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N
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
PATERSON
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
USA
WORK
HD
PROGRAM
WPA
RECEIVED
JUL31193
0.U.LIBRARY
6331
AIN32WORKS
no.L-3
PROGRESS
ADMINISTRATION
NATIONAL RESEARCH
PROJECT
OF
LIBRARY
OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY
$
WORKS
PROGRESS
ADMINISTRATION
F. C. HARRINGTON
CORRINGTON GILL
Administrator
Assistant Administrator
NATIONAL
RESEARCH
PROJECT
on
Reemployment
Opportunities
and RecentChanges
in IndustrialTechniques
DAVID
WEINTRAUB
Director
Studies of the Effectsof IndustrialChange on Labor Markets
tii
HD6231
AINza
no.l.3
WPA
- National
Research Project(Hine1
A PATERSON BROAD-SILK SHOP
Thisshop, like manyothersin Paterson,is locatedin an old millbuild
ing and is separated
from otherpettyshopsbyboarding and chickenwire.
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
OF PATERSON BROAD -SILK WORKERS, 1926-36
A Study of Intermittencyof Employment
in a DecliningIndustry
by
James E. Wood
WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION, NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
Report No. L-3
Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania
May 1939
THE WPA NATIONAL
RESEARCH
PROJECT
ON REEMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES AND RECENT CHANGES
IN INDUSTRIAL TECHNIQUES
Under the authoritygrantedby the Presidentin the Execu
tive Order whichcreatedthe works ProgressAdministration,
Administrator
HarryL. Hopkinsauthorizedthe establishment
of a researchprogramfor the purposeofcollectingand ana
lyzing data bearing onproblems of employment, unemployment,
and relief.
Accordingly, the National Research Program was
established
inOctober1936underthesupervision
ofCorrington
Gill, AssistantAdministrator
of the WPA, who appointedthe
directorsof the individualstudiesor projects.
The ProjectonReemployment
Opportunitiesand
RecentChanges
in Industrial
Techniques
was organizedin December
1935to
inquire,withthe cooperation
of industry,labor, and govern
mental andprivate agencies, into the extent ofrecent changes
in industrial techniques and to evaluate theeffects of these
changes on the volume of employment and unemployment. David
Weintraud
andIrvingKaplan,
membersof
the
research
stafi
of the DivisionofResearch,Statistics,
andFinance,weread
pointed,respectively,
DirectorandAssociateDirectorof the
Project. The task set for them was to assemble andorganize
the existing data which bear on the problem and to augment
these data by fieldsurveysand analyses.
To this end, many governmental agencies which arethe col
lectorsand repositories
of pertinentinformationwere in
vited to cooperate.
The cooperatingagenciesof the United
StatesGovernment
include
theDepartment
of Agriculture,
the
Bureau of Minesof the Departmentof theInterior,the Bureau
of Labor Statisticsof the Departmentof Labor, the Railroad
RetirementBoard,the Social SecurityBoard,the Bureau of
InternalRevenueof the Departmentof the Treasury,the De
partment
of Commerce,
theFederalTradeCommission,
and the
Tariri
Commission.
The following private agenciesjoined with
the
National
Research Project in conducting special studies: the Indus
trial ResearchDepartment
ofthe Universityof Pennsylvania,
the NationalBureauof EconomicResearch,Inc., the Employ
ment Stabilization
ResearchInstitute of the Universityof
Minnesota,andthe AgriculturalEconomicsDepartmentsin the
AgriculturalExperimentStations of California,Illinois,
Iowa, and New York.
WORKS
PROGRESS
WALKER
1734 NEW
ADMINISTRATION
-JOHNSON BUILDING
YORK
AVENUE
NW,
WASHINGTON
, D. C.
F. C. HARRINGTON
ADMINISTRATOR
May 19, 1939
Colonel F. C. Harrington
Works Progress Administrator
Sir:
Unemployment is not a simple problem which can be
explainedby referenceto one
a few general causes.
The sources of unemploymentare many, and the problems
faced by an agency charged with the responsibility of
meeting them are varied in nature. Thus, there are
the problems of the jobless youth, of the unemployed
older worker,
of the wage earner in a stranded
com
munity, and of the worker displaced by machinery.
All
of these, and other unemploymentproblems,grow out
of special combinationsof causes, and all of them
require special remedial action.
The report transmitted herewith deals with the
recent employment experience of broad-silk workers in
Paterson,New Jersey. It shows how these workers were
affected by circumstances allied with their industry
and with related industries.
The report demonstrates
that general businessconditionsare only a partial
explanation of changes in unemployment. The demand
for the labor of the silk workers in Paterson, the
lengthof time they held their jobs, and the frequency
with which they became unemployed were dependent on
special factors in their industry. These special
factors included the competition of rayon, the mi
gration of plants to other areas, the increased
specializationof demand on the Paterson silk market,
and the increased control of silk production by
commission men and converters.
rized
The findingsof the presentreportcan be summa
as
follows
:
In November 1936, the busiest
period of the year for the industry, one worker in
four was unemployed. One worker in six had had no job
at all during the year 1936. In general, the Paterson
broad-silk workers were an older group. They had
been in the industry all or the greater part of their
hayang29
working lives. Despite the heavy unemployment in the
years from 1926 to 1936, few had left the industry
to
look
for
work
elsewhere
.
These
workers
could
be considered, in part at least, a stranded group,
because employment opportunities for them were scarce
and intermittent and because their average age made
transfer to other occupationsvery difficult.
The background of the heavy unemploymentand the
irregularemploymentamong the silk workersof Paterson
was an industry made up largely of small-sized estab
lishments with a low level of production and with
intermittentoperation.
The unemployedsilk workers of Paterson represent
a group for whom the present public-welfare system
appears
inadequate.
Most
of them
fall
into
the
class of "older workers", and because there is little
chance that job opportunities will improve, there is
little that they can do to build up old-age benefits
under
the Social
Security
Act .
Unemployment
com
pensation can help these workers little, because their
jobs are too intermittent .
If old-age-benefit
and
unemployment-compensationlaws remain unchanged,
there will continue to be a need for other forms of
relief for Paterson broad-silkworkers.
Respectfullyyours,
Sill
Comington
Corrington Gill
Assistant
Administrator
CO
N T E N T S
Chapter
Page
xiii
PREFACE .
I. INTRODUCTION
1
.
Sources and methods.
Plan of the study.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2
.
.
4
II. PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY, 1900-1936.
.
6
.
Definition of the local industry
Position of Paterson in the broad-silk industry
Structural changes and instability in the
.
industry.
.
.
The nature of commission operation
.
.
control ...
7
14
.
Effects
of converter
6
.
14
17
.
Originand extensionofcommission
operation.
Disappearance
of shops and structural
20
instability .
Increase of small concerns
24
29
.
Aspectsof small enterpriseand residual
industry..
32
.
Industrialand occupationalcharacteristics
of the operators.
Machinerypurchased,amount of investment,
.
33
and source of capital on first entry
into business
.
.
Difficultiesof remainingin business.
Changes in technology.
Employment trends.
Summary.
.
41
.
49
51
.
III. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BROAD-SILK WORKERS.
.
.
.
.
Age of beginning work.
Education
53
53
Nativity
Age.
Sex.
35
38
54
55
.
and marital status
54
.
55
.
Entry into the labor market and residence
.....
in Paterson
Industryof first connectionand attachmentto
.
broad
silk.
55
56
Summary. .
58
IV. EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE OF THE BROAD-SILK WORKERS,
1926-38 .
.
60
.
Character of yearly demand and its consequences
for patternsof employment.
.
Utilization
of the labor force
Work distribution and employment patterns.
vii
61
66
74
viii
CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
Length of connection with establishments
Employment experience during connection.
.
80
81
.
.
Employmentexperienceofoccupationalgroups.
Union positionon the distributionof work
Earnings
.
84
.
86
.
88
Weeklyearnings.
89
Annual earnings.
93
.
Employment status in November 1936
.
96
.
Summary:
V. SUMMARY
97
AND CONCLUSIONS .
100
Appendix
TABLES
110
.
CHARTS
AND
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
Prontispiece
A Patersonbroad-silkshop .
.
1.
Percentage change over preceding census year in
productionoftotalbroad goodsinthe UnitedStates
and New Jersey, 1921-31.
10
.
2.
Type ofautomatic loom used chiefly to weave rayon.
3.
Number of shops and looms, by type of operation,
.
12
22
1924-36.
4.
Number of shops and looms, 1924-36
26
5.
Cumulative turn-over of shops, 1925-38
28
6.
Cumulative number of migrating shops and their
aggregateloomage,by typeofoperation,1925-38.•
7.
30
Percentage distribution of shops and looms, by size
of shop, 1928 and 1938
32
8.
Breaking up old looms for scrap iron
41
9.
Early stages in broad-silkproductionin shops that
.
.
make their own warps
42
44
10.
old-typecreel .
11.
High-speedautomaticcreel
12.
Warping frame.
46
13.
Entering the ends of a new warp:
46
14.
Twisting by hand
48
15.
Twisting by machine.
.
.
45
48
CONTENTS
ix
CHARTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS-Continwed
Page
Figure
16.
Averagenumberof monthsin operationfor all shops
in pay-rollsample,1926-38.
.
17.
Monthlyand yearlyindexesof man-weekswith work
in 12 identicalshops,1929-36.
18.
Percentageof personsworkingat individualshops
64
8
7
who received over 1 week of employment per 2-week
pay period,monthly,1928-36
70
.
19.
Monthlyaveragelabor turn-overratesforall workers
at individualshops,byquarterandyear,1926–36..
.
20.
Percentage distribution of all persons who worked at
individual shops, by number of weeks with work,
1926–36. .
21.
.
.
.
23.
7
6
Distribution of all persons who worked at individual
shops, by numberof employmentperiods,1926–36.
22.
72
Averagenumberof weeks with employmentfor all
personswho workedat individualshops, 1926–36..
77
78
Percentage distribution of all first accessions, by
lengthofconnectionwith individualestablishment,
1926-35.
80
.
24.
Quilling
25.
Nonautomatic
26.
"Picking"the completedcloth.
27.
Averageweeklyearningsof all personswho workedat
individualshops, by month and year, 1926–36. •
28.
85
loom.
85
.
.
.
.
86
90
Medianearningsreceivedduring yearfor all workers,
by number of weeks or individual shop pay rolls,
1926–36.
29.
93
.
Percentagedistributionof all personswho workedat
individual shops, by amounts received during year,
1926-38.
95
.
TEXT
TABLES
Table
1.
Numberof shopsand looms,by typeof operation,
1926 and 1936.
21
2.
Number of shops and looms, 1924-36
25
3.
Turn-overof shops,1925-36..
28
4.
Number of shops and looms, by size of shop,
1926 and 1936. .
.
31
CONTENTS
TEXT TABLES -Continued
Table
5.
Page
Industryand occupationimmediatelyprecedingfirst
entry into businessof broad-silkoperators.
.
6.
7.
Numberofyears as broad-silkworkersprecedingfirst
entry into businessas broad-silkoperators.
35
.
Individualinvestmentof operatorsin year of first
entry into business, 1904-38
9.
36
Average number ofwage earners, Paterson, New Jersey,
1899-1935. .
.
10.
12.
Percentage that sample of broad-silk shops and looms
is of total in Paterson, 1926-38 .
57
61
Averagelengthof periodsof separationfrom
79
individual pay rolls, 1928-36.
13.
50
Type of industry attachment to the broad-silk
industry for Patersor.
broad-silkworkers,1926–36
11.
34
Cost of originalmachineryby date of shop opening,
1904-36.
8.
34
Employmentexperienceat individualshops of all
first accessions connected one-half year or less,
82
1926–36. .
14.
Employmentexperienceat individualshops of all
first accessions connected one-half to one year,
83
1926-36. ..
15.
Employmentexperienceat individualshops of all
regular and contingent first accessions connected
over 1 year, 1926-35 .
16.
.
Averageweekly earningsof all personswho workedat
individual
shops,by occupational
groups,
1926-38
17.
TABLES
A-1.
Numberof shops and looms,by size of shop, 1924-36
A-2.
Numberof shops and looms,by type of operation,
Numberof migratingshops and their aggregate
loomage, by type of operation, 1925-38.
A-5.
110
111
1924-38
A-4.
91
96
Employment status of workers, November 1, 1936
APPENDIX
A-3.
83
.
.
112
Average number of looms per shop, by size of shop,
1924-36 .
112
Distribution of 100 small shops in 1938, by type of
operation, 1926-38.
113
CONTENTS
xi
APPENDIX TABLES -Continued
Table
A-6.
Page
Averagenumber of looms per shop, by type of
operation,1924-36..
113
.
A-7.
Productionoftotalbroad goods in the UnitedStates
and New Jersey, 1899-1933 .
114
.
A-8.
Nativity and sex ofworkers in silk mills, 1890-1930
115
A-9.
Nativity, by sex and age of workers, 1936 .
116
A-10. Percentage distribution of workers in silk mills,
by age, 1890-1930 . .
116
A-11. Age of beginning work, by sex and age of workers,
1936.
117
.
A-12.School grade completed,by sex and age of workers,
1936.
118
A-13. Marital status, by sex and age of workers, 1936
A-14. Additional industry attachment of four groups of
broad-silk workers, 1926-36 .
.
118
.
.
.
119
A-15. Location of first job of Paterson broad-silk
workers, by industry of first job and place of
birth ·
119
.
A-16.Shopsin pay-roll
sample,by numberof loomsand
120
type of operation, 1926–36. .
.
A-17.Shops in pay-rollsample,by numberof monthsin
operation,1926–36..
.
O
121
.
122
A-18. Shops in pay-roll sample, by number of months
operatinga night shift,1927-36.
.
A-19. Monthly and yearly index of employment, in
12 identical
shops,1929–36
.
A-20. Ratio of persons on pay roll to average number
required, 1926–36
122
.
123
A-21.Percentage
of personsworkingat individual
shops
who receivedover 1 week of employmentper 2-week
pay period, 1926–38 .
123
.
A-22.Monthlyand yearlylabor turn-overrates of all
workers at individual shops, 1926–36. .
.
124
A-23.Distributionofallpersonswho workedat individual
shops, by number of weeks with work and number of
employment periods, 1926–38
128
A-24. Number of weeks with work and average length of
employmentperiod,by numberofemploymentperiods
for all personswho worked at individualshops,
1926-38
.
132
CONTENTS
xii
APPENDIX TABLES -Continued
Table
Page
A-25. Average number of weeks with work for all persons
who worked at individual shops, by occupational
group, 1928-36.
.
134
A-26. Percentagedistributionof total number of weeks
with work on day and night shift for all persons
who worked at individual shops, by occupational
group, 1928-36. .
135
A-27. Percentagedistributionof all personswho worked
at individualshops, by occupationalgroup and
shift, 1926-36. .
•
136
A-28. Usual industry and occupationofbroad-silk workers,
1936.
137
A-29. Distributionof all first accessions,by lengthof
connection with individual establishment, 1928-36
138
A-30.Distribution
of allfirstaccessions
to the day
shift, by length of connection with individual
establishment, 1926-36. ..
139
A-31. Averageweeklyearningsof all personswho worked
at individual shops, bymonth and year, 1926–38.
A-32. Distributionofallpersonswho worked at individual
shops,byamountsreceivedduring year, 1928-38..
140
141
A-33. Medianearningsreceivedduring year for all
workers,
by number of weeks on individual
pay rolls, 1926-36. .
141
PREFACE
The highlevelsof unemployment
whichhave prevailed
since
1930are justifiably
centering
attention
on the causesand
incidence
of the type of unemployment
that resultsfrom the
completeseparationof a worker from his job. It is , of
.
course,
thistyperatherthanthatresulting
fromshort-term
lay-offsthat most rapidly leads to destitutionand the need
forgovernmental
reliefand otherameliorative
measures.There
is, however,
anotherlargethoughmainlyunmeasured
volumeof
unemployment
thatrepresents
the cumulated
worklessperiodsdue
to frequenttemporary
lay-offs.The amountof such"unemploy
mentwithinemployment"
that workerssufferwhileremaining
associated
withparticular
jobsor whilemovingfromjob to job
reflects,
in part,theeffects
of management
policydesigned
to maintain
a reserve
of laborattached
to the plantor in
dustryand, in part, the fluctuationsin productionthat
characterize
the plantor industry.
Thesepatterns
of employment
and unemployment
differfrom
industry
to industry.For example,
thisProject's
studyof
10-yearwork historiesof machinists,
millwrights,
and tool
makers
in Philadelphial
showedthatduring
theperiod1926-36
halfthemenhadexperienced
no workinterruptions
thatlasted
as long as a month. On analysis,
it was foundthattherewere
nosignificant
differences
in personal
characteristics
between
themenwho hadand thosewhodid nothaveany unemployment.
Therewere,however,
clear-cut
differences
betweenthe two
groupsas to the industries
to whichthe men customarily
looked
for employment.
Sometimes the fluctuations in production and employment
mirror the seasonality with which the raw materials become
available,
as, for instance,
in industries
thatprocessperish
able agricultural
products;sometimesthe seasonalups and
downsrepresentthe responsesto fluctuationsin consumers'de
mand,as in the caseof certaintypesof clothingmanufacture;
thenagain,a methodof handlinga laborforce prevailsin a
plantor industrybecauseit is believed
to providemanagement
witha flexibility
thatreducesits own burdenof costsowing
to intermittency
of operations
(at leastpartof suchcostsare
Helen
Herrmann,len
Yearsof
work
Bxperience
ofPhiladelphia
Machinists
(WPA
NationalResearchProject in cooperationwith industrialResearchDepartment,
University
of Pennsylvania,
ReportNo. P-6.Sept.1938).
xiii
PREFACE
xiv
then borne by the work force in the form of interruptionsof
work and income);the fluctuationsmay also reflectthe effects
of technological
changesin an industryor in one producing
a competing product, the migration of an industry to other
areas,or the exhaustionof a naturalresource.
Thereare many examplesof plantsand industries
that have
succeeded
in changing
theirpatterns
of employment
whenfor one
reasonor anothera changeseemeddesirableor unavoidable.
Moving the date of the annual automobileshow and thereby
shifting
the lullin production
fromwinterto summeron an
industry-wide
basisis probablythe most important
recentin
.
Otherplantsor industries
obtained
relative
stability
stance
of employment
by concentrating
on the production
of a product
witha stabledemandor by diversifying
theirproducts
in such
a fashion that the seasonality of their demand dovetailed
over the year.
Still another effort at the stabilization
of employmentand earningswas describedin this Project's
report on Decasualization
of LongshoreWork in San Francisco.
In this case the occupationand the industryinvolvedwere
regardedas traditionally
incapable
of stabilization;
yet the
planin operation
in San Francisco
seemsto be succeeding.
Always,
theformin whichproduction
is organized
affects
the
stabilityof employment
and the worker'ssecurityon the job.
Conversely,the installation
of measuresdesignedto reduce
intermittency
of workandto provide
security
nearlyalways
callsfor improved
controls
overthe flowof production
and
requires
attention
to plansandformsof organization
thatwill
yieldthedesired
objectives.
The men'sandwomen's
clothing
industries
used to be classicexamplesof chaoticconditions
of productionthat had their counterpartin intermittent
employmentof "sweated"labor whose job tenurewas largely
casual.
It was not until trade-unionismforced attention to
the needfor a measureof stability
thatcollective
bargaining
broughtorder in the productionand employmentstructureof
these industries,involvingthe organizationof jobbers,
manufacturers,
contractors,
and subcontractors
and the fixing
of a hierarchy
of responsibilities
and controlsoverwagesand
methods of distribution of work.
For reasonsthat differfrom those that prevailedin the
needle
trades
30 yearsago,theproduction
methods
thatobtain
in the Patersonbroad-silk
industrytodayhavesimilareffects
2ByMarvel
Keller
(WPANational
Research
Project,
Report
No.1-2.Apr.1939).
PREFACE
on the workers who look to it for a livelihood.
The present
report's
accountof the employment
experiences
of broad-silk
in Paterson
presents
a picture
of an industry
which
in thatcity(1) has beendeclining
for overa decadeowing
tosevere
competition
fromoutside
areasandto a technological
worker
changewhichresultedin a new and competitive
product,
rayon;
(2) has,in the processof adjustment
to the shrinking
demand,
gonethrougha transformation
thatinvolvedthe growthof
commissionoperation,productionand financialcontrol by
converters
andfactors,
highrateof openingand closingof
plantsand migration
to otherlocalities,
and a declinein the
sizeof plants;
and(3) hasforced
itsworkers
to compete
in a
glutted
labormarket
forcasual
jobsat declining
wagesor even
to purchase
a few old loomsin the hopethattheywouldthereby
acquire
a somewhat
sheltered
position
in theirfightfor work.
The insecurity
of the Patersonsilkworkersis perhapsbest
illustrated
by the fact thatwhen, in the attemptto obtain
theirworkhistories,
theinterviewers
engaged
on thisstudy
triedto use a schedulethat defineda job as "workwith one
employer
lastingat least1 month" a definition that was used
successfully
in otherlabormarkets- theyfoundthe schedule
impractical
for a significant
numberof workersbecausethey
hadchanged
theiremployment
status
literally
dozensof times
in thespanof a fewyears.Theprincipal
factors
responsible
for these rapid changes are: That whatever demand there may
be for broad-silkmanufacturingin Patersonconsists,to
a considerable
extent,of smallorderswhich by theirnature
canprovide
employment
for onlyshortperiods;
and thatthe
existingdemand is not directedthroughchannelsthat are
controlled
in the interestof stability
of production
and
employment
but,rather,is diffused
throughnumerous
converters
and commissionmerchantsto reach a market which, at the manu
facturing
stage,
is characterized
by overcapacity,
obsolescence
of equipment,
inability
to planproduction
becauseof the
absence
of control
overproduction,
anda desperate
competition
for ordersto coverat leastpartof the costs.
That under these circumstances
the workersin this once great
silk centershouldbe subjectto widespreadunemployment
of
extendeddurationis of courseto be expectedin the absence
of alternative
employment
opportunities.
In a sample of 578
workerswhoseusualindustrywas broadsilk,30.8 percenthad
no
employmentin the industryin the first 11 months of 1936.
xvi
PREFACE
In part,at least,the laborsupplyof the broad-silk
industry
in Patersonmustbe regarded
as stranded;
but whetherthe
intermittency
of work for thosewhoselabor is still needed
in the industry is to be regardedas a necessaryconsequence
of the industry's
declineis, in the lightof the experience
of otherlabormarkets,
opento seriousquestion.
Thisstudywasmadeon thebasisof plansoutlined
by Irving
Kaplanin his capacityof Associate
Directorof this project.
Thefieldworkwasdoneundertheadministrative
supervision
of
H. PaulDouglass
who was in generalchargeof the fieldworkon
all labor-market
studiesoutsideof Philadelphia.
The immedi
ate directionof the field work was shared by G. RichardOhmes
and JamesE. Wood,who also analyzedthe data and wrotethe
report. The completed
manuscript
was editedand preparedfor
publication
underthesupervision
of Edmund
J. Stone.
A numberof organizations
and individuals
havecontributed
materials,
and our indebtedness
is herewith
gratefully
acknowl
edgedto AbrahamBrenman,counselfor the SilkCommission
Manufacturers'Association,for giving generouslyof his
time to reviewthe situationin Paterson;
to IrvingAbramson,
assistant
regional
director
of theTextile
Workers
Organizing
Committee
of theCongress
of Industrial
Organizations,
andhis
staff, for materialand numerousinterviews;
to HerbertS. Swan,
consultantof the Paterson IndustrialCommission,for aid in
obtaininginformation
on the broad-silk
industryin Paterson
in 1936; to David L. Cole, counselfor the Silk and Rayon
Manufacturers'
Association;
John J. Fitzgerald,
secretaryof
the PatersonChamberof Commerce;
IreneL. Blunt,secretary
of
theNational
FederationofTextiles,
Incorporated,
NewYorkCity,
forhelpin obtaining
information;
to theCrompton
andKnowles
LoomWorks,for data on salesof loomsin New Jersey;to the
DavisonPublishing
Company,for use of corrected
proofsof the
1937 issue of Rayon and Silk Trades; and to the various silk
manufacturers
who permittedtheirrecordsto be used and to
silk workerswho gave theirtime to answeringthe questions
of the interviewers.
The way in whichthe materials
were usedand the conclusions
drawnare, of course,entirelythe responsibility
of the
NationalResearchProject.
DAVID WEINTRAUB
PHILADELPHIA
May 16, 1939
CHAPTER
I
INTRODUCTION
Thecontraction
of employment
opportunities
and the in
creasing
intermittency
andcasualness
of employment
havebeen
long-time
trendsin a numberof industries
and localities.
Developments
of thischaracter
frequently
havearisenfrom
the conditions of interarea competition within an industry
andfromconsequent
overcapacity
in particular
localities.
Segments
of industries
seeking
greater
economic
advantages
have
migratedto new locationsin searchof increasedeconomies
of operation.
Whatever
industry
is leftin theoldlocation
is then oftenfaced with increasingcompetitionfrom other
areasof production
for the existing
demand.
Numerous
examplesfromvariouspartsof the textileindustry
couldbe subsumedunderthe patternindicated.The history of
the broad-silk
industryin Paterson,
New Jersey,has exhibited
For manyyearsit hasbeenlosingitsposition
in theindustry
as millshaveoriginated
in otherareasand
as itsownlargermanufacturers
havemigrated
to thoseareas.
Since
1927itsdecline
hasbeenrapid.In a shrinking
industry
this pattern.
comprised
predominantly
of small,unstableshops,conditions
becameprogressively
worse. Changes
in technology,
whichac
companiedthe declineof the local industry,broughtabouta
furthercontraction
in employment
opportunities.
Greater
instability
in theindustry's
structure
in theformof concerns
constantly
goingintoand out of businessand increasing
fluctuations
in production
accentuated
thecasualand inter
mittenticharacterof employment.
Note.Theauthorwishesto acknowledge
hisindebtedness
to thefollowing
persons:
FrankL. Sweetser,
Jr.who aldedinsecuring
thecooperation
of Paterson
manufac
turersfor the study and supervised
some of the tabulations;
Dr. G. RichardOhmes
whosupervised
thecollection
of the occupational-history
sample;
JackE. Weissman
and Martha
Finemen
who gavevaluableassistance
in thecollection
of fielddata;
David N. Cohenwho supervisedmost of the tabulations
and revisionsof the data,
preparedthe tables,and aidedthe study in otherways;and to other personswho
wereemployed
on thestudyfortechnicaland
interview
work.
"Casual'employment,
asused
inthis
study,
designates
employmentwhich
iscon
tracted
forby thehour,day,or job,suchas theworkor twisters,
loomfixers,
and entererswho go into a shop to preparethe wards for the loomsand to adjust
the looms. The work of a quilleror winderwho is hired to wind a few poundsof
yarn would also be consideredcasual. " Intermittent employment, on the other
hand,applies
to theserviceof
personswho
constitute
"sparehands"or"contingent
workersandwho are hiredto fillordersin the busyperiods.workers on thi
basisarehired,not
foraspecificpieceofwork thatcan be donein a fewhours
or a daybut'foras longas theworklasts."
1
PATERSON
2
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
The purposeof thisstudyis to analyze,againstthe back
groundof the industry's
history,
the employment
experience
of
the Patersonbroad-silkworkersduringthe period1926-36.
Some of the principalquestions
set by this problemwere the
following: What was the backgroundof the workersin the
industry?
As the labor market contracted, what kinds of
adjustmentdid theseworkersmake? How was employmentdis
tributedby the industryand whatwere the resultingpatterns
of employment? To what extentdid earningschange during
the period?
SOURCES
AND
METHODS
To findoutwhatchangesoccurred
in thestructure
of the
industry
andwhatbusiness
methods
werepracticed
duringthe
periodundersurvey,tabulations
were made of data given in
annual issuesof Davison'sRayon and Silk Trades. Yearly
figureson the numberof shopsand loomsin the industry,
the
numberof openingsand closings,and the numberof concerns
migrating
wereobtained
fromthissource.
A schedule
was usedto obtaininformation
on the occupational
and businessbackgrounds
of operatorsof pettyshops and the
characteristics
of theseenterprises.
Thedatawerecollected
in interviews
with the operators
of 100 shopshaving20 looms
or less,which are run in large part by familylabor. The
shops surveyedconstitutedapproximately
50 percentof the
shops of thissize in the industryin 1936 and 25 percentof
all establishments.
Two hundred and twenty-three operators
are represented
in thesample;100 persons
wereinterviewed
who wereat the timeoperating
theirshops,and fromthese
personscertaininformation
was obtained
on 123 additional
operatorswho had been associated
with them when they first
went into broad-silkmanufacturing.
The questionson the schedulecalledfor such data as the
occupational
background
of theproprietor
beforehe entered
business,
the numberof timeshe had enteredand had gone
out of business,why he had gone out of business,the amount
of capitalinvestedin each venture,and the source of his
2Davison
Publishing
Co.,New YorkCity. Tabulations
data in the corrected proofs of the 1937 1ssue.
for 1936 were secured from
INTRODUCTION
3
capital.Although
thisinformation
camefrom the operators
of
thesmallestshopsin the industry,
the findingscharacterize
themajorityof operatorsand establishments
in the Paterson
industry..
A special
sample
of 49 of the150shopsthatclosed
in1936wasinvestigated
byinterview
toascertain
thereasons
forclosing.Thissample
included
establishments
of allsizes.
Pay rolls coveringthe period1926-36were obtainedfrom
22 of theapproximately
400shopsthatmadeup the industry
at theendof 1936. Theperiods
covered
by thepayrollsof
individualshops vary in length. These pay rolls were used
in analyzing
the employment
experience
of the workers.
Tocomplement
pay-roll
data,whichgiveemployment
experience
with only one employer,a randomsamplewas obtainedof the
workhistories
and personal
characteristics
of 616 personswho
were either employed in broad silk in 1935 or whose usual
industry was broad silk. The schedules covered the years
1926-36and calledfor an enumeration
of all periods(lasting
1 month or more) of employment,unemployment,and time not in
the labor market. Certain informationwas collectedon each
periodof a givenstatus. On employment,
for example,related
questions
wereaskedconcerning
the industry,
occupation,
employer,
characterof the employment,
and the reasonfor its
If the respondent
was gainfully
employed
be
fore1926,certainoutlineinformation
on hisworkhistory
termination.
was obtained,especiallythat pertainingto first job and
longestjob.
On the basisof pay-roll
tabulations
and of knowledge
ac
quiredof the labor market,it becameobviousthat the work
historiescould have only a limited use. Employmenthas been
so highly
irregular
in thePaterson
industry
thatmostworkers
couldnot possiblyrecallwithsufficient
accuracyall their
periodsof employment
and unemployment,
the durations
of these
periods,and the other relateddata. As one worker replied in
exasperation
to the questions
of an enumerator,
" In the past11
yearsI haveworkedin morethana hundred
shopsin Paterson."
Similarstatementstellingof an extremelyhigh mobilityare
also to be found in the schedules. This type of experience,
3qhe
schedule
used
(NRPForm420)
wasthesame
asthat
developed
forNational
HesearchProjectstudiesof workhistoriesin otherlabormarkets.
4
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
commonto a majorityof the workersin thismarket,indicates
theimpossibility
of obtaining
a representative
sample
of com
pletework histories
throughthe interview
method. Moreover,
a largeproportion
of the jobsin thislabormarketdo not
last a month,and their enumerationcould not be obtained
under the definitionson which the schedulewas based.
The work-history
portionof the schedulewas therefore
used
only to characterizepatternsof employmentexperiencein
1935and to determine
the employment
statusof workersin
November1936 and the proportion
of workersin the samplewho
hadreceived
no employment
during
thefirst10 months
of 1936.
Schedule
datapertaining
to personal
background
andcharacter
isticswere used to learnthe sourceof the laborsupplyand
the occupational
backgrounds
of the workers.
In additionto the datadiscussed,
the UnitedStatesBureau
of the Census studies on populationand manufacturesand
a numberof othersecondary
sources,including
reportsof
Government
andprivate
agencies,
weredrawnon forthestudy.4
PLAN
OP THE
STUDY
The body of the study is dividedintofour parts. Chapter
II dealswith the principalchangesin the industrybetween
1900and 1936and particularly
withthe rapiddeclineafter
1926.
Production
trends
inPaterson
areanalyzed
with
respect
to the paralleltrendsin the broad-silk
industrynationally.
This is followedby a discussion
of the originand spreadof
the commission
systemsand its effectson the structure
of the
industry.Changesin industrystructureand its concomitant
instability
are consideredfurtherin terms of the decrease
in shops and looms, rates of shop openingsand closings,
shopmigrations,
and the increasing
predominance
of petty
establishments .
The occupationalbackgroundand business
experience
of smallshop operators
are thentakenup with
reference
to their economic status and to the more recent
aspects
of theindustry.
Theeffects
of technological
changes
in the broad-silk
industryon laborrequirements
are briefly
4unless
otherwise
indicated,
thedataanddiscussion
refer
tothebroad-811k
Industryin Paterson,New Jersey.
5
PAsystemunderwhichthemanufacturer
contracts
forworkto be doneon a piece
rate basisfor a middlemanor converter.'
INTRODUCTION
5
summarized.
Employment
trends
in thelocalsilk-manufacturing
industryare then shown with relationto employmenttrends
in all local industry.
Chapter
IIIconsiders
thebackground
of theworkers
- where
theycamefrom,theirage and sex composition,
theirbackground
in the broad-silk industry, and their geographicalmobility
with respect to Paterson: The discussion then turns , in
chapterIV, to the short-run
factorsaffectingthe demandfor
laborand to a demonstration
of the mannerin whichthe labor
supplyis utilized.Variousmeasures
are usedto show howwork
is distributedto the labor force and the patternsof employ
Particular
attention
is givento two general
typesof employment
patterns:that of the minoritywho belong
to the regularlaborforceof plantsand that of the majority
ment that result.
who are casual and intermittentworkers and are highly mobile
in the market. Comparisonsare made of the employmentex
perienceof differentoccupationalgroups and of workers
employed
on different
shifts. Changesin earningsduringthe
period
aretraced,
andtheearnings
received
by workers
while
on any pay roll in each year of the periodare analyzedin
relation
to the amountsof employment
obtained.Finally,the
size of the unabsorbedlabor reservein 1936 is measured.
In thefinalchapterthe studyis summarized,
and an ap
praisal
is madeof the application
of recentsociallegislation
to the needsarisingfromconditions
in thislabormarket.
CHAPTER
II
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY, 1900-1936
DEPINITION
OP
THE
LOCAL
INDUSTRY
Historically,silk weaving has been separatedinto two major
divisions:
broad fabrics and narrow fabrics.
