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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BULLETIN QF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU, No. 100 THE EFFECTS ON WOMEN OF CHANGING CONDITIONS IN THE CIGAR A~D CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES I ' https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis [Punuc-No. 259-66TH CoNGREss] [H. R. 132291 An Act To establish in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the Women's Bureau Be it enacled by the Senate and House Qf Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, That there shall be established in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the Women's Bureau. SEc. 2. That the said bureau shall be in charge of a director, a woman, to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, who shall receive an annual compensation of $5,000. It shall be the duty of said bureau to formulate standards and J>olicies which shall promote the welfare of wage-earning wo~en, improve their working conditions, increase their efficiency, and advance their opportunities for profitable employment. The said bureau shall have authority to investigate and report to the said department upon all matters pertaining to the welfare of women in industry. The director of said bureau may from time to time publish the results of these investigations in such a manner and to such extent as the Secretary of Labor may/rescribe. SEc. 3. That there shall be in sai bureau an assistant director, to be appointed by the Secretary of Labor, who shall receive an annual compensation of $3,500 and shall perform such duties as shall be prescribed by the director and approved by the Secretary of Labor. SEc. 4. That there is hereby authorized to be employed by said , bureau a chief clerk and such special agents, assistants, clerks, and ' other employees at such rates of compensation and in such numbers as Congress may from time to time provide by appropriations. SEc. 5. That the Secretary of Labor is hereby directed to furnish .. sufficient quarters, office furniture, and equipment for the work of this bureau. SEc. 6. That this act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. Approved, June 5, _1920. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis E Y COLLEGE .UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR W. N. DOAK, Secretary WOMEN'S BUREAU MARY ANDERSON, Director BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU, NO. 100 THE EFFECTS ON WOMEN OF CHANGING CONDITIONS IN THE CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES BY CAROLINE MANNING AND HARRIET A. BYRNE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON: 1932 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis CONTENTS Page Letter of transmittaL _ _ ____ ________ ______ _________________________ Part !.-Introduction_ ____ _________ ___ _______ ___ __ __ ________ _____ __ Cigars ________ _________ ________________ _ ___ ______ ________ __ __ Cigarettes ___ ___ ________ _____ __________ _______ _____ ___ ____ ___ _ Purpose and scope of study___ ___ ____ ____ ____ ________ ___ ___ _____ Cigar-factory data _____ ___ ___ _____ ____ ______ _____ ___ ___ ___ Interviews with employers_ ___ ___ _____ ___ _______ __ __ ___ ____ Interviews with women______ __ ______ ________________ ___ ___ Summary ________ ___ ___________ ______ __ ___________ ___________ Part IL-Trends in the manufacture and marketing of cigars and cigarettes__ __ _____________ __________ ___ _________ ____ _________ ______ The cigar industry _________ _"' _____ ~ __________________________ _ Per cent of the total production_ ____ _________ ____ ___ ___ _____ Numbers employed___________ ____ __________ __ ____ _____ ___ _ Changes in localities___ ____________________________________ Kentucky and Tennessee_____ ___ ____ _______________ ____ Philadelphia and Camden_______________ ____ _________ __ New York City, Jersey City, and Newark _______ __ __ ___ __ Ohio____ _________ _________ ___ ___ __ ___ _____ ______ __ ___ The cigarette industry_______________ ___ ____________ ________ ___ Reports from two States__ _______ ___ __ ________________ ___ __ Ohio______________ ______________ _____ __ ________________ __ Pennsylvania__________________ ______ ________ __ __________ _ Part UL-Interviews with cigar-plant officials ___ ______ .:.____________ __ Hand-operated plants__________________ _____ _______ ______ __ ____ Types of plants____________________ ___ __ ____ _________________ _ Difficulties of transition________________ __ ___ __________ ____ _____ Economies of automatic machine ________ ___ _________ ____ ___ _____ Changes in personneL ______ __________ ______ ___________________ P3:rt IV,:--History of cigar and cigarette workers as reported in home 1nterv1ews__________________________________ _________ _____ ______ Home interviews with cigar workers__ __ ____ _________ ______ ______ Age of the women_________________ _____ _____ ____ __ __ ______ Department in which employed_____ ______ ___ ___ _______ _____ Week's earnings ____________________ t ______________________ Time in the cigar industry _________ ______ __ __ ______ ___ ___- Cause of the separation__________ ___________ ____ ___ ____ __ __ Employment status since the chief separation___ ____ _______ ___ Unemployment for industrial reasons since the separation______ Subsequent jobs____________________ __ ________________ ___ _ Separations other than the chief one____ _________ _______ ____ __ Home interviews with cigarette workers __________ _____ __ __ __ _ Employment status in Locality A_______ _______ ___ __________ Time worked in cigarette industry______ _____ __ __________ Status of employment____ _______ ___ _______ ____________ Time unemployed for industrial reasons since losing job__ Time lost between separation and first subsequent job_____ Number and t ype of subsequent jobs _____ __ ____ _________ Reasons for lea ving subsequent jobs______ __ ___ ______ ____ Separations other than the major one__ ____ __ ___ ________ _ Employment status in Localities B _______ ____________ _______ Time worked in cigarette industry_ __ ___ __ ______ _____ ____ Status of employment_ ______ _______ _____ __ ___ ___ __ ___ _ Time unemployed for industrial reasons since losing job__ __ Time lost between separation and first subsequent job__ ___ Number and type of subsequent jobs__ _____ __ __ ___ ______ Reasons for leaving subsequent jobs_ _____ ____ ____ ___ ___ _ Separations other than the major one_________________ __ _ III https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis VII 1 1 4 6 6 8 8 8 11 11 11 13 14 14 16 18 19 20 22 22 23 27 27 29 30 32 36 38 39 40 41 43 49 52 53 56 59 62 62 63 63 65 66 66 67 67 67 67 67 68 69 69 70 70 71 IV CONTENTS Part IV.-History of cigar and cigarette workers as reported in home interviews-Continued. Home interviews with cigarette workers-Continued. Earnings before and after the separation ___ __ _______________ _ Occupation and age ______ __ ______________ ~ ____ ______ __ Earnings of the women from making departments ________ _ Earnings of the women from packing departments ___ ____ _ Earnings in Locality A ________________________________ _ Earnings in Localities B ______________________________ _ Part V.-Personal information about women still employed _______ ____ _ The cigar workers _________ ______ __________________ ___________ _ Age _____ ___ ______ .------------------------------------- - :~~u~\Ystatus ______________ _____ ________________________ _ Time in the cigar industry ________________________________ _ The cigarette industry ___________________________ _____________ _ Age ______ ___________ _________________ __________________ _ Nativity __________ ______________________________________ _ Marital status __________ _________________________________ _ Time in the cigarette industry _____________________________ _ Part VI.-Wage data from factory pay rolls _________________________ _ Week's earnings in the cigar industry _________________________ __ _ Median and range of earnings ____ _________________________ _ Earnings and time worked _______________________ ______ ___ _ Time worked in the _various departments _____ _________ __ _ Method of payment ______________________________________ _ Locality ____ ____________________________________________ _ Size of city __ ____________________________________________ _ Earnings and age ___________ ____ ____ __ ___________________ _ Earnings and time in the trade __ __________________________ _ Data for Florida ______ _________ __________________________ _ Week's earnings in the cigarette industry _______ _________________ _ Median and range _____ ___ ____ ____________________________ _ Earnings and time worked ___________ _____________________ _ Method of payment _______________ _________________ __ ___ _ _ Locality ____________ __ __________________________________ _ Earnings and age _______ __ __________ ________ _________ __ __ _ Fluctuation in the employment of women in two factories ___ __ _ Year's earnings in cigars ______________________________________ _ Part VII.-Working conditions _________________________________ ___ _ Stairways ___________________________________________________ _ Floors and aisles _____________________________________________ _ Lighting __________________ __________________________________ _ Ventilation ________________________________________________ __ _ Seating _______________ ______________________________________ _ Drinking facilities ____________________________________________ _ Washing facilities ____________________________________________ _ Toilet facilities ______ _________ ________ ______________________ __ _ Lunchrooms __ ______________________________________________ _ Cloakrooms ____ _____________________________________________ _ Uniforms ____ · ____________________________ ___________________ _ Part VIII.-Occupations in the industries ___________________________ _ Occupations in the cigar industry ____________ ________________ __ _ Occupations in the cigarette industry _________________ __________ _ Appendixes: A.-General t ables _________ ______________ _______ ______ ____ ___ _ B.-Schedule forms ___________________________________________ _ Page 71 71 71 72 74 74 76 76 76 77 77 78 79 79 79 79 79 80 80 80 84 85 90 92 94 95 97 99 100 101 104 107 108 110 112 115 118 119 119 119 120 121 122 123 124 124 124 125 . 126 126 129 134 179 TEXT TABLES 1. Number of employees, according to whether hand or machine factory-Cigars_____________________________________________ 2. Per cent women formed of total employees, according to whether hand or machine factory-Cigars ______________________________ ----3. Trend of employment and wages in the cigar and cigarette industries in Ohio, 1923 to 1930 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ 4. Trend of employment in five specified counties in Pennsylvania_____ 5. Age of the women interviewed, by t ype of locality-Cigars_________ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 7 7 22 23 41 CONTENTS V Page 6. Department in which employed at time of separation, by type of locality in which interviewed-Cigars______________ _____________ 7. Earnings in last job before separation and in first subsequent job, by age at date of interview-Cigars____ ___________________________ 8. Time worked in the industry, by type of locality-Cigars___________ 9. Employment status since the chief separation, by type of localityCigars___ ___ ___ __________ __________ __ ____ ___________________ 10. Time unemployed for industrial reasons between separation and first subsequent job, by type of locality-Cigars_____________________ 11. Department in which employed at time of separation, by age at date of interview and type of locality-Cigarettes____________________ 12. Age of the women interviewed, by type of locality-Cigarettes______ 13. Employment status since the chief separation, by type of localityCigarettes_ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ 14. Time unemployed for industrial reasons between separation and first subsequent job, by type of locality-Cigarettes:_________________ 15. Week's earnings of packing-department workers in last job before separation and in first subsequent job (identical women)-all women reporting and those under 30 years of age--Cigarettes_ __ _ _ 16. Week's earnings of packing-department workers in last job before. separation and in first subsequent job-all women reporting and those under 30 years of age--Cigarettes_ __ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ 17. Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars___________ 18. Earnings distribution by department-Cigars_____________________ 19. Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in days, by department-Cigars_______________________________________ 20. Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in hours, by department-Cigars_______________________________________ 21. Number and median earnings of timeworkers and of pieceworkers, by department-Cigars___ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ __ __ _ _ _ 22. Median of the week's earnings of white women, by department and locality-Cigars_____________________________________________ 23. Median of the week's earnings -of negro women, by department and locality-Cigars _____________________________________ __--.---24. Earnings distribution by department-Cigarettes__________________ 25. Earnings, by department and occupation-Cigarettes_..:____________ 26. Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in days, by department-Cigarettes ______ :...____________________________ 27. Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in hours, by department-Cigarettes___________________ __ ______________ 28. Number and median earnings of timeworkers and of pieceworkers, by department-Cigarettes_ __ __ __ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ ___ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ 29. Year's earnings, by weeks worked-Cigars____ __ __________ ________ 30. Year's earnings, by department-Cigars____ ___ ____ __ _____ ________ 42 44 49 53 57 63 64 65 66 73 74 81 82 86 87 90 93 94 101 103 104 106 108 115 117 APPENDIX TABLES I. Department in which employed at time of separation, by age at date of interview and type of locality-Cigars __ __.:. ________ II. Time worked in the industry, by age at date of interview and type of locality-Cigars ________ ______________ __ _- _- -- - -III. Steadiness of employment since separation according to age at date of interview, by type of locality-Cigars______________ IV. Steadiness of employment since separation according to type of locality, by age at date of interview-Cigars____________ V. Number and type of jobs secured since separation, by age at date of interview and type of locality-Cigars______ _______ VI. Employment of women subsequent to the separation, by locality and age group-Cigars____ __ ______ _________ _____________ VII. Number of jobs since separation and time unemployed for industrial reasons, by type of locality-Cigars_ __ __________ VIII. Time worked in the industry, by age at date of interview and type of locality-Cigarettes_________________________ _____ IX. Number of jobs since separation and time unemployed for indus.trial reasons, by type of locality-Cigarettes__ _________ ___ X. Employment of women subsequent to the separation, by locality and age group-Cigarettes______________________________ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 134 135 136 137 138 140 142 144 145 146 VI CONTENTS Page XI. Earnings in last job before separation and in first subsequent job, by age at date of interview-Cigarettes _____ ___ ______ _ XII. Age supplied personal information, by depart-_ of women who -ment--Cigars _________________________________________ XIII. Department in which employed, by age group-Women who XIV. xv. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. xx. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. supplied personal informa tion-Cigars ______ _____________ _ Nativity and color of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigars _______ __ ___________ ____ ________ _ Marital status of women who supplied personal information, by department--Cigars _________________________ __ ________ _ Time in the trade of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigars ________________________________ _ Age of women who supplied personal information, by department--Cigarettes _____________________________________ _ Department in which employed, by age group-Women who supplied personal informati on-Cigarettes ________________ _ Nativity and color of women who supplied personal information, by department--Cigarettes _______________ ______ ________ _ Marital status of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigarettes _____________ _________________ __ _ Time in the trade of women who supplied personal information, by department--Cigarettes _____________________________ _ Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars _____ _ Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in days-Cigars ________ ___ __ __________________ _ Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in hours-Cigars ___ ____ _________ ____ _______ ___ _ Earnings distribution by locality-Cigars __________________ _ W f~:~atf:;in~~g:~t-~~~ _~~ ~~~e~- ~I~~ _s_u~~~~~ -~~r~~~~~ -i~: 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 164 165 166 167 XXVII. Earnings distribution by time in the trade, women who supplied personal information-Cigars ______________________ ____ 168-169 XXVIII. Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigarettes_ _ 170 XXIX. Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in days-Cigarettes ____ _______________________ _ 176 XXX. Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in hours-Cigarettes ___________________________ _ 177 XXXI. Week's earnings and age of women who supplied personal information-Cigarettes ___ _________________________________ _ 178 CHARTS Proportion of total production of cigars manufactured in factories classified yearly according to output, 1921 to 1930_________ ____ __ ________ Index of the trend in the production of cigars in certain localities, by area, 1926to 1930_____ ______ ____ ____ ___ ______ ____ ___________ _____ ____ Index of the trend in the production of cigarettes in certain localities, 1926to 1930__________________ _____ ___ ___________ ______ __ _______ Per cent distribution of women by time worked in the cigar industry, by loc~Uies _____________ ___ ___ -------- -------- - -----------------Proportion of women entirely unemployed between separation and date of interview, by age and type of locality-Cigars__ _______ ___________ Per cent distribution of women by time worked in the cigarette industry, by localities_ ____ ____ ________________________ __ _____ _____ _______ Per cent distribution of current week's earnings of women in selected departments-Cigars ____ _____ __ ________________________ _______ __ Per cent distribution of current week's earnings of white and negro women, byage--Cigars __ ___ __________ _______ ___________________________ Per cent distribution of current week's earnings of women in selected departments-Cigarettes __________ _______________________________ Per cent distribution of current week's earnings of white women, by age-Cigarettes______________________________________________________ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 12 15 21 50 54 64 83 96 102 111 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL UNITE D STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, WOMEN'S BUREAU, Washington, June 6, 1932. Sm: I have the honor to submit the report of a survey of the effects on women cigar and cigarette workers of the recent introduction or improvement of machines and the concentration of operations in a greatly reduced number of factories, part of this bureau's extensive study of human waste in industry. Interviews with 1,400 women displaced by changes in these industries, many of them after 20 years in their trades, show their unemployment, their economic difficulties, and their reduced earnings in the new lines of work taken up. The pay-roll section gives the earnings clistribution of as many as 28,000 women. I aclmowledge with grateful appreciation the cooperation of employers who gave access to their pay rolls and information on changes in their industries, of employees who made out schedules or gave interviews in their homes, and of various agencies that s·u pplied production figures or other data. The field work was in charge of Caroline Manning, industrial supervisor. Parts 2, 3, and 7 of the report have been written by Miss Manning, and the remainder by Harriet A. Byrne, assistant editor. Respectfully submitted. MARY ANDERSON, Director. Hon. W. N. DoAK, Secretary of Labor. VII https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis THE EFFECTS ON WOMEN OF CHANGING CONDITIONS IN THE CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES PART 1.-INTRODUCTION Since the introduction of intensive cultivation and manufacture of tobacco in the United States women have been engaged in both these phases of the work. Women assist in the harvesting of tobacco and in its preparation for curing. This latter work consists in sewing or stringing the picked tobacco onto the laths on which the leaves are hung to be cured before the tobacco is ready for shipment to the warehouse and thence to the plant for manufacture. Many women are employed in the manufacture of tobacco into cigars, cigarettes, and other products. · The work of women in cigar and cigarette manufacture and the effects on women of changes in these industries were the subject of the study made by the Women's Bureau in 1929 and 1930, of which the present report gives the findings. The tobacco used in domestic manufacture that is cultivated in the Southern States, chiefly Kentucky, North and South Carolina, and Virginia, is used mainly for cigarettes and pipe and chewing tobacco, while that grown in the Connecticut Valley, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin is used largely for making cigars. CIGARS It is said that when Columbus landed in America the natives were smoking rolled-up tobacco leaves. Since this is the make-up of a cigar, it is, perhaps, in this form that tobacco was first used. The word "cigar" is derived from the Spanish word "cigarer," to roll.1 The cigar industry is purely a domestic one. Few American cigars are exported, although some are imported to continental United States. About 300,000,000 cigars that are manufactured in the Philippines and Puerto Rico enter the United States annually, duty free. The present consumption of cigars in the United States, considering those manufactured· here and those imported, although not so great as before the cigarette increased in popularity, is greater than in any other country of the world. 2 Manufacture. Mechanical devices for stripping the tobacco ]eaf-that is, removing the mid rib- have been on the market for at least 50 years. Some of the early inventions were crude and not a commercial success, but before the beginning of the century their practical value had been demonstrated. It may surprise the reader that several patents for stripping equipment were issued to Oscar Hammerstein in the 1880's. 1 Dushkind, Charles. Tobacco:M anual. Tobacco M erchants Association of the United States. [1926.] New York, p. 19. 2 The Tobacco World, Mar. 1, 1929. The United States Export Trade in Tobacco Products, 1928, pp. 10, 18. 1 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 2 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE ~NDUSTRIES He is said to have taken great satisfaction in applying his inventive genius to the perfection of an efficient stripping device. When cis-ars were first made to any considerable extent tnere were no mechamcal aids used in their manufacture; handmade cigars were the only kind known to smokers. The cigar industry was, for this reason, one in which skilled workers were essential, but little capital or equipment was required. After some time molds as mechanical aids were introduced, but the process of manufacture was still handwork. The next device to be used was the suction plate, on which the leaf was cut by foot press; this plate is still used in some places. The first cigar factory is said to have been established in 1810, although the making of cigars continued also as a home industry long after that. Since it was purely a hand operation, requiring no investment in equipment, small concerns sprang up in widely scattered parts of Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio. The development of the cigarette industry, on the other hand, has been quite the opposite. Almost from the first it was a machine industry, and machine-made cigarettes had been on the market for years before the first cigar factory began the manufacture of cigars by machine in 1918. 3 During the past decade or so a marked change has been taking place in cigar making; that is, the transition from hand to machine work. It was not until the growing popularity of the cigarette had come to be recognized that the cigar manufacturers found it necessary to produce a cigar at a lower price, and this meant a machine-made cigar. The greatly increased use of the cigarette was especially noted at the end of the World War. Tobacco at that tjme was 'high in price, and the process of hand manufacture of cigars was an expensive one. Machines had been used for part of the manufacture of cigars, but never had a cigar been made entirely by machine until shortly after the close of the war, when the automatic cigar-making machine was introduced. After years of experimentation this almost human machine was put upon the market. Since then it has been greatly improved, so that the only human effort now required is the placing of the raw material in proper position, after which the machine makes the bunch, transfers it to the mechanical rolling and shaping devices, and finally ejects it, a finished cigar. The use of the machine has revolutionized the whole industry, since all the processes of cigar manufacture but the packing can now be accomplished by these machines. Naturally, with the increasing number of machines in use, the making of cigars by hand is becoming a much less important occupation than it was a decade or two ago. The production of inexpensive machine-made cigars, which retail at 5 cents or thereabouts, has become the objective of the large manufacturers, and they control the industry. The Tobacco World of March 1, 1929, indicates clearly what the increasing popularity of this machine is doing to the old-time handworker and the small manufacturer: The American cigar industry emerged from the World War period handicapped not only by the rising popularity of the cigarette and the increased prices of raw materials but by an expensive system of hand manufacture, which is gradually being replaced by machinery, in order to meet the price competition of the cheaper smoke in the form of the cigarette. Werner, Carl Avery. Tobaccoland. New York, 1922, p. 263. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3 INTRODUCTION The abolishment of hand manufacture, in turn, has thrown numbers of people out of employment and caused great economic distress in certain sections of the country. Furthermore, thousands of small manufacturers who have attempted to keep hand labor have been forced out of business entirely; the number of cigar establishments, in fact, decreased from 11,483 in 1919 to 7,974 in 1927. 4 One of the first cigar companies to undertake the use of the automatic cigar-making machine took this step in Boston in 1918.5 When the installation of a cigar-making machine was being contemplated, the men in the plant, hoping to successfully combat the introduction of the machine, which had not yet proved its efficiency, refused to operate it. The following year, in order to be nearer the place of manufacture of the machine, this company moved to Newark. With a recognition of the efficiency of the machine, since it was averaging 3,000 cigars a day, and of the fact that cheap labor could be trained to operate it, the installation of automatic equipment increased rapidly. The machine has caused the replacement of men by women to a great extent, since men refused, quite consistently, to operate the machine. A commercial journal is quoted as stating that there were 3,000 automatic cigar-making machines in operation in 1929. This made the production of machine-made cigars, when the machines were operating full capacity, 9,000,000 a day. The machine installed costs about $3,500, with a royalty of $1 to $1.25 on every thousand cigars manufactured and a royalty of $3 for every day that the machine is not in operation. Due to the almost prohibitive price for small shops, many of these have been forced out of business. A trade publication concerned chiefly with the business of the few largest tobacco manufacturers gives a cursory review from year to year of the trends in the industry. Each successive bulletin emphasized the doom of the hand-operated plant: Larger units making an increasing percentage of total output [1925 figures]. _As stated in our review last year, a period of declining production such as bas attended the cigar industry during the past few years tends to eliminate the small producer because in times of adversity he is unable to endure the stress of tne intensified competition that allows only the fittest to survive. His quota to the total production is replaced by an enhanced contribution from his larger, wellentrenched competitors, who can manufacture more cheaply and give the consumer better value. This process may work a hardship on the sma,11 manufacturer, but it is an inevitable part of the relentless workings of the economic law in a competitive system wherein only those possessing the greatest efficiency can hope to prosper. Accordingly, although cigar output in the aggregate has registered a decrescent trend, the production of most of the major manufacturers shows an increasing tendency from year to year, as a result of the elimination of the smaller producers and the consequent concentration of the industry among the more p owerful and efficient units. * * * * Growing utilization of cigar machines. * * The cigar machine has been the instrument of the gradual revolution or evolution taking place in the industry. * * * It may be stated that the age of skepticism concerning the practicability of the cigar machine has passed, and its important role in the future of the industry is every day gaining wider recognition. * * * To-day the greater part of the doubt that prevailed is dispelled as a result of the satisfactory performance over a prolonged period of trial, and the constant improvements that are being made in the machine from time to time. * * * One of the major corporations in the industry has recently equipped and put into operation a factory, operated exclusively on machine processes, with an annual capacity of 150,000,000 cigars, and another of the large corporations 4 6 The Tobacco World, Mar. 1, 1929. The United States Export Trade in Tobacco Products, 1928, p. 18. Interview with R. E. Van Horn, vice president of the Cigar Makers' International Union. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 4 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARET'.rE INDUSTRIES has under construction a plant with a similar capacity to be used entirely for machine production. As an illustration of the trend, this latter-mentioned organization, which recently was almost wholly on a hand-manufacturing basis, will be producing over 60 per cent of its entire output by machine within a relatively brief period. * * * * * * The process necessarily will be a gradual one, but all the indications are that within a decade the cigar industry will be operating practically entirely on machine production. 6 The optimistic tone of the trade review continues in its report of the year 1928, covering the year 1927, which estimates that 50 per cent of the cigar production (excepting those of the cheapest grade) was machine made; that is, the decade since 1918, when the first machineequipped factory began operation, had seen handmade cigars decrease from the whole to about one-half of the total output. It leaves no doubt that the small manufacturer was being pushed to the wall and that the trade wa_s controlled by a few large monopolies. Mechanization creating production economies (1927 figures) . * * * The installation of cigar machines is going ahead rapidly and each year a greater percentage of ·the total output of cigars is a machine product. The advent of the machine has transformed the cigar industry from a hand-labor basis to one where large scale production, with its attendant efficiency and manufacturing economies, has been made possible. Since the coming of the machine the large cigar companies have been closing down their small plants scattered throughout the country and are concentrating their operations in large up-to-date plants, modernly equipped in every respect, and run in accordance with the most up-to-date principles of industrial efficiency. * * * The percentage of the total output of cigars manufactured by machinery is not exactly determinable, but excluding the cigars retailing at three for 10 cents and classified as elass A (retailing for not more than 5 cents) it is estimated that about 50 per cent of the remaining total production of cigars is machine made. A few of the manufacturers of popular brands of cigars, because of special circumstances, are using hand processes, but wherever competitive conditions are particularly severe the machine is being utilized. In the course of a few years the probabilities are that the great bulk of cigars will be manufactured by machinery. 7 The review of 1929, covering the year 1928, looks toward "the early disappearance of the small manufacturer"; and while the decrease in total output of cigars for the year was "disappointing to the cigar industry, it was not discouraging as the year saw a continuation of the abandonment or absorption of the small uneconomic unit and the concentration in strong, well financed, ably managed hands of this important branch of the industry." 8 And again, despite the decrease in total production in 1930, the attitude is hopeful: "With 375 less factories manufacturing cigars in 1930 than in 1929, of which 303 were among those producing less than 500,000 cigars each annually, further evidence is presented of the concentration of cigar manufacturing in the hands of the large units.'' 9 CIGARETTES The manufacture of cigarettes in the United States began about 1864, for which year the total production was reported as approaching 20,000,000. During the next five years production declined, until in 6 The Tobacco Industry: Annual Review, 1926. [1925 figures.] pp. 121 13, and 15. 7 Ibid., 1928 f1927 figures], p. 16. s Ibid., 1929 1928 figures], pp. 3, 15. u Ibid., 1931, p , 3. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Charles D. Barney & Co., New York, INTRODUCTION 5 1869 it was only about one-tenth of that figure. From then on the output of cigarettes has increased. 10 Though the manufacture of cigars has been passing through an industrial revolution in the past decade, comparatively minor changes have affected the manufacture of cigarettes. However, great improvement has been made in equipment. Furthermore, transfer mechanism has eliminated much moving of the stock by hand. With patents on the older type of machines about to expire, new and completely automatic machines are on the market with a production much m excess of that of some older and now almost obsolete types. From about 500 to 600 cigarettes a minute it is estimated that production will be speeded to 900 or more. The gains made by some manufacturers through the installation of more efficient making and packing machines were described by officials as follows: Cigarette manufacture in plant No. 1 had been a machine job for 35 years. The present equipment, installed in 1917, caused no change in numbers employed at that time but production increased about 50 per cent. In 1925 plant No. 2 speeded up production 25 per cent through the installation of more modern devices. In Baltimore two cigarette plants had closed during the four years immediately preceding the survey; in Philadelphia one plant had closed a few months before. The close of operations in the Philadel·p hia plant brought about an increase in production and in numbers employed in a Richmond factory of the same company. Other transfers of manufacturing units were from Virginia to Kentucky (Louisville), and from New York (Brooklyn) to North Carolina. In the case first mentioned the concentration of operations in Louisville was at the expense of the factory in Virginia, where production and -employment fell off about two-fifths between December, 1928, and December, 1929, the period covering the removal to Kentucky. Altogether, almost 500 men and women, white and negro, lost their jobs on this account. The following excerpt from the New York Times of September 26, 1929, refers to the removal from Brooklyn to the South: The last large manufacturing plant of - - - in New York * * * has been sold. The sale is part of the policy of the company to liquidate its New York holdings and centralize manufacturing in the South and West, where the company obtains its supply of raw material, leaf tobacco. The building was erected by the company about 10 years ago and occupies a plot 200 by 232 feet. It has a total floor area of about 300,000 square feet and is assessed at $750,000. The manufacturing now being done there will be transferred to Durham and Richmond. This was too recent a removal for the agents of the Women's Bureau to discover what industrial adjustments the 600 or more employees left jobless by this transfer would be able to make, but it was possible a few months later to see how employment had increased in one of the company's southern factories due to this transfer of operations. When the work that had been done in Brooklyn was running on a good production basis in this plant, employment was found to have increased from an average of about 700 during the first months of 1929 to more than double that number by the spring of 1930. 10 Werner, Carl Avery. Tobaccoland. New York, 1922, p. 43. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 6 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETI'E INDUSTRIES This movement toward Virginia and North Carolina is typical of what has happened to other cigarette units formerly located in New York, Jersey City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and opportunities for employment have increased in the new territory at the expense of labor in communities where the factories formerly were located. The lay-offs have not infrequently affected hundreds of women unable to follow the factory operations into distant States. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF STUDY The purpose of the survey was to study the effects on the employment of women of the changes taking place in the cigar and cigarette industries, with their mechanization, concentration, and changed trends of employment. From May, 1929, to June, 1930, a total of 110 cigar factories in 11 States were visited, and from 98 of these pay-roll data covering 22,579 women were copied. (See summary.) The States and cities were as follows: Massachusetts: Boston; New York: New York and Binghamton; New Jersey: Trenton, Camden, and Newark and vicinity (Newark, Passaic, Perth Amboy, South Amboy, and Fords); Pennsylvania: Philadelphia, York, Lancaster, Reading, Harrisburg, Steelton, and 10 smaller cities or towns; Maryland: Baltimore; Delaware: Wilmington; Ohio: Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Dayton, Lima, Newark, Sidney, Van Wert, Wapakoneta, Wellston, and Xenia; Michigan: D etroit; Kentucky: Louisville, Paducah, and two smaller cities ; Tennessee, one small city; Virginia: Richmond and Petersburg. In the survey of women in the cigarette industry, 12 factories in 5 cities (Louisville, Ky.; Durham and Winston-Salem, N. C.; and Petersburg and Richmond; Va .) were visited. Industry Women on t be pay rolls copied Number of N umber of women plants in plants Total W hite Negro P ersonal-informa• tion cards Displaced women inter- · Women Women on pay viewed not on rolls pay rolls at borne copied copied - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 31, 278 24, 492 28, 377 13, 678 2,901 1, 409 3,885 - ------------Cigars _____ _____ _- ____ Total _____ ______ 110 Cigarettes _____ _____ __ 98 12 1 25, 095 6, 183 I 22, 579 5,798 20, 824 3,668 1, 755 2,130 11,666 2,012 2, 516 385 1,150 259 For 514 of these, year's earnings were secured . One other State, Florida, in which many cigar factories are located, was purposely not included in this study, due to the fact that in the preceding year a State survey of the industries employing women had been made there by the Women's Bureau, in which study 14 cigar plants, employing 2,835 women, were included. Cigar-factory data. In 68 of the 98 cigar plants the work was done by hand, and in 9 others most of it was done by hand. In 11 of the plants only machine work was engaged in, and in 6 others most of the work was done by machine. Four of the plants were stemmeries only. Of the 98 plants, 86 supplied information regarding the total number of employees. Twenty-one plants-almost one-fourth-had https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 7 IN'l'RODUC'rION 100 and under 200 employees; 15 had 200 and under 300. Of the 14 with as many as 500, 3 had at least 1,000. Twenty-four were small plants, with fewer than 100 workers; 9 of these had under 50. (See T able 1.) The smaller plants were all hand plants. No factory with fewer than 300 employees used chiefly machine processes. T ABLE 1.-Number of employees, according to whether hand or machine factory-.:. Cigars Total number of employees Number of Hand M achine factories Stemreporting p ay-roll 1- - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - 1 meries in\~~~a- Entirely Chiefly Entirely Chiefly I Total._____________________________ 98 68 9 11 6 Not reporting number ___ ____ _________ ___ l===12::::;::t===8= l====1= 1===1=l====l====1 Total reporting___________ _______________ 86 60 8 Less than 50 ____________________________ _i----9-i- - -9- -__ -__ -__ -__-__ 50 and less than 1()()____ _________________ 15 13 2 100 and less than 200__ __ _______________ __ 21 18 2 200 and less than 300_____________________ 15 13 2 300 and less than 500. ______ _____________ 12 3 1 11 4 1 500 and less than 1,000___________________ t,000 and over_____ ______________________ 3 ____ _____ _ __________ 10 5 3 -__-__-_-__-__- _ -__ -__ -__-__-__ -__-__-_-__-__- _ _________ _ ___________________ _ _____ _____ _______ ___ 1 ________________________ ___ __ _ 3 3 2 6 ___________________ _ 1 2 ______ ___ _ For 85 plants it was possible to learn the proportion of women among the total employees. In 58 plants-more than two-thirds of all-women comprised 75 per cent or more of the total number of employees. In 21 plants they were one-half but less than threefourths of the total; and in as many as 27, almost one-third of all, they were at least 90 per cent of the total. In three-fifths of the hand plants women were at least 75 per cent of the total; in all the machine plants, at least 80 per cent. It was in 6 of the 68 hand plants that women constituted less than one-half of the employees. TABLE 2.-Per cent women formed of total employees, according to whether hand or machine fac tory-Cigars All facHand Machine • tories supPer cent women formed of total employees i - - - - - - - i - - -- - ---1 Stemmeries informa- Entirely Chiefly Entirely Chiefly tion la1f-:1o'h - - - - - - - - - - - -- 1- - - - 1- - - 1- -- --- - ------- TotalFactories_ _______________ _______ 9 11 6 4 98 68 22,579 10,043 Women _______________ _________ l= ======.;::l=====::::::.j:==l,=6=76=1==3=, 6=7= 1 ~==6=·=31~8=l=====87=1 Factories not reporting per cent..._. __ .. _. 1 13 8 T otal factories reporting per cent____ ______ _ _ _85 _, _ _ _ 8 _ _1_0 _ _ _4_ _ _ __ 60_ _ _ _ 1 lOand less than 15 __ ____ __ ______________ _ 1 1 25 and less than 30 ____________ __ _______ ___ 1 1 35 and less than 40 ____________ __________ _ 2 2 40 and less than 45 _________ ____ __ ______ __ 1 1 --- -- ----- ------- -- - --- -- - --- 45 and less than 50 ______________________ _ 1 1 50 and less than 55 ____ ____________.______ _ 2 2 Mand less than 60 ________ ___ ___________ _ 6 7 1 ---------- ---------- ---- -----60and less than 65 ______________________ _ 7 8 1 ---------- ---------- -- -------65 and less than 70 _____ ____ _______ ______ _ 2 2 70 and less than 75 _____ _________ ____ ____ _ 1 2 1 --- - ------ ---- -- ---- -- ------ -75 and less than so ______ _______________ __ 7 6 --- - ------ -------- - - ----- - ---1 80 and less than 85 ______________________ _ 6 13 7 ---------- ---- ---- -85 and less than 90 _____ ________ _______ __ _ 1 3 3 2 2 11 90 and less than 95 _____ ____ _______ ______ _ 14 11 1 ---------2 ---- -----95 and less than 100 _____________________ _ 13 13 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 8 WOME N . I N CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIE:; Besides a week's pay-roll information, earnings for a year were taken off for some of the women in the cigar industry who had been with the plant for 52 weeks and had worked in at least 44 of the 52. Personal information regarding the individual workers was obtained from cards distributed to the women throughout the factories. Data regarding 14,182 cigar workers were made available in this manner. Not all of these women reported on every subject, but a large part did report on nativity, age, marital status, and time in the trade. In the cigarette manufacturing establishments pay-roll data were secured for a total of 5,798 women, 3,668 white and 2,130 negro. Cards distributed among the workers in the plants, calling for name, address, nativity, marital status, etc., were filled in by 2,397 women. Of these, 2,012, 1,827 white and 185 negro women, were also in the group for whom pay-roll information was available. ln two cigarette plants two pay rolls several months apart were copied, from which much enlightening information concerning the rapid changes occurring in the industry has been made available. Interviews with employers. In addition to securing the pay-roll data, interviews were had with one or more members of the firm. In this way information was obtained regarding changes in the methods of manufacture and the employment trends since the introduction of machines in the cigar industry and the improvement in machines in the cigarette industry. Data were secured also regarding the effects of the consolidation of plants and their removal from one place to another. Interviews with women. Visits were made to the homes of 1,150 women who had been employed in the cigar industry but had been deprived of their jobs. (See p. 40 for cities included in the study.) The marked changes that have occurred due to the transition from hand to machine work or to the transfer or consolidation of plants are brought out clearly in the analysis of the information obtained in these interviews. Home visits were made also to 259 cigarette workers. Some of these were in cities from which the cigarette factories had moved; and in the case of others changes in manufacture had had an effect in reducing the number employed. SUMMARY Period of the survey: Spring of 1929 to summer of 1930. Extent of the survey: Cities and towns ____________________________ ______ _ E st ablishments .. ______ ___ __:.. ______ ________________ _ Cigars Cigarettes 47 110 5 12 1,150 259 Number reporting __________ _______ _________________ Under 30 years _____ __________________ per cent__ 30 and under 40 years __________________ __ do ____ 40 years and over ___ ______ _, ___________ ___ do____ 1, 147 39. 8 28. 5 31. 7 259 54. 4 29. 0 16. 6 Time in the industry: Number reporting _________ _____ ____ ____ _______ _____ _ Less than 5 years ____ ___ _________ _____ per cent__ 5 and less than 10 years __________ ___ _____ do ___ _ 10 and less than 20 years ____________ _____ do __ __ 20 years and over_ _______________________ do ___ _ 1,086 24. 3 24. 9 31. 5 19. 3 247 21. 1 37. 7 36. 0 5. 3 HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS Number of women_ __________ __________________________ Age: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 9 INTRODUCTION Employment status since separation: Number reporting ______________________________ .. __ _ Unemployed entire time ____ ______ __ ___per cent_ _ Employed at some time ________ ______ _____ do ___ _ Cigars Cigarettes 1, 150 12. 5 87. 5 259 21. 2 · 78. 8 Earnings in last job before separation and in first subsequent job: Number reporting first subsequent job in same industry __ 139 Median in job before separat ion ____ ____ __ ___ ___ _ _ $19. 60 Median in subsequent job __ __ _______ ___ ________ _ $15. 85 Number reporting first subsequent in-_ dustry _______________ _________ __job ____in___another __ ______ 215 Median in job before separation __ __ _____ ___ _____ _ $16. 95 Median in su bseq uen t job ______ ______ __________ _ $12. 20 11 (') (1) 96 $21. 25 $14. 10 PERSONAL INFORMATION FOR WOMEN STILL EMPLOYED Nativity: Number reporting __________ __ ___ __ ___ ___ _____ .. _____ _ 12, 580 Native born _____ __~ ____ __ __ ___ _______ per cent __ 75. 2 Foreign born _______ ________ ____ ____ _____ do ___ _ 24. 8 Color: Number reporting __ ___ _____ _____ ___ ____ ___ __ __ ___ _ _ 9,163 White ____ ___ _____ __ ____ ___ ______ ____ per cent_ _ 92. 2 Negro ___ ____ ________ ____ ___ _______ _____do __ _ _ 7. 8 Age: Num ber reporting _____ ______ ____________ __ ____ .. ___ _ 13,887 Under 20 years __ _____ ____ __ ________ __per cent __ 29. 2 20 and under 30 years ____ __ ___ __ ___ _______ do ___ _ 35. 6 30 and under 40 years __ __ ____ _______ ___ __do ___ _ 20. 6 40 years and over_ ___ ~ _______ ___ ____ ___ __ do ___ _ 14. 5 Marital status : Number reporting ___ ___ _________ ____ ___ __ ____ _.. ___ _ 13, 791 Single ____ __ _________ __ ____ _____ _____ per cent __ 49. 9 Married ______ _____ _____ _____ ____ ________ do __ _ _ 39. 3 Widowed, separated, or di vorced ___ ____ ____ do ____ 10. 8 Tim e in the trade : Number reporting ___________ ____ __ __ ___ ______ _____ _ 11,885 Under 1 year ______ __ ____ ___ ___________ per cent_ _ 14. 6 1 and under 5 years ______ _____ __ ___ ______ d o ___ _ 34.4 5 and under 10 years _____ ____ ___ ____ __ ___do ___ _ 22. 5 10 years and over __ ___________________ ____ do ___ _ 28. 5 2,378 99. 8 .2 2,127 87. 3 12. 7 2,383 15. 9 50. 8 20. 5 12. 8 2,387 42. 8 38. 6 18. 6 2,374 13. 4 34. 4 26. 6 25. 7 PAY-ROLL INFORMATION Method of payment: Number of white women reported __ ______ __________ __ 20,815 Pieceworkers __________ _______ ________ per cent __ 86. 3 Timeworkers __ __ _________ ______ _______ __ do __ _ _ 11. 9 On both timework and piecework ___ _____ __do __ _ _ 1.8 Number of negro women reported ___ _____ _________ ___ 1. 755 Pieceworkers __ ___ __ ___ _____ ___ ___ ____per cent __ 74. 4 Timeworkers ___ _____________ __________ __ _do ___ _ 25. 4 On both timework a nd piecework __ ___ ____ _do ___ _ .2 Week's earnings: Number of white women ___________ _____ _____ _____ _ _ 20,824 Less than $5 ____ ____ ___ ______ _____ ___ per cent __ 4. 8 $5 and less than $10 ____ __ __ ___ ___ ________ do __ _ _ 12. 8 $10 and less than $15 __ _____ ____ _____ ______ do ____ 24. 8 $15 and less than $20 __ ___ ___________ _____ do __ __ 27. 8 520 and over _____ ____ ______ _______ ______ do ___ _ 29. 8 Median of the earnings, all women __________ _ $16. 30 1 Not computed; base less than 50. 126898°-32--2 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3, 668 42. 0 54. 5 3. 5 2, 115 57. 5 37. 8 4. 7 3, 668 2. 9 5. 5 28. 0 45. 2 18. 3 $17. 05 10 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARET'l'E I DUSTRIES Cigars Cigarettes Week's earnings-Continued. Number of negro women __________________ __ _______ _ 1, 755 2,130 Less than $5 _________________________ per cent __ 9. 5 20. 7 $5 and less than $10 ______________ _______ _d o ___ _ 38. 7 66. 5 $10 and less than $15 _____________________ do ____ _ 43. 7 11. 5 $15 and over ____________________________ do ___ _ 8. 1 1. 3 Median of the earnings, all women __________ _ $10. 10 $8. 00 Year's earnings: Number of women ________________________________ _ 514 (2) Less than $600 _______________________ per cent __ 15. 2 ___ ------28. 8 ____ _____ _ $600 and less than $800 ___________________ do ___ _ 34. o______ ___ _ · $800 and less than $1,000 ____ _____________ do ___ _ 18. 7 ________ - $1,000 and less than $1,200 __ _____ _·- ________ do ___ _ $1,200 and over _________ _________ _____ __ _do ___ _ 3. 3 __ _-- __ ___ _ $827 _________ _ Median of the earnings, all women __________ _ r Not obtained for cigarette workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PART 11.-TRENDS IN THE MANUFACTURE AND MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES · On account of the taxes on tobacco products collected by the Federal Government, the Commissioner of Internal Revenue is in a position to have most accurate information relative to various trends in the trade-changes in numbers and location of plants as well as in value of products. The annual reports of that Federal bureau, therefore, give undeniable evidence of certain striking changes in the cigar and cigarette industries in the present century. These reports show for both cigars and cigarettes a decrease in the number of manufacturing establishments. The method of presenting the data has been changed somewhat in the 30 years for which figures are quoted here, but in 1900 .a total of 27,366 cigar manufacturers were reported and in 1930 there were only 7,552. A similar relative decrease between 1900 and 1930 was noted in the number of cigarette ·establishments. Notwithstanding this reduction in the number of factories, the production of cigarettes has risen by leaps and bounds, in round numbers from 3,000,000,000 to 124,000,000,000. On the other hand, the production of cigars (of the class weighing more than 3 pounds per 1,000) has during this time increased by only about 6 per cent. THE CIGAR INDUSTRY From these annual reports it is apparent that the total number of cigar manufacturers dropped from 14,578 in 1921 to 7,552 in 1930, a decrease of almost one-half. The number of factories has been correlated with the output of cigars. The production has been classified in groups of from less than 250,000 cigars to more than 40,000,000. Factories making less than 500,000 a year are small and employ comparatively few workers, while at the other extreme are factories with an annual output of over 40,000,000, undoubtedly equipped with automatic cigar-making machines and employing considerable numbers of people. In 1921 about 90 per cent of the establishments were in the group with the lowest output, less than 500,000 cigars, and less than one-tenth of 1 per cent were in the group with the highest output, over 40,000,000. During the 10 years closing with 1930 the number of the factories first named decreased about one-half, from 13,149 to 6,976. The decrease in other classes was not so large, though some of the groups had even greater percentage declines. Only in the two highest groups was there an increase. The number of plants producing over 40,000,000 yearly increased from 11 in 1921 to 35 in 1930; the group next following did little better than hold its own. Per cent of the total production. The classification of the plants by output shows that in 1921 the 11 plants with production of over 40,000,000 made about one-sixth 11 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 12 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES (15.7 per cent) of all the cigars manufactured, and in 1930 the 35 factories in this class made almost one-half. With the exception of the next largest group, making 20,000,000 to 40,000,000 cigars, all the other classes of establishments had been steadily losmg ground. For example, in 1921 the plants with the smallest production had made about one-seventh (13.7 per cent) of the total output, but by 1930 their part of the production had decreased to about one-twentieth (5.2 per cent) . To sum up: In 1930 the 6,976 smallest factories were making slightly more than one-twentieth of the total cigar output, and the 35 largest were making almost one-half.I The accompanying chart is a graphic presentation of this tremendous development. Beginning in 1921, line 10, representing the proporPROPORTION OF TOTAL PROD UCTIO N OF CI GARS MANUFACTURED IN FACTORIES CLASSIFIED YEARLY ACCORDING TO OUTPUT, 1921 TO 1930 [Figures from annual reports of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue] r j 35 / 30 25 20 1_ 15 10 " 8- ~ ·~ 10-... " "✓ I 0 ,,.s - 1921 'K / x-- V -~ ~~ ----.... _ 1922 ~ 1923 .... 192' 1/ / 1. 2. 3. ,. If 15 . 6. 7. e. II. 10. _,,,-- ~ ---... ~ ~ 2.-..:!._5 / ~ V I /10 .,,.,., ....... ~ --..........._ - .. 19215 ~ 1926 --- -" ' ' - ~ r-... ~ ~ 8~ i-- - - ---~ - ---- --~ -- 1927 1928 i Ullder million 1 million l to 2 million 2 t;o 3 million l5 to , million , to 15 million 5 to 10 million 10 to 20 million 20 to ,o million Over 40 million i w 1929 r---... 1 I J +- t • s 1930 tion (15 .7 per cent) of the total output made by the largest plants, is only a little higher on the scale than line 1, representing the proportion (13.7 per cent) of the total output made in the smallest shops. In this same year the plants with an output of five to ten million and of ten to twenty million produced larger proportions of the total than did any other group, 18.4 per cent and 16 per cent, respectively. In 1923 line 10 begins to increase, and it mounts from 14.1 per cent in that year to 49.8 per cent in 1930. With one exception, the lines for all other classes are lower in 1930 than in 1921. For most of them there is a gradual downward trend over the period of 10 years. 1 Annual Report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 1922, p. 120; 1931, p. 129. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis MANUFAC'rURE AND MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES 13 Due to a difference in the collection of statistics, the number of establishments reported by the Bureau of the Census does not agree with the number reported by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, but the census figures indicate a decrease in the number of establishments over this same period of years. The numbers of establishments shown in the census report fall below the corresponding numbers given in the report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. The differences are due to the following causes: (1) On the records of the Bureau of Internal Revenue the same establishment may appear two or more times; for example, as a manufacturer of cigars, as a manufacturer of chewing tobacco, and as a manufacturer of cigarettes-while for census purposes such an establishment might make only one report and would be classified according to its product of chief value. (2) A separate report is required by the Bureau of Internal Revenue for each plant or factory, whereas in compiling the census returns two or more factories operated under the same ownership i_n the same city, town, or village are treated as a single establishment. (3) Every dealer in scrap tobacco is required to register with the Bureau of Internal Revenue, whereas the manufactures-census statistics do not include data for dealers. (4) All gro-w:erf;! of perique tobacco are required by the Bureau of Internal Revenue to register as manufacturers of tobacco, but are not covered by the census of manufactures. (5) A considerable number of manufacturers registered for taxation purposes reported products valued at less than $5,000, and therefore were not covered by the census of manufactures. 