expect to receive as captains. Under the salary schedules in effect in domestic flying at the end of 1945, co-pilots generally started out at $220 a month (after completion of initial training, when pay was considerably less). An increase of $20 a month was given every 6 months up to a maxi mum of $380. However, many co-pilots never made this top figure as they were promoted to captain positions before the end of the 4 years required to reach it. Pay scales of co-pilots, as in the case of cap tains, are generally higher and also much less standardized in international than in domestic operations. For example, late in 1945 one in ternational carrier paid its new co-pilots $250 a month and increased their salaries by $25 every 6 months, up to a maximum of $500. On another line, co-pilots received base pay of $200 to $360 a month, plus $2.50 per flighWiour —which would, of course, mean monthly earn ings of $412 to $572 for 85 hours of flying. These salaries and those of co-pilots flying four-motored planes on domestic routes are likely soon to be increased, along with the pay of captains on the same aircraft. Pilots are often away from their home bases 0 Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938, Title IV, section L (2). 6 The figures quoted do not apply to pilots flying two-motored planes in Latin American service, who have about the same salary range as captains in domestic operations. 34 on duty at meal times or over night. On such occasions, the cost of their board and room is paid by the company, and they may be allowed $1 a day for tips and other incidental expenses. Those stationed abroad receive special bonuses, varying in amount from company to company. To illustrate, one line gave a bonus of 15 per cent of the pilots’ salary for foreign service in 1945; another line, one of 10 percent. Still an other varies the bonus according to the cost of living at the station and pays extra if the loca tion is particularly undesirable. Other flight personnel Typical monthly earnings of other technical flight personnel late in 1945 were as follows: Navigators, $325 to $500; flight engineers, $250 to $500; and flight radio operators, $250 to $450. The lower figures represent in each case the usual beginning salary of a fully qualified worker; men in training received still lower salaries in some instances. The higher figures represent the usual, though not the universal, top salary in the occupation. Workers in each of these occupations (like pilots) receive regu lar salary increases. In addition, a distinction is generally made between junior and senior employees or other grades, each category hav ing a separate salary range within the broad range of earnings indicated. Stewards and stewardesses have consider ably lower earnings than do the other, much more highly skilled members of the crew. In the latter part of 1945, stewards in interna tional operations, in which the great majority of men in this occupation are employed, gener ally had an initial salary of about $170 a month and received regular increases up to a maxi mum of about $235 after several years on the job. Stewardesses in overseas flying had much the same beginning salary, but they could not look forward to such large increases. For the much larger number of stewardesses on domes tic routes, the starting salary was only about $125 or $130 late in 1945; the top salary, reached after several years of service, about $165 to $180. After that time, however, some domestic air lines, especially the larger ones, raised the minimum rate for hostesses to about $140 or $150; the maximum, to about $200 or slightly more. In addition to their salaries, all these em ployees receive bonuses for foreign service and have their living expenses paid when they are away from base of duty. Such provisions are the same as those for pilots, discussed above. Dispatchers and meteorologists Dispatchers are the most highly paid of the various groups of ground personnel covered by the study—as would be expected in view of their heavy responsibility for safe and efficient flight operations and the extensive training and experience which is nesessary for their jobs. The usual beginning salary of licensed dis patchers was about $250 a month late in 1945, with provisions for regular increases up to a maximum of $450 or $500. Assistant dis patchers earned somewhat less. Meteorologists are classified as junior and senior employees. The usual salary for the junior classification was $150 to $200, depend ing largely on length of experience; for the senior group, $200 to $300 or slightly more was paid. Dispatchers occasionally have to be away from their domiciles on duty. Under such cir cumstances they receive their living expenses, as do flight personnel. Those stationed abroad likewise receive foreign-service bonuses. Mechanics, stock clerks, and ground communications operators Air-line maintenance employees are paid oh an hourly basis. At the end of the war, typi cal hourly wages for the various grades of mechanics were as follows: Apprentices and junior mechanics or helpers, 60 to 90 cents; mechanics and specialists, $1.00 to $1.10; senior mechanics, $1.10 to $1.20; master mechanics, $1.20 to $1.30; inspectors and crew chiefs, $1.25 to $1.35. In each of these classifications, employees without previous experience at the given grade started at the bottom rate and received increases on a “longevity” basis. Weekly earnings for a 48-hour week—the standard workweek at the time these rates were in force—were $28.80 to $43.20 for ap prentices and helpers, $48 to $52.80 for me chanics and specialists, up to $60 to $64.80 for inspectors and crew chiefs. As already indi cated, however, the industry has since then changed to a 