These distinc
tions originatein the types of looms used. Woven labels,
ribbons,hat bands,braids,and othernarrowgoodsare madeon
tie silks,and otherfabrics
narrow looms. Dress,underwear,
are made on broad looms. Today,fabricsless than 24 inches in
widthare classified
as narrowfabrics.1
The terms"broad"and "narrow"with referenceto loomsare
generic.Thereareseveral
different
typeswithin
eachgroup.
Looms in the broad-silkdivision may be classifiedin various
ways- according
to width,numberof boxes,
automaticity,
and
-
otherpossibilities
of performance.
We are hereconcerned
only
withthe classification
of broadloomswith respectto whether
or not they have Jacquardattachments.2This difference in
looms,and all it entails,dividesthe broad-silk
field into
two parts: Jacquards
and plaingoods.3
The industryof interestin this study is the plain-goods
division,also knownas the broad-silk
industry.The latter
designation,
probablyin moregeneraluse and moredescriptive
of thesubjectmatter,willbe usedin thisstudy.5
Icr.
Melvin
T.Copeland
andW.Homer
Turner,
Productionand
Distribution
ofSilk
and RayonBroadGoods(New York: The National Federation of Textiles, Inc., 1935),
D. xlv.
The point of demarcation was 12 inches some years ago, and the Census of
Manufacturessets 11 at 18 inches. cf. Broad-SilkManufactureand the fariff
(washington,
D. C.: U. S. Tariri Commission, 1928), D. 1.
2This
attachment
serves
thepurposes
ofweaving
fabrics
withdesigns
having
curved
lines, such as letters and pictures.
A box loom properly equipped can weave
plalds,herringbones,
and othersuch patternsbut cannotweavecurvedlines.
These two divisionsdifferfrom one anotherin a numberof ways: Jacquard weaving
requiresmore skill and entailscertainauxillaryoperationswhich plain-goods
3
weaving
doesnot;theJacquard
Industry
is muchsmaller
andmorehighlylocalized.
49This
section of silk textilesis sometimesreferredto as "plain goods because
mostof itsproduct
is wovenin thegrey(or greige),
thatis,withundyedyarns.
A small portionof its products,however,consistsof fancyor noveltygoodswoven
with yarn that is dyed priorto weaving.
5
'TheJacquards
division
is usually
referred
to underitsownname. The plain-goods
division,
althoughgenerally
called"broadsilk"by peoplein andaroundthe
industry, also goes by its proper name. For example, the principal local labor
union in the industry is called the "Plain Goods workers Local", and a recent
survey of theindustry by the Paterson Industrial commission 18 titled The
(See HerbertS. Swan, The Plain Goods silk Industry
(Paterson,N. J.: TheIndustrialCommission
of thecityofPaterson,1837).)
Plain Goods Silk Industry.
6
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
IN THE
INDUSTRY
7
The labor market of the shops that weave plain and fancy silk
andrayon®broadgoodsis theonlyoneconsidered
here. The
throwing
branchof silk textiles,which preparesfillingor
weftthread,
and thewarping
andwindingbranch,
whichmakes
warps,
are not included.Theyare important
adjuncts
of the
broad-silk
industry,
but theyalsoperformthesefunctions
for
otherbranchesof silk textiles.
Warping
and
winding
are
.
carriedon in the larger weavingshops as well as in the
divisionspecializingin these processes,but throwingis
generallyconfinedto a separatebranch.
Up to recentyearsthe bulk of the localindustry's
output
consistedof silk goods for the dress trade. However,as
rayons
superseded
silksin thistradeand as Paterson
manu
facturers
continuedto producesilk goods,the localindustry
shifted
to theproduction
of fabrics
for theunderwear
trade,
whichrequiressilk. It was estimatedin 1936 that 75 percent
of the Paterson industry'soutput of silk fabrics,which
constituted
probably
between70 and 80 percentof its pro
duction,
wentintounderwear
manufacturing.?
The restof the
silkfabricsand alsothe rayon,mixed,and noveltygoodswent
intothe manufacture
of dresses,linings,ties,scarves,and
other articles.
POSITION
OF PATERSON
IN THE
BROAD-SILK
INDUSTRY
Paterson
became
thechiefcenter
of broad-silk
andsilk-goods
Production
in the UnitedStatesin the yearsimmediately
followingthe Civil War, when the silk-textile
industrywas
stillin itsearlystages
of development.
Thecitywasat that
timecalledthe "Lyonsof America."Later,it becameknownas
" TheSilk City",a titleit still carriesdespiteits great
loss of positionin the industry.
Broad-silk
productionin Patersonincreasedsteadilyfrom
thetimetheindustry
became
localized
in thecityup to 1927,
exceptfor a brief periodbeginningwith the depressionof
1921 . This trendis shownfrom 1899 to 1931 in figurestaken
fromtheU.s. Censusof Manufactures
(seetableA-7). During
8511kand
rayonyarns
arewoven
inmixtures
aswellas
bythemselves,
andtheyare
sometimes also woven with cotton and wool.
Metal,cellophane,and othernovelty
threads
are alsowoven
in theshops,butonlytoa verysmallextent.
Swan,op.cit.,D. 24.
8418torically,
Paterson
has
manufacturedall
orapreponderance
ofthe
broads11k
producedin New Jersey,the proportion
decliningin more recentyears. According
to a survey made in 1934, Patersonwas creditedwith 19,500ofthe 25,200 looms
(Jacquards
included)
in thestate.Copelandand Turner,op. cit.,D. 21.
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
8
most of its history,however,the local industryhas been
declining
relative
to theindustry
located
outside
the city.
In 1899, 46 percentof all broadsilk (includingJacquard)
manufactured
in the countrycame from New Jersey. With the
exception
of 1919,whena slightreversal
of trendoccurred,
the proportion
of totalproduction
contributed
by New Jersey
decreased
in everycensus
yeardownto 1931.9Between
1919and
1929 the aggregateyardageof broadsilk manufactured
by the
industryincreased
by 93 percent,whilebetween1919and 1927
productionin New Jerseyincreasedby only 17 percent. The
peak year of productionin New Jerseywas reachedin 1927,1
according
to the census,when126,643,000
squareyardsof broad
This was 24.7 percent of
the industry'soutput. From the peakyearto 1931,New Jersey
silk were manufactured in the State.
productiondecreasedby 29.7 percent,to 88,980,000square
yardsor 15.7 percentof total productionof the entire in
dustry.Although
the periodof absolute
decline
in Paterson
was well underway by 1931,this was a relatively
good year.
Subsequently,the downwardtrends proceededmore rapidly
and were not appreciably
retardedby the generalrecovery
after 1932.
Thegrowth
of theindustry
at a fasterratein outside
areas
thanin Paterson
was aidedby the migration
of concerns
from
Paterson.Thismovement,
whichbecameespecially
pronounced
after1913,involvedthe largerplantsin the localindustry.
Since,at thesametime,concerns
comparable
in sizeto the
migrating
firmsdid notenterthe industry
in Paterson,
the
city'sposition
becameincreasingly
unfavorable.
Frequent
strikeshavebeenclaimed
as an important
factor
responsible
for Paterson's
decline. While
the causes
of the
silk industry's
declinein generaland of the declinein
Patersonin particular
do not comewithinthe purviewof this
study, it is well to keep in mind the fact that Paterson's
major labor disputestook place either at a time when the
textileindustries
in a numberof areaswereexperiencing
labor
difficulties
or when thesecurityof jobsin Paterson
was being
threatenedby the industry'sgeneraldeclineand by the in
dustry'smigrationfrom Paterson.
Pproduction
figures
forstates
arenotava1lable
inthecensuses
of1833
and1835.
10the
peak
inshops
andlooms
wasreached
in1926,
and1927
1s,therefore,
con
sidered here as the beginning of the period of absolute decline.
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
IN THE
INDUSTRY
9
A labor movementhas existed in Patersonsince the last
century.
Althoughthis movementwas characterized
until
recentyears by dual unions, membershipsthat fluctuated
greatly,
and an absenceof writtenagreements
and machinery
for
collective
bargaining,
thepro-union
temperof theworkers
has
madepossiblefrequentand protractedstrikes under union
leadership.
In contrast
to thisrelatively
turbulent
history,
therewas either no unionismor very little active unionismin
the other areas until recent years.
Oneof theprincipal
issuesin shopandindustry
strikes
in
Patersonafter 1910 - and the immediatecause of the Great
-
Strike
of 1913- was thequestion
of loomassignments.
While
-
the increaseof loom assignmentswas constantlyopposedin
Paterson,less oppositionexistedelsewhere. Assignments
wereraisedmorerapidlyin otherareasthanin Paterson.11
Automatic
loomswere not introduced
into the local industry
until1935,whereastheywere beinginstalled
in the industry
elsewhere
duringthe entirepost-war
period.
In itscompetition
withotherareasPaterson
hasoccupied
the
positionof a marginalarea of production.This positionis
reflected
by the percentage
changein broad-silk
production
in
each census year over the precedingcensus year for New Jersey
and for the United States from 1904 to 1931. These figures
show(see table A-7) that, with the exceptionof 1919, in,
theyearswhenthe country's
production
increased,
thatof
NewJerseyincreased
by a relatively
smallerproportion
or
actually
decreased
(see figureil. Conversely,
whenthe coun
try'sproductiondecreased,that of New Jerseydecreasedin
12
relatively
largerproportion.
The more favorablepositionof the industryoutside of
Patersonin securingordersis furtherdemonstrated
by the fact
that concernshavingplantsin Patersonand elsewherehave
11Early
inthe
1920's
Patersonmanufacturers
maintained,"It18
Impossible
onthe
two-loom
systemtoproducethe plain,80-called'breadand butter'
fabricsin
competition
withthe multiple
loomsystemin Pennsylvania."
Regional
Surveyof
New York and Its Environs, vol.IB, "Food, clothing and Textile Industries,
Wholesale
Marketsand
Retail
Shoppingand
Financial
Districts"
(NewYork: Commit
tee on RegionalPlan of New Yorkand Its Environs,1928)," TheclothingandTextile
Industries,"
p. 92.
12
Paterson's
unfavorable
position
withrespect
to Pennsylvania,
whichbecamethe
leadingproducerof silkgoods before the war, was commentedon ina report pub
lishedby the Tariffcommissionin 1928. It was observed that "the latter hall or
thatyear
(1914)wasoneofdepression,and
in timeofdepressionNew
Jersey
production
ordinarilysurfers greater curtallmentthan does that of
Pennsylvania. The fact that1921 was a year of depressionalso explainsthe
abnormalincreasein Pennsylvania's
share of total production
from 1919 to 1921."
U. S. TarifiCommission,
op. cit.,D. 45.
PATERSON
10
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
Pigure1.- PERCENTAGE
CHANGEOVERPRECEDING
CENSUSYEAR
IN PRODUCTION OF TOTAL BROAD GOODS IN THE
UNITED STATES AND NEW JERSEY,
1921-81
PERCENT
-40
UNITED STATES
NEW
JERSEY
30
+20
+10
o
-10
-20
-30
1921
'23
25
27
BASEDON TABLEA-7
*29
31
WPA - NATIONAL ACACANCNPROJECT
6-10
Most
favored
theiroutside
plants
in allocating
production.13
frequently,
the establishment
of outsidemillsby thesefirms
has occurredaftera periodof operating
a mill in Paterson.
Duringthe period1926–36,mostof the companieshavingplants
both in Paterson and elsewhereclosed their Paterson plants.
Twenty-four
concernslocatedin the city in 1926 had 38 plants
outside
thecity. In 1936,however,
onlyfourconcerns
in the
cityhadsevenplantselsewhere.14
Early in the post-war period broad silk and silk textiles
generallybecamea "sick" industry,characterized
by over
production
and excesscapacity. Instabilityin the industry,
13settlement
ofa recent
dispute
between
theunions
inPatersonand
a firmwitha
plantin Pennsylvania
turnedin parton the question
of howmuchproduction
the
employerwouldagree to allocateto his Patersonshop.
14Tabulated
from
annal1ssues
ofDavison's
Rayonand
Silk
Irades
(NewYork:
DavisonPublishing
Co.).
15since
thewarthere
hasbeenmuch
discussion
oftheneed
forstabilizing
the
Industry. In Paterson,
groupsof manufacturers
proposedat differenttimestoshut
down theirplantstowipe out surplusstocks. (See "SilkMills to close to Force
Price Rise, New York Times,July 29, 1926, D. 21 and " PatersonSilk Mills Adopt
Four-DayWeek,"New YorkTimes,November1, 1929, p. 44.) In 1932 Mr. Jacob Widder
of the Silk Association
of Americaproposedto PresidentHoovera plan for stab1
11zingthe industry.This plancalledfor pricestabilization
to be broughtabout,
in part, by limiting production.
Mr. Widder also suggested a dictator for
the industry. ("PresidentHoover,SecretaryLamont,Consider$ilk Industry's
Problems,'
Textile
World,
Vol.LXXXI,
No.14 (Apr.2, 1932),p.40.)
All machinery
working,under
thesilkTextileCodewas orderedstoppedbetween
May 14 and21, 1934(duringtheNationalRecovery
Administration
period)to
relievethe marketof surplusstocks. ("Machine
Holiday,"BusinessWeek,May 12,
1934,D. 26.) Complaints
of overproduction
in the broad-311k Industrywere
current
in 1937.
(cr. SilkandRayonDigest,
Vol.XXXII,
No.10(Mar.8,1837),
D. 9.)
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
IN THE
INDUSTRY
11
which
became
greater
withthedepression,
gaveaddedencourage
mentto manufacturers
to findlocalities
whichofferedthe most
favorable
conditions
foroperation.
Wherecities
wereattempt
ingto attractoutsideconcerns,theseconditions
frequently
included various forms of subsidy. Concerns continued to
leavePaterson,and the industrythat remainedwas facedwith
increasing
interarea
competition.
A furthersignificant
aspectof Paterson's
unfavorable
positionmay be shown by comparingtrends in the types of
production in the local industry and in outside areas.
The
production
beganto
proportion
of all-silk
goodsin national
woven
with
silk
decline
after1921,givingplaceto fabrics
in mixtureswith other yarns(see table A-7). From around
rapidly.Of the
of rayonsincreased
1926on, the production
in 1929,11.1percent
totalproduction
broad-silk
industry's
of all-rayon
fabrics,18
but by 1933the proportion
consisted
50 percent.Duringthesameyears
hadrisento approximately
the proportionof all-silkgoodsfell from 71 to 36 percent,
and yardagedecreasedmore than50 percent.While this shift
in the broad-silk
industry,
a rayon-weaving
was occurring
as an offshootof the cotton-textiles
industry
was developing
the yardage
of all-silk
goodsincreased
industry.Although
slightly
between
1933and1935,in thelatteryeartheycon
stituted
only23.6percent
of totalproduction,
whileall-rayon
fabricswere 72.0percent.17Silk and rayon mixtures,of
production.
of theindustry's
course,
madeup theremainder
In contrastto thesechangesin national
production,
Paterson
has continuedto manufacture
principally
for the silk-goods
market . From 1919 to 1931, with the exceptionof 1927 and
1929, the proportionof all-silkgoods in New Jersey'sproduc
tionwas morethan80 percent.Thereprobablyhas beensome
increase
in rayonproduction
in Paterson
since1931,butat the
end of 1936,74 percent
of the loomswereweavingall-silk,
10production
figures
onall-rayon
fabrics
were
notgiven
separately
inthe0.s.
CensusofManufactures
until
1929.
17Production
data
on811kand
rayonmanufacturingwere
compiled
separately
inthe
1935 census. Data on rayon productionin the broad-s11kIndustry were combined
with those for the rayon-Weaving
industry. Total broad-silkand rayon production
in 1936was1,012,997,346
squareyards(exclusive
of tapestries
and dilesilks).
Thisfigure,
on whichthepercentages
of all-811kand
all-rayon
goodsarebased,
18 notcomparable
withtotalproduction
figuresfor the broad
-s11kIndustry
in
previous years.
12
PATERSON
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
14.5 percentrayon,and 11.5 percentmixedgoods.18 As a re
sult of continuing
to producemainlysilk fabrics,despitethe
decreaseddemand for these fabricsand the large shift to
rayonmanufacture,
Paterson
hasbeenbrought
intoincreasingly
severe
competition
withotherareasin a declining
market.
The failureof Patersonin recent yearsto followthe na
tionaltrendandshiftthe largerpartof its production
to
rayonswas at leastpartlydue to a lackof capitalin the
handsof the concerns
stillin Paterson
to makethenecessary
changes
in machinery.
Withminoradjustments,
loomsandother
machines
can be usedinterchangeably
on silkandrayon.For
greaterefficiency,
however,higher-speed,
automaticmachines
are requiredto weaverayon,or considerable
renovationmust
be madein the oldertypesof equipment.Rayonis heavierthan
silk, has more uniformity,
and is more adaptablethansilk to
automaticprocesses. Besidesbeing adaptableto automatic
looms,rayoncan be warpedon high-speed
warpingmachines.
WPA - National Research project(Hines
FIGURE2.- TYPE OF AUTOMATICLOOM USEDCHIEFLYTO WEAVERAYON
The magazine
(at right)is filledwithfullquills,one of whichdrops
automatically
into the shuttle
whenthe yarnon thequillin usebecomes
exhausted
and it is ejected.
18swan,
op.
cit.,p.
14.Only200
100ms
inNewJerseywere
reportedunderthe
Code for the Rayon Weaving Industryin 1934, and none of thesewere in Paterson
(Copeland
and Turner,
op.cit.,D.21).
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
IN THE
INDUSTRY
13
Thisequipment
is expensive.To placethe oldertypesof looms
on a competitivebasiswith the automaticloom requiresthe
installationof large shuttle boxes and other incidental
changesat a cost of $50 or more per loom. The impoverished
condition
of mostof the localconcerns
in recentyearshas
placedsuch investmentsfar beyond their reach. Althoughthe
equipmentin the localindustryis efficientfor the weaving
of silk, changes in the demand for fabrics have narrowed
the marketand, in a sense, have made most of the existing
>
equipmentobsolete.
Despiteall adverseconditions,
a shrinkingbroad-silkin
dustrycontinues
to existin Paterson.This is due to a number
of reasons .
Mostimportant
is thefactthatPaterson
offers
a reserveof skilledlaborand equipment. An idle shop, for
example,can start up on short notice and, if necessary,
operate
24 hoursa day. Thiscondition
satisfies
therequire
ments of rush-order business. Moreover, Paterson workers
havethe reputation
of beingthe mostskilled,
and,largely
as a resultof thisfact,thelocalindustry
secures
muchof
the specialtywork.19 There is, in addition,the advantage
of beingadjacentto the dyeingand finishingindustryand to
NewYorkCity,whichmakespossible
moredirectcontacts
and
is a factorin reducingthe time requiredfor deliveryof raw
and finishedgoods.
In the event that rayonshould becomewidely used in the
underwear field and Paterson manufacturersshould be finan
ciallyunableto makethe necessary
changesin theirequipment
fortheefficient
weaving
of rayon,
theindustry
wouldprobably
be leftwith onlyspecialty
work.
The industryin Patersonexpandeduntil1927 despitethe
effects of the adverse conditions that have been described.
Entering
the periodof absolutedeclinein thatyear,the
industry's
structurebeganto contractrapidly,and with it
An
18historically,
wage
rates
inPaterson
have
been
higher
than
inother
areas.
agreementmade by the employersand the unionsin 1933 called for the maintenance
of a 5-percentdifferential
in wage rates over competingareas. Dirferentials in
averagehourly earningsfavorableto Patersonare shown in surveys made by the
U. S. Departmentof Labor,BureauofLabor Statisticsin 1914,1931,and 1934. See
the following reports: Wagesand Hours of Labor in the Cotton,Woolen,and silk
Industries,
1907to1914(Bull.No.190,May1918);WagesandHoursof Laborinthe
Manufacture
of silkand RayonGoods: 1931 (Bull. No. 568, Nov. 1932); and
A. F. Hinrichs,
"Wagesand Earningsin the silk and RayonIndustry,1933 and 1834,"
Monthly
laborReview,
Vol.40,No.8 (June1935).
14
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
the opportunities
for employment.Even before the onset of
this declinethe industrywas unstable,and as the decline
progressedthis instabilityincreased.
Structural
changeand instability
in the industry,
both
beforeand after1926, are the subjectof the next six sub
sections of this chapter. The first three of these discuss
commissionoperation,
which has beenso closelyinterrelated
withthe principal
changesand conditions
in the industry
since
the war,especially
in recentyears.
STRUCTURAL
CHANGES
The Nature of Commission
AND INSTABILITY
IN THE INDUSTRY
Operation
Since 1930 commissionoperationhas been the predominant
method of operation in the industry in Paterson. The wide
spread establishmentof this system in the local industry
has had a very considerableinfluenceon the structureof
the industryand also on the volume, flow, and incidence
of production.
Before the advent of commissionoperationthe silk mills in
Paterson
operated
as independents
or, as frequently
called,
stock-carrying
or direct-selling
mills. They purchasedraw
yarnand yarnpartlyprepared
forweaving,
woveit,andhadit
>
finished. Many of them producedfor stock or inventory.If
theydidn'tdo theirown marketing,
selling
directly
to the
needletradesor wholesalers,
theyconsigned
goodsto commis
sion agentsto do it for them. Smallmanufacturers
frequently
carriedpiecesof clothto NewYork,15 milesaway,and mar
ketedthemdirectly.Althoughindependent
millsreceivedthe
conventional
types of businessfinancingas contrastedwith
concernsoperating
on commission,
it may be saidthatthey
assumedthe usualbusinessrisksand had a large measureof
autonomyover their own production.
The introduction
of commission
weaving
brought
a distinctly
different
formof operation.
Underthissystemthe manufac
turerhas littlecontrolover his production.He supplies no
marketsdirectly. He is dependenton a small group of con
vertersbothfor materials
and orders,and he is placedin the
position
of bidding,
alongwithotheroperators,
for workwhich
the converter
may placeas he seesfit.
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
IN THE
INDUSTRY
15
Converter
functions
embrace,
in part,
"thebusiness
of owning
unfinished
or greigegoods for the purposeof havingsame
processed
for one'sownaccount,havingsame bleached,
dyed,or
printed,
and subsequently
sellingsame to the jobbing,
cutting,
or retail trade. 1120
In addition
to buying,processing,
and
selling
the productof independent
manufacturers,
the converter
maysupply materialsand specifications
to plant operators
and have fabrics woven on their own account on a contract
or commission basis.
of output.
A contractedrate is paid per yard
Underthis arrangement
the converterpurchasesraw silk or
otheryarn and has part of it thrown,that is, twistedand
tinted,21
on commission.
He may, on the other hand, buy yarn
thuspreparedfrom the throwster.This is delivered to the
commission weaver who winds it on quills for insertion in
shuttles.
If thisoperatorhas warpingand windingmachines,
yarnis turnedoverto him by the converterto be madeup into
Most of the pettyshops in Patersondo not havethese
machines.In the absenceof thisequipment
warpsare supplied
by converters
who operatetheirown shops,buy themfromwarp
warps .
22
ingand winding
concerns,
or havethemmadeon commission.2
The latter is the common method. When weaving is in progress,
>
piecesof cloth,usually70 or 80 yardsin length,are cut off
the roll on the loom every few days and are turned over to the
converter.
If the fabricsmeetspecifications
and paymentis
received,the weaver has no further interestin them.
The con
vertermay sell theclothas it comesfromthe weavingshop,or
haveit dyedand finished,
on commission,
and thensell it.
2Oncodeor
FairCompetition
forthe
silkTextile
Industry,"
codes
ofPair
Competi
tion,Nos
. 1-57(National
Recovery
Administration,
1933),Vol.1, "June16 to
October 11, 1933,. DD. 591-2.
Beforethe war most broad goodswere yarn-dyed.With this methoddyeing precedes
weaving
Patternsand colors are determined,and the skeins are dyed and then
woven. The coming of piece dyeing changed this order; fabrics were woven in the
grey (with raw silk) and dyed, printed,and finishedafterward. The converter
assumedthe functionof takingthe wovengoodsthroughtheseprocesses,
providing
a
market for manufacturers who wanted to dispose of their goods as soon as they were
woven.
Dyeingand finishingunder thesecircumstances
became closelyrelatedto
marketing. By 1920 two-thirdsof all broad goods were woven in the grey, and
since that time the proportion has increased.
21.
Raw silk comes from the filatures only slightly twisted. In the throwing
process,usuallycarriedon outsideof weavingm1lls,the we t or fillingthreads
are given so many turns to the inch and the number of deniers or strands is
increased,
accordingto thetypeof yarndesired.Tintingis requiredin order
that the directionof the twist may be readilyidentifiedwhen feedingthe loom
with quills or filling yarn. Most fabricconstructionsrequire twists in some
alternating sequence. Tarreta,in which the fill-twistis in one direction,is
an exception.
22the
lackofcapital
topurchase
machinery
required
formaking
warps
hasthus
resulted,
to theextentimplied,
in a furtherdisintegration
of processes.
PATERSON
16
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
Commission
operation
is a methodby whichenterprisers
with
littleor no workingcapitalbut with ownershipof, or some
equity in, fixed capital(machineryand, in a few cases,
buildings)may operate. All workingcapitalin the form of
materials,
excepta negligible
amountof millsupplies,
is
The operator
providesthe plantand
provided
by theconverter.
biweekly
payments
fromtheconverter
on the
labor. He receives
basisof yardagedelivered.Out of these payments he has to
meettheoperating
costsof labor,
rent,power,
andupkeep.He
may also have to make paymentson the purchaseprice of equip
ment and on debts resultingfrom previousfailureto settle
operatingexpenses.
The relationship
of the operator
to the converter
is peculiar
in thesensethatthe operator
worksfor the converter
and yet,
withinthe sphereof his own plant,worksfor himself. The
converter
takesno responsibility
for the prosecution
of work
and the standards of work in the shop. In fact, converters
seldom,if ever,enter the placeswhere theirwork is being
carried
on.
Theoperator
goesto theconverter,
or elsethey
meet on the streets around the City Hall - humorouslyreferred
to higgleover weavingrates.
to as " The Curb".
A largeportion
of theoperators
evidently
taketheworkof
one converterexclusively
over a periodof a year or longer.
According
to information
obtainedon 74 commission
shops,
in thesampleof 100 concernshaving20 loomsor less(see
page33),41 operators
workedfor onlyi converter
in 1936,
21 worked for 2, and the remaining12 workedfor more than 3 to
as many as 6 converters.
The longesttime spent with any
converterby most shops was 3 years.
Unlessthe converterhas sufficient
capitalto finance
himself,he purchases
raw silk and otheryarnand wovengoods
on time by means of trade acceptances or other trade paper
drawn againsthim. In sellinggoods to jobbersand to the
cutting-up
or needle
trades
in NewYork,he receives
negotiable
paper that ordinarilyhas a 60- or 70-day maturity date.
In
order to continue with their commitments the converters in
Paterson,who are small as comparedwith those in New York,
must be able to discountthe paper receivedfrom sales;and
sales. Guaranty
they must have assuranceagainstlosseson sales.
againstloss is obtainedby insuringaccounts. With a high
>
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY
17
frequency
of failure
in thegarment
industry
in recentyears
ithasbecome
increasingly
necessary
to insure
accounts.23
As a resultof lossessustainedon defaultedaccountsand
because
of the necessity
of obtaining
tradepaperthatcan be
promptly
discounted,some convertershave had to resortto
thefactor.24The factor makes advances on sales and inves
tigates
and insuresaccounts.Because of the relativelyhigh
costof theseservices,convertersand manufacturers
try to
avoidbeing factored. The statement is heard in the trade
1125
that"factoring
is a lastresort.
Onlya veryfew of the independent
millsin Paterson
are
factored.26In other respects,however,they financethem
selvesin the same way the converterdoes, by discountingtrade
paperand havingsuch paperdrawnagainstthem.
Theconverter
thusrepresents
a commercial-financial
groupto
whichcommission
operators
mustlookfor work. In addition,he
provides
an outletfor the goodsof the independent
manufac
turers.
In these positions,especiallyin the former,the
converter
is ableto exercisea largemeasureof controlover
pricesand production.He constitutes
a bottleneckthrough
whichordersare placedand goodsflowto the market.The
locusof control is New York City, where perhaps80 percentof
the country'ssilk- and rayon-wovengoods are marketedand
wheretheconverting
concerns
thatplacemostof theworkin
Patersonare located. With the shiftto commission
operation
in recentyears,the localindustryhas becomean industrial
appendage
of the commercial
and financialgroupsthatsupply
capital
andprovide
markets.
Effects of Converter Control
The existenceof overcapacityand surplus labor in the
industry,
evenin the busiest
months,
createsa converters'
marketin the contractingof work. Consequently,
thereis
23,
This18moreimperative
inthedress-goods
field
thaninunderwear.
A change in
fashion
mey greatly
reducethevalueofastockof dresses
withinashortperiod.
Underwear,
however,is more of a staple.
24
One converter
in Paterson
claimsto havelost50 percent
of hisworkingcapital
Inthe last2years,principally
asa resultofdefaultedaccounts.
To protect his
remeining
capital
he now(1838)
factored.
25
In order to obtain the services of a factor the client must contract to have the
factorhandlemost of his business.
28thelarge
New
York
factoringhousesdonotwantclientswhodonot
minimum
or around$200,000to$250,000or businessannually.
PATERSON
18
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
sharpcompetition
amongcommission
operators
to secureorders,
andtheconverters
occupy
a strategic
position.
About25 converting
concerns
weregivingout workin Paterson
in 1936,according
to informed
sources.Of
these, 11 were
locatedin New YorkCityand 14 in Paterson.The largestfirm
in the Patersongroup,whichhad its mainofficein New York,
at times had work in process in as many as 40 shops with an
aggregate of over 1,000 looms. Nine converting
companiesin
Paterson
alsohadweaving
shops,
and8 of the14 localconcerns
supplied
theircommission
weaverswithwarpsfromtheirown
warpingand windingplants. The bulk of the contracting-out
business in Paterson was in the hands of the New York con
verters,
the Paterson
converters
representing
muchsmaller
concerns.
27
These few converters,throughthe methodof findingthe
lowestbidder,decidehow workshallbe allocatedand,within
thelimits
of availability,
in whatquantities.
Theconverters
are not limitedto Paterson
in contracting
work;theycan place
orderswhereverthere are manufacturers
who do commissionwork.
Whethera pieceof workis or is not placedin Paterson
affects
theproduction
levelof thelocalindustry
and,therefore,
the
volume
of employment.
Larger
orders,
unless
it is feasible
to
break them up, cannot be placedwith small shops. Many of
theseshops do not, moreover,have the equipmentto handle
fancyconstructions,
althoughsuch fabricscomprisea rela
tivelysmallportionof totaloutput.
Most of the fabricswovenin Patersonare of standardcon
struction,
and in any particular
periodtheyare identified
with specific"prevailing"
rates. Operators,however,have
not beenin a position
to maintain
or raiseany levelof rates.
With equipmentbareof materialor withwork runningout
and no orderscontracted;
with the necessityof meetingthe
fixedcostsof a plant,withsmallreservesor no reservesat
all; and with the need for earninga living- many commis
sion weaversare willingto do work for less.28 The reason
ing has been expressed," If I don't take the job at this
price someone else will and I need it." As one converter has
27
These data on convertingconcernswere collectedby a member of the NRP Field
Survey staff who had been a silk worker in Paterson for a number of years.
28 'Owing to the ultimete lack of control over working conditions, the unions have
come to realize that commission-shop operators frequently are not able to carry out
agreements made with them.
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
IN THE
INDUSTRY
19
testified
on the predicament
of commission
operators,
"Someof
thecommissionweaverscome in and actuallybeg for work.
They
askforit at anyprice."Particularlydoes this describe
thesituation
in thelastpartof 1936. Theseriousness
of
conditions
in that year is reflectedin the formationby
commission
weaversof the Silk CommissionManufacturers'
Association.
Its purposewas to raiseand stabilize
rates. A
stoppage
against
theconverters
in August
waspartlysuccess
fu1.29Subsequent
stoppages
havebeenheldagainstcertain
converters on certain fabric constructions.
.
Vigilance has
beenrequiredto see that membersdid not operateduring
suchperiods,
andcertain
restraints,
suchas thesmashing
of
warps,30 have been threatened.
However, the association has
notbeensuccessful
in maintaining
its gains.
Controlover givingout work or withholding
it affectsthe
incidence
of production
and employment.
Indeed,
suchpower
candetermine
whetheran operator
shallor shallnotremainin
business. As seen by Mr. HerbertS. Swan,Consultant
of the
Paterson
Industrial
Commission,
theconverter
"constitutes
a
the con
sort of Frankenstein to the silk industry;
verter may, if he chooses, say which mill is or is not to
remain in business."31 Disagreements
betweena weaverand a
converter
sometimesarise over qualityand yardage. Unless
theseare settledamicably,
the weavermay haveto findanother
converter. If he is not able to do so, he is squeezedout of
business.Whilean orderis beingmanufactured,
the priceof
thefabricmay drop. Whenthisoccurstheconverter
ordinarily
asks for a reduction in rates.
Thecontract
is usually
verbal
and very flexible. If the operator
refuses,the converteris
likely
to withhold
furtherdelivery
of fillingand theshop
soon becomes idle.
The convertermay also exert control over
theoperatorby holdingthe operator's
insurance
policy,mort
gage,or the bill of sale on his machinery. Aside from any
discrimination
on the part of the converter,an unevendis
tributionof availableordersin slack times,resultingin some
shopsbeingwithout
workor withtoo littlework,can drive
>
concerns out of business.
29.
See "Fiftyshops settle in silk-LoomStrike,"New York Times,August4, 1936,
D. 10.
30,
cuttingor otherwise
severingthe ward threadsin the loom,makingit impossible
to resumeweaving
untilthethread
endshavebeenrejoined.
31
Swan, op. cit.,p. 33.
PATERSON
20
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
As commission
weaversare not in a positionto producefor
stockor order,theyhaveno controlovertheirproduction
schedules. These are determinedfor them by the converters.
The mannerin which contractsare securedfrom this source
evidently
has in itselfconsiderable
influence
on the movement
of production.Commission
operators
musttakework when they
can get it.
.
The low rate of return and the necessity of
pushingwork so as to be in positionto competefor new work
encourage
longhoursand extrashiftswherethe latterare not
prohibitive
in termsof increased
overhead.If new contracts
are notimmediately
forthcoming
fromtheconverters,
commission
shops cannot operate. Converters place or do not place work
accordingto stock on handand the prospectsof the market.