2 Numbers employed. The Bureau of the Census gives reliable data regarding the decrease in numbers employed. For approximately the same period as the one just discussed, employment figures are available. From about 103,000 in 1899 the average number of wage earners in cigars and cigarettes increased until in 1914 there were 153,000. From that year on the figure decreased until in 1929 it was about 105,000, or only slightly larger than in 1899. The average per factory increased steadily from less than IO in the earlier years to 30, to 40, to 50 and more, until in 1929 it was 64 wage earners per establishment. 2 In the various population censuses the women who reported their own occupations as in the manufacture of tobacco products were roughly 43,000 in 1900, 77,000 in 1910, 98,000 in 1920, and 74,000 in 1930. The exact figures for 1920 and 1.930 show a reduction of about 24 per cent in the 10 years. In the present study, made by the Women's Bureau just before the taking of the 1930 census, more than 30,000 women were employed in the cigar and cigarette factories scheduled. This number probably is greater than the actual employment at the present time, for with the recent changes in manufacture a perceptible reduction has been noted. Figures secured by means of a questionnaire sent to local unions by the president of the Cigar Makers' International Union of America showed there to be almost 100,000 persons employed in the cigar industry in the United States in 1925.3 About 79,000 were cigar makers, and about one-tenth of these were handworkers, making the complete cigar. · Slightly less than two-thirds of the persons working as cigar makers at that time were women. Of these 50,648 women, only about 1 in 20 were making the complete cigar by hand or mold; all the remainder were working under the team system. About one2 Fifteenth Census of the United States, Manufactures, 1929. Industry Series, Tobacco Manufactures and Tobacco Pipes. p. 1. a Perkins, George W. Women in the Cigar Industry. American Federationist. September, 1925, vol. 32, pp. 808-810. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 14 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES half (48 per cent) of all the women worked on rolling machines, and about 14 per cent were reported as working on the automatic cigarmaking machine. The number of men and women on the automatic cigar-making machine had increased from 1,928 in 1923 to 3,528 in 1925. Of the latter, 3,371 were women·. CHANGES IN LOCALITIES As an interdepartmental courtesy, the Secretary of the Treasury supplied the Women's Bureau with special tabulations based on the original reports from collectors of internal revenue, showing the production trends in a number of the communities selected by the bureau either for the interviews with cigar makers or for the collection of pay-roll data where factories were operating. The communities for which such information was supplied and for which production graphs have been made (see page 15) are the following: 1. Parts of Kentucky and Tennessee, including Louisville, Madisonville, Fulton, Owensboro, and Paducah, Ky., and Martin, Tenn. 2. Philadelphia and some towns within a radius of 50 miles in Pennsylvan iaBoyertown, Conshohocken, East Greenville, Norristown, Quakertown, and Sellersville-and Camden, N. J. 3. New York, N. Y., and Jersey City and Newark, N. J. 4. In Ohio, Columbus, Lima, Sidney, and Wapakoneta, as a group; Wellston, Mansfield, Ironton, Jackson, and Manchester, as a group; and Cincinnati, Cleveland, Dayton, and Newark, also as one. Kentucky and Tennessee. The first graph on page 15 pictures the contrast between Louisville, where recently a large new cigar plant had been opened, equipped with the most improved cigar-making machines, and other cities in the same general district. While production had increased tremendously from 1929 to 1930 in Louisville it was dying in the smaller towns and cities noted on previous pages. In 1930 the production in these cities was about one-tenth what it had been in 1929. The average production of cigars in Louisville during the 5-year period 1926 to 1930 wai;; about 35,500,000. In the first four years the index varied from seven-tenths to five-tenths of the average production, but in 1930 the index was almost three times as great as the average. In the other towns in Kentucky and Tennessee the opposite was true. For the first four years the index of production was greater. than the average, but in 1930 it was little more than one-tenth of that figure. In Paducah an important corporation closed its plant in 1930, the only cigar factory of any size in the city. It had been employing 200 to 300 women, but early in December 70 women were laid off. After the Christmas holidays only 100 women were sent for, and in February they, too, were laid off. Owensboro, Ky., and Martin, Tenn., had each lost a cigar factory in the same year; and the employees were experiencing how next to impossible it was to find other work. Even before the final shutdown a few of the plants had been gradually decreasing their production to a part-time basis. In 1929 Madisonville and in 1930 Fulton saw the doors locked of the only cigar factories in their communities. · . The situation in Madisonville was typical of that in more than half a dozen other towns in Ke~tucky and Tennessee where cigar fac https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 15 MANUFACTURE AND MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES INDEX OF THE TREND IN THE PRODUCTION OF CIGARS IN CERTAIN LOCALITIES, BY AREA, 1926 TO 1930 Average for the 5 years= 100 [Figures by courtesy of the Bureau of Internal Revenue] OHIO AREA LOi'.l'ISVIIl.E AREA. 275 250 r----...--1--.-'-1-~1---- - ~ - - Louisville (25 million in 1926) I I Flllton, Ky, Madisonville, Ky, Owensboro, Ky. Paducah, Ky. ~ lartin, Tenn, ( 68 million in 1926) 200 175 150 125 100 >----- t-----+----+----+-------+1/f-----; I I -Columbus ( 43 million in 1926) / >--- 225 ~- - I ansfield Ironton - • - • Jackson 1- l.hnchester ~ lelleton (29 million in 1926) I i ima • • • • Sidney Wapakoneta (152 million in 1926) incinnati ___ Dayton Newark ~ leveland (173 million in 192~ .... .,.._ t-----+---+----+----1----l . . ,,,, I 1----+---+------+--L'j~l-l . ---~ t-------+---------+--=-'-c---+---jc+----l 75 t - - - - + - -- - + - - ----+--t--4--+-----, --r---..~ . I \ 50 1-----1---_j.__:=~~~-~ll~_ _j ' \ \ \ 25 1----+----+------+----+--'-,---, \ 0 _ _ ___.__ _ _..,__ ___,_ _ _....__ __ . PHILADELPHIA AREA NEWARK AREA. 225 r------r------r--1---ir------r-,--~ \ 200 _ - - -jersey City ( 13 million in 1926) - - - New York City (280 million 1n 1926) \ >------~,.-_ . - ,Newark -. - , 1- _ _ \ (155 million 1n 1926) , \ I--------"--,----+----1----.....J ' l ~oyertown Co11.&hohocken __ E, Greenville Norri&town "'1aJtertown Seller&ville . (56 million in 1926) . \ \ 150 l --Hiiladelphia Comden (175 million 1n 1926) _ \ t----'\r-+-1 1 75 I I \ \ 125 - - ~ - - - - - - t - . . - -- --,f----+-----1 \/v '~-~~\-····-·-· -·- 100 1------+---.,~.~.....,,_~-lf---=-=-+--- 75 \ r-,....,,_ 1------+----+---~,...+----1--::00-~--- ·-····-· \ /"\ ~ 1 50 ~ l------+----+-----,i-o,---1-----I ' \ \ ,__ ....... ........ 25 1 - -- - - - + - - --+------,--1-,------<f----l --- 0 _ _ _....,_ _ __,__ _....._ _ _......_ _....I 1927 1928 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1929 1930 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 16 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES tories had closed: The cigar plant had been the only establishment in the community offering employment to any number of people. Girls had come to Madisonville from smaller towns and rural districts within a radius of 25 miles, and many families had followed the daughters when they obtained work and had become largely dependent on the daughters' earnings. The only employment for men was in the coal mines, several of which were closed and the others we:r:e on a part-time schedule. After the cigar factory closed some of the f arr.iilies became stranded in the town, too poor to leave. The shutdown was a calamity for all Madisonville, from the boardinghouse keeper, who had depended upon cigar workers for her livelihood, to the grocery clerk, who had been laid off because of the sudden falling off in business with the closing of the cigar factory. (See pages 61 and 62 for case stories from Madisonville.) Philadelphia and Camden. Another graph on page 15 illustrates the conditions in Philadelphia, Pa., and Camden, N. J., together forming one industrial unit and the most important for cigar manufacturing. With several large factories equipped with automatic cigar-making machines, production here more than doubled between 1926 and 1930, although during this period the number of factories varied but little. As compared with the average production over the 5-year period, the index for Philadelphia and Camden was 60.5 in 1926 and 122.8 in 1930. Contrasted with this prosperous cigar center were other cities and communities within 50 miles of Philadelphia in which the cigar industry had come and gone and where frequently the deserted factories were still some of the most prominent buildings in the towns . . Represented by another line on this graph are six of these cities and towns, including Norristown, Conshohocken, Boyertown, Sellersville, Quakertown, and East Greenville. Contrasted with the increase in production in Philadelphia and Camden, there was a great decrease in these six towns. The number of cigars produced in 1930 was less than one-fifth of the number produced in 1926. The index of production in 1930, as compared with the 5-year average, was less than one-third (32.6 per cent). In Norristown the cigar trade had dwindled to almost nothing, from a production of over 12,000,000 cigars in 1926 to about 200,000 (1.6 per cent of that number) in 1930. Only small units were operating there at the time of interview. The trend in Conshohocken, a near neighbor of Norristown, had not been steadily downward, for although business was practically at a standstill in 1926 and in 1930 no cigar factory was in operation, in 1929 Company X had begun operations on a large scale, passing far beyond the million mark. However, it ceased work and moved away almost as suddenly as it had come. In Boyertown, at the time of study, there still were two or three very small and struggling independent concerns operating irregularly, with more idle hours than work hours, whose total production was only about 4 per cent of what it was in 1926 before the Y Company n_10ved away, at which time Boyertown turned out nearly 10,000,000 cigars a year. The fertile valley extending north from Norristown to Allentown and Bethlehem is colloquially called the "Belt" by the cigar makers. East Greenville, Sellersville, and Quakertown were once the chief https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis MANUFACTURE AND MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES 17 cigar-making centers in the district, but when the survey was made not a cigar factory was operating in Sellersville, and only three, running irregularly, were in operation in the other two cities. Production in Quakertown during the 5-year period declined about fourfifths, the result not only of a decrease in number of factories but of a retrenchment in number of employees and in operating hours in the few plants that remained. A man who had been superintendent in one of the largest ;factories that had closed in the Belt, and who later found employment as superintendent in a clothing factory, described what had happened as follows: The last 10 years had seen a falling off of 90 per cent of the cigar industry in this vicinity. Z Company had at least 300 to 400 employees, and A, B, C, D, and E also had good-sized shops. There probably were a thousand hand cigar makers here 10 years ago, but barely a hundred are so employed now. The clothing trade had come in and absorbed the younger women in some towns. It was hardest for those over 30, and the older t hey were the harder it was. The great difficulty was that few of the cigar workers were under 35 or 40 when the slump came, since no apprentices had been trained in the industry for years. The cigar workers had been thrifty and had invested in homes when wages were good, but many now were anchored to homes that they could not sell; however, the garden lots helped somewhat. Many married women gave up working entirely, as their families were grown and they had their homes, but it was a hard struggle for the men. Many worked as day laborers to pay the taxes and eke out an existence. · This man cited his own case as illustrating the difficulty of new adjustments. He felt that he was one of the most fortunate ones, yet for a year he "was lost." His adjustment to the clothing industry had been difficult. He found it very wearing, with its noisy machinery, the piecework speeding, and "the go of it," as he expressed it. Another resident in the Belt said essentially the same thing. The men were the hardest hit by the closing of the cigar factories, as the clothing factories and textile ·mills that came in after the migration of the cigar industry had employed more women than men. They had no places for any number of middle-aged men in their factories. Another town where the cigar industry had "gone out" in this district was East Greenville. It had been a thriving cigar center at one time. Large corporations maintained branch factories there, and there were also locally owned cigar factories of importance. East Greenville, however, like Quakertown, was not exclusively a cigar center. A few clothing and textile jobs gradually became available for those displaced from the cigar factories, but these never ranked in importance with the cigar industry as it had been in its day. . When East Greenville was visited by the bureau's agents, only one small cigar unit was operating, and this most spasmodically, busy when there were orders to work on, but for the most part hours had been shortened and output curtailed. Some cigar makers still clung to their poor jobs, hoping for a busy season; a few others had found work in· other lines, and several were working on men's clothing, or embroidering children's dresses in their homes under contract with a distributing agency. To women who had earned a living wage making cigars this petty home work was most discouraging. For generations Lancaster and York Counties have been famous as tobacco-growing areas and also for the manufacture into the finished product. With the development of the factory system literally bun- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 18 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUS'l'RIES dreds of small factories sprang up all over the countryside. At the time of study cigars were being, made by the machine process by one firm each in the county seats, York and Lancaster, but other large corporations had practically withdrawn from the district. Red Lion owed its development to the cigar industry. In 1930 it was a town of nearly 5,000 population, with paved streets and substantially built red brick homes belonging to cigar makers. In every direction were cigar factories, some frame, barnlike structures with gable roofs; others, two or three story brick buildings. Beginning as small family enterprises, these cigar factories at the time ·of study dominated the town. Red Lion had been a stronghold of the smaller independent manufacturers, and in spite of the general decline in number of plants throughout the county, it was estimated roughly that one-third of the cigar factories in York County in 1930 centered in and near Red Lion. Cigar making was still a family affair in this section, where fathers, mothers, sons, and daughters combined their efforts to make a family wage. However, such a wage scale undoubtedly had been a factor in making it possible for the manufacturers, who were civic leaders in the community, to compete successfully with the machine-made 5-cent cigar. But the rest of York and Lancaster Counties presented a desolate contrast to Red Lion, with its active organization of independent companies, and to the county seats, where factories equipped with cigar-making machines were located. In Lancaster County small communities like Hopeland and Terre Hill "went back to the farms when the cigar factories blew out," but the cigar makers "still need two jobs to make a living on the farms." Twenty years before there had been at least six prosperous cigar factories in Brownstown, where now there was none. Hopeland, a more remote community, was "shocked" when its two cigar factories closed, laying off possibly 200 employees, with no other industry in the town to turn to. The cigar industry had left Lincoln and Akron also, and in 1927 two firms closed their small factories in Rothsville. Notice of the "vacation" was given to the employees in one factory only three hours before the final shutdown. The only industry left in the town was a type of contract shops making a very cheap grade of clothing, a line that rarely pays a living wage. It was in communities like these that women were interviewed who had had great difficulty in making satisfactory adjustments after the factories closed. New York City, Jersey City, and Newark. Another graph on page 15 illustrates the trend in the manufacture of cigars in New York City, Jersey City, and Newark. The automatic cigar-making machine had never been used in New York City, and for this reason the curve indicates the same decline in New York that characterizes other hand-manufacturing centers. The number of factories decreased and production.declined in the period 1926 to 1930. Production in the first two years of the 5-year period was greater than the average, but beginning with 1928 there was a constant decrease to almost seven-tenths of the average in 1930. In 1918 the first plant in New Jersey to be equipped with automatic machines began operation in Newark. The same company had https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis MANUFACTURE AND MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES 19 introduced the machine into a Boston plant, but moved this soon to Newark. Although many other large factories had closed down in this locality since then, the pioneer machine plant continued. Its equipment had been greatly improved during this time and it was now housed in a thoroughly up-to-date modern building. There was only one other important cigar factory in Newark, so the comparative level of the trend in the production curve here undoubtedly is due in large part to the organization of the pioneer among machine plants. The production of cigars in Newark had increased about one-eighth in the five years, but the index in 1930 was only 5 per cent above the average for the 5-year period. A cigar maker, with several years' experience, described the various removals of hand cigar factories from Newark: "Four years ago Factory A shut up here and moved to Philadelphia; a few years ago Factory B went out West; two years ago Factory C moved to Richmond; Factory D left about the same time; and only two months ago Factory E quit here." Formerly Jersey City was one of the leading cigar centers in the United States, but it lost its high rank to those localities where the automatic machine had replaced the old hand method, for Jersey City had no machine plants. To what extent production in the hand plants of Jersey City had declined in only five years is strikingly shown in the graph. In 1926 the index of production was more than two and one-sixth times the average for the 5-year period. By 1930 there had been a tremendous decrease, and the index was only 5.5 per cent of the average. In other words, the output dropped steadily,from 13,000,000 cigars in 1926, to 9,000,000 in 1927, to 6,000,000in 1928, and on down to less than one-third of a million (329,723) in 1930. Ohio. In the graph on page 15, representing conditions in the State of Ohio, one line represents the trend of production in the cigar factories of Columbus. This is the only city charted where output was increasing. In 1926 the index of production as compared with the average for five years was 94.1 per cent. It declined the next year, but after that it increased until in 1930 it was 9 .8 per cent above the average for the period. Undoubtedly the reason that Columbus had not gone down hill with the other districts is due to the concentration of operations in a large hand factory there, accomplished at the expense of the _discontinuance of work by the same company in Cincinnati. Lima, Sidney, and Wapakoneta are thrown together to represent the condition centering about Lima. As in other localities there had been a decrease in the number of plants operating, but production had been steadier than in some other parts of Ohio, due probably to the increased use of the universal buncher and machine roller adapted to the manufacture of cigars made of "scrap" or "shredded" filler, as well as to the use of the automatic cigar-making machine. Yet in spite of these improvements the trend in output had been downward. In 1926 the index of production as compared with the average for the five years was 97. It increased to 111 in 1927, but declined in the next three yea.rs, and in 1930 it was 85.1. Another line shows the decline in the production of such wellknown cities as Cincinnati, recognized for years as a cigar center, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 20 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES Cleveland, Dayton, and Newark. The index of production in 1926 was 30.4 per cent in excess of the average over the 5-year period. By 1930 this figure was 41.4 per cent below the average. Another grouping of cities in Ohio was made on the basis of similarity in percentage decline in output from year to year. Here were combined Wellston, Mansfield, Ironton, Jackson, and Manchester. The index of production in 1926 was 72 per cent above the average for the 5-year period. Production then declined, untH in 1930 the index was only 21.3 per cent of the average. This great decrease was cttused largely by the complete discontinuance of cigar manufacture in Jackson and Manchester. In Jackson the last cigar factory closed its door in 1927, the last in Manchester closed in 1929, and the fate of Ironton was almost as bad. At the time of the survey the only cigar firms operating in this section were extremely small independent concerns that seemed to be making the last stand against the inevitable. Only a few years before, a chain of cigar factories located in these and other Ohio cities had been doing a thriving business, but in 1926-27 the company moved all its work from Ohio to Florida, abandoned the small hand factories scattered through these southeastern Ohio towns, and built a large modern building in Florida, equipping it with all the latest ano most improved machinery for mass production of cigars. This is another case of several hand plants being superseded by one large machine establishment, accompanied also by a change in geographic location. In 1929 another important corporation closed hand factories in Cleveland, Dayton, and Mansfield, while it was expanding machine production in new factories in Kansas City, Philadelphia, Louisville, and other southern points. The plant in Dayton had been operating for 29 years. THE CIGARETTE INDUSTRY The movement toward the massing of production in fewer and larger units taking place in the cigar industry is already an accomplished fact in the cigarette branch of the trade. With the exception of a few scattered and for the most part unimportant establishments, the manufacture of cigarettes is now concentrated in a very few large plants in five cities-Richmond> Va., Durham, Reidsville, and Winston-Salem, N. C., and Louisville, Ky. Jersey City and Petersburg, although formerly important centers, are losing their high rank in the industry. The migration of cigarette manufacture has been, as one manager explained, to localities where the tobacco leaf is grown, to good distributing points, and to a "satisfactory" labor market. The chart on page 21 shows the changes that have been taking place in the production of cigarettes in the calendar years 1926 to 1930. The greatest decrease has taken place in the cities included in the first New York district, where the index of production dropped from 116.7 in 1926 to less than 1 (0.4) in 1930. This was due to the transfer of the operations of a large corporation in this district to one of the southern cities. . Another great change was in the first Pennsylvania district, where the index of production declined from 173 in 1926 to 2 .4 in 1930, also caused by the transfer of cigarette manufacture from this district to a southern city. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis MANUFACTURE AND MARK:mTING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES 21 INDEX OF THE TREND IN THE PRODUCTION OF CIGARETTES IN CERTAIN LOCALITIES, 1926 TO 1930 Average for the 5 years = 100 [Figures from annual reports of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue] 250.----_~ 1 - - - - i - - - - - - - - - - - 225 •- • - IentucJc;y (5 million 1n 1926) - - First Bew York District (6 billion 1n 1926) i---- - - Horth Carolilla (53 billion 1n 1926) - - - - - First Pennsylvania District (5 billion 1n 1926) 200 , - - - •• •••• •• Virgillia (16 billion 1n 1926) .1· 176 / . I I t--------+-------+------1--------+------~ ...... ',... ~... I I ', 150 / --------1----'-'---~--+--------l--~·-----l-------l ', ' ', .II .. .,....,,.i ' ',(" / ......_ -._ ,_ I l.U.i--- -- ------1---------,J'~-....' __'_,_____._._.•_'-_'--.::...----1---.:-··-----l ----✓ /., ' I \ •• ~.·l.----- \, ', • .. ,X"t.··· \ 1001-------+---------i----__,.~..-4--1------l---+-------4 ~ ••••'.j I ~-········ i\ ~--··· 75 \ i \ \ .. ·· ; \ \ r------:: .. .......- - + - - - - - - - + - - - - - 4 - , - + - ' ~ - -,:__--1--+-------t / \ ' \ / \ ~ 50 1---------1---------1.----l,;__--1-----'\.___ _J-\~------t '\ / ~--·-·- '-·-·' 25 ' \ \ ',' \ r----.--=+--=---··➔""-·-----+-------4-------'~·--1-'----1 I''\ ·, ,, '\\ OL-------L-------L------L-------L---..J..--....1 1926 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis l 9 2 8 l 9 2 9 l 9 15 o 22 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES As would be expected, due to the increase in production in cigarettes, the three indexes charted for southern localities all show increases, some greater than others. In North Carolina (two cities from this State were included in the study) the index increased from 80 in 1926 to 119 .2 in 1930. In Virginia the increase was greater, from 71.8 in 1926 to 133.9 in 1930. The greatest of all was in Kentucky, where production in 1930 was almost ten times as great as it had been in 1926, the index being 222 as compared with 23. Notwithstanding this tremendous increase in output in the 5-year period, production in 1930 in Kentucky was only about one-sixth what it was in Virginia and only about one-seventeenth what it was in North Carolina. REPORTS FROM TWO STATES The records of two State departments also furnished data on recent developments in the trade, showing trends very similar to those quoted from Federal sources. Ohio. The Ohio Department of Industrial Relations furnished data showing the trend in the number of wage earners employed in the cigar and cigarette industries in that State as well as wages from 1923 to 1930. As the manufacture of cigarettes in Ohio is negligible, the following may be regarded for all practical purposes as representative of cigars only. TABLE 3.-Trend of employment and wages in the cigar and cigarette industries in Ohio, 1923 to 1930 Establishments Year Number 1923 _____ - - -- - - - - - - - -1924 _____ - - - - -- - - - - - - 1925 ______ - - ------ - -- 1926 __ _____ ___ ----- -- 1927 ______ ____________ 1928 __ - ------ - - - - ----1929 __ -- - --- -- - ---- - -1930 ! _________________ t 134 120 108 99 99 97 80 75 Index (1923= 100) 100. 0 89. 6 80. 6 73. 9 73. 9 72. 4 59. 7 56. 0 Male employees Number 2,296 2,011 1,525 1,435 1,213 1,360 1,087 894 Index (1923= 100) 100. 0 87. 6 66.4 62. 5 52. 8 59.2 47.3 38. 9 Female employees Median of wage Number rates $20. 50 21. 00 21.00 21. 50 20. 00 21.00 20. 50 19. 00 9,152 9,072 7,763 7, 755 7,204 7, 195 6,465 4,836 Index (1923= 100) 100.0 99. 1 84.8 84. 7 78. 7 78.6 70.6 52.8 Median of wage rates $16. 50 16. 00 15. 50 15.50 14.50 15. 00 15.00 14.50 Unpublished data by courtesy of the Ohio Division of Labor Statistics. The trend in Ohio during these eight years shows the same tendencies as data from other sources, but it is particularly pertinent here because some of the field work in this study was done in Ohio. The decline in number of establishments was 44 per cent; the decrease in number of females employed was 47.2 per cent and of males 61.1 per cent. At the same time weekly wage rates for women employees also declined, from a median of $16 .50 to one of $14.50, or a decrease of $2 . Though in 1923 more than one-fourth (26 per cent) of the females had a wage rate of as much as $20, in 1930 only 6.8 per cent had so high a rate. In 1923, 22 .1 per cent had a wage rate of less than $12 a week, but by 1930 as many as 31.7 per cent had a rate below that amount. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 23 MANU FACTURE AN D MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARET'l'E S Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania Bureau of Statistics in the Department of Internal Affairs furnished comparative figures from year to year showing the trend in the number of cigar factories in operation as well as in persons employed in those counties in which were made most of the home visits by the agents of the Women's Bureau. TABLE 4.-Trend of employment in five specified counties in P ennsylvania Berks Bucks Lancas- Philadelter pbia York Number of plants operating: 1922 ____ _-- ______ __--- - __ ___ __ ____ -- _-- ___ ____ __ _ 1930 __ ___decrease ____ __- - -_____ - - - - -____ - - - -___________ - - - -- - - -- - -___ - - -____ - - - -____ -- - -_ Per cent 70 37 8 149 37 -75.2 176 62 - 64.8 154 -47. 1 973 252 - 74. 1 922 320 - 67. 7 1,818 362 - 80. 1 1,391 1,124 - 19.2 2,906 2, 099 - 27. 8 1,008 462 - 54. 2 953 281 -70.5 2,067 999 - 51. 7 4, 567 6,664 + 45. 9 4, 397 4,680 + 6.4 23 - 67. 1 (1) 291 Number of men employed: 1922 ___ - ______ __ ___ __ _____ -- - ___ - _- - - -- ____ ______ 1930 ___-- _____ ___ __- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _- - - Per cent decrease ___ __ _______ ___ __ _____ ___ _____ __ Number of women employed: 1922 __ __ ____ - - __ _-- ___ ____- ___ --- ____ __ -- _____-- _ 1930 ____ --- -- - --__- ---- -- - ----- - -- -____ - - - ------Per cent change _________ ________ ____ ____ -_-_ 1 Per cent not computed; base less than 50. In each of the five counties there had been a continuous and striking decline from year to year in the number of plants. Even in Philadelphia County, where the industry was flourishing, there had been a falling off of almost two-thirds in the number of factories. York County, with the greatest number of plants, showed the lowest perc~ntage decrease. In contrast to Philadelphia County there were only two moderate-sized factories in York County in which automatic cigar machines had been installed, but scattered throughout the county were numerous independent small plants employing rarely more than 100 and frequently fewer than 50 persons. Tobacco had long been an important crop in both York and Lancaster Counties, and hundreds of little shops had sprung up near this source of supply. The cooperative spirit among the independent employers in York County was probably responsible in part for their ability to make a more successful stand against the organization and the advertising campaigns of big business. In Philadelphia County, where large corporations have centered machine production, the number of female workers increased somewhat less than 50 per cent between 1922 and 1930. However, employment ran higher in both 1928 and 1929 than in 1930. And in 1929 the increase from 1922 in fem ale workers was about 60 per cent. While the trend of women's employment had been decidedly upward in Philadelphia County, in York County it had varied very slightly up and down the scale from year to year; but in the other three counties, with very few minor exceptions, the trend had been steadily downward. In each of these three counties-Berks, Bucks, and Lancaster-not half so many women were employed in the trade in 1930 as in 1922, and the percentage decline was more pronounced in these three counties than the percentage increase in Philadelphia. Yet the actual numbers lost from the trade in the three counties were but little more than the actual gain in Philadelphia. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 24 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES In four counties the employment of men had suffered vastly more than that of women. In Bucks County not one-third as many men were in the industry in 1930 as in 1922; in Berks County only about one-fourth and in Lancaster County only one-fifth as many men were in the trade. In Philadelphia County, where there was such a marked increase in the number of women, the total number of men decreased almost 20 per cent. Although t otal numbers of men employed in Philadelphia County did not indicate so great a variation as in other counties, this is no proof that the change in personnel had not been equally great in Philadelphia. Just as the older woman who was an experienced worker had given place to the more adaptable young American girl in machine plants, so the man who had spent years making cigars at his bench did not easily fit into the modern organization of the industry. He was not trained as a machinist nor was he physically able to do heavy labor, and the machine plant requires much of these two extreme types of work. In fact, there is little else left for men to do. Government reports give a general view of the entire situation, but what policy various large corporations were pursuing was described by officials of the companies. The interviews with the officials add emphasis to the data showing the trend toward concentration in larger units, and in addition show the movement from hand to machine operations. One of the large cigar companies in 1922 was operating 70 factories in widely scattered towns and cities, and by 1924 it had only 52 plants in operation, a marked evidence of consolidation. By 1929 the number had been still further reduced to 20, the firm having closed 37 plants and opened 5 new ones. To sum up, at the end of the seven years this firm was managing and maintaining 20 instead of 70 plants. Included in the 20 _then operating were some thoroughly modern new buildings in which cigars were manufactured solely by the machine process. Four-fifths of the cigars produced in 1929 by that firm were machine made. While in the last five years the net decrease in the number of factories was more than three-fifths, the number employed had decreased little more than one-tenth, the total employment having decreased only from 12,282 employees in 1924 to 10,882 in 1929. The change from hand to machine work is shown by the changes in the numbers of women hand and machine workers employed in 1924 and in 1929. Of the 12,282 employed in 1924, 1,103 were in machine factories and 11,179 in factories manufacturing by hand; in 1929, of the 10,882 employed, 6,745 were in machine plants and 4,137 in hand plants. These figures are evidence of the great changes in personnel in cigar plants, a striking decrease from some 11,000 to 4,000 workers in hand plants . .An outstanding example of concentration in machine operations on the part of another company is a splendid new factory in which there are, on an average, 1,700 employees-1,500 women and 200 men. Even the extensive equipment in this plant proved inadequate to keep pace with market orders, so the firm was obliged to carry on machine work in two of their old buildings in the same vicinity. In more distant towns they still m aintain two hand plants employing together, on an average, 600 workers, in order to supply the popular handmade brands for which there is still some trade demand. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis I MANUFACTURE AND MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES 25 From 1923 to 1929 this company had shut down 15 hand factories in various parts of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Not all of these 15 plants were operating at one time, although the larger ones were. They usually occupied rented quarters and shifted around from town to town, moving small units to the place where the labor supply was most plentiful. However, in the case of 7 of these 15 factories their closing threw as many as 200 to 400 employees out of work, and altogether about 3,000 (2,895) in various cities and towns were left without jobs by the closing of the 15 factories. A third important company, with extensive machine manufacturing centered in the Philadelphia and Camden area, although expanding its Philadelphia units, closed five hand plants, each employing from about 250 to 375 employees. Although production was steadily increasing in the plants equipped with cigar-making machines, nearly 1,600 employees (1,503 women and 73 men) had been laid off when work ceased in the five cities remote from Philadelphia where the hand plants were located. A company that had been one of the first to try out the cigar-making machines now confined production work to two industrial cities. During recent years it had discontinued operations in 14 other communities where hand operations prevailed. These communities were located in one State and were for the most part in the same or adjoining counties. Still another firm had been consolidating its factories in the Middle West. At present it was operating six cigar plants, all within a limited area. Hand makers still were employed in many of these, although only one was exclusively a hand plant. Even the three largest plants with automatic cigar-making machines also had hand departments, while two others were equipped with universal bunch machines. In 1920, before the company began making cigars by machine, its operations were scattered in 17 hand plants. From 1921 to 1926 it closed 10 plants, 4 of them in January, 1926, which was referred to as the "final house cleaning" of the company. Although the number of manufacturing units decreased, production increased, and total numbers employed did not become radically different from what they were in 1920. But here again work was discontinued in 10 communities, in most of which it had been almost impossible for ci~ar workers to find jobs in their trade since. However, by commutrng inconvenient distances the workers from some of the towns had been more or less successful in finding work in other cigar factories. Interviews with the management of two of the largest companies that had not introduced the machine into their factories showed the same tendency to mass the work in fewer establishments that was evidenced in firms operating on a machine basis. In 1924 two leading manufacturers of handmade cigars had consolidated their interests, and they had gradually been drawing these interests together into three centers, having discontinued operations in six other cities in the period from 1924 to 1929. The permanent closing of these six factories left more than 2,000 employees without a job, the shutdown affecting as many as 775 in one plant and about 450 in another. Numbers employed in the other factories that closed ranged from 150 to 250. The merger of these two companies was accompanied by a 126898°-32-3 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 26 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES decided geographic shift for one of them-from eastern Pennsylvania to cities in the Middle West. The character of the labor supply was mentioned as a cause of this removal. The report from another outstanding firm in the manufacture of handmade cigars revealed the same policy of centering operations in fewer units. In the three years 1926, 1927, and 1928, the company abandoned operations in 23 factories that employed altogether about 2,000 persons. As the numbers employed would indicate, many were small plants located in such small communities that there was practically no other opportunity for work for the employees laid off by the closing of these cigar factories. About one-fourth of all those who were deprived of their jobs due . to the removals of this firm were men; in some plants the proportion of men was as high as 50 per cent. In the reorganization of this company, consolidated with another one, men constituted only about 5 per cent of the total force. After this retrenchment in the number of factories, the company's manufacturing interests were confined chiefly to three cities, Philadelphia, Camden, and Trenton, although later in 1929 it began work elsewhere in three plants, furnishing employment for 125 to 150 people each. There was no certainty, however, that this would be a permanent arrangement. At the close of 1929 total employment in all the company's manufacturing units was a little more than 2,000. In Baltimore the downward trend in the various branches of tobacco manufacturing began to be noticeable in 1925. In January of that year a large corporation closed its Baltimore branch; in March another factory went out of business. In 1926 a prominent local concern stopped manufacturing. In 1927 two important units of large corporations were transferred to other locations. In 1928 branch factories of two other large concerns were closed, and in 1929 a locally managed plant of some importance went out of business. This record of transfers and closings is exclusive of small establishments that had but few employees. Where only a few years before hundreds of girls had been employed in flourishing establishments, only a few now could find work in a limited number of cigar factories, which were, for the most part, very small. Wilmington, Del., is another city that the cigar industry has practically deserted. Within a few months of each other the only three factories, one of which is said to have operated about 15 years in Wilmington, closed permanently, throwing more than 700 skilled cigar workers out of a job. Nor was this all, for about the same time (1928) three hosiery and clothing factories moved away, which made it doubly hard for former cigar workers to find other jobs. After the last cigar factory closed, advertisements in the local papers made attractive offers of work in Philadelphia cigar factories and a few girls tried commuting, but $13.50 for monthly railroad tickets, in addition to street-car fares, was not a paying proposition. A few who could do so moved to Philadelphia or Camden. Later, a fourth cigar factory opened up in Wilmington, taking advantage of the experienced cigar labor, but in time it too followed the example of the others and closed its doors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PART III.-INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR-PLANT OFFICIALS Through visits with wqmen in their homes it was possible to get a general survey of the4' industrial experiences since their displacement as hand workers in the cigar trade; but in order to get information about the status of the cigar maker in the present organization of the industry, employer,s were interviewed about recent developments in the trade. _ Interviews with management in the many plants that had never been mechanized, with one or two outstanding exceptions, des0ribed drastic curtailment in numbers, operating time, and production. Hand-operated plants. Comments from interviews with employers in hand plants give some indication of the irregularity of the comings and goings of the hand employees. The contrast between this personal freedom and the steady application necessary in machine work, where the girls must keep up with the electrically driven machine and must work as long as the power is on, is a striking one. Among the machine operators there is hardly a moment to lift one's eyes or to speak to a neighbor; sometimes there is not even convenient opportunity to go to the dressing room. Handworkers are entirely independent of such driving forces, and are free to work long hours or short hours as they please. The comments of some employers follow: Often do not work at all on Saturday. Some of the women never come in on Saturdays. Girls are not careful to keep factory hours. They often come late and often quit early. Women set their own time to work. There is much individual variation in their work hours. Hours are very irregular. The workers suit their own convenience. We always have a number of women who come in late and leave early. The irregularity in the hours is the worker's own choice. We can not make them work longer than they want to. We begin at 7 a. m. and the women work as long as they please. They are usually done about 3 p. m. The lunch hour is also irregular. They may take as long as they please. Pieceworkers come in any time, usually between 7 and 7.30, but nothing is said if they come later, and frequently they work through the noon hour. Our hours are quite elastic. Occasionally some go to work at 6 in the morning, but they leave as early as they are ready. Our hours are from 7 to 5.30, but the women do not come in on any fixed schedule, and many leave before closing time. Our schedule is from 7 a. m. to 5.30 p. m., but the women do not conform to this schedule. Usually they are not at work until 7.30, and when busy they may work until 6. The fact that undertime was reported as more characteristic now than full time was due also to trade conditions, which the smaller 27 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 28 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES plants were feeling quite severely. They were curtailing the number of days in operation and restricting the output per individual. The trade had always been more or less seasonal, with the peak production in the fall, but many firms had failed to experience even this. From June, 1928, to June, 1929, we had a 3-day schedule for 12 weeks, a 4-day schedule for 5 weeks, and were closed down for four weeks. The big manufacturers are getting us. They can afford to advertise and we can not. We keep the balance chiefly by curtailing the number of days to five or four when we are not busy. Last year we had 5½ days for six months. The rest of the year we ran a 5-day week. We worked full time only in October and November. We were closed five weeks in 1928, and the rest of the time we worked three or four days. In the fall we may work until 6--that is, for nine hours-but we are slack much of the rest of the year, and may reduce our time to three days a week. From January to July or August we did not work a full week, and usually only four or five days. We worked four days a week for nine months last year. In another plant, where orders had been spasmodic, the superintendent said he could not recall having had a full week all the year. One venturesome manufacturer was still making up stock when they did not have orders to keep them busy, but more employers explained how t~ey were limiting production. We limit production to what orders we have on file. When the work that is given out for each day is finished, the workers leave the factory. Production is limited, so when a worker completes her quota she may come or go as she pleases. The number of cigars made daily per person is definitely set according to the demand. · Workers leave when the stock supplied for the day is worked up. The out-and-out cigar workers are limited to making 225 a day. In one hand plant production h ad fallen off 20 per cent; in another, they had been retrenching and decreasing for three years. A local manager said the only change in his factory had been the continuous decrease in production due to his firm's gradual centralization of work elsewhere. Another said, "We are slack because the large firms are crowding the smaller ones off the map." In one of the plants operating with both hand and machine processes, where there had been a lay-off of handworkers when machines were first introduced, the employer explained that there had been no lay-offs since. Experience had taught him that it was better to spread the work, and for two years he had limited production per operator so that each could have a share of the comparatively little handwork now available. To meet the competition and the price level of the c4eaper machinemade product, manufacturers have had to reduce their scale of wages for handwork. In one city, where two years ago the wage rate was 70 cents and 75 cents a hundred for an average-priced cigar, now it is not unusual to find a rate of 50 cents a hundred for a 5-cent cigar or 58 cents a hundred for a IO-cent cigar. Furthermore, much of the handwork in some localities is on the cheaper grade of goods. In addition to this, in factories operating on both the hand and machine basis, some of the higher-priced work has not infrequently been transferred to the machine, thus taking away from the hand- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR-PLANT OFFICIALS 29 workers what have been some of their better-paying jobs. In a plant where some handwork was continued after the introduction of the machines, the skilled hand rollers and bunchers were given work on a smaller, straighter brand, at 50 cents a hundred cigars, whereas the brand on which they had worked before the introduction of the machine paid at the rate of 85 cents. The new machine operators were given the better grade of work. The old handworkers naturally preferred to do the careful work required for the better grade, and they found it difficult to adjust themselves to the new shape and to slighting their work as was necessary to make anything on the cheap grade, and many quit voluntarily. · Not only the large corporations, whose names are familiar, but smaller companies operating three or four scattered hand plants have been concentrating their work in one or more units and closing their poorer-paying factories, often distant from the main centers, for they too have been forced to learn how to effect economies in management and in handling output. A branch factory that wds opened in 1913, to take care of increased production, closed in 1929. It was possible to transfer about onefourth of the employees to another of their units in an adjoining town, but the rest of the old employees were left stranded and out of work. Another manager said that when plants were closed in small towns ·of Pennsylvania and New Jersey no attempt had been made to place the workers. Reports from other firms ran thus: We We We We closed two factories in other small towns. closed plant A where 20 had been employed. closed two plants two years ago. closed a plant at F and laid off 30 employees. In contrast to such accounts of close-downs and lay-offs was the condition in one hand plant where consolidation was taking place: We are building up our force here; we are concentrating here, but we have closed large factories in C and D to accomplish this. Types of plants. Among the establishments visited were those that had never been mechanized, present conditions in which have just been described, those that were partly mechanized, and those entirely mechanized. The great majority of the factories visited still employed only handworkers in the making departments, while a few others that had been hand plants originally had later introduced some machines, so that at the time of the survey they had both band and machine departments. Only a few of the factories visited were organized solely on a machine basis. In two or three of them the only making machine was the universal buncher or the combination roller and buncher, but the larger machine units were fully equipped with the so-called automatic cigar-making machine. In the 17 factories visited that were practically all machine equipped, about half had operated solely by hand before mechanizmg, while work in the others had always been on a machine basis. Some of the conspicuously large machine units were equipped with more than 175 cigar-making machines, and from 1,200 to 1,500 persons were employed to run such establishments. But the usual https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 30 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES machine plant had from 75 to 80 machines and employed 600 to 800 persons. In a few factories where hand as well as machine processes were carried on, and especially in those in which transition to allmachine production was just starting, there were as yet no more than a dozen or 20 cigar-making machines. Several of the factories operating on an all-machine basis had selected new locations fo.r their expansion and had hired a force of all new employees. The first firm to use the cigar-making machine successfully in 1918 moved away from the State where it had long operated on a hand basis under a trade-union agreement, in order to escape the union opposition to the use of machines. It was then that it was discovered quite by acciC:ent that women could run the new machines as efficiently as men. Years later, after the success of the machine had been demonstrated and it was no longer -a n experiment, the manager of a small hand plant anticipating the use of the cigar-making machine decided to move to Philadelphia, which he had left a few years before because he had found it "too expensive" paying tlie rates current for out-andout work on a moderate-priced cigar. He was glad to return now to Philadelphia, for he would be nearer markets and a satisfactory labor supply for machine work, some of which already had been trained in· the new way of operating. Other firms were attracted to new locations by special offers made by trade bodies in those localities, but many shifted from hand to machine work where they were already established. It was in these plants that the readjustment of labor to new processes was a more embarrassing responsibility. In comparison with this situation it was easy to lock doors and forsake a town, thus severing all connections there, in order to open a well-equipped new edablishment and hire an all-new force of employees in a distant community. Difficulties of transition. The severity of the possible dislocation of labor by such a radical change as that caused by the cigar-making machine depends largely on market conditions, the labor supply, geographic shifts, and the time allowed for making the machine installations. In 1918 a sudden geographic shift of operations from one State to another-Massachusetts to New Jersey-that accompanied the complete mechanization of a factory caused more or less distress, but a machine installation in an old concern not accompanied by geographic shift, in 1919, was made without much disturbance. Expanding business and scarcity of handworkers for cheap cigars at that time combined to make the latter adjustment to machine operations comparatively easy. In this case handwork was not discontinued when machines were added. Still later in 1921 another firm reported that the machines were introduced so gradually that no experienced handworkers were laid off. Business was on the up grade at that time also, and the handworkers were transferred to examining and inspection work. This was another case where hand processes continued after the machines had been installed. In very few instances where management had resorted to a lay-off of the handworkers did they report that local conditions were such that the lay-off caused no extended hardship. "Handworkers were in demand at that time, so they had less difficulty in getting work." https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR-PLANT OFFICIALS 31 (From 100 to 200 were affected by the lay-off in Detroit, 1926.) ''Makers were given an opportunity to transfer to machine work. We spent three years in transition to the machine and many hand makers found jobs in other cigar factories." (York, 1922.) But adjustments became increasingly difficult in the more recent years, and the great machine expansion has occurred in the last five or six years. A large-scale installation of more than 50 machines within four months in 1926 in one plant, or as many as 75 machines within a year in another, entailed serious dislocations, whereas an installation of 6 ma~hines the first year and 20 the next, or of 36 the first year and 32 the year following were not followed by serious results. In the last instance half of the hand bunchers and rollers stayed on for a year, until the plant was entirely converted to machine operations. Employment managers thought they as well as the employees had grievances. There was quite general agreement among foremen that a prejudice against the machine existed among the old-time hand workers. "Old hand workers are not used to the noise and rhythm of machines and feel rushed and driven." "Most seem to prefer any kind of wcrk rather than the cigar-making machine." "We gave them all a chance and some tried it a while, but out of 200 employees only 5 former handworkers are now on machines. Many were married women who quit working altogether with the coming of machines." One firm tried to hold its old employees when it made the change to machines by offering them a learner's wage of $15 a week instead of the $8 offered new girls for similar work. But even so, few accepted, and when the last equipment was installed about 250 hand makers left. Still other comments follow: "All were offered a chance to stay, but they resent the coming of anything new and walk out voluntarily." "All were offered machine jobs, but only a few of the younger girls remained.'' In a plant that installed 58 machines in four months about 250 young and inexperienced machine operators were hired, but of 300 hand makers there were only four young girls who were willing to learn machine work. Incidentally, it may be added that by this change production increased from about 350,000 cigars a week to over 1,000,000. The experience of one firm that located a new machine plant in a community where several hand plants had closed was no different from others: "The turnover rate was much higher among those trained in hand processes than among 'green' girls." However, there was case after case where management acknowledged that little effort had been made to work out satisfactory adjustments by means of transfers. In one instance the manager reported that machine jobs were not even offered to handworkers when the hand department was discontinued; 150 experienced women were summarily dismissed and 50 young green girls were hired to run the new machines with which the department was soon provided. Other reports read: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 32 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES · "The number of handworkers was reduced by over 100, although not all were laid off at once." "Laid off 50 skilled hand makers who t,howed little inclination to try the machine." While a few mac_hines were being installed in this unit the owner had closed two others and laid off all the employees, holding out no hope of ever reopening the abandoned factories. "Within the year hand bunchers and rollers dropped from about 200 to 70. Poor workers were let go before the machines were installed and there was no replacement of quits, so it was claimed that when the actual lay-off came it affected only 32 women." • Economies of automatic machine. Almost every employer interviewed in machine plants emphasized the cheapness of manufacture of this method as compared with the old hand method. The owner of a factory organized for decades for handwork said that he had recently gone over to machine work because he had never been able to make a long-filler cigar by hand that he could afford to sell for 5 cents. To meet competition in a salable article he was forced to resort to the machine. In another factory a local manager said that the marked development in machine-made cigars was accompanied by a growing market for the advertised brands of the cheaper-grade goods, and he attributed the growth of his own establishment to the demand for their 5cent cigar. While his firm had been gradually closing its less productive and efficient units, it had been increasing production in this plant. In the past six years the number of electrically operated machines had been raised from 20 to almost 200, employment had increased from about 150 to 1,500, and the plant capacity was then about 4,000,000 cigars a week. The increase in production effected by machine operations was stated by several managers, some of whose records were based on a 9-hour day and others on a 10-hour day. Two superintendents compared the output in round numbers of two departments operating under the same roof, the one mechanized, the other not. "The output of the hand department of about 300 women avera~es from 350,000 to 400,000 cigars a week; the output of the machine department, consisting of 230 women, averages 1,120,000 cigars a week." "The hand department of 187 hand rollers and bunchers make only one-third of the plant output, while the machine department of 120 workers manufacture two-thirds." In this establishment, when 30 machines were installed in 1925-26, it had been necessary to lay off more than 100 handworkers. One superintendent said, "One machine (requiring 4 operators) does the work of 15 or 16 out-and-out handworkers," while another claimed that "production increased five or six times per operator through use of the machine." Furthermore, while production rates increased, labor costs dec-reased. In one organization the direct labor cost per 1,000 cigars was $4.20 by machine processes and $6.30 when made by hand. In another organization it was $3.40 by machine and $10 by hand. In both plants the percentage of gain was decidedly in favor of the machine proC'ess. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis INTERVIEWS WITH: CIGAR-PLANT OFFICIALS 33 Although the machine equipment is costly and its upkeep and maintenance are large items of expenditure, the consensus of opinion seemed to be that under average conditions it cut the labor cost about one-half and doubled production with the same space and number of employees. All interviews showed that manufacturers were reaping gains in increased production and lowered labor costs, and furthermore their opinions were unanimous that average earnings per individual machine operator were as good as they had been for handwork immedi. ately before the change to mechanization. One or two felt that earnings were even better since the change, because they were working more steadily or more regularly. Under machine organization there were not such great individual differences in earnings; "that is, they are more uniform because the speed of the machine sets a limit to which operators must keep up and which they can not exceed.'' Manufacturers were unanimous also in describing the great economy in teaching beginners for machine work. Formerly it took three to four months to train hand makers and often it would be from six months to a year before they reached their capacity in speed and arrived at a good production basis. The cost of such training to the employer was roughly estimated at from $200 to $300. Now, the average girl is a paying proposition in two weeks, although it takes longer to attain speed and it may be six weeks before she is ready to go onto a piecework basis of pay. She should be thoroughly proficient to operate at all four positions of the new machine with three or four months' experience. In one chain of machine factories it was customary for the '' green girl" to observe the work for a week, with an occasional try out, before she was ready to take her own position, but she rarely made good before the end of the second week. If she had not attained some speed after two or three weeks she usually dropped out voluntarily. The president of one corporation considered that the employee benefited by the present method of operation. Formerly a cigar maker spent months of apprenticeship to learn one operation that in no way fitted her for any other line of work, and this one skill had recently proven a handicap in efforts to make adjustments to changed conditions. But the great advanta.ge to the employee learning to make cigars by machine will be her easy adaptability to machine jobs in many other industries, for aptitude in watching machine performance is the main requirement in the trend of modern factory equipment. From a skilled job requiring a few months to learn, cigar making now is one requiring only a few weeks to acquire proficiency. Bunching machine. The development of a bunching machine adapted to the use of scrap filler, and more recently a machine that satisfactorily rolls cigars made on this bunching machine, the two occasionally being linked together by a transfer device, has still further reduced labor cost. The training cost also is cheaper on this machine, for while it takes a hand buncher or roller from several months to a year to acquire speed, a "green" operator can develop speed on the machine in from one to two weeks. The standard production on the bunching machine, with two operators, is 4,000 cigars daily, while a hand buncher's daily output was estimated to be 1,000, sometimes less, and occasionally more. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 34 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES At this rate the machine doubles the production per operator and the labor cost is cut about one-half, for while it costs $3.50 to make 1,000 bunches by hand, it costs $1. 70 to produce as many by machine. Where the mechanical roller has been introduced, still greater economy has been possible, for in one plant where the hand labor of rolling had been $4.40 a thousand, the machine cost of production was $1 a thousand. Whether or not this equipment dislocated labor depended on several factors, particularly the extent to which it was used in each plant and the speed with which the transfer from hand to machine operations was accomplished. In very few of the factories visited was trns type of equipment used for the major part of the output. It frequently happened that in order to adjust production to the growing emphasis on the 5-cent cigar the smaller manufacturer had installed a few bunching machines, but in such cases the machinemade bunches were still rolled by hand and in the same room other employees were making the more expensive brands of cigars entirely by hand. In one factory the installation of the bunching machines had covered a period of six months, and as trade in the cheaper cigar was increasing in the meantime it resulted in no lay-off of the 50 or more women who had been hand bunchers. On the whole, there seemed to have been less difficulty in transferring experienced handworkers to this type of machine than to· the more automatic type of equipment. One superintendent attributed the ease of adjustment in his plant to the fact that the handworkers were employed so little of the time on the better-grade product that they were willing to change to the machines that were running full time. Stripping machine. · The stripping machine is not a great labor-saving device, for at best it does the work of only two hand workers; nor is it suitable for stripping all grades of tobacco leaf. But one or more stripping machines were in use in most of the factories visited; none were l'ecent installations, and much of the stripping equipment had been in place 10 to 15 years. An interesting comment made more than once in York County, Pa., was to the effect that with the coming of the machine into the factory hand stripping that had been done in the homes on contract decreased; "the machine brought a few women strippers into the plant." Banding and foiling. Simple banding machines ·are not new in the industry. The economy secured by substituting machine banding for handwork was variously estimated as a displacement of 1, 5, 6, even 8 girls for each machine introduced. That "two girls operating one banding machine do the work of six hand handers" seemed to be a conservative statement. In one plant the installation of two banding macrnnes resulted jn the lay-off of eight hand handers. Another statement was that while the average hand handers may paste the bands on 7,000 cigars a day the machine tended by two girls turns out 30,000 to 35,000 a day. The recent and increasing demand for cigars wrapped in tin foil prompted the putting on the market of a mechanical device adapted to tin-foil wrapping about 1928. Before this, young girls had covered https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR-PLANT OFFICIALS 35 the cigars with foil by hand. The machine is variously reported to cover about 45 cigars a minute or from 20,000 to 24,000 in a day of 10 hours, whereas by hand a good production record was 2,500 to 3,500 daily. The banding mechanism, therefore, has displaced from 4 or 5 to 6 hand handers, varying with different . plant organizations. Many firms had not gone into foiling extensively before the machine made it possible to do it economically. On the other hand, gangs of as many as .50 to 60 young and inexperienced girls were employed jn some factories on foiling, which required no skill and could be learned in less than a day, though it took longer to acquire speed. · The demand for foiled cigars was increasing at the 6me the machine was put upon the market, so its introduction did not always result in laying off the hand handers and it was possible to absorb them in other kinds of work. In one factory as many as 40 hand foilers had been transferred to other minor unskilled packing jobs or put upon the foiling machines. In another factory it had been necessary, however, to eliminate some of the 60 hand foilers, although a few had been transferred to the eight new machines or other work and some girls quit voluntarily. One employer stated that by the use of the machine the labor cost of foiling had been reduced from 90 cents to 30 cents per thousand cigars. Soon after an efficient foiling machine was in quite general use a transfer device was perfected by which the older banding machine was connected to the foiling equipment, thus eliminating the handling of the cigar as it came from the foiler and the feeding of it to the bandjng machine by another pair of hands. The saving in labor cost is evident from the employment records in one factory that went into hand foiling extensively with about 150 employees. At the time of the interview only 62 girls were needed for the 31 machines, and a further reductjon to 31 girls was anticipated, to be made possible by the use of another attachment on these machines. One manufacturer reckoned the labor cost for hand foiling at 70 cents per 1,000 cigars, of banding at 30 cents per 1,000. By the introduction of the machine requiring two girls to operate it the cost was reduced to 25 cents per thousand, and by the latest equipment, operated by one girl, it was still further decreased to 12½ cents per thousand. He estimated that by use of this fully automatic foiler and bander production per operator had been doubled. The popularity of the foiled cigar has undoubtedly affected the older packer most severely-the man or woman who by careful subshading sorted the cigars into as many as 50 shapes or shades, thereby making the appearance of the cigars in the finished box entirely uniform in color, shape, and size. Employers said that under the old. regime it took several months to train the skilled packers, who were in a class by themselves in the trade. But now the shade of a cigar is not important and in one day a girl learns to operate a machine that applies the tin foil, a decidedly unskilled job that does not demand the wage rate of former skilled packers. Packing is no longer the job of adult men and women, but of young, inexperienced girls. · With the decreased necessity of shading, the output of packers is said to have more than doubled, so that the number of packers, in the former use of the word, has quite naturally been radically r~- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 36 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES duced. One employer dropped all the male packers, and in another establishment the men quit, as they could not afford to work for the greatly reduced rates offered them on other simple jobs. It was easier to transfer women packers, who "swallowed their pride," and not infrequently they were placed on foiling or other packing jobs. In one factory the packers-that is, shaders-were reduced from 24 to 12. In another all paclcing jobs were discontinued. In a plant where the shading packers were reduced from 34 to 17, it was possible to transfer a few from skilled packing work to hand foiling, for the foiling department was growing and employed 50 hands. Then these hand foilers were replaced by four foiling machines, and again because the firm was organized for mass production it was able to absorb the hand foilers, who in smaller units doubtless would have been laid off. Changes in personnel. The employment of women in cigar factories is an old story. Cigar making, indeed, has always been in European countries a recognized occupation of women, and in countries where a government monopoly has existed has been almost exclusively woman's work. In 1869 "thousands of Bohemian women cigar makers began to come to New York as the result of the war of 1866 between Prussia and Austria, during which the invading armies destroyed the cigar factories of Bohemia. * * * In Philadelphia, where it was said in 1870 that more women were employed at cigar making than in New York, many Americans were employed, but in New York most of the women cigar workers were foreigners." 1 "As a result of this woman's invasion more than one-half of the cigar makers in New York were females." 2 In other areas, however, there had been a larger proportion qf men than women cigar makers. One manufacturer said that when they were working on the out-and-out basis men comprised two-thirds of the force. Another traced the change in personnel by saying, ''Thirty years ago there were no women in the factory; 25 years ago only a few; in 1922, when we reached our peak, there were about half men and half women employed; but in 1925, when the bunch-breaking machines were installed, three-fourths of the force were women." Others explained the shift to women by saying, ''Women were given a chance to go on the machine but nothing was left for the men except to leave. No one was fired, hut there was so little handwork left that men can't make a decent living." "Men seem to consider cigar making by machine a woman's job." "It is no longer a man's industry, because it is impossible to earn a family wage in it now." "When we can we give the old fellows a chance, for they need the work badly. We could not afford to keep old men if business were rushing, as young girls are faster." Comments of management were invariably to the effect. that men had been harder hit than women. One outstanding case showed that as much as 80 per cent of the force were men before the introduction of machines, but since then only about 10 per cent are men. It was felt that there had been not only a reluctance to offer the men machine jobs but a strong aversion on the part of men to accepting 1 U. S. Department of Labor. Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United States, Vol. IX, History of Women in Industry in the United States, 1910, p. 198. L ' Ibid. Vol. X, History of Women in Trade Unions. 1911. p, 93, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR-PLANT OFFICIALS 37 them. On the one hand, the jobs were not considered suitable for men, and, on the other, the men were dissatisfied with simple machine operations and their attendant wage rates. Some superintendents went so far as to say that cigar making and packing should never have been a man's job, as women were much better fitted for it. However, in plants in which the direct labor was almost exclusively women before the change to machine equipment, more men than formerly were needed as machine fixers, foremen, and technical men, but few of these had been cigar makers. Not only were men being displaced in the modern organization of the industry but the older women were losing ground to the young girls. Wherever machine equipment had been installed superintendents expressed a preference for young girls in place of the older women who were skilled hand makers. "The automatic machine brought the younger American born, all inexperienced, into the factory." "Put on young girls in large numbers when the change was made." "Prefer young girls." "Better to hire inexperienced help and train them." "Now we rarely hire those beyond the twenties and most are in their teens." "Prefer women under 30." "The majority now are under 25; before there were many 35 to 60 years old." One manager gave as his reason for employing younger girls that "they get the rhythm quicker." Repeatedly employers referred to the changing source of the labor supply from the mature woman to the younger girl, from experienced to inexperienced help, and in some districts from the foreigner to .the native born. "Machine operators are 90 per cent American born, but 90 per cent of the handworkers had been foreign born." "We are employing the daughters of foreign parents now." Most of the foregoing refers to conditions in those plants only in which there had actually been a change in method of operation and whose managers or superintendents were able to describe the manner of effecting these transitions from hand to machine processes. Such comparisons were out of the question in establishments that had always been mechanized, nor could interviews be obtained with managers of units that had been closed to make possible mass production elsewhere. Yet it was in the desertion of these factories that there seemed to have been the most ruthless disregard of human needs. Many of the close-downs came as a shock to the employees. Foremen admitted that they were afraid the girls would resort to violence and sabotage if they were informed before the stock on hand was used up that there would be no more work. The favorite closing time with one corporation was a holiday. In one case the girls_went home July 3 for the usual Fourth of July holiday, but when they returned afterward they were told "the end had come." In another factory belonging to the same firm the employees went home for a "vacation" over Thanksgiving. They, too, returned to work, to be greeted with the announcement that the factory had closed. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PART IV.-HISTORY OF CIGAR AND CIGARETTE WORKERS AS REPORTED IN HOME INTERVIEWS One of the main purposes of this study was to discover what had happened to the women who had lost their jobs in cigar and cigarette factories. The original plan was to visit only women who had lost their jobs when some radical change had been made in the method of operation or the equipment in the factory in which they were employed in order to discover what adjustments they had been able to make. The field work in two cities, however, where almost all · the workers interviewed had been laid off, showed that many had lost their jobs because the installation of improved equipment elsewhere had made necessary the transfer of operations, besides changes in equipment in the factory in which they themselves had worked, so it was decided to extend the study to women who were laid off solely because of the transfer of work to other units. The problem was to discover, in the case of displaced cigar workers, whether the experienced hand makers were being absorbed by machine plants, were successful in finding the same kind of work elsewhere, either in town or-where plants had left--in other places, or were forced to take up entirely different lines of work. Among the displaced cigarette workers the chief cause of displacement was not a change from hand to machine but was the improvements made in machines and certain style changes. To answer such questions it was necessary to locate and interview the women who had been affected by these changes. The chief difficulty was in securing the names and addresses of women who had been displaced. In reply to the question as to what had become of the former tobacco workers, few persons could give any definite information. Trade-union officials were no more able than other persons to give assistance in locating cigar workers displaced by the closing of factories or changes in plant operations. The most helpful individuals, where they could be found, were foremen or foreladies who had been laid off with the other employees in their departments, and in whose welfare they were honestly interested. It was rare good fortune to find a former superintendent who had had charge of a factory when it closed and who had employment records that could be used as a basis for locating the women. Only in Binghamton, N. Y., was a reliable factory record found that gave the personnel of the plant when it closed; in this case only was it possible to get data based on 100 per cent of the women employed at the time manufacturing was suspended. Another helpful authority was the women themselves, who in many cases were able to give reliable information as to the present addresses of former workers. In the larger cities the displaced women were scattered far and wide, but in smaller towns it was easier to locate them. In some places only a few of the displaced workers could be found. Sometimes the family, all of whose wage earners had been employed . in the 38 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS 39 industry, had moved away. In other cases the women were not worldng any more, or had eventually found work in other places, perhaps in distant towns. One leader in a community said that it was a mystery where they had gone, as he knew of no woman-employing industry that had been increasing to the extent that the tobacco industry had been decreasing. An organization "interested in new development rather than funerals" suggested the names of about a dozen new firms in the community that might have employed the former cigar workers, but a canvass of these yielded nothing of importance. A scattering few of the former tobacco workers had found work here and there with the new firms; but many of the companies were hiring only women who had had experience in their line, others were employing only young and inexperienced girls, while one or two had tried cigar workers and found them not satisfactory, the girls being dissatisfied with the wage scale, which was lower than what they had in cigar making. Indicative of the general trade conditions was the status of the trade-union membership at th~ time of survey compared with what it had been in earlier years. An official of what had been an active organization of the cigar makers' union in the New Jersey district estimated that the membership in his local had dropped from about 600 to 100 between 1914 and 1929. The change had fallen most heavily on the older men, as they found it difficult to shift into other industries and oocupations. It was estimated roughly that tradeunion membership in Baltimore had decreased from 900 to 50, and in Lancaster from 1,000 to 25, within the past few years. A total of 1,150 visits were made to the homes of women who had worked in cigar factories, and of 259 to the homes of former cigarette workers, all of whom had lost their jobs at some time since 1925. Data were obtained as to the ages of the workers when they entered cigar or cigarette work and their industrial history since that time with the reasons for leaving each job. Information regarding unemployment, its cause and duration, also was secured, as well as the present economic status. For some of the women it was possible to compare their earnings on the jobs in cigars or cigarettes at time of separation with those on their subsequent jobs. Some of the women commented on the wages, hours, and regularity of work, various changes and their effects on employment, the changes in equipment or stock or style, and other conditions. HOME INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR WORKERS 1 On account of the widely different conditions existing in the areas in which cigars had been manufactured or still were being made the cities and towns in which the women were interviewed who had been deprived of their cigar jobs have been classified as three groupsLocalities A, Localities B, and Localities C. In some instances the cities and towns in one class are widely separated geographically, but they have distinctive characteristics in common that justify their being considered as one unit in this study. The classification was based on the conditions that existed at the time of the study in 1929 1 The difficulties of securing exact statements as to dates, wages, and other industrial experiences were great. For this reason the numbers of women supplying complete data are not large, conflicting statements having been freely eliminated as "not reported," https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 40 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES and 1930. For this reason some of the tabulations show for the three localities different trends from what would be expected, due to changes that had occurred during the 5-year period, 1925 to 1929. In the first group, to be called "Localities A" throughout this section of the report, the cigar industry still offered opportunities for employment to women. The cities and towns included in this group are as follows: Boston, Mass.; Binghamton, N. Y.; Wilmington, Del.; New Brunswick, Trenton, Newark, and Perth Amboy, N. J.; Camden, N. J., and Philadelphia., Pa., one industrial unit; York and four towns in York County, Lancaster, Harrisburg, Steelton, and two adjoining small towns, Reading, Allentown, and Nanticoke, Pa.; Baltimore, Md.; and Lima and Wapakoneta, Ohio. In Localities B the cigar industry offered only very limited opportunities, but there was work in other industries. The cities included here in which home visits were made are these: Jersey City and Bayonne, N. J.; Norristown, Conshohocken, Boyertown, and Bridgeport, Pa.; Newark, Mansfield, Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Ironton, Ohio; and Paducah, Ky. . In Localities C opportunities in the cigar industry were none or very limited and opportunity was slight in other industries also. Here were included 10 rural communities in Pennsylvania, 9 in the eastern part of Lancaster County (Akron, Hopeland, Rothsville, Brownstown, Denver, Manheim, Terre Hill, Reamstown, and Lincoln), and Schaefferstown in an adjacent county; and a district locally spoken of as the "Belt," stretching from Allentown to Norristown and made up of many small settlements, including East Green. ville, Sellersville, Trumbauersville, Gilbertsville, Tylersport, Milford, and Quakertown. In Ohio the towns included as Localities C were Jackson, Manchester, and Wellston, in the southeastern part of the State. Madisonville, Ky., also having only slight opportunities of employment for women, was among the places visited. In many of these towns, especially those in Pennsylvania, women who had been deprived of their jobs had been obliged to seek work in neighboring communities, which added greatly to their expenses. Furthermore, in many cases the work they were able to find was temporary only. Of the 1,150 women interviewed who had been deprived of their jobs in the cigar industry in 1925 or at some time within the next four years, 604 were in Localities A, 258 in Localities B, and 288 in Localities C. (See Table 5.) AGE OF THE WOMEN The cigar-working group interviewed was composed of women of all ages. Most of the older women had started work in the trade as young women and had seen many years of service, only to be deprived of their jobs when machines were introduced on which young workers, for the most part, were employed, or when the factories were moved or consolidated. Although the younger women, naturally, had been employed in most instances for shorter periods, they had started in the industry expecting to have continuous employment. But many of them, like the older women, lost their jobs by the introduction of the machine or the moving of the factory. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 41 HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS TABLE 5.- Age of the women interviewed, by type of locality-Cigars All localities Localities A Localities B Localities C Age group Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Num- ber Per cent -Total women ___ _____ __ 1, 150 ---- - -- - - Not reporting age ____ ________ 3 -- ------ - 604 --------- 258 -- -- - ---- 288 3 ---- - ---- -- ----- -- --- -- ---- ---- - -- - - ----------------- Total reporting _______ ____ ____ 1,147 100. 0 601 100. 0 258 100. 0 288 100. 0 Under 30 years _____ _________ _ 30 and under 40 years __ _____ _ 40 years and over __ __ _________ 456 327 364 39. 8 28. 5 31. 7 259 188 154 43. 1 31. 3 25. 6 111 75 72 43. 0 29.1 27. 9 86 64 138 29. 9 22. 2 47. 9 About two-fifths of the women in the localities included who reported their ages were not yet 30; almost three-tenths were 30 and under 40, and just over three-tenths were 40 or more. The age distribution was much the same in Localities A and B and the group as a whole, but in Localities O the proportion of women under 30 was less than three-tenths and almost one-half were 40 years or older. The last mentioned is of particular significance when it is remembered that in this section there was little opportunity for work in any line. DEPARTMENT IN WHICH EMPLOYED Of the 1,150 women included, all but 8 reported the department in which they were employed at the time of separation. The largest group (74.3 per cent) had been in hand-making departments. About one-eighth (12 per cent) had been in packing departments, and less than one-tenth (9.4 per centfin stripping departments. The remainder were in machine-making departments, in shipping, or classified as miscellaneous workers in all departments. (See Table 6.) The prop.o rtions of women from the different departments varied little with locality. Slightly larger proportions of those in Localities B and O than of the group as a whole had been engaged in the hand manufacture of cigars. Of Localities A the opposite is true, but these places had the largest proportion of women who had been in packing departments. Of the 84 7 women who had tnade cigars by hand and who reported age, about two-fifths were less than 30, and about three-tenths in each case were 30 and under 40 and 40 years of age or more. In Localities A the proportion under 30 years was somewhat less than in all localities, as was the group 40 years or more. In Localities B women under 30 were almost one-half of those who had made cigars by hand. In Localities O exactly one-half were 40 years or older. (See Appendix Table I.) 126898°-32-4 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 42 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETT~ INDUSTRIES TABLE 6.-Department in which employed at time of separation , by type of locali ty in which interviewed-Cigars All localities Localities A Localities B Localities C D epartment Number Per cent Number P er cent Number P er cent Number Per cent Total women ___________ -1,150 ---- ------------- -- 604 ------- -- 258 --------- 288 --------- Not reporting department_ __ _ 8 4 --------- Total reporting _______ ________ 1, 142 100. 0 602 100. 0 256 100. 0 284 100. 0 Stripping ________ __ _______ ___ 107 9. 4 57 9. 5 21 8. 2 29 10. 2 Select and hand strip_____ Machine strip ____________ 61 46 5. 3 4. 0 26 31 4. 3 5. 1 14 7 5. 5 2. 7 21 8 7. 4 2. 8 Cigar making _____ __ __ _______ 873 76. 4 449 74. 6 202 78. 9 222 78. 2 848 729 119 25 74. 3 63. 8 10. 4 2. 2 424 411 13 25 70. 4 68. 3 2. 2 4. 2 202 198 4 78. 9 77. 3 1. 6 222 120 102 78. 2 42. 3 35. 9 Packing ______ ____ _____ _______ 137 12. 0 85 14.1 25 9. 8 27 9. 5 Shippin~ and miscellaneoµs from a l departments _______ 25 2. 2 11 1.8 8 3. 1 6 2. 1 Hand ______________ ___ - -Bunch and roll ______ _ Out-and-out _________ _ Machine ______________ ___ 2 -- ------- 2 --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- Of the women whose work had been bunching and rolling, who comprised well over three-fifths of the total, 44.5 per cent were under 30 years, 30.8 per cent were 30 and under 40, and 24.7 per cent were 40 and over. Well over one-half of the bunchers and rollers were in Localities A. Only 1 in 6 were in C. The machine makers, too, were young, 20 of the 25 being under 30. All machine makers were in Localities A. The out-and-out hand makers, on the other hand, were predominately in the older group, 73.1 per cent being at least 40 and only 3.4 per cent under 30. These workers were almost wholly in Localities C. In Localities A the proportion of the bunchers and rollers under 30 years was only 40 per cent, in B it was 48.5 per cent, and in C it was 53.3 per cent. Conversely, the proportions 30 and under 40 were 35.6 per cent in Localities A, 28.3 per cent in B, and only 18.3 in C . Localities C differed further from the others in ·that as many as 28.3 per cent of the women there instead of only 23 or 24 per cent were at least 40 years of age. As many as 85.7 per cent of the out-and-out makers interviewed were found in Localities C, and here three-fourths of them were at least 40 years of age. Almost 60 per cent of the packers were under 30 years. The great majority were in Localities A. Strippers, on the other hand, were an older group, almost one-half (48.6 per cent) being 40 years or more. Well over one-half of the strippers were in Localities A. Only in Localities A were there any machine workers who had lost their jobs. Here were 25 women, all but 5 of whom had worked at the automatic machine. Six had worked as examiners of the finished product at the machine, and 14 had been operators. All but 1 of these 20 were from plants in two cities where the use of machines had been tried and discontinued. Only 7 of the 20 women were more https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS 43 than 22 years of age. Among the youngest women, 3 of the 13 had worked in the cigar industry as much as five years. The 5 remaining machine workers had done bunch making on simple machines that had been in use prior to the automatic machine. Only 1 of the 5 women was under 30. One of the women had worked in the cigar industry as much as 19 years before her enforced separation; the least time worked by any of the 5 was 10 years. About one-half of all the women from stripping departments were 40 years of age or older. In Localities B and C larger proportions than in Localities A or for the group as a whole were 40 years or more. (See Appendix Table I.) Almost three-fifths of those from packing departments were less than 30 years old, and the remainder were practically evenly divided between the other two groups. In Localities A, where the largest part of those from packing departments were found, about two-thirds of the women were under 30 years of age. WEEK'S EARNINGS In the home interviews, earnings on all the jobs the women had held, beginning with the first one in cigars and including the last job, were secured wherever possible. Of the 1,150 women interviewed, 549 reported their earnings on the cigar job at the time of separation. In many cases these earnings were lower than those the women had been receiving, the wage scale having begun to decline. Furthermore, the lowest earnings probably were for less than full time. The median of the week's earnings reported by 549 women for their cigar jobs at time of separation was $17.25, the range being from $5 to $37. Less than one-eighth of the women received $10 or less, and a like proportion received $23 or more. Of the 549 women, 354 reported their earnings on the first subsequent job; 143 had a subsequent job but did not report earnings; and 52 had no subsequent jobs. Of the 354 jobs for which earnings were reported, only 139 were cigar jobs. The median of the earnings of the 139 women was $15.85, almost 20 per cent less than the $19.60 median for the same women on the cigar job prior to the separation. The median of the earnings in the 215 first subsequent jobs in other lines was $12.20, almost 30 per cent less than the $16.95 median for the same women on their last cigar job. In every case, judging by the median, the women who secured subsequent cigar jobs had been in receipt of higher wages in cigars than had the group as a whole. Conversely, in most cases the women finding employment in other lines bad been receiving cigar wages below the median, the women under 30 being the exception to the rule, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis TABLE 7.-Earnings in last job before separation and in first subsequent job, by age at date of interview--Cigars ALL LOCALITIES Age group All women Women who reported earnings at time of separation Number Median Range --Tota!_ ___________ __ _______ 11,150 Under 30 years ____ _____________ 30 and under 40 years __ __ _______ 40 years and over _______________ 456 327 364 549 260 150 139 $17.25 16.85 18. 65 16.15 $5 to$37 $6to$31 $6to$37 $5to$32 l<'irst subsequent job Other industry Cigar industry Median Median Earnings in first first in Earnings of earnof earnWomen Women subsequent job subsequent job ings in ings in job last last job before Number before Number Total Total Range separa- Median Range separa- Median number reportnumber reporting tion ing tion 179 78 66 35 No subsequent job $4 to $29 318 215 $16. 95 $12. 20 $3 to $30 52 16.40 15. 85 $6 to $25 $5 to$29 $4 to $25 158 70 90 115 47 53 17.15 12. 60 16. 50 10. 95 $4 to $27 $4 to $30 $3 to $25 24 14 14 $16. 55 $8 to $29 158 121 $18. 40 $13. 40 $3 to $30 17 (2) ~2) 2) $8 to $25 $10to $29 $10 to $25 96 27 35 79 20 22 17. 60 13. 75 $4 to $27 $5 to $30 $3 to $25 6 7 4 (2) (2) $6 to $20 77 53 $15. 85 $4 to $20 11 t (2) (2) (2) $6to $20 $11 to $20 $9 to $19 40 16 21 28 12 13 $4 to $20 $7 to $18 $6 to $15 4 2 5 139 $19. 60 60 53 26 17. 35 20.25 (2) $15.85 (2) (2) (2) LOCALITIES A TotaL ____ -- - _-- -- - - - - -- - Under 30 years _______________ __ 30 and under 40 years ____ _______ 40 years and over- -------------- I 604 280 $19. 20 $7to $37 105 81 $20.40 259 188 154 148 72 18. 25 20. 60 19. 00 $7 to $31 $9 to $37 $8to$31 46 38 21 37 31 13 (2) (2) (2) 60 (2) (2) (2) (2) LOCALITIES B TotaL __ __ ________________ 258 120 $17. 15 $5 to $32 32 28 Under 30 years __________ _______ 30 and under 40 years ___________ 40 years and over_ __ _______ ____ _ 111 75 72 51 37 32 15. 95 $6 to $28 $11 to$30 $5 to$32 7 6 16 6 (2) (2) 19 6 2) 2) (2) (2) (2) $11. 90 (2) ~2) 2) LOCALITIES C TotaL __ __________ ________ 288 149 $14. 50 $6 to$25 42 30 (2) Under 30 years ____ _____ ________ 30 and under 40 years ___________ 40 years and over _______________ 86 64 138 61 41 47 13. 65 $6 to $20 $6 to $25 $6 to $25 25 17 6 7 (2) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 . (2) (2) Includes 3 not reporting age. 9 8 f) 2) 1-4 z t;:! q ~ 1-4 t:tJ (2) $4 to $21 83 41 (2) (2) $4 to$30 24 ~2) 2) (2) $8to$21 $5 to $19 $4 to$16 22 27 34 8 15 18 (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) $5 to $18 $4 to $30 $4 to $22 14 2 Not computed; base less than 50. 5 5 rf). HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS 45 By locality. Earnings varied according to locality. For the 280 women in Localities A who reported their last cigar earnings before the separation the median was $19.20; for the 120 in Localities B, $17.15; and for the 149 in Localities C, $14.50. Only in Localities A did a sufficient number of women for the computation of a median report earnings on the earlier and the subsequent cigar job; for these the median at the time of separation was $20.40 and that in the first subsequent cigar job was $16.55, a decrease of almost one-fifth. For the 121 women whose cigar earnings at time of separation and earnings in a subsequent job other than in cigars were reported the medians were $18.40 and $13.40, respectively, both higher than for the group as a whole, though the proportionate decrease was about the same. In Localities B 53 women reported earnings on the cigar job at time of separation and on the first subsequent job other than cigars. The median earnings in the former were $15.85 and in the latter $11.90. These amounts were lower than those for the whole group, but the proportionate decrease was not quite so great. In Localities C too few women for the computation of a median reported earnings in cigars at time of separation and earnings in the first subsequent job. By department. As mentioned previously, the largest group of women had been handworkers in the making departments, the occupation of 848, 74.3 per cent of all. (See Appendix Table I. ) Earnings on the last cigar job prior to the separation were reported by 365, or slightly more than two-fifths of these, and their median was $18.50. The lowest earnings on the last cigar job, under $10, were reported by about 5 per cent of these women, all of whom were bunchers or rollers. Almost onefifth reported earnings of from $10 to $15, and nearly two-fifths earnings of $15 but less than $20. Too few out-and-out makers for the computation of a median reported their earnings before the separation. For those who did report the earnings averaged much the same as those of the bunchers and rollers-$18 and under $19. No out-and-out maker reported earnings below $11, and one said she had been paid $37.50, about $4 in excess of the highest earnings reported by bunchers and rollers. Of the 365 hand makers who reported earnings on their last cigar job, 127 had had their first subsequent job in cigars, 205 in other lines, and 33 had had no subsequent job. The median of the final earnings of these 127 women before the separation was $20. Of these 127, 102 reported also their earnings on the first subsequent job in cigars. The median of the earnings of these prior to the separation was $20.15, while on the first subsequent job it was $16.05, a considerable reduction. For the 205 women whose subsequent job was other than cigars, the median of the earnings before the separation was $18.20; but of 142 who reported earnings on both jobs, the median for the last cigar job was $18.35 and that of the subsequent job $12.55, a , very great decline. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 46 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES As a few concrete examples of decreases in money earnings for those who had been making cigars by hand the following are given: Of the 32 hand makers who reported earnings of $10 and under $15 weekly at time of separation and also reported earnings on the first subsequent job, 11 had found work in cigars and 21 in other lines. For 8 in cigars and for 18 in other lines, earnings were less than before. Of the 27 handworkers whose earnings on the cigar job at time of separation had been $15 and who reported earnings on the subsequent job, 6 women who found jobs in cigars earned less than $12, 2 receiving only $9. Of the 19 whose subsequent job was in other lines, only 3 earned as much as $15. Five earned $7 or less. There were 4 7 hand workers who were earning $20 a week at the time of separation and who reported earnings on the first subsequent job. Of these, 27 had found work in cigars, and two-thirds of these had a loss in wages. Two earned only $10. Of the 20 women whose subsequent jobs were in other lines, all earned less than $20, 4 earning $10 or less. ' As noted, the median earnings for the 365 hand makers who reported earnings on the cigar job at time of separation were $18.50. For the 173 in Localities A they were $20.55, for the 90 in Localities B $17 .50, and for the 102 in Localities C $15. Of the women in Localities A, 132 reported earnings at time of separation and on first subsequent job. For these the median of the earnings before separation was $20.60, with a range of from $10 to $37, but the 58 who found subsequent work in cigars had median earnings of only $16.45 and the 74 who found other work had median earnings of only $15. · Last earnings before separation Cigar hand workers reporting Median Range T ype of locality All localities __________ --------------------Localities A __________________________________ ___ Localities B ____________ _________________________ Localities c ___ ______________ _________ _____ ______ First ~ub~equent job m cigars Number Earnings of less women 244 $19. 35 $6 to $37 102 71 132 62 50 20. 60 18.00 15. 80 $10 to $37 $6 to $32 $6 to $25 58 24 20 36 First subsequent job in cigars- Contd. 20 15 First subsequent job in other lines Type of locality Earnings same E arnings N umber of women more Earnings less Eatnings same Earnings more All localities ____ ___---- ---- --- 25 6 142 116 11 15 Localities A ____ _________ ___ _________ Localities B ________________________ _ Localities c _____ -------------------- 19 2 4 3 2 1 74 38 30 58 6 10 33 25 4 1 1 4 Of the hand makers in Localities. B, 62 reported earnings at the time of separation and on first subsequent jobs. The earnings before , the separation had a median of $18, the range being from $6 to $32. Of the first subsequent jobs, 24 were in cigars (20 at reduced earnings) and 38 were in other lines of work (33 at reduced earnings). https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 47 HOME INTERVIEWS WI'rH DISPLACED WORKERS In Localities C 50 women who had been hand makers r ported their earnings on the last cigar job before separation and on the first subsequent job. Their earnings before the separation had a median of $15.80, the range being $6 to $25. Twenty of the first subsequent jobs were in cigars, 15 at less wages, al).d 30 were in other lines, 25 at less wages. Of the 848 hand makers, 729 were bunchers and rollers and 119 were out-and-out makers. Of the bunchers and rollers, 328 reported their last wage before the separation, the median being $18.55. For the women who reported earnings at time of separation and on the subsequent job as :well, the decreases in earnings are very similar to those already described. Of the 119 out-and-out makers from hand-making dep rtments, 102 were in Localities C, and more than three-fourths of these were 40 years of age or older. (See Appendix Table I.) Little exact information on the earnings of these women was available. In many cases several years had elapsed since their separation from the industry. Only 22 women reported their last earnings before the separation and their first on a subsequent job, and in all cases but 1 the earnings were lower on the subsequent job. In Localities A 57 women under 30 years of age had been employed in packing departments. Of these, 32 reported their earnings on cigar job at time of separation and on first subsequent 'ob. Twelve had had their first subsequent job in cigars and 20 in other industries. Exactly one-half of each of these groups had earned les on the subsequent job than on the cigar job at time of separation. By age. That age had some influence on the earning capacity of the women may be seen in the following: The median earnings for the 260 women reporting age and earnings who were under 30 years of age were $16.85; for the 150 who were 30 and less than 40 years, $18.65; and for the 139 who were 40 years or over, $16.15. The range of earnings for the whole group was from $5 to $37, for those under 30 years of age it was from $6 to $31, for those 30 and under 40 years it was $6 to $37, and for those 40 years or older, $5 to $32. Furthermore, a reduction in earnings in the first job subsequent to the separation was most common and was greatest for the women of 40 and over. The extent to which reduced earnings were most common among the older women is illustrated in the following figures for hand makers: Relation of subsequent earnings to last earnings before separation I 3()and40 40 years All ages U nder 30 under and over years years ___ ___ - - , Cigars: All women ______ ____ ____ __ ____ ------------------------ - -Earnings same or more____________________________________ _ Earnings less _____________ .:. __ _______________ _______ - -- -- -_-_ Other: All women __ ______ _____ -------------------------------- -Earnings same or more _____________ __ _____ ___________ _____ _ Earnings less ______________________________________________ _ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 102 37 42 23 31 16 21 12 30 20 142 73 36 33 26 116 18 7 29 32 71 55 3 1 48 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND C1GARETTE INDUSTRIES The following cases are examples of the reduction in earnings that many women experienced because of changes in cigar factories. The first two are from Localities A. · Quit because of reduced earnings.-An Italian woman in Philadelphia, aged 36 and married, who had been employed in cigar work as a bunch .maker ~ost of the time since she was 18, left her work in August, 1929, shortly after bunching machines were introduced. Used to making $16 to $17 a week, the rates on the only grade of work on which handworke.rs were retained were so reduced that she could make only $9 to $10, so she left. At the time of interview she had been employed for two months as an enrober in a candy factory, where she earned $12 to $13 a week. She had not looked for cigar work, as it seemed useless to do so. All factori es but one left town.-A native-born woman, 29 years of age, married, and living in Lancaster, Pa., had begun work in cigars at the age of 14. She experienced four cases of the factory closing. She had worked 9½ years at the first plant as a cigar roller when it closed down in May, 1926. She was out of work for one month, and then secured another job as roller. This plant closed after she had been there one year. After more than two months she secured another job as roller, where work again lasted for one year. After nearly four months of unemployment she secured her fourth job 'a s roller, but this lasted only five months. When the factory closed she tried to get another job, but "all the factories have left town but one, and they don't pay anything. Never tried automatic-machine factory. Afraid of getting sick." After two months of unemployment she secured a place as a salesgirl in a 5-and-10-cent store, where she had been for nearly eight months at time of interview. Her wages there were $10 a week, as compared to $15 or $16 in cigars. The four case stories following, all from Localities B, show clearly the effect of changes in the cigar industry on the earnings of women. Subsequent earnings just one-half.-A married woman 53 years old, native born and living in Newark, Ohio, had started work in cigars at the age of 13. She had done making, bunching, rolling, and other work. When she was 50 the plant in which she was working left the city, the "worst thing ever happened to cigar makers." For seven weeks after December, 1927, when the factory moved, she had no employment. At the end of this time she did some practical nursing; she had three jobs: actually four months' employment out of a possible seven months. She was again unemployed for three months and then secured a job as roller at the struggling and very small cigar factory where she was employed at date of interview. Her highest earnings in the present cigar job were $10, whereas in 1927, before the other factory moved away, she was making $20. Temporary shutdowns; difference in hand processes.-A native-born woman in Ironton, Ohio, single and 26 years of age, had begun work in cigars at the age of 16. She had worked eight years as a roller when the factory went out of business, in December, 1927. She was unemployed for seven months, and then secured work as roller at another plant, where she had worked for only five months when it was shut down, in December, 1928. She was out of work seven months again, when she secured reemployment at the place that had shut down. She had been working there six months when the factory shut down again, two days before the interview. She had no idea when it would reopen. "Maybe a week, maybe six months." Work had always been steady at the first cigar factory where this woman worked, and the girls worked regularly, since they received a bonus for attendance. She had learned cigar rolling on suction plate and die, but at the second factory rolling was done without these. This she found much harder. On the first job her rate was 35 cents a hundred, and she could roll 1,000 a day. On the last job the rate was 25 cents a hundred, and due to the change in method she could make only 500 to 550 a day. Subsequent job in another city.-One of the women interviewed in Conshohocken, Pa., native born, single, and 29 years old, had worked in cigars since she was 16. She had not worked continuously, due to ill health of herself or her family, but had been employed about 8 of the possible 13 years. Her work was that of a roller. When the company went out of business in .November, 1927, she was rolling cigars at 85 cents a hundred. After this loss of job she was at home for one year for personal reasons. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 49 HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS She then secured work as a roller at 50 cents a hundred in another factory, and was employed there only nine months when the firm went out of business, in August, 1929. She was unemployed for two weeks, when she found employment as a roller in P hiladelphia, a distance of 13 miles, where she still was employed at time of interview. Here she received 70 cents a hundred as roller, but the increase in rate over what she had received at the last place did not mean much , for her commutation ticket cost $10.30 a month. Work was slack; she made 500 cigars a day at best, and her job was on a 5-day basis. There was no opportunity for work in the t own in which she lived, except in the glass factories. In commenting on the scarcity of work there she said, "Some one has to die before you get in there." Learned another industry.-A native-born woman, 32 years of age, single, and living in Newark, Ohio, had begun work in the cigar industry at the age of 18. She had been in this work for 12 years when the company went out of business in February, 1928. She had worked as roller, inspector, and teacher. At the time the factory closed she was on a salar y of $30 a week. She had made $20 to $22 as a roller. She secured work immediately in another cigar company, through her uncle, and there she stayed more than a year, averaging only $11 a week. She left this for what she considered a better job in a shoe factory, where she was doing fancy stitching and vamping at the time of the interview. While learning this work on shoes, she received $9 a week, but on piecework she was making from $10 to $17. The work was very irregular; sometimes a machine was out of order and sometimes she had to wait for work. TIME IN THE CIGAR INDUSTRY By locality. Many of the interviewed women, especially the older women, had been in the cigar industry a long time. The making of cigars by hand, whole or in part, has given employment to women for many years. Of the 1,150 women included in the study, 1,086 reported the time worked in the cigar industry. The proportions with experience of less than 5 years differed little by locality. Of those who had worked 5 but less than 10 years, the proportion of those in Localities A was much greater than in B and C. T he greatest difference was for the period 25 years or more, Localities C having a proportion more than three times as large as the figures for the other localities. TABLE 8.-Time worked in the industry, by type of locality-Cigars All localities Time worked in cigar industry Total women __ ________ _ Localities A Localities B Localities C Number Percent Number P ercent Number P ercent Number Percent 1, 150 --------- 604 Not reporting time_________ __ 64 Total reporting __ ________ __ __ 1,086 100. 0 559 Less than 5 years _____________ 5 and less than 10 years _______ 10 and less than 15 years _____ 15 and less than 20 years __ ___ 20 and less than 25 years ______ 25 years and over _____________ 264 270 193 149 97 113 24. 3 24.9 17.8 13. 7 8. 9 10. 4 125 167 109 74 46 --- ------ --------- 38 258 --- ------ 288 -- - --- --- 6 --------- 13 -- ------- 100. 0 252 100. O' '1:75 100.0 22.4 29.9 19. 5 13. 2 8.2 6.8 70 50 46 46 25 15 27.8 19. 8 18.3 18. 3 9.9 6.0 69 53 38 29 26 60 25.1 19.3 13.8 10.5 9.5 21. 8 45 -- - --- --- By age. Of the 1,086 who reported time w .1rked in the cigar industry, all but one reported age also. As will be noted, about one-four th of all the women had worked less than 5 years; of those less than 30 years https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 50 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES of age, slightly more than one-half had had this brief experience, as compared with about one-fifth of t hose 40 years or older. Naturally, almost none of those under 30 years of age had worked as long as 15 years, but about one-sixth of those 40 years or more had been 15 to 20 years in the industry. Of the oldest group, the proportion who bad worked 25 years or more was greatest in Localities C, where almost one-half (46.9 per cent) had worked that long. (See Appendix Table II.) PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF WOMEN BY TIME WORKED IN THE CIGAR INDUSTRY, BY LOCALITIES TIME WORKED Per cent 20 40 10 -------~------,,.....------......-------, 0 WCALITIF.S A Le118 than 5 years 5 and less than 10 years 10 IIDd less than 15 years 15 and less than 20 years 20 and less than 25 years 25 years and over UlCALITIF.S B Less than 5 years 5 IIDd less than 10 years 10 and less than 15 years 15 and less than 20 years 20 and less than 25 years 25 years and over UlCALITIF.S C Less than 5 years 5 and less than 10 years 10 and less than 15 years 15 and less than 20 years 20 IIDd less than 25 years 25 7ears and over The three following work histories of women in Localities A show the effects of changes in the cigar industry on women who had spent many years in this work. Work in eight or more factori es that closed.