40-hour week. This change was accompanied by an increase in wage rates to maintain at least the same weekly pay. The mechanics’ unions are urging still larger rate raises and have in many instances already ob tained such increases. The beginning wage for apprentices, for example, is now 72 to 78 cents an hour or slightly higher on most major lines; the usual starting rate for mechanics and specialists is $1.20 or $1.26 an hour. Stock and stores clerks, who are also ,in the maintenance departments, are likewise paid on an hourly basis. As of VJ-day, the typical be ginning wage of a junior clerk was 55 to 60 cents an hour, and the usual top figure for nonsupervisory employees was 95 cents. Super visory personnel earned more, averaging about 10 cents higher than senior clerks. Based on these rates, the earnings of nonsupervisory clerks for the prevailing 48-hour week ranged from $26.40 to $45.60. Currently, their weekly wages are at least as high as this for a 40-hour week, owing to recent compensatory rate raises like those received by mechanics; on some lines, the weekly wage for beginning clerks is now $31.20. Moreover, the pay of stock and stores employees is often included in the unions’ cur rent efforts to secure higher wages for mainte nance personnel. Last among the groups of air-line employees covered by this study are ground communica tions operators. Radio operators employed on the ground earn only about half as much as flight radio operators—from about $130 to about $245 a month and sometimes higher in the latter part of 1945. This range included the salary scales for both junior and senior opera tors. Supervisors were not covered but had earnings well above the indicated maximum. Monthly earnings of teletype operators be gan at a slightly lower figure than the entry rate for radio operators. The typical range was from about $125 to about $160, depending on length of experience, and extra compensation was given for supervisory duties. 35 Since maintenance and ground communica tions personnel are not generally required to be away from their domiciles on duty, the prob lem of living expenses when away from base does not arise. However, some employees in these departments are stationed abroad, in which case they receive the same bonuses for foreign service as are given to the other air-line employees previously discussed. Vacation and Leave Provisions Among the benefits of air-line employment are relatively liberal vacation-with-pay and leave policies. These vary from carrier to car rier and job to job. For all occupational groups in domestic operations, the most common pro vision is 2 weeks’ paid vacation after 1 year of service. In international operations, how ever, flight and foreign-based personnel usually receive a month’s vacation. Other illustrative provisions are 1 or 2 weeks after 6 months of service, 1 day for each month of continuous employment, or 2 weeks after 2 years of service. Vacations may usually be taken when de sired, if conditions permit. Vacations that are not taken during the year are not cumulative, unless postponed at the request of the em ployer. Sometimes, extra pay in lieu of vaca tion may be granted. In addition to paid vacations, employees are customarily given holidays off with pay. When holiday work is required, employees paid on an hourly basis are generally compensated at double-time rates. Provision is usually made also for some sick leave with full or part pay and for leaves of absence under specified cir cumstances. Even very prolonged leaves-without-pay may sometimes be taken without loss of seniority. Fixed-Base Operators Pilots and mechanics taking jobs in nonscheduled flying services and other fixed-base operations will find relatively informal em ployer-employee relationships. These enter prises are, in general, the “small business” activities of aviation. Much self-employment exists, and there is little standardization of wages and working conditions. For these rea 36 sons and also because the statistical informa tion available is very limited, only a few high lights can be given with regard to employment conditions. Hours of Work “This is a 7-day week business if ever there was one,” according to one fixed-base operator. In the typical small operation catering to the general public, the owner has to be on hand to receive customers at any and all hours con venient to them. His hours of peak activity are usually in the late afternoons and evenings and over week ends, especially if his business in cludes flight instruction but also if he garages and services private planes, has a sales agency, or takes passengers on taxi and sightseeing flights. At other times, his business may be light; nevertheless he often has to be at the airport to oversee work that is going on and to attend to many business details. Pilots on the staff of nonscheduled flying services and flying schools are also likely to spend long and very irregular hours at the airport, although usually not as many as do the operators themselves. Under the Civil Air Regulations, a flight instructor may not give more than 8 hours of dual flight instruction a day nor more than 86 hours a week. There is no legal control over working hours in other types of nonscheduled flying, and the pilots often have to spend considerable time at the airport waiting for work. On the other hand, they frequently have one or more days off in bad weather, especially during the winter. For mechanics, the most usual workweek in fixed-base operations appears to be 48 hours, although in 1945 their weekly working time varied from 40 to 56 hours or more in several northeastern metropolitan areas. Usually they receive 1 day off a week—generally on a week day, since in most operations