Likewise,they do not purchasecloth from the independents
unlessconditions
are sufficiently
promising.The inability
of theconverters,
froma business
standpoint,
to maintain
a
continuityof work helpsto set a spasmodicpatternof pro
duction for the shops. And the conditionof overcapacity
accentuates
this pattern. Independent
operatorsare more or
lessdependent
on the same highlysensitive
market,but having
outlets
otherthantheconverter,
theyare in a position
to
regularizetheir productionto some extent.
Origin and Extension
of Commission
Operation
The introduction
of commission
weavinginto Patersonbegan
during
theWorldWar,coincidentally32
withtheunprecedented
multiplication
of pettyshopsin the industry.The larger
millsthatwere unableto accommodate
all theirorders,turned
part of theirwork over to smallweavingconcernsthat were
willingto weave on commission. Jobbersand other personswith
experience
in thetradealsotooktheopportunity
to placework
on commission.Oncethispractice
was established,
anyonewho
couldsecureequipment
and get it installed
was ableto bid for
orders. In 1915only5 localestablishments
(2 percentof the
totalin Paterson)
were operating
on commission;
but in 1920,
146 shops(29.6 percentof the total)were workingunderthis
arrangement.33
Accordingto one report,of the 252 plants
32on
theoriginof
commission
weaving,
seeA.K.Baker,
The Growth
ofCommission
Weaving, American
SilkJournal,Vol.XL,No.7 (July1921),pp.73-4;also,
WilliamM.Poz,"Commission
Weaving,"BetterWaists,April1920,pp. 26-9.
33.
Data derivedfrom Davison's
Rayonand silkfrades.
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
IN THE
INDUSTRY
21
operating
on commission
in 1919,nonehadmorethan32 looms
and55.2 percent had fewer than 20.34
Only16.7 percentof the industry's
totalloomagewas re
ported
workingon commission
in 1926,and thisloomageac
countedfor 30.4 percent of all establishments. The larger
concerns,
with 77.5 percentof totalloomageand 59.0 percent
of all shops,were operatingas independents.A small group
of commission-independent
concernsand those not specifying
theirtypeof operation
accounted
for 5.8 percentof total
loomage
and10.6percent
of shops
(seefigure
3 andtableil.
Table 1.- NUMBER OF SHOPS AND LOOMS, BY TYPE OF OPERATION,
1926 AND 19868
Looms
(thousands )
Shops
Type of
1936
1926
1928
1936
operation
Total
Commission
ber
Per
cent
687
100.0
390
30.4
224
209
Independent| 405
Commission
Num
ber
Per
cent
Num
ber
100.0
22.2 100.0
57.4
59.0
99
25.4
10.6
67
17.2
3.7
17.2
Per
cent
16.7
77.5
NumNum Per
centber
11.1
5.0
100.0
4.3
45.1
38.7
1.8
16.2
and inde
pendent
plus not
specified
73
1.3
5.8
aData
fromtable
A-2.
By 1936 most of the industrywas workingon commission.
Commission
shopsrepresented
45.1percent
of totalloomage
and
57.4 percentof totalestablishments;
independents
accounted
for38.7percent
of loomage
and25.4percent
of establishments;
and the mixedand unspecified
groupsincluded16.2 percentof
the loomsand 17.2 percentof the shops. Actually,
the rela
tive extensionof commission
weavingwas much greaterthan is
here indicated.
In the same year the PatersonIndustrial
Commission
foundthat69.6percentof all shopswereworkingon
34
*Contractwork in the Paterson,N. J., Silk Industry,"MonthlyLabor Review,
Vol.29.No.2 (Aug.1929),
D.8.
N
O
I
6
R
T
e
8
E
A
S
r
B
R
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A-2
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY
23
commission,
26.7percenton accountor as independents,
and the
method
usedby 3.7percent
wasunknown.36
In the entire country,14,967 looms, or 16.2 percent of the
92,355loomsreporting
to the SilkTextileCode in 1934,were
operatingon commission. Of the 47,728rayonloomsunderthe
RayonCode, however,only 501 looms,or i percent,worked under
thisarrangement.36
Despite
thisrelatively
smallproportion
of loomstakingworkfromconverters,
it is estimated
that in
1934" about40 per cent of the totalbroad goodsproduction
The proportion
(was)fromthistypeof operation."37
of allbroad-silk
and rayonproduction
handledby converters
in
1938is estimated,by informedpersonsin the tradein New
York,to be 70 percentor more. The rest is marketed by the
manufacturers
themselves,
manyof whomare factored.
>
.
The extension of the commission system in Paterson and
elsewherewas due to certainof the adverseconditionsaffect
ingtheindustry
at large.Repercussions
on thesmalllocal
shopswere especiallysevere. Even beforethe depression
independent
concerns
wereattempting
to maintain
theirstatus.
In theface of competition
and priceinstability
thefinancial
position
of thoseremaining
in business
in Paterson
weakened.
From1930on,manyof theseshifted
to commission
work. It is
significant
that 20.7 percentof the loomsand 21.5 percent
of theshopswerein thatyearclassified
in the mixedand
ui
ecifiedgroup,whereasin the yearpreviousthesefigures
hadbeen6.0and7.3percent
respectively.
Itappears
evident
thatmostof thisgroupwas in doubtas to its business
status
in 1930.Subsequently
theproportion
ofcommission
concerns
increased
rapidly
(seetableA-2andfigure
3).
The pronounced
shiftsince1930was due to numerousliquida
tions
ofboththeworking
andthefixed
capitalof
independents,
35.
Swan, op. cit., d. 15.
As it appears11kelythat fromabout1930 on most of the
concernsin the mixed and unspecifiedgroup in the Davison enumerationswere
Operatingon commission,
the proportions
of shopsandloomsrepresented
in this
group
in1936may be addedto those
representedby
thecommission
operators.
The
total is 73.3 percent. This figureindicatestheextent to which the industrywas
actuallyworkingoncommissionin
thatyearand
approximatesthe
figure
givenin
the commission's survey. In 1936, 74 of the 100 shops in the sample referred to on
D.33 were workingon commission,and 9 were working both on commissionand as
Independents
(see tableA -5).
Loomageof operatorsreportingunder
38copelandand
Turner,
op.cit.,
pp.
10-1.
both codeswas countedunderthe silk code.
371bid.,
D. 18. Theestimate
alsoincludes
Jacquard
broadsilksandrayons.The
wide differencebetweenthe proportionof looms operatingon commissionand the
proportionof broad goods producedon comm1981onmust be accountedfor mainlyby
the fact that some of the concernsthat ordinarilyoperateas independents
also
worked on commission.
PATERSON
24
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
largelyas a resultof the unusuallysharp fluctuationsin
raw-silkprices. The priceof raw silk had been undergoing
a seculardeclineaccompanied
by constantfluctuations
since
around1920. From1929through
1931thefrequency
of these
downward fluctuationsincreased. Small operators had no way
of protectingthemselvesagainstrapid pricechanges. The
value of silk on the looms would drop before it could be woven
andmarketed
- ina market
wherepricecutting
wasprevalent.38
This protracted
condition
occasioned
a largenumberof losses
and liquidations,
particularly
amongthe independents.
A few
were able to absorb or avoid losses and to continue as inde
pendents.The comparatively
heavylossessustainedby others
madecontinuation
as independents
impossible.Theironly
alternativewas to turn to commission work, as did one small
11
a few
operatorwith 40 looms,who tells of losing
thousanddollarsin just a short time all I had. But I
settledmy debtsand startedall over again on commission."
.
.
Lackingworkingcapital,
mostof the operators
entering
or
reenteringbusinessin recentyears have necessarily
had to
work on commission.
In Patersonthe commission
systemoriginated
in a periodof
prosperity,
but its largestgrowthoccurred
in a periodof
decline.
Providing
workingcapitalto anyonewho can secure
a shop but withoutgivingany guaranteeof sufficientwork,
the commissionsystem has been one of the factorslargely
responsiblefor shop openingsand closings one aspect of
instabilityin the industry'sstructure.
Disappearance
of Shop.39undStructural
laotability
In 1926 there were 687 shops operatingin the broad-silk
industry
in Paterson
withan aggregate
loomage
of 22,200.40
By 1936 totalloomagehaddecreased
to 11,10041
and total
38.Price
cutting
hasbeenprevalent.
The fluctuationof raw silk prices
was also a disturbing factor. Though their rise and fall was within a more
reasonable
range than during1929-30,raw silk pricesfailedto reacha pointof
SecondNid-learReport(New York: The Silk
stabilization." Statistics:ThirtyAssociation
of America,Inc.,1931),D. 4.
39The
concerns
intheindustryare
usuallyreferred
tointheindustryand
inthis
The term
study as "shops , althoughthey are also called mills" and plants."
"shops"
is intended
to denotea smallunitandis mostapplicable
to a majority
of
the concerns in the local industry.
40Data
inthisandsubsequent
sections
onshops,
looms,
andtypes
ofoperation
havebeencompiled
and tabulated
fromannual
issuesofDavison's
Rayonandsilk
Trades. This is one of the standardreferences
in the industry.
Footnote
41appears
onfollowing
page.
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY
25
shopsto 390 (see table2 and figure4). In 1927, 21,700 or
.
19.3percent
of allthebroadlooms(exclusive
of Jacquards)
reported
in the silk industry
of the countrywere in Paterson;
42
but by 1935 the proportionhad fallen to 10.4 percent.
The50.0-percent
decreasein installed
loomsbetween1926 and
1936can be takenas prima-facie
evidencethatemployment
opportunities
werediminished
by at leastthe sameamount
during
theperiod.In 1936,moreover,
people
seeking
workhad
almost
300 fewershopsat whichtheymightapply. Theseshops
were,
on theaverage,
smaller
thanthosethathadmadeup the
industry
previously
and therefore
offeredcorrespondingly
feweropportunities.
Theaggregate
number
of loomsinstalled
andshopsin opera
tion changed from year to year. It will be seen in figure4
Table 2.- NUMBEROP SHOPS AND LOOMS, 1924-888
Number of Year
Shops
Looms (thousands)
518
18.7
20.2
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
596
687
644
557
21.7
19.5
1929
517
18.1
1930
516
478
16.9
15.7
477
14.9
1933
455
14.4
1934
475
480
14.0
390
11.1
1931
1932
1935
1936
22.2
13.5
a
adata
fromtable
A-2.
41theloomage
figure
for1936
correspondscloselytothe
enumerationmadebythe
PatersonIndustrialcommissionwhichwas takenat theendof 1938,more or less
current with Davison's count. The commissionfound 10,926 looms in 405 shops
enumerated. (Swan, op. cit., D. 8.) This total of shops, which constituted
approximately
a100.0-percent
sample,
indicates
thattheDavisoncountwaslow,or
thatrewershopsappeared
to be inbusinesswhen
thiscountwas made. This would
be possible.
42inthe
1936census
ofNanufactures,
data
on811kand
rayonmanufactureswere
reportedseparately.Totalsilk and rayonloomagefor the countrywas obtainedby
adding
thenumber
orbroad,
non-Jacquardlooms
reportedunder
silkandrayon
manufactures
andthefews11kand rayonloomsreported
in thecotton
manufactures.
Datafor1927fromBiennialCensusof
Manufactures,1927
(U.S.Dept.com.,
Bur.
Census,
1930),
D.344;datafor1936from
samefor1936
(1938),
pp.292,
381,389.
Dataon Paterson
silkloomsfromDavison'sRayon
andSilkTrades.
PATERSON
26
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
Figure1.- NUMBEROF SHOPS AND LOOMS,1924-86
NUMBER OF SHOPS
THOUSANDSOF LOOMS
700
24
650
22
600
20
18
550
LOOMS
500
16
SHOPS
450
14
400
12
350
1924
'26
BASEDON TABLEA-2
'28
'30
'32
34
10
'36
WPA- NATIONALRESEARCHPROJECT L-17
and table2 thattherewas a decreasein loomagein each year
of theperiod
from1926to 1936. Withtheexception
of 1934
and 1935, the NationalRecoveryAdministration
period,the
samewas trueof shops. The NRA was responsible
for this
temporary
reversalof trendand for the arrestin the rateof
declineof loomage. The downwardtrends were renewedand
43
accelerated
in 1936.
The largestdecreasesboth in shops
43The
number
ofshops
andlooms
intheindustry
havecontinued
todecrease
since1936. According
toinformed
persons
in Paterson,
theindustry
hadonlyhalt
as manyshopsin thespringof1938as in 1938. A recent
reportindicates,
how
ever,thatthereare around
280concerns
in theindustry
("Strike
in Patersonshuts
SilkMills,"
NewYork
Times,
September
13,1938,
D. 6).
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY
27
andloomsoccurredin 1928 and 1936 - beforethe depression
-
andafterrecovery.
Although
theimpression
is obtained
fromtheannualfigures
thatchangesin structurewere in one direction,that of
progressive
contraction,
thiswasnotalonethecase. At
least
as far back as 1925 therewas considerable
variationin the
numberof shops and loomswithineach year whichwas due to
therelatively
largenumberof openings
andclosings.This
turn-over
of operatorships
has been one of the outstanding
characteristics
of theindustry.
It hasbeensaidthatas many
as 15 or 20 suchchanges
mayoccurin thelocalindustry
in a
week.44 Someappreciation
of thevolume
of thismovement
can
be obtained
from the figureson openingsand closingsin each
year45(see table3 and figure5). This volume is, however,
understatedfor the reason that concernswhich go into and out
of business between censuses are not recorded. In rates of
total turn-over,these movementswere highestduring the
expansionyearsof 1925 and 1926,when 57.9 and 50.8 percent
respectively
of allconcerns
in operation
changed
theirstatus
in one of the two directions. From 1927 through 1933 more
shopsclosedthan openedin every year,althoughthe volume
moving
in opposite
directions
wasapproximately
equalin 1930
and 1932
In 1934and 1935,partof the NRA period,the number
of concerns
openingexceeded
somewhat
the numberclosing.This
.
indicates
howsensitive
thestructure
is to changes
in business
activity.
Ratesof totalturn-over
of shopoperatorships
were
lowerin 1933and 1934 thanin any otheryearbetween1925and
1936. The closingrate was higherin 1936 than in any other
yearof the period.Overtheentireperiod,
1,187concerns
opened
and1,315closed48
(seefigure
5).
Only 132 of the concernsin businessin 1926, or 19.2 percent
of allshopsoperating
in thatyear,werestillin business
in
1936. It is safe to assumethata goodmany of these estab
lishments
were not in businesscontinuously
throughoutthis
period. In termsof looms,most of theseconcernsimproved
theirpositions.
The 132shopshad4,252loomsin 1926and
Copeland
andTurner,
op.cit.,p. 1.
46,
wherenewconcerns
appeared
in anyyear,theywerecounted
as openings.
Whenever
concerns
in thedirectory
in a givenyeardidnotappearin thefollowing
Year,they were countedunder"closings..
48the
Textile
Foundation,
researchagency
fortheNational
Federation
ofTextiles,
foundthat in New Jerseybetween1921and 1929,984 broad-goods
(including
Jacquard
"In
Shops)
concernsentered
businessand921went
outofbusiness.
Pennsylvania,
RhodeIsland,
andNewYorktherateofchange
(turn-over)
alsowashigh."Ibid.
PATERSON
28
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
Figure5.- CUMULATIVE
TURN-OVER
OF SHOPS,1926-86
HUNDREDSOF SHOPS
14
TOTAL EXITS
12
10
OPENING
8
6
-CLOSING
2
-MIGRATING
o
1925 '26
27
28
2
9
'30
'31
ON TAALE 3
'32
33
34
'35 "36
WPA -NATIONALRESEARCH PROJECT L -10BASED
Table8.- TURN-OVER
OP SHOPS,1926-868
Number
Year
of shops
operat
Total
Openings
Closings
ing at
end
of
NumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercento
year
1924
1925
1926
518
596
887
-
o
O
57.9
303
50.8
189
197
112
33.1
16.3
70
10.8
157
24.4
86
15.5
17.4
11.4
126
22.6
17.6
22.2
107
18.8
22.4
1927
844
287
38.9
557
227
35.2
1929
517
516
212
181
156
38.1
35.0
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
478
477
455
213
124
122
30.2
44.B
480
187
26.0
26.8
39.4
390
210
43.8
475
21.4
17.8
22.6
300
1928
1930
-
o
111
106
155
90
59
106
36.5
91
97
51
10.7
71
15.6
73
51
15.3
11.2
96
60
20.2
12.5
91
150
19.2
31.3
&Data
compiled
from
yearly
listings
inDavison's
Rayonand
SilkTrades
(NewYork:
DavisonPublishing
Co.).
Based
onshops
operatingatend
ofprecedingyear.
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
IN THE INDUSTRY
29
5,299in 1936. Ninety-twoplants increasedtheir loomage
substantially,
17 showed no change,and 23 suffereda large
decrease.
As far as could be determined, only 56 concerns migrated
fromPaterson
between1925and 1936(tableA-3 and figure57.47
Thisnumber
accounted
foronly4.3percent
of theclosings,
but
for27.2percent
of thenetdecrease
inshopsbetween
1925and
1936andfor53.0percent
of thenetdecrease
in looms.The
averagesize of the independent
shopsmigrating
was 103.2
looms;of the mixedor unspecified
types,75.8 looms;and of
some of
the commissionshops, 36.2 looms. As shownpreviously,
the millsthat were movedfrom Patersonwere branchor main
plantsof concerns
alsooperating
elsewhere.48
Increase
of Small Concerns
The small-shopcharacteristic
of the industryin Paterson
representsa concentration
of smalland pettyestablishments
that is not to be found anywhereelse in the industry. The
structureof the entireindustryin the UnitedStatesin 1934
(includingJacquard
establishments)
was described
as follows:
On one side are 35 mills with at least 1,000 looms
each, owning 35 per cent of the total installed
looms.
Then there is a middle group of 325 mills,
with from 100 to 1,000 looms each, owning 48 per cent
of
the
total
looms .
Finally,
there
are
about
840
firms with less than 100 looms each, owning a total
of 17 per cent of the loomageand an averageof about
28 looms to a firm.49
According
to thesamesource,
460of the840smallest
firms
in theindustry
wereat thattimein Paterson.50
47The
figure
citedmaybelow.
The count was
made by taking the names of concerns
listof 11 companies
closingin Paterson
andlooking
fortheminthealphabetical
in subsequentdirectories.
A different
nameinanewlocationwould
resultinan
omission. Occasionally,
a smallconcern
wouldbe foundthathadmovedawayfrom
Patersonand had thenmovedback. The number that did this was negligible, and
no attemptwas made to enumeratethem.
The 56concerns
thatmigrated
moved
tothefollowing
States:
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
New York
Massachusetts
24
10
Rhode Island
connecticut
9*
Tennessee
5
North Carolina
1
one of thesealsoestablished
a millin NorthCarolina.
Beinga laborandmarket-oriented
industry,
broad-silkmillshave
forthemost
Dart remainedwithin
ashortradiusofNewYorkCityand
havelocatedwhere
silk
labor has beenavailable.
48seeD.
10.
49
Copelandand
Turner,
op.cit.,p. 1. cr. U. S. TaririCommission,
op. cit.,D. 6.
50Copelandand
Turner,
op.
cit.,
p.21.
E
G
V
E
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A
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A-3
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY
31
Beforethe WorldWar the industryin Patersonwas composed
ofcomparatively
largeconcerns. Size compositionunderwent
a decidedchange between1915 and 1920 when the numberof
establishments
increased
by over100percent,
from246to 494.
Thisincrease
wasoccasioned
mainlyby the multiplication
of
small units.
At the beginningof 1920,68.5 percentof all
broad-goods
concerns
(including
Jacquard)
had49 loomsor less,
and the majorityof thesehad 24 loomsand under.52The
relativeincreaseof small shops continued,and in 1926,
90.2percent
of allshopshad60 loomsor less,withan average
sizefor the industryof 33.6 looms(table4). By 1936small
and pettyconcerns
wereeven more predominant,
92.0 percentof
allestablishments
having60 loomsor lessand the averagesize
havingdroppedto 28.5. The proportion
of very pettyshops,
thosehaving
20 loomsand under,madeup morethan50 percent
of total establishmentsin 1936. They also gained relatively
in loomage.The largestrelative
decrease
occurred
in the
loomage
of concerns
having
morethan100looms(seefigure7).
There were 27 of these in 1926 but only 10 in 1936. (For
Table 4.- NUMBER OP SHOPS AND LOOMS, BY SIZE OP SHOP,
1926 AND 19868
Looms
Shops
Size of shop
(thousands)
1926
1926
1936
1936
(loomage)
Num-
Per-
Num-
Per-
Num-
Per-
Num-
Per
bercento ber centober centb bercento
Total
1- 20
21- 60
61-100
Over 100
687
100.0
390
100.0 22.2
312
47.2 203
52.2
284
43.0 | 155
5.7
21
39.810.2
38
27
4.1
10
3.6
100.0 11.1100.0
16.2
2.4
21.6
5.6
1.6
50.5
14.4
1.5
13.5
5.4
3.2
46.0
14.4
2.6
5.2
23.4
-
Not ascertainable
26
1
Data fromtable
A-1.
Computed
on basisof totalshopsexcluding
thosewhosebroad-silk
loonage
was
notascertainable.
51In1900,
forexample,
theaveragesize
ofestablishmentswas
125looms,
andonly
percent of them had 50 or fewer looms. Computed
from twelfth
Censusofthe
Shebedstates:
1900, Vol. IX, "Manufactures"
(U. S. Dept. Int., Census orrice,
1902),partIII,
table7, D.206.
52Tabulation
based
onDavison's
directory
presented
inU.S.Tarint
Commission,
op. cit.,D. 97.
BROAD-SILK
PATERSON
32
WORKERS
Piguro 7.• PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OP SHOPS AND LOOMS,
BY SIZE OF SHOP, 1926 AND 1986
SHOPS
1926
1936
LOOMS
1926
1936
N-S
20
0
80
60
40
100
PERCENT
SIZE OF SHOP (LOOMAGE)
1-20
BASED
ON
TABLE
61-100
21-60
WPA - NATIONAL RESEARCH
A -1
OVER
PROJECT
100
L - 20
changesin the averagesize of concernsin each size group,
2
see table A-4.)
Aspects of small Enterprise
and Residual
Industry
Despitethe manyfailuresand withdrawals
of concernsfrom
businesseach year, there was no lack of persons willing
to try operatorship.This conditionhas not alone been due
to the ease of obtaininga shop but also to the attempton
the partof silkworkers
to escapethe uncertainties
of the
labormarketand to find shelteredemploymentand increased
earnings.
Recently,
becoming
a proprietor
hasfrequently
been an alternativeto unemployment
for an individualand
his family. In otherwords,"workershave had to buy their
7
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY
33
jobs,"53
The highratesof closingare one indication
that
thistype of enterprisehas frequentlyconstituteda form
ofdisguised
unemployment.
In orderto studythe occupational
and businessbackgrounds
of theoperators
of pettyor "cockroach"64
shopsand the
characteristics
of theirenterprises,
a randomsamplewas
takenof 100 shopshaving20 loomsor less.55 This resulted
in thecollection
of 100 schedulesthroughinterview
with one
of the operatorsin each of these shops.66 In addition to
the100persons
interviewed,
certain
information
wassecured
on
123 operatorswho had been associatedin businesswith the 100
operators
whenthe
latter
firstbecame
broad-silk
manufacturers.
Although
the sample,whichcovers237 operators,
represents
thesmallestshops(with 20 looms or less,in the industry,
shopsof thissizeaccounted
for morethan50 percent
of all
concernsin 1936. The characteristicsshown by them and by
their
operators
represent
thecharacteristics
of a muchlarger
majority
of the operators
andenterprises
in the industry.
Industrial
and Occupational
Characteristics
of the Operators.
Mostof theoperators
in theindustry
wereformerly
wage
earners,
andafteracquiring
a shoptheycontinued
to workat
theiroccupations.57
Of the100operators
interviewed,
96 had
previously
been broad-silk
workers58(table
(table 5).
51. The persons
comingfrom broad silk were principallyweavers 80 out
of the96. The restwereskilledworkers,
including
three
Nonecamefromthesemiskilled
occupations,
suchas
foremen.
winding
and quilling.
A largemajorityof the operators
showedlong experience
in
broadsilk beforethey becameoperators;
the medianlengthof
63
*As a generalrule,the ownersof theseshops(in Paterson)
wereunemployed
Weavers,
who couldfindnootherfieldofemployment,
and preferredto
opentheir
ownshopto goingon relief."ReportOponcontract
Weaving
in the RayonandSilk
Industry
(washington,
D. C.: Silk Textile work Assignment Board, mimeo. 4387,
Apr.27, 1935),D. 4.
54
"Cockroach"
is a widely
usedtermwhichrefers
to pettyoperators
andtheir
shops,
especially
tothose
runprincipally
by family
labor.The term, which is
usedbothcontemptuously
andhumorously,
implies
theexistence
ofsubstandard
working
conditions.
65
Alternatenames of shops were takenfrom a list of concernsof this size drawn
alphabetically
from
Davison,
op.cit.,
correctedproofsof1937
issue.
56
An additional14 operatorswho were partnersin the 100 shops were not inter
Viewedandare not includedin the tabulations
in thissection.
67.
The employmentexperienceof theseworker-owners
is not specifically
analyzed.
Onlyaveryfewof themarerepresented
in thepay-roll
datapresented
ina
subsequent
chapteron
theemploymentexperience
ofworkersin
thislabormarket.
58€
It is interestingto note the previous occupationsof the remaining four.
Theywere
grocery-store
proprietor,candy-storeproprietor,
farmhand,and
textilesalesman.
34
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
Table 6.- INDUSTRY
AND OCCUPATION
IMMEDIATELY
PRECEDING
PIRST ENTRY INTO BUSINESS OF BROAD-SILK OPERATORS
Previous
industry
Previous industry
and occupation
Number
and occupation
Total
Number
fixer
100
4Loom
Foreman
Broad
silk
96
80
Weaver
Warper
3
Twister
B
Other industry
4
1
Salesman
Retail proprietor
Farm
2
1
laborer
aDataobtained
in NRPFieldsurvey:schedulefor shops having20 loomsor less.
timepreviously
spentin the industry
was16.2years. Only
12.5percenthad beenin the industry
5 yearsor less,and
over20 percent
hadhadexperience
of over20 years(table6).
This long habituation
in broadsilk has been typicalof the
laborforcein theindustry
(seepage56 et seq.).
Tablo
6.-
NUMBER
OF
YEARS
AS
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
PRECEDING
FIRST ENTRY INTO BUSINESS AS BROAD-SILK OPERATORS&
Number of years as
broad-silk
workers
Totalb
1-
5
Number
Percent
96
100.0
12
12.5
6-10
19
19.8
11-15
30
16-20
21-25
14
11
10
31.2
14.6
25
or
over
Median number
of years
11.5
10.4
16.2
a
adataobtained
in NRPFieldsurvey:schedulefor shopshaving20 loomsor less.
b
Excludes
fourpersons
whose
industry
preceding
entry
intobusiness
wasnot
broad silk.
Of the 100 shopsin businessin 1936,2 had originally
enteredbefore1911,53 had enteredfrom 1911 through1925,
16 from1926through1932,and 29 between1933and 1936.59
59The
extent
ofrecent
first-time
entries
intobusiness
fortheentire
industry
is
indicatedby a sample taken by the Silk TextileWork AssignmentBoard in 1934.
"Of 150 shops canvassed
43 had been in business for less than a year, and
in practicallyall of these cases this had been their first businessventure."
Loc. cit.
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY
35
The comparativelylarge number of first entries into business
thatwere undertakenduringthe NRA periodagain indicates
the tendencyto expand with an improvedoutlookin busi
ness conditions.
Machinery
Purchased,
Amountof Investment,
and sourceof
Capitalon First Entry Into Business.-Purchasesof only
8 loomsor less were made in 50 percentof the firstentries
intobusiness,
and in an additional
20 percentof the entries
notmorethan 12 loomswere bought. Abouthalfof all first
entriesshowedpurchaseof a quiller. A good portionof the
restundoubtedly
securedthis machinery
later. Used machinery
was purchasedin 67 of the originalinstancesof settingup
shop;
andof theremaining
33,18 started
withnewandused
equipmentand 15 with all new equipment. None of this last
groupbegan operationafter 1925.
A reportof the purchasepriceof machinery
was obtainedin
95 cases.
In 20 of 54 entriesinto businessmade priorto
1926,the totalinvestment
was over$5,000(see table7), the
machinery
foroneshophaving
costas muchas $25.950.In only
eightentrieswas the cost$2,000or less. Previousto 1926,
Table 1.- COST OF ORIGINAL MACHINERY
BY DATE
&
OP SHOP OPENING, 1904-86
Costof machinery1904-36
1904-25
1926-36
1934-36
1936
54
41
21
4
2
(dollars)
Total
500
95
or
under
501- 1,000
64666
1
6
4
1
6
3
1
1
10
7
1
5
4
1,001- 1,500
11
1,501- 2,000
2,001- 3,000
3,001- 4,000
10
6
11
6
4,001- 5,000
17
13
9
4
5,001-10,000
12
12
10
10,001-15,000
15,001-20,000
20,001 or over
5
4
3
A4
W3
1
1
1
2
O
Dataobtained
inNRPField
survey:
schedulefor shopshaving20 loomsor less.
°includesbothnewandused
equipmentatcostat
time
ofshop
opening.
Excludes
fiveshops
(oneopening
in1904-25
andfourin 1926–38)
forwhich
cost
or machinery was not reported.
PATERSON
36
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
machinery
was moreexpensive
thansubsequently,
more new
machinery
was purchased,
and partnerships
andcorporations
were morefrequent. Of the entries in or following 1926 the
purchase
pricein no entryexceeded
$5,000,
andit was$2,000
or less in 27 of 41 cases of entry. Still less was paid for
the necessary
equipmentin more recentyears: two-thirdsof
the 21 shopsopeningbetween1934and 1936did not spendover
$1,500,and 2 of the 4 entriesin 1936 did not requiremore
than $500.
The amountof moneyput up by individual
operators
in all of
the100 shopswas muchlessthanwouldbe indicated
by the
total costs of machinery. The 55 concerns
openingbefore
1926represented
170 fullor partproprietors,
and information
was obtained on the initial outlays of 165 of these.
The
median amount investedper individualin this period was
Only 53 full or part proprietorswere
represented
by the 45 openingsfrom 1926 on. Initial outlays
for fiveof the operators
were not ascertainable,
owingin two
$808 (see table 8).
casesto themachinery
beinga gift.Theremaining
48 persons
expended
a medianof $611as initialinvestment.
Table
8.-
INDIVIDUAL
INVESTMENT
OF OPERATORS
IN YEAR
OP PIRST ENTRY INTO BUSINESS,1904-888
1904-25
1904-36
Individual
investment
Sole
Total oper
(dollars)
ator
Part
ner
Sole
or
share
Total
oper
ator
500
or
under
501-1,000
1,001-1,500
1,501-2,000
2,001-3,000
3,001-4,000
4,001-5,000
or
182
185
57
18
88
11
a
r39
o
75
o
N
77
share
16
35
2
n
12
a
a5
w
5
2
27
10
2
OWW
3
27
A
12
A
A4
O
or
share
holder
48
35
13
33
22
16
6
74
o
ac
149
1
7
1
23
O
4
W
2
10
2
2
1
1
5,001-6,000
Part
ner
oper
ator
14
32
Sole
Total
holder
51
213
Part
ner
holder
Total!
1926-36
O
1
O
OO
1
2
1
1
Median
investment
(dollars )
788
841
780
BOB
611
Data obtained
in NRPFieldgurvey:
scheduleforshopshaving20 loomsor less.
bIncludes
operators
Interviewed
in 1838andothers
whowereassociated
withthemin business
when
they first became broad-silk operators. Excludes 10 operators not reporting initial investment.
Represents 54 shops for 1904-25 and 41 for 1928-36.
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
IN THE INDUSTRY
37
As conditions in the industry became worse, the number of
operatorsto a shop decreased. The few looms and a quiller
formerly
boughtby two or more partners,for example,could
now be purchasedat a much lower figure. And in order to
"getalong"witha smallunit,onlyoneproprietor,
withhis
familyand the outsideworkersrequired,
was necessary
to
operate
the few loomsand auxiliary
equipment.Of the 55 shops
thatopenedbefore
1926,39 171percent)
werepartnerships
or
corporations,
and only16 wereoperated
by singleproprietors.
Seventeenof the 39 concernshad 2 partnerseach, and the
remaining
22 eachhadfrom3 to 12 owners.Only8 (18percent)
of the 45 concernsenteringbusinessduring and following
1926 were involvedin partnerships,
and no entry involved
more than 2 partners. In 1936,84 of the 100 concernswere
operatedby single owners,13 by partnerships
(1 of which
had3 partners),
and 3 by corporations.60
Machinery
was purchased
on timein 68 of the100 original
entries into business, and cash was paid in the remaining
32
cases.
The usualdown paymentwas 50 percentof the pur
chaseprice. Only9 of the original
100 concerns
failedto
canceltheirindebtedness
for machinery.Two of these,started
before
1926,wereforeclosed
shortly
afterbeginning
operation.
Theremaining
sevenopened
shopsbetween
1934and1936,andin
the latter year they still had paymentsto meet.
Savingsfrom wageswas the most commonsourceof fundsfor
initialinvestmentby the operatorswho opened the 100 shops.
Of the140 operators
for whomthisinformation
wassecured,
121 (86 percent)obtainedinvestmentcapitalin this way.
Savings
fromwageswerein ninecasessupplemented
by loans,
inonecaseby a saleof realestate,
andoneoperator
hadbeen
givenmachinery.
Thefactthatsavings
wereusually
theonly
sourceof capitalfor investment
does not meanthatall oper
atorssavedenoughout of theirpersonal
earningsto establish
themselvesin business. It is true that wage rates had been
relativelyhigh in the past. But so also had been the inter
mittency
of employment
forthelargemajority
of thepeople
in
this labor market.
Accumulationof the small capital required
for investment
was probablythe resultof poolingthe savings
of all the gainfully
employedin the familyor household.In
800n18
one operatorwas reported for each corporation. The
probably
membersof the operator's
family.
other
owners
were
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
38
formeryears,moreover,
operators
doubtless
camefromthe
minority
of workers
who hadmoreor lessregular
tenurewith
particularestablishments.
Investment
fundsnot originating
fromwagescamefromseveral
.
Six personshad moneyfrom previousenterprises
(four of which were in broad silk), two realizedmoney on
sources
insurance,
twoborrowed
thetotalamount,
onehadsavedmoney
through
a building
and loancorporation,
perhaps
fromwages,
threehad windfallsof cash throughdowries,and one received
fourreceived
gifts.
a soldier's bonus. The remaining
Of the operators
mentioned
above,onlyfivehadmachinery
to setup shop. In twoinstances
machinery
wasbrought
in from
previousventures,and in the three othersit was obtained
throughgiftsor dowry.