- A. native-born woman living in Lancaster, Pa., 43 years of age and single, had worked in cigars most of the time since she was 20. Prior to this she had been employed as a weaver in silk mills. Her occupation in cigars was that of roller. She had worked in at least eight factories that closed. Four jobs were before the slump, so these caused her little inconvenience, but lately business had been "off and on." Some factories had closed entirely; "others say, 'Maybe we'll start up again in a few months,' but they don't." At t ime of interview she had been unemployed for nine months and no jobs were available in cigar factories or silk mills. Some of her jobs had been in neighboring towns, which made the expenses of the job greater and the working day much longer. On one of these jobs she left Lancaster at 5.30 in the morning to be at the shop by 7. She left work at 5 and arrived home anywhere from 6.30 to 7.30 on account of poor transportation. This job had lasted five months, when the factory closed. When this woman was first employed as silk weaver, she was persuaded that cigar m~king was a better job, and it was so until the last five or six years. t\.QQ\lt https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HOME INT~RVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS 51 four or five years prior to the interview she went back to the silk mill where she had been almost 15 years before, but she found the work very exhausting. When the cigar superintendent sent word that another cigar factory was opening, she quit the silk mill after only two weeks' work. She said, '' The machine has killed our trade and we will never get it back. We were foolish not to have got control of the machines, and to have operated them from the first. Now they won't hire us for machine work." Some plants gave the girls warning of the closing, but the commoner practice was not to tell the workers beforehand, for fear of destruction of the stock. In one case the superintendent informed the workers at 9 in the morning that they were closing permanently at noon. Another time they were told at night that the next day would be.the last. Tried work as finisher on machine.-A widow in Lancaster, Pa., 39 years of age and native born, had begun work in the cigar industry at the age of 14. She worked as a cigar roller for 21 years in various plants, during an over-all working period of 23 years, until the plant in which she was then employed closed in February, 1928. She moved to Philadelphia, where she stayed for three months employed as a roller, but went back home when she heard that one of the cigar companies was taking a 5-year lease. This removal and return took all her savings, about $300; and after all that expenditure the plant she had been counting on to remain open for 5 years remained open only 5 months. After this she secured employment as a finisher on an automatic cigar-making machine. Her own story tells this tale: "I tried automatic cigar manufacturing, finishing a t - - - - - ; stayed three days. Got so nervous, had to quit. The finisher has to do too many things. The cigars come through at the rate of 8 a minute. All have to be examined, and if they are not perfect they have to be patched up. Along with the patching the finisher has to get water for the wrapper and binder layer to wash their dies with, and drinking water for them, and also tie finished work, and bring it to be checked and counted. It is a continual rush, and having to patch up so many, regardless of shading, just gets an experienced girl's nerves. A green girl can see cigars go by this way and does not know any better, but an experienced girl gets nervous. On the last day I handled 4,600 cigars. If the finisher gets too far behind, they stop the machine, and all have to help finish. This is a terrible thing, as the machine is supposed to run all the time." After that job this woman tried dressmaking at home, but quit after one month. At the time of the interview she had been employed for eight months as a hand cigar roller. Quit machine work after one day.-A native-born American in Binghamton, N. Y., between 40 and 45 years of age and married, had started work as a roller when 17 or 18. After learning bunching, she worked up to the position of forelady. She had been employed in the factory 25 years when it closed. Work had always been steady until the actual closing at this factory, which was one of the best in the city. After her lay-off in November, 1927, she was unemployed for eight months. At the end of this time she tried work in a machine cigar plant, but quit after one day, feeling that she could not adjust herself to machine work nor even work in a machine factory. Her comment was, "Have to learn a trade young or nobody wants you." The two women from Localities B whose cigar histories are noted below give the subsequent industrial history for those who were young . and those who were no longer young. From cigars to radio.-A. single woman in Bayonne, N. J., 29 years old and born in this country, had worked in a cigar factory as a roller for 15 years when the plant closed in April, 1929. She was out of work for two weeks or so. She knew younger girls were being taken on at radio plants, but she was afraid she was too old, so she put off trying there until she had "tried everything, everywhere else." When she applied there, and secured the job, she avoided acknowledging that she was 29. She liked the work in radio and was "making out" all right. It was "like a funeral" when the cigar factory shut down on the girls who had spent their lives there. "Never will feel the same about any other place I work." https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 52 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES Unemployed at 63.-An older woman, 63 years of age, living in Ironton, Ohio, was single and native born. She was employed in domestic service until she was 48, when she started work as a hand stripper in a tobacco factory, and she did this work for 15 years, until December, 1927, when the plant went out of business. At the time of interview she had been at home and out of work for more than two years, hoping that some cigar factory would open up. The following two cases, in Localities C, are typical examples of women giving much of their working lives to the cigar industry, only to have the factories close and leave them to find other work at middle age. One secured employment in cigars in a neighboring town, the other in a different industry. Both women lived in the "Belt" in Pennsylvania, the district where opportunities for any work were very limited. Husband, self, and son thrown out.-A native-born woman in Hopeland, Pa., married and 44 years old, had worked off and on in tobacco from the time she was 10. Her father had a shop, where she worked as a stripper irregularly until she was 16. She was employed as a roller and as an out-and-out maker for about 17 years, when the plant in which she was then working closed down, in December, 1927. She was out of work for a few weeks, but found work as a roller at a plant in another locality, where she stayed for five months and then left because she could not make anything, the stock was so poor. Her car fare was over $5 a month. She was unemployed for about a month, when she secured the temporary job in a cigar plant in an adjoining town that she held at time of interview. The closing of two plants in her home town, both in December, 1927, threw this woman, her husband, and her grown son out of work. Each of the three then had to go to a different town to work. "Getting where I hoped to have it easier," the woman said, "but life is harder than ever. Wouldn't be so bad if wages were what they used to be." On the next to the last job she was paid 25 cents a hundred for rolling cheap unfinished cigars. Since she had never done poor work, she found it difficult to slight things and so work fast enough to compensate her for the lower rate. Learned a new trade after 40.-A married woman in Trumbauersville, Pa., 46 years old and native born, had started work in cigars at th~ age of 16. She had been employed for about 26 years as buncher and out-and-out cigar maker in different plants when the one in which she was working in March, 1925, closed down. She was out of work for a few weeks, and since there was, as she expressed it, "no prospect of decent work in cigars again," she secured employment as a machine operator in a clothing factory, where she had been for the past four years at time of interview. This woman gave up her trade before many others did so. She decided she would better get into what work was left while she could. She would go back to work in cigars, however, if there were a good opportunity. CAUSE OF THE SEPARATION Many things were mentioned by the women interviewed as the cause of their losing their jobs, but for the purposes of the study they have been grouped under two general headings, closing of the factory and slack work. Included under closing of the factory are t~e following reasons as given by the women: Factory closed, force la1.d off, factory moved, shutdown, close due to burning of factory, and (applying to only part of the plant) a department closing or the introduction of machines. Under slack work are the following: Partial or temporary lay-off, work slack or temporary, factory closed temporarily, quit because of slack work, quit because close imminent. The closing of the factory meant in some cases its permanent discont~nuance; in other cases, it was merged with others, usually in a large mty. All of the 1,150 women gave a reason for the separation from the cigar job that was the basis for inclusion in this study. The proportion of these whose enforced separation was due to the closing of the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 53 HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS factory was 96 per cent, and the remainder gave as the cause the slackness of work. The proportions of women reporting these reasons differed little by locality from those for the group as a whole. Of the 1,101 women who gave the closing of the factory as the reason for their separation and also reported their age, two-fifths were less than 30, almost three-tenths were 30 and less than 40, and more than three-tenths were 40 or older. In Localities A and B the proportions were similar to those for the group as a whole, but in Localities C the proportion of younger women was considerably less and that of the women 40 or more was much greater. The proportion of older women who gave slack work as the cause of separation also was greatest in Localities C. EMPLOYMENT STATUS SINCE THE CHIEF SEPARATION By locality. Of the 1,150 women included in the study, one-eighth had been unemployed the whole of the time since their ~nforced separation. Of the remainder, only 11 per cent had been employed the entire time. In Localities B the proportion who had been unemployed the whole of the time was much greater than for the entire group, almost one-fourth (22.5 per cent) having had no employment since the separation. This larger proportion of unemployed women in Localities B bears out the conclusion that the conditions found in 1929-30 were different from those existing earlier in the 5-year period. Of the 1,006 women who had had some employment since their enforced separation, slightly more than one-third (35.4 per cent) had worked only in cigars, almost three-tenths (28.3 per cent) had worked in both cigars and other lines of work, and the largest proportion (36.3 per cent) had had. jobs only in other industries. As would be expected, the largest proportion with subsequent jobs only in the cigar industry was in the localities designated as A, which still offered cigar employment at the time of survey: Here more than two-fifths (43.9 per cent) reported such employment, in contrast to only about one-fourth in the other types of localities. There was less difference in the proportions that had found employment both in cigars and in other lines of work. TABLE 9.-Employment status since the chief separation, by type of locality-Cigars All localities Localities A Number Per cent Number Employed all or part of time ___________ ______ 1,006 87. 5 All women who had had employment __ 1,006 100.0 677 218 Having employment ___ __ ______ ________ __ ____ 1,006 356 365 285 Employment status LocalitiesB Per cent Number 558 92.4 558 100. 0 67.4 383 21. 6 90 100.0 35.4 36.3 28. 3 Localities 0 Per cent Number 200 77.5 248 86. 1 200 100.0 248 100.0 68. 8 120 60.0 174 70.2 16. 0 66 33.0 62 25.0 558 100. 0 200 100.0 248 100.0 245 147 166 43. 9 26. 3 29. 7 46 108 46 23. 0 54.0 23.0 65 · 110 73 26.2 44.4 29.4 Per cent ------ ---- -All women ___ _______ ______ _____ ___ __ ___ 1,150 100. 0 604 100.0 258 100.0 288 100.0 - 7.6- - -22.--13.-9 Unemployed entire time ____ _______ ___ ______ _ 144 46 5 40 12. 5 58 Steadily employed_- --- - -- ---- - -- - -- -- - -----Employed at date of interview but had been ___ _____ ___ ___ __________________ unemployed Unemployed at date of interview but had ___ been employed ____ ______ __ ______________ In only_ --- -- -------- - ------In cigars other only ___----__ __ -________________ _____ _ In cigars and other ___ _______________ _____ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis -111 - - 11.0- - -15.--7.0 ---14 85 3 12 4.8 54 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES By age. Of the 1,006 women employed at some time since the separation, all but one reported age. The age distribution of those who bad been employed was very similar to the distribution of the group as a whole, but unemployment for the entire time was less among those under 30 years than for the whole group, practically the same for those 30 and less than 40, and more for those 40 years or older. PROPORTION OF WOMEN ENTIRELY UNEMPLOYED BETWEEN SEPARATION AND DATE OF INTERVIEW, BY AGE AND TYPE OF LOCALITY-CIGARS AGE - Per Under· 50 7eare :50 8Ild un<ler 40 7eare 40 years 8Ild over cent so 10 ,--------r--------,---------, 20 0 LOCALITIF.S A LOCALITIF.S B Under :50 year& :50 and under 40 year& 40 ye&r& end over LOCALITIF.S C Under :50 7ears 50 and under 40 7ears 40 7ears 811d over I I In Localities A and B the proportion of women employed the entire time since the separation on which the study is based decreased with increase in age, but the opposite is true of Localities C. In Localities A 73.7 per cent of the women with subsequent employment had found such employment in cigars; in Localities B, 46 per cent; and in Localities C, 55.6 per cent. These proportions indicate that conditions of cigar employment in these localities grew worse during the 5-year period covered by the study, for at the time of the survey there were few or no opportunities for work in cigars in Localities B and C. The following are examples in Localities A of women no longer young who were laid off, one due to the closing of the factory and the other because of slack work. Neither had had any subsequent employment. Too old at 38 to learn a trade.-A Polish woman living in Newark, N. J., married and 38 years old, had begun work in the cigar industry at the age of 16. She was laid off, after 15 years' experience in cigar work, when the factory closed. She felt that she was too old to start in a new trade, because friends had told her that only girls of about 20 were being taken on in radio plants and those making other electric products, the large woman-employing industries in the city in which she lived. She had been out of work seven months at the time of interview. Laid off after 35 years' experience.-A native-born woman living in Lancaster, Pa., 49 years old and a widow, had worked for 35 years as a roller and out-andout cigar maker in several plants. She had begun work at the age of 12. Just before Christmas of 1927 work was slack and she was laid off. She and four or five others were told they would be sent for, but they never were. Prior to this lay off there had been no trouble in finding work, but there has been nothing since, though she looks and asks from time to time. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS 55 In the following work histories of three women from Localities A the experiences of individual women deprived of their jobs in cigars are illustrated. Unable to become adjusted.-A native-born woman in Baltimore, 35 years old and married, had begun work in cigars at the age of 11. Of the 24 years since then, she had worked as a machine stripper for about 15. But the plant closed down, and since then she had not been able to get a job that paid. She found employment in another cigar plant but quit after one day because the s1,ripping machine ran so hard. She worked part of one season at a tomato cannery, but work there was so slow that she made hardly any money. She tried cleaning in a hotel, but after three nights she quit; "hotel cleaning was too hard, not used to such hard work." Did washings.-Another n ative-born woman in Baltimore, aged 32 and married, had done her first work in a cigar fact ory at the age of 24. She labeled cigars and worked at odd jobs for five years, until the factory closed in June, 1926. Since she could get nothing else, for t he next two years she did washings "off and on." At the time of interview she had again been employed for almost a iear as a labeler. Her comment on the situation in the cigar industry was: 'When three cigar plants close down at once, it is hard for the employees to find work, especially the older, experienced ones." Subsequent job at hand work.- A foreign-born woman in Camden, N. J., 33 years old and married, had begun work in, cigars at the age of 14. She had worked actually for about 14 years when she was laid off, in December, 1927, because machines were introduced. She was so fortunate as to secure a job in another cigar factory, where she was employed as a cigar roller at the time of interview. In this city there still were more opportunities than in most phi.ces for handwork in cigars. From Localities B the work histories of two women, one a forelady \>f packers and one a roller, both of them at least 40 years old, have been selected. One woman had found subsequent work in a shoe factory, the .other very irregular work as a roller in a cigar factory. Irregular earnings i n shoes.- A native-born woman ir Ironton, Ohio, 40 years of age and sep arated from her husban d, had started work in cigars as a packer at the age of 16. She worked in cigars for 22 years, until the company went out of business in D ecember, 1927. At that time she was forelady of packers, making $15 a week at steady work. After looking for work for four and one-half months she secured employment on a cement machine in a shoe factory, where she had been employed for a year and eight months at time of interview. Her earnings were very irregular, as there was much time when work was siack. The highest pay she received was $24.22 for t wo weeks, and she had been paid as little as $6 for the same period. "Often girls go in and then have to wait for work and only make a few cents in the day." Subsequent work slack.-An unmarried, fordgn-born woman of 44, living in Cleveland, Ohio, had found her first job in t his country at the age of 21 as a roller in a cigar factory. She worked there for 23 years until the firm left the city. After hunting work for about a month she found employment again as roller. However, work in this plant had been very slack-" off a week, then off two weeks, off three weeks at Christmas, and not a full week since. Very bad." Two women in Localities C, one young and one middle-aged, who had tried to adjust themselves after the closing of the cigar factories in which they worked, had histories as follows: Resorted to home work.-A native-born woman from East Greenville, Pa., 46 years old and married, had begun work as a tobacco stripper at 15 and as maker at 17. She had worked as a cign r ()ller for 24 years when the factory in which she was then employed was closed. She was unemployed for a few weeks and then started making children's dresses at home. After two weeks she became ill and gave up this work. For the past year she had beeP doing home work, finishing pants by hand. "Could not find a decent job now, so took what I could get, " https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 56 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES Laid off at 20 years.-A native-born woman in Wellston, Ohio, aged 20 and single, had worked in cigars since she was 16. She had been a roller for two years when the firm went out of business in December, 1927. Her comment on this was, "Such a long-faced set of girls. It sure was a shock; they sure did hate it." She stayed at home for seven weeks, not looking for work, and then went to a large city near by, where she at once got work as a roller. She stayed there 11 months, and then returned home because she was homesick. She remained at home, not looking for work, for six months, and then secured a job as roller, which she held for two months. At the end of that time she was laid off, due to slack work. · UNEMPLOYMENT FOR INDUSTRIAL REASONS SINCE THE SEPARATION In any discussion of the causes of unemployment two general classes present themselves-personal and industrial. Since one of the purposes of this study was to secure information as to the effects on the employment of women of changes in the cigar industry, only the unemployment due to industrial reasons will be discussed here. Time unemployed for industrial reasons since losing job. Of the 1,006 women who had held one or more subsequent jobs, 821, or about four-fifths, reported the time lost for industrial reasons between the chief separation and the date of interview. Almost onesixth had lost no time, and close to three-fifths had lost less than six months' time. A much smaller proportion, about one-tenth, had lost as much as a year's time. Five women had lost two years or more for such causes. Two women in nine had been unemployed for at least 60 per cent of the time, and one-half of these had been unemployed the entire time. Only two-fifths of the women had lost less than 20 per cent of their time. Time lost between separation and first subsequent job. Of the 1,006 who had had a subsequent job, 855 reported the time elapsed between losing their cigar employment and securing another job. Just over one-fifth reported no loss of time before finding work. Almost one-half lost less than 3 months' time, and about onesixth lost 3 and under 6 months. For about one-eighth the unemployment lasted 6 to 12 months, and exactly 1 in 25 lost at least a year. In Localities A more than one-fourth lost no time between separation and subsequent job, while only about one in seven in the other localities were so fortunate as this. The proportions in A and B who lost six months or more before securing a job after losing their employment in the cigar industry were very similar (about one-eighth), while in Localities C more than double this proportion were unemployed for industrial reasons for so long a time. The proportions unemployed for one year for industrial reasons in Localities A, B, and C were respectively 1.8 per cent, 5.6 per cent, and 8.5 per cent. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 57 HOME I NTERVIEWS W ITH DISPLACED W OR KERS TABLE 10. -Time unemployed for industrial reasons between separation and first subsequent job, by type of locality-Cigars Localities A Localities B All localities Localities C Time unemployed for indu st rial reasons between separation and first subsequentjob N umber Percent Number P er cent Number Per cent N umber P er cent Total ___ __ __ _________ __ 1,006 ---- - ---- 558 ----------------- 200 --------- 248 --------- Indefinite and not reporting __ 151 Total reporting __________ ____ _ 855 100.0 488 100. 0 179 100. 0 188 100. 0 None __ _____________ __ _____ __ _ L ess t han 3 mont hs __ ____ ___ _ 3 and less than 6 m onths _____ 6 and less t han 9 m onths _____ 9 and less than 12 months ____ 12 months and over __ ________ 188 389 144 83 16 35 22. 0 45. 5 16.8 9. 7 1. 9 4.1 134 197 97 46 5 9 27. 5 40.4 19. 9 9. 4 1.0 1. 8 26 110 20 11 2 10 14. 5 61. 5 11. 2 6. 1 1.1 5. 6 28 14. 9 43. 6 14. 4 13. 8 4. 8 8. 5 --------- 70 21 --------- 60 ------ --- 82 27 26 9 16 Time elapsed between separation and date of interview. Of interest in connection with the amount of time unemployed for industrial reasons is the lapse of t ime between the separation and the interview. This was reported by all but 10 of the 1,150 women. For only 300 (26.3 per cent), almost evenly divided between 6 months and over and less than 6 months, was such elapsed time less than a year. For 485 (42.5 per cent) it was 1 and under 2 years, and for 355 (31.1 per cent) it was 2 years or more, 100 of these women having been separ ated from their cigar employment as much as 3 years before, 30 of them as much as 4 years before. All women reporting ess than elapsed time L separ- 6months since Am oun t of elapsed time u nation employed fo r industrial reasons 6 an d less t han 12 months 12 and less than 18 m onths 18 and less 24 months than 24 and over months Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- P er ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ------ Total _________________ 1, 140 -----No time lost for in dustrial reasons __ _________ ____ _____ Some time____ lost strial __ for ____indu __________ reasons 990 Not reporting amount. ______ 187 150 ------ ----------- Total reporting ____ ___ _______ 803 100. 0 L ess t han 20 per cen t.. ______ 20 and less than 40 per cent __ 40 and less than 60 per cent._ 60 and less than 80 per cent __ 80 and less t han 100 per cent. 100 per cent ______________ ___ 321 200 100 44 48 90 40. 0 24. 9 12. 5 5. 5 6. 0 11. 2 154 -----16 ---- - 138 12 ----------- 126 100. 0 17 21 14 11 6 57 13. 5 16. 7 11. 1 8. 7 4. 8 45. 2 146 -----24 ------ 122 -----9 -----113 100. 0 44 26 22 3 6 12 38. 9 23. 0 19. 5 2. 7 5. 3 10. 6 185 -----26 -----159 ------ 300 -- ---47 -- -- -253 ------ 355 --- -37 318 ------ --- 37 ------ 50 ------ 79 ----- 122 100. 0 203 100. 0 239 100. 0 48 39 17 8 5 5 39. 3 32. 0 13. 9 6. 6 4.1 4. 1 78 69 16 11 21 8 38. 4 34. 0 7. 9 5. 4 10. 3 3. 9 134 45 31 11 10 8 56. 1 18. 8 13. 0 4. 6 4. 2 3. 3 In Localities B and C between 40 and 50 per cent of the women had lost their cigar employment at least two years before, but in Localities A this figure was only 18.2 per cent. Naturally, it was among the women interviewed less than 6 months after their separation that nearly one-half (45.2 per cent) were found l26898°-32--5 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 58 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES to have had no subsequent employment. Where the time elapsed was longer, few of the women had been unemployed the entire time. Of the 802 women who reported age and amount of time lost, the proportions losing at least one-half the time increased with age, from 22.8 per cent of the women who were under 30 years to 38.6 per cent of those 40 years or older. These proportions differed widely with locality. In Localities A only 15 per cent of the women under 30, in contrast to 27.7 per cent of those 40 and over, had been unemployed at least one-half the time since the separation. In Localities B 22.2 per cent of those under 30 and 50 per cent of those 40 and over had lost half the time. In Localities C the proportion unemployed as much as 50 per cent of the time did not increase with age. The following three cases of women in Localities A show unemployment due to industrial reasons: Two factories closed down.-A native-born woman in Baltimore, Md., 36 years of age and single, had begun work in the cigar industry at the age of 16. She had worked two years before this in candy. In cigars she was employed as a roller for 17 years at one place, but it went out of business in June, 1926. She at once secured employment as a roller in another cigar factory, where she remained two years, until it too went out of business, in June, 1928. From that time on she had been unemployed except for two weeks, when she did cleaning at a hospital, which proved to be too hard wor~ for her and too small pay. Three factories closed.-Another native-born woman in Baltimore, 30 years of age, had begun work in cigars at 12 or 13. She falsified her age at that time, in order to secure employment. Her work in cigar factories had been on stripping machines. Her first job lasted 14 years; it was terminated because the company . left the city. She secured another stripping-machine job, but after 4 months that factory closed also. Since then she had worked 6 months at a stripping machine in still a third factory that closed and the firm left the city. After being unemployed for 6 months she secured temporary work as a restaurant waitress, but after 3 months the friend whose job it was returned to it. Commenting on the closing of the cigar factories, she said, "At the---there was no advance notice. They closed all at once. One day you had work, the next day you had none." "No cigars anywhere."-A Polish woman in Baltimore, 40 years of age and married, had started work in cigars at the age of 14. After 25 years of bunching cigars in three different factories the plant in which she was then employed closed, in January, 1928. She was unemployed for 5 months, and then secured another job in cigars, which she quit after 7 months-"They just got on my nerves." She commented as· follows: · "Where am I to go? There's no cigars anywhere. I am not going to scrub. When the - - - company closed, we worked until the last minute; it seemed almost impossible that we were out of work." The following cases, one of a young girl and the other of a woman approaching middle age, show unemployment due to industrial reasons as it affected women in Localities B. Dissatisfied with subsequent jobs.-A native-born woman in Bayonne, N. J., 22 years old and single, had started work in cigars at the age of 17. She was employed as a maker for five years, until the factory moved out of the city in April, 1929. She was out of work for about a month, when she secured a job at painting in a furniture factory. She remained there 2½ months, and left because of unsteady work and loss of appetite due to the smell of paint, which she considered much more objectionable than the odor of tobacco. After this she was unemployed for about a month, when she secured work in a food factory, packing cake. She had been there for one month at time of interview. She was earning the least amount she had ever worked for, but she found it easier than the furniture work. To quote this woman, "It broke our hearts to leave that cigar factory. Do you suppose it will come back?" A canvasser of books.-A native-born woman in Mansfield, Ohio, 40 years old ~nd sin~le, had begun work jn the ci~ar jrn;lustr;v at the a~e of 17. ~h~ h~tj. w9r}{~q https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis llOME INTERVIEWS 'W!TH DtsPLACED WORKERS 59 there as a packer for 23 years when the factory closed, in November, 1929. On the same day on which she was laid off, her brother was laid off from another industry, where he, too, had been for years. The woman was unemployed for two months, but at the time of interview she had been working for one month canvassing for books. While employed in cigars she made from $15 to $18 a week, but her commission at canvassing for books had amounted to $5.40 in one week and to $7 in another. She hoped to make $25 a month, but she was wondering what she would do when she had covered the town in which she lived. The two following cases in Localities C illustrate the work histories of women past middle age, both of whom had experienced unemployment due to factories closing. Decline in earnings.-A native-born woman in Boyertown, Pa., 48 years old and married, had worked in the· cigar industry since she was 16. Her parents had died while she was young, and she had worked as a "hired girl" on a farm until she became 16. A friend paid her room and board for her while she was a cigar apprentice. She had worked as cigar maker for 23 years and more when the factory closed. She was out of work for 3 months, during which time she could not find any cigar work and was afraid, owing to a defect of speech, to try anything else. Eventually she secured a job in cigars, but it was most uncertain-as she expressed it, "always off and on." About seven years ago the rate was $11 a thousand for a good 10-cent cigar; later it was $8 a thousand for a poorer grade. She used to earn $20 a week then $15, later $12, but at time of interview she felt fortunate to earn $10 a week: A drop of $11 in earnings.-A native-born woman in East Greenville, Pa., 49 years old and married, had begun work in cigars at the age of 17. Since that time she had worked as an out-and-out cigar maker for 18 years when the factory closed in December, 1927. After six months' unemployment she secured a job on a power sewing machine in a shirt factory, but in three months that plant closed also. At time of interview she had been out of work for almost a year. In cigars she could depend on $18 for a full week, but she never earned over $7 on shirts. Yet she liked the work, it was "clean and nice." She said, "We heard of cigar factories closing all around us. I guess we were only surprised that ours held out as long as it did." Another case, this of a younger woman in Localities C, illustrates unemployment due to industrial reasons. Housework and laundry work.-A native-born woman in Jackson, Ohio, 23 years old and married, had begun work in cigars as a machine stripper. She worked at this for three years, until the company went out of business in December, 1927. She was out of work for a week or two and then took a job at housework, where she remained 4 months. After 9 months' unemployment, she secured a job as stripper and foiler at a cigar plant in a neighboring town, but she left this because the pay was not sufficient to warrant her paying bus fare. She was unemployed then for about five months, when she obtained the job of general helper in a laundry that she held at time of interview. SUBSEQUENT JOBS The types of jobs that the women deprived of their cigar employment were able to secure were affected by locality and by age. Some women reported only one subsequent job, some had had several. Of the total 1,1.50 women, 144 had had no job since the enforced separation. The 1,006 with subsequent work had had 1,889 jobs. Almost one-half of these, 477 women, had had only one job, 306 had had two, and 223 had had three or more. Of the 1,889 subsequent jobs reported by the 1,006 women, just over 80 per cent were in manufacturing pursuits. Almost two-thirds of these were in tobacco, practically all in cigars. The proportion of the women 40 years of age or more who had found manufacturing jobs was less than such proportions in the other age groups. Manu- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 6{) WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES facturing jobs in other lines than cigars were reported much more commonly by the women under 30 years of age than by those older, indicating the greater adaptability of younger women to entirely new types of work. (See Appendix Tables V and VI.) By locality. Of the 604 women in Localities A 46 had had no job since their separation from the cigar factory. The 558 with subsequent work had had 1,110 jobs, an average of practically 2. More than twofifths had had one job only; one-fourth had had three or more jobs, some as many as six. (See Appendix Table VII.) Of the 1,110 subsequent jobs reported, just over 86 per cent were in manufacturing. More than seven-tenths of these were in tobacco, practically all in cigars. In Localities B 58 of the women had had no subsequent job. The 200 who reported subsequent work had had 332 jobs. Almost threefifths had had only one job; less than one-sixth had had as many as three. Of the 332 subsequent jobs reported in Localities B not quite 73 per cent were in manufacturing. Well under one-half of these (47.3 per cent) were in tobacco, all but one such job being in cigars. In Localities C 40 of the women had had no subsequent job. The 248 who reported subsequent work had had 447 jobs. Almost onehalf had had only one job; about one-seventh had had three, and the remainder four or more. Of the 447 subsequent jobs in Localities C, 75 per cent were in manufacturing. Almost three-fifths (58.5 per cent) of the manufacturing jobs were in tobacco, all in cigars. A number of case stories follow: Handwork preferable.-A native-born woman in Philadelphia, 30 years old and single, had been employed about 10 years in the cigar industry, where she began at 16 years of age. She was laid off from her job in September, 1929, when the automatic machines were introduced. The superintendent, in laying her off, explained that they did not train their own workers on the machines, but got experienced machine help. At the time of interview this woman had been employed three months on an automatic machine in another plant, as she could find no handwork in Philadelphia or Camden. Her comment was, "Like handwork best. Can work in peace. Not such long hours." "Hunted and hunted for handwork."-An Italian woman in Philadelphia, 26 years old and single, had started work in the cigar industry at the age of 16. After being in one factory for eight years, she was transferred to a branch. She worked there only one year when this branch was moved; furthermore, it installed machines. After being unemployed for two months and finding no work in handmade cigars, she took a job as wrapper layer on the automatic cigar-making machine in a factory nearer home. She had been there for a year at time of interview. She "hated to try machine work, after working by hand so long. Hunted 'a nd hunted for handwork, but slack everywhere. Only a few hand plants left in Philadelphia, and they had work for only their own employees." In one plant 22 years.-A native-born woman in Harrisburg, Pa., 39 years old and single, had started work in cigars at the age of 15. She worked as a bunch maker for 22 years at one plant until December, 1927, when the firm went out of business. Without loss of time she secured another job as bunch maker, and there she worked for 15 months until this firm, too, closed down. "Had put my name in at a company at Steelton, but no response. After I'd worked for them 22 years you'd think they would show me some consideration." She had sought work in stores, but all wanted experienced help. At time of interview she had three boarders. Planned to try for cigar work again in the fall. Adjustment not difficult.-A native-born woman in Binghamton, N. Y., 26 years old and single, began work in cigars at 15 years of age. She had worked https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis itOM'.E INTERViEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS 61 as a hand roller for nine years when the factory closed. She was one of the best and fastest rollers in the factory, with wages up to $28 a week. After the factory closed she was unemployed for one week, and then secured work in a shoe factory as a stitcher. She makes $22 to $25 a week at this work. When the cigar factory closed she felt "as though the world had turned upside down." She was afraid she could not learn anything else, but the adjustment proved easier than she expected. Still, she would rather work in cigars. Only a few days lost.-A native-born woman in Bloomfield, N. J., 24 years old and single, had begun work in a cigar factory at the age of 14. She had worked there as a roller for nearly 10 years when the plant closed. "Work had been steady right up to closing time. Did not know factory was going to close; only one day's notice." She was unemployed for a few days and found work with a radio firm, where she had been employed for six months when interviewed. Handicapped.-A native-born woman living in Ironton, Ohio, 32 years old and separated from her husband, had begun work in the cigar industry at 21 years of age. She worked as a hand stripper for nine years until the plant in which she was then employed went out of business in December, 1927. She had had no employment since that time. There was nothing else she felt capable of doing. She had lost one eye as a child, and the sight in the other was not perfect. Went into the shoe industry.-Another woman in Ironton, native born, 35 years of age and single, had started cigar work at 20. She worked as a roller for 13 years until the firm went out of business in December, 1927. From that time on, for about 14 months, she looked unsuccessfully for work. Her first job, at the end of that time, was in shoe manufacturing, where she still was employed at time of interview. The work was very irregular and the rates were low. "Even when work is steady, can't make as much as at cigars, and it is often slack." Nothing so good as steady cigar work.-A native-born woman in Mansfield, Ohio, 26 years old and separated from her husband, had begun work in cigars when 16. She had worked in one factory as a roller for seven years when the factory was abandoned, in November, 1929. She was out of employment for one month and then secured a job as salad girl in a hotel pantry. She enjoyed this job and was sure of her food, which "seemed like a blessing from heaven" after the month she was out of work. However, she said, there was "nothing for a girl to do like the steady work of the cigar factory ." A scrubber in a hotel.-Another foreign-born woman in Mansfield, 46 years of age, had been employed as a buncher in a cigar factory 21 years when it closed in November, 1929. She considered work in cigars "nice and easy." After being out of work more than a year she secured employment in a hotel. Much of her work was scrubbing halls, which she described as "terrible, almost kills me." Low pay did not warrant bus fare.-A native-born woman in Jackso:µ, Ohio, 26 years old and single, had started work in cigars at 16. She worked on the banding machine, and as general helper in the packing department, for eight years, until the company went out of business in December, 1927. She was out of work for 10 months, and then got a job as hand foiler in an adjoining town, which she gave up after only two months because the pay was so low that she could not make her bus fare. She had been at home for more than a year when interviewed. Three factories closed down.-A woman in Tylersport, Pa., 51 years of age, native born and married, had begun work in cigars as a roller at the age of 16. She had spent about 18 years in this work when the factory in which she was employed closed down. She was out of work about two months, and then got a job as roller in a neighboring town. After two years that factory, too, closed down. She was unemployed for a month and then found work as roller in a somewhat distant town, but she quit after three months because it was so far to go. She was out of work for more than a month, but secured a job as cigar roller nearer home. This lasted for five mont hs, until the factory closed. She had been unemployed for more than a year and a half at time of interview, and had given up in despair her search for a cigar job. A clothing factory occupied the building that had housed her first cigar factory, but she had been refused work there repeatedly. They said they needed experienced help, but she felt that they wanted younger women. In commenting on the cigar business, she said, "It has been dead here for five years." ·Machine factory would take no one over 30.-A native-born woman, 48 years old, and living in Madisonville, Ky., had begun work in the cigar industry only six years https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 62 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES before. Her daughter worked in this factory and secured the job for her mother because it was impossible for them to make a living off their farm. Both were thrown out of work when the factory closed. The daughter went to Louisville, where she got work in an automatic-machine factory operated by the same company, but she could not get work for her mother there, as the machine factory would not take people over 30. One factory burned, another closed.-A native-born woman in Terre Hill, Pa., 23 years of age and married, had begun work as a stripper and roller in a cigar factory when she was 12. She had worked for more than seven years when the factory burned down in February, 1927. In less than a month she secured a job at sewing shirts, where she stayed about two months, but quit because the machine was "so ugly." She was idle about a month, and then found another job as cigar roller. She had worked for six months when that factory closed. Again she was idle for about one month. She then decided to do the finishing of shirts at home, whlch occupied her for nine months, until "it went dull" and no longer paid. She was out of work at time of interview. Was instructor and forelady.-A native-born woman in Madisonville, Ky., 28 years old and married, had begun work as a cigar roller when 17. She had worked for seven years at this job when she was promoted to be instructor and forelady. She had held that position four years when her factory closed, in December, 1929. At time of interview she had been unemployed three months and no work seemed to be available. Her husband, too, was out of work, and their savings were almost exhausted. SEPARATIONS OTHER THANJ_THE ICHIEF ONE Due to the rapid changes in the cigar industry, many of the women had experienced one or more separations from cigar jobs in addition to the original shutdown, removal, or other termination that was the basis for inclusion of the women in the study. Some reported the loss of jobs in other industries also. Four hundred and twelve of the women interviewed reported a loss of job other than the chief separation. Most of the3e lost jobs, and their number was 576, were in cigars. All but 3 of the women reported the year of separation. For 71 of these the additional separation was prior to the chief one, and not significant, but 301 women had had a loss of job after, and 40 had had one both before and after, the principal separation. Almost three-fourths of the women who reported an additional separation had experienced such separation in 1927 or later. Little difference was noted in the three types of localities. In each approximately 70 per cent of the women reporting on separations had had only one besides the chief one, some 20 or 25 per cent had had two, and the remainder had had three or more. HOME INTERVIEWS WITH CIGARETTE WORKERS 2 During the course of the survey there were interviewed in Philadelphia and Baltimore-called here Localities B-women who had been laid off when the cigarette factories in which they had been employed closed their doors and moved farther south. The major closings in Baltimore had occurred early in 1925 and in 1927, respectively four years and two years before the survey, so the former cigarette workers had become widely scattered and it was possible to locate very few of them. In Philadelphia, on the other 2 As explained in the section on home interviews with cigar workers, the difficulties of securing exact statements as to dates, wages, and other industrial experiences were great. For this reason the numbers of women supplying complete data are not large, conflicting statements having been freely eliminated as "not reported." https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 63 HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS hand, the closing of the factory preceded the survey by only a few months, so it was a simpler task to locate the former employees. The other city in which visits were made to cigarette workers who had lost their jobs was Richmond, Va. (Locality A). Here one large cigarette factory had closed, due to the opening of a factory elsewhere and the firm's large operations in other places. Of the 259 women interviewed in cigarettes, 201 reported the department in which they were employed at time of separation. Almost two-thirds of these (132) were in packing departments, and more than one-fourth (53) were in making departments. The few remaining (11) were all in leaf departments. Little difference in the two types of localities was noted in this respect. (See Table 11.) TABLE 11.-Department in which employed at time of separation, by age at date of interview and type of locality-Cigarettes Locality A All localities Localities B 30 30 30 Un• 40 40 40 All Un• and years All Un• and years All der• and years under and wom• der under and un• and wom• der wom• 30 30 30 en years der 40 over en years 40 over en years 40 over years years years Department - --- ------Total. .......... . . . .. Not reporting department . . Total reporting.. ---- · · ·-·-· Leaf._ . ___ ____ __ ------ -- -... 259 141 58 201 31 110 11 7 75 43 15 12 Making53 Number_-- ·· -- -- · -···· Per cent . . . · -· -·------·. 100.0 - 60 31 -- - - 21 15 195 113 54 28 20 44 10 18 6 15 4 38 9 11 157 21 92 45 8 20 11 7 3 1 11 24 5 11 ----1 3 ------ ------ ------ ------ 16 30. 2 29 54. 7 8 15.1 8 25 Operate machine· -- --·28 8 Other. -· .. · -·---·-- ·- . . Packing:._ 84 Number - -- -·--· · ---··- 132 Per cent..·--·- · -······ · 100.0 63. 6 15 14 2 6 27 20. 5 21 15. 9 13 6 ------ 28 ------------ - 64 13 5 5 3 40 3 2 4 1 3 18 22 5 6 13 2 3 10 7 105 74 70. 5 17 16. 2 13. 3 25 23 13 13 6 4 4 7 3 7 1 ------ ------ ------ ------ (1) ------ -- ---- ----- ------------------------ Old machine: Feed or operate... _. Cup or inspect.. .... Hand pack .. ·-· -----· -Other --- --- -- --· ---- --· Box_._._. ___ .. _._._._._ .... 1 50 26 20 36 31 25 13 15 4 3 10 11 5 3 1 1 1 (l) 7 6 27 (1) 15 3 ·---9· 4 10 ------ ------ ------ 100.0 ---- 6 2 2 3 7 2 1 ---------3- 4 ------ 1 35 23 20 27 1 --- --- 14 Not computed; base less than 50. EMPLOYMENT STATUS IN LOCALITY A Time worked in cigarette industry. Of the 64 women interviewed in Locality A who had been deprived of their jobs in the cigarette industry, 28 were not yet 30 years of age, 21 were 30 but not yet 40, and the remaining 15 were 40 years of age or more. Of the 63 reporting time worked in the cigarette industry prior to their enforced separation (see chart following), 9 had been employed less than 5 years, 23 for 5 but less than 10 years, and 31-practically one-half-for 10 years or more. One had worked for 30 years. As would be expected, the older women had worked the longer periods, but 6 of the 27 women under 30 had been employed at least 10 years and another 14 had worked 5 and under 10 years. (See Appendix 'fable VIH f<;>r details.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 64 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF WOMEN BY TIME WORKED IN THE CIGARETTE INDUSTRY, BY LOCALITIES TIME l'iORltED UlCALITY A Per cant so 10 20 ... ,.-.....-----',------r-----.--------.40 0 Lesa than 5 ;rears 5 and less than 10 7eara 10 and less than 15 7eare 15 and less than. 20 yeore 20 and less tban 25 ;rear& 25 -,ears and over ■ WCALITIF.S B Less than 5 7ears 5 and less than 10 7eara I 10 and less than 15 ;rears I 15 and less than 20 years 20 and les·s than 25 :rears 25 ;rears and over TABLE I 12.-Age of the women interviewed, by type of locality-Cigarettes All localities Locality A Localities B Age group N umber Percent Number Per cent Number Per cent - -Total women-all reporting __ ___ __ ___ 259 100. 0 64 100. 0 195 100. 0 Under 30 years ___ _______ ____ __ ______ ____ __ 30 and under 40 years __ __ __ _____ ______ ___ _ 40 years and over_ __ _________________ ___ ___ 141 75 43 54.4 29. 0 28 113 16. 6 15 43.8 32.8 23.4 57. 9 27. 7 14.4 21 54 28 The following stories of three women deprived of their jobs in cigarettes show how long they had worked in the industry and their employment status at time of interview. It will be recalled that the chief change in the industrial condition here had occurred late in 1929. Unemployed at time of interview.-A native-born woman, 36 years of age and married, had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 23. She had worked in the packing department for nearly 11 years when the faciory went out of business in Oct ober, 1929. She was unemployed 6 to 7 weeks, and then secured a temporary job as salesgirl in a 5-and-10-cent store. This lasted only one month, and at the time of interview she had been at home and out of work for 6 months. Her earnings for full-time work in cigarettes were $18 a week; in the store, $10. No subsequent job.-Another na.tive-born woman, 33 years old and single, had begun work in the cigarette factory at the age of 21. She was employed there for 11 years as a feeder at the packing machine until late in 1929, when the company went out of business. At the time of interview she had been unemployed for 8 months. Subsequent job.-A married woman, now 40, had begun work in a cigarette factory at the age of 26. Of the 14 years she had actually worked about 10. After the factory went out of bu siness she was at home for three weeks, when she ~ecured the job at a paper-box factory that she still held at time of interview. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • 65 HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS Status of employment. . Of the 64 women visited, 21, or about one-third, had been unemployed all the time since the cigarette factory closed. Four had been steadily employed since the separation, three of them in cigarette jobs. Of the remaining 39 who had been employed at some time, though not steadily, only 11 had had jobs in cigarettes. TABLE 13.-Employment status since the chief separation, by type of localityCigarettes Locality A All localities Localities B Employment status Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent All women __________________________ 259 100. 0 64 100. 0 195 100.0 Unemployed entire time _______ _____ ______ Employed all or part of time ______________ 55 204 21. 2 78. 8 21 43 32. 8 67. 2 34 161 17. 4 82. 6 204 100. 0 43 161 100. 0 11 5. 4 4 ----- ---- - 7 4.3 136 66. 7 26 --- ------- 110 68.3 Allment women who had had employ__________________ __ _______ ___ Steadily employed ___ Employed at date of interview but bad been unemployed _______________ ___ ____ _ Unemployed at date of interview but______ bad ____________________ been employed All women who had had employment_ ____ In cigarettes only _____________________ In other only ___ ____________ ____ ____ ___ In cigarettes and other ___________ ___ __ 1 (1) 57 27.9 13 ---------- 44 27.3 204 100. 0 43 (1) 161 100.0 16 174 14 7.9 85. 7 6.4 2 145 14 1. 2 90.1 8. 7 14 ---- ----- 29 ------ -- -- ------- --- --- ------- Not computed; base less than 50. In three of the four cases following the women were unemployed at the time of interview. The other had roomers and boarders. Two of the three unemployed had had no subsequent work after being deprived of cigarette jobs; one had worked two nights only. No subsequent job.-A single woman, 30 years of age, who had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 21, had worked about 9 years in the packing department when the factory closed late in 1929. She was unable to find any work for three months. Her funds were exhausted, so she gave up, and at the time of interview she was living with relatives in the country. A native-born woman, 38 years of age and divorced, had begun work in a cigarette factory at the age of 24. She worked there for 13 years as a t imekeeper until the factory went out of business in 1929. At the time of interview she had been unemployed for eight months, and, as she expressed it, she "sold hr r insurance" to pay her board in the home of her brother and his wife. No subsequent job, except on two nights.-A native-born woman, 30 years of age and married, had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 17. Of the 13 years, she was employed for at least 7; home duties kept her away from the factory the rest of the time. In October, 1929, she was laid off because the plant went out of business. At t he time of interview she had been unemployed for eight months, except for two nights' work "sorting out foreign matter" in a felt factory. This job she quit because working at night was too hard. Work in cigarettes had been slack before the factory closed; she had been making $19 a week when working full t ime, but toward the last only $13 to $14. Roomers and boarders; subsequent work.-A married woman, 34 years old, had begun work in a cigarette factory when 22. She worked there for 12 years, until the factory closed in 1929, 9 months ago. She tried for months to get work; she would "take lunch along" and "go from place to place." She was told she was "too old" at a silk mill, and no cigarette factory was hiring anyone. Her average wage in cigarettes had been $19 to $21. At the time of interview she had roomers and boarders and did washing part of the time to help to keep up payments on their home. · https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • 66 WOMlnN IN CIGAR AND CIGAR.ETTE INDUSTRIES Time unemployed for industrial reasons since losing job. Of the women who had had some employment since the separation, 39 reported on the extent of time lost for industrial reasons between such separation and the date of interview. Four had lost no time. Seven had lost less than 1 month; 4 in each case had lost 1 and under 2 months and 2 and under 3; 9 had lost 3 and under 6 months; and 11 had lost 6 months and more. Practically all the women reported the time elapsed between separation and mterview a~ about eight months. A correlation of this with the time lost by industrial causes shows that just over 50 per cent of the women had been idle for industrial reasons more than half the time that had elapsed since the separation. Time lost between separation and first subsequent job. Taking into consideration only such loss of time as was due to industrial causes, the following shows the experience of the women reporting on this. All but seven had lost some time for industrial reasons between losing the cigarette job and securing another job. Of these 36, 31 reported the extent of such loss. Twelve lost less than 1 month, 8 lost 1 and under 2 months, 3 lost 2 and under 3 months, 4 lost 3 and under 6 months, and 4 lost at least 6 months. TABLE 14.-Time unemployed for industrial reasons between separation and first subsequent Job, by type of locality-Cigarettes All localities Locality A Localities B Time u nemployed for industrial reasons between separation and first subse- 1- - - - - --1 - - - - - - - 1 - - - - , - - - - - quent job Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent - - - - -- - -Total. .. _________________________ ___ 204 43 Indefinite and not reporting __ ____ __ ______ _ 27 5 'I'otal reporting _________ _________________ _ 177 161 l===:J=====l====!====!====!==== 100. 0 38 16. 9 7 23 22 (1) 139 100. 0 23 96 16. 5 69.1 11. 5 1---------i N one ____________________ __ _______________ _ Less than 3 months ___________________ ____ 3 and less than·6 months ____ __________ ___ _ 6 and less than 9 months ________________ _ 12 mont hs and over ______ ____ ____________ _ 1 30 119 20 7 1 67. 2 11. 3 4. 0 ====== . 6 ---------- ==== ------ ---: C 16 3 1 2.2 .7 Not computed; b ase less than 50. The two women whose work histories follow were among those unemployed, due to industrial reasons, at the time of interview. Subsequent job but unemployed at time of interview.