their work, like that of the pilots, is heaviest at the week-end peak in private flying. This does not hold true, however, for repair shops specializing in over haul work and major repairs, where the men often have Sunday off. When overtime is neces sary, the mechanics may receive compensatory time off or straight-time pay. Premium pay for overtime appears to be less common in fixed-base operations than with the air lines. Earnings The pilot who starts his own flying service and the mechanic who opens a repair shop take risks typical of small business ventures of all types. Some sustain losses and may even be forced out of business. Others make substantial profits. Many factors influence an operator’s chances of success—among them, the amount of capital invested, the type of operation, its location with respect to population centers, the individual’s business and technical abilities, and how many hours of work he is willing to put in. In 1940, fixed-base operators had, on the average, a net revenue for the year of $3,148.7 However, this is a national average and hides the differences in income amon& individual op erators. That the variations are wide is illus trated by 1945 data for certain operators in northeastern metropolitan areas who reported a net monthly income of from $300 to $1,500 (the top figure representing earnings from operations at two different airports). Some operators pay the pilots on their staffs a monthly salary. Others pay them an hourly rate, which was generally $3 for flight instruc tors and $4 to $6 for “charter” pilots in the flying services for which 1945 data were ob tained. Before the war, pilots’ yearly earnings were estimated to range from a minimum of $960 up to many times that amount.8 In 1945, the range of pilots’ earnings in the establishments surveyed was about $3,000 to $5,000 a year; it was reported that in some other operations pilots were making much more. Earnings vary with the location and prosperity of the enter prise and, for men paid an hourly rate, the policy of the operator as to the number of pilots employed. Some operators believe that continu ous use of a small number of pilots and planes is more profitable, while others hold that it is better to divide the business among a greater number of employees and aircraft. Whatever the merits of each policy from the viewpoint 7 U. S. Civil Aeronautics Board, Docket No. 857 : Local-FeederPickup Air Services, Statement of Economic Bureau, by Raymond W. Stough, September 28, 1943. Appendix 5. s Follett, Ben: Careers in Aviation (Waverly House, Boston, Mass.) 1945, p. 76. of profits, to the pilot the former practice means, of course, more work and higher earn ings. Mechanics employed in fixed-base operations are generally paid hourly rates as in the air lines; a few receive monthly salaries. For ap prentices and helpers, wages ranged from 50 to 75 cents an hour in 1945 in the operations surveyed. Mechanics received about $1.20 to $1.40 an hour, and foremen still more—in the' few operations large enough to have an em ployee in this category. The rates reported for skilled mechanics were higher than those paid by the air lines in 1945 to “senior mechanics” and, in some instances, even above those then paid to air-line “master mechanics,” inspectors, and crew chiefs. Often, the smallest operations, with only one or two mechanics, paid the high est wages, since they had to have men who were skilled enough to handle work on any part of a plane and its equipment and on many dif ferent types of aircraft. Civil Aeronautics Administration Like other Federal employees, CAA person nel now have a basic 40-hour, 5-day week. How ever, longer hours are sometimes necessary. Aircraft communicators and airway traffic controllers in field offices, for example, often have to work 44 or 45 hours a week. Overtime beyond this point is rare under peacetime con ditions. Although there is a legal restriction on working hours only for airport traffic control lers this restriction is far from rigid. Under the Civil Air Regulations, an airport trafficcontrol tower operator must not work over 10 hours consecutively and must be given at least 1 full day off out of every 7, except in emer gencies. It is estimated that aeronautical inspectors usually spend 17 to 21 hours a week in flying, the remainder of the 40 hours in work on the ground. CAA pilots other than inspectors fly anywhere from 60 or 70 up to 100 hours a month, depending largely on the season of the year. Minimum annual salaries in the occupations covered by the study are as follows: 37 (the next 3 groups), the range is from $2,469 to $5,905. The largest number of aircraft com Aeronautical inspectors ..................... $4,526 $5,905 municators are in a grade with a starting Air carrier inspectors (operations) . . 4,150 5,905 salary of $3,397. In addition, “within-grade Airplane pilots ..................................... 4,902 (2) increases” of $75 to $239 a year are given every Aircraft inspectors ............................. 4,150 5,905 Air carrier inspectors (maintenance) 4,150 5,905 12 or 18 months, depending on the grade, to Aircraft and engine mechanics.......... 2,469 3,397 these as to all civil service employees. Extra Aircraft communicators..................... 2,168 4,150 pay is given also for overtime above 40 hours. Airport traffic controllers................... 2,645 4,150 Other Government employment policies in Airway traffic controllers................... 