Difficulties
of Remainingin Business.Exactlyhalfof all
the 100 shopswentthrougha dissolution
of proprietorship
These 50 accountedfor 76 closings or re
organizations
and the same numberof reopenings.The frequency
at some time.
of these actions was as follows:
Number of
Number of closings
Total
shops
Total number
of closings
78
100
50
O
1
32
2
12
O
in
3
5
32
24
15
5
1
5
Of the 50 concernsthat did not undergosuch vicissitudes,
31 had been openedwithin the past 5 years.
Poor businesswas the causeof practically
all the 50 first
closingsor dissolutions
of partnership,
althoughthe reasons
for these actions are stated in various ways. Disagreement
among partnersand insufficiency
of earningswere given as
reasons in 22 cases; in 24 cases the cause reported was poor
business,
unstablemarket,etc.;2 operators
went out of
.
business
to open newshops;i closedbecauseof labortrouble,
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
39
IN THE INDUSTRY
andanotherdid so in orderto go to Europe. Wherethe earn
ingsof partnership
concerns
were notsufficiently
highbecause
of business
conditions,
dissolutions
werefrequently
brought
aboutin order that each operator could obtain his own shop.
Theproprietor
abandoning
the locationtook his shareof the
equipment
or the proceeds
of a saleandsecureda shopfor
In foreclosure
casesoperatorshavefrequently
been
ableto salvagesomethingfrom the businesswith which to
proceedto anotherventure. With the need for tenants and
himself.
machinery
buyers,
spaceand equipment
are oftenturnedover
to an operatoron the most lenientterms.
Intheremaining
26 of the76 closings,
8 indicated
partner
shipdisagreement
and 18 a lackof work, Some of the closings
weredue to the sharpfluctuations
in the price of raw silk
between1929 and 1931.
operatorsforcedto shut
. Independent
down as a result of this situationwere virtuallyout of
business
for a time untiltheycouldsecureanothersupplyof
materials.
This frequently meant a shift to commissionwork
(see table A-2).
The difficultyof remainingsolventwas, of course,not
confined to the smallest concerns. A sample of 49 of the
establishments
thatwere listedas havinggoneout of business
in 1936included
concerns
of the following
sizes:
Size of shop (loomage)
Number of shops
Totala
49
1- 20
23
21- 40
18
41-
60
5
61-100
3
&Dataobtained
in NRPFieldsurvey:special
investigation.
Sevenof theseshopsactuallyhad closedin 1935.
The reason
for 32 of the concernsgoingout of businesswas bankruptcy
or foreclosure,
and,whatis virtually
thesame thing,14 were
liquidated
to satisfycreditors. One concernwas liquidated
as a resultof the operator's
death. In two cases information
was not available.81
81one
instancewas
peculiar
inthat
theoperatorhad
forfeitedhisshop
in1929and
had continued to work for the new owner.
PATERSON
40
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
The high mortalityof firms has mainlybeen the immediate
resultof failureto coverthe costsof rentand powerand to
meet primarypaymentsor to clearencumbrances
on machinery.
When rent and power bills are not paid over a period,the
landlord
becomes
a legalclaimant
to thetenant's
equipment.
An insufficiency
or a complete
lackof orders
fora shorter
or
longertimegivesriseto theseliens,although
theyfrequently
aretakenevenwhena concern
is comparatively
active,
because
of the low weavingratesand,consequently,
low earnings.
Thiscondition
is widespread;
as a result
a largepartof the
industryis virtuallyinsolvent,
beinggreatlyin arrearson
rentand powerandwithequipment
thatis fullymortgaged.82
Concernsso mortgaged
are sometimes
permitted
to continue
operation
by the graceof the creditorwho may calculate
that
somepayment
is better
thannothing
or thattheoperator
will
be able to pay if businessimproves.Foreclosures,
however,
are frequent.A concernin operation
one day may be padlocked
with a sheriff's notice the next.
At the same time,new and old operatorscontinueto start
shops.
This haphazard
expansion
of capacity
is a meansof
obtaining
self-employment
for the largemajorityof operators
in the industryand employmentfor members of their families,
relatives,and friends. Landlords,
converters,
and machinery
dealers,
the principal
legatees
of thisresidual
industry,
havean abundanceof space,powerfacilities,
and machinery
whichtheywant utilized
in orderto realizepayments.Anyone
with a littlecapitalcan obtaina shop. Indeed,therehave
beencasesin recentyearsin whichoperatorshavegiven
theirworkers
thealternative
of buyingthemachines
on which
they work or quitting them. In agreeingto provideformer
workers with orders, the operator has sometimes established
himself as a converter.
Anyonegoing throughthe old mill buildingsin 1936 would
haveseen dust-coated
machinery
storedin mill buildingsand
in shopsthathadbeenvacated
andin shopsthatwereoperating
but had no use for it because of shifts in the incidence of
processes,obsolescence,or lack of orders. At certain times
the junkmancould be seen breakingup some of the more obsolete
62gee
Swan,
op.cit.,
p.30;andreport
ofthe$11k
Textile
work
Assignment
Board,
op. cit.,p. 8.
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY
41
machinery
for scrap(see figure81.83 In the city were many
idlemillbuildings,
andlargeamounts
of spacewereavailable
in occupiedbuildings. In the occupiedspace there was a
highconcentration
of shops,and in thesethe machineswere
frequently
so crowdedtogetheras not to permitreadypassage
between them. A surveywas made of millspace in 1936,the
resultsof which were to be used by the Paterson Industrial
Commission,
a rehabilitation
agency,to attractindustries
to the city. There also was availablea relativelylarge
In short, there was availablean ample
reserve of labor.
supplyof the agentsof production,
totallyidle or in some
>
WPA-NationalResearchProject(Nine)
FIGURE 8.- BREAKING UP OLD LOOMS FOR SCRAP TRON
degreeof use everythingexcepta volumeof orderssufficient
to bringaboutfullemployment.
-
CHANGES
IN TECHNOLOGY
Thedecrease
in employment
opportunities
whichresulted
from
the declineand change in structureof the industryin this
locality
was paralleled
by a reduction
of laborrequirements
due to changesin technology.Thesechangesoccurreddespite
83During
theperiod
undersurvey,
much
oftheequipment
intheindustrywas
sold
to out-of-townbuyers,some of it being sent abroad. Migratingshops in some
instances
took theirequipmentwith them.
P
S
WPA- National
Researchproject
(line)
WPA-National
Research
Project
(Hinei
FIGURE 9.- EARLY STAGES IN BROAD-SILKPRODUCTION IN SHOPS
THAT MAKE THEIR OWN WARPS
in the upperpicture
the silkskeins,afterbeingsoakedin soapand
water to degum the fiber, are being partiallydried by whizzing in a
centrifuge.
The lower pictureshowstheskeins of silk beingtaken from the drying
rack and placed around the "swifts" to be wound onto bobbins. The bobbins
are then placedonthe creel in the processof makinga "warp."
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY
43
thefactthatverylittle
capital
wasinvested
by theindustry
inimproved
newand second-hand
machinery
or in the improvement
ofexisting
equipment
after1926. The lack of capitalfor
these
purposes
is demonstrated
by the virtual
disappearance
ofthemarketfor new principal
machines,
suchas loomsand
64
warping,
winding,
andquilling
machines,
afterthatyear.
In the broad-silk-weaving
shops,no new types of machines
wereintroduced
until1935,when a few second-hand
automatic
loomswere introduced
for the weavingof rayon(see figure2).
.
Someefficiency-raising
devicesfor machinery,
especially
for looms,were introduced
or broughtinto wider use; other
wise,the manufacturers
boughtthe equipment
availableon the
second-hand market.
For the most part, the improvedproductivity
was not the
result
of expenditures
by the industry.It was due chiefly
to the increasedimportanceof certain processes,to the
increasing
standardization
of fabricconstructions,
andto
themoreeffective
utilization
of equipment.The purposehere
is to summarize
the principal
changesin operations
duringthe
period
in relation
to theireffecton laborrequirements.
To theextentthatrayonhasbeenwovenin Paterson,
theneed
forwinders
(predominantly
females)
hasbeenreduced.Rayon
yarnfor the makingof the warp is woundon spoolsor bobbins
in therayon-manufacturing
plants.Theyare therefore
readyto
be placedon the creelof the warpingmachineas theyare
received at the weaving shops. Not only does this obviate
Winding
butalsotheoperations
connected
withpreparing
silk
to be wound,suchas weighing,
unpacking,
soaking,
and drying-
workwhichis ordinarily
doneby thewinders.Although
the
preponderance
of broad-goods
yardage
wovenin Paterson
issilk,
14.5 percentof the loomsin the localindustrywere weaving
all-rayon
fabricsin December
1936and 11.5percentmixed
goods,some of which must have had rayon warps.65
As rayon is
6401the
3,946
loomssoldbythecromptonand
Knowles
Loomworks
fordelivery
in
New Jerseybetween 1923 and 1936,87.8 percenthad been purchasedby the end of
1926. only 80 looms were delivered in the state by this company from 1934
through1938,and no saleswere made in 1932 and 1933. A negligible proportion,
4.3 percent,ofthe loomssold between1923 and 1936 were automatic(information
containedin a letter,dated August2, 1937, from the Cromptonand KnowlesLoom
Works),
andnoneof these,as faras is known,weresenttoPaterson.In 1936,
83 percent
(9,063)of theloomsinthe localindustryhad beenmanufactured
by
Crompton
andKnowles
(Swan,op.cit.,D. 18).
66seepp.11-2.Data on
available.
the spindleassignmentsof windersin Patersonare not
In 1938thespindle
assignments
of guillers
in Paterson
rangedfrom30
to 100,the most commonbeing80 (swan,op. cit., p. 13). It is not knownto what
extent
spindle
assignments
on thisoperation
increased
after1928.
44
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
w
www
W PA -National Research Project (Hine)
FIGURE 10.- OLD-TYPE CREEL
The creelof the warpingmachine,
holdingabout700 bobbins,is rebankedas
the yarnon the bobbinsin use runs low.
wovenin rotation
withsilk as well as concurrently,
according
to the ordersat hand,the demandfor windersin weavingshops
thatmaketheirownwarpshascometo fluctuate
accordingly.
In the lastfew yearsabout10 of thewarpingand winding
establishments
in Patersonhave introducednew high-speed
creelsand frameswhichcostseveralthousanddollarsand are
not to be found in the weavingshops (see figure11). The
former
equipment
willwindabout2 as manythreads
at one
as the oldermachinesand operates
at much higherspeeds.
It also has a numberof automaticfeaturesthat facilitate
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
IN THE INDUSTRY
45
repairs
of threadbreaksand helpto keepan eventension
on
the yarn.
The largecreel requireslittleattentionfrom a
helperonce it has been banked. Job specifications
and the
number
of workersrequiredto operatethe new frameand creel
areapproximately
the same as on the older equipment,but
productivity
is substantially
increased.66
Thenewwarping
equipment
is in competition
withthewarping
machines
in the weavingshops,beingespecially
attractive
to
theconverterwho has warps made on commission.
As far as is
known,
only rayonwarpsare made on the high-speed
creeland
framemachinein Paterson,but the companymanufacturing
this
equipment
claimsthat they are beingused elsewherefor the
67
making
of silkwarps.87
WPA- National Research project line!
FIGURE 11.- HIGH-SPEEDAUTOMATICCREEL
This machine, used in Paterson to make rayon warps, holds about 3,200
large cones or bobbins,half of which are reserveswhichcome into use
automatically.
06Anewcreel-to-beam
type
ofwarping
machine
formaking
rayon
warps
isin
operation
inonewinding
andwarping
shop.
Rayonwarps
mustbe
sized,
thatis,run
througha solutionto strengthenthe threads. The creel-to-beam warper eliminates
beaming
fromtheframebeforeplacing
thewardin thesizingmachine.This
W111 run 1,200 yards an hour
warper
which is a conventional length of a ward - about
twiceas fastas themachine
consisting
of thehigh-speed
creeland frame.
Sizingof standard-length
warpscanbe donefasteron thenewermachines;
from17
to 17 hours are requiredon the two- and three-can machines,whereasan hour is
required
on thelive-can
machine
and45 minutes
on theseven-can
type. Regardless
ofthe numberof cans,each machinerequirestwo operators.
See Are You in step? advertising
folderissuedby the S1PP-Eastwood
Corporation,
67
Paterson, New Jersey.
WPA- National Research Project(line)
FIGURE 12.- WARPING FRAME
Inmakingthe
warp,threads
woundoffthebobbin
ontothecreelarewound
around
the frameinsections.
Thewarperis heretyingup a section.
When
all the sectionshave been wound onthe frame, they arethen unwoundor
beamed off the frames,on the side oppositethe creel, and the warp
is finished.
WPA- National
ResearchProject(Hine)
FIGURE 13.- ENTERINGTHE ENDS OF A NEW WARP
The enterer,a skilledworker,passesthe needlethroughthe eyesof the
heddles
to a helper,
thehander-in.
Entering
is necessary
onlyifthewarp
construction,
determinedby the distributionof ends or threads in the
heddles,
is changed. Otherwise,
the ends of the new warp are twistedonto
those of the oldwarp, which remain in the heddles.
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY
47
Theamountof twisting,
entering,
handing-in,
and loom-fixing
laborwhichwas requireddecreasedas warps were lengthened
froman averageof around500 yardsin the early 1920'sto
between900 and 1,200 yards in more recent years. These
operations
involveenteringthe warp in the loomand adjusting
it foroperation.The trendtowardthe successive
weavingof
identical
constructions
shiftedsome of the work of preparing
thewarpfortheloomto thetwisters.
Twisting
requires
less
timethanentering.98Although
noteconomically
usablein
smallshops,a twistingmachineis usedin some of the larger
establishments in Paterson. A warp can be twisted in by
machinein from half to two-thirdsof the time requiredby
hand,dependingon the type of job and the skill of the op
erator,
thusraisingthe productivity
of the twister(see
figures
14 and 15).
By far the most significantchange affectinglabor re
quirements
in the localindustrywas the raisingof the loom
assignment.88
Between
1926and1936an increasing
proportion
of the loomagein thelocalindustry
was operated
on a ratioof
three and four looms per weaver. In December1936 more than
70 percent
of theloomswerebeingoperated
on a 4-loom
system,
andas a resultof the introduction
of automatic
loomsin 1935
and1936,at leastoneshopwasoperating
a 20-loom
system.70
After1936 loomassignments
weregenerally
increased
furtherin
Paterson,and accordingto informedpersonsin the industry
thesix-loomsystemhad becomethe most commonsystemby the
springof 1938.
The generalincreasein loom assignmentsin Patersonwas
facilitated
in partby the installation
of automatic
stopsand
tensionregulatorsfor the warp. Largequillsholding
more
.
yarnand therefore
reducing
thefrequency
of refilling
the
shuttle
werealsointroduced
hereandthere. However, these
incidental
changes,
helping
to automatize
loomsandto improve
88enteringand
handingnarenotrequired
unless
thefabric
construction
15
changed that is, unless the threadsof the new warp must be redistributedor
rethreadedin theheddles, which are held in placeby a harness. Otherwise the
threads
of thenewwarparetwistedintothethreads
of the oldwarp,previously
usedup, thatremainin the harness(see figure13).
89Historically,
thewidening
ofrooms
alsohasbeenanimportant
factor
in
decreasinglabor requirements. with the destruction and sale of most of the
narrowerloonsin the localindustry,its loomswere relativelywider in 1936 than
in 1926. For the reasonsalreadygiven,very few of the wider,more modernlooms
wereintroduced
intoPatersonduringthe period.
70.
See swan, op. cit.,p. 13. Therewere 426 automaticloomsin the localindustry
at the end of 1936.
WPA- National Research Project(line)
FIGURE 14.- TWISTING BY HAND
The ends of the old and new warps are pressed together with a little
Chalk in the thumband indexfingers- a type of skilledwork requiring
deftfingers.
WPA- NationalResearchProject(Hinei
FIGURE 15.- TWISTING BY MACHINE
The twistingmachine is operatedeither by hand or by electricpower.
Speedof operation
dependsmainlyon the qualityof yarn.
PRINCIPAL
TRENDS
IN THE INDUSTRY
49
thequalityof cloth,were madeon onlya smallportionof the
loomsin the industry.The rise in loomassignments
probably
resulted,
by and large,froman increase
in theworkload
fromgivingthe weavermore loomsto tend withoutthe aid of
automatic
devicesor otherimprovements
whichwouldreducethe
amountof attentionand other work requiredof him. Where
primequalityof yarn is used and the loom is kept in good
condition,
breakages
occurlessfrequently
and the work of the
weaver is not so great. But in Paterson there has been a
long-standing
complaint
amongthe workersaboutthe poor
condition
of machinery
and the use of inferioryarns.
The changesin technology
that occurredduringthe period
weremade,then,mainlywithoutadditional
investment
by the
industry.The effectsof changesoutsidethe industry
carried
overinto the industry,and the raisingof loom assignments
occurredwithout any notable outlays being made for the im
provement
of looms. The reduction
in laborrequirements
that
tookplaceaggravated
the increasingly
serious
situation
in
thealreadyovercrowded
labormarket.
EMPLOYMENT
TRENDS
No series is availableon employmentin the broad-silk
industry.
Biennial
censusenumerations
on theaverage
number
of employees
in silk and rayonmanufacturing
in Paterson
cover
allbranches
of theindustry.
Thesecan be used,however,
as
indicating
thechanges
in demandfor laborin thebroad-silk
industry,
sinceit hasaccounted
for the largerportionof
theemployment
in silktextiles
and for mostof the change.
At the end of the war,silktextiles,
and probably
broad
silk,in Paterson
employed
on the averagemoreworkers
than
at anyothertimein theirhistory.From1921through
1925
(doubtlessthrough1926) the average number of employees
remained about constant. Duringthis periodthe loomagein
broadsilkwasexpanding,
butthe loomassignment
wasat the
sametimeincreasing.
The influence
of thedecline
of broad
silkon totalaverage
employment
is verystriking
after1927,
thedecreases
hereparalleling
thecontraction
thatoccurred
in the industry'sstructure.
Theaverage
numberof workers
employed
in localsilkmanu
facturing
decreased
by morethan50 percent
between
1925and
5
0
PATERSON
Table
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
9..- AVERAGE NUMBER OP WAGE EARNERS,
PATERSON, NEW JERSEY, 1899-1986&
Average number of wage earners in
Silk
Year
All industrieso
rayon
and
manu
facturing
1899
1904
1909
1914
1919
30,190
28,509
32,004
1921
1929
31,345
33,247
33,779
32,354
32,686
1923
1925
1927
30,925
37,217
19310
23,427
19330
20, 160
19350
22,436
15,943
14,624
18,828
16,992
21,836
Percent
of all
industries
52.8
51.3
58.8
54.9
58.7
16,666
16,830
53.2
16,368
48.5
14,628
12,940
39.6
7,880
6,088
7,768
50.6
45.2
33.6
30.2
34.6
&0.s. Censusof Manufactures
data.
Baverage
of12monthlyfigures
ofpersons
ondayrolls.
CFigures
forsilkmanufacturing
only,
upto1829.
Fromaspecial
unpublished
tabulationmade
bytheBureau
oftheCensus
forthe
National Research Project.
1935(table91. It appears
safeto say thatthe extentof this
change
reflects
closely
thatoccurring
in broadsilk. In
view
of the resumption
of declineafterthe propsfurnishedby the
NationalIndustrial
RecoveryAct had been removed,the figure
for1936woulddoubtless
be lowerthanin thepreceding
year.
The decrease in employmentin silk manufacturinghad a
seriouseffect on the economiclife of Paterson. This is
indicated
by the fact that the averagenumberof wage earners
in all industries
decreased
by 34 percentbetween1925and
1935.
The largest
partof thisdecrease
wasaccounted
for by
the reduction
of employment
in the silk-manufacturing
industry,
and thedownward
trendwas notmitigated
by any appreciable
expansionin other industries.
The proportion
of all employment
in localindustries
repre
sented by silk manufacturingwas more than 48 percent in
1925, and in 1935 the proportionwas still high,exceeding
34 percent. Silk manufacturing,
togetherwith dyeing and
PRINCIPAL TRENDS IN THE INDUSTRY
51
finishing
textilesin which employmentdeclinedafter1929,
accountedfor 68.5 percent of industrial employment in the
cityin 1925andfor63.1percent
in 1933.71
SUMMARY
The broad-silk industry in Paterson has been declining
relative
to otherareasof production,
at leastsincethe
latterpart of the lastcentury. Duringmost of this period
thelocalindustry
waslosing
itslarger
millsas theymigrated
to other
areas .
With the increasing
displacement
of silk by
rayon, the local industrycontinuedto producesilk in a
contracting,
highlycompetitive
market. Despitethis un
favorable
position,
theindustry
in Paterson
continued
to grow
until1926,largely
in theformof a multiplication
of small
shops during and after the war, representingthe influxof
skilledworkerswho were becomingshop operators.
As the local industrybecame increasinglyone of petty
shops,the commissionsystemwas extendedover most of the
industry.
Thischangegavetheconverter
a largemeasure
of
control
overtheincidence
andflowof production
and,thereby,
over the incidenceand flow of employment. The system en
couraged
the haphazard
expansion
andcontraction
of capacity
and, in addition,actedas a depressanton laborstandards.
Independent
operators
wereableto retainsome measureof
autonomyover their operations,but they too came undercontrol
of commercial-financial
institutions
whichperformed
selling
andfinancing
services.
Between1926 and 1936,totalloomagein the localindustry
decreased
by 50 percentand the numberof shopsby 43 percent.
In additionto declining,
the industrywas unstable
as a large
portion
of itsshopswereconstantly
opening
or closing.This
highturn-over
ofconcerns
occurred
in theyearsbefore
1926
as wellas subsequently.
The instability
of employment
opportunities
prompted
many
oftheworkers
to invest
theirsavings
in theestablishment
of
a shopin the hopeof regularizing
employment
forthemselves,
their relatives,and friendsand thus of increasingtheir
incomes.
Someof the pettyenterprisers
wereableto addto
71Censusof
Manufacturesdata.
The proportions
wouldbe raisedslightly
by the
Inclusionoremploymentintheaux111ary
11nesof"Textile
Machineryand
Partsand
"Cardcuttingand Designing"
(forJacquardweaving).
52
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
theircapital. Otherssacrificedportionsof their assets
but remained in operation. The large number of failures
testifiesto the misdirection
of most of their investment.
In recentyearsthe purchaseof a littlesecond-hand
equipment
on time represented
for manyof thosein positionto do so a
pooralternative
to seeking
employment
in a contracting,
highly
uncertain labor market.
In other words, these people had
"to buy their jobs."
Despitethe lack of capitalfor any widespread
installations
of improved
machinery,
theamount
of laborrequired
to produce
a unit of product declined . Where rayon was woven, winders
were not needed. High-speed
warpingmachinesin warpingand
windingshops increasedthe productivityof warping labor
and drewsomeof thisworkawayfromthe weaving
shopsthat
had the oldermachines.As warpswerelengthened,
theamount
of loom-fixing,twisting,and enteringlabor was reduced.
Wherethe twistingmachinewas used,the productivity
of the
twisterwas considerably
increased.Loomassignments
continued
to be raisedduringthe period,assignments
as highas 20 looms
beingfound in 1936 as a resultof the introduction
of auto
matic looms. Thesechangesalso resultedin a reductionof
employment
opportunities.
Principallyas a resultof the declinein the broad-silk
industry,
the averagenumberof wageearnersemployedin silk
manufacturing
in Patersondecreasedby more than 50 percent
between 1925 and 1935. This decrease was accompanied by a
34-percentdecreasein the averagenumberof wage earners
in Patersonindustries,more than 63 percentof whom were
dependent
on somebranchof textiles
for employment
in 1933.
In 1936 the broad-silkindustryin Patersonwas in a de
moralized
condition,
thecounterpart
of whichwasa demoralized
situation in its labor market. And the effects of the in
dustry's
condition
wereclearlymarkedon the lifeof the city.
CHAPTER
CHARACTERISTICS
III
OF THE BROAD -SILK WORKERS
Two principal
questions
ariseconcerning
the workersin the
labor
market
of thebroad-silk
industry
in Paterson:
(1 ) What
werethe personal
and occupational
characteristics
of the
workers
who wereaffectedby theseindustrial
changes? And(2)
whatwas theiremployment
and unemployment
experience
during
the period of decline,1926-36? In this chapter and the
one immediatelyfollowingdata relatingto these questions
arepresented.
Dataon thesource
of thelaborsupply
anditspersonal
char
acteristics
were obtainedfrom a sampleof silk workerstaken
1 whichcoversthe
from the 1936 city directoryof Paterson,1
for
year1935. Everyfourthsilkworker'snamewas abstracted
interview.
A fewof thesecouldnotbe located;
somehaddied
and others had moved away.
Information was obtained from
any time in
thoseworkerswho reportedbroad-silk
employment
1935or whoseusualindustry
was broadsilk. This resulted in
the collection of 616 schedules.
NATIVITY
The textileindustryin Patersonhas alwaysdrawnheavilyon
immigrantlabor.3 In the samplestudied,the foreign-born
workersconstituted66.1 percent of the 616 cases. They
represented
a diversity
of nationalorigins,havingcome from
20 different countries. Earlierin the historyof the local
textileindustry,the principal
sourcesof its immigrant
laborhadbeenthecountries
of northern
andwestern
Europe.
Corresponding
to the shift in nationalimmigration,
however,
1Paterson
Directory,
1936
(Newark,
N.J.: The
price & Lee Co.).
2A totalof 491showed
somebroad-silkemployment
during
1935,buttheusual
Industry of 38 of these was not broad silk
The usual occupation and industry were
defined,respectively,as the occupationand Industryin which the personwas
normally employed. In doubtful cases the occupationat which the person had
workedlongestwas considered
his usualone. Similarly, if he had been employed at
hisusualoccupation
in twoindustries
or more,theindustry
in whichhe hadworked
longest was considered the usual one.
3in
1890,
54.8percent
ofthes11k-textile
operatives
inPatersonwere
foreign
born.
This percentageis exclusiveof apprentices,laborers,and loom fixers,
small groupsnot classifiedin the censusby the specificbranch of textilesin
whichtheywere engaged. Both in 1900 and 1930 the percentageof foreign-born
was 50.5(see tableA-8).
53
PATERSON
54
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
laborcame increasingly
from easternand southernEurope,
sourcesof the new immigration.4In the sample, 81.3 percent
of theforeign-born
werefromeastern
andsouthern
Europeand
theNearEast;59.2percent
camefromthetwocountries,
Italy
and Poland.
The foreign-bornhave had long residencein the United
States. A largemajority,
76.9 percent,enteredthe country
between1900 and 1920; 15.2 percentcame before 1900 and
7.9 percentafter 1920.
The native-bornworkers in the broad-silkindustry and in
the rest of the silk-textile
industryin Patersonhave been
the childrenof immigrants. In 1920eitherone or bothparents
of morethan70 percent
of thenative-born
silkoperatives
in
Paterson
wereforeign-born
(seetableA-8). In keeping
with
the tradition
in "textile"
families,
the youngpeoplehave
followedtheir elders into the mills.
AGE
Approximately
half of the broad-silkworkersin the sample
were45 yearsof ageor over5in November
1936(seetableA-9).
The age of theseworkersrangedfrom18 to 75 years. Amongthe
foreign-born,
61.4percent
were45 yearsof ageor over;their
medianage was 48.4 years,whilethat of the native-born
was
35.1 years.
The age composition
of all silk-textile
operativesin
Paterson
hasbeenshifting
to the higherbrackets
sincethe lastcen
tury.
In 1890only9.6 percentwere45 yearsof age or older,
butby 1930theproportion
hadincreased
to 28.3percent
(see
table A-10).
SEX
On the basisof the sample,men outnumbered
women3.5 to i
(see table A-9). This ratio is much higherthan that found
amongall silk-textile
operatives
in the city,whichwas 1.1 to
1 in the decennial
censusyearsfrom1890to 1920 and 1.4 to i
4see0. S. Census
of Population.
In 1890, 73.3 percent of the foreign-born
populationof Paterson,which constituted
approximately40 percentof the total
population,had originatedin northernand western Europe. By 1930, however,
56.7 percentof the foreign-bornpopulation,which was about 31 percentof the
total,had originated
in southernand easternEuropeand the Near East.
5the
person's
ageon
hislast
birthdayprior
tothedate
oftheinterviewwas
recordedon the schedules.
CHARACTERISTICS
in 1930:
OF THE WORKERS
55
How longthe highproportion
of nen has existed
among broad-silkworkers is not known. It may be that women,
especially
the older ones,withdrewfrom this labor market
fasterthan men as employment
in the industryand in Paterson
became more scarce.
men by 3.2 to 1.
Foreign-born
menoutnumbered
native-born
However,native-born
womenoutnumbered
foreign-born
women by 2.3 toi. Among the native-born the
sexeswerealmostevenlydivided,
but the ratioof men to women
in the foreign-borngroup was 8.7 to i.
AGE
OP
BEGINNING
WORK
A small proportionof broad-silkworkershad theirfirst
jobs(lasting
i monthor longer)
whentheywere10 yearsold
or younger. An equallysmallproportionstartedworkingat
20 yearsof ageor over(seetableA-11).Mostcommonly,
first
jobswereobtained
at theage of 14, and71.9percent
of all
theworkershad begunworkingby the timetheywere16 yearsof
The older workers entered the labor market at earlier
ages than the youngerworkers.
age.
EDUCATION
AND
MARITAL
STATUS
Over 21 percentof all personsin the samplecompletedno
schoolgrade,and i percentdid collegework(see tableA-12).
Theforeign-born
accounted
forallof thefirstgroupandfor
practicallyall of the latter. The median number of grades
completedfor all workerswas 6.6. A largerproportion
of the
womenreceived
someformalschooling
thandid the men.
A majority,
64.5percent,
of the broad-silk
workerswere
married(see tableA-13). Most of the men were married,but
only 19.6 percentof the women had this status.
ENTRY INTO THE LABOR MARKET
AND RESIDENCE
IN PATERSON
Although
onlyabouta thirdof all workersin thesamplewere
native-born,
48.2 percenthad their first jobs in Paterson,and
19.0 percententeredthe labor marketsomewhereelse in the
UnitedStates(see table A-15). The rest, 32.8 percent,first
beganworkoutsidethiscountry. Most of the foreign-bornwho
hadtheirfirstjobsin thiscountry
entered
thelabormarket
Bunpaid
employmentwasnot
considered
a job.
56
PATERSON
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
A preponderance
of the native-born,
71.8percent,
were born in Paterson,and practicallyall these persons
in Paterson.
entered the labor market there. Of all the native-born,
84.2 percenthad their first jobs in Paterson.
All but 5 of the 150 persons born in Patersonstarted their
workinglivesin the city and apparently
remainedcompletely
immobilegeographically.Those bora elsewhereshowedsome
mobilityearlyin theirlives,and as a resultof this early
mobility
theylocatedin Patersonand subsequently
livedthere
continuously. Most of the time spent in the labor market
by the groupwho did not have their first jobs in Paterson
(51.8percentof all persons)
was spentin Paterson.
persoas
themedian
lengthof timein thelabormarketoutside
the city was 12.2 yearsand insidethe city 21.2 years.? The
othergroup,who hadtheirfirstjobsin Patersonandcontinued
to residetheresubsequently,
had spenta medianof 22.0 years
in the labor market.
INDUSTRY
OP
PIRST
CONNECTION
AND
ATTACHMENT
TO
BROAD
SILK
That the workers who entered the labor market outside of
Patersonshouldhave been attractedto the city is evidently
explained
by theirbackground
in textiles.
A majority
of these
persons,64.9 percent,had theirfirstjobs in textiles,and
18.5percent
werein broadsilk(seetableA-15). A larger
proportion
of thosehavinginitialconnections
abroadhad them
in textile work than of those who entered the labor market in
this countryoutsideof Paterson. Morethan38 percentof the
Poles,
themostnumerous
foreign
nationality,
wereeitherborn
in or came directlyfrom Lodz, the "Manchesterof Poland."
Of the personswho enteredthe labormarketin Paterson,
81.5percent
hadtheirfirstjobsin textiles,
and46.8percent
were in broad silk.
The fact that all the personswho had theirfirst jobs in
textiles were found in one or more branches of the industry
between1926 and 1936is evidenceof theirlong attachment
to
this industry. This appliesalso to thosewho did not have
initialconnectionsin textiles. In 1936,99.0 percentof all
7time
in thelabormarket
wasmeasured
fromthetimetheperson
entered
thelabor
market through the first 11 months of 1936. This is the length of time the person
was apparently or nominally in the labor market. Persons who withdrew from the
labor market between 1928 and 1935 were left out of the computation. Years in the
city were calculatedfrom the beginningof the most recentperiodof continuous
residence; absences of 6 months or less were not counted as terminating residence.
CHARACTERISTICS
Table 10.- TYPE OF INDUSTRY
OF THE WORKERS
57
ATTACHMENT TO THE BROAD-SILK
INDUSTRY POR PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS, 1926-86
Group
Number
of
Industry
number
Percent
workers
Total
616
Broadsilkonly,1926–388
2
Broad
silk only, 1926-35;
3
Broad silk, but left the
industry prior to 1935
4
Broad silk, 1926–36,with sup
350
100.0
56.81
in
otherindustry
in 19386
35
5.7
26
4.2
116
18.8
44
7.2
30
4.9
15
2.4
plementary employment in
other industries
5
6
Entered broad silk from other
industries, 1926-35
In industry other than broad
silk, but with supple
mentary employment in
7
Numerous shifts between broad
broad silk, 1926-36
silk
and
other
industries
includes
39persons
whofirst
entered
thelabormarket
during
1928-35.
bincludes
nine
personswho
first
entered
thelabormarket
during
1928-35.
Cincludes
eight
persons
whofirst
entered
thelabormarket
during
1928-35
andwhose
firstjobs were in broadsilk.
workers
in thesamplegavesomebranchof textiles
as their
usualindustry(see tableA-28);and 93.8 percentgave broad
silkas theirusualindustry.
A majority,
62.5percent,
of all persons
(groups1 and 2) had
no employment
in any industryotherthan broadsilk duringat
leastthe 10 yearsof the period1926-35.A small portion
(group2), however,foundworkin some otherindustryin
1936. Theseshiftsrepresent
eithershiftsforsupplementary
employment
or permanent
shiftsfrom the industry. A smaller
number(group 3) who had becomeattachedto the broad-silk
industryshiftedout of the industrybefore1935. Although
thesepersonsstillconsidered
broadsilktheirusualindustry
in 1936,they,perhaps,can be considered
shiftsout of broad
silk. Whilesome workerswere leavingthe industry,others
wereenteringit. Someof these(group5) came fromotherin
dustries,
andothers
entered
to taketheirfirstjobs;mostof
themhadno employment
in anyotherindustry
during
theperiod.