-A native-born woman, 23 years old and single, had begun work in a cigarette factory as a catcher at the age of 18. She was employed at this until the factory closed. She was out of work then for three or four weeks, hunting for a job. She secured a temporary one as a kitchen worker in a restaurant. She worked there for two months, but was laid off because of the return of a former employee. At time of interview she had been out of work four months; meanwhile, she was "visiting a bit." No subsequent job.-A widow, native born and 35 years of age, had begun work in a cigarette factory eight years before, when her husband died. For about 7½ years she was employed as a feeder for the packing machine; then the plant went out of business. At the time of interview she had been out of work for eight months. During her last six months of employment work had been slack, · with only about three days' work a week. Within recent years the packing machine had been changed. The improved machine required the same number of girls but worked much faster than the old. The rate was 9 cents per thousand on the old machine and 7½ cents on the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS 67 new. It was possible to earn about the same on the new machine as on the old, but the increased speed made the work much harder. Number and type of subsequent jobs. Of the 64 women in Locality A, one-third had had no subsequent job, and for all these the time elapsed between separation and the date of interview was six but less than nine months. Of the 43 reporting subsequent jobs, 34 had had one job and 9 two jobs. Of the 34 women who had held only one job subsequent to being separated from their old cigarette jobs, only 13 had found work in cigarettes. Of the 9 who had held two jobs subsequent to their separation, only 1 woman secured work in cigarettes. The following story is that of a woman who secured her subsequent job in cigarettes: . Reemployed in cigarettes.-An American woman, 30 years of age and married, had started work in the cigarette industry at the age of 17. She operated a making machine for 12 years. In October, 1929, the company went out of business. After this she was out of work for six or seven weeks, until she again found .employment in cigarettes as a catcher from a making machine, where she was working at time of interview. Shortly before her lay-off from the original cigarette job her earnings of $25 a week were reduced to $12 or $13 by part time. On her subsequent job she was making $16 if she worked a full week, but there was much undertime. Reasons for leaving subsequent jobs. There were only 22 cases of subsequent jobs being terminated; 30 were still held at time of interview. All but one of the terminations were due to industrial reasons. The case histories of two young women who had had subsequent employment follow here•. · Subsequent job.-An American-born woman, 22 years old and single, had worked for a year as a timekeeper in a cigarette factory, when the plant went out of business. After only a week at home she secured a job in a clothing factory as a machine operator. Here she stayed for about six months. She quit this job to complete a beauty course, which she had been studying at night. After three weeks she secured work in a beauty parlor, and she had been an operator there for two weeks at time of interview. One subsequent job; unemployed at interview.-A native-born woman, 23 years old and single, had begun work on a making machine in a cigarette factory at 16. She had been employed there for six years when the plant went out of business. In about a week she secured a job as a machine operator in a clothing factory, hut she stayed only two weeks and quit because of her low earnings as an apprentice. "I'm not going to work myself to death for so little, $8 a week," was her comment. At the time of interview she had been out of work for more than seven months; "had tried everywhere." Separations other than the major one. In Locality A only 12 women reported on the termination of jobs other than the main separation that is the basis of the study. The 12 women had lost 15 jobs. Most of them had experienced a loss of job subsequent to the major separation; only one had experienced one prior to and one after such separation. EMPLOYMENT STATUS IN LOCALITIES B Time worked in cigarette industry. In Localities B the 195 women interviewed who had been deprived of their jobs in cigarette manufacture were, on the whole, younger than those in Locality A. Almost three-fifths (57.9 per cent) were https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 68 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES less than 30 years of age. More than one-fourth (27.7 per cent) were 30 but less than 40, and one-seventh (14.4 per cent) were 40 or more. (See Table 12.) As would be expected from the proportion of younger women, considerably more had had but little experience in the industry. Almost one-fourth (23.4 per cent) of the 184 women reporting the time they had been employed h ad worked less than 5 years, the remainder being about equally divided (70 and 71) between 5 and under 10 years and 10 years and over. Five had worked for 25 years or more, 1 for as much as 31 years. (See chart on page 64.) The experience of three women in the cigarette industry and their employment after being deprived of their cigarette jobs are illustrated in the following work histories. T he chief industrial changes in these localities had occurred at dates v arying from less than six months ago to as much as four years ago. One subsequent job; great reduction in wages.-A.n Italian woman, 33 years of age, had begun work in a cigarette factory at the age of 23. Of these 10 years she had act ually worked nine. The factory went out of business in 1929, and she was unemployed for six weeks. At the end of that time she secured work as a machine operator in a shirt factory, .and she was there at time of interview. While employed on cigarettes she made $21 to $22 a week, but at shirt manufacturing she made only $6 to $7, because work was so slack. Three subsequent jobs.-An American woman, 42 years old and single, had begun work in the cigarette industry as a girl of 12, doing stamping and labeling. She worked there for 25 years, and then the firm left the city. She moved with it to its new location as an instructor, but remained for only three months because she wanted to return home. She was unemployed for one month, when she secured a job as a matron with the telephone company, where she worked for four months. After about two months' unemployment she secured work in the chocolate-sirup department of a can dy factory, where she had worked for about four years at time of interview. She is quoted as saying," I gave my life to an industry that left me when too old to find anything else as good." Four subsequent jobs.-A single woman, 37 years old, had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 14. She had worked there for 21 years when the firm left the city in 1927. She was unemployed for about a week, and then secured a job examining shirts in a clothing factory. She was there only one month, when she was laid off. After about two weeks she secured work as a packer and examiner in a candy factory. where she st ayed for only about two weeks, because the smell of chocolate made her sick. Her next employment was in cigars, operating an automatic making machine, where she was employed about four months until that firm also lefL the city. After this work she was unemployed for three or four months, when she secured a job as a press operator in a laundry. At time of interview she had had two a dvances in wages since beginning in the laundry. Her comment was, "Guess I'm too old to learn anything nice now." She was keenly disappointed when the cigar company left the city, because she had hoped her job held a chance for a dvancement. "Felt more at home there than anything else tried; was promoted after two weeks." Status of employment. Thirty-four of the 195 women (17.4 per cent) had been unemployed the entire time since the original separation. Only 7 had had steady employment for the entire time, and all of these in industries other than cigarettes. Of the remaining 154 women, only 16 had held any jobs in cigarette manufacturing; 138 had had one or more jobs but not in the cigarette industry to which they were trained. The three women whose work histories are given here all had had subsequent employment, one or more jobs, and all were employed at time of interview. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS 69 One subsequent Job.-An American-born woman, 25 years old and single, had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 20. She had been employed in a shoe factory before this. After four years' work in cigarettes, feeding the packing machine, she lost her job because the company went out of business in May, 1929. She was unemployed for about 3½ months, during which time she was not well. Then a friend secured a job for her at a straw-hat factory, where she used a power sewing machine. Her earnings in cigarettes were from $18 to $20; in hats, at the time of interview, they were from $10 to $15. Three subsequent Jobs.-A woman about 35 years of age, native born and married, had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 24. She had worked there for about 11 years when, in May, 1929, the firm went out of business. She was out of work only one day, at once securing a job as machine operator in an underwear factory. There she stayed for six weeks, when she left for a better job. This was assembling in a radio plant, where she was employed for five months. Then she was laid off because work was slack. After two or three days she secured a job with a radio-cabinet company, where she still was employed at time of interview. Her husband, who was employed at the same cigarette factory, had been out of work most of the time since the lay-off. This woman had earned $21 to $22 a week at cigarettes. At underwear she earned as much as $13. Har first radio job paid $16 while learning, and she earned as high as $28 on piecework, but the industry is seasonal. At the second radio job she had not yet had a full week and earnings had been only $9 or $10 a week. A young woman of 20, native born and single, had begun work in the cigarette industry at the age of 16. She worked as a cupper at a packing machine for four years, until the company went out of business. She was unemployed for two weeks, and then secured work as a coil winder in a radio plant, but was laid off after seven weeks because work was slack. After two weeks she found employment in another radio factory, where she stayed one month, again being laid off because of slack work. After two weeks she secured a job as a sales clerk in a 5-and-10-cent ~tore, where she had been for five weeks at time of interview. In cigarelites she had made $20 to $25 a week, in the 5-and-10-cent store her wage was $12 a week for very long hours. Time unemployed for industrial reasons since losing job. Of the women who had found some employment since their separation from the cigarette industry, 135 reported on the time lost for industrial reasons between such separation and the interview. Ten women had lost no time. Eighty had lost less than 3 months and 32 had lost 3 and less than 6 months; together these comprised well over four-fifths of the total. Only 13 women had lost as much as 6 months, 5 of these losing from 1 to 2 years. Three-eighths of all the women reporting on unemployment had lost at least half of the time elapsed since the separation. (See Appendix Table IX.) The women were about 64 per cent under 30 years of age, and an analysis of the figures by age is not productive. · Time lost between separation and first subsequent job. Of the women who found jobs, almost seven-eighths (85.7 per cent) lost some time for industrial reasons before finding them. Of these, 116 reported the amount of time lost. Sixty-two women lost less than 1 month, 20 lost 1 and under 2 months, 14 lost 2 and under 3 months, and 16 lost 3 and under 6. Only 4 lost as much as 6 months, 1 of these-a woman of 40 or more-being unemployed for 15 and under 18 months. (See Table 14.) Unemployment due to industrial reasons after the separation from the cigarette job is shown in this work history. Three subsequent Jobs.-A native-born woman of 21 had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 17. She had worked as a packing-machine operator for three years when the factory shut down. She was unemployed for more than two months, and then secured a job in a radio factory. She quit this job after only https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 70 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES a few weeks and went to another radio factory, where .she was laid off after working two months. In about six weeks she found work in a department store, putting price tags on goods, and was still there at time of interview. While employed at cigarettes she earned from $19 to $21 a week; in the store, $13 a w~ek. Almost one-tenth of the 194 women had lost no time up to date of interview. Of those who did lose time, 148 reported its extent. About one-eighth had been unemployed the entire time and almost as many four-fifths of the time. One in three of the women had lost less than one-fifth of the time, and one in four had lost one-fifth and less than two-fifths. Two subsequent jobs.-A married woman, 27 years of age, had begun cigarette work at 21 and had worked four of the six years. She operated a packing machine. After the company went out of business she secured a job in a radio factory, where she was laid off due to slack work after only four or five weeks. At the time of interview she was employed in a sugar refinery at packing sugar. Her total lost time was between one and two months. In cigarettes she made $22 to $23 a week, in radio about $18, and at packing sugar $12.50. Number and type of subsequent jobs. More than one-sixth (17.4 per cent) of the women reporting had held no subsequent job. Of the 160 reporting as to number of subsequent jobs, almost one-half had held one job only, close on threetenths had held two, and slightly less than one-fourth three or more. One-eighth of those not yet 30 years of age, as compared with more than one-fifth of those 40 years of age or over, had held no job. Of those who reported one or two subsequent jobs, a very large proportion had jobs in work other than cigarettes. Of those who had held three jobs or more, about one-fourth had held jobs in the cigarette industry and other lines as well. (See Table 13 and Appendix Tables IX and X.) A total of 309 subsequent jobs had been held by the 160 women reporting. Almost four-fifths of these were in manufacturing pursuits. More than one-fourth of the manufacturing jobs were in electrical goods, and the next largest group were in tobacco, only one in three of these being in cigarettes. Textiles came next in number of jobs, and clothing and food followed. In manufacturing, almost all the jobs in electrical work were held by women under 30, as were exactly one-half of those in tobacco, more than seven-tenths of those in textiles, and more than one-half of those in clothing. In occupations other than manufacturing, 15 of the 20 store jobs were held by women under 30. The 13 jobs held in domestic service were about evenly distributed among the different age groups. Reasons for leaving subsequent jobs. Of the 309 subsequent jobs held by these women, 193 had been terminated, with reason reported in 189 cases. More than fourfifths of the last named-9 cases in cigarettes and 14 7 in other pursuits- were stopped for industrial reasons. Less than one-tenth (8.3 per cent) of these industrial reasons were plant or department shutdowns, but almost one-half were lay-offs, temporary or otherwise. All the lay-offs were in jobs other than cigarettes. Age seemed to have little effect on the number of jobs terminated for specific reasons.- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis lIOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS 71 The young girl whose work history follows had experienced two separations from jobs. Two subsequent jobs.-An American-born girl, 19 and single, had begun work in the cigarette industry at the age of 17. She had worked for two years as hand packer and general helper when the department in which she worked was closed, in April, 1929. She was out of work for five months, and then secured a job as wrapper in a candy factory. This job she kept for only one month, because there was "not enough pay." After one week she found work as salesperson in a department store, where she had been for three months at time of interview; During the past year she had studied stenography and typewriting at night, and hoped to find an office job when she :finished the course. While working on cigarettes she made $19 to $20 a week, in candy $10 (and $3 for overtime), and in the store she was making $18 to $20 with commission. Separations other than the major one. In these localities 68 women had held 93 jobs that had not been permanent and whose dates of termination -they reported. By far the largest part of the terminations had occurred in 1929, nearly all subsequent to the major separation. Only three women had suffered a loss of job prior to the chief separation, and no woman had had one before and after as ·well. The following is an example of a woman who experienced two shutdowns and one lay-off and secured another job each time. ~A native-born woman, 48 years of age and single, had begun work in the cigarette industry at the age of 21. She had worked for about 24 years as examiner and packer when the plant closed, in January, 1925. She was unemployed for only a few days, when she secured a job at the same work in another factory, which she kept for 2½ years. Then that plant, too, closed and left the city. After three months she secured a job at packing candy, where she worked for three months, until the season was over. After 1½ years of unemployment and lpoking for work she secured a job as inspector in a tinware plant, where she was employed at the time of interview. The woman's comments are interesting: "Could not get a job, tried everywhere, walked and walked. When you are old, no one bothers about you. Every · one wants experienced help. I would have paid to learn a job." EARNINGS BEFORE AND AFTER THE SEPARATION Occupation and age. Of the 259 women interviewed, 141 (54.4 per cent) were under 30 years of age, 75 (about 29 per cent) were 30 and under 40, and only 43-1 woman in 6-were as much as 40. The women had been preponderately (185 of the 259) in making and packing departments, and they were even more preponderately (195 of the 259) in Localities B, where cigarette jobs now were few or none. Of the 53 women who had been in making departments, 42 had been feeding or operating the making machine. Two-thirds of these were 30 and under 40 years of age. Of the 132 who had been in packing departments, 80 had worked on the old packing machine and 28 had done hand packing. None had worked on the new type of machine. Of the 80 who had worked on machines, 58 were under 30; 50 of these, and all the 28 hand packers, were in Localities B. Earnings of the women from making departments. Among the 53 women who had been in making departments, the first subsequent job of only 8 was also in the cigarette industry; 27 found employment in other industries and 18 had no subsequent job. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 72 WOMEN lN CIGAR AND ClGARETTE INDUSTRIES As many as 35 of the 53 women reported the week's earnings they were receiving when the separation came. In some cases these were far below normal, having begun to decline. The range was from $10 to $25, but only 5 women were below $17 and only 4 were above $23. For 22 women the amounts of the earnings in the last cigarette job and the first subsequent job were secured. These figures follow. They are too small for percentages but speak for themselves. Week's earnings Last cigarette job before separation First subsequent job 1 22 22 T otal. _____ ______ __ ______ __ ___ _ 1 - -- Less than $15.... . __ ___ ___ ____ _____ ___ $15 and less than $18_____ _______ ____ _ $18 and less than $2L ______________ __ $21 and less than $24 ____________ ____ _ $24 and over___ ________ _________ _____ _ t - - - 1 - - -- 1 2 4 6 9 1 13 7 1 1 In only 2 cases was the subsequent job in the cigarette industry. Unpublished details show that all but 3 of these women had lower earnings than before-14 of the 19 at least $5 less. The greatest declines, showing losses of from $9 to $16 a week, were as follows: Had been getting- Wage on first subsequent job was- $20 ·_______ - -- - - - -___ - - -___ - - __ - - -_____ - - - - -~ - - - - - - - - - - - -______ - - - - - _$21 _____________ $22-------------- ______ - --- ---~-- ----- - -- - - -___ -$23 _____ ___ _______ ____ -____________ $24 _____ ________ ____ _______________________ $1Q $11 and $12. $~ $7 and $10. $15. Earnings of the women from packing departments. Among the 132 women who had been in packing departments, the first subsequent job of only 13 was in the cigarette industry; 100 had found employment in other industries and 19 had no subsequent job. The fact that 85 per cent of the packing-department workers, in contrast to 66 per cent of the making-department workers, had found subsequent employment probably is due largely to the youth of the packers, of whom the proportion under 30 years of age was more than twice that of the makers. Ninety of the 132 women reported the week's earnings they were receiving when the separation came. As was true of making departments, earnings were already below normal in a number of cases, as the minimum indicates. The range was from $5 to $30 a week, but only 8 women were below $15 and only 6 were above $23. For 59 women it is possible to show week's earnings in the last cigarette job before the separation and in the first job secured after that. The contrast is striking. In the cigarette industry only 3 women had received under $15 a week and 35 had received $21 and over. But in the first jobs secured by the 59 women, only 9 received $21 and over, and instead of the 3 receiving under $15 there now were 28 in that wage class. The table follows: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 73 ROME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS 15.-Week's earnings of packing-department workers in last job before separation and in first subsequent job (identical women)-all women reporting and those under 30 years of age--Cigarettes TABLE All ages (59 reporting) Week's earnings Under 30 years (41 reporting) Last cigarette job First subsequent Last cigarette job First subsequent job 1 job 1 before separation before separation Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent TotaL ________________ _ 59 100. 0 59 100. 0 41 100. 0 41 100. 0 Under $15 ________ ___________ _ $15 and under $18 ____________ $18 and under $2L __________ _ $21 and under $24 ___________ $24 and over_ ______ ______ _____ 3 7 14 31 4 5. 1 11. 9 23. 7 52. 5 6. 8 28 47. 5 22. 0 15. 3 5. 1 10. 2 1 1 2. 4 3.4 26.8 58.5 9.8 18 8 7 3 5 43. 9 19. 5 17. 1 7. 3 12. 2 13 9 3 6 11 24 4 1 In only 4 cases among all women and 2 among those under 30 was the subsequent job in the cigarette industry. Unpublished details show that all but 14 of these had lower earnings than before-32 of the 45 at least $5 less. The greatest declines, showing losses of from $11 to $20 a week, were as follows: Had been getting$21 ___________________________________ $22 ___________________________________ $23------------------------ -~-------$24 ___________________________________ $30 ___________________________________ Wage on first subsequent job was- $6and $10. $10. $10and $11. $10. $10, $14, and $16. The four women whose first subsequent job was in cigarettes reported earnings as high or higher than before. Five women entering other lines of employment also materially improved their wage status. ' The younger women from packing departments appear to have secured subsequent jobs somewhat more readily than did the older women, but the earnings data indicate that in such subsequent jobs their youth was of less advantage in the matter of wages than it had been in the cigarette industry. For example, the proportion with earnings in cigarette packing of $21 or more was 52.2 per cent of all women and 67.2 per cent of those under 30 years. But in the first subsequent job the difference according to age was slight: The proportion paid $21 or more was 14.3 per cent of all women and only 17 .8 per cent of those under 30 years. A tabulation of all the packing-department women reporting, not confined to identical women describing conditions before and after the separation, makes this comparison for considerably larger numbers and shows about the same condition. The table follows. 126898°-32--6 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 74 WOMEN IN ClGAR A D ClGARETTE I DUS'l'RIES 16.-Week's earnings of packing-department workers in last job before separation and in first subsequent joo--all women reporting and those under 30 years of age-Cigarettes TABLE All ages Week's earnings Under 30 years Last cigarette job First subsequent Last cigarette job First subsequent job t job 1 before separation before separation Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent --- ------ TotaL _________________ 90 100.0 63 100.0 58 100.0 45 100.0 Under $15 __ ________ ______ ____ $15 and under $18 ___ _________ $18 and under $2L __ _________ $21 and under $24 ___ ___ ___ ___ $24 and over_ __ ___ _______ __ ____ 8 8. 9 12. 2 26. 7 45.6 6. 7 31 13 10 3 6 49.2 20.6 15. 9 4.8 9.5 2 3 14 3.4 5.2 24. 1 56.9 10.3 21 8 8 3 46. 7 17. 8 17.8 6. 7 11.1 11 24 41 6 33 6 5 1 In only 5 cases among all women and 3 among those under 30 was the subsequent job in the cigarette industry . Earnings in Locality A. Only 33 of the 64 women in Locality A reported the last wage received in the cigarette job before the separation. Due to their being so few, the median of the earnings has not been computed, but their range was from $5 to $28. The wages on jobs subsequent to the separation did not reach so high a figure as $28. The highest figures reported were $22 for subsequent work in cigarettes and $16 for work in other lines. Without exception, the highest amounts, both before and after the separation, were earned by women under 30 years of age. (See Appendix Table XI.) Two examples of reduction in wages are given below: A native-born woman, 31 years old and single, had been employed in the cigarette industry from the time she was 15. She had worked for 15 years as a repairer and inspector when the factory closed, late in 1929. She was unemployed for two or three weeks, when through a friend she secured a job in a meat-packing plant. This job lasted only one month, because work was slack. She was unemployed for three months, and then secured the job at sorting and picking waste out of cot ton that she held at time of interview. This woman made $15 to $17 in cigarettes and $12 in meat packing, but $7.35 is not unusual in her present job. Another native-born woman, 30 years old and single, had begun work in the cigarette industry at the age of 19. She was employed in the packing department for 10 years, until the factory closed in October, 1929. She was out of work until nearly Christmas, "disheartened looking for work." She then got a temporary job in a printing and binding establishment, where she was laid off after one month, but two months later she was reemployed there and still had the job at time of interview. . While working on cigarettes she made $19, but her wage in the printing plant is $8 weekly. She said, "Lucky I have a father t o support me." Earnings in Localities B. The wage received on the last cigarette job prior to the separation was reported by 137 women in Localities B. The median of their week's earnings was $21.45, and the range was from $12 to $30. Only 5 women had their first subsequent job in cigarettes. Of 119 women whose first subsequent job was in some other industry, 88 reported their week's earnings. The median for the 88 was $14.25, a considerable loss from the former earnings ($21.45) in cigarettes, and the range was from $6 to $29. As was the case in Locality A, the highest https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS 75 amounts, both before and after the separation, were earned by women under 30 years of age. (See Appendix Table XL) Reduced wages in subsequent jobs are illustrated by the two work histories following: Reduction in wages on subsequent job.-A girl of 18 had worked as a machine stripper for two years, when the factory went out of business in September, 1929. She at once secured work in a hosiery mill, as a folder, where she worked for two months until she was transferred to a job as helper on the boarding machine, where she still was at time of interview. While working on cigarettes she earned $19 to $20 a week-she said, "I bought nice clothes then "-but work in the hosiery :mill had been slack ever since she took the job. The hours had been from 9 to 3, with no work on Saturday. While employed as folder she earned $8 a week; her last pay was $7. She said, "I'm sick and tired of it." Many jobs.-An American-born woman, 21 years old and single, had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 18. She had worked as a cupper for three years when the factory closed, in January, 1929. She was out of work for two weeks and then secured a job as spotter in a dry-cleaning establishment. There she remained for seven months until laid off. She was out of work for one week, and then found work as an assembler in a radio factory. After a few weeks there she again was looking for work, which she secured in another radio plant. This lasted only a few weeks, and again she was unemployed for about a week. Her next work was as a packer of baby clothes; this lasted only two weeks. After a few days she secured work in the stock room of a department store, and there she had been employed for one month at time of interview. On cigarettes she made $22 to $23 a week, in the department store $15 a week, "and this is more than most of the girls make, because it's a heavy job, lots of lifting." https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PART V.-PERSONAL INFORMATION ABOUT WOMEN STILL EMPLOYED In this study of the cigar and cigarette industries, as .of any other, facts concerning the women workers themselves are of interest to the employers and to the communities of which the workers are a part. Information was obtained from a large number of employed women on age, nativity, marital status, and time worked in the industry. These factors, important in themselves, are especially significant when correlated with earnings (see pages 95-99 and 110-112), and they assist in presenting a picture of the social and economic conditions of the women employed in the cigar and cigarette industries. THE CIGAR WORKERS A total of 14,182 women, well over one-half (56.5 per cent) of all included in the cigar study, made out the cards calling for personal information that were distributed in the plants while the pay rolls were being copied. Naturally, not every card returned by the women was complete in all details. Furthermore, not every woman who made out a card had been at work in the week for which pay-roll figures were secured; nor did every woman for whom pay-roll information was available make out a personal card. The numbers vary from about 12,000 (time in the industry) to close on 14,000 (age and marital status). Since Florida in 1929 ranked third among States according to value of cigars produced, data regarding the women in this industry obtained in the survey of Florida industries made by the Women's Bureau in 1928 are included here. The study covered 2,835 women in 14 cigar factories. For about 1,300 of these women, facts regarding personal history were obtained from cards made out by the women themselves. Age. Of the 14,182 women who made out personal cards, all but 295 reported age. Of this large number reporting, more than one-half (51.9 per cent) were less than 25 years old. Almost three-tenths were below 20 years and more than one-eighth were not yet 18. In fact, as many as 308 girls, two-thirds of them in packing departments, gave their ages as below 16. By far the largest group of those at least 25 years of age were 30 and under 40, 3 in 7 being so reported. These comprised 20.6 per cent of all the women who reported age. Although 14.5 per cent of the total were at least 40, only a small number, 1.2 per cent of the total, had reached 60 years. More than one-half of the girls 16 and under 18 years and more than two-thirds of those 18 and under 25 years were in cigar-making departments, in each case preponderately in machine making. Other large groups were in packing. From the group 25 and under 30 76 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PERSONAL INFORMATION ABOUT EMPLOYED WOMEN 77 years, however, to and including 50 and under 60 years, though most of the women still did cigar making, it was as handworkers instead of machine workers-striking evidence of the importance of youth in adapting oneself to machine operating. Women who were as much as 60 years of age had a larger number in the stripping departments than in cigar making. In the Florida survey 1,257 white and 186 negro women reported age. One-half (50.2 per cent) of the white and nearly two-thirds (65.6 per cent) of the negroes were under 25. This figure for white women is very similar to that for white women in the States covered in the present study, in which 53.8 per cent of those reporting were under 25. Nativity. Of the 12,580 women who reported as to their nativity, three-fourths (75.2 per cent) were native born. The proportions of native and foreign born workers in the leaf, stripping, and cigar-making departments were not greatly unlike those of the group as a whole. In packing, however, with one-third of its workers girls under 18 years, well over 90 per cent of the employees were native born. In the cigar-making departments native women were fairly evenly divided between hand and machine workers, but the proportion of foreign-born women making cigars by hand was much greater than the proportion making them by machine. In the packing and shipping departments the proportions of foreign born were smaJl6.5 per cent and 9.7 per cent, respectively. Of the 1,432 women in cigar factories in Florida who reported nativity and race in the State survey, 1,245 were white and 187 negro. All but 74 of the 1,245 were native born, and more than one-third of the foreign born were Cubans. Marital status. All but 391 of the women furnishing personal data reported as to their marital status. Of the 13,791 reporting, practically one-half (49.9 per cent) were single, nearly two-fifths (39.3 per cent) were married, and slightly more than one-tenth (10.8 per cent) were widowed, separated, or divorced. Unpublished figures show that of the 11,312 women who reported as to color as well as marital status, 10,627 were white and 685 were negro. Of the white women, more than one-half (53.3 per cent) were single, approximately two-fifths (37 .6 per cent) were married, and the remainder (9.1 per cent) were widowed, separated, or divorced. Of the negro women, about 3 in 10 (29.6 per cent) were single, somewhat less than one-half (45.7 per cent) were married, and about onefourth (24.7 per cent) were widowed, separated, or divorced. In the leaf department, where one-half the women were at least 30 years of age, just over two-fifths (41.8 per cent) were married, about three-tenths (29.9 per cent) were widowed, separated, or divorced, and less than three-tenths (28.4 per cent) were single. In the stripping department, and here, too, more than one-half were at least 30, almost one-half (47.8 per cent) were married and about one-third (34.3 per cent) were single. Less than one-fifth ·(18 per cent) gave their status as widowed, separated, or divorced. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 78 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES In the cigar-making department as a whole, with 8,920 women reporting age, nearly one-half (48.6 per cent) were single. Of the group employed at hand-making processes, with the largest proportion over 30, less than one-third (30.7 per cent) were single, while of those working at machine processes-a much younger group-more than two-thirds (69.3 per cent) were single. As would be expected from the large proportion of women under 20 years of age in the packing and shipping departments, 74 per cent and 84.5 per cent, respectively, were single. . Of the white women in the Florida study who reported as to marital status, three-tenths (30 per cent) were single, more than two-fifths (43.6 per cent) were married, and more than one-fourth (26.4 per cent) were widowed, separated, or divorced. Approximately onethird of the negro women fell in each of the three groups. Time in the cigar industry. Of the 11,885 women by whom time in the trade was reported, almost three-tenths (28.5 per cent) had worked in the cigar industry at least 10 years, practically 10 per cent (9.7) at least 20 years. Three women gave their years in the trade as 50. More than onefifth of all (22.5 per cent) had worked 5 and under 10 years. The 34.3 per cent with 1 and less than 5 years in · the trade were fairly evenly divided, but the 4-year group was the smallest. The 14.6 per cent who had been less than a year at work showed nearly twothirds of their number employed less than 6 months. Only 199 women in the leaf departments reported their time in the industry, and about 45 per cent of these had worked 1 and under 5 years. More than one-fourth had worked less than a year and practically one-fifth had had 5 and less than 10 years' experience. Of the 2,012 women in the stripping departments, more than onethird had been in the industry 1 and under 5 years and just under 20 per cent in each case had been 5 and under 10 years and less than 1 year. These departments had one of the largest proportions with experience of at least 10 years, more than one-fourth of all being in that group. The 7,875 cigar makers reporting had about one-third with experience of 1 and under 5 years and one-third with experience of 10 years or more, due to the fact that well over one-half the hand makers had been at least 10/ears in the trade and over three-fourths the machine makers had ha less than 5 years' experience. Another good-sized group-nearly one-fourth-of the machine makers had been at work less than a year. More than two-fifths of the 1,481 women in the packing departments who reported their time in the industry were in the group 1 and under 5 years. Almost one-fourth had begun work within the year, but about 15 per cent had been in the trade at least 10 years. · Exactly one-half of the 140 in the shipping departments had begun work within the past 6 months. Only 17 women had worked as much as 5 years. In the Florida survey, almost three-fourths (73.6 per cent) of the white women had been less than five years in the industry. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PERSONAL INFORMATION ABOUT EMPLOYED WOMEN 79 THE CIGARETTE INDUSTRY Practically 2,400 cigarette workers (2,397) made out the white cards that called for personal information as to age, marital status, and other inquiries. The incomplete cards were few in number. Age. Of the 2,397 women, all but 14 re-ported age. Not far from onehalf (46.9 per cent) were under 25 years, more than one-third of these being under 20. About one-fifth of the total were 25 and under 30 and a similar proportion were 30 and under 40. Only about oneeighth of- the women were as much as 40 years old, and practically two-thirds of these were not yet 50. Of the larger departments, the only one differing greatly from the . total in age distribution is leaf work, which had more older women and fewer under 25 than had the other departments. Nativity. Only 19 women failed to report their nativity, and all but 5 of those reporting were native born. One in 8 whose color was specified were negroes, more than 90 per cent of whom were in the leaf departments. Marital status. Women who failed to report on marital status were only 10 in number. The largest proportion (42.8 per cent) were single. Less than two-fifths (38.6 per cent) were married, and almost one-fifth (18.6 per cent) were widowed, separated, or divorced. The department differing greatly from the total was again the leaf department, where only 27 .3 per cent of the women were single and as many as 38 per cent gave their status as widowed, separated, or divorced. Only 13.6 per cent in the packing departments reported the broken marital relation. Time in the cigarette industry. Of the 2,374 women reporting their years in the cigarette industry, more than one-third {34.4 per cent) gave the time as 1 and under 5 years. However, as man_y as one-fourth (25.7 per cent) had been at least 10 years in the trade and a similar proportion (26.6 per cent) had been there 5 and under 10 years. The large packing group agreed fairly closely with the total, but had somewhat larger proportions with at least 5 years' experience and a less proportion 1 and under 5 years in the trade. The opposite is true of the leaf and making departments, where much smaller proportions had been in the industry for 5 or more years and more than twofifths reported experience of 1 and under 5 years Considerably more in the making departments than elsewhere had begun work within the past year. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PART VI.-WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY PAY ROLLS WEEK'S EARNINGS IN THE CIGAR INDUSTRY For 98 of the 110 plants included in the survey, pay rolls for a week in 1929, selected as a representative week by some one connected with the plant, were copied. In this way week's earnings for 22,579 women-20,824 white and 1,755 negro-were made available for analysis. Since some of the women whose earnings were copied had worked irregularly, there is a great variation in amounts received. Furthermore, it must be borne in mind that few hand plants were opera.ting full time and wages of handworkers were below normal. To better interpret these earnings, the department in which employed, the days or hours worked, and the method of payment-time or piece-also were copied from the pay rolls. To determine the effect on earnings of locality and size of city, correlations for these also have been made. Furthermore, the relation between earnings and such factors as age and time worked in the trade is made clear by the personal information secured from the women themselves. On account of the large numbers much of the discussion in the text following will be by range and median of week's earnings. (For detailed week's earnings, see Appendix Table XX.II.) For a much smaller number of women-only 514-year's earnings were obtained. These records were not taken off unless the woman was on the books for a full year-52 weeks-and had worked in at least 44 of the 52. MEDIAN AND RANGE OF EARNINGS Of the 20,824 white women for whom week's earnings were secured, more than two-thirds were in cigar-making departments, about oneeighth each were in stripping and packing departments, and only small proportions were employed elsewhere. In the making departments more than 60 per cent of the women still were in hand processes, but only 70 women (0.5 per cent) were out-and-out makers responsible for the entire cigar. The 1,755 negroes were more t han nine-tenths in the stripping departments, almost one-tenth in the leaf departments, and less than 1 per cent elsewhere. Only in the stripping departments were there considerable numbers of negroes. Here they constituted 36.1 per cent of all whose pay-roll records were secured. Well over one-half of them (56.6 per cent) were in Philadelphia, as were the solitary cigar maker and practically all the women in the leaf departments. Almost one-third of the strippers were in Ohio. The one packer was in Detroit. 80 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 81 WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS TABLE 17.-Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars A.-WHITE WOMEN Per cent distributionNumber Department and occupation By de- By occupartmen t pation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -1 1 --Total ___________________ ---------- - -------_____ Earnings 1-----,-----1------Median Maximum - ----- ------ 20, 824 100. 0 ------ ---- $16. 30 $50 ---i=====~-i---------------=--=---=---=--=--=,~-~ Leaf department-general leaf work_________________ Stripping department_ _____ --- ------------------ ---- 140 •7 100. 0 12. 05 19 2,830 13. 6 100. 0 11. 80 32 8. 4 45. 2 46. 4 15. 95 8. 90 13. 20 30 25 32 ---1----+----,-- Select ____ --------------------------------------Hand strip _________________ ___________________ __ Machine strip_-------------------------------___ 238 1,278 1,314 Cigar-making department_________________________ __ 14,097 100. 0 17. 90 46 8,658 2,596 5,992 70 67. 7 61.4 18. 4 42. 5 .5 16. 65 17. 25 16. 40 16. 00 43 43 ~m 38. 6 1.4 .4 36. 0 .7 19. 90 17. 25 20. 40 20. 00 18.10 ~ 100.0 14. 70 38 34. 6 18. 4 35. 5 2. 2 3. 9 5.4 10. 65 16. 50 18. 65 17. 70 10. 95 15. 20 31 34 38 27 22 31 ----1-----1--- Hand processes ________ ____ ______________________ Bunch make ____ ---- - ----------------------Cigar roll _______________ __ __________ ___ ______ Out-and-out_ _______ -------------- - ------- - -Machine processes ___ ____ _-- -- -- __ -- _______ _____ _ Bunch-making machine ____________________ _ Cigar-rolling machine _________ ___ ___________ _ Automatic cigar-making machine _________ __ _ Examine _______________ ____ ______ __________ _ Packing department___ __ ____________________________ 204 62 ~~ 105 2,821 Hand band and foil_ ___ ________________________ __ Machine band and foil__________________________ Shade _____________________ --- - --- ------ ------ -- _ Inspect______ __ ______ ________ ________ ___ _________ Fill containers and general__ _____________________ Various _____________________ -------------- ------- 13. 5 41 37 30 27 ~ ~ - - --,--- - 1 - - - - t - - - - 1 - - - - 976 519 1, 001 63 109 153 Shipping department_____ __________ _________ ________ 308 1. 5 100. 0 11.40 24 Miscellaneous from all departments_________________ 628 3. 0 100. 0 12. 50 50 37. 3 51. 4 11. 3 23. 40 9. 95 13. 95 50 15 26 Instruct and supervise___________________________ Learners___________ _____________ _________________ Miscellaneous and general help__________________ -----1----f-----+----1----234 323 71 B.-NEGRO WOMEN TotaL_________ _______ _________________________ Leaf department-general leaf work_________________ Stripping department_ ___ - ----- --------------------- 1,755 100. 0 $10.10 $22 144 8. 2 100. 0 10. 30 14 1, 596 90. 9 100. 0 10. 00 22 (I) 22 18 21 !=====!====!====1====!==== >-----+----, Select_ ____ ---------------- -------- ------ ---- ---Hand strip __ --- - ----------- -- ---- ------ ------- -Machine strip_------------- - - - ------------------ 24 666 906 All other ___ ---- - ----------- ------ ------------------- 15 1 1. 5 41. 7 56.8 8. 65 10.80 . 9 __________ __________ 16 Not computed; base less than 50. White women. For the 20,824 white women for whom pay-roll data were obtained, the median of the week's earnings-one-half receiving more and onehalf less-was $16.30, and the range was from less than $5 to $50. Naturally, the lowest amounts represent only a few hours' work. The maximum was paid to instructors or supervisors. Almost three-tenths of the total group were paid $20 or more. About one-fourth were paid $10 and under $15, and somewhat more $15 and under $20. Only about 1 in 20 earned less than $5, and l jp, 12 were in the group at $5 but less than $10, · https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 82 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES TABLE 18.-Earnings distribution by department-Cigars A.-WHITE WOMEN Women with earnings reported All departments Leaf department Stripping department Number Number Cigar-making department Week's earnings Hand processes Total Number Per cent Per cent Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent - ------- ---- - - Total _________ - _____ - _ 20,824 Less than $5 ________________ 1, 001 $5 and less than $10 ______ ___ 2,671 $10 and less than $15 _____ ___ 5,156 $15 and less than $20 ________ 5,782 $20 and less than $25 ____ ____ 4,581 $25 and over_ ______ ______ __ __ 1,633 100. 0 4. 8 12. 8 24.8 27.8 22. 0 7. 8 140 100. 0 2,830 100. 0 14,097 100. 0 8,658 100. 0 4. 3 304 6 26 18. 6 732 74 52. 9 1,090 34 24. 3 620 76 ------- ------8 ------- ------- 10. 7 25. 9 38. 5 21. 9 2. 7 .3 431 1,196 2,865 4,317 3,920 1,368 3.1 8. 5 20. 3 30. 6 27.8 9. 7 278 995 2,105 2,665 1,712 903 3. 2 11. 5 24. 3 30. 8 19. 8 10. 4 Women with earnings i:eportei:l Cigar-making departmentContinued Packing department Shipping department Miscellaneous from all departments Week's earnings Machine processes Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Total ____________________ 5,439 100.0 2,821 100.0 308 100. 0 628 100.0 Less than $5 ____________ __ __ __ $5 and less than $10 ___ ____ ___ $10 and less than $15 __ ____ ___ $15 and less than $20 __ __ _____ $20 and less than $25 _________ $25 and over _______ ___________ 153 201 760 1,652 2. 8 3. 7 14. 0 30. 4 40. 6 8. 5 172 520 768 704 6. 1 18. 4 27. 2 25. 0 17.0 29 · 81 159 9. 4 26. 3 51. 6 31 8 59 116 200 10.1 2.6 97 9. 4 18. 5 31. 8 12. 1 15. 4 12. 7 2,208 465 480 177 6.3 --------- --------- 76 80 B.-NEGRO WOMEN Women with earnings reported Week's earnings All departments Number Per cent departLeaf department Stripping ment Number Per cent Number Per cent Total ______ __________ __ 1, 755 100. 0 144 100.0 1,596 100. 0 Less than $5 __________________ $5 and less than $10 __________ _ $10 and less than $15 _____ __ __ $15 an~ over _______ ______ _____ 167 679 767 142 9. 5 38. 7 43. 7 8.1 5 45 94 3. 5 31. 2 65.3 161 633 664 138 10.1 39. 7 41. 6 8. 6 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis --------- --------- Other Number 15 Per cent (1) 1 --------1 --------9 --------4 --------- 83 WAG~ DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT WEEK'S EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN SELECTED DEPARTMENTS-CIGARS WHITE IOtlllt .&LL DEPARftO!:RTS Leee than ts 0 t6 and 1 ... than t10 tlo and leu than 10 20 Pe r 50 c en t· 40 5v 80 tis tl5 and less tban t20 t20 and ewer STIUPPIIG LeH tban ·t6 ts ud leH t.hen tlO ud leH than tl0 tl5 tu u11 lu& than t20 ·t20 ud ewer ldD ilAmlG LeH tblD ■ t6 t6 ud leas tio • than t10 ud less than $15 tl6 ud l■H ~ t20 t20 and ayer MACIII]fl MAIDIG Lue than $6 ; tio t6 and leH thllD tlO and leH Ulan 1119 tl6 and °leH than t20 t20 and onr PAClllG Lee• than ts ts and leee than $10 110 and loee than tu tzo tl5 and l.ese than $20 - and onr llmRO WOIIDI .&LL DEPAR'nO!JITS Less than $5 ts and leas than tio $10 and leH than $15 tl6 and onr LEAF · · Leu than ts • ts ~ le&& t.ban $10 110 and leH t.ban $15 STBIPPDG ;Leee tbaD ts 1111d than $10 $10 1111d leH than tl5 ~ I t6 lHII i1s. OYC' https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis I I 84 WOMEN' IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE lNDUSTRIES Cigar making.-In the cigar-making departments were 14,097 (67.7 per cent) of all the white women. The median of their earnings was $1 7. 90, and the range of earnings was from less than $5 to $46. Almost three-fifths earned $15 and less than $25, and about onetenth earned $25 or more. Slightly more than one-fifth were paid $10 and less than $15. Only about 3 per cent received less than $5, and about one-tenth earned $5 and less than $10. Just over three-fifths of the women in these departments were in hand manufacture. For these the median was $16.65, the bunch makers having the highest median, $17 .25, and the small group of out-and-out makers the lowest, $16. For the remainder, engaged in machine manufacture, the median was considerably higher, $19.90. Among these the lowest median was that of the 204 women on bunch- . making machines, $17 .25, and the highest was that of the 62 on cigarrolling machines, $20.40. More than 90 per cent of the women in machine manufacture worked at the automatic cigar-making machine, and these had a median of $20. Packing.-In the packing departments were 2,821, or 13.5 per cent, of the white women for whom pay-roll data were obtained. The range of earnings was from less than $5 to $38, and the median was $14.70. Similar proportions, about one-fourth, earned less than $10, $10 and less than $15, and $15 and less than $20, and the remainder earned $20 or more. In these departments the differences in medians were wide, from $10.65 for the women who did hand banding and foiling to $18.65 for those who did shading. Stripping.-In the stripping departments were 2,830 of all the white women whose earnings were obtained. The range of these was from less than $5 to $32, with a median of $11.80. Almost two-fifths received $10 and less than $15, and almost one-fourth $15 or more. About one-tenth were paid less than $5 and more than one-fourth $5 and less tban $10. The hand strippers had a median of only $8.90, while the machine strippers, a group of practically the same size, had a median of $13.20. For the remainder, the women who did selecting, the figure was $15.95. Negro women. For the 1,755 negro women included in the pay-roll study the median earnings were $10.10. The range was from less than $5 to $22. About one-tenth earned less than $5 and a slightly smaller . proportion $15 or more; the remainder earned some amount between $5 and $15. In stripping departments, where 90.9 per cent were employed, the median was $10. Of the 666 women who did hand stripping, the median was $8.65, and for the 906 machine strippers it was $10.80. (See Tables 17 and 18.) EARNINGS AND TIME WORKED Most of the women for whom time worked and earnings were available had their time reported only in days. For white women this number was 14,799, in contrast to 2,211 whose time worked was reported in hours. For the negroes the corresponding figures are 1,387 and 233. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 85 WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS White women whose time worked was reported in days. Of the almost 15,000 white women whose time worked war reported in days, about five-sixths bad worked on 5 days or more, much the largest part of them on 5½ days. Practically 8 per cent (7.8) had worked on less than 4 days (more than half of them on less than 3), and a slightly larger proportion (9.5 per cent) on 4 but less than 5 days. (See Table 19.) For all the women whose time worked was reported in days, the median earnings were $17 .15. As the days worked increased, the median earnings increased up to 5½ days, but there was a considerable decline in median for the women who had worked as much as 6 days. This rule, as to consistent increase and then a decline where the week was in excess of 5}~days, obtained in all departments. (See Appendix Table XXIII.) White women whose time worked was reported in hours. Of the 2,211 white women whose time worked was reported in hours, almost one-third (32 per cent) had worked 48 and undet 52 hours. For more than one-half of this group the hours exceeded 48. One-fourth of all the women had worked less than 44 hours, 3 in 5 of these working less than 40. About 28 per cent of the total had exceeded 52 hours. Almost two-thirds of the group last mentioned had worked more than 54 hours; 9 had worked as much as 60. For these 2,211 women the median earnings were $14.40, considerably less than for those whose time worked was reported in days seen in Table 19 as $17.15. For those who worked less than 40 hours the median earnings were $7 .85, for those who worked 40 and less than 44 hours they were $14.40, and for those who worked 44 but less than 48, they were $14.35. The median was much the highest ($21.40) for those who worked exactly 48 hours, almost wholly machine makers. For the women with longer hours the median declined almost $7. Unlike the earnings by days worked, the amounts did not inc.rease consistently as time worked increased. TIME WORKED IN THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS In the summary below may be seen the number and median earnings of the white women for whom time worked, in hours or days, was reported by department. For the group as a whole, for the women Time worked repor ted in days Time worked reported in hours Department Number Median Number Median of women earnings of women earnings All departments __ --- - ----- - ------------------------- - -- - 14, 799 $17.15 2,211 $14. 40 1---+----+---t---- L eaL ____________________ --- ---- ----------------------- - --- --- _ Stripping ________ ____ __ __ ____ ---------- -- ------ - -----______ ____ 20 1, 221 Cigar making_----- --- -- - --- - ----- - ----------- - --- - --- --- --- --Hand__ ____ ______ _________ __________ ___ ________________ ____ Machine_________________________________________________ __ 11,220 6, 879 4,341 P acking_______ _______ __ __________ _____ ________ ________ __ _______ Shipping_________________ ____ __________________ _____ ___________ Miscellaneous from all departments ____ __ ______ ____ ___________ _ 1,859 116 363 1 Not computed; b ase less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (1) 11.05 117 589 11. 65 14. 50 18. 30 16. 95 20.15 740 55 685 16. 65 11. 50 16. 75 15. 25 11. 65 . 12. 35 393 127 245 12. 40 11. 90 12. 70 TABLE 19.-Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in days, by department-Cigars A.-WHITE WOMEN Women with days worked reported Less than 3 days 3 and less than 4 days 4 and less than 5 days 5 and less than 5½ days 5½ and less than 6 days 6 days Department Number Median Number Median Number Median umber Median Number Median Number 8,948 - -Total Number Median -----$14. 25 698 $20.10 Median 1 ___________________ _ 14, 799 $17. 15 601 $3.60 549 $8.85 1,399 $12. 50 2,604 $15. 00 Stripping ____________ _____ ______ 1,221 11. 05 50 2.15 65 5. 20 167 8. 40 482 10. 90 349 14. 95 108 11. 55 Cigar making _____ ____ ___ _______ Hand __ ____ _________________ Machine ____________________ 11,220 6,879 4,341 18. 30 16. 95 20.15 440 278 162 3. 85 3. 95 3. 70 380 244 136 9. 85 9. 45 10. 70 962 605 357 13. 65 12. 60 15. 90 1,674 1,469 205 16.15 16.05 16. 65 7,337 .4, 138 3,199 20. 70 19. 60 21. 45 427 145 282 15. 35 11. 40 17:00 P acking ___________________ ______ Shipping ____________________ ____ Miscellaneous from all departments ___ ____________________ __ 1,859 116 15. 25 11. 65 81 4 3. 95 74 3 7.15 233 13 (2) 398 21 14.80 (2) 1,016 (2) 10. 60 (2) 73 17. 80 12. 35 57 2 363 12. 35 25 (2) 27 (2) 21 (2) 25 (2) 163 15. 50 102 16. 70 (2) 12. 65 B.-NEGRO WOMEN Total! ____________ _______ _ 1,387 $9. 95 62 $2.30 - ------ ---- --- - -- --_ ·--- ----Leaf ______________________ Stripping 115 1, 266 10. 25 9. 75 4 58 (2) 2. 25 66 $5. 75 134 8 66 5. 75 125 $7. 55 410 $9. 00 715 $10. 85 (2) 16 392 (2) 87 625 10. 45 11.15 7. 45 9. 20 ~ I 1 j Includes departments with too few women for the computation of a median, not shown separately. Not computed; base less than 50. z· t:1 c:t' w, 8. ~ ~ 'fft. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis TABLE 20.-Median earnings of women whose time worked was report~d in hours, by department-Cigars A.