2,645 4,526 clude 8 legal holidays, 26 days of “annual leave” and 15 days of sick leave per year, all with For men with pilot experience (the first 3 pay. Both annual and sick leave may be cumu groups), minimum salaries range from $4,150 lated from year to year up to certain limits. to $5,905 a year, depending upon the grade of Leave without pay may also be given for jus position; for men with mechanic experience tifiable reasons. M inim um annual salaries Low est H ighest grade grade 1 1 Figures are rounded to nearest dollar. 2 There is only one grade of airplane pilot. An airport traffic controller giving instructions to a pilot by radiotelephone. by c o u r te s y o f c iv il a e r o n a u tic s a d m in is tr a tio n . Chapter 3.—Labor Organization Air-line pilots and mechanics are highly or ganized. Their unions have negotiated collec tive-bargaining agreements with all the inter state and international carriers except one small mail and cargo line. Virtually all the other groups of air-line employees covered by the study are organized to some extent. In nonscheduled flying and related aviation services, however, there is as yet little or no labor or ganization. All employees of air lines engaged in inter state or foreign commerce or in transporting the United States mail are guaranteed, by a 1936 amendment to the Railway Labor Act, the right to organize and bargain collectively through representatives of their own choosing. By June 30, 1937, only two air lines had signed union contracts (covering mechanics and radio operators). Since that time, unionization and collective bargaining in the industry has in creased steadily. On the other hand, the Rail way Labor Act is officially interpreted as for bidding closed-shop agreements on the air lines, as on the railroads. This means, of course, that some employees covered by union contracts may not be union members. Table 3 1 Constitution and By-Laws of the Air Line Pilots' Association. .— Collective labor agreements and employee representation on principal air lines, for selected occupations' Air line Pilots and co-pilots American_________ __________ ___ ALPA American Overseas.— . . . . ____ . ALPA Braniff___ _______________________ ALPA Colonial____ _____________________ ALPA ALPA Chicago and Southern................... Continental___ ___________________ ALPA ALPA Delta_________ ____________ _____ Eastern___________________________ ALPA ALPA Inland _ . _______ M id- Continent____________________ ALPA National___ ____________________ ALPA Northeast___ _____________________ ALPA Northwest _______________________ ALPA ALPA Pan American ___. . . Pennsylvania-Central (Capital) ALBA Transeontinentahand Western ALPA United. ________ _______________ ALPA ALPA *Vcstern . . . _________ . . . Other flight personnel Mechanics TWU ALMD ALMD IAM ALMD ALMD ALMD IAM ALMD ALMD IAM IAM IAM TW U SA 2,1AM 4, SA4............................... 7 IAM ALFEA 2 . . ___ IAM IAM SA 3....................................................... ALMD ALMD 2............................................ SA 2, A AN 3 ........................................ 1 Based upon unpublished data from the National Mediation Board. Information as of April 1,1946, except in the case of mechanics on American Airlines who have been represented by TWU only since July. AAN—Association of Air Navigators, a member council of the National Air Line Navigators Association ALCEA—Airline Communications Employees Association (ACA-CIO) ALDA—Air Lino Dispatchers Association (AFL) ALFEA—Air Line Flight Engineers Association (AFL) ALMD—Air Line Mechanics Department (UAW-CIO) The union agreements, for the occupational groups covered by this study, in effect on each air line are summarized in table 3. Pilots, as the table shows, are represented exclusively by the Air Line Pilots Association (AFL). To qualify for membership in this union, the ap plicant must be a person of lawful age and good moral character who has served for at least a year as a pilot or co-pilot on scheduled aircarrier aircraft in intrastate, interstate, over seas, or foreign commerce.1 The great majority of eligible pilots, belong to ALPA. Organization of other flight personnel is much less widespread. Stewards and stew ardesses are covered by agreements on only one line, being represented on one division of the line by the International Association of Machinists (now technically unaffiliated) and on another by a system association (made up of employees of that particular line only). Navigators have a union of their own, the Na tional Air Line Navigators Association, unaf filiated. On one line, navigators are covered by an agreement with a branch of this association; Stock and store employees TWU ALMD ALMD IAM ALMD IAM ALMD IAM ALMD IAM ALMD SA ATEU .............! Dispatchers ALDA ALDA ALDA ALDA ALDA ALDA ALDA ALDA ALDA ALDA Ground radio operators ALCEA ALCEA ALCEA ALCEA SA 2 Flight engineers. 3 Navigators. 4 Stewards and stewardesses. ALPA—Air Line Pilots Association (AFL) ATEU—Air Transport Employees Union (UMW-AFL) IAM—International Association of Machinists SA—System Association TWU—Transport Workers Union (CIO) 39 on another, by an agreement with a system association. Flight engineers are represented on one air line by the Air Line Mechanics De partment (UAW-CIO); on one by the Air Line Flight Engineers Association (AFL); and on two lines by system associations. Flight radio operators are not covered by an agreement on any line now employing such personnel. Among the mechanics, organization is as widespread as among the pilots but several dif ferent unions are involved. The Air Line Me chanics Department (UAW-CIO)12 has systemwide agreements covering mechanics on eight air lines. The International Association of Machinists has agreements with eight carriers. In addition, as a result of recent elections, me chanics on two lines are represented by the Transport Workers Union (CIO). These unions take into membership all grades of mechanics, from apprentices and helpers through crew chiefs, and in addition may organize many other occupational groups in the maintenance and other departments. Stock and stores em ployees are represented on six lines by the ALMD, on three by the IAM, and on three others by three different labor organizations— the Transport Workers Union, the Air Trans port Employees’ Union (a division of District 50, United Mine Workers, AFL) and a system association. The Air Line Dispatchers Association, another AFL affiliate, has negotiated con Air Line Pilots Association: First pilots......................................................... Reserve pilots ................................................... Co-pilots ............................................................ Air Line Mechanics Department........................... Air Line Communication Employees Association International Association of Machinists3: Mechanics and specialists............................... Helpers ............................................................... Apprentices ....................................................... Transport Workers Union....................................... Air-Line Dispatchers Association: Dispatcher ......................................................... Junior dispatcher ............................................. tracts with 10 lines covering both licensed and assistant dispatchers. Of the other occupa tions studied, meteorologists do not have union representation on any line. Radio operators, on the other hand, are represented on four lines by the Air Line Communication Employees Association (now affiliated with the American Communications Association, CIO) and on an other by a system association. The ALCEA con tracts usually cover not only radio operators but also teletypists and sometimes radio me chanics assigned to work on ground transmit ting equipment. On the other hand, radio mechanics working on air-borne equipment are generally represented by the mechanics’ unions. Judging from recent experience, there will, in the next few years, be increasing organiza tion of the groups not now covered by collective bargaining agreements on all lines. In addition, competition for membership is strong, espe cially among maintenance personnel, with both AFL and CIO unions and the IAM showing marked interest in the organization of air-line employees. Initiation fees and dues required for mem bership in a number of the unions were recently as follows:3 2 Before its affiliation with the United Automobile Workers (CIO) in 1945, this organization was known as the Air Line Mechanics Association. 3 Based on information compiled by the Bureau's Industrial Re lations Division. 1 n itiation fee $100.00 50.00 25.00 12.00 5.00 5.00 3.00 2.50 3.00 30.00 20.00 D u es $100.00 per year 60,00 per year 28.00 per year 21.50 per month 1.00 per month 2.00 per month 1.50 per month 1.25 per month 41.75 per month 50.00 per year 530.00 per year 4 For members earning 77 cents per hour or more dues are not 1 Minimum. - Members earning 71 cents per hour or over pay dues of $1.50 less than $1.75 per month; for members earning less than 77 cents per month. For those making only 70 cents or less, the dues rate per hour dues are at least $1.25. 5 Dues are $20 per year for junior dispatchers not covered by is $1.25. 3 When a new local is being organized, the usual $5 initiation % contract. fee for journeymen is replaced by a special $3 organizing fee. Dues cited are those most often required; some locals have higher dues and some have lower ones. 40 Chapter 4 .—Occupational Hazards and Related Problems A ccident Hazards During the 20 years since they began com mercial operations, the air lines have had marked success in increasing flying safety. In the 3 years 1927-29, the average number of miles flown per pilot fatality was dnly 1.2 mil lion; in 1943-45 it was 39.0 million.1 The in dustry is “safety conscious” to a notable degree and makes constant efforts to reduce injury rates among both flight and ground personnel. Nevertheless, some air-line jobs still involve at least a moderate accident risk. For all air-line occupations, the injury fre quency rate (the number of disabling injuries per million man-hours of employment) was 19.01 in 1944, according to statistics compiled by the National Safety Council (table 4). The standard severity rate for the industry (the number of days lost per 1,000 man-hours of employment, including allowances for fatalities and permanent injuries, in accordance with a standard scale of time charges) was 2.29. Of the 39 industries for which the National Safety Council computed rates for 1944, only 11 had higher frequency rates and 8 had higher severity rates. Injuries were found to be less frequent but, on the average, more severe in air transport than in the “transit” industry (railroad, bus, and trolley transportation), which had an average frequency rate of 24.33 and an average severity rate of 1.88. These comparisons are of course based on the ex perience in only 1 year, the most recent for which rates are available, but are believed to be reasonably representative of the situation in the air-transport industry. As would be expected—and as table 4 shows —severity rates are very much higher among flight personnel than other groups of air-line employees, because of the heavy time charge 1 These figures exclude co-pilots and are for domestic operations only. It should be noted that plane speeds rose between 1927 and 1944 and that, as a result, the number of hours of exposure to hazard decreased somewhat relative to miles flown. for each fatal accident. On the other hand, acci dents resulting in temporary or permanent par tial disabilities are most frequent among per sonnel in the line-maintenance and overhaul departments. Injuries to such personnel are often caused by the handling of heavy or bulky aircraft parts or equipment. Other causes of accidents include falls from ladders or stands used in working on the planes or from wings or catwalks; blasts of air from propellers, from which eye injuries may occur when employees neglect to wear goggles; and working near a plane and its moving propellers, which involves especial danger of head injuries. Table 4 .