PATERSON
58
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
In all,100 workers
(16.2percentof the total)wereaccessions
to broad silk between 1926 and 1936. Althoughremaining
attachedto broadsilk, a large group(group 4) of workers
supplemented
its employment
outsidethe industrywith one or
more intervals
of employment.At thesametime,persons
from
otherindustries,
mainlyfrom relatedtextiles,
enteredbroad
silk to obtainone periodor more of employment
(group6). A
very smallportionof all workers(group7) movedfrom broad
silk to otherindustries
and backwithconsiderable
frequency.
Thus,duringa period
in whichtheindustry's
laborrequire
mentsweredeclining
and the opportunities
for work had become
more erratic,accessionsto and exits from the labormarket
weretakingplace. Therewas a decidedtendency
amongthe
workers whose records were studied to remain attached to their
usual industry. Of the workers who shifted out of broad
silk,more wentdirectlyto relatedtextiles,
particularly
to
Jacquards,
thanto anyotherindustry
(seetableA-14).Twenty
of the 35 workerswho had no employment
otherthan broadsilk
for 10 yearsof the periodshiftedintorelated
textiles
in
1936, and is into miscellaneoustrades and industries.
Of the
116 broad-silk
workerswho had at leastone job outsidetheir
industry
duringtheperiod,
68 obtained
employment
mainlyin
relatedtextiles,
and 48 foundworkin miscellaneous
tradesand
industries.8Twenty-two
of the 26 workerswho leftbroadsilk
before1935wentto relatedtextiles.
SUMMARY
Historically,
the laborsupplyfor broadsilk and for other
silk textilesin Patersonwas drawnfrom the two general
Europeansources of immigration. The youngerimmigrants
and the secondgeneration
followedtheireldersinto the
mills.Thosewhohadspentpartof theirworking
livesoutside
of Patersonlocatedin the city and remainedthere contin
uously thereafter. Personsborn in the city continuedto
reside there.
A largemajorityindicated
a longbackground
in
textiles.
Workersin the sample,a preponderance
of whom
consideredtheirusualindustryto be broadsilk,were rela
tively old. Theirage and theirlong occupational
experience
drenof the 116 broad-silk
workers
who hadat leastone periodof supplementary
employmentoutsideof broadsilk also obtainedat least one periodof employment
on emergency relief or works Program projects.
CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE
WORKERS
59
in silk textiles decreased or obviated their chances of shift
ingto otheroccupations
in privateindustry.When they
shiftedout, most of them went to relatedtextiles,the rest to
For several years
miscellaneous
occupations
andindustries.
past,opportunities
withinthe areafor the younger,more
adaptable
workershave been greatlycurtailed.It is likely
thatthe workerswho could do so left Paterson. Those who
remained
maybe regarded
as residual
in thesensein whichthe
remainingbroad-silkindustryis residual.
CHAPTER
IV
EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE OF THE BROAD-SILK WORKERS,
1926-36
The informationconcerningthe employmentexperienceof
workersin thislabormarketis derivedprincipally
from
a sampleof 22 pay rolls. Althoughthesepay rollscoverthe
employment
experience
of workerswith only one employer,
they
nevertheless
providea recordof the interruptions
of work
and the insecurity
which hangsover the Patersonbroad-silk
workers.
The 22 pay rolls are distributed so as to reflect
thesizeof unitsand the typeof operation
as shownby the
enumeration
for 1935in Davison's
directory.Considerable
difficultywas entailedin obtainingusablerecordsowingto
therecentoriginof manyconcerns
and to the unsatisfactory
condition of records.1 The lengthof each pay-rollrecord,
the numberof looms,and the typeof shopoperation
in any year
are shown in table A-16.
Five pay rolls cover the entire
11 years from 1926 to 1936; two cover as few as 2 years.
The percentagesthat these sampleshops and looms are of
theirrespective
totals
in theindustry
in eachyearappearin
table
11.
The sample accounts for less than 1.0 percent of
totalshopsand of totalloomsin thefirst2 yearsof the
period
andgrowsto 5.6percent
of theshopsand9.1percent
of
the looms in 1936. The numberof differentworkersrepresented
is under 150 in the first 2 years, but it increases to over
1,000 in 1930 and to over 1,100 in the last 2 years. What
proportion
workersin thissamplerepresent
of totalbroad-silk
workersin the labormarketcannotbe ascertained.
Despitethe smallness
of the samplein earlieryearsand the
disproportionate
loomageaccounted
for by the sampleshops,the
employment
experience
of the workersemployedin theseshops
is believed
to be representative
of theexperience
of Paterson
broad-silkworkersin general. This contention is based on
1
Paybooksare frequently
destroyed
afterbeingcheckedfor Statecompensation
Insurance. The recordsof concernsthat have only recentlyenteredbusinesswere
Even where pay rolls of satisfactory
lengthwere available,theiruse
brier.
was frequently
precluded
by the use of numbersin placeof namesorby a totallack
system.
The memoryand patienceor operatorsand old employees
or bookkeeping
were, in fact,requiredto straightenoutsome of the pay rollstranscribed.
too
60
61
EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE
Table 11.- PERCENTAGE
THAT SAMPLE OF BROAD-SILK
SHOPS AND LOOMS
18 OF TOTAL IN PATERSON, 1926-88&
Shops in Year
Sample
Paterson
1926
Looms
m
Number
o
E
B
B
1927
687
644
1928
1929
557
517
1930
516
12
12
1931
478
1932
477
455
Sample
Paterson
Number
Percent
0.7
in .
Percent
0.6
2.3
22,200
21,700
19,500
18,100
16,900
552
697
727
16
3.3
15,700
897
17
3.6
905
6.1
4.0
14,900
14,400
14,000
943
993
6.5
7.1
7.5
5.6
0.9
11
1933
1934
475
1935
480
18
20
22
1936
390
22
2.0
2.3
4.2
4.6
13,500
11,100
130
184
1,007
1,011
0.8
2.8
3.9
4.3
5.7
9.1
&Based
on tables
A-2andA-16.
thesimilarityof principalcharacteristics
shown by all pay
rollsand on a knowledge
of the labormarket. Certain of the
pay roll-by-pay
roll tabulations
disclosedifferences
in the
employment
experience
of plantlaborforces. These differences
do not, however, reflect any substantial deviation from the
common characteristicsshown by the data. The similarity of
behavior
amongthe payrollsis striking
whentheindividual
variations
over the yearsof recordare compared.These
generalizations
willbe developed
in detailas the material
is presented.
CHARACTER
OF
YEARLY
POR
DEMAND
PATTERNS
OP
AND
ITS
CONSEQUENCES
EMPLOYMENT
Production
and,consequently,
the demandfor laborare
subject to pronouncedseasonal variations. A market for
underwearfabrics,which constitutethe bulk of the output
of the industry
in Paterson,
andfor novelty
anddressgoods
existsthroughout
the entireyear. Duringcertainseasons
thereare, however,
largeincreases
in demandoccasioned
partly
by induced buying and partly by conventionalconsumer habits.
Tosupply
thisdemand,
thecycleof production
beginning
at the
Weavingshops must beginseveralweeksaheadof the seasonal
PATERSON
62
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
rise in consumerpurchases.At the same time thereis always
an accumulation
of stockson hand,which,in conjunction
with the market outlook, may act as a drag on or a spur to
production
dependingon the size and kindof stocks. Despite
the trendtowardhand-to-mouth
buying,seriousoverproduction
hasobtained
fora number
of years,
withinfrequent
interludes
of increased
demandthathaveoccasioned
a feverish
increase
of output.
The seasonalvariation
of broad-loom
activity,
as shownfor
the country's broad-silk industry for the years 1922-31 by
SimonKuznets,2
is characterized
as follows:Activity
rises
to a primarypeak for the year in Februaryand March,after
whichproduction
declines
to thelowpointof theyearin June.
A gradualupswingthensets in whichmountsto a secondary
peak
in November and December. Activitythus increasesthrough
Januaryto the peak in the spring. The averagedeviation
for
thisseasonalwas 3.6 percent,and the range of fluctuation
was
11 .
The mainoutlines
of thispatternwerefoundin Paterson
during the period1926-36. There are certain differences:
Februaryhas been the monthof the primarypeak,but a sharp
taperingoff occursuntilJune;a gradualupswingresultsin a
secondary
peakin October,butsubsequently
thereis a decline
in activityuntilthe pick-upafterthe firstof the year;and
the amplitude
of seasonal
fluctuations
is muchgreater.In the
broad-silk
industryas a wholethe patternof seasonalvari
ationsbecamegreatlyaccentuated
after1929. This changeis
shownin a surveymadeby the National
Federation
of Textiles.
It was foundthatfrom1926through1929monthlyvariations
in
employment
from the yearlyaveragedid not exceed5 percent,
plus or minus. Monthly variationsin machine hours were
likewise
small,exceeding
5 percentin eitherdirection
in only
9 of the 48 months. From 1930 through1933, however,wide
variations
in activity
occurred,
corresponding
to theseasonal
pattern
outlined
above.Negative
variations
in employment
were
above5 percent
in mostmonths
andranged
downward
to morethan
20 percent;in availablemachinehoursthey most frequently
exceeded10 percentand in one month were over 27 percent.
Similar
largedeviations
fromthe yearlyaverages
occurred
on
2Seasonal
Variations
inIndustryand
Trade
(NewYork:NationalBureauof Economic
Research,1933),D. 392.
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
63
thepositive
side, althoughthe rangeof the variationshere
3
The movement
of
was not so high as on the negativeside.
production
in theindustry
at largebecamemoreirregular,
as
it did also in Paterson.
Although
an upswing
to a fallpeakmaterializes
in Paterson
underordinary
conditions,
it hasin certainyearsbeenaf
fectedby strikes. All the five major industry strikes from
1928through1935 haveoccurredin this season.4 The unions
haveaimedto takeadvantage
of thispeak,whichin some years
hasnot fullymaterialized.
What is usuallythe busiest
season,
latewinter
andearlyspring,
hasnotbeeninterrupted
by a majorindustry
strikesinceshortlyafterthe war.
Some work is availablefor part of the industryover the
entireyear. However,
in Patersonmostestablishments
are,for
longeror shorterperiods,completely
shut down or producing
on greatly reduced schedules. Of the shops in the pay-roll
sample,all but one operatedat leastsome portionof every
yearduringtheperiod
forwhichtheirrecords
weretaken(see
tableA-17).Theaverage
number
of monthsoperated5
per year
rangedfrom 4.47 to 11.29. Twelve establishments out of the 20
for which the data coveredmore than 2 years averagedmore than
10 months'operation
per year.
Averagenumberof monthsof operationfor all shopsin any
yearvariedfrom 8.22 monthsin 1933 to 11.50 monthsin 1928
(seefigure16). In 3 yearsof the 1926-30period,the average
was over 1l, but between 1931 and 1935 it did not exceed
10.44 months.
Fifteenconcerns
ran nightshiftsat sometimeduringthe
yearsfor whichtheirpay rollswerestudied(see tableA-18).
The averagenumberof monthsof extra-shift
operation
per year
for any shop was between1.33 and 8.88. For all shops the
averagelengthof extra-shift
operation
variedfrom2.75months
in 1931to 6.67monthsin 1934.
3
SeeMelvinT.Copeland
and W. HomerTurner,
Production
andDistribution
of Silk
andRayonBroad Goods(New York: The NationalFederationof Textiles,Inc.,1835),
ChartAA, DD. 88-9.
4Thedates
ofthemajor
strikes
occurring
inthebroad-s11k
industry
inPaterson
between1928 and 1936 are October10, 1928 to June 1, 1929; July 22 to September
12, 1931; August 31 to December4, 1933; September5 to September24, 1934; and
October 31 to November 9, 1835.
5
Number of months of operationwas determined from the biweekly pay rolls.
Whenever
two ormorenamesappeared
on a dayroll,theshopwasconsidered
to be
in operation for that pay period.
PATERSON
64
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
Withinthe limitsof the generalvolumeof workflowing
to the industry,
the production
levelsof individual
shops
fluctuate widely and frequently. A commission
operator
is
wholly
dependent
on a converter
forwork. At thesametimehe
mustcompete
withotheroperators
forthiswork,except
during
the infrequent
periodswhen thereare enoughordersto occupy
the shopsup to a highlevelof capacity
withmoreworkin
sight.Whether
or nottheconverter
willgiveoutworkandin
whatamountdependon theprospects
of the marketand on his
success
in beating
downweaving
rates.Duringslackseasons
competition
is particularly
keen. Independent
weaversare in
somewhatthe same position,in that they may at times take
commission
orders,
andtheiroperation
is alsohighly
sensitive
to the market.
Figure16.-AVERAGENUMBEROF MONTHSIN OPERATION
FOR ALLSHOPS
IN PAY-ROLL
SAMPLE,
1926–36
MONTHS
12
o
9
8
1926
BASED
ON
27
TABLE
A-17
28
'29
30
31
32
33
34
'35
'36
WPA - NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT L-21
In orderto keepa plantrunningat capacity,
it is necessary
to have new warpsreadyto placein the loomsas soon as the
old ones are exhaustedand to have fillingmade up for the
shuttles.
Orders must be dovetailed.
With high capacity
relative
to the amountof workavailable
duringmostor all the
year, capacityoperationon even one shift is seldom maintained
for verylong. The levelof production
variesin shortperiods
becauseof the variationin the volume of work a shop can
secure or undertake and of the short period of production
required
forturning
outmostorders.Excluding
therelatively
little time requiredfor preliminarywork, the length of
the productionperiodfor a warp depends on length of the
EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE
65
warp,
pickage,e
speedof theloom,
contingencies
thatstopor
slowdownwork,andtheamountof loomage
operation.
Witha
production
of 25 yards per 8-hourday per loom on standard
constructions,
the productionperiod for a 1,200-yardwarp is
about
9 weeks.Working
dayslongerthanstandard
shorten
the
period,
andan extrashiftcutsit approximately
in half.
The resultant
flow of work is thereforenot even but lumpy.
Oncean order is in the looms, it is necessaryto get it
finished
as soon as possible.The operator wants production
speeded
up in orderto be in a position
to takeanyadditional
work and to increase his earnings. The exigencies of the
marketand the desire of convertersand factors to secure more
rapidturn-over
of theircapitalalsostimulate
speedof
output.Thisleadsto an extension
of capacity
by lengthening
thetimeof operation
within
thedayandweek.
Being unable to keep their looms active throughoutthe
ar, operatorsmust, or do, bunch their work by me os
of the
extra shift. This trend has been stimulated by the demands
of the industryand also by the drive to increaseearnings.
Extra-shift
operationhas actedto increasethe lumpinessin
the flow of work.7
None of the five shops in the sample for
1926ran a nightshiftin thatyear. Most of the concerns had
little
or no night-shift
operation
before
1931,although
after
thatyearit wasdecidedly
increased
(seetableA-18).Seven
concerns
had no nightshiftduringthe lengthof theirrecords.
Most of these had 20 looms or less.
The largestshop in the
sample,havingapproximately
200 looms,did not run a night
shift.
But this was evidently due to its more strategic
position
relative
to themarket.Generally,
thelarger
shops
carry on much more extra-shiftwork than the smaller ones.9
Where more than one shift is operated,the variationsin
activityare likelyto be greater.
Apick"isonecrossing
oftheshuttle.
The
number of picks to the inch depends
on the construction
of the fabric.
7.
Extra-or multiple-shirt
operation
beganduringthewar.
At that time more than
enoughworkwas availablefor the day shirt. Multipleshirtsat that timerose out
of the pressureof ordersand the poss1bility
of increased
profits.
Bthe
verysmallshopsfrequently
cannot
affordto runan extrashirt.Thisis due
to thefactthata pettyoperator
ordinarily
cannotpaytheaddedoverhead
that
results from substitutingfor himself, or for an employee on the day shirt,
a skilledworkerwho can fix loomsand keep the shop running.
'In the last months of 1936, 78.5 percentof the shops and 65.8 percentof the
9
looms
wererunning
singleshirts;
21.5 percentof theshopsand 34.4percentof
theloomswere operatingtwo shifts. computed from Herbert S. Swan, The Plain
Goods Silk Industry (Paterson,N. J.: The Industrialcommissionof the city
of Paterson,
1837),pp. 13-4.
66
PATERSON
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
Once a spurt in production is over, extra workers on one
or both shifts are laid off. The fluctuation of demand for
labor in brief intervals creates a situation in which workers
are constantlybeingtaken on and let go by the individual
establishments in the industry. This spasmodic course of
production
occurring
withinthepattern
of theseasonal
vari
ationscreatesa spasmodicdemandfor labor.10 As there are
several hundredshops in the industryand as each has its
own productionschedule,which ordinarilychangesat short
intervals,demandfor labor is in additionsporadic. The
demandof the typicalestablishment
for laboris so inconstant
and uncertain
thatit can keeponlya smallforcepermanently
attached.
Whenproduction
dropsoff or when the specificjobs
for which workersare hiredare finished,those laid off go
elsewherein searchof work;and theiremploymentis, by and
large,dependenton a sporadicdemandamongthe manyshopsin
the industry
withinthe limitsof the seasonalvariations.
UTILIZATION
OF
THE
LABOR
FORCE
The amount of employment provided by shops in the sample
fluctuatedgreatlyin short intervals. Monthlyvariation
in total"man-weeks
withemployment"11
received
by workers
on pay rolls in 12 of the shops between 1929 and 1936 is
shown in figure17 and tableA-19. About the same pattern of
seasonality
obtained
in mostyears,
although
in someyearsthe
range of fluctuation
variedgreatly. The two lowest points
of activity
weredue to strikes
(see footnote
4, page63),
but others were the result of lulls in business. Interestingly
enough,1929was not the highpointof activityfor these
shops. The volumeof man-weeks
with employment
was greatest
during1930 and 1931,in the beginning
of the depression,
and
10th1s
condition
hasbeenobserved
elsewhere.
on the basisof a surveyof the
largermillsin eastern
Pennsylvania
in 1928,theStateDepartment
of Laborand
Industryobservedthat "extremefluctuationsin employmentfrom month to month
and year to year have long been recognizedas a handicapto the s11k industry.
Thatsimilarfluctuations
shouldoccurin a singleweek of extremeactivityin the
Industry may not have been so generally appreclated.
Hoursand Earningsof Men
and women in the Silk Industry(Commonwealthof Pennsylvania,Dept. Labor and
Industry,
Spec.Bull.No. 29, 1929),D. 30.
11Except
forashort
period
during
theNRA,
theshops
didnotkeep
records
oftime
worked by employees. "Man-weeks"or "weekswith employment"were found in the
following manner: For each worker in every pay period in which he was employed, it
was determined whether he worked 1 week or less or over 1 week to 2 weeks
the
lengthof the pay period. In eachcase,such determinations
were made on the basis
of the worker'searningsduringthe periodin conjunction
with the prevailing
level
of full-time
weeklyearningsfor his respective
occupational
group. In determining
"man-weekswith employment"for each month, pay rolls ending in any month were
counted in that month.
L
A
Y
C
S
6
L
Y
I
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o
8
H
S
L
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68
PATERSON
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
in 1934and 1935,duringthe NRA. The troughoccurredin 1933
mainly
because
ofstrikes
whichlasted
several
weeks,
although
thecoming
of therecovery
program
spurred
activity
during
part
of that year.
In 1936the primarypeakdid not materialize.
Short-time
increases
in production
resultin a majority
of
the laborforcereceiving
brief,singleperiodsof employment
with individualestablishmentsin any year. The hiringof new
workerswheneveran upswingin activityoccursthus spreads
an establishment'savailable work quite thinly over most of
its total force.
The degreeof utilization
of workersmay be expressed
in
terms of the ratio of the total numberof differentpersonswho
appearon the pay rollsduringa yearto the averagenumberof
workersused per week.12 In 8 yearsof the period,all shops
hiredthreeor more timesthe averagenumberof workersused
per week;and in the remaining3 yearsthe ratiowas between
2 and 3 to i (see table A-20). As between the smaller and
largershops,therewas no appreciable
difference
in this
aspect
of pay-roll
behavior
during
theperiod.Oneof the
highestratios,8.3 to 1, was found in the pay roll of an
establishment
havingmorethan100 loomsand in anotherhaving
>
20 looms.13
Not only are moreworkershiredduringthe year than would
be neededto do the aggregateamountof work available,but
more workersare hired during individualpay periods than
can be utilizedfor full pay periods. From pay period to
pay period,the standardlengthof whichis 2 weeks,a portion
of the forceemployedby the industryreceivessomething
less
thana full pay periodof employment.Anotherportionobtains
full employment
and alsoovertime,
if thisis providedby shop
operation. This situationarises out of the preferential
12qhis
rat1018 obtained
in thefollowing
manner:The number of weeks of shop
operation
duringa yearis dividedintothe totalnumberof weekswithwork
receivedby the laborforce. This quotientrepresentsthe numberof workersthat
wouldconstantly
be required
if employment
werespreadevenlyoverthe period.
Then the numberof differentworkersappearingon pay rollsduring the operating
periodis dividedby thisaverage. To obtainthe ratiofor all shops in each year,
the number of workers requiredin each shop was added; and the total number of
workerson all pay rollswas dividedby this total. Toobtain the ratio for each
shop in all years, the same method was used.
13Despite
thevariations
in theratios
shownby thedifferent
payrollsineach
yearand overthe entireperiod,allpay rollsdemonstrate
thecharacteristic
discussed above.
An enlargement of the sample would only have provided additional
examplesof this type of pay-rollbehavior.
In all tabulations
eachshop'spayrollshavebeenusedas a unit;no intershop
comparisons
have beenattempted.
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
69
position
of partof theworkers
andoutof theconstant
fluc
tuationsin the demand for labor.
A divisionof the industryforce along these linescan be
made,
although
onlyapproximately,
by showing
thepercentage
of
workers
having1 week or lessof employment
and the percentage
havingover1 week to 2 weeksof employment
in everypay
period.The percentage
of workerson pay rollsin the pay pe
riodsendingin eachmonthwho obtainedoveri week to 2 weeks
ofemployment
in eachpayperiodis represented
in figure18
and table A-21.
The difference between the percentageshown
bythegraphand100percent
is theproportion
of workers
who
received
1 weekor lessof employment
in eachpayperiod
ending
inanymonth.Hirings,
quits,
anddischarges
within
a pay pe
riodaccount,
of course,for a portionof the workersreceiving
1 week or less of employment
duringeach pay period. For the
mostpart,however,
thevarying
proportions
of thetwo groups
tendto followa seasonal
pattern.Thisshowsthatdemand
factors
areresponsible
fora largeportion
of theindustry's
forceobtaining
lessthanfullpayperiods
of employment.14
Generally,
the proportion
of workersreceiving
1 weekor
lessof employment
in the pay periodsof each monthfalls
>
in busy periodsand risesin slack periods(see figure18).
Even throughout
the peak monthsa considerable
proportionof
theworkersreceive
i weekor lessof employment
duringpay
periods.Theproportion
of workers
obtaining
overi weekto
2 weeksof employment
withinpay periods
decreased
overthe
An increasefollowedduring the next
2 yearswhen relatively
moreemployment
was available,
but the
years down to 1933.
downwardtrend was resumedin 1936.
From the data alreadypresentedit would be inferredthat
highturn-over
rateshaveprevailed
in theindustry.
Such
indeed the case,
is
and this conditionmay be presumedto have
14Thisgeneral
conditionwas
found
inthesilkmillsineastern
Pennsylvania
asfar
backas1928.
A sumnaryof the under-and overemployment
found there in a busy
weekina peakmonth
issufficientlypertinent
to quoteat length:"Intheweekly
pay period studied, while the great majority of the plants were working double
shifts,in some cases threeshirts, the industrywas not providinga fullweek's
work for one-third of its employes, although it was requiring excessive hours of
overtimefrom one-thirdof its employes. These extremes in overtime and under
timeare not explainedon the groundsof sex, for whilemen unquestionably
worked
the greater proportion of overtime, one-fourth of the men worked under time and
more than one-fifth of the women worked overtime. Nor were these extremes wholly
the resultof pressureof work in certaindepartments
and slackwork in othersfor
every occupational group showed an appreciable amount both of under time and
in no district were the majority of the workers
overtime employment.
employed their regular full time hours, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Dept. Labor
and Industry,loc.cit.
L
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A-2
EMPLOYMENT
71
EXPERIENCE
existed
previous
to 1926. Mr. JamesWilson,whilepresident
of
thePaterson
Chamber
of Commerce,
referred
to the prevalent
"excessive
turnover"before a conferenceon the industry
in1928. Speaking
of the unsatisfactory
employment
conditions,
he said:
"Everyeffortshould be made to reduce the industrial
a very grievous ill in
Something should be done
to obviate the present unhappy condition of affairs
waste of excessive
turnover,
the industryhere.
whena man wandersfrom one placeto anotherseeking
employment without any sense of loyalty to his em
ployer, sometimes to find every door closed in his
face. Unemployment should be reduced. Employment
should be stabilized."15
In 1936,a representative
of localindustry
and business
interestswas not certain as to "the advisabilityof the
as
attemptto makean investigation
of silk employees
.
1118
theturnover
in thatindustry
is quitea difficult
one.
Turn-overrates17fluctuated
considerably
duringeach year
of the period. (See monthlyrates in table A-22.) Between
1926and1928,theseratesrosesharplyandremained
on this
highlevelthebalance
of the period18
(seefigure19). This
rise reflectsan increasingintermittencyand casualness
of employment.19
The
constant fluctuations
in the demand
15
American
Pederationist,
vol.35,No.8 (Aug.1928),D. 993.
16.
'Ina letterfrom the secretary
oftheChamberof Commerceof Paterson,New Jersey,
October 6, 1936.
17Turn-over
rates
arehere
expressed
interms
ofthe
transactions
(accessions,
separations,
etc.)
per100workers
on all
daynumber
rolls.of
Rates were found
Annualratesare additionsof the monthlyrates. The number of
workers on all pay rolls in any month was found by averaging the individual
biweeklypay rolls of each concern and then adding these averages to get the
average number of employeeson all pay rolls during the month. The rate per
100 employees
was thencomputedfor eachtype of labormobility,thus:
Totalaccessions
(occurring
onpay rolls
endingin any month)x 100
for each month.
= Accession rate
Totalemployees(averagenumberon all
pay rollsendingin any month)
18theturn-overrates
forthis
sample
oflocal
broad-s11k
industryare
farabove
thehighest rates found in the series publishedfor selected industriesby the
U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor statistics(see Handbook of Labor
Statistics:
1936Edition
(Bull.No.616,1936),pp.803-11).or
course,
it must
be kept in mind that all interruptions
in employment,includingthoseresulting
fromstrikesand otherrandomdisturbances,
were countedas lay-offs(separations).
Whereshort-timeabsences
fromworkwiththe nameof theworkerremaining
on&
pay roll are not definedas lay-offs,as in the procedureused by the Bureau of
LaborStatistics,the rates are necessarilylower. In Paterson & name does not
ordinarily
appearon a day roll unlessthe personworkedduringthe period.
18the
payrollsadded
tothe
sample
in1987and
1928
hadsomewhathigherratesof
turn-overthanthe five pay rolls in the sample in 1926. However, the latter
increased
rapidly
after1928,and up to 1930,at least,
as demonstrated
by their
annual
turn - over rates.
1926 - 377.0
418.7
1927
1928 - 463.8
1929
543.4
1930 - 550.9
.
L
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EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
73
forlaborand the characteristic
of shortperiodsof employ
mentareshownby thecloserelationship
betweenaccessions
and separations.20
Accession
rateswereclassified
by firstaccession
(insofar
asthepay-roll
recordof theindividual
shopwas concerned)
and rehiring rates. These show the extent to which workers
previouslyconnected with an establishment were hired back
whileotherworkerswere beinghiredfor the firsttime(inso
faras thiswas shownby available
pay rolls).
As thePaterson
shopskeepno personnel
records
whichwould
permit
a classification
of separations
by reasons
forleaving
a pay roll, separationswere classifiedas "lay-offs"and
"finalseparations."Lay-offswere dividedinto"short-time"
and "long-time"
lay-offs.21A short-timelay-off occurred if
an employee's
namewas not absentfrom the pay rollfromwhich
he had been separatedmore than two pay periods(28 days).
A lay-offlastingthreeor more pay periodswas classified
as
a long-time
lay-off.22
finalseparations
werethosesepara
tionswhichresultedin an employee's
not beingrehiredin any
subsequent
pay rollup to the end of 1936.
Duringthe greaterpart of the period,the rate of final
separations
was higherthan eitherof the two types of lay
offs. Exceptfor thosewholeavethislabormarket,
workers
who do not returnto a particular
shop, if it is still oper
ating,simplyconfinetheireffortsto find employment
to the
severalhundredother concernsin the industry. Long-time
lay-offshave beenmorecommonthanshort-time
lay-offs.The
lattertypeis experienced
by theregular
workers
andsomeof
the contingentforce, who return to a shop after a brief
intervalwith the promiseof employment
or who find theirway
backin the courseof seekingwork. As will be seen presently,
most of the workers do not become reattached to a pay roll
afterone or two briefperiodsof employment.
29
Whetherpayrollsare expanding
or contracting
duringany periodis determined
by which rate, accession or separation, is the higher. The lower of the two at
any time is, of course, the replacement rate.
21,
The term" lay-orr*
18 hereusedin an accepted
sense. Technically,it meansa
termination of employment without prejudice. This,of course,would probably
apply
to the largemajorityof lay-ortsthatresultedin the employee's
neverreappearing
on the pay roll. Here it is also used to cover all othercases of separation,
includingthosewhere the worker laid off laterbecomesa reaccession.All final
separations
were, of course,lay-offsat the time of theiroccurrence.
2271meactuallyseparatedfroma
payrollcannotbe
accuratelymeasured
bythe
numberof pay periodsof separation.
This is due to the fact thata personmay not
workfullpayperiods
duringtheperiods
whenhisnameis on a payrolland that,
consequently,
the lengthof time actuallyseparatedcouldbe longerthanappears.
PATERSON
74
BROAD-SILK
WORK DISTRIBUTION
WORKERS
AND EMPLOYMENT
PATTERNS
A majorityof the workersin this labormarketobtainonly
a small amount of employmentin any one place. Their em
ploymentis contingenton an increasein production,
and as
activity
tapersoff theyagaingo in searchof work. This
grouptherefore
constitutes
a "floating"
force. A minority
of the workers,on the otherhand,receiveall or the greater
part of their employment in one place. They constitute a
"fixed"or regularforce.23 However,in frequentperiods
throughout
the yeartheydo not workfulltime,and partof the
yeartheyare unemployed.
The highdegreeof uncertainty
in the laborrequirements
of
an establishment
hasmadeit impossible
for mostworkersto
100kto particular
shopsfor steadyemployment.Instead,
theyhavehad to obtainworkin a multiplicity
of places.
An employerdoes not need to encourageworkersoutsideof
his regular force to be "on call." A reserve is readily
available
to satisfy
thedemands
forcontingent
workers
when
ever production
picks up. Workersrespondto advertisements
hung on factorybuildings. The word is passed around that
work is available
at certainplaces,or else they makecasual
application.
Whenthespurtin production
is over,the"extra"
workers are laid off.
The next pick-upmay bringback some
of thecontingent
helpemployed
previously.
Ordinarily,
new
faces appear.
Part of the contingentforce is hiredfor as long as the
work lasts,and is referredto as the intermittent
workers.
This intermittent
statusdependson the amountof work avail
able and the occupationin question. Anothersmall portion
of the contingent
force is hiredto do specificjobs. These
casualworkers
areengaged,
typically,
in twisting,
entering,
handing-in, and reeding
doing all jobs that a twister is
supposed to be capable of doing. Loom fixing,warping,and
certain
otheroperations
alsoaredoneon a casualor jobbasis
in some of the shops.
A worker who constantly makes the
rounds of the shops to obtaincasual work is colloquially
calleda "gypsy."In viewof theshortintervals
of employment
23
'Inaddition to using the terms "fixed"and "1108ting to distinguishbetween
the principaltypes of employmentexperiencein this labor market, the terms
"regular"
and "contingent"
are also used for the same two types.
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
75
givento a large proportionof the intermittentworkers,
however,
thisapt termcouldverywellbe appliedto themalso.
The preponderance
of briefemployment
durations
experienced
with one employer is demonstratedin figure 20 (see also
tableA-29)where a heavyclusteringof cases occursin the
lowest frequenciesin each year. With the exceptionof 1926,
approximately
50 percent
or moreof allworkers
wereemployed
only 9 weeks or less with one employer. It will also be
seen that those who worked 2 weeks or less accounted for about
one-quarter
to one-third
of all workersin eachyearof the
periodexcept the first. In 8 years, approximately 70 0
80 percentof all workersobtainednot morethan26 weeks
with employment.
The corollaryof the smallamountsof employmentobtained
by a majorityof the workersis the almostequalpreponderance
ofsingleperiods
of employment24
(seefigure21). In
6 years
of the periodmore than 70 percentof all personsworkedonly
once for one employerin any one year.
The workersreceiving
morethana half-year
withworkwithan
establishment
are predominantly
thosewho lookto it for their
principal
or soleemployment.In mostyears,
according
to the
pay-roll
sample,onlybetween20 and 30 percentof all workers
had more than 26 weeks with employment on one pay roll (see
tableA-29,wherethe distributions
are givenfor each year).
About
35 percent
of the616workers
in theoccupational-history
samplecould be characterized
as membersof the fixed force
of individualplants since they met each of the following
criteria,the first two of whichcorrespondto the criteria
usedfor the fixedforcein the pay-roll
sample:
(1) Morethan1 yearof connection
(firstaccession
to final
separation,
as shownby the work history)with one shop
duringpartor all of 1935and preceding
years;
12) More than half of the employedtime during1935 spent
in this shop;
131 And also with 50 percentor more of the entire con
nectionspent in regularemploymentas definedin the
Introduction.
Of particular
plantforces,
at leasthalfof thisfixedgroup
hademployment
in onlyone shopfor from2 to 3 years. In
each
24Aperiod
of employment
isa period
during
whichanindividual's
nameappears
continuouslyon a payroll.
N
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A-2
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
77
Piguro 21.- DISTRIBUTION OP ALL PERSONS WHO WORKED
INDIVIDUAL SHOPS, BY NUMBER OF EMPLOYMENT
PERIODS, 1926-36
AT
PERCENT
10
20
30
500
40
60
70
80
90
100
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
NUMBER
OF EMPLOYMENT
2
BASED
ON TABLE
A-23
PERIODS
3 OR OVER
WPA-NATIONAL
RESEARCH
PROJECT
L-20
of 8 years,1.7 percent
or lessof all workershad52 weeks
with work.