-WHITE WOMEN Women with hours worked reported Department Less than 40 hours 40 and less than 44 hours 44 and less than 48 hours 48 hours Over 48 and less than 52 hours 56 and less than 60 hours 52 and less than 56 hours 60hours and over Num- Median Num- Median Nurn- Median Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median ber ber ber ber ber ber ber ber ber - - --- - - --- - - - - -- - - - - - - - --TotaL ______________________ (I) 9 180 $13. 45 2,211 $14. 40 331 $7.85 223 $14. 40 334 $14. 35 318 $21. 40 389 $14. 50 427 $15. 20 -- LeaL __ --------------------------,S tripping ____ --------------- - ----_ Cigar making _____________________ 117 589 11. 65 14. 50 13 54 (1) 9. 00 6 70 14. 70 (1) 6 83 15.10 (1) 4 22 740 16. 65 123 10. 70 97 17. 25 115 14. 70 269 Hand ________________ -- ___ -- __ Machine __ -------- - ------- __ __ Packing ______________ _______ _____ _ Shipping ______________ __________ __ Miscellaneous from all departments_______________ ---- · _______ 55 685 11. 50 16. 75 8 115 (1) (I) 11.05 24 73 15. 70 393 127 12. 40 11. 90 92 10 7. 30 (1) 13 6 (1) (1) 87 13 13. 50 245 12. 70 39 (1) 31 (1) 30 (1) (1) (1) 29 (1) 21 14.10 190 15. 90 16 (1) (1) 21.45 86 16. 30 21 (1) 29 (1) -- ------ ----- - -- (I) (1) (1) 19 (I) (1) -------- -- - ---- - --------------(1) 3 (1) ------- ------- 12 (1) (1) 34 153 ------------- --- 269 ---- -------115 14. 70 2L45 11 4 1 (1) (1) (1) 1 85 16. 35 3 18 63 14 13.60 (1) 55 50 11. 30 11. 70 72 31 13. 85 39 (1) 82 24. 20 11 (1) 1 (1) (1) 119 13. 90 ! 41 (1) 7 (I) (1) 112 13.85 1 24 (1) 10 (1) --- - ---- -------- B.-NEGRO WOMEN ---1 Total '- _________ --- --- -Stripping ___________________ ______ 233 12. 70 19 (1) 10 (1) 198 13. 00 16 G1) 10 (1) 16 15 MH=1-------(1) -- -- - - - -------- I 21 I 21 -------- -------- 1 Not 2 computed; base less than 50. Includes departments with too few women for the computa tion of a median, not shown separately. 00 ---l https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 88 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES in cigar making, both hand and machine, and for those in packing, the numbers are much larger and the medians much higher for the women whose time worked was reported in days. These women were largely pieceworkers. (See page 91.) Cigar making. Of the white women in these departments whose earnings could be correlated with time worked, 11,220 had such time reported in days and 740 had it reported in hours. The median earnings of the former were $18.30. Nearly two-thirds (65.4 per cent) had worked on 5½ days, and for these the median was $20.70. For the 740 women whose time worked was reported in hours in this department, the median was $16.65. Hand manufacture.-Of the 8,658 women, all white, whose pay-roll records showed that they had worked at some hand process in cigarmaking departments, 6,934 had time worked reported, and for 99.2 per cent of these it was reported in days. Only 55 women had time worked reported in hours. The median earnings for those with days worked reported were $16.95. Practically three-fifths of the total had worked on 5½ days, and the median earnings for this group were $19.60. As noted before, only 55 white women whose time worked was recorded had it reported in hours. The median earnings for these were $11.50. Machine manufacture.-Of the 5,439 white women for whom week's earnings were obtained and who · were working at some machine process in the making of cigars, 5,026 had the time worked reported. Nearly seven-eighths (86.4 per cent) of these had the time reported in days and about one-eighth (13.6 per cent) in hours. For women who had worked on 5½ days the median was $21.45. For 685 white women who made cigars by machine the time worked was reported in hours, the median earnings being $16.75. For those who worked less than 40 hours the median was $11.05. The women who worked 48 hours had the highest median, $21.45; for those who had worked over 48 and under 52 hours the amount was $16.35. More than nine-tenths (93.2 per cent) of the white women making cigars by machine worked at the automatic cigar-making machine. Of these 5,068 women, 4,124 had time worked reported in days and 537 had it reported in hours. The median earnings for the 4,124 were $20.25. Those who had worked on five days had a median of $16.75, and those who had worked on 5}~ a median of $21.50. For the 537 women for whom hours worked were reported, the median was $16.60. Stripping. A total of 4,426 women for whom week's earnings were obtained worked in these departments, and 2,830 were white women. The 1,221 white women whose time worked was reported in days had median earnings of $11.05. The median earnings for those who worked on less than three days were $2.15, and from that point on they constantly increased to $14.95 for the women who worked on 5½ days, declining for those with a 6-day week. For the 589 white women in the stripping departments whose hours worked were reported, the median earnings were $14.50 7 considerably https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS 89 higher than the earnings for the women whose time was reported in aays, and thus differing from other important departments. The highest median was $15.90, for the women who worked 52 and under 56 hours. Packing. Of the 2,822 women in packing departments whose week's earnings were obtained, all white but one, 1,859 white women had time worked reported in days and 393 in hours. For the group as a whole the median was $15.25. Nearly four-fifths (79.1 per cent) had worked on five days or longer, and for these the median was $16.65. More than one-half (54.7 per cent) had worked on 5½ days, and for these the median was the highest for any group, $17 .80. The median of the earnings for the 393 white women whose hours worked were reported was $12.40, much lower than for those whose time was reported in days. The most highly skilled job in the packing department is that of shading. At the time of the survey it had been superseded to some extent by the foiling and cellophaning processes, these making exact shading of less importance. Nevertheless, shading was reported for 1,001 women. For 770 of these the time worked was reported, by days worked for 747, and by hours worked for 23. The median earnings for the group with time reported in days were $19 .10. For those who worked on five days or more, about five-sixths of the total, the median earnings were $20.55, and for those who worked on 5}1z days they were $21.70. Negro women whose time worked was reported in days. The 1,620 pay-roll records of negroes were 1,387 by days worked and 233 by hours. Like the white women, more than four-fifths of those with days reported had worked on 5 days or more, most of them on 5½ days, but those with work on less than 4 days were a larger proportion than was the case with white women. The median earnings for the whole group of women were $9.95. For those who had worked on 5 days or over the median was $10.45, and for 5½ days it was $10.85. (See Table 19.) Negro women whose time worked was reported in hours. Of the 233 negro women whose hours worked were reported, just over one-half had worked 52 and under 56 hours. About one-fifth had exceeded this; only one-eighth had worked less than 44 hours. For the 233 women the median earnings were $12.70-$2.75 in excess of the median for days worked, and an opposite condition from that of white workers. For the 51.1 per cent working 52 and under 56 hours, the median was $13.90. (See Table 20.) · The 115 women in the leaf departments whose days worked were reported had a median of $10.25. The vast majority of the strippers, 1,266, had days worked reported and had a median of $9.75; the 198 whose hours were a matter of record had median earnings of $13. Nearly four-fifths (79.3 per cent) of the negro women in the stripping departments whose time worked was reported in hours had worked more than 48 hours in the week. 126898°-3~--7 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 90 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARE'l'TE INDUSTRIES METHOD OF PAYMENT In the payment of wages two very different methods are in common use. One is based on the time worked, measured by the hour, day, week, or longer period, while the other, the piece-rate system, depends on the amount of work completed. In some companies both systems are in use. In many cases women on a new job are paid on a time basis while learning, as a means of encouragement, and later are changed to piecework. White women. A total of 20,815 white women had earnings and method of payment reported. Nearly seven-eighths (86.3 per cent) of these were paid on a piece-rate basis, slightly more than one-ninth (11.9 per cent) on a time basis, and less than 2 per cent on both time and piece. The median earnings were the lowest, $13.50, for the women paid by both time and piece, next higher, $\3.75, for those paid by time, and highest, $16.85, for the pieceworkers. (See Table 21.) T A BLE 21.- N umber and median earnings of timeworkers and of pieceworkers, by · department-Cigars A.-WHITE WOMEN All women D epartment N umber All departmen ts ___ ________ 20, 815 Per cent Timeworkers 1 Median Numearnber ings P ieceworkers edian NumP er Mearncent ber ings Per cen t 11. 9 $13. 75 17,958 86. 3 92.1 12.10 2 1. 4 (2) -(2)- 100.0 $16. 30 2,481 100. 0 12.05 129 Stripping __ _____ _____ ____ ______ __ 2, 828 100. 0 11. 80 838 29. 6 15. 10 1,980 70. 0 238 1, 277 1, 313 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 15. 95 8. 90 13. 20 236 278 324 99. 2 21. 8 24. 7 15. 95 14. 00 15. 60 1 997 982 .4 78. 1 74. 8 Cigar m aking ______ _____ ___ __ ____ 14,094 Leaf_ ______ - - --- - __ _- - __ _- - _- ____ Select _- -_____ - - - - -___ - - __ - - -________ - - - - - - - -___ -Han d ___ M achine ______ __ ___ ______ ___ - - 140 - -- -- - -- M ed ian earnings $16. 85 10. 10 7. 55 12. 25 100.0 17. 90 202 1. 4 15. 50 13, 643 96. 8 18.10 8, 656 5,438 100. 0 100. 0 16. 65 19. 90 44 158 .5 2. 9 (2) 16. 60 8, 608 5,035 99. 4 92. 6 16. 65 20. 20 Packing ____ __________ ______ ____ _ 2, 818 Shipping ___ __ ___ __ ________ ______ 308 Miscellaneous from all depar tmen ts ____ __ __ _______ ____ __ ____ 627 100.0 100.0 14. 70 11. 40 508 262 18. 0 85.1 11. 95 11. 75 2,Zl7 42 80. 8 13. 6 (2) 100.0 12. 50 542 86.4 12. 90 14 2. 2 (2) 11. 50 1, 306 74. 4 H and ____ _____ - -- _-- _____ __ __ M achine _____ _________ ___ ___ 15. 65 B.-NEGRO WOMEN All departm ents _______ __ __ 1,755 100.0 10.10 446 25. 4 LeaL ________ ____ ______ _____ _____ 144 100.0 10. 30 144 100.0 Stripping _____ ____ ____ ___________ 1, 596 100. 0 10.00 288 18. 0 Select_ ___- - - - - - - - - - __ - - - - - - - Hand __ ______ __- -- - - --- - - -- - M achine _____ ________________ 24 666 906 (2) (2) 100. 0 100. 0 8. 65 10. 80 24 25 239 All other departments _______ ____ 15 (2) (2) 14 1 2 3. 8 26. 4 9. 25 10. 30 - -- - - - -- - - ----- --- --- -13. 30 1, 305 81. 8 9.25 (2) (2) - - --- -- - ----- --------641 96. 2 8. 45 13. 25 73. 3 10. 05 664 (2) 1 ---- - -- (2) Totals include 376 white wom en and 3 negro women who work ed oo oot h timework and piecework, N ot computed ; base less than 50, . https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS 91 Nearly 97,:per cent of the women in the cigar-making departments worked on a piece-rate basis. For the pieceworkers the median earnings were $18.10, as compared with $14.35 for the much smaller group who worked on both time and piece and $15.50 for those who did time work only. Practically all (99.4 per cent) of those employed at hand making of cigars had been paid a piece rate. The median for this group was $16.65. In the three specific processes done by hand, namely, bunch making, cigar rolling, and out-and-out cigar making, more than 99 per cent in each were pieceworkers. Tlie median earnings in these three processes were $16 for those in out-and-out making, $16.45 in rolling, and $17 .25 in bunch making. In machine work, as in hand manufacture, more than nine-tenths (92.6 per cent) had been employed on piecework. Of the small remainder, less than two-fifths (39.2 per cent) were on a time basis, the others being on both time and piece. The median earnings of the timeworkers were $16.60 and of the pieceworkers $20.20. The earnings of the white women employed at piece rates on the bunch-making, cigar-rolling, and automatic cigar-making machines had medians of $17.30, $20.40, and $20.25, respectively. For those who examined and inspected machine-made cigars pay was on a time basis for most of the women, and the median earnings for these were $19. In packing departments there were 2,818 white women for whom week's earnings and method of payment were reported. About onefifth (18 per cent) were paid on a time basis, slightly more than fourfifths (80.8 per cent) did piecework, and about 1 per cent were on both time and piece. The median for those on timework was $11.95, while for pieceworkers it was $15.65. More than one-third of the women in packing departments whose earnings and method of pay were secured were shaders. Of these, more than nine-tenths (94.5 per cent) were employed at piecework. The median earnings for the timeworkers were $7.75, as compared with $19 for the pieceworkers. In stripping departments week's earnings and method of payment were reported for 2,828 women. Of these, seven-tenths were paid at piece rates and nearly three-tenths (29.6 per cent) on a time basis. The median earnings of the pieceworkers were $10.10. For the timeworkers they were considerably higher, $15.10. The unusual condition of a higher median for timeworkers may be due in part to the irregularity in time worked by the hand strippers paid at piece rates and to the large proportion of older women thus employed. Selecting was paid almost entirely (99.2 per cent) on a time basis. The median earnings of this group of timeworkers, $15.95, were the hig~est of any in the stripping departments. Nearly four-fifths (78.1 per cent) of the hand strippers were paid on a piece-rate basis, and all but two of the remainder on a time basis. The median earnings for the pieceworkers were $7 .55 and those for the timeworkers $14. This great difference, one median almost twice the other, may be ascribed in part, as mentioned above, to the irregularity of time worked and the age of the hand strippers. The proportion of machine strippers on piecework was 74.8 per cent; practically all the others were straight timeworkers. The https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 92 ~ WOMEN iN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES median earnings for those on a time basis were $15. 60, and for the pieceworker'S they were $12.25. This smaller difference in the medians of machine than of hand probably is due in part to the fact that the machine strippers were younger than those who did hand stripping and worked more regularly. Negro women. Nearly three-fourths of the negro women whose method of payment was reported worked at piece rates. The median for the timeworkers was $11.50 and for the pieceworkers it was $9.25. In the stripping departments, where a large part of the negro women worked, more than four-fifths (81.8 per cent) did piecework. The median earnings for these were $9.25, the timeworkers having a median of $13.30. All but 25 of the 666 hand strippers with time or piece reported were pieceworkers. The median of their earnings was $8.45. (See Table 21.) Only 73.3 per cent of the machine strippers were pieceworkers. Their median was $10.05, in contrast to $13.25 for those who did machine stripping on a time basis. LOCALITY White women. As explained previously, the median of the earnings of the 20,824 white women for whom pay-roll data were available was $16.30. That the localities in 11 States in which these women worked had a direct relation to the amount of their earnings will be noted in the following analysis. The median earnings for those employed in Kentucky and Tennessee 1 (five cities and five hand plants, one in each, included) considered together were $8.85, the lowest in the survey. The medians for Camden, $21.30, Philadelphia, $21.20 (these two form one industrial unit), and New York City, $20, were the three highest. The median earnings in other localities ranged from $12.10 for the women from selected districts (two cities, one hand plant in each) in Virginia, to $19.10 for Boston. The rank of localities is not the same for specific departments as for all occupations considered together. Women in cigar-making departments in Boston had the highest median, $24.40, followed by Camden, $22.40, Philadelphia, $22.20, and New York City, $21.65. The median declined by locality to $9.45 for Kentucky and Tennessee, where the low earnings were influenced by the fact that all the women were hand makers. Philadelphia led in the median for hand work and Boston for machine work. In packing departments New York City had the highest median, followed by Trenton. In stripping, Boston led, closely followed by New York City. 1 States as a whole are not included in this analysis if any subdivisions are shown separately. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis TABLE 22.-Median of the week's earnings of white women, by department and locality-Cigars Cigar making All departments Stripping Leaf All Locality Hand Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median ber ber ber ber ---- - ----- Tota}. _____________ ________ 20,824 New York! ____ __________________ 1,988 New York City ______________ 1,184 New Jersey ____ ___ _________ __ ____ Trenton ______________ _- ---- -Camden _____ __ __ ____________ Newark and near-by cities a_. Pennsylvania __ _____ ___ ________ __ Philadelphia ________ - _____ ___ Other 4___ ____________________ -- $16. 30 140 17. 60 20. 00 7 3 $12. 05 f) 2) 4,025 882 1,537 1,606 (2) 19. 05 42 (2) 18. 25 22 21. 30 ------·· -------(2) 18. 25 20 8,170 3,704 3,986 16. 75 21. 20 13. 55 600 56 7 49 11.00 (2) (2) Maryland and Delaware _________ Baltimore ______ ______________ 0 hio ________________ __ ________ ___ Seven cities 6__ __ _____________ 352 14. 35 13. 85 2,102 1,764 13. 15 12. 85 Michigan (Detroit) ______________ Kentucky and Tennessee ________ JM;~~husetts (Boston) __________ Vrrgm1a ____________________ ------ 2,164 1,088 443 244 (2) 17. 45 24 8. 85 ------- -------(2) 19. 10 1 12.10 ------- ------- -------------· -------10 8 ~2) 2) -------- Shipping Packing Machine Miscellaneous from.all departments umNumNumNumNumber Median ber Median ber Median ber Median ber Median - - - -- 2,830 $11.80 14,097 $17. 90 8,658 $16. 6,5 5,439 $19. 90 2,821 $14. 70 308 $11.40 628 $12. 50 347 181 14. 05 16. 55 1,311 868 19. 20 21. 65 9.48 852 21.10 21. 75 363 16 16.10 (2) 158 99 17. 95 19. 95 28 25 (2) (2) 137 8 12. 20 (2) 344 12. 90 12.10 14. 65 12. 60 2,934 693 1,052 1,189 20. 35 19. 00 22. 40 19. 35 1,959 693 485 781 975 19. 35 21.80 19. 00 --- - --- -------21. 75 567 22. 55 408 20.80 18. 70 555 83 307 165 15. 00 18. 85 11. 35 16. 95 68 10 37 21 12. 20 (2) (2) (2) 82 2 52 28 22.40 (2) 12. 65 (2) 10.80 16.10 9. 70 5,260 2,613 2,343 18. 85 22. 20 15. 20 2,134 739 1,390 16. 60 22.40 14. 60 1,334 701 593 15. 05 17. 35 13. 05 166 145 19 9. 75 9.80 (2) 155 57 73 17. 95 24. 40 14. 25 20 8. 30 (2) 472 295 14. 90 14. 00 472 295 14. 90 14. 00 434 405 9. 50 9. 55 1,351 1,076 14. 25 14. 00 1,117 849 14. 20 13. 85 234 227 14. 35 14. 25 266 78 79 2 14. 05 7. 20 16.80 (2) 1,532 819 235 183 18. 45 9.45 24. 40 12. 60 1,005 819 31 172 17. 35 9.45 (2) 12. 45 526 19.80 11 (2) 72 89 183 1,199 181 909 81 1 New York City and Binghamton . 2 Not computed; base less than 50. a Includes Newark, Passaic, Perth Amboy, South Amboy, and Fords. 3,126 1,874 953 19. 95 22.15 16.10 ------- -------------- ------ - - -------------204 24.80 (2) (2) 45 35 (2) (2) 1 1 (2~ (2 1 234 12. 05 12.05 8 8 (2) (2) 63 9. 95 17.00 8. 20 ~2) 2) 17 4 12 4 (2) 38 (2) 6. 20 11. 70 (2) 204 287 137 83 38 I ~:~ (2) 1 65 50 83 17 10.10 • Includes York, Lancaster, Reading, Harrisburg, and Steelton and vicinity. 6 Lima, Sidney, Wapakoneta, Van Wert, Columbus, Dayton, and Xenia. co ~ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 94 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES Negro women. Of the 1,755 negro women for whom pay-roll information was available, more than three-fifths (62.2 per cent) were employed in Pennsylvania, almost all in Philadelphia. Nearly three-tenths (29 .3 per cent) worked in two cities of Ohio, and the remainder, 148, were in New Jersey (87), Virginia (28), Michigan (22), and Maryland and Delaware (11). The median earnings for the group as a whole were $10.10, in Philadelphia $10.50, and in Ohio $9.25. In Camden, where one-twentieth of the negro workers were employed, the median earnings were the highest, $12.05. (See Table 23.) As before stated, almost all the negro women were employed in the leaf and stripping departments. Nearly all those in leaf departments were in Philadelphia, where the median was $10.30. Of the 1,596 in stripping departments, 59.1 per cent were in Pennsylvania and 32.1 per cent were in Ohio. The median earnings for the strippers as a . whole were $10, for those in P hiladelphia $10.65 and for those in Ohio $9.20. The highest median was $11.90 for the 84 women employed in Camden. The median earnings for the 666 negro hand strippers were $8.65; and for those in Ohio, the largest group who did this work, they were $9.20. For the hand strippers in Pennsylvania, more than one-sixth of the total, the median was $7 .30; for those in Philadelphia, $7 .55. Machine stripping was reported for 906 (51.6 per cent) of the negro women for whom pay-roll data were available. The median earnings for all the machine strippers were $10.80; they were slightly less ($10.70) in Pennsylvania, where 89.5 per cent of them were employed, and higher ($11.90) in Camden, in which city almost all the remainder were reported. TABLE 23.- M edian of the week's earnings of negro women, by department and locality- Cigars All departments Stripping Leaf Other Locality Number M edian Number Median Number Median Number Median TotaL _ ________________ 1, 755 $10. 10 $10. 00 12. 05 -- - - - ---- --------- 84 11. 90 3 ------- -- 139 139 944 904 40 10.45 10. 65 9 ---- ----8 -- ------- 87 1,092 1,051 41 (1) Maryland and D elaware ___ __ Baltimore _______________ _ 11 (1) (1) Ohio (7 cities) a______________ _ ~ic~i~an (Detroit) _________ _ Virgmia ___ - _- - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - 515 7 22 28 (1) 1, 596 Pennsylvania _______________ _ Philadelphia ____________ _ Other 2__________________ _ 10.40 10. 50 144 15 $10. 30 New J ersey (Camden) ______ _ 10. 30 10. 30 9. 25 --------- --------(1) 2 (1) (1) 3 (1) 11 7 513 19 25 (1) 1 ---- ----- (1) (1) 9. 20 (1) (1) 2 --------- 1 -- ----- -- 1 Not computed; base less than 50. 2 Includes York, Lancaster, Reading, Perth Amboy, South Amboy, and Fords. Negro women were found only in York. a Lima, Sidney, Wapakoneta, Van Wert, Columbus, Dayton, and Xenia. Negro women were found only in Columbus and Xenia. SIZE OF CITY As a basis for comparing earnings of women engaged in the cigar industry according to size of city the following grouping of cities included in the study was made: A, cities with a population of 400,000 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 95 WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS or more; B, cities with 100,000 and less thstn 400,000; C, cities with 20,000 and less than 100,000; and D, cities with less than 20,000. White women. As will be seen from the summary following, almost one-half of the white women were working in cities of the largest size. About one- . eighth (12 .6 per cent) were in class B, more than one-fourth (26.3 per cent) in class C, and slightly less than one-eighth (12.3 per cent) in class D. White women Size of city Class Class Class Class Negro women Median Number P er cent Median Number Per cent earnings earnings All cities ___________________ _____ ____ 20,824 100.0 $16. 30 1,755 100.0 $10.10 A B C D 10, 171 2,614 5,469 2,570 48.8 12. 6 26.3 12. 3 19. 75 14.95 14.40 11.35 1,167 187 69 332 66.5 10. 7 3.9 18. 9 10.55 10. 20 6. 90 8. 55 (400,000 and over) ___ _______ _______ (100,000 and under 400,000) _____ ___ (20,000 and under 100,000) _________ (less than 20,000) __ _____ _________ _ The median of the women's earnings was much the highest ($19.75) in class A. It decreased as the size of city decreased until for class D the median was $11.35. In the making departments the median earnings for all the women were $17.90. For hand and machine workers the median decreased with size of city. For the women in cities of class A, where almost equal numbers made cigars by hand and by machine, the median was $2 1. In class B, where a large proportion of the cigar makers were hand workers, it was $16.15; and in class C it was only slightly less, $16. In class D the median was the lowest, $12.35. This same decrease was true of packing-department workers. For those in class A the median was $16. 75; for those in B, $13 .80; in C, $13.40; and in D, $11.95. In the stripping departments the median earnings for the women in cities of class A were $15 .35; in cities of class B, where the proportion of hand strippers was greater than for cities of either A or C, the ·median was $10.40. For the next group, class C, the median was $10.85. In D it was $8.70. Negro women. For all negro women the median earnings were $10.10. They decreased with size of city from $10.55 for those in class A to $6.90 for those in class C; but there was a considerable rise in median for those in class D, $8.55. Almost all the women in leaf departments were in cities of class A; for these women the median earnings were the same as for the group as a whole, $10.30. For those in stripping departments there was the decrease with size of city from A to C noted for the entire group, and also the increase for cities of class D. EARNINGS AND AGE Earnings could be correlated with age for 11,394 women-10,687 white and 707 negro. As an indication of the average, medians have been computed for these. One-half the women earned more a.nd onehalf earn~d less th~n the amounts specified https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 96 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES The median for the 10,687 white women was $17.55. To a certain point the median increased with the age of the women, but earnings for the older groups declined. For the total the median increased PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT WEEK'S EARNINGS OF WHITE AND NEGRO WOMEN, BY AGE- CIGARS NF.GRO 1IOllffi WHITE mum Per cent 20 F..ARNINGS 0 Per cent 40 20 0 UNllm 18 YEARS Lessand thanIese $5 $5 $10 end less $15 and less $20 and less $25 and over than $10 - than tis thAJl $20 .~ . - · than $25 18 AND UNDIB 20 YEARS t ...and thmless $5 $5 $10 and less $15 and less $20 and less $25 and over than than than than $10 $15 $20 $25 20 AND UNDIB 25 YEARS Los, ·$5 $5 and less $10 and less $15 and less $20 and less $25 !llld over than than. than than . $10 $15 $20 i 60 y y l 1:/ r iii t\25 25 AND UNDIB 30 YEARS Less than $5 $5 and less than $10 $10 and less than $15 $15 and less than $20 $20 and less than $25 $25 and over 40 · L I 30 AND mmm 40 YEARS Less than $5 $5 and less than $10 $10 and less than $15 $15 and less than $20 $20 and less than $25 $25 and over 40 AND UNDIB 50 YEARS Less and than $5 $5 J.ess $10 and less $15 and less $20 and lees $25 and over than $10 • than $15 than $25 than $20 50 AND UNDER 60 YEARS Lees than $5 $5 and Iese $10 and less $15 and lees $20 and less $25 and over than $10 than $15 than $20 than $25 60 YEARS AND ovm Leesand than $5 $5 less $10 and less $15 and less $20 and less t2s and over 1:/ than $10 than $15 than $20 than $25 F - t I1:/1:/ 1:/ !/ y 1 Per cent not c01Dpited; less than 50 cases 1n the age group, from $13 .90~for girls under 18 years of age, to $18.80 for those 18 but not yet 20, and to the maximum of all groups, $19.05 for those 20 and under 25. After this the median declined until for women 60 years of age and over it was $10.45. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS 97 The median for the 707 negro workers was $10.55. The highest was $11.10 for women 20 and under 25 years of age. The oldest women had the lowest medians. For the white workers the medians varied greatly with department, the figures being as follows: Leaf departments, $10.75; shipping, $11.80; stripping, $12.55; packing, $15.65; and making, $19.20. In the department last named hand makers had a median of $18 and machine makers one of $20.15. The shaders in the packing departments also had a high median, $19.05. For the shaders, the stripping departments, and the hand makers, women 30 and under 40 years of age had the highest medians. For the machine makers, a still older group-40 and under 50-had the highest median, this figure being $20.65; however, the much larger group 20 and under 25 years of age had practically the same figure, $20.55, and for the making departments as a whole the highest figure ($20.10) was for the girls 18 and under 20. For the negro workers with age and earnings reported the median earnings were $10.55, exactly the figure for those in the stripping departments. In each of the three age groups that together cover 18 and under 30 years at least 40 per cent of the white women earned $20 or more. For the women 30 and under 40 the figure is about 38 per cent. Of the age group next above--40 and under 50-less than one-fourth (23.8 per cent) earned as much as $20; for women 50 and under 60 the proportion dropped to 8.5 per cent, and for those 60 and over it was only 3.1 per cent. Among the young girls, those under 18, 1 in 5 (20.6 per cent) earned at least $20. In four of the age groups the largest proportion of the women had earnings of $15 and under $25-from about 60 per cent to about 68 per cent. Of women 40 and under 60 years more than 60 per cent had earnings of $10 and under $20, as had about 55 per cent of the girls under 18. The small group of women at least 60 years old had more than two-thirds of their number in the wage groups $5 and under $15. Among the 707 negro women there were few girls under 18 years and few women as much as 50. In the three age groups that together cover 18 and under 30 years, more than 50 per cent of the women had earnings of $10 and under $15. The women 30 and under 40 had about equal numbers at $5 and under $10 and $10 and under $15. The 55 women 40 and under 50 years had 12 of their number-about 22 per cent-with earnings of less than $5 on the pay rolls copied. Three negro women, all 30 and under 40 years, earned at least $20. (See Appendix Table XX.VI.) EARNINGS AND TIME IN THE TRADE White women. For 9,000 white women--strictly speaking, 8,998-earnings could be correlated with years worked in the cigar industry. One-half of them had worked at least 5 years, and for as many as 27.9 per cent the time was at least 10 years. Of the 49.4 per cent with experience of less than 5 years, roughly l in 4 had begun work within the past 12 months. For the total, 8,998, the median of the earnings was $17.25. Correlated with experience, the median was $13.85 for the women new to the trade, advancing to $18.65 for those with experience ,of 3 and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 98 WOM'.EN IN ClGAR AND CIGARETTE !N:OUSTRIES under 4 years, but declining again until it reached $15.85 for the 815 women as much as 20 years in the industry. The white women in the stripping departments had median earnings of $12.25. For the women with less than a year's experience the median was only $10.85, but this figure advanced to $13.40 for those 4 years in the trade. A decline in the median followed-to $13.15 for 5 and under 10 years' experience and to $12.05 for experience of 10 and under 15 years-but the women who had worked 15 and under 20 years had a median of $13.45. More than 6,000 women (6,224) were in the cigar-making departments, with a median of $18.-60. For the extremes of less than 1 year and as much as 20 years in the trade the median was considerably lower-$16.25 for the latest comers in the industry and only slightly more for the most experienced workers. All the groups from 1 and under 2 years to 5 and under 10 years had medians of $19 or $20, but the figure declined with as much as 10 .y ears' service. For 10 and under 15 years it is $18.15; for 15 and under 20 years, $17.60; and for 20 years or more, $16.65. The large groups of hand and machine workers, respectively 3,340 and 2,884 women, show significant differences as to time in the trade. More handworkers had been at least 20 years in the trade (593 women) than had entered it within the past 5 years (521 women). Among machine makers the opposite is true: There were more women with less than 1 year's experience (608) than the entire number reporting as much as 5 years' experience (593). The entire group of hand makers had median earnings of $17.65. The effect of experience is shown in the fact that the median was $14.50 for women 1 and under 2 years in the trade, $16.65 for those 2 and under 3 years, and between $18 and $18.50 for the next three experience groups, covering 3 and under 10 years. It then declined to $17 .50 and under $18 for women with 10 and under 20 years' experience, and again to $16.50 for the practically 600 women as much as 20 years in the trade. The 2,884 machine makers had a higher median than that of the hand makers, the machine group averaging $19.60. Correlated with experience, the earnings medians follow: $16.35 for women less than a year in the trade and $19.55 for those at work 1 and under 2 years; $20 and under $21 for the four experience groups that cover 2 and under 10 years; a slight decline (to $19.85) for the women 10 and under 15 years at work, and a considerable one (to $18.90) for those 15 or more years in the trade. The 1,236 women in the packing departments had a median of $16.15. An increase in the median with years in the trade is more regular in these departments than in stripping or making, the figure rising from $11.80 for the women less than a year in the trade to $20.65 for those with 10 and under 15 years' experience, the only exception in the steady rise being an insignificant decline for the group with experience of 4 and under 5 years. For the 52 women as much as 20 years in the trade the median is $17. The effect of experience is made even clearer by the figures for earnings distribution. Of the white women just beginning work (less than 6 months in the trade), though learners as such are excluded from the tabulation, only 30.6 per cent received as much as $15, but of those with experience of 6 months and under 1 year 50.8 per https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS 99 cent received $15 or more. This per cent increases, irregularly, to 75.6 for the women 5 and under 10 years in the trade, but declines after that, presumably on account of the age of the workers, and of the women as much as 20 years in the trade the proportion with earnings of $15 or more is 55.5 per cent. The proportions with earnings in the lowest groups are much the largest for the women with experience of less than a year and of as much as 20 years. (See Appendix Table XXVII.) Negro women. The 483 negro women with earnings and time in the trade reported had median earnings of $10.25, the group with 3 and under 4 years' experience exceeding this by 65 cents. As many as 148 of the women had been in the industry less than a year; these had a median of $9.20. A comparable number, 123, had been in the industry 5 and under 10 years, and for these the median was $10.70. Only 46 negro women had been in the cigar industry as long as 10 years. More than four-fifths of all the women (83.9 per cent) were in the stripping departments, and the median here was $10.05. More than one-fourth of the women had been 5 and under 10 years in the trade, and these had a median of $10.90. The 127 with experience of less than a year, most of them less than 6 months, had a median of only $8.90. Only 1 in 3 of the 88 beginners had earnings of as much as $10, but of the next group (60 women 6 months and under a year in the trade) more than 40 per cent had such earnings. Of the 123 women 5 and under 10 years in the trade, 75 (just over 60 per cent) received as much as $10, and 17 of them were paid $15 or more. The 56 women with experience of 3 and under 4 years had a large proportion38 of their number-with earnings of as much as $10. (See Appendix Table· XXVII.) DATA FOR FLORIDA As was true of the section on personal information, it is thought well to include here some data regarding cigar workers reported in the survey by the Women's Bureau of the State of Florida in 1928-29. Department and occupation. Of the 2,775 women for whom department and occupation were reported, nearly three-fifths (59.9 per cent) were in making departments, 24.3 per cent were in stripping, 12.5 per cent in packing, and about 3 per cent in leaf departments. All the women in leaf departments were engaged in general leaf work as described in the occupations on cigars. Of the 675 in stripping departments, almost three-fifths (57.5 per cent) were hand strippers and only 7.6 per cent were machine strippers. For three-tenths of all in the stripping departments it was not reported whether they did stripping by hand or by machine. Only 30 women were reported as engaged in selecting. Three-fifths (59.9 per cent) of the workers were employed in the making departments. All the machine manufacture of cigars was carried on in two plants, one employing 380 workers on machine rollers and bunchers, and the other employing 219 on these two machines. More than one-half of the women in the making departments were engaged in hand bunching or rolling or in both of these processes. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 100 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES About one-eighth of all in these departments worked at out-and-out cigar making. One-eighth of the women worked in packing departments. Only a .very small part of these, about 3 per cent, were machine banding. More than one-half were hand banding, and more than one-half of these were in plants where the cigars were made by machine. White women Week's earnings N umber Per cent Number Per cent TotaL____ ___ __ __________________________ __ ______ _______ ___ 2,494 100. 0 Median ________ _________ ___ ______ __ ________________________ f - _ _ 2 $c...,16_.6_5_ _ Less than __ ----------- - -- ------ ------- - --- ---_ $5 and less$5 than $10 ___________ ___ ------------___ __________________________ less than $15 __ --- - - -- --------------------------------- less than $20 __ ---------------------------------- --- - -- less than $25 __ - -- --- -- --- -- --- -- ------------------- ___ _ less than $30 ___ _______ ___________ ___ ___ ---- -----------less __ --- ----- - ------------- - - - ----- - ----- - - --less than than $35 $40 ____ ___ ___________________________________ _ $10 and $15 and $20 and $25 and $30 and $35 and $40 and 1 2 Negro women 1 over __ -------------------------------- - ---- -- -------- -- 103 460 453 680 417 240 104 26 11 4.1 18. 4 18. 2 27. 3 16. 7 9. 6 4. 2 1. 0 •4 155 100. 0 2-'$~7._10_ _ __ _ 1 33 105 11 6 21. 3 67. 7 7.1 3. 9 _- -- __-- - _ - - - - - - -- --- -------- -------------- ----- --- --- ---- - - --- ----- ---- - -------- ------ -- ------- - Survey by Women's Bureau in 1928-29 (see Bull. 80). Computed from more d etailed figures. Week's earnings. Week's earnings were reported for 2,494 of the 2,680 white women in cigar factories in the Florida survey. The median earnings for these were $16.65, slightly higher than the median ($16.30) for white women included in the present study. The median for the 155 negro women was $7 .10, considerably lower than that for the 1,755 in the dgar study. ' A large proportion of the women in Florida had time worked reported in days. For this group of 1,932 white women the median was $15.55, or somewhat less than the figure ($17 .15) for the white women for whom time was reported in days in the cigar study. The median earnings increased as days worked increased from $2.40 for those who worked on 1 day and $5.15 for those who worked on 2, to $12.65 for 5 days' work and $16.25 and $17 .55 for those working on 5½ and 6 days, respectively. Nearly two-thirds of this group with days worked reported had worked on 6 days. WEEK'S EARNINGS IN THE CIGARETTE INDUSTRY In collecting data regarding earnings in the cigarette industry actual amounts were copied from the companies' pay rolls for a representative week in 1929 or 1930. For some of the women correlations have been made with age, and for most of them correlations with method of payment and with time worked during the week. Many of the women worked irregularly and for only a part of the week, so some of the amounts reported are low, even less than $1. From the actual earnings reported the median-the point at which half the women received more and half received less-has been computed. The medians, with the range of earnings, serve to give a picture of the earning power of the women employed in cigarettes. Pay-roll data for a representative week were obtained for 5,798 women, 3,668 white and 2,130 negro. In this section on earnings https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 101 WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS range and median are discussed. For details of week's earnings see Appendix T able XXVIII. A marked difference appears between white and negro workers in the distribution by department. In the leaf departments were 228 (6 .2 per cent) of the white women, as compared with 2,065 (96.9 per cent) of the negro women. The largest proportion of the white women in these departments (43.4 per cent) were engaged in "picking" the tobacco, while nearly three-fifths (57.7 per cent) of th e negro workers were hand stemming. Almost three-tenths (29.4 per cent) of the white women were machine stemming, as compared with 13.1 per cent of the negro women. Practically one-fourth (24.9 per cent) of the white women were in m aking departments. About one-tenth of these women fed the m achine, about one-fifth were operators, and more than one-half caught the finished product as it came from the machine. The remainder did inspecting. Only three-tenths of 1 per cent of the n egroes (7 women) were in the making departments. About 2 in 3 (65. 5 per cent) of the white women worked in packing departments. The occupations at which the largest numbers were employed were Ii.and packing and packing in cartons, which together employed about 45 per cent of the women. Operating the new packing machine and the wrapping m achine gave employment to 11.5 per cent and 11.4 per cent, respectively, of all in these d~partments, while feeding or operating the old packing machine and cupping or inspecting its product employed, respectively, 9.2 and 9.7 per cent. Only 29 negro women (1.4 per cent) were in the packing departments. MEDIAN AND RANGE White women. For the 3,668 white women for whom pay-roll data were obtained the earnings ranged from less than $5 to $37. Almost ·one-half of these women were paid $15 and less than $20. About three-tenths earned $10 and less than $15, and another considerable proportion earned $20 or more. However, as many as 8.4 per cent received less than $10. The median for this group as a whole was $17.05. The lowest median was for the leaf departments, $11.35, where no woman was paid more than $20 and 99 pickers averaged only $10.95. T A BLE 24.- Earnings distribution by department-Cigarettes A.-WHITE WOMEN Week's earnings M iscellaneAll depart- Leaf depart - Making de- P acking de- Box depart- ous from all ments ment partment partment m ent departm ents Num- Per N um- P er Num- Per N um- Per N um- P er Num- Per ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent , ------ I -- ------ -- - ________ ,__ _ __ All women ___________ 3,668 100. 0 Less than $5________________ 108 $5an dlessthan$lQ ________ 200 $10 andlessthan$15 __ _____ l,028 $15 an d less than $20 __ _____ 1,659 $20 an d less than $25_ ______ 600 $25 an d over_ _____ _______ __ 73 1 N ot com pu ted; b ase less t han 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 228 100.0 2. 9 36 15. 8 5.5 50 21.9 28. 0 124 54.4 45. 2 17 7. 5 16. 4 1 .4 2. 0 _______ __ __ _ 912 100. 0 2,401 100. 0 28 49 348 436 50 1 3. 1 43 5. 4 94 38. 2 517 47. 8 1, 141 5. 5 540 .1 66 87 100.0 40 (1 ) 1. 8 1 1. 1 ------ - - --- 3. 9 7 8. 0 ------ --- - - 21. 5 23 26. 4 16 --- - - 47. 5 55 63. 2 10 ---- -22. 5 1 1.1 8 -----2. 7 - - - -- - - - ---6 - ----- 102 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES TABLE 24.-Earnings distribution by department-Cigarettes-Continued B.-NEGRO WOMEN All department s All women _________ ____ ________ ___ __ Less than $5 _________ ___ ____ __ __ _____ ____ __ $5 and less than $10 __ __ _______ __ ___ ____ __ _ $10 and less than $15 ____ _____ _____________ $15 and less than $20 ___ _____ __ ____ __ ______ N umber P er cen t 2,130 100.0 440 1,417 246 20. 7 66. 5 11. 5 1. 3 ---27 Other departments Leaf department Week's earnings Number Per cent Number Per cent - - - - - - - -- - - 2,065 65 100.0 100. 0 - - - -- - - 435 1, 38fi 242 3 21.1 67.1 11. 7 .1 7. 7 49. 2 6. 2 36. 9 5 32 4 24 PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT WEEK'S EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN SELECTED DEPARTMENTS-CIGARETTES c e nt Per WHITE W0llffi ALL DEPARTlmlTS Less than. $5 $5 and less than $10 $10 and less than $15 $15 and less than $20 $20 and over LEAF Less than $5 · $5 and less than $10 $10 and less than $15 $15 and less than $20 $20 and over MAKING Less than $5 $5 and leos than $10 $10 and le:is than $15 $15 and less than $20 $ 20 and over PACKING Less thllll $5 $5 and l e ss than $10 $10 and less than $15 $15 and less than $20 $20 and over , NF,GRO WOllEll .ALL DEPAR'l'lmlTS Less than $5 $5 and less than $10 $10 and less than $15 $15 and less than $20 LEAF Less than $5 $5 and less than $10 $10 and les s thrul t\15 $15 and l ess than t,20 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 10 50 40 50 60 103 WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS The median for the making departments was $15.40. Approximately the same proportion of those in the making departments as of the group as a whole, almost one-half, earned $15 and less than $20. Almost two-fifths received $10 and less than $15. Only about onetwentieth earned $20 or over, as compared with about one-tenth who were paid less than $10. The machine operators and the inspectors had medians several dollars higher than the medians for feeders and catchers. The highest median for any group as a whole was for the packing departments, $17.75. Almost one-half of the women in these departments received $15 and less than $20, and more than one-fourth $20 or more for the week's pay. Slightly more than one-fourth received less than $15. Women operating the wrapping machine had a median of $19.10, the highest of all occupations reported. The large group of hand packers had a median of $17 .30 and those who packed in cartons a median of $17.75. TABLE 25.- Earnings, by department and occupation-Cigarettes White women Negro women Per cent distribution- Earnings By By de- OCCU· part- pation ment Me- M axidian mum Per cent dis• tribution- Earnings Department and occupation Number $17. 05 Total. .. . . · ---····· ···· · ·· 3,668 100. O Leaf department. ... .•••.. •. · -· - Number $37 2,130 20 2,065 By By de- OCCU· Me- Maxipart- pation dian mum ment 100. 0 $8.00 l===!===t===l====J:====t===ll===l===t===l== 228 6. 2 100. 0 11. 35 1 - - - 1 - - - + - - - - t - - - t - -· l- piCk .. · · -·· ·········· · · · · · · · 99 46 67 Hand stem . . --········-····· M achine stem ..• ·-·········Miscellaneous and general help .... . . · -·· -····--·· · · ·· 16 Making department.. ........ . __ 912 43. 4 20. 2 29. 4 7. 0 24. 9 100. 0 12. 30 459 1,192 270 (1) 16 144 15. 40 25 7 (1) $18 100. 0 8. 00 18 22. 2 57. 7 13. 1 8. 55 5. 95 8. 65 13 15 12 7. 0 8. 80 18 (1) 17 - 18 14 20 10. 95 96. 9 .3 (1) 1---1---+----t---t---t-- Feed machine........... . .. . Operate machine....... _. ___ Catch. ... . .............. . ... Inspect .......•..•••..•. ·-·- · 98 188 462 164 Packing department. ..... ..... . 2,401 Operate new machine ...... _ Feed or operate, old machine···· · ·· · ··· -· --· · - --· Cup or inspect, old machine . Operate wrapping m achine.. O.perate sta!llping and bandmg machme............ _. . Hand pack. ·-·····--··-·-- ·P ack cartons . ... . ·-- --- · --·· Hand stamp, paste, and wrap.· -· · ·······-··- -····· Inspect.. ... . . .............. . Salvage and repair • .... .. __ _ Miscellaneous and general help ..• •·······-···· · ·--- ·- 277 Box department•••••.• ·--- -- · -- - 87 2. 4 40 1. 1 Miscellaneous from all depart• ments- -···· ····· ·-·-··· ----- -Supervisory and clerical . __._ Miscellaneous and general help.· ---····-· -· ......... . 1 Not computed; base less than 50, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 21 25 18. 0 100. 0 17. 75 37 11. 5 18. 20 21 ······· ·- · ···- · ·· -·· · ·•··- · · ..... . 9. 2 25 50. 7 65. 5 19 24 233 9. 7 273 11. 4 18. 15 18. 30 19.10 42 591 485 1. 7 (1) 24.6 20. 2 17.30 17. 75 105 38 46 4. 4 12. 70 1. 6 1. 9 (1) (1) 90 3. 7 17. 05 23 100. O 16. 65 20 221 ------- -- ----- -- -- -- - -------- ---6 ------ - ----- -- (1) 17 -- - ---- ----- -- --- - -~- - -----(1) 1 17 12. 80 17. 85 14. 30 17. 80 10. 7 20. 6 23 22 --- ---- ------ - 29 1. 4 (1) 6 .. • ..•. --··· · 7 ··- · ··· -- · -· ·· 5 - - · · ·-- ·· ·---- (1) (1) (1) (1) 18 18 18 7 25 15 2 ------- -- ---- - (1) 37 -- - -- -- - ------ -- --·-· -- · ··· - --···· (1) 25 16 1 - ------ ------25 ---- - -- ---- - -- ------ - - - ----- -- - --· 24 20 8 -- · --·- -- · -- - - .3 (1) 15 (1) 17 (1) 14 (1) 30 14 ·-·· - - - - - -- --- (1) 30 - - - --- - ·- -- - -- ------- --·- - - - - - - - -- 26 -- --- -- - ----- - (1) 20 (1) 22 1. 0 (1) 22 -- -··- - -· --··- (1) 14 104 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES Negro women. About 97 per cent of the 2,130 negro women for whom pay-roll data were obtained worked in leaf departments, and for these the median earnings were the same as for the group as a whole, $8. More than two-thirds earned $5 and less than $10, about one-fifth less than $5, and the remainder $10 or more. Almost 1,200 of the women were hand stemmers, with a median of $5.95. The other groups, comprising nearly 900 women, had medians between $8.80 and $9. The range of earnings for all the negro women included in the study was from less than $5 to $18. EARNINGS AND TIME WORKED Figures giving the amounts of earnings present only a partial picture of existing conditions ; but when coupled with the time worked by the women in earning these amounts a clearer understanding of the situation can be had. In the cigarette study it was possible to secure the actual time worked for just over 86 per cent of all the women white and negro . For some the time was reported in hours and for others in days . In the latter group were included pieceworkers who worked irregularly and for whom no time record was necessary in a computation of earnings, as well as some timeworkers reported to have worked on certain days regardless of whether they remained at work all day. Bearing this in mind, a discussion of earnings according to time worked, whether in hours or days, is next presented. White women whose time worked was reported in days. Of the white women included in the cigarette study, 1,553 had time worked reported in days and 2,013 in hours; for 102 there was no report as to time worked. For the 1,553 whose days worked were reported the median earnings were $18.70. There was a steady increase in median with each additional day of work, from $6.20 for those working on less than 3 days to $20.20 for those working on 5%. Nearly seven-eighths (86.2 per cent) of all the women had worked on five or more days, and for these the median was $19.40. More than two-thirds of these had worked on 5½ days, with the somewhat higher median of $20.20. For all the women the range of earnings was from less than $5 to $37. (For details see T able XXIX in the Appendix.) TABLE 26.-Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in da ys, by department-Cigarettes A.-WHITE WOMEN Department Women with days worked reported Less than 3 days 3 and less than 4 days 4 and less I t han 5 days 5 and less than 5½ days 5½ and less than 6 days Num- Me- Num- Me- Num- Me- Num- Me- Num- Median ber ber ber dian ber ber dian dian dian - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - 1, 553 $18. 70 277 $16. 20 1,061 $20. 20 50 $6. 20 109 $13. 65 56 $10. 40 Num- Median ber Total 1 ___ Leaf.. ___ _____ __ 80 Making ________ 106 Packing___ _____ 1,356 - - - 10. 15 16. 90 19.15 9 3 38 (2) f) 2) 6 6 44 (2) (2) (2) 4 10 95 (2) (2) 13. 65 53 4 216 10. 90 (2) 17. 15 8 83 963 (2) 17. 90 20. 30 B.- NEGRO WOMEN Total 1___ , 660 I $8. 451 171 LeaL __ ___ ____ ~ SAO -1-1 1 2 (2) I 11 I (2) 42 (2) 464 1 $8. 50 <2> ~ -'-<2'-->--1--42-1--'<__;_ 2>-1--46-4 8. 50 126 1~ 11 5 9. 60 Includes departments with too few women for the computation of a median, not shown separately. Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS 105 White women whose time worked was reported in hours. The median earnings for the 2,013 white women for whom hours worked were reported were $15.65, more than $3 below the median for those whose time was reported in days. The median rose with increased hours from $7 .50 for the women who worked less than 40 hours to $17 .30 for the women who worked over 48 but less than 52 hours. For longer hours than these there was a decline in earnings. The range for the whole group was from less than $5 to $32. (For details see Table XXX in the Appendix.) Time worked in the various departments. The median earnings for the two groups of white women with time worked reported show the same relation by department as for the group as a whole. The median was lowest for the leaf departments and higbest for the packing departments. Time reAll w h 1·t e . ported in women h ours Department Time reported in days All departments ____ ______ _____ _______________ ___ ___ __ __ ____ __ $17. 05 $15. 65 $18. 70 1- - -- 1 - - - - - 1 - - - LeaL _________________________ ___ ____ ____ _____ ___ ____ ______ ______ __ 11. 35 12. 20 10. 15 Making_____ _______ ______ ____________ ___ ____ _____ ___ ________ _______ _ 15. 40 15. 15 16. 90 Packing_ _____ ____ ______ ___ ___________ _______ _____ _______ _________ __ 17. 75 17. 05 19. 15 Box______ _______________ ___ _____ _________________________________ ___ 16. 65 16. 35 (') 1 Not computed; base less than 50. • In only two departments, making and packing, were there sufficient white women in specified hour groups to warrant computation of median earnings. In packing, the same group as for the whole-that is, those working over 48 but less than 52 hours-had the highest median, $17 .65. For those who worked longer hours, 52 but less than 56 hours, the median was less. In making departments the highest median was $16.65 for the women who had worked over 48 and less than 52 hours. In both the making and the packing departments the women who worked on 5½ days had the highest medians. In the leaf departments the highest median was for those who had worked on 5 days. Negro women whose time worked was reported in days. For the negro women time worked was reported for 660 in days and for 799 in hours; for 671 the time worked was not reported. The 660 whose time worked was reported in days had median earnings of $8.45. Those who worked on 5 days, about seven-tenths of the total, had a median of $8.50, while for the smaller group, who had worked on 5½ days, about one-fifth, it was $9.80. Thus, nearly nine-tenths (89.4 per cent) had worked on 5 days or more, and for this combined group the median was $8.70. The range of earnings for all the women was from less than $5 to $18. (See Tables 26 and XXIX.) For the negro women in the leaf departments the highest median was for those who had worked on 5½ days. Negro women whose time worked was reported in hours. For the 799 negro · women whose time was reported in hours the median earnings were almost the same as those for days worked. The highest median, as in the case of white women, was for those who 126898°-32--8 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 106 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CWARETT:ffi INDUSTRIES TABLE ' 27.- Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in hours, by department-_Cigarettes A.-WHITE WOMEN Women wi th hours worked reported I Less t han 40 hours 40 and less t han 44 and less t han 44 hours 48 h ours Department NumMe- Num- Me- NumMe• NumMedian ber dian ber dian ber dian ber - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 -- - -1-- - - - - - -1-- --t--- -1-- - - - - - - - 2 227 $12. 55 245 $7. 50 67 $12. 50 Total' ------------------------- 2,013 $15. 65 - - --- - - - -- -1----+----- - -1- - - - - - - - - Leaf ______ ______________ __ ________ _ (3) 35 (3) 41 137 12. 20 3 Making_____________________ ________ _ 51 13.15 89 6. 65 18 794 15.15 Packing_______ ___ ____ _______ ____ _____ 12. 60 115 9. 25 37 116 973 17. 05 Box ___ _____ __ ____ ___ _______ __ _____ ___ (3) 3 (3) 9 12 81 16. 35 !1l B.-NEGRO WOME N Total 1 _ ________________ _ __ _ _ _ __ 1 LeaL _______________________ ______ ___ 7991 8. 551 747 8. 55 8. 551 - - 1031_5_. 50- 1 -103 -1-97 5. 60 96 8. 55 ·424 ~ I 8. 60 8.60 A.-WHITE WOMEN-Continued Over 48 and less than 52 hours 48 hours 52 and less than 56 hours 56 and less than 60 hours Number Number 60 hours and over Department Num- ber Median Number Median (3) 1, 138 $17. 30 Median Median Number --- - - - --- T ot al 1 _ ___ _ ___ 21 Leaf_ __ ______________ --- - ----------M aking _____________ 13 (3~ P acking_____ ________ (3 7 Box _________ ___ _____ -------- --- -- --- 47 513 515 53 (3) 16.65 17. 65 17. 20 231 $15.10 10 64 149 3 (3) 13. 80 16.15 (3) 73 Median -- --11 $15. 70 1 4 6 --------------42 28 1 (3~ g) ---- ---- (3) g (3~ ---- ---- B.-NEGRO WOMEN-Continued Time worked :o:~~ Number of Median earnings REPORTED IN HOURS TotaL _____ ______ -- ________ ___ ___ _-____ _________ - -- -- -- -- - -- -- - --· - -- -- -- -- - - 2,013 1- - - - -1245 Less than 40 hours ___ _-----------------------------------------------------------67 40 and less than 44 hours_ ----------- -- ----- - ------- ---- --------------------------2 227 44 hours and less than 48 hours - -- ------------------- ----____________________________ =-------- - ------- - ---- - -----_ 48 __ ___ _______ _____ _-_______________________ ______ 21 Over 48 and less than 52 hours ________________ __________ ________ __________________ _ 1,138 52 and less than 56 hours ___________ __________ _______ _____ _____ __ ____ -- __________ -231 73 56 and less than -- - ___ ------- -- ----- - ----------------------------------_ 60 hours and over60__hours_ _________ ____ ____ ___ ____ ________ _____ ____ _______ ____ _______ 11 $15. 65 7. 50 12. 50 12. 55 (3)" 17. 30 15. 10 15. 70 (3) REPORTED IN DAYS Total ____ - - _- _- _-- -- -- -- -- -- -- - -- - --- - -- -- -- --- - -- -- -- -- - - -- -- - -- - -- -- -- -- - Less than 3 days ___ ____________________________________________ __________________ _13 and less than 4 days __ ______ _______ ________ ___ __ ____ ______________.____ _____ _____ _ 4 and less than 5 days ______ ________ ____ __ ____ __________ __ ____________ ____ ________ _ 5 and less than 5½ days _______________________ ___ ______ ________ __________________ _ 5½ and less than 6 days _________ ___ ____ __ ___________ ___ ________ __________________ _ 1,553 50 56 109 277 1,061 ----l- $18. 70 6. 20 10. 40 13. 