— Industrial injury rates in scheduled air transportation, by department1 Department All departments...................... Flight personnel...................... Maintenance personnel2....... Station employees3................ General office and traffic per sonnel4................................ 1943 1944 Frequency Severity Frequency Severity rate rate rate rate 21.86 10.13 38.01 12.26 5.90 2.70 12.12 .90 .62 .53 19.01 16.85 37.42 8.80 4.55 2.29 21.06 .75 .09 .06 1 Source-National Safety Council, Accident Rates in the Transportation Industries 1943, p. 15 (Chicago, 1944) and unpublished data for 1944. 2 Takes in all personnel in line-maintenance departments and at overhaul bases, i ncluding supply departments. 3 Includes all employees at locations on routes, such as restaurant workers, ticket agents, cargo handlers, and baggagemen. 4 Includes executives, clerks, traffic managers, and similar occupations. With regard to accident hazards in commer cial aviation activities outside the air lines, little quantitative information is available. It is impossible to say, for example, whether in juries to flight personnel occur more often, relative to the number of flight-hours, in nonscheduled commercial and instructional flying than in air-line operations; but with regard to the number of miles flown, injuries are ap parently more frequent in the former than in the latter type of flying. This comparison, how ever, is not a good measure of accident risk because air-line planes are so much faster than the small aircraft generally used in other avia tion services. It is significant, nevertheless, that 41 most piane accidents ouisiue tne air lines nave always resulted from errors on the part of flight personnel—such as disobedience of Civil Air Regulations, poor flying technique, careless ness or negligence, and mistakes in judgment— which are minimized by the rigorous training of personnel and systematic checking on all phases cf operations insisted on by the air lines. Injuries to ground personnel are both less frequent and less severe in fixed-base opera tions than with the air lines, according to the persons interviewed in connection with this study. The main reason given for the difference was that the planes and equipment on which mechanics work are so much smaller and lighter in the former operations than in sched uled air transport. The lack of a vigorous safety program such as is conducted by the major lines may, however, be somewhat of a counter acting factor in many small fixed-base opera tions. Health Problems There are no special health problems in the ground occupations covered by this study. This was the unanimous opinion of the company and union officials interviewed. However, a number of persons emphasized the physical and nervous strain of flight jobs, especially with air lines. It was pointed out that, during flights, crews are exposed in varying degrees to constant vi bration, noise, glare, poor ventilation, and rapid temperature changes. At high altitudes, they find even slight physical exertion (as in the serving of food) fatiguing. It was also stated that flight personnel tend to be subject to colds and, at least as beginners, to air-sick ness. Illness among air-line employees is prob ably more quickly noticed and better recorded than among most other groups of workers, because of the attention paid by the carriers to their employees’ health. The air lines endeavor to provide clean and sanitary working environments and proper eat ing facilities. All flight personnel are given rigid physical examinations at regular ’inter vals. In addition, workers are encouraged to take sick leave whenever needed. On some lines, men are retained on the pay roll for long pe riods of time while-recuperating, particularly 42 m xne case ui ucoupauunany mcurreu m ness or injury. In small fixed-base operations, health pro grams are in general much less highly de veloped and working conditions are likely to be less satisfactory than with the air lines; for example, some of the hangars cannot be closed up tightly and are not well heated in winter. Nevertheless, there is bound to be some em phasis on health at least for pilots, who have to pass periodic physical examinations in order to hold their certificates. Problem of Physical Disqualification Men who are considering whether to choose flying as a vocation should not overlook the possibility of being disqualified for employment at some future date when they may fail to pass the required physical examinations. The prob lem of disqualification has not become acute as yet, because most men in aviation occupa tions are still comparatively young and because the air lines have been expanding so rapidly that they have not had much trouble findingground jobs for men disqualified for flight work. However, this favorable situation will not continue indefinitely. Air-line captains have been the group most affected so far. Physical standards are higher for work in this occupation than in any other aviation job. It must be remembered, however, that all commercial pilots and other flight per sonnel and certain groups of ground personnel, notably air traffic-control tower operators, also have to meet rigid physical requirements. No satisfactory information