"Full-year"
employeescomprisedrelativelyhigh
proportions
in thefirst2years,whenmoreworkwasavailable
Throughprefermentor vestedinterest,a
decreasing
minorityof workersin the markethas beenable to
establish
relatively
permanent
connections
in particular
shops.
25
Thisfixedforcehasconsisted
of operators,
members of their
families,
relatives,
friends,
and old employees.
(see table A-29).
The employment
experience
of the fixedgroupis the most
favorable
in the market,yet itsstatushasa contingent
aspect
and in recentyearsit has had to acceptincreasingly
poor
conditionsof employment.Its fortunes are closely related
to the fortunes of the concerns to which it is attached.
Whena concernshutsdownor goesout of business,
as has
25
Operatorswere not includedin tabulationsof pay-rolldata unless they were
postedon pay rollsas regularworkers,
PATERSON
78
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
so frequently
happened,
the tenureof the preferred
group
is permanently
or temporarily
destroyed,
andit againbecomes
The destitution entailed by
mobile in the labor market .
shut-downs,
too littlework,or workat low pay was in evidence
Mostof the workersregularly
attachedto
among them in 1936.
pettyshopshaveworkedundersweatshop
conditions,
andtheir
resources
havebeenso pooras to narrowor obliterate
the
differencesin well-beingbetweenthem and membersof the
floatinggroup.
In order to characterize
furtherthe employmentof these
twogeneral
groups,
theymaybe defined
in thetermspreviously
indicated: those receiving26 weeks of employmentor less in
Pigu . 22. - AVERAGE NUMBER OP WEEKS WITH EMPLOYMENT FOR ALL
PERSONS WHO WORKED AT INDIVIDUAL SHOPS, 1926-86
O
NUMBER
OF WEEKS
SO
40
PERSONSWITH
TO
1 YEAR WITH WORK
30
20
ALL
WORKERS
10
PERSONSWITH
YEAR
OR LESS WITH WORK
0
1920
HAND
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
*34
39
36
PA-NATIONAL
RENANCNPROJECT
ON TALLE A -24
1 year and those receivingmore than 26 weeks. The short
tenuregroup,the majorityof the labor force in any year,
obtained
an average
of between
6 and7 weeks'employment
(the
medianwas between3 and 4 weeks)in most yearsof the period
(seefigure22 and tablesA-29and A-30)
. Workersin the
long-tenure
class,on theotherhand,hadaverages
of between
40 and 44 weeks in all but 2 years.
While the short-tenure
peoplereceivedmore employment
the
more periodsof work they obtained,the reversewas true of
the other workers.
Of the former, those who returned to the
sameemployertwo or moretimesprobably
did so becauseat
the time of lay-offthey were promisedsome additionalwork
in the near future;or else they becamereattached
simplyin
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
79
the courseof lookingfor work. In the long-tenure class,
those
whose
names
were
on
a pay roll continuously had most
employment;
persons
withtwoandthreeperiods
of employment
or morecamenextin thisorderrespectively.
Thissituation
is explainable
principally
on the basisof theamountof work
availablefor personsattachedto an establishment
and the
degreeof preference
that is accordedto each. A portionof
theworkers
whodepend
entirely
or in majorparton particular
shopsfor employment
workintermittently;
theiremployment
is usually
splitup intothreeperiods
or more. The maximum
in any yearwas nineperiods.Employment
periodsaveraged
about 10 or 11 weeks for long-tenurepersonshaving three
periods
or moreof employment,
whiletherewereabout20 and
21 weeks for those with two periodsand usuallybetween41
and46 weeksfor thosewithone period.
The averagelengthof the intervals
duringwhichworkerswere
separated
fromany one pay rollduringa yearwas foundfor all
personshaving more than one period of employment26
(see
table12). In most years of the survey the lengthof this
periodaveragedbetween5 and 7 weeks. However, the length
of separations
was basedonlyon the numberof pay periods
intervening
between
one period
of employment
andanother
when
the name of a worker was not on the pay roll. In view of the
factthata largeportionof the workersare not employedfull
Table 12.- AVERAGE LENGTH OF PERIODS
OF SEPARATION
PROM
INDIVIDUALPAY ROLLS, 1926-888
Year
Average length
of periods of
Year
separation
separation
(weeks)
(weeks)
Average
6.2
1926
1927
1928
1929
8.3
4.7
1930
6.9
3.8
5.1
Average length
of periods of
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
6.3
5.7
9.5
5.4
4.8
6.9
Based on all workerswho returnedto givenpayroll duringeach yearafter
separationof at least one 2 -week period. Data obtainedin NRP Field survey:
Day-rollsample for 22 shops.
26For
theproportion
ofworkers
having
morethanoneperiod
ofemployment,
1. e., separation
from a pay roll or at leastone day period,see figure21.
80
PATERSON
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
pay periodswith any one employer,it would be possiblefor
an employee
to be laidoffandrehired
without
hisnamebeing
droppedfrom the pay roll.27 In other words, workerswith more
thanone periodof employment
withany givenconcernduring
the yearhave,on the average,spentmoretimeseparatedfrom
the pay rollof a concernthanis indicated
in the table.
Length of Connection
with Establishments
Therelatively
shorttimethatmostworkers
areattached
to
any establishment
may be shown in over-allperspective
when
the new accessions of each year are distributed by their
lengthsof connection.
By a "new"accession
is meantthe first
appearanceof the name of an employeeon the pay roll of a
given shop
"Length of connection"is the time elapsing
betweenthe firstaccession
andfinalseparation.
Pigu . 23.- PERCENTAGE
BY
LENGTH
DISTRIBUTION
OP CONNECTION
ESTABLISHMENT,
OF ALL FIRST ACCESSIONS,
WITH INDIVIDUAL
1926-86
PERCENT
10o
20
30
40
500
60
70
80
90
100
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
laYEAR
ORLESS,
ONEEMPLOYMENT
PERIOD
YEAR OR LESS,MORE THAN ONE EMPLOYMENTPERIOD
ya-1YEAR
BASED
ON TABLE
A-29
1 YEAR
WPA
OR
OVER
- NATIONAL
RESEARCH
PROJECT
L -20
Of allfirstaccessions
in 1926,40 percent
hadconnections
lastingnot longer than 6 months(see figure 23 and table
A-291. In the nextyearthisfigurewas approximately
55 per
cent, and in 7 years of the periodit exceeded70 percent.
27seeitn.22.D. 73.
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
81
Exceptfor a small percentagein any year, employeeswith
thislengthof connection
had onlyone periodof employment.
Exceptin 1927,10 percentor lessof all new accessions
had
connections lasting from over 6 months toi year. In any
year,this group assumes, on the whole, the characteristicof
theregularforce. But from a longerpointof view it takes
on the aspectof that portionof the contingentgroupwhich
obtainedrelativelymore employment. Fifty percentof all
firstaccessionsin 1926 had connections
longerthan a year.
Theproportion
waslessthan30 percent
in 1928,and in 1935
it was only 12 percent. It will be observed that the propor
tion of cases in the i to 2 years'connectionaccountsfor
more cases in almost every year than do any of the higher
frequencies(see table A-29).
Onlypartof the workerswithconnections
of overa yearhad
A comparatively
small portionreturnedto
theirrespective
pay rollsa numberof timesoverlongperiods
regular status.
to obtainrelatively
smallamountsof employment.Their
characteristics
will be furthertaken up below.
The factorscreatingthe situationin whichmostworkersare
at least in a periodof severalyears after
not rehired
having secured a small amount of employmenton a pay roll in
one employmentperiodor more have alreadybeen indicated.
Typically,
a workercannotexpecta particular
establishment
to
providehim with employment
sufficient
eitherin frequency
or
duration.
Once separated, he becomes mobile in the labor
In the courseof seekinga job, workingfor a time,
and againbeingthrownback on the market,he does not renew
market.
attachmentsin many places where he previouslywas employed.
Reattachment
is of coursefrequently
precluded
by the mortality
Establishments,on the other hand, have not
neededto conservea supply of contingentlabor. An abundance
of the concern.
of requisite
skillshas longbeenavailable.
Employment Experience Doring Connection
The actualaveragelengthof connection
for all accessions
withconnections
of 6 monthsor lesswas consistently
belowthe
midpoint of the interval. It ranged, over the 11 years,
between
1.2 and 2.4 months(see table13). In most years this
PATERSON
82
Table 13.- EMPLOYMENT
FIRST
BROAD-SILK
EXPERIENCE
ACCESSIONS
WORKERS
AT INDIVIDUAL
CONNECTED
ONE-HALF
SHOPS OF ALL
YEAR
OR LESS, 1926-868
Year
Average
of first
length of
accession connection
(months )
Percent of time
With work
during
connection
Employment periods
-
Without
Average
work
number
Average
length
(months)
1926
2.4
83.3
16.7
1.1
1.8
1927
1.5
73.3
28.7
1.1
1928
1929
1.5
1.5
66.7
73.3
33.3
26.7
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.9
1930
1.5
66.7
33.3
1.1
0.9
1931
1.2
75.0
25.0
1932
1933
1934
1.2
33.3
37.5
1.1
1.1
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.6
66.7
82.5
88.7
31.3
1.2
0.9
1935
1.4
64.3
1.2
1936
1.4
71.4
35.7
28.6
0.8
0.9
Adataobtained
in NRPFieldSurvey:pay-roll sample
1.2
1.1
for 22 shops.
groupfailedto obtainworks in the givenshops,on the
average,
abouta thirdof the timeit was connected;
it usually
averaged
slightlymorethanone accession
or periodof employ
ment;and in 9 of the11 yearsit averaged
lessthan1 month
of employmentper employmentperiod.
In most years,accessionsof workersin the frequencyof
6 monthsto a yearapproximated
an averageof 9 months'con
nectionwith individual
shops(see table14). But between 37
and 50 percentof the time the workerswere usuallywithout
workat theseshops.Theaverage
length
of theirperiods
with
workwas usuallybetween2 and 3 months.
To obtainthe long-time
employment
experience
of the regular
or fixedforce- all personswho had employment
at leasthalf
-
the recordsof those personswho
had connections
of overa yearwere used. The group that had
connectionsof over a year but who were employedless than half
the time they were connected
of the timeare the contingent
or floatingworkerswho, typi
cally,becamereattached
one timeor moreduringcomparatively
long periods of connection. The proportionsof time with and
28.
BT1me
without
workincludes
notonlythose
weeks
during
hisconnection
inwhich
an employee'sname was not on the pay roll, but also those half-payperiodsor
more in whichhe ostensibly
had no work.
EMPLOYMENT
Toblo 14.- EMPLOYMENT
PIRST
EXPERIENCE
ACCESSIONS
83
EXPERIENCE
AT INDIVIDUAL
CONNECTED
SHOPS OF ALL
ONE-HALF
TO ONE YEAR, 1926-368
accession
Percent
Average
length of
Year
of first
With
connection
(months )
of time
work
Employment periods
Without
during
Average
length
Average
work
number
(months )
connection
1926
8.1
81.3
18.5
1.7
3.9
1927
70.3
3.7
2.2
9.5
2.2
1930
8.4
82.5
71.6
60.7
2.5
1929
29.7
37.5
28.4
39.3
1.8
1928
9.1
8.8
3.1
2.7
1931
8.1
56.8
43.2
2.3
2.0
1932
8.7
51.7
2.2
2.0
2.3
2.5
2.0
1.9
1933
9.4
52.1
1934
9.6
52.1
48.3
47.9
47.9
1935
8.9
48.3
51.7
2.4
1.8
1936
8.9
61.6
38.2
2.0
2.8
2.2
apala
obtained
inNRPField
survey:
pay-roll sample for 22 shops.
Table 15.- EMPLOYMENT
OF
ALL
REGULAR
AND
EXPERIENCE
AT INDIVIDUAL
CONTINGENT
FIRST
SHOPS
ACCESSIONS
CONNECTED OVER 1 YEAR, 1926-888
Regular
Year
Percent
during
of
first
of time
connection
Contingent
Employment
periods
Percent
of time
during
Employment
periods
connection
-
acces
sion
With
without
work
work
Average
number
Average
length
(months )
With
without
work
work
Average
number
Average
length
(months )
79.2
20.8
9.0
8.9
21.8
78.2
7.21926
2.2
1927
69.1
30.9
5.3
4.8
23.5
76.5
5.8
2.6
1928
80.6
80.1
77.7
19.4
4.7
19.8
80.2
4.8
1.9
19.9
6.7
7.5
6.2
19.2
80.8
5.0
1.4
22.3
5.6
5.9
22.6
77.4
5.4
1.9
1929
1930
1931
73.2
26.8
6.5
5.5
22.4
2.0
72.2
27.8
5.9
4.8
20.0
77.6
80.0
4.2
1932
5.1
1.4
1933
87.2
32.8
5.5
3.5
26.2
73.8
4.7
1.6
1934
71.6
28.4
4.7
3.6
28.2
73.8
4.8
1.2
1935
72.7
27.5
3.4
3.9
28.2
71.8
1.43.6
Dataobrained
inNRPField
Survey:
Day-rollsample for 22 shops.
withoutworkof all over-a-year
connections
in boththe regular
andcontingent
groupsare represented
in table15. Each year's
accessions
to the regularforcehad employment
provided
by
theirrespective
establishments
on the averagebetweenabout70
and80 percentof the time. The experience
of the contingent
orfloating
workers
wasjustthereverse
of thatof theregular
force.
In the courseof theirmobilityamongthe manyshops
PATERSON
84
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
theyrenewedprevious
attachments,
securinga relatively
small
amount of employmenton each occasion.
Despite the fact that the regular group was employeda
greaterportionof the time,contingent
accessions
in most
yearsaveragedabout the same numberof employmentperiods
(seetable15). Theaverage
lengthof employment
periods
for
the lattergroupswas, of course,much shorter.
Employment Baperience of Occupational Groups
As it was not possible
on manypay rollsto distinguish
every
employee's
specificoccupation,
theywereclassified
only
into three principaloccupational
groups: (1 ) loom fixers,
twisters,
warpers,
etc.;(2) weavers;
and 131quillers,
wind
ers, pickers, etc. The first is the most skilled group, the
weaverscomingnext,and the thirdis semiskilled.By far the
largestgroup is the weavers;the semiskilledand the other
skilled
follow
in order.
Itwasalsonotpossible
to determine
thesexof workers
in a
largeportionof the cases. The givennameswere frequently
not spelledout but only initialed. Sometimes only the surname
appeared.29The predominance
of men in the labormarkethas
previously
beendiscussed.
Womenpredominate
in thequilling
) branches.Theyare alsofoundto
and winding(or semiskilled)
a smallextentin the otheroccupations,
exceptloomfixing.
An elaborate division of labor exists in mills of several
hundred
looms,
whereall preparatory,
auxiliary,
and,in addi
tion,certainspecialoperations
are carriedon. In Paterson,
factory
organization
of thistypeis foundonlyrarely.There
is a gooddealof multiple-job
performance
in smallshops.
Thisgrowsout of a situation
in whichproduction
is carriedon
underconditions
of rapidlyfluctuating
levelsand wherethe
organization
of production
is on a lowplane.Weavers
usually
haveto adjusttheirown looms,takeoffcloth,and be their
29
Despite the entry of incompletenames in some periodson certain payrolls,
11ttledillicultywas encounteredwith identicalentriesin given pay periodsor
with the resurrenceof entrieswhich were almost,but not quite,identical. TWO
entrieswere not ordinarily
made for the same personin a particularperiodon any
pay roll.
consistent
And the posting of individual names from pay roll to pay roll was
records.
Where questionsarose,the employer,bookkeeper,or
old employeeswere usuallyable to answer them totheir own satisfaction
and to
that of the supervisoror persondoing the transcribing.It is thereforethought
that littleblas existsin the pay-rolldata arisingfrom duplicationof entries.
No attemptwas made to tracethe employment
experienceof a workerfrom one sample
pay roll to another. Had this been done, the chance of error would have been
greaterthan in tracinga worker'semployment
experiencein a singlepay roll.
on most
WPA
National Research Project (Hine)
FIGURE 24.- QUILLING
Bobbinsbroughtfromthe throwing
plant are woundonto quills
(the
spindle-type
bobbinson the machinein frontof the operator).
"Thequills,
whichare insertedin the shuttle,carrythe fillingor weft thread.
WPA- National
ResearchProjectHine)
FIGURE 25.- NONAUTOMATIC LOOM
Weaver
preparing
to reload
theshuttle
witha fullquill.
86
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
ownbobbinboys. Quillers
pickand in someshopsalsoactas
bookkeepers.
Winders
do thesame,in addition
to unpacking,
soaking,
andwhizzing
thesilkskeias.Whenthetwister
whois
employedregularly
in a shop is not neededat his usualopera
tion,he doessomething
else. In the largershopsin Paterson
a workertendsmoreto remainat one occupation,
althougheven
heremultiple-job
performance
is found.
In terms of the averagenumberof weeks with work, occu
pationalgroupsfaredaboutthe same overthe period(see
table A-25). Only in a few yearswere thereany wide dis
parities
in theaverage
amount
of employment
received
by these
groups.By varying
amounts,
however,
weavers
almost
alwayshad
somewhat
moreemployment
thantheaverage
forallworkers.
Union position on the Distribution of Work
The situation
in whicha smallproportion
of the working
forceobtainsa disproportionate
amountof work has longbeena
pointof contention
betweenthe workersand the employers.The
recentagreementsdrawn betweenthe unionand the employers
WPA - NationalResearch Project (HineI
FIGURE 26.- "PICKING" THE COMPLETED CLOTH
Afterthecloth has beentakenfromthe loom,it is run overthe boardof
a "picking machineto be measured
(note gageatleft endof roller),have
loosethreadspickedout,and incidental
soiledspotsremoved.
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
87
include
clauses
purporting
to settlethisproblem.Section
7
of the 1933 agreementstates:
"All
warps
must
weavers
are finished
be given
their
turn when
their
.. the work availableshall
be divided among the workers in the employ of the
employeras equallyas possible. No employeeshall,
therefore, in dull seasons be laid off to the ad.
vantageof the otheremployees."30
In the agreement
resulting
fromthe 1934strike,members
of the employer'sfamilywere exemptedand certainminimum
conditions
werespecifiedunderwhichworkshouldbe dis
tributed. Accordingto section12 of the 1934 agreement,
"Work shall be shared among the employeesas long
as the mill is operated for at least two shifts of
six
hours
each.
Husbands,wives, sons, and daugh
ters,of employers,
however,
shallnot be expectedor
required to share work with other workers.
The relatives of the employer ..
shall
.
.
.
be en
titledto be employedat all times,whetherthey were
previouslyemployedor not."31
It was evidently
intended
thatthe sharingof workwas not
required
if onlyoneshiftwas beingoperated.The militant
faction in the plain-goods local opposed the exemption from
worksharingby the employer's
family. Mr. Eli Keller,manager
of the AmericanFederationof Silk Workersat the time, ex
plainedthatthe important
thingwas to specifywhat relatives
wouldbe exempted.32It was expectedthata grievance
board,
createdby the agreement,
wouldwork out the necessaryrules
andtheirapplications
underthesesections.As both agree
mentsbrokedown,no uniform
procedure
for worksharingwas
established.
The1937contract
betweenthe TextileWorkersOrganizing
Committee,
an affiliateof the Congressof Industrial
Organi
zations,
and theSilkandRayonManufacturers'
Association,
whichcomprises
thelarger
concerns
in Paterson,
provides
that
"manufacturers,
theirofficersor partnersin manufacturers'
firmsshallbe permitted
to do any workthattheydesirewithin
the mill,and in doingproductive
work,theywill complywith
300
'Quoted
in Supplement
to Paterson
silkstrikeandSettlement,
1933",by Lincoln
Fairley (unpublishedmanuscriptpreparedin June 1935 for the Harvard Business
School,Cambridge,Massachusetts).
31
Ibid .
321bid.
PATERSON
88
BROAD-SILK
the terms of this agreement
WORKERS
.. (exceptthoserelatingto
unionmembership
andhiring
andfiring)."33
The1937contract
between
theTWOCand theSilkCommission
Manufacturers'
Association
statesthat"in familyshopsand in
all casesof partnerships
or corporations,
job preference
shall
be given to members of the family and partnersand share
holders,
but in the case of familyshops(thesize of whichis
notdefined
in theagreement)
no morethantwopeople
engaged
in productive
laborshallbe regarded
as Employers.
1134
It is thepolicyof the unionto exclude
theemployers
and
workers
thusdescribed
fromquestions
of jobpreference
or work
sharing.36
However,the unionstandsfor the reassignment
of
work, if it is available,in the orderin which an employee
completes
the blockof workon whichhe has beenengaged.For
example,
theunioncontends
thatas a weaver
finishes
hiswarps
he should be given the new ones, up to the normal loom load.
The attitudeof the uniontowardpersonsnot in the immediate
familyof the employerand havingno financialinterestin an
establishmentis that they shall belong to the union and take
theirchancesalongwiththe rest. Under the terms of the 1937
agreements,
an employermay hirewhomeverhe pleases,although
theseagreements
providefor preferential
hirings;but within
2 weeks followingthe 6 weeks' trial("learning"period)a
nonmembermust join the union. (The 1938 agreements
provide
for a closedshop,withtrialperiodsof 2 and 4 weeks,and for
the check-offsystem.)
EARNINGS
Completeearningsdata were obtainedfrom 19 of the 22 pay
rolls;in addition,
partialdata on 1 of the largershopswere
secured.
33
No data were taken from the pay rolls of two of the
Agreement
between
thesilkand
Rayon
Manufacturers'
Association
andthetextile
Workers
Organizing
Committee
(Paterson,
N. J.: mimeo.,Aug. 13, 1937),Section10.
Section 12 or an agreement signed by these two groups on September 19, 1938
containsthe same provision,but it is furtherprovided(Section9) that "work in
all departmentsshall be dividedas equallyas possible. In all cases in which
workers are laid orr because their normal work assignment is not available, the
available
work shall be equallydividedamongall workers. This requirement
may be
satisfiedby employingthe workersin equalrotation."
34Agreementbetween
the
Silk
Commission
Manufacturers'
Associationand
the
Textile
mimeo. , Aug. 1937), Section 9.
WorkersOrganizing
Committee
(Paterson,
N. J.:
Section9 ofthe contract signed by these groups on September14, 1938 simply
states thai #work in all departmentsshall be dividedas equally as possible
amongst all workers in the mill, unless otherwisearrangedwith the Employer
and the Union. "
35
Each agreementprovidesfor an impartialarbitrator,to whom all grievances not
settledbetweenthe unionand the employerare supposedto be submitted.
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
89
smaller concerns. Pieceand time rates were posted here and
therein some of the payrols butnot withenoughfrequency
to
yieldan adequate
sample.
A necessary
corollary
of theconstant
fluctuations
in the
numberof workers on pay rollsand of the extent to which
workersare utilizedis the fluctuation
of averageearnings
from pay periodto pay period. This continuous
variationin
earnings
is brought
outin figure
27,wheretheaverage
weekly
earnings38
of allworkers
areplotted
on thebasisof pay-roll
periodsendingnearestthe 15thof eachmonth. The annualline
representsaverage weekly earningsduring the year. The
varyinglevelsof averageweeklyearningsfrom monthto month
followin generaltheseasonalvariations
in employment.Some
of the lowestfiguresoccurredwhenstrikeswere in progress,
but mostof themcoincided
withperiodsof decreased
activity.
Woolly Earnings
From 1926 through 1929, averageweekly earnings of all
workersrangedfrom$20 to $34 but wereusuallybetween$23 and
$29 (see table A-31). From the middleof 1929 on, fluctuations
occurred
on a lowerlevelthanpreviously,
andaftertheearly
partof 193137a sharpdownward
trendset in. From the last
half of 1932 to 1936 theseearningswere usuallyaround$15
or lower.
Averageweeklyearningsof each occupational
groupshow the
same characteristics
overthe periodas thoseof all workers.
Earningsof weaversand otherskilledworkerschangedmore
erratically
thanthoseof thesemiskilled.
Thisis probably
duechiefly
to thefactthatthelatterare paidtimerates,
whereasthe weaversare paidpieceratesand the otherskilled
workers
are paidpiece,job,and timeratesaccording
to the
occupation
andconditions
of employment.
Although
theearnings
of all groupsdeclined
together,
thoseof the weaversand other
skilledworkers underwentrelativelylargerdeclinesthan
36,
Average weekly earningshere representthe quotientof the biweeklywage bills
dividedby the numberofworkers on pay rollsand againdividedby 2 to reducethe
averageto a weeklybasis. To the extentthatworkersearn elsewhereduringthese
periods,the averagesshown do notrepresenttotalearnings. However, in view of
the decreasingavailabilityofwork, a growing laborreserve,and the consequent
ever-present
difficultyofmoving quicklyfrom one job to another,averageweekly
earningsshown here most of the time probablyreflectactual,or close to actual,
earnings.
37
'Averagehourly earnings of selected occupationsin the silk Industryin New
Jersey in 1831 were, according to the U. S. Bureau of labor statistics, $0.53.
L
A
S
U
S
G
E
D
Y
D
N
G
I
e
E
L
I
O
S
V
A
r
K
S
N
I
P
R
u
E
O
D
g
L
.R
O
i
H
E
N
A
V
F
L
T
7
,
I
S
P
E
W
F
2
O
A
6
8
H
T
6
R
N
2
D
A
O
9
E
N
Y
,1
B
Y
M
A
S
R
A
L
L
O
D
0
4
5
3
2
0
5
1
t
r
o
P
5
2
r
u
t
a
n
0
3
5
6
3
'
5
3
'
4
3
'
3
3
1
2
3
'
1
3
'
0
3
'
9
2
'
8
2
7
2
6
2
9
1
H
L
C
T
A
R
C
N
9
A
E
O
L-2
E
I
J
A
S
T
O
P
E
R
A
-N
P
R
W
D
E
E
L
S
B
N
A
1
T
A-3
B
O
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
Table 16.- AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS
91
OF ALL PERSONS WHO WORKED
AT INDIVIDUALSHOPS,BY OCCUPATIONALGROUPS,
1926-868
(Dollars)
Year
1926
1927
1928
All
workers
Weavers
Other
skilled
Semiskilled
25.88
26.22
27.16
28.90
14.76
26.82
35.54
14.46
23.98
25.06
35.35
1929
26.75
27.44
38.90
13.21
15.18
1930
24. 30
24.82
36.53
14.70
1931
22.14
15.91
22.18
32.13
14.69
15.39
12.59
23.92
11.10
22.05
21.61
10.02
23.01
10.85
10.69
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
13.55
14.76
14. 35
13.38
14.41
13.69
12.37
22.17
10.54
adata
obtained
in NRPFieldSurvey:pay-rollsamplefor 22 shops.
those of the lowest-paidgroup. But the earningsof weavers
decreasedrelativelymore than those of the other skilled
workersand, in fact, tendedto approachcloselythe levels
realizedby the semiskilled(see table 16).
Medianwage rates were affectedvery slightlyby changes
accompanyingthe NRA. A survey made by the United States
Bureau of Labor Statistics shows that median hourly rates
in silk and rayon manufacturing
in Patersonwere $0.40 in
38
August
1933and hadincreased
to only$0.45in August
1934.
At this time 9.6 percentof all workerswere receivingless
thanthe code minimumof $0.33per hour. Most of the broad
silkshopsdid not come undercode regulation,38
andthe
settlement of the1933 strike did not bring substantia
re
visions
upward.The wageminimawhichwere askedformost of
Workers
the
principal
occupations
thewasbeing
AmericanFederation
of Silk
Silk
at the
time the by
code
in of
areshown
belowin comparison
withthe full-time
weeklyearnings
reported
as thenexisting.40
Theseminimum
earnings,
it was thought,
wouldprovide
a basisforgetting
backto predepression
levels.
38A.F. Hinrichs,
"Wages
andEarnings
in thesilkandRayon
Industry,
1933and
1934,"MonthlyLabor Review,Vol.40, No. 8 (June1935),D. 1441.
39
Preport
UponContract
Weaving
in theRayon
andSilkIndustry
(Washington,
D.C.:
Silk TextileWork Assignment
Board,mimeo.4387. Apr.27, 1935),D. 1.
40see
#Paterson
311kStrike
andSettlement,
1933",
byLincoln
Fairley
(unpublished
manuscriptprepared in the spring of 1934for the Harvard Business School,
Cambridge,
Massachusetts).
PATERSON
92
Occupation
Weavers
Loom fixers
BROAD-SILK
Wage minima
WORKERS
Wages claimed
to exist
asked
$36
44
$10-12 o 22¢ per yard
30
Twisters
40-44
30 @ 50¢ per 1,000 ends
Winders
18
18
10
Quillers
8
Beforethe depression
full-timeand overtimeearningsfor the
skilledwere as highas $50 a week and more;weaversobtained
$35 to $45, and the semiskilled$15 to $20.
As late as 1929
group
therewerecasesof higherearningsin eachoccupational
obtained
by thesefigures.The low earnings
thanare indicated
down.
pulledthe averages
littleemployment
by thosereceiving
afterthe
occupations
The baseratesset for the different
weavers,$2 per 100,000picks
1933strike
werethefollowing:
for silk and $2.25for rayon(on which basisit was claimed
they could earn between$19 and $22 for full-timework);
warpers,twisters,
and loomfixers,$32 perweek;winders,
$15;
actually
andpickers
andquillers,
$14.41Theaverage
earnings
receivedby thesegroupsindicatethatfor a substantial
portionin each, full employmentwas not available.
Beforethe end of 1935 the slight increasesin wages and
earnings
brought
aboutby the NRA haddisappeared.
Judging
from averageweeklyearningscomputedon an annualbasis,the
levelsexistingin 1936 were aboutthe same as thosein 1933
(see table 16).
The contracts between the TWOC and the employers, drawn
in 1937, called for a minimumof $15 (exceptinglearners)
per 40-hour week. In addition,
a minimumfor weaversworking
on a "normal" loom assignment was fixed at $18 and for loom
fixers(in one standard
contract
at least)at $25. For weavers
and otherskilledworkerstherewas provided
a slidingscaleof
percentageincreasesbased on an average of the worker's
last two pays for which the equivalent of full-time earnings
42
In 1938, by decisionof an
(40 hours)was to be calculated.4
impartial
arbitrator
selectedby the unionand the employers,
minimumweeklywageswere reducedto $13 a week;the minimum
4110id.
4
4Rthe
contracts
contain
a number
of provisions
forfiguring
ratesof payment
and
weekly earnings.
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
93
forweavers
operating
fourloomswas reducedto $15 butre
mained
at $18forweavers
on six-loom
assignments.
Nodataare
available
to determine
whateffecttheseprovisions
havehad.
Anul
Earrings
A tabulation
was madeof totalamountsearnedby workerson
particular
pay rollsin everyyearof the periodby the number
of weekstheywereon thesepay rolls43
(see tableA-33).
Pigure 28.- MEDIAN EARNINGS RECEIVED DURING YEAR FOR
ALL WORKERS,BY NUMBEROF WEEKS ON INDIVIDUAL
SHOP PAY ROLLS, 1926-86
HUNDREDS
OF
DOLLARS
16
ALL WORKERS
| -16
14
WEEKS
17-32
WEEKS
33-48
49-52
WEEKS
WEEKS
12
1
0
2
-
1926
JASED
27
ON TABLE
A-33
28
"29
-
'30
--
'31
'32
WPA
'33
- NATIONAL
'34
RESEARCH
'35
PROJECT
'36
L -30
Medianearningsaccruingto all workerson given pay rolls
exceeded
$200 in 1926,but in mostyearstheywerearound$100
(seefigure28). The greatmajority
of all workersin any
year,
whowereusually
on particular
payrolls16 weeksor less
for a medianof between3 and 4 weeks,had medianearnings
of less than $50 in the last 6 years of the periodand in
1 previousyear. Indeed,in mostyears$10 or lessrepresented
43The
number
ofweeks
onapayroll
istheactualnumber
ofweeks
anindivid
ual's name appeared on a pay roll. It should not be comparedwith #weekswith
employment.
"
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
94
the totalearningsreceivedby 10 to more than 20 percentof
allpersons
during
theirconnections
withparticular
payrolls
(seetableA-32andfigure29). Morethan40 to over50 per
cent receivednot more than $100 from one employerin each
of 11 yearsof the period.
Workerswho wereon any payrollbetween17 and 32 weeksmay,
for the most part,be considered
to have had superiorstatus
amongtheshort-tenure
group,
thosewhoseweekswithworkdid
not exceed 26. Theirmedianearningsrangedbetween$245 and
$665duringthe yearsunderconsideration.
Personswho wereon
the pay roll of any concernfrom 33 to 48 weekswere almost
entirely
long-tenure
workers.
Theyhadmedian
earnings
of from
$548 to $1,150. Whetherthesepeoplerealized
any additional
earnings
duringthe yeardepended
on whethertheywereable
to shiftto otherjobs duringperiodsof separation
from
establishmentsin which they were more or less regularly
employed.Duringdullseasons,findingwork in the industry
was probablyvery difficult. Regularsupplementing
of em
ployment
outside
theindustry
hasevidently
nottakenplaceto
any appreciable extent. In several years, as a result of
stoppagein the industry,workerswith the most preferred
status were not on pay rolls more than 48 weeks.
Median
earningsof this groupapproximated
in a few yearsthoseof
personswho were on pay rolls more than 48 weeks.
.
Persons
on payrollsfor49 to 52 weekshadmedian
earnings
of over $1,100 to almost $1,600 in the first 5 years (see
table A-33). In the last 3 years they were around $800.
.
Few of the workersin this relativelysmall group had full
yearsof employment.They were,however,on a particular
pay
roll at least 11 months out of each year.
With the necessity
of beingavailable
for workwheneverneededin shopsto which
theywere attached,
it is very unlikelythattheysoughtwork
elsewhere. Moreover,
some of these personshad a director
indirectfinancialinterestin the establishments
wherethey
obtainedso much employment.
The large majorityof workersin this labor marketearned
small amountsfor a few days' or a few weeks'work and then,
if possible,
shiftedto anotherjob of shortdurationin the
industrywhereadditional
small amountsof earningswouldbe
realized.Withthe continuing
contraction
of employment
oppor
tunities
after1936and the increase
of the laborreservewhich
N
O
E
I
L
G
T
A
A
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PATERSON
96
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
the industry
couldnot absorb,the earnings
of the majority
in
the labor marketwere doubtlessreducedstill further.
EMPLOYMENT
STATUS
IN NOVEMBER
1986
The extent of employment and unemployment among the 616
personsin the work-history
samplewas foundas of November
1,
1936(see table17). It was at thistimethatthe fieldsurvey
was begun. In thismonth,69.6 percentof all workersin the
samplewere employed(see table 17). More than a quarter,
26.0 percent,were unemployedand lookingfor work, and 4.4
percent were out of the labor market.