is available on the number of years men are able to work in these occupations before being disqualified. Certainly, the period varies greatly from one individual to another. A few captains now em ployed by the air lines began as air-mail pilots right after the First World War and have been flying, year in and year out, since that time. A considerable number are over 40 years of age. On the other hand, it is unlikely that most men will be able to hold pilot or other flight jobs until the normal retirement age of 60 or 65. For many who wish to continue working until that age, a change in occupation will be necessary. This may involve reduced earnings and other difficult adjustments. W here to A p p ly for Jobs and Obtain Information on Openings Applications for air-line jobs should be sent to the personnel managers of the lines at the following addresses: Alaska Airlines, 501 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. All American Aviation, Inc., 210 Greenhill Avenue, Wilmington 99, Del. American Airlines, Inc., 100 East 42d Street, New York 17, N. Y. American Overseas Airlines, Inc., 25 Broadway, New York 4, N. Y. Braniff Airways Inc., Love Field, Dallas 9, Tex. Capital Airlines Corporation, Washington National Airport, Wash ington 25, D. C. Chicago and Southern Air Lines, Inc., Memphis Municipal Airport, Memphis 2, Tenn. Colonial Airlines, Inc., New York Municipal Airport, Jackson Heights, Long Island, N. Y. Continental Air Lines, Inc., Stapleton Airfield, Denver, Colo. Delta Air Corporation, Atlanta Municipal Airport, Atlanta, Ga. Eastern Air Lines, Inc., 36th Street Airport, Miami 30, Fla. Inland Air Lines, Inc., Cheyenne Municipal Airport, Cheyenne, Wyo. Mid-Continent Airlines, Inc., Waltower Building, 102 East 9th Street, Kansas 6, Mo. National Airlines, Inc., Municipal Airport, Jacksonville, Fla. Northeast Airlines, Inc., Commonwealth Airport, Boston 28, Mass. Northwest Airlines, Inc., 1885 University Avenue, St. Paul 4, Minn. Pan American Airways, Inc., 135 East 42d Street, New York 17, N. Y. Pan American-Grace Airways, Inc., 135 East 42d Street, New York 17, N. Y. Transcontinental and Western Air, Inc., 101 West 11th Street, Kansas City 6, Mo. United Air Lines, Inc., 5959 South Cicero Avenue, Clearing Station, Chicago 38, 111. Western Air Lines, Inc., Lockheed Air Terminal, Burbank, Calif. Men interested in setting up their own flying services or repair shops should consult State aviation commissions-and local chambers of com merce. Those wishing jobs with fixed-base operators should contact the operators in their areas or the local offices of the U. S. Employment Service. Information as to locations of air fields, repair stations, and flying schools can be obtained from the Office of Aviation Information, Civil Aeronautics Administration, Washington 25, D. C. For information regarding CAA positions, address the Civil Aero nautics Administration or the Civil Service Commission, Washington 25, D. C., or any regional office of either agency. 43 INDEX Accident hazards, 41-42 Aircraft and aircraft-engine mechanics, see Mechanics. Aircraft communicators— Duties of, 27 Earnings of, 38 Employment outlook for, 6 Hours of work of, 37 Qualifications for employment of, 28 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 29 Vacation and leave provisions for, 38 Air lines, addresses of, 43 Air-line workers, see title of occupation. Airport and airway traffic controllers— Duties of, 29 Earnings of, 38 Employers’ hiring standards for, 30 Employment outlook for, 7 Hours of work of, 37 Legal requirements for, 29-30 Problem of physical disqualification, 42 Qualifications for employment of, 29-30 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 30 Vacation and leave provisions for, 38 Applications for jobs, where to send, 43 Civil Aeronautics Administration positions, see Air craft Communicators; Airport and airway traffic controllers; Mechanics, CAA; Pilots, CAA. Civil Air Regulations— Airmen certificates, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 19, 25, 29 Hours of work and rest periods, of airmen, 32, 33, 36, 37 Co-Pilots, see Pilots, air-line. Dispatchers and assistants— Duties of, 17-18 Earnings of, 35 Employment outlook for, 4 Hours of work of, 33 Qualifications for employment of, 19 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 19 Unionization of, 39-40 Vacation and leave provisions for, 36 Duties, see title of occupation. Earnings, 33-36, 37-38 Electrical workers, 21, 25 see also Mechanics. Fabric and dope workers, 21 see also Mechanics. Federal Communications Commission radio-operator licenses, 10, 12, 14, 16, 25, 27 Fixed-base operators, 9-10, 13, 23-24, 26, 31, 36-37 Flight engineers and flight mechanics— Duties of, 14 Earnings of, 34 44 Flight engineers and flight mechanics—Continued. Employment outlook for, 2 Hours of work of, 32 Occupational hazards of, 41-42 Problem of physical disqualification, 42 Qualifications for employment of, 14-15 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 15 Unionization of, 39-40 Vacation and leave provisions for, 36 Flight radio operators— Duties of, 15 Earnings of, 34 Employment outlook for, 3 Hours of work of, 32 Occupational hazards of, 41-42 Problem of physical disqualification, 42 Qualifications for employmerit of, 16 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 16 Unionization of, 40 Vacation and leave provisions for, 36 Flight stewards and stewardesses— Duties of, 16-17 Earnings of, 34-35 Employment outlook for, 3, 4 Hours of work of, 32-33 Occupational hazards of, 41-42 Problem of physical disqualification, 42 Qualifications for employment of, 17 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 17 Unionization of, 39 Vacation and leave provisions for, 