These withdrawals
were due chiefly to old age. Of the 160 workers who were in
thelabormarketbutwereunemployed,
20 (12.5percent)
had
emergency
WorksProgramjobs.
Tablo19.-EMPLOYMENT
STATUSOP WORKERS,
NOVEMBER
1, 19888
Percent
Status
Number
Percent
of
those
in
labor
market
8186
Total
Not seeking work
In labor
market
Employed
Broad
silk
27
4.4
589
95.6
100.0
429
69.6
322
52.3
72.8
54.7
13.1
13.781
Other textile
Other industry
or
100.0
trade
26
4.2
4.4
160
140
20
26.0
22.7
27.2
Not working
Unemployed
Emergency work
3.3
23.8
3.4
adataobtained
in NRPFieldSurvey:occupational-history
schedule,
b
Includes
38persons
whose
usual
Industry
wasnotbroad
s11kaccording
tothe
definitions applied in the survey.
Over20 percentof all employedbroad-silk
workershad jobs
outsidetheir usual industry,the majoritybeing in other
textiles.
At the same time, some of the 38 persons whose
usual industrywas one other than broadsilk were employed
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
97
Of the322workers
employed
in broadsilkin
November
1936,22(6.8percent)
wereself-employed,
operating
in broad silk.
theirown shops.
The highpointin activity
during1936 occurredin the last
3 monthsof the year. The primarypeak in the springhad not
materialized,
and the riseto the secondary
peakwas slow.
9
Consequently,
any othermonthwould have showna much higher
percentage
of unemployed,
and the figureshownfor November
may
be takenas indicative
of theminimum
of unemployment
existing
at any timeduringthatyear. The minimumamountof unabsorbed
reserve
during1936is indicated
by thefactthat15.3percent
of all personswho were in the labormarketin that year had
hadno employment
in private
industry
fora period
of at least
10 months.
In additionto theseworkers,a portionreceived
onlysmallamounts
of employment,
whichwascharacteristically
availablein the brief intervalsalreadydescribed.
SUMMARY
The factorswhichhavedetermined
the demandfor laborduring
theperiodcoveredby the surveyare a seculardecrease
in
employmentopportunitiesaccompaniedby fluctuationsdue
to the instability of the structure of the industry; pro
nounced
seasonal
variations;
andshort-time
fluctuations
within
theseasonal
pattern,
in conjunction
witha shifting
incidence
of demandas a resultof the individual
production
schedules
of several
hundred
shops.Theseconditions
havebeencreated
by the historical
developments
withinthe localindustry,
the
marketsit serves,the requirements
of its production,and
by the businesspractices
that prevailin the silk and rayon
broad-goodstrade.
The labor market thus created is one in which demand is
highly unstable and unsustained. A large majority of the
workersmove rapidlybetweenshort periodsof employment
and
intervalsof unemployment.This group,definedbroadlyas
thosepersons
obtaining
notmorethan26 weeksof employment
on anyonepayrollin anyyear,receive
an average
of between
6 and 7 weekswithemployment
on a pay rollin i year. Some of
the employment
of thisgroupis interrupted
one time or more,
and some of thoseworkingonly one periodof employmentfor
an employer
in anyyeardo notworkfullpayperiods.
98
PATERSON
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
The minority,
receiving
morethan26 weekswithemployment,
had in most yearsan averageof between40 and 44 weekswith
employment.A negligible
proportion
hadworkin everyweek
of a year.
Withinthis " sheltered"
group,some workershad
preference
overothers.Eventhoughthisminority
was better
placedthanthefloating
group,itsemployment
was precarious
and it workedundersweatshop
conditions
in morerecentyears.
A preponderance
of the "new" forcehiredin any yeardid not
remain connected with an establishment more than 6 months.
Althoughin most years 20 to 30 percent of the new force
had connections lasting over a year, a portion consisted of
contingent
workerswho receivedlittleemployment.The long
time regularforce worked between70 and 80 percentof the
time it was connected.
Amongthe occupational
groups,weaverscomprisedthe large
majorityof workersrequired. Generallyspeaking,the dif
ferentoccupational
groupsfaredabout the same in terms of
averageemployment
received
overthe period.
The unions,
as demonstrated
in theirrecentagreements
with
the employers,have demandedthat availablework be given
to each workerin the order in which he finishesthe job on
whichhe has beenemployed.Membersof the operator's
family,
however,
havebeenexpressly
exempted
fromthisprovision.
Average
weekly
earnings
during
theyearfellfrom$26in 1926
to $13 in 1936. They fluctuatedconsiderablyfrom month
to month,following,
moreor less,theseasonal
production
Thedecline
in theaverage
earnings
of theweavers
and otherskilledworkerswas relatively
greaterthanthat
patterns.
of the semiskilled;
among the skilled,the largestrelative
reductionwas incurredby the weavers. Wage rateswere evi
dentlyraisedsomewhatas a resultof the NRA, but this had
no appreciable
effecton averageearnings.
In practically
all years,between
30 and40 percent
of the
workersearned$50 or lesswith any one employer,
and between
10 and 20 percent earned $10 or less. Medianearningsof
workers on pay rolls for 33 to 48 weeks fell from around
$1,100 in 1927 to below$600 in 1936. Those of personson
pay rolls between49 and 52 weeks droppedfrom a high point
of about$1,600in 1928to $800 in 1936.
EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE
99
The inabilityof the industryto absorb the reserveforce is
demonstrated
by the fact thatat the peakof activityin 1936,
27 percentof all workersin the work-history
samplewho were
in thelabormarket
wereunemployed,
and15.3percent
hadnot
been employed in private industryat least for the first
10 months of 1936. In addition,a large group in the labor
marketobtainedlittleemploymentfrom week to week during
the year.
CHAPTER
SUMMARY
AND
V
CONCLUSIONS
The broad-silkindustrybeganto be localizedin Paterson
shortly after the Civil War when the industry was in its
infancy. By around1870Patersonhad becomethe chiefcenter
of broad-silk
andsilk-goods
production
in the United
States.
Fromthelastpartof thecentury
downto thepresent,
however,
the localsilkindustryhas undergone
a relativedecline.
WhileNewJersey
- principally
Patersonprincipally
Paterson
- produced
46 percent
of all broadsilksin 1899,the proportion
had fallento 15.7
percentof the broad-silk
and rayonindustry's
production
in
1931. Despitethistrend,the broad-silk
industryin Paterson
grew up to 1927.
Afterthatyeara rapidabsolute
decline
set
in which has continuedto the present. The largerconcerns
beganto moveawayfromPaterson
evenbefore
theWorldWar,and
concernsenteringthe broad-silkindustrymost frequently
selectedother locationsfor their mills.
In Paterson
men haveconstituted
the largerpartof the labor
supply, whereas women have predominatedin the principal
competing
areas. Therehas longbeenan activelabormovement
in the localsilk-textile
industry,but in other areassilk
labor had not organizedor had been relativelyquiescentuntil
The unionsin Patersonhaveopposedamongother
thingsthe raisingof loom assignments,
althoughunsuccess
recent years.
fully. Elsewherethe assignmenthas been raised with less, if
any, opposition.
Paterson
hadprobably
becomea marginal
areaof production
before the war. That is, other areas could compete more
successfully for orders, and seasonal activity in Paterson
was of shorter duration than elsewhere. Biennial census
data for the post-warperiodshow that when the country's
broad-goods
production
increased
thatof New Jerseyincreased
relatively less, and when national productiondecreased New
Jerseysuffereda relatively
largerdecline.
With the increasing use of rayons in the dress-goods field
after1926,Paterson
wasplaced
at an evengreater
disadvantage
than before. In the broad-silkand rayon industryonly 11
percent of productionconsistedof all-rayonfabrics in 1929,
100
SUMMARY
AND CONCLUSIONS
101
but by 1933 the proportion
had risento approximately
50
percent.At the same time,all-silkyardagedeclinedby more
than 50 percentbetween1929 and 1933. Contrary to these
developments,
Patersoncontinuedto produceprincipally
all
silk goods,the proportion
beingprobably70 percentas late
as 1936. The localindustrytherefore
came into increasingly
severecompetition
in a shrinkingmarket. The failure of the
localmanufacturers
to shiftto rayonweaving
was due mainly
to a lackof capital
to makenecessary
changesin loomsand
otherequipment
and to the inability
of the industry
to attract
the necessary
capital.
Patersonhas doubtlessbeenableto continuein production,
althoughproductionhas steadilybeen decreasingin volume,
becauseit can readilyaccommodate
rush ordersand specialty
workrequiring
considerable
skill. Also, it is strategi
callylocated
withrelation
to thefinishing
industry
andthe
markets. If rayon should become more widely used in the
underweartrade and if Paterson manufacturerscontinue to be
financially
unableto changetheirequipment
for the efficient
weavingof rayon,Patersonis likelyto be left mainlywith
specialty
work- forwhichthedemand
is highly
irregular.
The structureof the local broad-silk industrywas affected
not only by the migrationof mills before1926 but also by
the rapid increasein small shops during the World War as
commission
operation
becameestablished.
Commission
operation,
a systemby whicha converter
supplies
working
capital
to the
operatorof a shop and has fabrics woven at a contractedrate
peryard,provides
a business
opportunity
for anyonewhocan
secure a few looms and some space in which to operate them.
Butthissystem,
extending
no guarantee
of sufficient
orders
to keep a shop in operation, has led to a great deal of mis
directed investment. Lack of work for the operator and his
familyhas meantthat havinga shop frequently
constitutes
a
formof disguisedunemployment.
Competition
for ordersamong
shop operatorsis keen. The converters,themselves in stiff
competition
for markets,have been in a positionto depress
weavingrates,and this has encouraged
sweatshopconditions.
In beingableto allocate
workas theyseefitandin providing
oneoutletfor thefabrics
of theindependent
manufacturers,
the converters
havea largemeasureof controlover the level
andincidence
of production
and,consequently,
of employment.
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
102
In 1926 at least30 percentof the shopsand almost17 per
cent of the looms in Patersonwere workingon commission.
By 1936,however,
probably
morethan70 percent
of thelocal
industrywas operatingunderthissystem. This largeshift
resultedmainlyfrom a loss of workingcapitalby independent
manufacturers
in the periodof sharpdownwardfluctuations
in
raw-silkpricesbetween1929 and 1931.
The declineand instability
in the structureof the local
industry
brought
abouta contraction
of employment
opportuni
tiesanda constant
uncertainty
in theincidence
of employment.
Froman all-time
peakof 22,100loomsand687shopsin 1926,
loomshad decreased
to 11,100in 1936and shopsto 390;and by
1938 the decline had proceededmuch further. Duringthis
periodand previously,
a portionof the industrywent intoor
out of business each year. In 1936, openingsand closings
togetherrepresentedalmost44 percentof the shops in the
industry
in 1935,closings
exceeding
openings
by morethan
2 to
1.
The averageshop also becamesmalleras the largerconcerns
moved away or went out of business.
Theaverage
sizein 1926
was 32.3 looms and in 1936,28.5 looms. In the latter year
more than 50 percentof all concernsin the industryhad 20
looms or less, and over 90 percent had 60 looms or less.
The concentration of small concerns in Paterson has been
uniquein the industry.
Thesesmallshops,theresidue
of thedecline,
wereoperated
chieflyby personswho formerlyhad beenwage earnersin the
industry.Withsavingsfromtheirwagesthey hadsecuredshops
in the attempt,
in recentyearsparticularly,
to regularize
theiremployment
andincrease
theirearnings.Havinga shop
becamea necessary
expedient
for manyworkers,membersof their
families,and relatives,and it could be said that workers had
to "buytheirjobs."Approximately
30 percent
of theoperators
interviewed
had gone into businessfor the first time during
and after1933. Although
severalhundred
dollarswere required
as down paymentfor a few loomsand otherequipment
in earlier
years, in 1936 fifty dollarscash would providea down payment
for four or more looms.
In 1936 many operatorswere in arrearson rent and power
bills, and failures were numerous. In spite of all the dif
ficulties
of makinga livingin broadsilk,however,
petty
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
103
enterprisers,
some of whom had been operatorspreviously,
continued
to openshops.
Employment
opportunities
andlaborrequirements
perunitof
product
werefurther
reduced
by technological
changes.These
changes,
brought
aboutby shiftsin theincidence
of certain
processes,
moreeffective
utilization
of equipment,
and an
increasingstandardization
of underwearfabrics,involved
little capital outlay by the industry. The new-machinery
market virtuallydisappearedafter 1926, and second-hand
machines
eventually
becamea drugon the market.
The principal
changeseffecting
a reduction
in unitlabor
requirements
werethe omissionofwinding
operations
whererayon
warps were woven and the increaseof the loom assignment.
While the four-loomsystem was in use in only a small part of
theindustry
in 1925,by 1936around70 percent
of thelooms
were operatedon this basis. Assignments
as high as 10 and
20 looms per weaver were to be found on a few of the 4261
automatic
loomsintroduced
intothe localindustry
during1935
and 1936. By the springof 1938 it was reportedthat most of
the localindustry
hadshiftedto six loomsperweaver.
Silk and rayonmanufacturers
accounted
for about49 percent
of employmentin Patersonindustriesin 1925, but in 1935
theyprovided
only35 percent
of industrial
employment.
During
this periodemployment
in all localindustrydecreased
by
34 percent.
Two-thirds
of the workerssubjectto theserapidlychanging
conditions
in the industry
wereimmigrants,
according
to a
random sample of 616 broad-silk workers. Approximately
50
percent
of theentiregroupwas 45 yearsof age or olderin
1936. Men outnumbered
women3.5 to 1, a ratiothat may have
beendue to a morerapidwithdrawal
of womenfromthe labor
market as opportunitiescontracted. The median school grade
completedby the groupwas the sixth;more than a fifth had
completedno school grade and a few had done collegework.
Almost75 percentof the men but only20 percentof the women
were married.
Althoughmobile early in their lives, the foreign-born
workersand thosebornoutsideof Patersonresidedin the city
continuously
afterlocatingthere;mostof theirworkinglives
1Herbert
S.Swan,
ThePlain
Goods
S11kIndustry
(Paterson,
N.J.: The
Commission
of the city of Paterson,1937),D. 13.
Industrial
104
PATERSON
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
had been spent in Paterson. The personsborn in Patersonhad
lived there continuously.
Long backgroundin textileswas a characteristicof most of
the workers'histories. Of the personsenteringthe labor
marketoutsideof Paterson,65 percenthad theirfirst jobs
in textiles, and about 82 percent of those who entered the
labormarketin Patersonhad the same experience.Broad silk
was the usual industryof about94 percentof the sampleat
the time of enumeration.
Continuousattachmentto the broad-silkindustryduring the
period1926-36was a characteristic
of the workers'employment
experience.Almost60 percentreportedno job (of 1 monthor
more in duration)outsideof broad silk between1926 and 1935.
Only 4.2 percenthad left the industrybefore1935. While
broad-silk
workerssupplemented
theiremployment
in outsidein
dustries,
personsfrom otherindustries
obtained
supplementary
employment
in broadsilk,andsomemadepermanent
shiftsinto
the industry. In shifting
to employment
outsidetheirusual
industry,broad-silk
workersmostfrequently
went to related
textiles.
After1926employment
opportunities
contracted
rapidly
and
seasonal
variations
in production
underwent
greatfluctuations.
It becameincreasingly
characteristic
for shopsto secure
enoughworkfor shortperiodsof feverishactivityand thento
be forcedto shutdownor continue
production
at a lowerlevel.
Theseconditions
provided
a highlyirregular
demandfor labor.
Concernshired on an average of betweentwo and more than
three times as many different workers in each year as would
have been neededhad a stableforcebeen retainedthroughout
the year.
A portion
of theforcein anyplantreceived
employ
mentduringonly fractionsof pay periods(2 weeks),and the
size of this group increasedor decreasedwith changesin
theamountof activity.Laborturn-over
rates,consequently,
wereexceptionally
high,
especially
after1929.
As a consequence
of thistype of labordemand,most of
the workersin this marketconstitute
a floatinggroup. They
obtainonlya smallamountof employment
with any one employer
and are constantlymobile. From a quarterto a thirdof the
workersin the pay-rollsample received2 weeks or less of
employment
with one employerduringany yearexcept1926,and
50 percentreceived
9 weeksor less. A minority
of the workers
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
105
comprisea fixedor regulargroup,beingmore or less firmly
attached to individual concerns. They are members of the
operator's
family,relatives,
and oldemployees.As
there
is not sufficientwork in most shops to employ the fixed force
duringall the timea shopis in operation
duringthe year,
preference in employment is given some of the workers in
this group
The fixed force has shelteredemploymentas
comparedwith the floatingforce, althoughfailureof the
concern in which the former are employed may wipe out this
slenderadvantage.
Not onlydid a majority
of the workersreceivesmallamounts
of employmentwith one concernin any year, but also, as a
rule, the majority did not return to these concerns for more
work.
In most yearsof the period,between70 and 80 percent
of the workerswho were first accessionsto given pay rolls had
over-all
connections
(firstaccession
to finalseparation
on
any
one pay roll) of 1 year or less. A portionof those with
longerconnections
werereallycontingent
workers,
returning
to
a pay roll one or moreadditional
timesfor a smallamountof
employment.The smallregularforceobtainedemployment
from
70 to 80 percentof the timeduringtheirlongconnections.
The positionof the unionson the distribution
of available
employmenthas been to give work to each workerin his turn.
For example,they maintainthat new warpsshouldbe givento
the weaver whose warps have first become exhausted. Preference
to the relatives
andfriendsof theemployer,
although
not
to the membersof his immediatefamily, has been opposed.
The union policy in this respect probablycoincideswith
traditional
attitude .
After the summer of 1937, when the
Textile
WorkersOrganizing
Committee
beganreorganizing
the
existing
localsandextending
organization
amongtheworkers,
the uniongreatlyimproved
its bargaining
position
and was able
to apply a policy on the distributionof work.
Thedeclinein employment
opportunities
andthe increasing
intermittency
andcasualness
of employment
wereaccompanied
by
. Average
a decline
in wageratesandearnings.
weekly
earnings
of workerson individual
pay rollswere approximately
$27 in
1929,but they declinedto $13 in 1936. Duringthe last few
yearsof the periodaverageearningsof the weaversapproached
closelythose of the less skilledworkers.
106
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
The sumsreceivedby the majority
of the workersfromany one
employer
duringa yearwereverysmallsincetheyobtained
onlylittleemployment
from him. In most years of the period,
between 42 and 54 percent of all workers earned $100 or less
with one employer.The annualearningsof even the verysmall
group of workers who were on the pay roll of one concern for
49 weeksor moreduringa yeardecreased
from$1,600in 1928to
only $800 in 1936.
In November
1936,whenactivity
in theindustry
wasat the
peak for the year,27 percentof the workersin the labor
marketwere unemployed.
And 15.3percentof the workersin the
labormarkethad had no employment
in privateindustry
at least
during1936. The broad-silkworkers in Paterson in 1936 were
a relatively
oldgroupand probably
notreadily
adaptable
to
nontextile
occupations.As employment
opportunities
in this
industry became more casual and intermittentand more scarce
both in the industry and in Paterson, most of these workers
remainedattached to their usual industry. In 1936, when the
industryand labor marketwere seriouslydemoralized,the
Paterson
broad-silk
workersconstituted
a stranded
groupwithin
a metropolitan
area.
Thelowlevelof earnings
frequently
meansthattheyhaveto
be supplemented
by reliefpayments. For example,among the
1,344 cases added to the Paterson relief rolls in the first
3 monthsof 1935,therewere 237 personsemployedat time of
opening.Of these,97 (41 percent)
weretextileworkers.2
Althoughthis periodwas the busiestof the year, the jobs
heldby thesepersons
werenotsufficiently
remunerative
to
bar them or their families from relief.
It seems unlikelythat the situationof the broad-silk
workersin Patersonwill be mitigatedsubstantially
by the
operation
of the NewJerseyUnemployment
Compensation
Act.3
Benefitsare payableonly for total unemployment,
that is,
only so long as a worker does not earn more than $3.00 in
any week. The maximumweeklybenefitreceivableis $15.00
and the minimum$5.00. The weekly benefitamount is 50 percent
2
Current
Changesin the UrbanReliefPopulation,
March1935(Federal
Emergency
ReliefAdministration,
Divisionof Research,Statistics,
and Finance,Res. Bull.,
Ser. I, No. 8, mimeo.,Aug.22, 1935),p. 16.
3see
thestateofNew
Jerseyunemployment
compensationLaw,
Chapter
270,
P.L.1836,
now Chapter21 of Title43 of the RevisedStatistics
(As Amendedand supplemented),
reprint of September 10, 1838.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
107
of theworker's
full-time
weeklywage,whichis definedas one
thirteenthof his total wages in that calendarquarterin
whichthe totalwageswere highestduringhis base year.4
To be eligiblefor unemployment
compensation,
a workermust
have earned 16 times his weekly benefitamount during his base
year.
Not more than one-sixth
of the total amount earned
during a base year or 16 times the weekly benefitamount,
whichever
is the lesser,can be paidto the insured
during
the entire benefityear.
In 1936,annualearningsof $800 represented
betterthanthe
Uponbecoming
unemployed,
sucha weaver
wouldbe entitled
to a maximum
benefit
of roughly
$135(one
average for weavers.
sixth of $800) during his benefit year. If he earned $260 in
his quarterof highestearningsduring his base year, his
"full-time"
weeklywagewouldbe $20 ($260:13),
and his weekly
On this basis, the worker would
receivepaymentsfor 13 and a fractionweeks. On the whole,
benefit amount would be $10.
the benefitspayableto otherskilledworkerswould be rela
tivelyhigherundersimilarcircumstances
than thosepayable
to weavers,
and thosepayableto unskilled
workerswouldbe
relativelylower.
Becauseof the seasonalvariationsin the industry,the level
of earnings
received
duringthosequarters
when the industry
is
mostactivecannotbe sustained.Moreover,
a largepercentage
of the workerswere unemployedeven in the busiestseason
in 1936. The periodsof unemployment
experienced
by most
workersduring the year would reduce annualearningsand,
thereby,the lengthof the compensableperiod. Where unem
ploymentcontinuesbeyondthe compensable
period,reliefis
likelyto be the onlyrecourse
for manyworkers.In some cases
it may,indeed,be necessary
to supplement
benefitpayments.
In the general
sampleof 616 workers,
5.4 percentof all
personswere 65 years of age or over.
Most
of these
were
still in the labor market at the time of enumeration or had
only recently withdrawn. In New Jerseythe eligibility
age
forold-age
assistance
hasbeenreduced
from70 to 65 yearsin
orderto meet the requirements
of the FederalSocialSecurity
Inabilityto meet the citizenship
requirement
has and
Act.
willcontinueto barsomeof the workerswho wouldotherwise
be
*A base
year"
isdefined
intheactasthefirst
four
ofthelast
five
calendar
quartersprecedingthe benefityear. The "benefit year is the 52 weeks immedi
atelyfollowingand includingthe firstcompensable
week.
108
PATERSON
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
eligiblefor this typeof aid. The maximummonthlyallowance
underthissystemis$30.00.Thisassistance
maybe givenalso
to eligibles
whohaveotherincome,
provided
themonthly
total
from this and othersourcesdoes not exceed$30.00.
AfterJanuary1, 1942, all personsreachingthe age of 65
will be eligible
for old-ageretirement
provided
thatthey have
earnednot lessthan$2,000in includedemployment5
since
January1, 1937,and haveworkedat leastpartof a day in each
of the 5 yearspreceding
application.
Payments
willconsistof
one-half
of i percent
permonthfor totalwagesup to $3,000;
plusone-twelfth
of i percent
for the next$42,000;
plusone
twenty-fourth
of i percentfor all wages over $45,000. The
maximummonthlypaymentis $85.00. Workerswhosetotalwages
werelessthan$2,000
willreceive
a lumpsumof 3.5percent
of
theirwagesin included
employment
afterDecember
31, 1936and
beforethe age of 65, up to a maximumof $70.00.
At the time the act becomesoperativeand for many years
subsequent to that time, unless the provisionsof the act are
amended, monthly benefit paymentsfor old workers will neces
sarilybe verysmall. Anyonewho has earnedbetween$2,000and
$3,000will receiveonly $10.00to $15.00a month. Old-age
retirement
paymentsmade on the basisof the earningsof
workers in this marketfor many years to come will not in
themselves
be sufficient
to providea livelihood
in the absence
of other resources.
he Statemay supplementthesepayments
for thosewho are citizensso thatsuch personsmay obtainup
to $30.00. Noncitizens,
however,will not qualifyfor State
old-age
assistance
to supplement
theamountsreceived
under
the FederalSocial SecurityAct.
Thepresent
welfare
system
thusappears
definitely
inadequate
to mitigatemuchof the effectof unemployment
and old age in
this labor market. If the trendin the industry
is continued
and the absorption
of broad-silk
workersintootherindustries
occursto no greater
extentthanpreviously,
the situation
will
becomesteadilyworse. The age of theseworkersand theirlong
habituation
to one industry
implythatabsorption
intosuitable
jobsoutsideof textiles
is improbable.
If old-agebenefit
amounts and those under the unemployment-compensation
law
remain the same, the need for other forms of relief will
continue to exist.
5Asdefined
intheSocial
Security
Actandforwhich
a taxiscollectible.
APPENDIX
PATERSON
110
Table
A-1.-
NUMBER
BROAD-SILK
OF SHOPS
WORKERS
LOOMS , BY SIZE
AND
OF SHOP,
1924-868
Size of shop (loomage)
Total
Item
Total
1-20
reporting
21-60
61-100
Not
Over
100
as
Per-
tain
cer
Num
Per
ber
cent
Nun- Perber cent
Num-Per-NumPer-Number
cent ber cent
ber
cent, ableb
Shops
1924
518
1925
596
1926
687
1927
844
1928
557
515
593
661
640
551
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
1929
517
1930
518
514 100.0
512 100.0
1931
478
475
1932
477
476
1933
455
1934
475
1935
480
1936
390
455
474
479
389
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
244 47.3
299 50.4
312 47.2
237
210 40.8
39
34
7.6
5.7
23
284
284 43.0
38
5.7
27
4.1
287
45
7.0
24
6
3
40.0
44.8
22
4.3
3.9
26
222 40.3
287 48.5
37
6.7
25
3.8
4.5
205 39.9
220 43.0
201
42.3
212 44.5
253
236
229
218
35
21
4.1
22
4.3
4
28
6.8
6.6
5.9
17
3.6
3
31
6.5
15
44.4
197
43.3
238
49.8
251 52.4
203 52.2
49.2
46.1
48.2
45.8
34
4
3.2
1
O
T
216 47.5
194 40.9
190 39.7
30
6.6
12
2.6
30
6.3
14 O
3.0
1
27
5.6
11
2.3
1
155
21
5.4
10
2.6
39.8
P
Looms
(thousands)
1924
1925
1926
1927
21.7
1928
19.5 100.0
1929
18.1
1930
16.9 100.0
15.7 100.0
14.9 100.0
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
8
D
18.7 100.0
20.2 100.0
22.2 100.0
100.0
100.0
14.4 100.0
14.0 100.0
13.5 100.0
11.1 100.0
3.0 16.0
7.741.2
3.7 18.3
8.7 43.1
3.6 16.210.2
46.0
3.4
15.710.6
48.8
2.6
13.3
9.9 50.8
2.4
13.3
2.5
14.8
2.4
2.5
15.3
16.8
2.3 16.0
2.5
17.9
3.0 22.2
2.4 21.6
9.4 51.9
8.1 47.9
8.5 54.1
7.852.3
7.9
7.0
6.8
5.6
54.8
50.0
50.4
50.5
3.1 16.61
13.4
3.2 14.4
3.6 16.6
2.9 14.9
2.7
4.9 26.2
5.1
25.2
5.2
23.4
4.1
18.9
4.1 21.0
2.7
2.2
2.4
15.5
18.0
14.0
16.1
3.5 19.3
3.6 21.3
2.6 16.6
2.2 14.8
2.8
2.4
18.7
2.4
17.1
1.8 12.5
2.1 15.0
2.1
15.6
1.6
1.6
14.4
1.5 13.5
11.8
Data
compiled
from
yearly
118tings
inDavison's
Rayonand
Silkfrodes.
Represents
shopswithtwoor moregeneral
typesof looms(e. 8., Jacquard
or ribbonas wellas broad
silk)
in which the number or broad-silk looms was not ascertainable .
CExcludes
loomsin shopswhosebroad-silk
loomegewas
notascertainable.
APPENDIX
Tablo A-2.- NUMBER OF SHOPS
111
AND LOOMS, BY TYPE OF OPERATION,
1924-868
Both
commis
sion and
Total
Commission
Independent
Item
independent
plus not
specified
Num
Per
Num
Per
Nun
cent
ber
cent
518
596
100.0
121
198
23.4
33.2
359
100.0
887
100.0
100.0
100.0
209
30.4
215
33.4
203
ber
Per
Num
Per
cent
ber
38
7.3
22
3.7
405
69.3
63.1
59.0
369
57.3
60
9.3
36.4
318
57.1
36
6.5
ber
cent
Shops
1924
1925
1926
1927
644
1928
557
376
73
10.6
1929
517
100.0
201
53.8
38
7.3
516
247
38.9
47.9
278
1930
158
111
21.5
20.3
22.6
1931
478
100.0
100.
235
49.2
146
1932
477
100.0
243
51.0
126
30.6
30.5
26.4
100.0
100.
100.0
100.0
242
53.2
124
27.2
89
280
144
30.3
24.8
71
15.0
285
54.7
59.4
76
15.8
224
57.4
25.4
67
17.2
18.7
20.2
100.0
100.0
2.0
3.1
10.7
15.3
79.7
80.7
1.8
9.6
16.3
0.8
4.0
22.2
3.7
18.7
17.2
77.5
1.3
5.8
4.2
19.4
15.8
7.8
4.2
21.5
14.6
72.8
74.9
1.7
19.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
0.7
3.6
23.8
32.0
34.4
12.7
70.2
1.1
8.0
47.3
3.5
7.0
3.3
37.6
5.9
44.6
39.6
6.0
20.7
21.0
3.4
22.8
1933
455
1934
1935
475
480
1936
390
119
99
97
108
19.6
Looms
(thousands)
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
21.7
14.9
1929
18.1
100.0
4.3
1930
16.9
100.0
5.4
1931
1932
15.7
14.9
100.0
100.0
5.4
5.6
1933
14.4
100.0
5.7
39.6
5.7
1934
1935
1936
14.0
100.0
5.6
40.0
6.1
13.
100.
6.1
11.1
100.0
5.0
45.2
45.1
3.0
20.8
2.3
16.4
5.0
39.6
43.6
37.0
2.4
4.3
38.7
1.8
17.8
18.2
BData
compiled
fromyearly
118tings
inDavison's
Rayonand
SilkIrodes.
bexcludes
looms
inshops
whose
broad-811k
loomage
wasnotascertainable.
PATERSON
112
BROAD-SILK
Table A-8.- NUMBER OF MIGRATING
WORKERS
SHOPS AND THEIR AGGREGATE
LOOMAGE,BY TYPE OF OPERATION,1928-868
Both
com
mission
Commission
Total
Independent
Year
Total
plus not
specified
Shops
Looms
56
4,821
11
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
and
independent
2
Shops Looms Shops
Looms
Shops
Looms
11
398
37
3,817
8
606
3
66
20
32
o
5
840
74
1
3
657
1
7
619
o
110
2
9506
O
218
o
5°
382
2
237
3
2
174
84
1
1
7
562
2
H
31925 346
o
54
625
7
44
10
N
o
A
D
60
1
428
oOo
619
906
218
322
237
o
O
1934
1935
1936
1
O
40
40
98
24
21933
134
o
304
24
H
o
OW
1
44
162
3
o
Datacompiled
fromyearly11stings
inDavison's
Rayonandsilkfrades.
Dincludes
one
shop
thatmoved
220looms
and
left
80inPaterson.
Only 220 were counted
for
thisshop.
'Includesone
shopwhose
Paterson
loomage
isunmown.
Table A-4.- AVERAGENUMBEROF LOOMS PER SHOP, BY SIZE OF SHOP,
1924-88&
Size of shop (loomage)
Year
Totalb
1-20
21-60
61-100
36.7
36.7
35.9
36.9
37.1
79.5
79.4
84.2
80.0
78.4
37.1
80.0
79.4
78.6
1924
36.3
12.3
1925
34.1
12.4
1926
1927
1928
33.6
11.5
33.9
12.0
35.4
11.7
1929
1930
35.2
33.0
1931
1932
33.1
1933
1934
1935
1938
Over 100
222.7
221.7
192.6
170.8
164.0
166.7
11.7
37.2
11.4
11.9
11.8
34.3
35.8
77.4
31.6
11.7
36.6
80.0
150.0
29.5
10.6
12.0
11.8
36.1
80.0
77.8
76.2
150.0
31.3
28.2
28.5
35.8
36.1
163.6
152.9
146.7
145.5
150.0
Data
comp1led
fromyearly
listings
inDavison's
Rayonandsilkfrades.
bExcludes
looms
inshopswhose
broad-silkloomagewasnot
ascertainable.
113
APPENDIX
Table A-8.- DISTRIBUTIONOF 100 SMALL SHOPS IN 1986,
BY TYPE OF OPERATION,1926-888
Both
Total
Commission
Independent
Year
Per
ber
cent
Num
Per
cent
ber
241926
24
28
27
45.3
44.4
49.1
25
25
1927
1928
54
1929
57
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
47.4
1930
56
100.0
27
48.2
1931
65
68
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
37
1932
42
47
56.9
61.8
56
100.0
100.0
53
1933
1934
1935
1936
57
74
82
95
100
Num
ber
PerNum
cent
47.2
com
mission and
independent
Per
cent
Num
ber
4.
5
7.5
4
7.0
6
10.5
6
10.7
9.3
24
48.3
43.9
42.1
23
41.1
38.9
32.3
31.1
4
8.2
4
5.9
83.5
24
22
23
4
5.4
68.3
19
23.2
70
73.7
19
20.0
7
6
6.3
74
74.0
17
17.0
9
9.0
25
8.5
&Dataobtained
in NRPFieldSurvey:schedule
forshopshaving20 loomsor lesswhichwere
in business
at any timeduringtheyear.
Table A-6.- AVERAGE NUMBER OF LOOMS PER SHOP,
BY TYPE OF OPERATION, 1924-862
Both com
Year
Total
Commission
Independent
mission and
independent
plus not
specified
1924
36.3
1925
34.1
16.5
15.7
43.4
51.4
42.1
41.5
1926
33.6
17.7
42.5
27.7
1927
33.9
42.8
30.4
1928
35.4
19.5
20.7
45.9
23.3
1929
35.2
21.4
45.7
31.4
1930
1931
1932
33.0
33.1
21.9
50.6
32.7
23.0
23.0
47.9
35.1
46.8
31.8
46.0
33.7
32.9
32.0
27.3
31.3
1933
31.6
1934
1935
29.5
1936
28.5
28.2
23.6
21.5
21.4
22.3
42.4
42.0
43.4
Datacompiled
fromyearly11stings
inDavison's
Rayonand
Silk
Trades.
b
Averagescomputedonly
forthose
shopsreportingbroad-811kloomage.
114
PATERSON
BROAD-SILK
Table A-7.- PRODUCTION OF TOTAL
UNITED
STATES
AND
and
State
yards
(thousands)
Percent
GOODS
IN THE
1899–19888
All-silkbroad goods
Percentage
Square
BROAD
NEW JERSEY,
Totalbroadgoods
Year
WORKERS
Square
change over
yards
preceding (thousands )
census
Percent
Percent
or
total
broad goods
year
1899
United
States
87,637
100.0
New Jersey
40,594
All other States
47,043
40.3
53.7
124,871
100.0
46,701
37.4
62.6
68,437
100.0
78.1
32,022
53.2
46.8
89.7
08.1
+42.5
97,871
100.0
78.4
+15.0
+66.2
42.327
55,544
43.2
56.8
90.6
71.1
36,415
1904
United
States
New Jersey
All other States
78,170
1909
States
185,707
100.0
+48.7
114,877
100.0
61.9
New Jersey
64,780
34.9
65.1
+ 38.7
+54.7
52,403
62,474
45.6
54.4
80.9
51.7
United
All other States
United
1914
States
120,919
100.0
+16.3
142,713
100.0
66.1
69,163
146,871
32.0
68.0
+ 6.8
+21.5
52.049
90,664
36.5
63.5
75.3
61.7
States
310,132
100.0
245,861
100.0
79.3
New Jersey
All other States
108,548
201,584
35.0
65.0
+56.9
+37.3
99,483
146,378
40.5
59.5
91.6
72.6
278,411
100.0
-10.2
230,903
100.0
82.9
91.1
New Jersey
All other States
216,034
1919
United
+43.6
1921
United
States
New Jersey
All other States
81,559
-24.9
- 2.3
156,570
32.2
67.8
74,333
196,852
29.3
70.7
States
376,222
100.0
+35.1
271,820
100.0
72.2
New Jersey
All other States
103,849
272 ,373
27.6
72.4
+27.3
+38.4
84,561
187,259
31.1
66.9
81.4
88.8
79.5
1923
United
1925
100.0
+28.4
384,725
100.0
79.6
124,839
358,477
25.8
74.2
+20.0
+ 31.6
108,289
276,436
28.1
71.
86.9
77.1
States
512,827
100.0
+ 6.1
385.530
New Jersey
All other States
126,643
386, 184
24.7
75.3
+ 1.6
99,810
285,720
25.9
74.1
United
States
New Jersey
All other States
483,116
1927
United
+
7.7
100.0
75.2
78.8
74.0
1929
71.1
States
597,114
100.0
+16.4
424,607
100.0
New Jersey
All other States
108,856
488,256
18.2
85 ,708
338,899
20.2
78.7
81.B
-14.0
+26.4
79.8
69.4
States
568,884
100.0
- 5.1
386,294
100.0
68.1
New Jersey
All other States
88 ,980
477,884
15.7
84.3
-18.3
74,264
312.030
19.2
80.8
83.5
65.3
558,881
100.0
- 1.4
201.438
United
1931
United
-
2.1
1933
United
States
New Jersey
All other States
n .& .
100.0
36.0
n.8 .
n.&.
n.& .
n. &.
n . & .
Adataweresecured
fromthefollowing
volumes
of theU. 8. Department
ofCommerce,
Bureau
of theCensus:data for 1899-1909,
fromahirteenth
Censusof theUnitedStates:
1910. Vol. X, Manufactures: 1909'(1913). D. 166; for 1914-21,from Biennial
Census of Manufactures: 1921 (1924).D. 243; for 1923-27, from same for 1927 (1930), pp. 336-7; for 1929 from Pifteenth
Census
of theUnited
States:1930,Manufactures:
1929' (1833). vol. II, D. 339; and for 1931-33,from BiennialCensus of
Manufactures:
1933(1838),
D. 178.
Dexcludes
pilefabrics:
Includes
flatJacquards.
n.2. Data not available .
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7 APPENDIX
o
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115
PATERSON
116
BROAD-SILK
WORKERS
Table A-9.- NATIVITY, BY SEX AND AGE OF WORKERS, 19388
Native-born
Total
Sex
Foreign-born
and age
in years
Percent
Number
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
407
100.0
616
100.0
209
100.0
18-24
51
22.0
5
1.2
105
47
11.6
161
58
56
27.8
35-44
45-54
183
55-64
103
8.3
17.0
26.1
28.5
16.7
46
25-34
33
5.4
Total
workers
65 or over
Median
age
27
17
5
26.8
12.9
105
25.8
136
33.4
8.1
2.4
86
28
21.1
35.1
44.4
6.9
48.4
478
100.0
100.0
365
18-24
27
5.6
23
20.3
4
1.1
25-34
61
12.8
29
25.7
32
8.8
95
26.0
Men
total
113
35-44
124
25.9
29
25.7
45-54
139
29.1
20.7
15
15
13.3
13.3
5.9
2
1.7
99
55-64
65
or
28
over
Median
age
48.9
100.0
96
24
17.4
23
24.0
25-34
44
37
24
31.9
29
30.2
28.8
27
17.4
12
35-44
45-54
55-64
65
or
4
Median
2.9
3.6
5
over
23.0
7.1
28
100.0
3
42
100.0
1
15
2.4
35.7
28.1
10
23.8
12.5
2.1
12
28.5
22
4.8
3.1
2
4.8
33.8
35.3
age
34.0
84
49.2
138
total
124
38.6
18-24
Women
100.0
40.0
schedule.
&Dataobtained
in NRPFieldsurvey:occupational-history
Table A- 10.- PERCENTAGE
DISTRIBUTION
OF
WORKERS
IN
SILK MILLS, BY AGE, 1890-19308
Age in years
Total
18906
or
Unknown
1930
100.0
100.0
86.7
82.5
13.3
17.5
71.6
28.3
n. & .
0.1
1910
100.0
100.0
100.0
90.4
90.1
9.6
9.9
10-440
45
1920
1900
over
n.a.
n.a.
n.8 .
a
Jalafor1890weresecuredfrom
Bleventh
Censusof theUnited
States:1890, Population
IU.9.Dept.Int.,Census
office,
1897),partII,pp.708-8;for1900,fromtwelfth
Census
Reporton Occupations"
(U. S. Dept.com.andLabor,
of the UnitedStates: 1900,"Special
Bur. Census, 1904), DD. 886-9. Data for the remainingyears were securedfrom the following
volumes of the U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census:
data for 1910, from
Thirteenth
Censusofthe UnitedStates:1910, "Population (1914), vol. IV, D. 587; for
1920, from Fourteenthcensus of the United States: 1920, "Population'(1923), vol. IV,
pp. 1191-2; for 1930, from Pifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, Population
(1933),vol. IV, p. 1061.
BFigures
for1890
areforcotton,
woolen,
andother
textile
mill
operatives.
Figures
for1910and1920include
workers
whose
agewasunknown.
n.a. Data not available.
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117
PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
118
A-12, - SCHOOL GRADE COMPLETED,
BY SEX AND AGETable
OP WORKERS, 1988a
School grade completed
Median
school
grade
Total
Sex and age
in 1936
in years
Men- totalo
35-44
45-54
55
or
Women
None
Num
ber
Num
Per-
Num -
Per
cent
ber
cent
ber
cent
ber
cent
100.0
127
26.8
154
32.6
145
30.7
47
9.9
5.3
30
34.1
8.4
Per
COD
4
4.5
10
11.4
44
50.0
25.6
46
41
33.9
52
37.4
52
30
21.6
40
32.0
46
38.0
37,4
36.8
30
24.0
6
4.4
36
26.3
78
56.9
17
84.7
58.3
W
1368
o 19.1
o 11.1
over
125
totalº
137
100.0
over
Nun
31
139
45-54
or
Per-
ber
8818-34
100.0
100.0
1
1.5
10
14.7
44
38
100.0
1
2.8
10
27.8
21
24
100.0
4
16.7
12
50.0
8
18-34
65
Num-
100.0
100.0
100.0
35-44
9-16
cent
Per
473
7-8
1-6
9
0
5
&Dataobtained
in NRPFieldsurvey:occupational-history
3121
pleted
2.5
4.8
3.6
7.2
3.0
12.4
3.9
7.7
8.0
7.7
5.0
33.3
1
.
schedule.
Excludes
fivemenwhodidnotreport
school
grade
completed.
Excludesonewomanwhodid notreport
schoolgradecompleted.
"Basetoosmallforcalculation.
Table A-18.- MARITAL
Total
Sex and age
in years
Men
total
or
Women
-
478
88
18-34
35-44
45-54
55
Num
ber
19888
STATUS, BY SEX AND AGE OF WORKERS,
Per
100.0
Married
Single
Divorced
Num
Per
Num
Per
Num
Per
ber
cent
ber
cent
ber
cent
370
77.4
80
16.7
10
2.1
58.0
Widowed
Num
Per
bercent cent
18
3.8
100.0
36
40.9
51
1
1.1
o
124
100.0
109
87.9
11
8.9
2
1.6
2
139
100.0
120
88.3
13
9.4
4
2.9
2
over
127
100.0
105
82.7
3.9
3
2.4
14
1.4
11.0
total
138
100.0
27
58.7
12
8.7
18
13.0
40
58.8
3
4.4
23
62.2
4
10.8
7
18.9
45.8
4
16.7
811
33.31
1
1
18-34
35-44
45-54
55 or over
68
100.0
37
100.0
24
100.0
9
19.6
33.8
3
8.1
5
81
4.2
0
71
Data obtained
in NRPFieldsurvey:occupational-history
schedule.
trase
tooall forcalculation
223
1
1.6
3.0
APPENDIX
Tobl. A-14,. ADDITIONAL
INDUSTRY
119
ATTACHMENT
OF FOUR GROUPS
OP BROAD-SILKWORKERS,1926-888
Other
Groups of Paterson
broad-silk workers
Total
In broadsilk only, 1926-35;in
specifiedindustryin 1936
35
In broad silk but entered speci
fied industry prior to 1935
26
plementary employment in
specified industry
Enteredbroad silk from specified
industry,1926-35
textiles
Nontextiles
Total JacquardOther Total Trade Otherb
2
0
8
12
15
22
17
5
116
68
42
26
48
44
26
19
18
4
11
3
1
In broad silk, 1926-36,with sup
Occupational-history
Adats
obtained
inNRPField
Survey:
7
1
0
38
9
9
schedule.
'Includesulnlyfactoryoperatives
inotherindustries,
servants,
andrestaurantemployees.
LOCATION OF FIRST JOB OF PATERSON BROAD-SILK
WORKERS, BY INDUSTRY OP PIRST JOB AND
Tabl.
A-16. •
PLACE OF BIRTða
Place
Total
Industry and
location of
first job
Paterson
Per
Paterson
Rest of United
States
Foreigncountry
Broad
silk
Rest of United States
Foreign country
Other textile
Paterson
Rest of United
cent
616
100.0
297
48.2
117
19.0
Other industry
of United
Foreign country
100.0
145
5
of
5.4
18.7
4
22
11.1
0
49
30.2
58
35.8
407
100.0
51
98.1
1.9
1
24
100.0
24
100.055
21
100.0
20.6
202
49.70
103
100.0
52
50.5
19.0
-
29
28.1
22
21.4
4
18
10103
8
0
100.0
181
55.6
42
44.4
21
11.6
118
65.2o
119
100.0
19
100.0
4
21.1
78.9
Not reported
Paterson
Rest of United
5
22.7
34
28.6
58
48.7
1
O
1
1O
O
O
States
Foreign country
1
4
1
.
&Dataobtained
in NRPFieldSurvey:occupational-history
schedule.
"Basetoosmallforcalculation.
23.2
27
O
-
100.0
-
15
o
29.7
84
17Paterson
81.0
0
52
121
100.0
-
-
37
100.0
100.0
47.5
94.6
162
59
52.5
100.0
118
centcent
31
70
12.0
47.0
Per
ber
28
74
30
Num
3.3
70.2
100.0
Per
cent
-
100.0
Foreign
country
ber
96.7
198
34.0
States
150
139
Paterson
Rest
Per .Num Num
ber
32.8
41.0
Foreign country
Num
202
251
States
of birth
United States
ber
Total
Rest
0
120
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PATERSON
122
BROAD-SILK
Table A-18,- SHOPS IN PAY-ROLL
OPERATING
WORKERS
SAMPLE, BY NUMBER OF MONTAS
SHIFT, 1927-888
A NIGHT
Aver
Shop number
age
during
period
1
6.65
3
4
4.34
1927
1928
1929
4.00 10.75
5.00
1930
1.80
5
6
1931
2.25
1932
1933
1934
1.757.00
10.00
1.25 0.50
3.75
1.258.00
5.50
1.33
1.00
0.50
1935
1936
8.00
6.50
1.25
8.50
1.75
2.50
-
1
7
4.94
10
3.67
9
1
11
2
3
1.00
6.00
-
1.75
4.000 3.25
6.46
3.25
-
3.00
7.25
4.25
0.75
2.25
7.25
8.50
8.50
9.75
9.75
9.50
4.25
2.00
8.50
11.50
5.04
6.50
6.25
2.75
3.25
3.54
2.75
0.75
2.00
8.86
14
1.00
0.50
-
-
10.00 10.00
10.25
4.75
4.17
5.42
9.75
6.00
3.00
5.75
3.00
7.00
5.25
7.75
1.00
4.00
5.75
3.25
17
19
20
22
7.75
2.75
-
2.75
8.500 9.75
Average for
all shops
4.84
1
1
3.33
1
2.78
2.884.53
6.67
5.81
5.29
a
Data obtained in NRP Field Survey: Day-roll
samplefor 22 shops. See p. 63. fun. 5 for method of determining
number of months in operation. None of the shopsoperateda nightshirtin 1928.
b,
Records
notavailable
forentire
year;
incomplete
recordswerenot
used
incomputationofaverages.
Base
Base too small
for calculation.
Table A-19.• MONTHLY AND YEARLY INDEX OF EMPLOYMENT,
IN
Year Yearly
1929
100.0
1930
118.9
1931
115.3
1932
99.3
1933
84.0
1934
119.3
1935
126.7
108.5
1938
Jan.
Feb.
12
Mar.
IDENTICALSHOPS, 1929-868
(1929=100)
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
72.8
82.5
126.7128.1 118.4101.0
99.5102.4
103.4 101.9 93.2
69.9
86.9138.8153.9142.2
119.4 101.4
51.5
84.9 111.6 134.0 146.6155.3
148.0164.6169.9168.4140.8
99.0 114.6
21.8
57.8 101.4 93.7 103.9
105.8 122.8 106.8 105.8105.3
84.5
59.7
79.6101.0120.4111.7
87.9
92.2
99.5
81.6
94.2 120.9125.7
111.2 116.0
72.8
1.5
9.2
113.1184.6161.2140.8
85.6 86.4
98.1127.7
58.3 129.6
117.0
69.4
148.1 161.7 138.3 142.7 122.8 98.5 129.6151.5 154.4143.7
98.5
97.6
95.6
91.7
90.8 104.9 103.9 121.4121.4
125.7125.2
apataobtained
in NRPFieldSurvey:pay-rollsample for 12 of 22 shops.
determining man-weeks worked.
84.0
139.3
60.2
125.7
See p. 66, ftn. 11 for method or
APPENDIX
123
A
Tablo A-20.- RATIO OF PERSONS ON PAY ROLL
NUMBER REQUIRED, 1926-888
Shop number
Yearly
average
1926
1927
1928 1929
AVERAGE
1930 1931 1932 19331934
1935 1936
2.1
1.8
1.5
2.8
4.3
2.8
1.9
2.0
1.6
1.2
2.2
(0)
1.8
4.1
3.7
8.7
5.2
5.2
1.0
3.2
2.6
2.8
1.9
1.7
3.3
1.6
2.4
2.5
2.9
2.6
2.4
3.5
4.5
3.8
4.0
4.6
2.0
1.7
5.1
1.9
5.7
4.0
3.2
3.9
4.3
(C)
4.0
5.0
4.4
3.6
5.1
3.8
6.1
7.6
8.8
4.5
3.2
3.2
2.9
1
2.3
1.5
1.3
2
2.4
3.5
1.4
2.0
3
5.1
2.8
4.5
5.2
4
2.5
5
3.1
7
4.9
4.2
8
1.9
9
1.4
2.3
TO
3.6
5.4
4.8
(C)
5.4
2.7
2.2
2.1
1.8
1.7
1.3
1.5
2.7
(C)
4.1
2.3
2.0
3.2
3.1
2.8
2.0
10
3.2
(C)
5.1
4.0
2.5
3.0
1.2
2.6
2.0
5.6
1.8
3.4
11
5.0
(C)
2.2
2.2
6.5
5.9
3.3
2.0
2.1
2.6
13
3.7
2.8
4.5
6.5
2.2
5.1
2.9
8.3
5.1
4.9
12
2.5
4.6
4.0
14
15
2.4
2.2
2.6
3.8
3.3
5.5
4.8
18
3.2
17
18
2.5
7.3
19
20
3.5
2.8
3.6
4.4
4.1
3.7
2.1
3.2
2.8
3.4
1.9
(C)
B.2
4.6
2.5
1.4
3.7
(c)
1.9
(c)
1.8
3.8
6.5
8.3
3.2
2.9
3.6
3.5
21
2.6
22
(c)
2.9
3.9
3.0
3.0
3.0
Average for
all shops
-
4.8
7.5
3.8
2.2
3.1
2.2
2.8
3.3
3.0
3.9
3.2
3.4
3.0
2.8
2.5
&Data obtainedin NRP Field Survey: Day-rollsamplefor 22 shops. See p. 68, itn. 12 for method of deter
mining this ratio.
shop closed
down.
CRecords
notavailable
forentire
year;
incomplete
recordswerenotused
incomputation
oraverages.
"Basetoosmallforcalculation,
Table A-21. - PERCENTAGE
WHO
Year Yearly
Jan.
OF PERSONS WORKING
RECEIVED
OVER 1 WEEK OF
PER 2 -WEEK PAY PERIOD,
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
AT INDIVIDUAL
SHOPS
EMPLOYMENT
1926-368
May
June
July
Aug. Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
82.2
88.8
1926
83.4
82.6
87.7
84.2
84.3
83.8
86.0
82.1
82.5
79.8
78.8
94.2
87.6
86.2
81.3
83.1
78.9
73.8
72.6
90.2
68.8
82.0
67.5
1929
1930
82.6
77.1
78.7
83.4
79.6
80.6
81.1
62.3
83.9
81.8
79.1
77.1
85.1
85.4
87.9
78.1
87.7
75.0
79.7
66.5
77.5
80.5
77.7
78.7
81.1
81.8
77.8
88.6
93.5
86.2
88.0
1928
85.2
78.3
84.3
86.4
81.8
1927
81.5
80.5
1931
1932
1933
1934
76.7
85.9
82.8
73.4
82.5
86.3
74.9
69.8
49.7
73.9
73.2
81.5
71.6
54.9
72.8
81.8
81.4
78.4
56.9
67.2
85.8
85.8
75.7
79.3
60.8
80.3
43.9
79.7
58.5
75.7
77.5
69.0
71.5
80.0
1935
1936
74.0
70.8
88.2
80.O
73.9
80.1
78.8
74.0
67.2
54.7
72.8
75.3
76.4
71.3
68.6
69.3
69.4
55.0
69.5
58.9
58.6
88.4
76.3
72.3
65.0
78.9
72.1
70.5
71.8
67.8
70.3
64.5
87.3
&Dataobtained
in NRPFieldSurvey:Day-rollsamplefor 22 shops.
79.9
46.0
52.1
75.5
69.6
11.1
75.2
79.4
77.3
78.7
73.9
75.2
66.5
124
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128
Table A-23.- DISTRIBUTIONOF ALL PERSONSWHO WORKED
AT INDIVIDUALSHOPS, BY NUMBEROF WEEKS WITH WORK
AND NUMBER OF EMPLOYMENT PERIODS,
1926-384
Number of
Total
Number of
employmentperiods
weeks
with work
Number
Percent
1
2
percent
3 orCumulative
over
1926
Total
120
100.0
15.0
1-
2
18
3-
4
7
5- 9
16
10-13
9
14-18
12
19-22
3
1
11
23-28
27-35
10
36-44
11
45-51
52
11
12
5.8
13.3
7.5
10.0
2.5
9.2
8.3
9.2
9.2
10.0
74.2
15.0
20.8
20.0
34.1
14.2
3.3
10.8
41.6
5.9
51.6
8.4
2.5
0.8
0.8
54.1
1.7
o
0.8
63.3
71.6
80.8
90.0
4.9
2.5
1.8
5.0
2.5
0.8
3.3
6.7
10.0
5.9
2.5
o
o
O
100.0
0.8
o
1.7
0.8
0.8
o
1927
Total
139
1-
2
3-4
100.0
28.6
26.6
25.9
10.1
0.7
36.7
48.2
11.5
58.3
5.1
O
4.3
62.6
64.8
2.9
0.7
0.7
1.5
0.7
0
16
10-13
14
10.1
14-18
8
19-22
3
23-26
7
27-35
B
8
4.3
2.2
5.0
4.3
5.8
8
20
5.8
85.7
14.3
100.0
45-51
52
10.8
O
o
3.6
o
o
o
37
9
36-44
85.6
0.8
14
10.1
11.5
5-
5.8
O
0.7
69.8
3.5
1.5
o
74.1
2.1
79.9
4.4
0.7
0.7
0.7
4.3
1.5
0
o
o
14.3
1.5
1928
Total
255
4
65
32
5- 9
3-
10-13
14-18
19-22
23-26
100.0
65.1
25.5
9.4
25.5
25.5
24.3
1.2
o1-2
38.0
11.4
45
12.5
17.6
55.6
12.1
1.1
5.1
0.4
19
7.5
63.1
5.1
2.0
0.4
15
14
89.0
2.3
2.0
1.6
74.5
1.6
1.6
2.3
77.6
83.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
0.7
1.9
27-35
14
5.9
5.5
3.1
5.5
36-44
45-51
16
6.3
89.4
1.6
3.9
2.4
0.8
9.4
98.8
100.0
3.1
5.5
0.8
1.2
o
0
24
52
See footnote at end of table.
1.2
129
APPENDIX
Table A-28.- DISTRIBUTIONOF ALL PERSONSWHO WORKED
AT INDIVIDUALSHOPS, BY NUMBEROF WEEKS WITH WORK
AND NUMBER OF EMPLOYMENT PERIODS,
1926-368 - Continued
Number
Total
Number of
of
employment
periods
weeks
with work
Number
Percent
Cumulative
1
2
3 or
over
percent
1929
Total
824
100.0
76.0
19.1
4.9
1-
2
217
28.3
26.3
24.9
1.4
o
3-
4
14.3
40.6
12.5
1.6
0.2
14.6
1.7
0.5
7.7
1.3
7.9
1.7
0.5
0.1
2.3
2.5
5.7
0.1
36-44
25
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.2
45-51
32
14
55.2
64.7
74.4
80.2
86.8
91.4
94.4
98.3
100.0
12.4
27-35
118
120
78
80
48
54
38
5-9
10-13
14-18
19-22
23-26
52
9.5
9.7
5.8
6.6
4.6
3.0
3.9
1.7
0.8
2.4
0.8
1.0
2.6
1.2
0.1
1.7
o
o
1930
Total
1,019
100.0
34.5
13.0
16.2
7.0
6.3
1-
2
3-
4
352
132
5-
9
185
10-13
14-18
71
19-22
42
19
46
23-26
27-35
36-44
45-51
52
64
42
4.1
1.9
4.5
4.1
81
7.9
5
0.5
75.3
18.4
8.3
34.5
47.5
63.7
70.7
77.0
81.1
34.0
10.8
13.2
4.9
0.5
o
1.7
2.7
0.5
0.3
1.5
0.6
4.4
0.9
83.0
0.5
1.0
0.6
3.5
1.0
1.3
0.9
87.5
91.6
99.5
100.0
1.9
0.9
0.5
2.1
1.4
2.6
0.9
4.1
0.5
o
0.3
o
66.8
23.8
9.4
1931
1,101
Total
1-
2
3-
4
5- 9
10-13
14-18
19-22
23-26
27-35
345
156
161
71
60
57
33
100.0
31.3
31.3
30.8
45.5
12.4
0.5
1.5
0
14.2
14.6
60.1
66.5
71.9
77.1
80.1
84.2
92.0
99.6
100.0
11.4
2.5
0.7
1.2
0.7
0.3
1.5
1.2
1.5
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.8
2.1
1.7
o
4.8
0.1
7.0
o
3.0
0.5
8.4
5.4
5.2
3.0
45
4.1
36-44
86
45-51
83
52
4
7.8
7.6
0.4
Seefootnote
at endof table.
4.4
2.9
3.4
0.4
0.3
o
PATERSON
130
BROAD-SILK
Tablo A-28.- DISTRIBUTION
WORKERS
OP ALL PERSONS WHO WORKED
AT INDIVIDUAL SHOPS, BY NUMBER OF WEEKS WITH WORK
AND NUMBER OF EMPLOYMENT PERIODS,
1928-888 - continued
Number
Total
Number of
of
employmentperiods
weeks
with work
Number
Percent
Cumulative
1
2
percent
3
or
over
1932
Total
964
100.0
75.4
15.2
9.4
1-
2
336
34.8
0.8
4
96
10.0
34.8
44.8
34.0
3-
8.4
1.5
0.1
5- 9
153
15.9
60.7
12.5
2.1
o
4.8
65.5
3.0
1.2
14-18
46
62
1.3
0.6
6.4
71.9
3.7
2.0
0.7
19-22
34
3.5
1.8
1.2
23-26
27-35
36-44
45-51
24
50
78
74
11
2.5
75.4
77.9
83.1
91.2
98.9
100.0
1.1
0.6
1.5
1.7
2.7
5.6
0.5
0.8
2.0
3.0
1.7
0.4
1.1
o
0
52.8
35.6
10-13
52
5.2
8.1
7.7
1.1
2.4
1933
930
Total
100.0
11.6
1-
2
281
30.2
30.2
28.7
1.5
0
3-
4
97
10.4
40.6
7.4
2.9
0.1
5-
9
175
54
18.8
5.8
6.3
3.8
4.0
12.6
59.4
65.2
71.5
75.3
79.3
91.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
9.9
8.5
0.4
1.7
2.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.1
0
O
3.7
3.4
1.8
1.5
5.3
7.0
o
0
0.4
52.8
22.9
24.3
10-13
14-18
19-22
23-26
27-35
36-44
59
35
37
117
75
8.1
o
45-51
52
0.9
1.0
1.5
6.3
1.0
o
0
1934
Total
1,084
100.0
26.6
1-
2
288
3-
4
5-
9
99
144
78
89
41
37
67
179
60
10-13
14-18
19-22
23-26
27-35
36-44
45-51
52
2
See footnoteat end of table.
9.1
26.6
35.7
49.0
25.5
1.1
0
6.9
7.6
4.0
3.5
1.8
4.1
2.0
3.6
0.4
1.1
1.5
1.2
0.7
4.4
12.0
13.3
7.2
8.2
3.8
3.4
64.4
68.2
71.6
1.5
1.2
6.2
77.8
0.7
1.1
4.4
56.2
1.6
1.2
1.1
94.3
0.1
5.5
99.8
1.7
2.1
1.7
0.2
100.0
0.2
0
o
16.5
APPENDIX
131
Table A-28.- DISTRIBUTIONOF ALL PERSONSWHO WORKED
AT INDIVIDUAL SHOPS, BY NUMBER OF WEEKS WITH WORK
AND NUMBER OF EMPLOYMENT
PERIODS,
1926-388- Continued
Number of
Total
of
employment periodsNumber
weeks
with work
Number
Percent
Cumulative
1
2
3 or
over
percent
1935
Total
1,192
63.4
100.0
31.8
30.5
1.3
o
7.2
2.3
2.1
0.2
1.2
31.8
9.7
6.3
23-26
27-35
36-44
45-51
75
58
31
84
108
94
7.0
55.4
61.9
68.2
73.1
75.7
82.7
9.1
7.9
52
4
2
3- 4
5-9
10-13
14-18
19-22
13.9
6.5
4.9
2.6
0.3
11.7
41.5
379
116
166
77
1-
24.9
10.6
3.7
1.7
1.1
3.1
1.9
1.3
2.3
1.2
0.9
1.0
0.8
1.4
0.9
91.8
3.2
4.4
99.7
100.0
0.6
7.2
0.3
o
0.1
o
19.6
8.0
2.0
4.0
1.5
1936
Total
1,118
100.0
72.4
1-
2
350
31.3
31.3
30.4
0.9
o
3-
4
126
11.3
42.6
9.1
2.0
0.2
5-
9
192
72
57
43
44
65
61
67
17.2
59.8
66.2
11.9
3.5
1.8
3.8
2.2
0.4
71.3
75.1
79.0
84.8
90.3
96.3
100.0
2.4
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.9
1.3
1.0
1.7
1.2
2.3
3.0
0.8
1.6
0.8
4.1
3.7
1.9
o
o
o
10-13
14-18
19-22
23-26
27-35
36-44
45-51
52
41
6.4
5.1
3.8
3.9
5.8
5.5
6.0
3.7
1.9
adataobtained
in NRPFieldSurvey:pay-rollsample for 22 shops. See p. 66, ftn. 11 for
method of determining
weeks with work.
132
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PATERSON BROAD-SILK WORKERS
6
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.
6
4
APPENDIX
6
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. 0
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6
7
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y
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N
APPENDIX
Table A-82.- DISTRIBUTION
141
OF ALL PERSONS WHO WORKED
AT
INDIVIDUAL SHOPS, BY AMOUNTS RECEIVED
DURING
YEAR,
a
1926-86°
Amounts received (dollars)
Total
Year
Less
Percent
11
thanNumber
50
1,001
51
101
501
100
500
1,000
or
11
1926
95
1927
1928
1929
1930
118
100.0
233
757
100.0
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
100.0
over
11.6
38.9
18.9
13.8
10.2
24.6
17.0
13.4
34.7
15.0
20.0
12.8
31.1
13.7
19.2
11.2
9.5
20.1
14.2
11.2
13.4
9.4
12.1
25.7
15.1
26.2
35.7
15.8
10.1
4.6
3.1
12.7
10.7
13.7
22.1
11.5
17.2
956
100.0
100.0
1,044
100.0
14.5
21.2
100.0
24.3
100.0
19.7
15.4
20.6
859
755
941
1,047
100.0
12.4
20.8
100.0
20.8
949
100.0
17.9
19.7
22.1
adataobtained
in NRPFieldsurvey:pay-roll sample
9.9
30.2
11.9
31.0
28.4
13.5
27.8
7.8
9.9
13.6
23.0
16.2
15.7
2.6
2.9
3.0
3.0
for 19 of 22 shops.
Tabl. A-88.- MEDIAN EARNINGS RECEIVED DURING YEAR FOR ALL
WORKERS, BY NUMBER OP WEEKS ON INDIVIDUAL PAY BOLLS,
a
1926-888
(Dollars)
Year
Number
All
of weeks on pay roll
workers
1-16
1926
232.65
103.00
1927
138.00
49.50
1928
1929
138.00
153.00
73.50
67.50
665.50
990.50
1930
118.00
60.50
518.00
1,025.50
1,325.50
1931
105.50
47.50
525.50
1,000.50
1,050.50
1932
81.50
110.50
26.50
38.50
340.50
350.50
645.50
550.50
853.00
145.50
90.70
37.50
26.50
320.50
733.00
325.50
670.50
700.50
30.00
245.50
548.50
795.50
1933
1994
1935
1936
83.50
17-32
33-48
49-52
475.500
900.500 1,258.83°
575.500 1,150.000 1,138.000
1,575.500
520.50
885.50
1,140.50
(c)
825.506
&dataobtained
in NRPFieldSurvey:pay-rollsamplefor 19 of 22 shops.
Medlanbased
onlessthan25 butmorethan10workers.
CNOpersons
inthisgroup.
WPA NATIONAL
RESEARCH
PROJECT
Reports issued to date
(Continued
from inside
frontcover)
Studies
in Production,
Productivity,
andEmployment-Continued
Mining
E-2 small-scale
PlacerMines as a sourceof Gold,Employment,
and Livelihood
in 1935
(out of print)
£-4 Employment and Related Statistics of Mines and Quarries, 1935: coal
E-7 Technology,
Employment,
andoutputperManin Phosphate-Rock
Mining,
1880-1937
E-8 Changesin Technology
and LaborRequirements
in the Crushed-stone
Industry
E-9 Mechanization,
Employment,and outputper Man in Bituminous-Coal
Mining
(in dress)
E-10Technology,Employment,
and Outputper Man in Petroleumand Natural-Gas
Production(in press)
Agriculture
Changesin Technology and Labor Requirements in Crop Production:
A-1 Sugar Beets
A-4
Potatoes
A-5
A-7
Corn
Cotton
A-10 Wheat
and Oats
A-B Trends in size and Production of the Aggregate Farm Enterprise, 1909-36
A-8 Trends in Employment in Agriculture,1909-36
Studiesof Effects of IndustrialChange on Labor Markets
P-1
P-2
Recent Trends in Employment and Unemploymentin Philadelphia
The labor force of the PhiladelphiaRadio Industry in 1936
P-3 Employment
and unemployment
in Philadelphia
in 1936 and 1937(in two parts)
Ten Years of work experienceof Philadelphia
Weaversand LoomFixers
P-5 Ten Years of work Experienceof Philadelphia
Machinists
P-4
P-8 Reemployment of Philadelphia Hosiery workers After Shut-downs in 1933-34
P-7
The Search for work in Philadelphia,1932-36
L-1 Cigar Makers
-After the lay-off
L-2 Decasualization
of Longshorework in San Francisco
L- 3 Employment Experience of Paterson Broad-811kWorkers, 1928-38
L-4
Selective Factors in an Expanding Labor Market: Lancaster,
Pa. (in press)
L-5
Laborand the Declineof the Amoskeag
TextileMills(in press)
Requests for copies of these reports should be addressed to:
Publications Section, Division of information
Works Progress Administration
Washington, D. C.
DATE DUE
BOXED
APR 1 9 2000
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