36 Flight superintendents, see Dispatchers and assistants. Ground radio and teletype operators, air-line— Duties of, 27 Earnings of, 35-36 Employment outlook for, 6 Hours of work of, 33 Qualifications for employment of, 27-28 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 29 Unionization of, 39-40 Vacation and leave provisions for, 36 Health problems, 42 Hostesses, air-line, see Flight stewards and stew ardesses. Hours of work, 31-33, 36, 37 Instrument mechanics, 21, 22, 24, 25 See also Mechanics. Jobs, where to apply for, 43 Labor organization, 39-40 Mechanics— Duties of, 20-24 Earnings of, 35-36, 37, 38 I N D E X — Continued Mechanics—Continued. Employers’ hiring standards for, 25-26 Employment outlook for, 5 Hours of work of, 33, 36, 37 Legal requirements for, 24-25 Occupational hazards of, 41-42 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 26 Unionization of, 39-40 Vacation and leave provisions for, on air lines, 36 Mechanics, air-line, 20-23, 24-26, 33, 35, 36, 39-40, 41 Mechanics, CAA, 23, 24, 26, 37-38 Mechanics, fixed-base operations, 23, 24, 25, 26, 36, 39, 41 Mechanics, Flight, see Flight engineers and flight mechanics. Meteorologists— Duties of, 19-20 Earnings of, 35 Employment outlook for, 5 Hours of work of, 33 Qualifications for employment of, 20 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 20 Unionization of, 40 Vacation and leave provisions for, 36 Navigators— Duties of, 15-16 Earnings of, 34 Employment outlook for, 2 Hours of work of, 32 Occupational hazards of, 41-42 Problem of physical disqualification, 42 Qualifications for employment of, 16 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 16 Unionization of, 39-40 Vacation and leave provisions for, 36 Paint-shop workers, air-line, 21 See also Mechanics. Physical disqualification, problem of, 42 Pilots— Duties of, 8-10 Earnings of, 33-34, 37, 38 Employers’ hiring standards for, 12-13 Employment outlook for, 1 Hours of work of, 31-32, 36, 37 Pilots—Continued. Legal requirements for, 10-11 Occupational hazards of, 41-42 Problem of physical disqualification, 42 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 13-14 Unionization of, 39-40 Vacation and leave provisions for, on air lines, 36 Pilots, air-line, 8-9, 10-12, 13, 31-32, 33-34, 36, 39-40, 41, 42 Pilots, business flying, 10 Pilots, CAA, 10, 13, 37-38 Pilots, fixed-base operations, 9-10, 13, 36, 37, 41, 42 Propeller mechanics, 21, 24, 25 See also Mechanics. Qualifications for employment, see title of occupation. Radio mechanics, 21, 22, 25, 40 See also Mechanics. Radio operators, -CAA, see Aircraft communicators. Radio operators, flight, see Flight radio operators. Radio operators, ground, air-line, see Ground radio and teletype operators, air-line. Radio-operator licenses, FCC, 10, 12, 14, 16, 25, 27 Sheet-metal workers, 21, 22, 24, 25 See also Mechanics. Stewards and stewardesses, air-line, see Flight stewards and stewardesses. Stock and stores clerks— Duties of, 26 Earnings of, 35-36 Employment outlook for, 6 Hours of work of, 33 Qualifications for employment of, 26-27 Relationship of military experience to civilian re quirements for, 27 Unionization of, 39-40 Vacation and leave provisions for, 36 Teletype operators, air-line, see Ground radio and tele type operators, air-line. Teletype operators, CAA, see Aircraft communicators. Traffic control-tower operators, see Airport and airway traffic controllers. Unionization, 41-42 Upholsterers, 21, 22 See also Mechanics. Vacation and leave provisions, 36, 37 ☆ U . S . G O V E R N M E N T P R I N T I N G O F F I C E : 194 7 ------7 11 649 45 Occupational Outlook Publications of the Bureau of Labor Statistics This bulletin is one of a series of reports on employment trends and opportunities in the various occupations and professions, for use in the vocational guidance of veterans, young people in schools, and others considering the choice of an occupation. The reports describe the longrun outlook for employment in each occupation and give information on earnings, working conditions, and the training required. Reports are usually first published in the Monthly Labor Review (subscription price per year, $3.50) and are reprinted as bulletins. Both the Monthly Labor Review and the bulletins may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C. Following is a list of other bulletins in the series, with their prices and with the dates of the publication of articles in the Monthly Labor Review: Employment Opportunities for Diesel-Engine Mechanics. Bulletin No. 813 (1945), price 5 cents. (Monthly Labor Review, February 1945.) Occupational Data for Counselors: A Handbook of Census Information Selected for Use in Guidance. Bulletin No. 817 (1945), price 10 cents. (Prepared jointly with the U. S. Office of Education.) Postwar Employment Prospects for Women in the Hosiery Industry. Bulletin No. 835 (1945), price 5 cents. (Monthly Labor Review, May 1945.) Employment Opportunities in Aviation: Occupations. Part 1.— Postumr Employment Outlook. Bulletin No. 837-1 (1945), price 10 cents. (Monthly Labor Review, April and June 1945.) Employment Outlook for Automobile Mechanics. Bulletin No. 842 (1945), price 10 cents. Employment Opportunities for Welders. Bulletin No. 863 (1946), price 10 cents. (Monthly Labor Review, September 1945.) Postwar Outlook for Physicians. Bulletin No. 863 (1946), price 10 cents. (Monthly Labor Review, December 1945.) Employment Outlook in Foundry Occupations. Bulletin No. 880 (1946), [in press]. (Monthly Labor Review, December 1945 and April 1946.) Factors Affecting Earnings in Chemistry and Chemical Engineering. Bulletin No. 881 (1946), price 10 cents. (Monthly Labor Review, June 1946.)
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