65 16. 20 20. 20 1 Includes departments with too few women for the computation of a median, not shown separately. 2 Only 14 had worked exactly 44 hours. s Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS 107 had worked over 48 and less than 52 hours. (See Tables 27 and XXX.) The range of earnings for all was from less than $5 to $18. Only in the leaf departments were there sufficient negro women for the computation of median earnings. For these the median was the same as for all negro women, $8.55. METHOD OF PAYMENT In some of the processes in the manufacture of ·cigarettes the workers were doing piecework, with the amount of earnings depending on the quantity produced. In other processes they were paid for the time worked, measured by the hour, day, week, or longer period. White women. For all the white women for whom pay-roll data were secured, the method of payment was reported. The median earnings for all women were $17.05, for those who worked on a time basis (54.5 per cent) they were $15.60, and for those on piecework (42 per cent) they were $18.65. Approximately 130 women did both timework and piecework. In the packing departments, where nearly two-thirds of the women were employed, the proportions on timework and piecework were respectively 39.9 per cent and 56.2 per cent. The timeworkers had a median of $17.10 and the pieceworkers one considerably higher, $19.10. Among the timeworkers in the packing departments the operators of the new packing machine had the highest median, $18.05. This group comprised about one-fourth of all the timeworkers and more than seven-eighths of the new packing-machine operators. The lowest median among the timeworkers was that for hand stampers, pasters, and wrappers, $11.20. Among the pieceworkers in the packing departments the highest median was for those who packed in cartons, $19.90. Three other groups of pieceworkers in these departments had medians almost as high-$19.70 for the 187 cuppersandinspectorsatoldpackingmachines (four-fifths of the total group of cuppers or inspectors), $19.75 for the 163 feeders and operators of the old packing machines (nearly three-fourths of the total feeders and operators), and $19.85 for the 216 operators of the wrapping machines (about four-fifths of all the wrapping-machine operators). Almost seven-eighths (87 per cent) of the women in the making departments were timeworkers, and for these the median earnings ($15.15) were slightly lower than for the whole group ($15.40). For the small group engaged on piecework the median was $17.15. Nearly two-thirds (64.4 per cent) of the women who operated making machines worked on a time basis, and for these the median earnings were practically the same as for the whole group of operators, $17 .90 as compared with $17 .85. The piece-rate median was identical with that for timeworkers. All inspectors were on a time basis. In the leaf departments the median earnings were $11.35. For the timeworkers, 60.1 per cent of all in these departments, the median was $12.20; for the pieceworkers, 38.2 per cent of the total, the median was the least of all, $9.60. This may be explained by the fact that all the hand stemmers but one were pieceworkers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 108 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES Negro women. Among the negro women the method of payment was reported for all but 15. Unlike the white women, there were more pieceworkers (57.5 per ·cent) than timeworkers (37 .8 per cent) . About 100 women did both timework and piecework. The median earnings for the total group of 2,115 women whose method of payment was reported were $8. The median of the timeworkers was $8.55 and that of the pieceworkers was $6.05. These lower earnings are no doubt due to the fact that the women on piecework, largely hand stemmers, worked very irregular hours. Nearly all the women (97 per cent) were employed in the leaf depar tments. Almost three-fifths of these were hand stemmers, with a median of $5.90; about one-fourth were pickers, with a median of $8.55; and more than one-eighth were machine stemmers, their median being $8.65 . As stated, most of the hand stemming was on a piecework basis, and for these workers the median was $5 .80. Very little of the picking was piecework, and only about one-third of the machine stemmers were on that basis. The median earnings for the machine stemmers who did piecework ($10 .05) were the highest for any group, regardless of the basis of payment. TABLE 28.-Number and median earni ngs of timeworkers and of pieceworkers, by department-Cigarettes A.-WHITE WOMEN All women1 Department TotaL _________ -- -- Numbar Timeworkers Median· Numearnings ber Per cent Per cent Pieceworkers Median Numearnings ber Per cent Median earnings - ---- - -- 3, 668 LeaL ____ ______________ ___ 228 Making ____ _________ ____ _ 912 Packing ______ _________ ___ 2, 401 Box ___ __ __ __ _____ ___ ___ ___ 87 Miscellaneous from all departments ________ ____ 40 100. 0 $17. 05 1, 998 54. .5 $15. 60 1,541 42. 0 $18. 65 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 11. 35 15. 40 17. 75 16. 65 137 793 958 80 60.1 87. 0 39. 9 92. 0 12. 20 15. 15 17.10 16. 30 87 98 1,350 6 38. 2 10. 7 56. 2 6. 9 9. 60 17. 15 19.10 (2) (2) (2) 30 -- ------ (2) --- -- - -- -- - -- --- --- --- --- B .-NEGRO WOMEN TotaL _____ ___ __ __ _ 2,115 Leaf__ __ _______ __ ______ ___ 2, 051 Making ______ ___ __ ____ ___ 7 Packing __ _____ _______ ____ 29 Box ____ _______ __ ____ ______ 7 Miscellaneous from all departments _______ ____ _ 21 1 2 100. 0 100. 0 (2) (2) (2) (2) $8. 00 8. 00 (2) (2) (2) (2) 800 748 7 17 7 21 37. 8 $8. 55 1,216 57. 5 36. 5 8. 55 (2) (2) (2) 1,204 58. 7 1? ---- -- -- $6. 05 6. 00 (2) (2) Totals include 129 white women and 99 negro women who worked on both timework and piecework. Not computed; base less than 50. LOCALITY Pay-roll records were copied for some of the cigarette firms in Durham and Winston-Salem, N. C ., in Louisville, Ky., and in Richmond and Petersburg, Va. I n the summary below are shown t he https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 109 WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS number and per cent of white and negro women for whom pay-roll data were secured in the various localities. All women White Negro L ocality N umber Per cent N u mber Per cent N umber P er cent ------- - --All localit ies included __ ___ ________ ___ ___ __ 5, 798 100. 0 3,668 63. 3 2,130 Kentucky (L ou isville) _________________ _____ ____ N ort h Carolina (Durham an d W inston-Salem) __ _ Virginia (R ichmond and Petersburg) _____ _______ 569 3,661 1,568 100. ·o 100. 0 100. 0 569 1,840 1, 259 100. 0 50. 3 80. 3 1, 821 309 - 36. 7 49. 7 19. 7 Of the 569 white workers included in Louisville, Ky., nearly twofifths (38.5 per cent) were in the packing departments, where they worked at old and new packing machines, stamping and banding machines, and wrapping machines. Other work carried on in these departments consisted of packing in cartons and hand stamping, pasting, and wrapping. More than one-third of the women (34.6 per cent) were in the leaf departments, and nearly one-half of these were engaged in picking tobacco. About one-fourth (23.4 per cent) were in the making departments. The occupation of nearly one-half of the women in these departments was catching the packs of cigarettes as they came from the machine. A.-WHITE W OME N All States D epartment in which women were em ployed Kentucky North Carolina Virginia Number P er cent Number Per cent N umber P er cent N umber Per cent --- --- - ----- --------- All women ___ _____ _____ 3, 668 100. 0 569 100. 0 1,840 100. 0 1,259 100. 0 LeaL ___ _____ ____ __-- -- -- -- -Making _____ ______ ________ ___ Packing ________ __ ______ ______ Box ___________ __ ___ ___ _______ Miscellaneous from all departments ________ ______ ____ 228 912 2, 401 87 6. 2 24. 9 65. 5 2. 4 197 133 219 19 34. 6 23.4 38. 5 3. 3 14 366 1, 404 38 0. 8 19. 9 76. 3 2. 1 17 413 778 30 1. 4 32. 8 61. 8 2. 4 40 1.1 1 .2 18 1. 0 21 1. 7 B .-NEGR O WOME N All women __ _____ ____ __ 2, 130 100. O ____ _____ __ _______ 1, 821 100. O 309 100. 0 LeaL ___ __ _____ __ ___ _ All other_ ___, __ _____ _________ 2,065 65 96. 9 _________ _________ 1,777 44 97. 6 2. 4 288 21 93. 2 6. 8 J __ _ _ _ _ 3. 1 _____ ___ _ _______ __ The workers in North Carolina for whom pay-roll d at a were obtained totaled 3,661, almost equally divided between white and negro. Slightly more than three-fourths of the white women were in the packing and about one-fifth in the making depar tments. Most of the negro workers, nearly 98 per cent, were in the leaf departments. In Virginia about four-fifths of the 1,568 workers were white. More than three-fifths (61.8 per cent) of the white women worked in packing departments; nearly one-third were in making departments. Of the negro workers, more than nine-tenths (93.2 per cent) were in the leaf departments. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 110 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES The median of the weekly earnings of white women was highest ($17.60) in North Carolina, where more than one-half of the white women were employed; Virginia followed, with more than one-third of the women and a median of $17.35; and Kentucky, with about one-sixth of the women, had the lowest median, $12.45. The much lower median in Kentucky may be explained by the fact that one of the largest plants in that State was not operating full time. For the negro women in North Carolina, where nearly seveneighths (85.5 per cent) were employed, the median was $7 .95. In Virginia, where the remainder were employed, the median was $8.30. EARNINGS AND AGE White women. Of all the 1,819 white cigarette workers, the greatest proportion (46.3 per cent) received $15 and under $20 on the pay rolls copied. This was the chief wage class for all age groups of considerable size with two exceptions: (1) The 137 women 40 and under 50 years of age had an equal proportion in the wage class $20 and under $2.5; and (2) of the girls under 18 years, just over one-half (51.8 per cent) received $10 and under $15. The women 40 to 49 years old had much the highest proportion earning $20 and under $30--40.9 per cent, as contrasted with 32.5 per cent for the next age group in rank. Only about 1 per cent (1.3) of all the 1,819 women earned less than $5. As age increased the proportion earning less than $5 decreased from 4.5 per cent of those under 18 years to 0.7 per cent of those 40 and under 50 years. Only about 3 per cent earned $25 or more. None under 18 earned as much as this, and the proportions earning $25 or above varied from 2.1 per cent of those 18 and under 20 years old to 5.5 per cent of those who were 50 and under 60. (See chart on page 111, and Appendix Table XXXI.) Negro women. Of the 185 negro women in cigarette manufacture for whom both wage and age were obtained, nearly two-thirds (64.9 per cent) had earnings of $5 and under $10. Almost one-eighth (11.9 per cent) earned less than $5. All but two of these were at least 25 years old. Less than one-fourth-only 43 women-earned as much · as $10. Twenty-four who earned such amounts were at least 25 years old. All the negro women included earned less than $13 a week. (See . Appendix Table XXXI.) In specified departments. - Practically three-fourths (74.9 per cent) of the 171 negroes who worked in the leaf departments earned less than $10 on the pay rolls copied. More than one-half of these were 30 years of age and over. In the making departments were employed 467 white women whose age and earnings were reported. Nearly seven-eighths of these, 403 women, earned $10 and under $20, and 200 of these were 20 and under 30 years of age. Of the 273 who did catching from the machine, all but 8 earned $10 and under $20. Well over one-half (56.2 per cent) . were under 25 years. Only 47 worked at feeding the making machine. Twenty-four of them were not yet 25 years of age, and of these women only 3 earned less than $10 and only 1 earned as much as $20. Of the 79 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 111 WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS women who operated the making machine, 56 earned $10 and under $20 and 17 earned $20 or more. Well over one-half (41) of the women who earned as much as $10 were at least 25 years of age. Forty-one of the 68 women who were inspectors at the making machine earned $10 and under $20. Only one earned less than $10 and the remainder earned $20 and under $25. Seventeen of those PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT WEEK'S EARN. INGS OF WHITE WOMEN, BY AGE-CIGARETTES EARNINGS Per cent 0 20 40 60 UNDER 18 YEARS Less than $5 $5 and less $10 and less $15 and less $20 and less $ 25 and over than than thsn than $10 $15 $20 $25 18 AND UNDER 20 Less than $5 $5 and less $10 and less $15 and less $20 and less $25 and over YEARS 20 AND UNDER 25 Less than $5 $5 and les s $10 and less $15 and less $20 and less $25 and over YEARS 25 AND UNDER 30 Less than $5 $5 and less '10 and less $15 and less $20 and less $25 and over YEARS 30 AND UNDER 40 Less than ts $5 and less $10 and less $15 and less $20 and le:;s $25 and over YEARS 40 AND UNDER 50 Less than $5 $5 and less '10 and less $15 and less $20 and less $25 and over YEARS 50 AND UNDER 60 Less than f,S $5 and les s $10 and less $15 and less $20 and less $25 and over YEARS than $10 than $15 than $20 than $25 than than than than L p::. $10 f,15 $20 $ 25 than $10 than $15 t han $20 t han $25 t- t han '10 t han t,15 than $20 t han $25 t han than t han t han $10 $15 $20 $25 t hr.n $10 than tis t han $20 t han $25 E who earned $10 and under $20 and 7 of those who earned $20 or more were not yet 25 years of age. Of the 1,263 white women in the packing departments, about three-fifths (59.2 per cent) earned $10 and under $20. Only 39 women earned less than $10, and the 476 remaining earned from $20 to $30 or more. Of the 748 who earned $10 and under $20, 152 were less than 20 years old and only 85 were as much as 40. Of 96 women operating the new packing machine, 77 earned $10 and under $20. Twenty-seven of these were under 25, 26 were 25 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 112 WOM:filN IN CIGAR AN'.D CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES and under 30, and 24 were 30 and under 50, all but 2 of the last named being under 40. Of the 17 women who earned $20 or more, only 1 was less than 25. Feeding or operating the old packing machine occupied 174 women whose age and earnings were obtained. Well over one-half (95) of these women earned $10 and under $20, and 50 of this group were at least 30 years old. A much smaller number (76) earned $20 and under $24, and 61 of these were 30 or more, 8 being at least 50. A slightly larger number, 186, worked at cupping or inspecting at the old packing machine. Of these, 95 earned $10 and under $20 and 87 earned $20 and under $23. Thirty-one of the 95 who earned $10 and under $20 and 32 of the 87 earning $20 or over were less than 25 years of age. Operating the wrapping machine gave employment to 213 white women for whom age and wage data were obtained. Only 3 of these earned less than $10, well over one-h alf (56.3 per cent) earned $10 and under $20, and more than two-fifths (42.3 per cent) $20 or over. Of those who earned $10 and under $20, the largest group, 42, were 20 and under 25 years. Almost equal proportions of those earning $10 and under $20 and $20 or over were 30 years of age or more. A total of 273 white women who reported as to age worked at handpacking cigarettes. All but 7 had earn·e d at least $10 and as many as 107 earned $20. or more. One-half (50.9 per cent) of those who earned $10 and under $20 were girls under 20. Of the 107 who earned $20 and more, just over one-half (55 women) were 20 and under 30. A considerable group, 198 women, put the cigarette packs in cartons. Only 5 of these women had earned less than $10. Nearly three-fifths (58.6 per cent) had earned $10 and under $20, and nearly two-fifths (38.9 per cent) had earned $20 and under $30. These women were not so young as the hand packers. Sixty of the 116 who earned $10 and under $20 and 31 of the 77 who earned $20 or over were at least 25 years of age. FLUCTUATION IN THE EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN TWO FACTORIES To secure evidence of the changes that have been taking place in cigarette factories, pay rolls of two firms were copied for two separate periods, a few months apart. For one firm, Plant A, the pay rolls were copied for a week in September, 1929, and for a week in May, 1930, nearly eight months later and after a change in operation had been made. For the other, Plant B, the records were obtained' for a week in April and another in December, 1929. In each case the plant was revisited some months later, when still further change was noted. Plant A. The earlier pay-roll records of Plant A showed 597 women employed, while at the later date there were only 375. A great decrease was evident in the numbers employed in the packing department, a declinefrom356 to 145, or211 women. The number in the box department had declined from 15 to 0, and the number of miscellaneous workers from all departments from '48 to 1. The decrease in the packing department was due to the introduction of the new packing machine. The workers on the old packing machine had all been girls working in teams, one feeder for two machines, one operator, and one https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS 113 catcher, who put packs in the tray. The new packing machine occupied only one operator, and this was a man. In the leaf and making departments the numbers of women had increased from 30 to 42 and from 148 to 187, respectively. The return visit was made in October of 1930. At this time it was found that during the late summer and early fall of that year the company had made other changes in machine equipment, by installing 42 glassine-wrapping machines, which gave employment to 84 women; 128 additional making machines, employing 256-equal numbers of men and women; and 8 banding machines, employing 8 men and 8 women. Furthermore, they had added 21 women examiners in the making department. There was very little difference in average hourly earnings between the 239 on the early pay roll and the 261 on the late who were paid an hourly rate. The median of the average hourly earnings for the 239 was 31½ cents, while the median for the 261 was 32 cents. Twofifths (40.6 per cent) of those on the early pay roll and about threetenths (29.5 per cent) of those on the late pay roll had average earnings of less than 30 cents an hour. On both late and early pay rolls the largest proportion were earnll!g 30 and under 35 cents. More than one-tenth of the early pay-roll group and somewhat less than onetenth of the late pay-roll group had average hourly earnings of 40 cents or more. As was true of hourly earnings, there was little difference between the two periods in median of the average daily earnings. This was $4.55 for the 353 on the early pay roll and $4.45 for the 112 on the late pay roll. Only about 1 per cent of the women whose daily earnings were reported. averaged less than $3 a day. Almost seven-eighths (87 per cent) of those on the early pay roll and more than nine-tenths (91.1 per cent) of those on the late pay roll had average daily earnings of $4 and over. Of the 597 women employed in Plant A at the date of the early pay roll, 295 were employed there eight months later, the date of the second pay roll. One hundred and thirty-seven of these, for all but 1 of whom hours worked were reported, were employed at the same work at both dates. There was little variation in average hours or earnings, though for the 9 who had worked in the leaf department the average hours were 50.3 on the early pay roll and 53.2 on the late. The average earnings of these women were $10.31 on the early pay roll and $10.90 on the late. In the making department 92 women were employed-74 catchmg from the machine and 18 inspecting the finished product. The average hours worked by these two groups on the early pay roll were respectively 52.8 A-nd 53.1, but by the late pay roll they were 48.9 and 51.2. Average hourly earnings for those catching from the machine were 32 cents on the early pay roll and 33 cents on the late. For those who did inspecting the average hourly earnings were 39 cents on the early pay roll and 40 cents on the late. In the packing department the time worked was reported in days, and for the three occupations at which women were employed, operating the wrapping machine, operating the stamping and banding machine, and packing in cartons, the average time worked varied little. The average daily earnings for women operating the wrapping machine decreased from $4.66 on the early pay roll to $4.37 on the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 114 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES late pay roll, and for those packing in cartons they decreased from $4.60 to $4.36, while for the women operating the stamping and banding machine there was an increase from $3.88 to $4.20. The facts regarding the women engaged in the same work on both dates show no great differences in the average time worked or the average earnings, but for the 158 women whose occupation had changed some differences were noted. As an example, the 20 women who had worked at feeding or operating the old packing machine on an average 5.3 days a week, and whose average daily earnings had been $4.55 ($23.12 weekly) were employed on the late pay roll as · catchers in the making department, working an average week of 47 hours, at an average of 30.9 cents an hour ($14.52 weekly), greatly reduced earnings. A like reduction in earnings was noted for the 25 who had done cupping or inspecting at the old packing machine, where they worked on an average 5.4 days a week and had average daily earnings of $4.56 ($24.62 weekly). On the late pay roll they worked an average of 50 hours a week, for which they received 32 cents an hour ($16 weekly). Plant B. In the other firm, Plant B, the number employed at the date of the early pay-roll records, in April, 1929, was 610, but eight months later an increase of 95 in numbers had taken place. The three departments in which an increase was noted were the packing department, showing an increase from 372 to 481; the making department, from 38 to 145; and the leaf department, an increase from 45 to 53. The great increase in the making department was due to the introduction of a new kind of cigarette. This kind had been made formerly in another city, but during the summer previous to the copying of the pay-roll records the company had transferred their manufacture to this city. The increase in the packing department was due partly to the increased production and partly to the introduction of flat containers in which the cigarettes were packed by hand. The median of the average hourly earnings at the time of the early pay roll was 33 cents; at the time of th e late pay roll it was 34 cents. Nearly three-tenths (28.8 per cent) of the women at the earlier date, as compared with about one-sixth (17.4 per cent) of those at the later date, had average earnings of less than 20· cents an hour. As indicated by the median earnings, a slightly larger part of those on the late pay roll (64.9 per cent) than of those on the earlier one (61.8 per cent) had average hourly earnings of 30 cents or more. For women with earnings reported in days, the median of the average dail.Y earnings was $3.35 for the 391 women on the early pay roll and $3.50 for the 395 women on the late. Less than 5 per cent of the former, but well over one-fifth of the latter, had average daily earnings of as much as $4. When a return visit was made in October, 1930, it was learned that the number in the packing department had decreased considerably; about 100 had been laid off during the summer . . In addition to securing pay rolls for two specified weeks in Plant B material was made available for a longer consecutive period for 1928 and 1929. These figures show even more strikingly the effect on numbers employed brought tiibo-ut by changes j:q the style of pack.. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 115 WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS ing, in the method of operation, or in the installation of improved machinery. The one increase due quite largely to trade demands occurred in 1928, when the fl.at container suddenly grew in popularity. Within six months the hand-packing department, for these boxes necessarily were packed by hand, increased tremendously. However, a change in 1928 that led to a decrease in numbers was traceable to an improved method of processing the leaf. With an added amount of steam, fewer negro women were required to pick the leaf apart, and consequently employment in this department dropped considerably. In the next year, 1929, radical improvements in the mechanical equipment were immediately reflected in the employment records. Earlv in the year the old-style packing machine was so improved tha( a large number of women who were hopper feeders were eliminated, but this lay-off was partially compensated within a few weeks by the introduction of a number of the latest type of making machines, on which it was possible to place 25 women as operators. Before that no women had been employed on making machines. At about the same time the company transferred work here from its plant in another city, which gave added employment for a large number of women. While the women in this locality benefited by this removal, those in the other city, a number of whom had been many years with the firm, were laid off to hunt for jobs in a community where there was no demand for experienced cigarette workers. YEAR'S EARNINGS IN 'CIGARS Thus far, the pay-roll earnings discussed have been those which the women received for one week, considered by company officials to be a representative week, having neither overtime nor undertime to excess. But it is not to be taken for granted that each woman earned during the year fifty-two times the amount of the week's earnings reported. Due to various causes, personal and other, year's earnings in industry rarely equal such a figure. The total year's earnings are of utmost importance to the woman worker, for itjs on this amount that she and her dependents must live. Again the reader is reminded that in few cases were hand plants operating full time. TABLE 29.-Year's earnings, by weeks worked-Cigars All women Year's earnings .... l=1 8 (l) .0 ~ z ~ p.. -- Total ________ _- - _- - __ 514 100.0 Median ________________ ____ $827 Less than $400____ _______ ___ 24 4. 7 $400 and less than $600 ____ _ 54 10.5 $600 and less than $800 _____ 148 28. 8 $800 and less than $1,000 _____ 175 34.0 $1,000 and less than $1,200 ___ 96 18..7 $1,200 and over_ ____________ 17 3.3 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 44 and less than 46 weeks .... l=1 8 .... (l) .0 ~ z (l) p.. 17 (1) (1) 3 -----2 -----5 -----5 -----1 -----1 ------ 46 and less than 48 weeks .... (l) .0 ~ z l=1 0 .... (l) (l) p.. 48 and less than 50 weeks ~ .0 ~ z l=1 0 .... (l) (l) p.. ------ 80 100.0 $805 7. 5 6 7 8.8 26 32. 5 25 31.3 15 18. 8 1 1.3 169 100. 0 $846 3 1.8 19 11. 2 44 26.0 58 34.3 37 21.9 4. 7 8 50 and less than 52 weeks ~ .0 ~ z l=1 8 ~ p.. 197 100. 0 $814 9 4. 6 20 10. 2 63 32.0 73 37. 1 27 13. 7 5 2. 5 52 weeks ~ .0 ~ z ~ 8 ~ p.. 51 100. 0 $917 5. 9 3 11. 8 6 10 19. 6 14 27. 5 16 31.4 2 3. 9 116 WOMEN lN CiGAR. AND CIGARETTE tNDUST.ntEs As would be expected, the 514 cigar workers, white and negro, for whom year's earnings were secured were steady workers. All of them had been on the rolls for 52 weeks and had worked in at least 44 of the 52. More than four-fifths had worked in at least 48 weeks; 10 per cent of all were on every pay roll of the year. The median of the earnings of the latter group is $917, well over one-third of the women earning $1,000 or more. The fact that the 197 women who worked 50 and under 52 weeks had a median more than $100 below that of the 52-week workers is indicative of a lower wage scale or of considerable undertime. Only about one-sixth of these women earned as much as $1,000. More than one-third of the women (34 per cent) earned $800 and less than $1,000, and the median earnings for the 514 women-one-half earning more and one-half less-were $827. Almost three-tenths of the women (28.8 per cent) earned $600 and less than $800, and almost one-fifth (18.7 per cent) $1,000 and less than $1,200. For about one-tenth (10.5 per cent) the year's earnings were $400 and less than $600. Less than 5 per cent earned below $400 in the year, and only 3.3 per cent earned as much as $1,200. Earnings were the highest in the cities of 400,000 or more population. Stripping departments. Nearly one-fifth of those for whom year's earnings were reported were employed in stripping departments. As would be expected, the year's earnings were considerably lower for these 96 women than for the group as a whole. More than two-fifths, in contrast to less than one-sixth of all the women, earned less than $600. Only one-fourth earned $800 or more. Only one woman in the stripping departments earned as much as $1,000. In these departments the median earnings were $650, for those who worked at hand stripping they were $450, and for the machine strippers $7 50. Cigar-making departments. In the cigar-making departments were 323, or more than threefifths, of the women for whom year's earnings were reported. The median earnings for the 323 women were $899. Two in three of all in these departments were in hand manufacture. Hand and machine manufacture.- Almost 12· per cent of the women in the hand manufacture of cigars, but no woman in machine making, had earned less than $600. Just over three-tenths of the handworkers had earned $600 and under $800, and practically the same number were in the next higher group, $800 and under $1,000. More than one-fourth of all earned at least $1,000. Of the women in machine manufacture, where more than nine-tenths were on the automatic cigar-making machine, more than one-third earned at least $1,000. Practically one-half were in the group $800 and under $1,000. About one-fourth of the handworkers had done bunch making, almost all the remainder being rollers. About one-third of the bunch makers and more than two-fifths of the rollers had earned less than $800. The median earnings for the 222 women in hand manufacture were $842. For the 101 in machine manufacture the median was $950. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 117 WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS Packing departments. In the packing departments one-third of the women had earned $600 and under $800, and a few more had earned $800 and under $1,000. Ahnost 1 in 8 (11 of the 93) had earned less than $600. Only 17 earned as much as $1 ,000. The median earnings for the 93 in the packing departments were $825. TABLE Department 30.-Year's earnings, by department- Cigars $600 and $800 and $1,000 and $1,200 and Less than less than less than less than over $600 Me$1,200 $1,000 $800 Num- dian Per ber of earn- cent women ings Num- Per Num- Per Num- P er Num- Per Num- P er ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ---------All departments Stripping _____ ______ 514 $827 100. 0 78 15. 2 148 28. 8 175 34. 0 96 96 650 100. 0 40 41. 7 32 33. 3 23 24. 0 1 Cigar making ___ ____ Hand ___ ___ ___ __ Machine _____ __ 323 222 101 899 100. 0 842 100.0 950 100. 0 26 26 8. 0 11. 7 85 69 16 26. 3 31. 1 15. 8 U7 67 50 36. 2 30. 2 49. 5 80 46 34 24.8 20. 7 33. 7 15 14 1 4. 6 6. 3 1.0 Packing. ___ __ ____ __ Shipping _________ __ 93 2 825 100. 0 (1) (1) 15 16.1 2 2. 2 1 ------ ------ 11. 8 31 33. 3 1 ---- -- --- - -- ---- -- 11 34 36. 6 1 -- ---- 18. 7 17 1. 0 ---- -- 3. 3 ----- ------ -- ---- - - - - - - - - - -- Not computed; base less than 50. By locality. More than one-half of the 514 women whose year's earnings were reported were in Pennsylvania, where 267 records were secured. In New Jersey there were 69 , in Ohio 61 , and in Massachusetts 52 . The remainder, 65, were in various States. Of the large group in Pennsylvania, about 40 per cent had earned $600 and under $800, and three-tenths were jn the next higher group. In New Jersey all the women earned at least $600 or more, and ahnost one-half (49.3 per cent) earned $1,000 or more--a great contrast to Pennsylvania, where this proportion was only 8.2 per cent. Just one-half of the women in Massachusetts were in the earnings group $800 and under $1,000. Almost three-tenths earned $1,000 or more. Fifteen of the 61 workers in Ohio earned less than $600, but more t han three-tenths earned $1,000 and under $1,200. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PART VII.-WORKING CONDITIONS It means much when one must sit in the same corner of the same room year after year, to have it clean, bright, and comfortable. Depressing surroundings in the shape of dull walls and dirty floors, the strain of bad lighting, the annoyance caused by the lack of decent dressing rooms and other service facilities, undoubtedly have a cumulative effect that engenders discontent and in time kills what joy there may have been in the job. What the physical surroundings were in the workrooms of the cigar factories whose working conditions were reported in the survey and what service facilities were provided for the comfort of the employees are briefly summarized in the following pages. Descriptions of a few plants will make clear the main characteristics of the better and the less desirable working conditions. Plant 1.-In an important manufacturing city a small hand cigar factory occupied parts of an old 3-story frame builcling. The upper hall was dark and narrow. The dirty walls of the workrooms, together with the old-type sash windows on only one or two sides, made the rooms seem dark. The natural light was inadequate for most of the workers, and the artificial lighting was poor. Drop lights were supplied, but the majority were unshaded and the few shades provided were not satisfactory. A stove in each room was the only means of heating. The sanitary conveniences were below average. In general, the housekeeping was bad, and the place was drab and dirty. , Plant 2.-Another hand plant, employing about 50 women, is described as follows: Three-story frame builcling, 30 or 40 years old. Narrow stairways, with treads worn, rough, and splintered. Housekeeping poor-general neglect in upkeep and maintenance: Floors dirty, walls dirty, windows dirty, the few window shades soiled and ragged. Insanitary bubbling fountain. Washing facilities inadequate and badly kept; no hot water. Toilet rooms .dirty, electric light out of repair; one toilet ventilates into adjoining room. Firstaid kit-almost no supplies. In general, poor conditions-building and equipment old and dirty. · Plant 3.-But not all the hand plants were unpleasant places. An outstanding example of what a hand plant can be was found in a fireproof 5-story building of recent construction. It had ample factory windows and more than 90 per cent of the 600 women found the natural light sufficient. A passenger elevator with a full-time operator took employees to the upper floors. The stairways were inclosed in fireproof walls. Janitors swept continuously, and the housekeeping was excellent-floors, walls, windows, and worktables all very clean. The roomy and airy lavatories were models, equipped with modern fixtures and in perfect order. Sanitary bubblers were convenient for all. In addition, there were quite complete service 118 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis WORKING CONDITIONS 119 facilities, including a lunch room and a rest room with clean cot and comfortable chairs. There were lockers for wraps. This was one of the few hand plants having a washed-air system of ventilation and temperature control. It was used throughout the building, both winter and summer. Plant 4.--A large machine plant with superior working conditions is described as follows: A new brick and concrete building of the modern factory type; elevators; good stairways; artificially ventilated; clean; large windows on four sides, adequate except for machine obstruction and having shades or curtains, and good artificial lighting, no glare; seats for more than four-fifths of workers; bubbling fountains of the sanitary type; hot water, soap, paper towels; individual lockers, in charge of matron; caps and aprons sold at cost; very good toilet rooms; good and inexpensive cafeteria; full-time nurse. Stairways. More often than not the stairways in the buildings were rated as satisfactory, though few were made of cement and inclosed in fireproof wells. A bout three-fourths were of wood. In onlv 5 factories were there winding stairways; in only 5 was the light unsatisfactory. A few (14) were narrow, but only 1 was without a handrail. A stairway that failed to measure up to good standards was described as follows: "Winding, wood, dimly lighted, too narrow for 2 persons to pass easily, the only stairs provided for about 50 women to use." One adequate in most respects was "not inclosed by any walls and leads from the middle of one workroom to another." Floors and aisles. Only two plants, each of which occupied a new building, had composition or cement floors throughout. Wooden floors prevailed, even in the plants equipped with machinery. Though worn or broken floor boards were noted in about 1 in 6 factories and dirty floors in about 1 in 5, housekeeping generally was good, many schedules commenting on this. Almost every plant claimed to have some sweeping done every day; one factory stated that it had only a weekly sweeping, and in a few others the same economy was apparent. In 10 factories some or all of the aisles were narrow and in 9 the passages were not clear but had obstructions of one kind or another. Lighting. Since the work in a cigar factory is not fine detail, the problem of lighting is less difficult to control than in €stablishments where the work requires close attention. Shading is the only occupation that requires the best of light, and it is customary to place the~e workers on the top floor, near north windows, if possible, or under a skylight. Only occasionally is such an exposure inadequate, and in these cases daylight electric bulbs are used to supplement the natural light. Natural light was adequate under ordinary circumstances in about 30 factories, most of which were operating solely on a hand basis and were, on the whole, the smaller establishments. Besides the 30 plants where daylight was sufficient throughout it was adequate for most of the employees in about 45 other establishments. A glare from daylight conditions affected some of the employees in 10 factories. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 120 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES Artificial light was reported as sufficient in all but 4 plants at the time · of the visit, but a glare from badly placed or unshaded bulbs was noted in one or more instances in as many as 20 factories. Excerpts from the inspection schedules show in a general way what the conditions were in regard to lighting. Walls needed painting and windows washing; light fair to poor. Walls freshly painted; very clean and light. Natural light adequate except near ~enter of rooms (about 97 women employed). Workrooms light; ceiling and all walls above wainscoting were white and in excellent condition. Natural light excellent in all rooms (except at middle) from large factory windows; saw-toothed roof for packers on top floor. Window shades supplied where needed, so no glare. Bunchers and rollers sat facing a row of many sash windows. Several workers wore visors to shield the eyes. Artificial lighting poor; drop lights, some unshaded and others with fl.at reflectors hung at a level that caused a glare for most workers. Lighting haphazard; drop cords, some with shades, many without, causing a glare for some because of poor placing. Approved dome lights throughout except in packing department, where daylight bulbs were in use. Ventilation. For the most part the workrooms in the hand plants were not large and workers sat fairly near the windows. Occasionally there was an open skylight, and electric fans were a help in keeping the air in motion. Small sash windows prevailed in the older buildings, but frequently descriptions on the schedules read "good cross draft in all rooms," "large airy plant," "light and airy." Occasionally, however, the comments read "very stuffy when windows closed," "in the leaf department humidity was high and no circulation of air," "stripping department had no artificial ventilation and odor of tobacco very oppressive." One of the most striking differences between the machine-equipped and hand-operated plants was in the method of ventilation. When cjgars are made by hand, the woman handling the leaf is the best judge of how the tobacco is working up and whether or not it is too dry or too moist, but with making machines some mechanical control of moisture was necessary. Consequently, where making machines were in use, artificial conditioning equipment had been installed. In this way a uniform quality of the leaf was assured summer and winter, and when conditioners were combined with a heating and cooling system, as was invariably the case, temperature as well as humidity conditions remained constant throughout the year. At first there was no little prejudice among the workers against working in a "sealed room," but they soon learned that the overhead carriers through which the washed air was forced were likely to produce an atmosphere more comfortable than the outside air. In only a few of the hand plants was the carrier system of artificial ventilation in use. On~ large hand factory, thoroughly modern in construction, depended entirely upon artificial ventilation, and windows were never opened. It was equipped with a washed-air carrier system throughout. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis WORKING CONDITIONS 121 Other factories, with simpler humidifying systems, did not use them continuously but depended on natural ventilation much of the time. A few had o·n ly unit humidifiers, whose purpose was to keep the tobacco leaf in the room moist enought to work up efficiently. In a stripping room where the moisture was thrown into the air by local jets it had been necessary to attach trays to protect women from the spray: Seating. Under the old hand method of making cigars the chief complaint was against the constant sitting posture and toiial lack of opportunity to change position. With the introduction of the machine there has been added a certain element of risk, but except for the girl at the first position at the machine, who sometimes stands and sometimes sits, cigar making is still largely a sitting job. Moreover, the machine being foot controlled, the girls on the team who control the power have no freedom of the leg or foot while the power is on. It is practically impossible for them to shift about, and many assume a strained and awkward position in keeping the slight pressure constantly applied. In the 76 factories where numbers of women were noted, over 16,000 women sat at their work, while only about 1,700 stood and comparatively few-something over 600-were fortunate enough to have work at which the posture could be either standing or sitting. Since it is necessary for thousands of the employees to sit from morning until night, week after week and year after year, the suitability of the seat is a very important factor in the comfort and efficiency of the worker. The types of seats provided in the cigar factories ranged from boxes, crude benches, high or low stools without backs, stools with boards nailed on to serve as backs, and ordinary wooden kitchen chairs with rounded backs, to the latest and most approved type of chairs with legs and back rests adjustable to the various requirements of employees and jobs. The most common type of seat was the kitchen chair, found in the majority of the cigar factories visited. But there were also large numbers of stools and of benches and boxes. Tall women and short women used the same type of stools and chairs, and the same seat was supposedly adapted for work at low tables or at higher workbenches. There were no factories where adjustable seats ·were provided for all workers, but in about one-third there were at least some chairs that could be made to fit the individual employee by changing the position of the back rest or the height of the seat. More seats of this type were found in the machine plants than in hand establishments. In most cases the backs of ordinary chairs were useless as supports while working but in. moments of relaxation they were better than the narrow benchlike seats and stools with no backs. However, in one fair-sized department it was stated that the girls preferred stools, saying that chair backs would be in the way. The type of chair that had been suggested in this case was not reported. In some stripping departments the backs of seats had been removed or turned under, as they interfered with the free movement of the women's arms. 126898°-32--9 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 122 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES Nine firms supplied foot rests for all their workers. There was nothing uniform in the types: Rough blocks of wood, boxes, and small planks served the purpose of ten in a haphazard way; more of ten a rail on the bench, a low shelf on the table, or a rod on the machine relieved the position, though not always conveniently placed. One large firm supplied small individual stools as foot rests for all workers who needed them, and it was as much a part of the day's work to pick up the stool at night and leave it on the chair as it was to hang up one's apron. Some stripping machines were equipped with metal seats with or without backs. In more than one stripping department, as already described, the operators preferred not to use the backs, as they were not adjustable; the girls complained that they interfered with the free use of their arms, because they did not fit. They were also called a "nuisance" in getting on and off the chair. In some factories girls sat perched on high stools while they fed the tobacco filler into the cigar-making machines; and for a foot rest they twisted their feet about the legs of the stool or caught their heels on the rungs. In one case an effort had been made to supply a metal foot rest for these feeders, but it was neither large enough nor conveniently placed, and the arrangement was the same regardless of whether the operators were tall or short. On banding and foiling machines the workers could alternate jobs, thus making it possible to have a change in posture, first sitting while they fed the machine and then standing to take the cigars away from the machine. · Stools were the most common seats furnished for .this kind of work. Some were low; others were high; and many had nothing but the rungs of the stools for a foot rest. In six of the departments where all the jobs required standing, extra stools or chairs had been provided for the employees to use during relief or other spare moments. Although employees in the packing and shipping departments stood more than elsewhere, it was rare to find these departments devoid of at least a few seats, convenient for relief of an occasional minute now and then. The following extracts from schedules illustrate the seating equipment in some factories: Miscellaneous array of seating arrangements with chairs a nd stools of all kinds. Some operators at the automatic machines had new adjustable chairs, but most seats in the plant were old chairs and stools of all varieties. Chairs poor throughout. Many broken, old and dirty. Several had kitchen chairs and some had their own cushions. A few had low, benchlike stools. Most were able to reach the floor with their feet, but one or two had blocks of wood and some had sawed off the legs of their chairs to make them a more convenient height. It was not unusual to see a motley array of cushions, some shaped to fit the backs of the chairs and faotened to the frames while others were used as seat pads. Drinking facilities. A summary of drinking facilities shows that bubbler drinking fountains had been installed in 28 establishments, but in only 4 were all of the approved sanitary type in which the water can not fall back nor be forced back onto the point of discharge. The common cup https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis WORKING CONDITIONS 123 was still in evidence in 17 factories, but none were noted in the modern machine plants. Even in the most immaculate up-to-date factories it was not customary for the firm to furnish individual paper drinking cups. Many employees furnished their own cups. In one establishment electric refrigeration showed the eagerness of the management to keep up with the times, but too often the oldstyle barrel-like tank-not always with close-fitting cover, of doubtful cleanliness, and with ice floating in the water until it melted-was the cheaper substitute for sanitary coolers. Some entries on the inspection blanks reported as follows: Faucet at sink but no special drinking facilities. Stated that in summer a tank was installed. , Tank provided, but cover off and no water in it on day of inspection. Tin cup for common use at sink faucet. Washing facilities. The following summarizes the outstanding features of the washing facilities as reported for 80 factories: Hot water was supplied in only 15 establishments; soap in only 19 (in another there were soap cont ainers but some were broken and all were empty); towels in only 15. In 10 plants the towels supplied were paper, and in one place some of the containers were empty. Two had individual cloth towels-one the pull-clean variety and the other those strung on rods. In two instances the employees were expected to pay for individual towel service. Electric dryers were inst alled in some plants. The common towel was seen in four factories. In one of these the forelady apologized for soiled towels and explained that they had a dozen clean ones two or three times a week. In another plant only four clean towels a day were supplied for over 200 women. On the whole, towels were most conspicuous by their absence. In about half of the plants washing facilities were reported as inadequate; it is no wonder, then , that in almost half the cases the equipment was dirty. There is no definite standard as to what constitutes an adequate number of washing facilities per given number of employees, but cleanliness is essential in the handling of tobacco and there can be no doubt that in such extreme cases as one sink for the use of 150 women, or one for 100, 60, or even 30 women, such arrangements were most unsatisfactory for all concerned. The situation was further complicated by the fact that in over twothirds of the plants the washbowls were used by both men and women. In the majority of the machine plants, many of which were newer than the hand plants, hot water was abundant and washbowls were adequate and conveniently located. Probably this was not alone for the accommodation of the workers but was intended for the efficient cleaning of the machine dies and plates-a necessary and frequent operation. There was often a general correspondence between conditions of the plumbing equipment and other standards in the plant. "Black iron troughs with some spigots out of repair" were not found in plants whose workrooms were described as "spotlessly clean," nor, on the other hand, were the workrooms supplied with white porcelain sinks having 10 or 12 hot and cold water spigots described as "grimy with dirt and dust." https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 124 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES Toilet facilities. An adequate number of toilet accommodations is important in eliminating confusion and unnecessary loss of time and in conserving health. Some States have fixed by law the ratio between number of facilities and number of employed. Their standards vary, but the standard of the Women's Bureau requires one seat to every 15 women. Twenty-four of the 80 cigar factories came up to this standard, but some of the others fell far short of it. In none of the machine plants was the average more than 30 women to a seat, but in 16 hand factories it was higher and in half of these the number of women per seat varied from about 40 to 80. In a factory where two seats were provided for 137 women they were described as "very dirty." Not only were the accommodations inadequate in many instances, but other conditions were unsatisfactory. Possibly the most serious fault was one of construction. In seven factories none of the toilet rooms had outside windows and in 11 others only some of the rooms had windows. Occasionally one had a shaft or vent pipe, but these were a poor substitute for windows. One such arrangement was described as having "no natural light in the combined toilet and wash room, with seven seats for 110 workers. A IO-inch pipe in tb.e side wall opens into the hallway-no other ventilation." In this same factory, however, facilities for about 350 women in other departments were described as satisfactory. In all but 15 plants the toilet rooms were clean, but in 28 the plumbing itself was checked as dirty; in 2 factories all the fixtures were out · of order. On the whole, the repair of both rooms and plumbing averaged better than the cleanliness. Conditions as to privacy were adequate in all but six factories. In some of these there were no doors to compartments; in others, rows of fixtures were without separating partitions or doors. Lunch rooms. Almost two-thirds of the companies had neglected to furnish even the simplest arrangement in the _way of lunch-room facilities, so the employee had little choice but to eat her lunch at the same workbench where she· made her cigars. Naturally, it was customary for many employees in small towns to go home for the noon hour, and others went outside for lunch, yet it was not unusual to see the women , eating the noon meal in the workrooms. Here and there a firm was running a cafeteria, sometimes at a loss. In two others there were lunch counters where hot foods could be purchased, but these provided no place for the eating of lunch. In five others special tables and chairs were set aside for lunch purposes, and here it was possible to buy a hot drink. In 15 factories gas or electric plates were provided for the convenience of the employees in making coffee and tea. Sometimes these were in the workrooms, sometimes in the dressing rooms. The chief drawback to this arrangement seemed to be the impossibility of serving all with such limited equipment as was found in many plants. Cloakrooms. Fifty-eight of the factories made provision in the way of cloakrooms for their employees. Though some were little more than closets, all were lighted and most of them were clean, The em- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis WORKING CONDITIONS 125 ployees themselves undoubtedly were responsible for the rubbish in those that were dirty. In about half of the cloakrooms there were shelves where hats, lunch boxes, or shoes could be stored, and in about half there was a box, bench, or chair for the changing of shoes. Thirteen plants had lockers. Racks for hangers, or wall hooks, were much more in evidence. In rare cases the checking system was used to insure greater safety or the rooms were supervised by matrons. In several cases an unpleasant condition arose from toilets ventilating into cloakrooms. In fact, 10 of the cloakrooms were like closed boxes, with no air inlets except from the opening of the doors. The factories reported as having no cloakrooms were chiefly the hand plants, some with few employees. In these plants an array of aprons, coats, hats, and umbrellas usually hung on wall hooks or nails in the workroom, or occasionally in the toilet rooms. Facilities for resting in an easy chair during the noon hour were rare; however, in about half of the establishments there was a cot available in case of emergency. Many were in first-aid rooms; others, which were used more freely by the women, were in cloakrooms. Sometimes the cot was folded away in a corner, or there was only a stretcher. They were of all sorts and varieties, from the row of white cots in a combined hospital and first-aid room to the uncovered cot with no mattress, or the cots with dirty cretonne covers. Only in factories with cigar-making machines were nurses employed. These had charge of first aid and the general welfare of the girls. In a factory that required physical examination at the time of employment, a doctor was in attendance half of the day. In another, a doctor made daily visits. In the larger and more up-to-date establishments there were first-aid or hospital rooms, but in the other factories arrangements for relief from physical ills were for the most part very casual. There were first-aid kits, in some cases in the factory, in other cases in the office; some were well equipped and o·t hers were practically empty. Iodine and aspirin were the chief remedies. One superintendent remarked that he gave out many headache tablets every week, and in another case it was said that the girls helped one another but that an employee with some nursing experience cared for the sick girls. As many as 14 firms made no pretense of carrying simple first-aid remedies. Uniforms. Simple uniforms, consisting of coverall aprons, smocks, or caps and aprons, were found in a few plants operating wholly or in part on a machine basis. They were a new feature, a custom since the advent of the cigar machine. As yet they were not compulsory, but all except the older women, who were slower to adopt new ideas, were wearing the coveralls. Usually the uniforms were supplied by the firm at cost to the employees, their price varying with style and quality from 75 cents to $1.80. The more usual prices were $1.25 or $1.50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ... PART vm.-OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIES To understand better the conditions under which women work in the cigar and cigarette industries, the time they work, and the earnings they receive, it is essential to have some knowledge of the processes in the industries. For this reason a short description of the occupations at which women work is given here. OCCUPATIONS IN THE CIGAR INDUSTRY In the manufacture of cigars the work is carried on in :five distinct departments, namely, leaf, stripping, cigar making, packing, and shipping. Leaf department. The tobacco as it comes to the factory and is brought to the leaf department is in bunches, bound together with a leaf of tobacco or tied with a string, depending on the method of curing. The first thing the workers do is to shake the bunches to free them from dust and then to open them. Next they pick out any sticks or trash that may have adhered to the leaves, after which the tobacco is placed in piles· or containers for seasoning (flavoring) or moistening (steaming to make pliable) preparatory to the stripping operations. These and the other processes in the leaf department are classified as general leaf work. Padding is the work of spreading out the leaf afteT it has been put through the ordering (steaming) machine for the strippers. All work in this depaTtment is of an unskilled n ature and takes only a day or so to learn. Women in this department stand, except those inspecting and padding. Stripping department. In the stripping department are three distinct processes-selecting, hand stripping, and machine stripping. Selecting is the sorting of leaves to be used for the various parts of the cigars, as fillers, binders, and wrappers, according to color and quality, and putting them into bundles. Sometimes it involves weighing the bundles. Women who do this work usually are chosen from among the strippers. Selectors sit at their work. Stripping, sometimes spoken of as stemming, is done by hand or machine, depending largely on the kind of tobacco · and the use to which it is to be put. Stripping consists of removing the midrib from the leaf. When the leaves are to be used as :filler, this work requires no special care, but in stripping binders and wrappers great care must be taken that the leaves are not broken and that each half of every leaf remains intact. In stripping by hand the pile of leaf is usually spread smoothly on a pad or on the worker's knee, and the worker, holding the tip in one hand and taking the midrib in the other hand, with a quick turn of the wrist takes the midrib out. The women sit while doing this work. 126 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIES 127 Machine stripping involves the placing of a leaf in such a position that it will be carried under a knife that cuts out the midrib. The operator holds the edges of the leaf in both hands and feeds it into the machine, controlled by a foot treadle. A seat frequently is attached to the machine. Cigar-making department. In the cigar-making departments there are two specific methods of procedure- one, that of making the cigar by hand, the original method of manufacture; and the other, that of machine manufacture, which is fast displacing the older hand method. Hand manufacture. Bunch making.-Although the hand making of cigars is decreasing tremendously, a description of hand processes is given here, since many of the women included were handworkers. The making of cigars by hand involves two distinct processes, namely, bunch making and cigar rolling. Both are skilled operations. A combination of the two is called out-and-out cigar making. In making bunches the tobacco filler is held together by a piece called a binder, cut from the half tobacco leaf. The filler may consist of narrow strips of tobacco, called a long filler, or small shreds, called a scrap filler. The bunch is made entirely by hand on a table, or by means of a small apron or sheet of rubber attached to a roller and operated by hand. The bunches are sometimes put into a wooden mold that helps to shape them. Those who work at making bunches always sit. Several weeks are required to learn the work, and three to six months to attain skill. Cigar rolling.-In rolling the worker takes the bunches of tobacco and rolls them in the wrapper in such a way as to give the cigar a smooth surface. The roller must exercise great care in cutting the wrapper from the tobacco leaf so as to use the tobacco to best advantage. In some establishments suction is used to hold the wrapper down, either connected with the board or as a metal die in the shape of the wrapper. Rollers sit at their work. This is one of the most skilled jobs in the industry. It takes from 3 to 18 months to become proficient. Out-and-out cigar making.-This, as the name indicates, is the making of a complete cigar, the same worker making the bunch and rolling it in the v.Tapper. The worker sits at this job. Machine manufacture. Bunch making.- ln making bunches two different types of machine are used. One of these makes bunches of scrap filler and the other of long filler. In the machines that use scrap filler the filler is fed automatically from the hopper and the operator places the binder on the belt of the machine. In the other machine the worker places the binder on the machine and then puts the filler on the binder. A second worker takes the bunch as it comes from the machine and places it in a mold. The operators at the bunch-making machines sit. The operation may be learned in a few days. Cigar rolling.- The operator lays the wrapper on a suction plate and the machine rolls the bunch in the wrapper. Occasionally the bunching machine and rolling machine are connected by an automatic transferring device. Operators at the cigar-rolling machine sit. From one to two weeks are required for learning its operation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 128 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES Automatic cigar making.-On this machine, the one that has revolutionized the industry, the whole cigar is made. There are four operators. One feeds the filler into the machine, one lays the binder on a suction plate, one lays the wrapper, and the fourth examines the cigar as it comes from the machine and makes any needed repair. All workers may sit, although the feeders sometimes stand. From oneto two months' time is taken to become proficient in operating this machine. After the cigars are taken from the automatic cigar-making machine they are passed on to another t able at which they are further examined for any imperfections that may have been missed by the swift examination at the machine. Experienced hand cigar makers are valuable for this job, as it requires a knowledge of what constitutes a good finished product. The examiners also gather the cigars into bunches before sending them on to the packing department. These women usually stand at their job. Packing department. Many different processes are carried on in the packing department. Among these should be mentioned shading, banding, foiling, and cellophaning, the last three processes hand or machine. Some of these have become of less importance, due to the introduction of methods of packing brought about by style changes. Among the latter should be mentioned shading, the process of sorting cigars according to color, preparatory to packing in boxes. Since many cigars are now being wrapped in tin foil or cellophane, less careful shading is required. Shaders usually stand at their work. To do the fine shading requires from five months to a year to learn, while those who do shading demanding less careful work can acquire skill in from one to three months. Hand foiling, cellophaning, and banding.-In the packing department all cigars are marked in some way to distinguish them from other brands. This distinctive wrapping may be a special kind of tin foil, cellophane, or a band with the name of the brand on it. On some cigars both a wrapping and band may be used. Women employed at this work sit. To acquire speed usually requires from one to two weeks. Machine banding and foiling. - Two workers cooperate in running the banding machine. One operator feeds the cigars into the machine, while a second takes them from the machine and packs them in a box. The operators generally stand. Cigars are usually fed automatically into the foiling machine and are removed by the operator and packed into boxes. If the cigars are to be foiled and banded as well, there is frequently a device tha.t carries the cigar from the machine foiler to the banding machine, and both machines are tended by one operator. The workers stand. From one to two weeks' time is required to learn machine banding and foiling. Examining or inspecting.-Workers employed at these jobs inspect the finished boxes of cigars, noting the shading, foiling, and banding, and the general appearance of the box. Those engaged in this work generally stand. Women experienced in other jobs in the packing department usually are placed at this work. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIES 129 Shipping department. Workers in the shipping department paste labels on cigar boxes, attach revenue stamps, and wrap paper around boxes or other containers. The work in this department is very quickly learned. OCCUPATIONS IN THE CIGARETTE INDUSTRY Some occupations in the making of cigarettes are similar to those in cigar manufacture. However, much of the work in which white women are engaged is carried on in the packing department-i. e., putting the finished cigarettes in packages. The negro women in cigarettes, as in cigars, are employed mainly in the leaf department, which in the cigarette plants includes both the general leaf work, as done in cigar factories, and the work of stemming, either by hand or by machine. In the following analysis the work in the cigarette factories is classified in four departments, namely, leaf, making, packing, and box. Leaf department. In picking, the women open up the "hands" of tobacco or remove the strings from the bunched tobacco if it has been tied for curing, pick out any trash that may have adhered to the leaves, and separate the leaves preparatory to ''ordering, ''-i. e., the steaming of the tobacco before it is stemmed. The work of stemming the tobacco is done by hand or machine, as in the case of cigar manufaqturing. The stemming need not be so carefully done as for cigars, since all the tobacco is to be cut or ground to make filler for the cigarettes. In machine stemming there generally are five workers, two who feed the leaves into the machine and three who are searchers or examiners. The feeders usually stand. The first feeder puts small bundles of loose leaves onto a moving belt that carries them to the second feeder, who feeds the leaves into the machine in such a way that the stem of the leaf is removed. Two of the examiners watch the strips that come from the machine, and remove any stem still attached. These women sit. The third examin.e r watches the stems that have been cut out to see that no leaf is wasted on these. Miscellaneous and general work in the leaf department includes, among various jobs, the work of blenders, who walk from one pile of tobacco to another, taking a few leaves from each and putting them onto a moving belt, thus insuring a mixture of the different kinds of tobacco. Making department. In the cigarette plants included in the study three types of making machines were in use. One of these requires three workers for operation, namely, a feeder, an operator, and a catcher. The feeder keeps the tobacco, previously shredded, moving smoothly into the machine, where it is carried onto paper and formed into cigarettes. The operator watches the machine and makes minor adjustments, and the catcher watches the cigarettes as they drop into the tray, and then places them in a container for transfer to the packing machine. In addition to these three workers there is a woman who attends to several machines, weighing a given number of cigarettes to see that the weight is correct. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 130 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES The second type of cigarette-making machine requires the services of two workers, an operator and a catcher. The feeding is all done by men; one man can tend 8 or 1 machines. The operator in this arrangement is more frequently a man. As in the case of the machine first described, there is an inspector or weigher, who weighs the cigarettes, inspecting output from a number of machines. The third type of machine requires an operator only, sometimes a man and sometimes a woman. The filling of hoppers for this type of machine is done by men, as in the other types, and the inspecting is done by women; inspectors and feeders attend to a group of machines. Packing department-New packing machine. · The latest type of machine-which makes, packs, and wraps, a man keeping the various magazines filled and girls filling cartons at the end of the line-was not in common use at the time of the survey. The more common machine requires one or two people to operate it, either men or women. There are several types of this new machine. In one of them the cigarettes are fed automatically into the machine from a hopper. As soon as one hopper is empty the machine tender removes it and moves another hopper into place. On machines for which there is only one operator s e watches the cigarettes as they feed into the machine and removes any defective ones, and also watches for defective packages as they leave the machine. Revenue stamps .and the printed label, both of which are placed on the package, are fed automatically in the same machine, but the operator must fill the magazines for labels and stamps at frequent intervals. In some cases this same type has an inspector as well as the operator or tender. The work of the inspector is to watch for defective packages. The inspector and operator change places at regular intervals. Both are classified as operators. The packages as they come from this machine are taken by the glassine feeder, if the package is to have also a glassine wrapper. In a slightly different arrangement a girl called the catcher takes the packs as they come from the machine, inspects them, and stacks them up to be passed on for further operations. Packing machine-Old type. The types of old packing machines are more varied than the new, and require a larger team. On one type of old machine there are a feeder who keeps the cigarettes feeding in to the machine and two cuppers who inspect the packs and in some cases feed them into the stamping machine, thus eliminating that operation. On another type of old packing machine there is no feeder, since there is a hopper similar to that on the new machine. The operator of this type attends to both feeding and operating the machine. In addition to this operator there are two cuppe s as mentioned above. A third type of old packing machine has four workers-a feeder, an operator, a cup feeder, and an inspector. The revenue stamping on cigarettes packed on these machines must be done on a separate machine or by hand. In packing the smaller packages of cigarettes there are two women employed-one who both feeds and operates the machine and watches the automatic feed of the cigarettes and of the two parts of the pack:a~e, and a second worker wh inspects the packages and feeds them mto the stamping machine or puts them into small cartons. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIES 131 In the classification of occupations in the present report feeders and operators on these machines have been thrown together, as have cuppers and inspectors. Wrapping machine. The operator of the wrapping machine takes the packs from the packing or stamping machine, depending on which type of packing machine is used, and transfers them to the wrapping machine. The feed usually is automatic, the operator placing as many packs as she can pick up conveniently at one time into a magazine. Sometimes there is one wrapping machine to one packing machine, and when the older type of packing machine is used there is one wrapping machine to two stamping machines. The individual packs may be wrapped in gl assine paper and the small cartons may be wrapped in either glassine or waxed paper. Cartons to be wrapped are brought to the worker on a belt conveyor. The operators sit at their work. Operating stamping machines. Machines for stamping the more standardized packs are equipped with automatic feed. The worker places the packs in a magazine as in the case of the machineforwrapping packs. The worker usually stands. Hand packing. Hand packing is done only when the type of container is used so infrequently that the use of a machine is not justified. Speed and deftness are required for proficiency in this work. Packing in cartons. Included in this group are the persons whose duty it is to take the packs from the packing, stamping, or wrapping machines and place them in cartons; also those who pack into cartons apart from the machine. These workers usually sit, although they sometimes stand. Hand stamping, pasting, and wrapping. Work in this department includes the affixing of revenue stamps, special advertising stickers, holiday labels, etc., by hand, and also the wrapping of packs or cartons of special shapes, for which the wrapping machines are not adjusted. The same worker may do all types of this work. She usually sits. · Inspecting. This includes the work of persons not considered as part oi any of the packing-machine teams who do inspecting of work apart from the machines, usually of hand packing or wrapping. Salvaging and repairing. In this department, as the name signifies, as much as possible is saved from defective work. If the packages are defective, they may be repaired by hand; if they are beyond repair, the packages are torn open and the revenue stamp, cigarettes, and tin foil are saved. If the cigarettes themselves are defective, they are returned to the leaf department to be ripped open, by machine, thereby saving the tobacco. Box department. Since this -department is comparatively small in most cigarette factories, all jobs have been grouped in one classification. Workers tend or take off from the box-making machines, and other workers stack the boxes or cartons. Machines making the cups used on the older packing machines are automatic, and one worker tends to three or four machines. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis APPENDIXES A- GENERAL TABLES B-SCHEDULE FORMS 133 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis APPENDIX A- GENERAL TABLES T A B LE !.-Department in which employed at time of separation, by age at date of interview and type of locality-Cigars All localities Department Total __________________ All women Under 30 years 11, 150 456 Not reporting department_ __ _ 2 8 Localities A 30and 40 years All under and women 40years over Under 30 years 1 604 259 327 1 -- ------- 364 5 30 and 40 years under and 40 years over 188 154 2 ----- ---- ------- - - ---- ----25!) 3 602 188 154. 2 Total reporting _______________ 3 1,142 455 327 359 Stripping: Number ___________ ___ __ _ Per cent_ _____ ____ ____ ____ 107 100. 0 21 19. 6 34 31.8 52 48. 6 57 100. 0 16 28.1 17 29.8 24 42. 1 Select and hand strip _____ Machine strip ____________ 61 46 5 16 18 16 38 14 26 31 3 13 7 10 16 8 Cigar making: H andNumber _______ ______ P er cent_ _______ ______ 3 848 100. 0 328 38. 7 2,52 29.8 267 31. 5 3 424 100. 0 164 38.8 151 3,5. 7 108 25. 5 729 119 324 4 224 28 180 87 146 5 100 8 25 20 3 2 25 20 3 2 137 100. 0 81 59.1 30 21. 9 26 19. 0 85 100.0 57 67.1 14 16. 5 14 16. 5 25 5 8 12 11 2 3 6 All women Under 30 years 30and 40 years All and under women 40 years over Under 30 years Total _______________ ___ 258 Ill Not reporting department_ __ _ Total reporting ___ ___________ _ 2 B unch and roll _______ Out-and-out_ _________ Machine____ _____ ________ Packing: Number ___ _______ _______ Per cent _________________ _ Shipping and m iscellaneous from all departments___ ____ _ 3 4 4 3 411 164 13 --------- Localit ies Localities B Department Stripping: N umber ________ _______ __ Per cent_ _____ ____ _____ ___ 75 1 -- ------110 75 2..'\6 72 12 1 8 --------- ---- ----- --------· Select and hand strip ___ __ Machine st rip ____________ 14 7 ---· ----- Cigar making: HandN u mber _______ ______ Per cent_ _____________ Bunch and roll _______ Out-and-out_ _________ Machine_ ______ __ .. _______ P acking: Number _______________ __ Per cent ________ __________ Shippin~ and m iscellaneou s from a 1 departments ______ J34; https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 64 (4) 29 138 4 134 4 9 16 -- ------ - - -------- ------- -- 5 3 9 3 21 8 2 2 6 3 13 1 202 100. 0 97 48. 0 57 28. 2 48 23.8 222 100. 0 67 30. 2 44 19.8 111 ,50. 0 198 4 96 56 46 2 120 102 64 3 22 34 77 --------(4) 1 12 25 --------48 1 22 3 --------- --------- ------- -- --------- --------- ---- --- -- --------- --------- I ncludes 3 not reporting age. 2 Includes ~ 119t reporting age, 1 86 4 · -------- --- -----284 86 64 71 21 (4) 288 1 C 30and 40 years under and 40 years over 8 5 2 6 --------- ------- -- (4) 27 12 -- ------ - 6 3 8 7 3 -------- - ----- ---- --- --- - -- a Includes 1 not reporting age. 'Per cent not computed ; base less than 50. - 135 APPENDIXES TABLE IL-Time worked in the industry, by age at date of interview and type of locality-Cigars ALL LOCALITIES All women Under 30 years Time worked in cigar industry 30 and under 40 years 40 years and over Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent TotaL _________________ 11,150 --------- 456 --- -- ---- -----------327 --------364 --- ------ Not reporting time ____ _______ 2 Total reporting _______________ 31,086 100.0 450 100.0 301 100.0 334 100.0 Less than 3 years _____________ 3 and less than 5 years ________ 5 and less than 10 years _______ 10 and less than 15 years ______ 15 and less than 20 years ______ 20 and less than 25 years ______ 25 years and over ___________ __ 146 118 270 193 3149 97 113 13.4 10.9 24.9 17.8 13. 7 8.9 10.4 130 96 172 48 4 28.9 21.3 38. 2 10. 7 .9 11 13 65 99 89 22 2 3. 7 4.3 21. 6 32.9 29.6 7.3 .7 5 9 33 46 55 75 111 1.5 2. 7 9. 9 13. 8 16. 5 22. 5 33.2 64 --------- 6 -------- - --------- ----------------- --------- 26 --------- 30 --------- LOCALITIES A TotaL _____ ____________ Not reporting time ___________ 1 604 2 45 259 188 4 21 154 18 Total reporting _____ ___ _______ 3 559 100. 0 255 100.0 167 100.0 Less than 3 years _____________ 3 and less than 5 years _______ 5 and less than 10 years _______ 10 and less than 15 years ______ 15 and less than 20 years ______ 20 and less than 25 years ______ 25 years and over _____________ 73 52 167 109 3 74 46 38 13.1 9. 3 29.9 19.5 13. 1 8. 2 6.8 69 45 107 32 2 27.1 17. 6 42.0 12. 5 .8 4 5 40 55 48 13 2 2.4 3.0 24.0 32.9 28. 7 7.8 1. 2 --------- ----------------- --------- 136 100. 0 ----------------2 1. 5 14. 7 16. 2 16. 9 24. 3 26. 5 20 22 23 33 36 LOCA LITIES B Total ___ --------------- 258 Not reporting time ___ __ ______ 6 Total reporting _______________ 252 Less than 3 years _____________ 3 and less than 5 years ________ 5 and less than 10 years _______ 10 and less than 15 years ______ 15 and less than 20 years ______ 20 and less than 25 years ______ 25 years and over ______ _______ 31 39 50 46 46 25 15 111 75 72 3 100.0 110 100. 0 12. 3 25. 5 28 15. 5 30.0 33 19.8 30.9 34 18. 3 13 11.8 18. 3 2 1.8 9.9 --------- --------6.0 ----- --- - --------- 2 72 100. 0 70 2 5 14 20 27 4 2.8 6.9 19.4 27.8 37.5 5.6 1 1 2 13 17 21 15 --------- --------- 100.0 1.4 1.4 2.9 18. 6" 24.3 30.0 21.4 LOCALITIES C TotaL _________________ 288 Not reporting time ___________ 13 Total reporting ________ __ _____ 275 Less than 3 years ___________ __ 3 and less than 5 years ________ 5 and less than 10 years _______ 10 and less than 15 years ____ __ 15 and less than 20 years ______ 20 and less than 25 years ______ 25 years and over _____________ 42 27 53 38 29 26 1 Includes 3 not reporting age. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 60 2 86 64 138 2 100.0 85 100.0 62 10 100.0 15. 3 38.8 8.1 5 33 9.8 18 21. 2 3 4.8 19. 3 11 17. 7 31 36. 5 13. 8 3. 5 38. 7 3 24 10. 5 --------- --------14 22.6 9. 5 -- ------- --------8.1 5 21.8 -- ------- --------- --------- -------- Includes 2 not reporting age. 128 100.0 4 6 11 11 15 21 3.1 4. 7 8.6 8. 6 11. 7 16. 4 46.9 60 a Includes 1 not reporting age. 136 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES T ABLE III. -Steadiness of ernployment since separation according to age a.t date of interview, by type of locality-Oigars ALL LOCALITIES Steadiness of employment All women who had had employmentNumber ---------------------------------------------Per cent____ __________________________________ ________ ______ _ and 40 years Under 30 All ages 30 years 40under years and over I 1,006 100. 0 407 100. 0 285 100. 0 313 100. 0 11. 0 67. 3 21. 7 9. 8 70. 0 20.1 13. 3 66. 3 20. 4 10. 5 64. 9 24. 6 100. 0 250 100. 0 171 100. 0 136 100. 0 68.6 16.1 73. 6 13. 2 64.9 18.1 64. 7 18. 4 200 100. 0 92 100. 0 57 100. 0 51 100. 0 7. 0 60. 0 33. 0 6. 5 66. 3 27. 2 10. 5 56. 1 33. 3 3. 9 52.9 43. l 248 100. 0 65 100. 0 57 100. 0 126 100.0 70. 2 25. 0 61. 5 36. 9 80. 7 14. 0 69.~ Steadily employed _________________________ ______ _________________ _ - - - - - - - - - - - Employed at date of interview but had been unemployed _________ _ Unemployed at date of interview but had been employed ___ ____ __ _ LOCALITIES A All women who had had employmentNumber ___ -- - - -- ---- ---- --------- ---- -------------------_ Per cent _________________________________________________ Steadily employed _____________________________ _____ ____ _____ __ ___ _ Employed at date of interview but had been unemployed _________ _ Unemployed at date of interview but h ad been employed _________ _ 1 558 - -15.-2 - -13.-2 - -17.-0 - -16.9 - LOCALITIES B All women had had employmentNumberwho ________________________________________________ _ Per cent_ ___ ___ _______ __________ ____________ ______ __ --- --Steadily employed __ --- ------ -- -- ---------------------------------Employed at date of interview but had been unemployed _________ _ Unemployed at date of interview but had been employed _________ _ --- ------ --- LOCALITIES C All women had h ad employmentNumberwho ________________________ __________________ ____ __ _ Per cent_ ____ __ _________ ____________ ______ ___ ________ ____ _ ---- - - - - - - - - Steadily employed _________________ ---------------------------- ---4. 8 5. 3 6. a 1. 5 Employed at date of interview but had been unemployed _________ _ Unemployed at date of interview but had been employed ___ __ ____ _ 1 Includes 1 not reporting age. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 23.8 137 APPENDIXES TABLE IV. -Steadiness of employment since separation according to type of locality, by age at date of interview-Cigars ALL WOMEN WHO HAD HAD EMPLOYMENT All locali- Localities Localities Localities ties A B C Age group All womenNumber ___ ____ __________ __ ____________________ __ Per cent _________________________________________ _ Under 30 years __ ----- --- ---- ----------- ---- -~--- ----------30 and under 40 years ___ ----------------- --------- --- -----40 years and over ___ ___ ____________________________________ _ 11,006 I 558 200 100.0 100. 0 100. 0 40.5 44.9 30. 7 24.~ 46.0 85 14 28.4 31.1 248 100.0 26. 2 23.0 28. 5 25. 5 50.8 STEADILY EMPLOYED All womenN umber _________________________________________ _ Per cent. _______ __~- ------------ ______ _____ ______ _ 100. 0 100.0 Under 30 years ____________ _____________________ ___ ____ ____ _ 30 and under 40 years ______________ ______ _________________ _ 40 years and over ________ __ __ __________ ___ _________________ _ 36.0 34.2 29. 7 34.1 111 (3) 12 38.8 27.1 EMPLOYED AT DATE OF INTERVIEW BUT HAD BEEN UNEMPLOYED All womenNumber _____ ___________________________________ _ Per cent _________________________________________ _ Under 30 years _________ __ ---------------------------------30 40 years ----------------------------------40 and yearsunder and over __ _______ _________________________ ___ __ ______ _ 677 100.0 42.1 27. 9 30.0 383 100. 0 120 100.0 174 100.0 48. 0 29.0 50.8 26. 7 22. 5 26.4 50.6 23.0 23. 0 UNEMPLOYED AT DATE OF INTERVIEW BUT HAD BEEN EMPLOYED All womenNumber ________________________________________ _ Per cent __________ ------- ------ - ----------------Under 30 years ____________________________________________ _ 30 40 years ___ -------------__------------ --40 and yearsunder and over ____________________ __ ___ _____ ___----______ __ 1 218 100.0 1 90 100.0 100.0 37.8 26. 7 35. 5 37. 1 37.9 34.8 28.1 Includes 1 not reporting age. Per cent not computed. For the respective age groups the figures are 6, 6, and 2. a Per cent not computed. For the respective age groups the figures are 1, a, and 8. 1 2 126898°-32-10 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 66 62 100.0 38. 7 28.8 12. 9 33. 3 48.4 TABLE ,-. V.-Nurnber arid type of jobs secured since separation, by age at date of interview and type of locality-Cigars ~ 00 ALL LOCALITIES Women employed since separation Type of subsequent job Number of women 30 and under 40 years Under 30 y ears Jobs Number of women Number Per cent Number Per cent Jobs 40 years and over Jobs Jobs Number Number of of women Number Per cent women Number Per cent - - - - - - -- All jobs ______________________________________________ 1 Manufacturing __ _________ ______________ ___ ____ ___ Other _________________________________________ __ _ Type of manufacturing: T otal ________ ____ __________ ________ - - - - -- - -- - - Cigars ____________________________________________ Other tobacco ____________________________________ Other manufacturing _____________________________ 1,006 1,889 100. 0 407 764 100.0 285 551 100. 0 313 573 100. 0 I 815 191 1,537 352 81. 4 18. 6 339 68 634 130 83. 0 17. 0 250 35 460 91 83. 5 16. 5 225 88 442 131 77. 1 22. 9 I 815 1,537 100.0 339 634 100. 0 250 460 100. 0 225 442 100. 0 I 534 3 278 996 4 537 64.8 .3 35. 0 193 1 145 378 1 255 316 21 143 (18. 7 .2 31.1 158 2 65 301 2 139 68.1 .5 31. 4 182 59. 6 .2 - -- - -----40. 2 68 LOCALITIES A All jobs_____________________ ________ ____ _____________ 1 558 100. 0 171 351 100. 0 136 266 100.0 959 151 86. 4 13. 6 224 26 436 56 88. 6 11. 3 156 15 310 41 88. 3 11. 7 104 32 212 54 79. 7 20. 3 1485 959 100. 0 224 436 100. 0 156 310 100.0 104 212 100. 0 348 686 3 270 61. 5 129 242 21 67 78. 1 .3 21.6 89 2 13 175 2 35 82. 5 .9 16. 5 1, 110 100. 0 250 492 l - - - - - + - - - - + - - - - - + - - - - + - - - ---1 Manufacturing_________ _____ ___ ___ ___ __ ___ ___ __ __ Other________ ______ ______ ______________ _____ ___ __ Type of manufacturing: Total _________________ - __ ---- ---- -- -- --- --- - - - - l====l=====l====lc====l====l====l=====l=====l====l=====l====Jc=== Cigars ______________________________ --- - -- - - - - - - -Other tobacco _________ ______ _________________ -- -Other manufacturing _____________________ ______ __ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 485 73 I 2 135 71. 5 129 268 . 3 --- - ------ ---------28. 2 95 168 --- ---------------38. 5 27 LOCALITIES B .All jobs ________ __ _______________________ ___ __ ________ Mt~~facturing ____________________ ________ --- -- -- 200 iii 332 100. 0 92 159 100. 0 57 86 100. 0 51 87 100.0 1 - - - - 1 - - - - - 1- - - - - 1 - - - - - l - - - - - - l - - - - + - - - - 1 - - - - - 1 - - - - - 1 - - - - + - - ---1-- - - 241 91 72. 6 27. 4 68 24 117 42 73. 6 26. 4 49 8 69 17 80. 2 19. 8 27 24 55 63. 2 32 36.8 l====l=====l====t====t====f====l=====l=====ll====l=====l====t==== Type of manufacturing: T otal ___ ____________ ____________ ----- -- -- - -- --- 144 241 100. 0 68 117 100. 0 49 69 100.0 27 55 100.0 Cigars _____________ -- _-_-- - -- - -- -- - - -- -- - - -- - ---- Other tobacco __ _____________________ _-------- -- -Other manufacturing ____________ ____ _________ ___ _ 70 1 73 113 1 127 46. 9 .4 52. 7 26 1 41 48 1 68 41. 0 .9 58.1 31 38 55.1 13 27 49.1 14 28 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------------------------50.9 18 31 44. 9 IlOCALITIE S C All jobs __ ________________ _________ ___ ______ -------- -- 248 447 100.0 65 113 100. 0 57 114 100. 0 126 220 100.0 Mt~~acturing __ ___ ___ _________ __________________ 186 62 337 110 75. 4 24. 6 47 18 81 32 71. 7 28. 3 45 12 81 33 71. 1 28. 9 94 32 175 45 79. 5 20. 5 > "d Total ______________ --------- ------------- -- ____ 186 337 100. 0 47 81 100. 0 45 81 100. 0 94 175 100.0 zt:I 8it~s manufacturing ________________ ____ ___.______ 116 70 197 140 58. 5 41. 5 38 9 62 19 76. 5 23. 5 22 23 36 45 44. 4 55. 6 56 38 99 56.6 43. 4 "d tr.J Type of manufacturing: 76 ~ ~ tr.J rJl 1 Includes https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 not reporting age. 2 One of the women who had jobs in cigars. 140 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES TABLE VI.- Employment of women subsequent to the separation, by locality and age group-Cigars LOCALITIES A N0TE .-For 63 per cent of the wo!Ilen, 1 and under 2 years had elapsed since separation; for 19 per cen t , less; and for 18 per cent, more] Type and number of subsequent jobs Number Women of under 30 women years Women 30 and under 40 Women Age 40 years not and ov er reported years Total interviewed ___ __________ ___________ ____ _ Women with subsequent jobs_ _ ---- -------------~---- 604 558 259 250 188 171 154 136 M anufacturing __ _______________ __ ________ _________ __ 485 224 156 104 Cigars ___________ --- - - _- -- -- -- - -- - - - ---- - -- - - - - - Other _________________________ __________________ _ 348 137 129 95 129 27 89 15 Other than manufa cturing __________________________ _ 73 26 15 32 1 job only _____________________________ ______ ____ _ 2jobs __________________________ ___________ ______ _ 3 jobs _______________ - - - - - -- - - -- -- - --- - ------- - - - 4 or more jobs ___ ________ __________ _____________ _ 244 171 78 65 108 80 33 29 69 58 24 20 66 33 21 16 266 The 1,110 jobs of these women may be classified as follows: TotaL _____________________ ________________ ___ _ 1,110 492 351 Manufacturing _____________________________________ _ 959 436 310 212 Cigars ____ __ _____________________ __ ____ ____ _____ _ Other________ ___ _________ ___ ______________ ______ _ 686 273 268 168 242 68 175 37 C lothing ___ ________________ ___ ___ ___________ _ Electrical products _________________________ _ Food products ____ __________________________ _ Leather products __ _______ ____ ______________ _ Metal products _____ __ ___ ___________________ _ Textiles ________ __ ____ __ ________ ___ __ __ _____ _ Other ____ _____ ___ _____ _____ ___ ___ ___________ _ 56 21 20 75 23 28 50 46 15 9 41 13 ·16 28 8 4 7 24 4 7 14 2 2 4 10 6 5 8 Other than manufacturing ____ - - --- - - - --- - -- - -------- 151 56 41 54 Stores __ ____ ________ _· _____-- ____ - -- - --- - -- - ---- Hotels and restaurants ___ _________ __ ____ __ _____ __ Domestic and personal service ___ _______ ________ _ Other ________ -- -- - - -- -- -- -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- -- - - - - 39 30 50 32 21 11 9 12 9 7 11 31 5 10 7 18 LOCALITIES B [N0TE.-For 52 per cent of the women, less than a year had elapsed since separation; for 47 per cent, 2 and under 3 years had elapsed] Total interviewed ____ ___ ____ ___ ______ __ _____ __ 258 111 75 72 Women with subsequent jobs_ __ _________ ______ _____ 200 92 57 51 l=====ic====i=:====F====i====;;:= Manufacturing_-- - - -- --------------- - ----------- - --144 68 49 27 Cigars __ _____ _________________________________ ___ Other___ _______ _____ __ __ ____________ _____ ________ - - - -1-----1----+----I----70 74 26 42 Other than manufacturing_______ ____________ ______ __ 56 1 job only_____ ______ __ _____ ___________ ___ _______ _ 2 jobs_______ __________ ____________________ ___ ____ 3 jobs____ _______________________________________ _ 4 or more jobs ___ - --------------------- - -------- - 115 55 20 10 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 31 18 13 14 24 8 24 49 29 9 5 37 12 7 1 29 14 4 .4 141 APPENDIXES TABLE VI.-Employment of women subsequent to the separation, by locality and age group--Cigars-Continued LOOALITIES B-Continued Number Women of under 30 women years Type and number of subsequent jobs Women 30 and Women Age 40 years not under 40 and over reported years The 332 jobs of these women may be classified as follows: TotaL _____________ ____ _________ _____ __ ___ ____ _ 332 159 86 87 M anufacturing __________ _____ ____ ____ __ __ ___ __ ______ 241 117 69 55 128 69 31 28 Electrical products ___ _______________________ Food products_____________ ___ ______ _____ ___ _ Leather products_______ ___ _________________ _ Metal products_______ _______________________ Textiles __________________ ____ ____ __ ___ ______ Other____________ __ ____ ___ __ __ ______ _________ 10 12 26 12 15 53 9 4 12 5 9 30 5 11 5 4 6 1 3 3 2 2 17 Other than manufacturing________ _____ __ ____ _______ _ 91 42 17 32 Stores _________ __ __ __ ____ · --- -- ---- -- -- -- -------Laundries ___________________ ____ ________ ____ ____ Hotels and restaurants____ __ _____ _____ ______ ____ _ Domestic and personal service__ ________________ _ Other__ __ ________________________________________ 19 12 16 30 14 I 11 1 1 7 8 7 2 1 17 5 Cigars __________ ______ __ ______ __ ____________ _____ Other______ _____________________ __________ _______ •------------------113 48 38 27 1--- ----------+----•1--- 9 8 5 9 LOCALITIES C [NOTE.- For 39 per cent of the women, 1 and under 2 years had elapsed since separation; for 29 per cent, 2 and under 3 years; for 17 per cent , less than a year; and for 14 per cent, more than 3 years] Total interviewed _------ --------- ------------Women with subsequent jobs__ __ _____ ________ ______ _ 288 248 86 65 64 57 138 126 l====t===~===:::!====:t==== 47 45 94 186 Manufacturing __ --------- - --- ------- ---- - ---- ---- __ _ 1----t----+-----+-----t---116 70 38 9 22 23 56 38 Other than m anufacturing __ __ __ ______ ____ __ ___ ____ __ 62 18 12 32 1 job only-- -- -------------- ----------------- - ---2 jobs __ - - _____ ---- - --- - -- -- --- --- -- -- ---- -- -- -- - --___ _- - ___ -- - ----- -- ---_____ -- -- --- - --- -- -_ 34 jobs _______ ___ __--_______ ______ _____ or more jobs 118 80 35 15 31 21 12 1 21 21 10 5 38 13 9 TotaL ____ __ ____ ___ ____ -- -- --- -- __ -- -- -- -- •. -. _ 447 113 114 220 Manufacturing ____ ____ __ __ --- -- ---- ----------- --- --- 337 81 81 175 197 140 62 19 36 45 99 76 --- ----- .--. - --_ Textiles _____ --Other __ ______ __ -__-._____ . . _.--__ -___ ___--___- .--..--___ 98 18 24 8 4 7 30 10 5 60 4 12 Other than manufacturing ___ __ ____ __ _____ ___ __ __ ___ _ 110 32 33 45 - --- -- - --- --- - ---_______ - --- ---__---- -- -_______ --- - - --_ igars_ C - --_________________ Other ____ ______ 66 The 447 jobs of these women may be classified as follows : 1----t--------1-----t---- Cigars____ _. __. __ _- .--__--__- --. -- -- --· --- - -- --- ._ Other __ ___ _._.. -________ _________ ___--__--__ 1----t----+-----1-----t---Clothing ___ ____ .. _. _. __ _____ . _____ ___ ____ ____ 1------------+----+---__ .. ____ ____ 14 8 6 ------ ---4 12 5 3 7 18 -------- -40 15 14 24 ---- ---- ·44 6 Stores ____________ --- - ------ ----- -- ------ --- --- -Hotels and restaurants __ _____ ______ ____ __ _______ _ Domestic and personal service ___ __________ _____ _ Other __ ___ ______ ______ ___ _______ ________________ _ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis TABLE VII.-Number of jobs since separation and time unemployed for industrial reasons, by type of locality-Cigars Localities A All localities H ad subsequent jobs All women 'Time unemployed for industrial reasons since se{Jaration Number TotaL ____ ___ ___ ____ _________ _____ __ ___ ___ __ 1,150 Indefinite and not reporting ____________________ __ Total reporting _____ _____ __ ___ ___ ___ ______ ________ 190 960 None _______ ___ __ _.._____ __ ____ _____ __ ______ __ ___ __ Under 3 months ______________ ________ ________ ____ 3 and under 6 months __ - - -- --- - -------- - - -- - - - - -6 and under 9 months __ __ ____ _______________ ____ _ 9 and under 12 months _____ ______________ ______ __ 12 and under 15 months _______ __ ___ __ ____ __ __ ____ 15 and under 18 months ____ ____ _____ ________ _____ 18 and under 21 months ___________ ______ _______ __ 21 and under 24 months ___ ____ ___ ____ ____ ______ __ 24 months and over ___________ _____ ________ __ _____ 155 324 218 106 40 41 15 30 16 15 All women Had np subse- Total quent report5 or Per job ing 1 job 2 jobs 3 jobs 4 jobs more Number cent jobs number H ad subsequent jobs Had no subse- Total quent report5 or Per ing job 1 job 2 jobs 3 jobs 4 jobs more cent numjobs ber -- -- ----- - --------100.0 ----- 144 1,006 477 5 139 185 821 76 401 54 252 16.1 33.8 22. 7 11. 0 4. 2 4. 3 1. 6 3.1 1. 7 1. 6 29 126 312 166 66 172 64 41 16 19 8 7 4 4 12 52 12 1 5 2 8 8 10 94 39 36 13 22 8 5 60 30 33 100 13 47 9 21 35 12 11 80 63 29 38 11 7 2 11 6 1 1 306 15 11 5 10 133 26 13 3 5 10 4 1 ---- ----- 2-- ----------3 ------ 1 - ----- - ----3 1 --- -- - --- - -- ------ - 604 -- - --- - 46 558 244 171 78 42 23 87 -- - -- -517 100. 0 2 44 85 473 29 23 148 19 59 7 7 16 112 166 116 65 18 12 5 9 12 2 18 1 5 4 1 2 1 94 165 111 61 17 21. 7 32. 1 22. 4 12. 5 3. 5 2. 3 1. 0 1. 7 2. 3 .4 3 8 1 10 4 6 4 1 215 35 45 27 10 2 10 9 75 46 27 8 43 45 13 4 6 17 30 7 7 -----2 1 8 6 -- -- - 2 1 1 _____.., 6 4 --- - -- -- -- -- -- ---- -----1 3 1 1 -----2 2 - -- - -- --- - -- -- ---1 ------ - - - - - - ------ ------ 1-4 z 0 1-4 ~ ~t:, 0 1-4 ~ti:.l 1-3 1-3 t:cJ z t:, c:j Ul 1-3 ~ 1-4 ti:.l Ul https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Localities B Time unemployed for industrial reasons since separation Localities C All women Had subsequent jobs Had subsequent jobs All women , _ _ _ _ _ ,Had no, _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ 11 _ _ _ _ _ _ ,Had noi - -- -,------,-------,---------:--subse- Total subse- Total 5 or Num- Per 5 or quent reportNum- Per q~ent reportJob ing 1 job 2 jobs 3 jobs 4 jobs more ber cent job ing 1 job 2 jobs 3 jobs 4 jobs more ber cent number jobs number jobs - - - -Total ________________ --------- . --------- -- __ 258 58 ---1--+---+----l-- - - - 200 1- ----~- - 25 104 49 16 9 9 2 4 2 7 11.0 45. 8 21. 6 7. 0 4.0 4. 0 .9 1. 8 .9 3. 1 9 10 23 7 2 5 16 94 26 9 9 7 2 4 2 2 55 10 3 18 9 5 3 3 2 3 1 - - - - - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - 1 - - - ,- --t---t--- - 3 288 4 40 20 248 118 35 11 80 l===t====l== =l===l====l===l===l===l===-==ll===l====t====!====l===l====l====l====I=== Indefinite and not reporting_____________________ _ 29 31 2 72 1 2 16 8 4 1 71 31 23 5 10 Total reporting_____ _________________________ _____ _ 171 227 100.0 2 56 99 47 16 216 100.0 177 57 3 6 39 87 25 6 N one __ __ ______ ___ ___ ______ __________________ _____ Under 3 months __ .______ ______ ___________ ___ ____ __ 3 and under 6 months____ ___ ___ __ _________________ 6 and under 9 months____________________ ____ ____ 9 and under 12 months___ __ ______________________ 12 and under 15 months__ _____ _____ ______ ________ 15 and under 18 months ____ __________ ________ ____ 18 and under 21 months _______ ___ ____ ____ __ _____ _ 21 and under 24 months_____________ _____________ 24 months and over___________________ __ ___ _______ 115 67 11 3 2 3 2 2 7 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 - ----1 ---- -- ---- -- ------ --- --- -- -- ----- 1-- -- ---- ---- - - - - ---- ----- - -- ---- ------ ------ ----- - 18 54 53 25 13 20 8 17 2 6 8. 3 25.0 24. 5 11. 6 6.0 9. 3 3. 7 7. 9 .9 2. 8 2 1 24 1 16 53 29 24 13 1 1 5 19 4 7 12 2 2 11 30 10 5 16 9 7 ------ ----------4 2 10 ------ -----2 8 6 1 6 6 10 3 6 4 3 -----5 4 2 ------ - --- - 1 1 --- --- - ---- - ------ ------ ----------- -----2 ---- ------- ----------- -- ---- > ""d ""d tr.l zti ~ ~ t,,j rt). https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 144 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES TABLE VIII.-Time worked in the industry, by age at date of interview and type of locality-Cigarettes ALL LOCALITIES All women Under 30 years 30 and under 40 years 40 years and over Time worked in cigarette industry - - -- - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- TotaL __ ___ ________ ____ 259 141 75 Not reporting time ___________ 12 5 4 Total reporting ______________ 247 Less than 3 years ___ ___ _____ __ 3 and less than 5 years ____ ___ 5 and less than 10 years ______ 10 and less than 15 years ____ _ 15 and less than 20 years _____ 20 and less than 25 years __ ___ 25 years and over ____________ 10 42 93 100. 136 100. 0 71 43 ------ --- --------3 100. 0 4. 9 6. 6 --------- --------2. 8 17. 39 28. 7 2 25. 4 37. 7 48. 5 18 66 42. 3 26. i 22 16. 2 30 23. 9 9. 3 --------- --------17 2. --------- --------5. 6 4 2. 4 ----- -- -- --------- --------- --------- 66 23 7 6 40 (1) 1 1 9 14 6 3 6 LO CALITY A Total_ - ---- ---- -- - -- - -Not reporting time ____ ______ _ 64 -------- Total reporting _________ _____ _ 63 Less than 3 years ____________ _ 3 and less than 5 years _____ __ 5 and less than 10 years __ ___ _ 10 and less than 15 years ____ _ 15 and less than 20 years ____ _ 25 years and over ___ _________ _ 2 7 23 26 1 -- - --- - - 100. 28 --------- 21 ------- -- 15 ------ --- 1 --- - ----- --- ------ -- -- -- --- --------- -- - ----- - 27 (1) 21 (1) 15 (1) 3. 2 11. 1 4 36. 5 41. 3 6. 3 1 1.6 LO CALITIES B Total _________________ _ Not reporting time __________ _ = 195 --- ------ = 11 --- ------ Total reporting ____ _________ _ 184 10 and less than 15 years __ __ _ 15 and less than 20 years ____ __ 20 and less than 25 years __ __ _ 25 years and over ____________ _ 40 70 19 113 M 28 4 3 ====l====l====:t====l====I==== 4 (1) 50 100. 0 25 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - 1 - - - - + - -Less than 3 years ___ _____ __•___ 1 8 4. 3 7 6. 4 --------- ------ --3 and less than 5 years ______ _ 1 35 19. 0 34 31. 2 ------- -- -- - -----5 and less than 10 years _____ _ 5 38. 0 52 47. 7 13 26. 0 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 7 5 100. 0 I 109 100. 0 21. 7 16 14. 7 10. 3 --------- --- ------ 18 15 36. 0 30. 0 3. 8 ----- ---- --------4 8. 0 2. 7 ,----- --- - --------- --------- ---- - - --- 6 4 3 5 145 APPENDIXES TABLE IX. -Number of jobs since separation and time unemployed for industrial reasons, by type of locality-Cigarettes All localities All women T ime unemployed for industrial reasons since separation Number TotaL __ _____ -- ----- - -- 1258 Indefinite and not reporting __ Had subsequent jobs H ad no subsequent Total job reporting number P er cent ljob 4 or more jobs ---- ------ 55 1203 109 55 22 5 30 8 10 7 5 1173 101 45 15 12 1223 100. 0 50 None __ ___________ -- -- ---- - -Under 3 months ___ ___ ________ 3 and under 6months __ ______ 6 and under 9 months ________ 9 and under 12 months _______ 12 months·and over __________ 25 96 56 36 5 125 11. 2 43. 0 25. 1 16. l 2. 2 2. 2 11 13 1 52 27 21 12 12 4 2 ------ -1 1 14 1 15 95 20 16 3 41 2 1 14 Locality A All women - 3 jobs 35 - -- -- ----- Total reporting __ ____ ________ Time unemployed for industrial reasons since separation 2jobs 17 -------- -------- 7 3 9 5 -------- --------1 -------1 1 Localities B Had quentsubsejobs ~ Had subsequent jobs sl t Total sl1:_ Total 2 Num- P er q~ent p~~t- 1 2 3 4 or Num- P er q~ent p~~t- 1 ing job jobs ber cent Job ing job jobs jobs more ber cent Job numnumjobs ber ber - - - - - - - - 1 - - - 1- - 1 -- Total _____ --- ----- 64 -- ---- Indefinite and not reporting ____ ____________ 7 -- ---- Total reporting _________ 57 100.0 6 10. 5 None ___ -------- ----- --· Under 3 months . . __ ___ __ 15 26. 3 3 and under 6 months ___ 9 15. 8 6 and under 9 months ___ 25 43.9 9 and under 12 months __ 2 3. 5 12 months and over __ ___ _____ _ -- ---1 - 1 - - --1- - 21 43 3 4 2 18 39 32 2 -- -- ------16 ------ 4 4 15 12 9 6 9 8 2 2 ------ - --- 1 Excludes 1 woman not rePQrting number of jobs. 2 All but 1 woman, 1 and under 2 years. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ·- 34 - - - - -- 9 1194 --- - - -- 17 ------ 34 2 28 -- -- -7 1 166 100. 0 2 26 6 8 7 5 32 1134 69 38 15 12 9 1 15 4 2 10 80 32 7 1 14 9 40 15 4 1 24 ---33 1 --- - 19 81 47 11 3 125 11. 4 48.8 28. 3 6. 6 1.8 3. 0 1 1160 75 46 9 22 --------7 9 5 3 ---- -- ----1 ---------1 1 1 1 3 146 TABLE WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES X.-Employment of women subsequent to the separation, by locality and age group-Cigarettes LOCALITY A [N0TE.-For most women 8 months had elapsed since separation] ro 0 Number Wotnen :el Women of women u nd er 30 under 40 i~l~~~r years years Type and number of subsequent jobs Total interviewed _________ _____ "----- _____ ________ ______ _ Women with subsequent jobs _________________________________ _ 15 64 28 21 43 20 9 14 l====t=====!====1==== Manufacturing __ ________ __ __ _______ _______ __________ ___________ _ 29 17 11 Cigarettes _______________________ - __________________ _______ _ Other -- _--------------------------------------------------. 14 15 8 9 6 5 3 8 16 4 11. 3 7 11 Other t han manufacturing __ ----------------------- -- --------- - 14 . 1 job only- ------------- ------- ---- ----- ---------------- ---2 jobs ___ _______ -- ____ --- ----- ----- ----- -- -- -- -- _-- _------- - 34 9 The 52 jobs of these women may be classified as follows : TotaL __________________________________________________ _ .'\2 24 17 Manufacturing ___ ______ _______________ - _______________________ _ 34 19 14 -t----1-Cigarettes _________________________________________________ _.--- - 15 9 19 10 Other ----_ -_-- -- --- ---- -- -- -- ---- ---- -- -· ----- --------- ---Other t han manufacturing ___ ------------ ------- ______________ _ 18 5 2 6 8 LOCALITIES B [N0TE.- For 55 per cent of the women, 6 and under 12 months had elapsed since separation ; for 28 per cent less, and for 17 per cent more, up to 4 years] Total interviewed ____ ________________ ___ ________ __ _______ _ Women with subsequent jobs ______ _____________ ___ _______ ____ _ 195 161 113 54 40 28 99 Manufacturing __ ____----- __ -- --- -- ______________ ___ ___________ _ 141 89 36 16 Cigarettes _______ ------ ___ __________ ___ __________________ . __ Other ________________________ ______ ______ ___ _____ _______ __ _ 14 127 7 82 3 33 4 12 4 5 1 22 ,=--=--=--=--=--=--=--,.-------------_ ,_____________ - -- - Other t han manufacturing _______ ________ ________ ___ __________ _ Not reported ________________ ---- _____ _--------------- __ __ _____ _ 1 job only _______________ ____________ ___ ____ ______ __ _______ _ 2 jobs __________ ---- ____ -- ----- ---_________________________ _ 3 or more jobs ___ ____________ __________ __ ______ ____ ________ _ Not reported ______________________________________________ _ 19 10 1 ---------75 46 39 1 ---------- 44 32 23 21 9 10 --------- - ---------- 10 5 6 1 The 309 jobs of these women may be classified as follows: 309 191 76 TotaL ________ _-- ---- --- ---- ----------- -- --------------- Manufacturing ___ _________________________ _____ __ ___ ___ ___ ___ __l====l=====t====t= 244 153 64 - -- -f------1--- 16 8tt~ettes_============= ==========================' ========= Clothing ___________ _______ ____ __ ____________ ____ ______ _ Electric products ______ _________________ __ _____________ _ Food products Textiles _______ __ ___--------------------------------------___ _______________________ ___________ _ Other ___ ___ _____________ _____ ________ _____ _______ _____ _ 228 8 145 4 60 4 23 36 64 25 45 58 20 57 8 33 27 12 6 9 10 23 4 1 8 2 8 38 12 15 Other than manufacturing _________ __ ___ __ _________ __ __________ ,__ _ 65_, Stores --- __ _____ -- ------- ------ -------- ------ --- --------- --8r::stic service ___ -- -- ------ ----------- ---- -- --- ----- -----1 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis - 42 27 20 13 32 ~i 1-------T 5 4 13 TABLE XL-Earnings in last job before separation and in first subsequent job, by age at date of interview--Cigarettes ALL LOCALITIES First subsequent job Cigarette industry Women who reported earnings at time of separation Age group All women Other ind ustry Median Earnings in first Women subsequent job of earnings in last job before Total Number Total Number report- separa- Median Range Range number number reporting ing tion --- (1) (I) 11 $12 to $25 137 $5 to $30 13 96 Women Number Median TotaL. _____ -- ___________ 259 170 $21. 05 Under 30 years __ _______________ 30 and under 40 years ___________ 40 years and over_ ______________ 141 75 43 94 50 26 $21.35 $21.45 (1) $10 to $30 $5 to $25 $11 to $23 6 5 2 5 4 2 (1) (1) (1) Median E arnings in first subsequent job of earnings in last job before Range separa- Median tion No subsequent job $21. 25 $14. 10 $6 to $29 20 (1) (1) $13 to $25 $12 to $18 $15 to $19 82 37 18 57 30 9 $21. 40 (1) (1) $14. 60 (1) (I) $6 to $29 $7 to $25 $9 to $16 6 8 fl (1) $12 to $22 18 8 (1) (1) $8 to $16 7 7 7 4 3 5 (1) (1) (1) (1) $8 to $16 $8 tu $15 1 2 4 (I) LOCALITY A TotaL __________ _________ _ 64 33 (1) Under 30 years ______ ___________ 30 and under 40 years ___________ 4() years and over ______________ _ 28 21 15 13 12 8 (1) (1~ (1 $5 to $28 8 7 (1) (1) (1) $13 to $22 4 $10 to $28 5 (1) (1) $5 to $24 $12 to $16 3 3 $11 to $20 --------- -- - ------ ------ - -- -- ------- ----------- --------- -- ------- ------ --- ----------- LOCALITIES B TotaL _____________ __ ____ 195 137 $21. 45 $12 to $30 5 4 (1) (1) $15 to $25 119 88 $21. 4.5 $14. 25 $6 to $29 13 Under 30 years_---------------30 and under 40 years ___________ 40 years and over _____ __________ 113 54 28 81 38 18 $21. 60 (1) (1) $12 to $30 $15 to $25 $14 to $23 1 2 2 1 1 2 (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) $25 $18 $15 to $19 75 30 14 54 25 9 $21. 50 (1) (1) $14. 65 (1) (1) $6 to $29 $7 to $25 $9 to $16 5 6 2 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis TABLE XII.-Age of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigars 14,182 women for whom personal information was obtained R eporting age Department All women Total Under 16 years 16and under 18and under 20and under 25and under 30and under 40 and under 50and under 60 years and Age 18 years 20 years 25 years 30 years 40 years 50 years 60 years over not re- ported umber P er Num- Per cent ber cent um- P er Num- Per ber cent ber cent I um- P er ber cent um- Per Num- P er Num- Per Num- Per ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent um- Per ber cent - -- - - - - All departments Not reporting department_ ___________ __ _ 14, 182 13,887 100. 0 308 2.2 1,486 10. 7 2,262 16. 3 --- 3,146 22. 7 1,800 13. 0 2,867 20. 6 - - -1,384 10. 0 464 3. 3 170 l. 2 295 48 41 Total reporting ________ 14,134 13,846 100.0 308 2.2 1,485 10. 7 2,260 16. 3 3,143 22. 7 1,794 13.0 2,854 20.6 ], 371 9.9 463 3. 3 168 l. 2 288 2,456 202 2,403 100. 0 100. 0 1 18 .5 .7 18 161 8.9 6. 7 23 248 11. 4 10.3 38 451 18.8 18.8 21 282 10.4 11. 7 47 23.3 23, 6 39 404 19.3 16. 8 11 568 182 5. 4 7.6 4 9 3. 7 z.o 1 53 Cigar making ___ ______ Hand __________ ___ Machine __________ 9,104 4,862 4,242 8,920 4,771 4,149 100. 0 100.0 100.0 34 25 9 .4 .5 .2 783 112 671 8. 8 2.3 16. 2 1,543 198 1,345 17. 3 4. 2 32.4 2,100 877 1,223 23. 5 18. 4 29.5 1,289 924 365 14. 5 19. 4 8.8 2,011 1,631 380 22. 5 34. 2 9. 2 845 707 138 9. 5 14.8 3.3 248 231 17 2.8 4.8 .4 67 .8 1.4 1 ------ 184 91 93 P acking _______________ Shipping ___________ ___ Miscellaneous from all departments ________ 1,874 190 1,839 189 100.0 100. 0 208 42 11. 3 22. 2 405 58 22.0 30. 7 357 36 19. 4 19. 0 439 27 23. 9 14. 3 165 12 9.0 6. 3 187 9 10. 2 4.8 57 3 3.1 1. 6 14 2 .8 1.1 307 293 100. 0 5 1. 7 60 20. 5 53 18. l 88 30.0 25 8. 5 32 10.9 23 7. 8 6 2.0 Leaf_ - -- -------- ----Stripping _____________ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis --203 -- -- --- - ----- ------ 1 ------ 2 ------ 3 ------ 6 ------ 13 ------ 13 -- ---- l ------ 2 -- ---- 66 7 7 .4 35 1 ~ .3 14 ------- ------ TABLE XIII.-Department in which employed, by age grou p--W01rien who supplied personal information-Cigars 14,182 women for w hom personal information was obtained Reporting age All wom en Department umber Per cent Total Under 16 years 16 and under 18 years 18 and under 20 years 20 and under 25 years 25and under 30 years 30 and under 40 years 40and under 50 years 50and under 60 years Age not60 years reported and over - --- - --All departments ______ _________ ____ __ 14, 182 Not reporting department_ ______________ __ 48 Total reporting: Number ________________ _____ __________ Per cent _______________ ________________ 14, 134 ------------------100.0 ---------- --- - ------ 13,887 308 41 -- - ---- - -- 1,486 2,262 3,146 1,800 2,867 1,384 464 170 295 1 2 3 6 13 13 1 2 7 13,846 100. 0 308 100. 0 1, 485 100. 0 2,260 100. 0 3,143 100. 0 1,794 100. 0 2,854 100. 0 1, 371 100.0 463 100. 0 168 288 100. 0 __ _____ ,.. __ Leaf ____ ____ __ ___ __ ______ _____ _______ ____ __ Stripping __________ ____ _____ ______ ___ __ ____ 203 2, 456 1.4 17. 4 1. 5 17. 4 .3 5. 8 1.2 10.8 1.0 11. 0 1. 2 14. 3 1. 2 15. 7 1. 6 19. 9 2. 8 29. 5 2. 4 39. 3 2.4 53.0 53 Cigar m aking ____ __ ____________________ ____ Hand __________ -- - - - ___________ - - - - ---- -- --____ -- Machine ______ __ ___- -______ 9,104 4,862 4,242 64.4 34.4 30.0 64.4 34. 5 30.0 11.0 8.1 2.9 52. 7 7. 5 45. 2 68.3 8.8 59. 5 66.8 27.9 38.9 71.9 51.5 20.3 70. 5 57. 1 13. 3 61. 6 51.6 10.1 53. 6 49.9 3. 7 39. 9 39. 3 .6 184 91 93 P acking ___ ___________ ______ _______ ________ Shipping ___ __ ______ ________ ____ ___ _____ ___ Miscellaneous from all departments ____ ____ 1,874 190 307 13. 3 1.3 2. 2 13. 3 1.4 2.1 67. 5 13. 6 1. 6 27.3 3.9 4. 0 15.8 1.6 2.3 14.0 .9 2. 8 9. 2 .7 1. 4 6. 6 .3 1.1 4. 2 .2 1.7 3.0 .4 1. 3 4. 2 35 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ---------.6 1 1 14 TABLE XIV.-Nativity and color of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigars 1---l 01 0 14,182 women for whom personal information was obtained Reporting nativity Nativity not reported N ative born Department All women Total Reporting color T otal native born Total umber - -All depar tments _____ ___________ ___ ___ 14,182 Not reporting depar tment ___________ _____ __ 48 12,580 NumPer NumPer cent cent ber ber ------ --- - -100.0 37 -------- 9,455 19 75. 2 7,600 - White Per cent rumber 100. 0 0,889 Colored NumPer cent ber -- --- --- ------ - Per cent 90.0 717 9.4 --- ----- -------- ------- - ------ - - -------- ---- ---- --- -- --- Tot al reporting ___ __ __ ____ ______________ __ __ 14, 134 12,543 100. 0 9,436 75. 2 7,606 100.0 6, Total foreign born Color White not reported Number Per cent - - - -- - - - - - - - - 1,849 3,125 19 18 24.8 1,557 -------- --- ----- 9 90. 6 717 9. 4 1,830 3,107 24.8 74 635 65.5 41.4 45 289 45 483 22. 2 21.0 1,188 701 487 2,431 1,671 760 29.8 36.3 21.4 925 246 679 238 34 36 96 14 6. 5 9. 7 14.8 386 46 38 Leaf_ ___ -- - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Stripping __---------- - -------------- __. ____ Cigar m aking _____ ___________ ________ ______ Hand __________________ ________ ___ ___ __ Machine ___ ______ _______ ___ ___ _________ 203 2,456 203 2,304 100.0 100.0 158 1,821 77.8 79. 0 113 1,532 100. 0 100.0 39 897 34. 5 58.6 9, 104 4,862 4,242 8,151 4,598 3, 553 100.0 100.0 100.0 5,720 2,927 2,793 70.2 63. 7 78.6 4,532 2,226 2,306 100.0 100. 0 100.0 4,532 2,226 2,306 100. 0 100.0 100.0 P acking ________ ________ ____ _____ __ __ _____ __ Shipping __ ______ ___ ___ __________ ___ ________ Miscellaneous from all departments ________ 1,874 190 307 1,485 144 256 100. 0 100.0 100.0 1,389 130 218 93. 5 90.3 85.2 1,151 96 182 100.0 100. 0 100.0 1,150 96 175 99. 9 100.0 96.2 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Color not reportednumber -------- --------------- --- - -------- --- -------l ---------------------3.8 7 1,557 45 11 34 --- -------- ----2 150 50 28 18 10 3 --------1 151 APPENDIXES TABLE XV.-Marital status of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigars 14,182 women for whom personal information was obtained Reporting marital status Department All departments_ All women 14, 182 Total Single Number Per cent Number 13, 791 100. 0 6,888 Married Widowed, separated, or divorced Status not reported NumPer NumPer ber cent ber cent - ---- -------49. 9 1,489 10.8 391 5,414 39. 3 Per cent Not reporting department_ ______ ____ ___ _ 48 36 ------ 12 Total reporting _____ __ 14, 134 13, 755 100. 0 6,880 50. 0 5,393 39. 2 1,482 10.8 379 LeaL ______ ___ ________ Stripping __ __ _____ ____ 203 2,456 201 2,361 100. 0 100. 0 57 809 28. 4 34. 3 84 1,128 41. 8 47. 8 60 424 29. 9 18.0 2 95 Cigar making _______ __ Hand ____ _________ Machine ___ _______ 9,104 4,862 4,242 8,942 4,800 4, 142 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 4,344 1,473 2, 871 48. 6 30. 7 69. 3 3,709 2,684 1,025 41. 5 55. 9 24. 7 889 643 246 9. 9 13. 4 5. 9 162 62 100 Packing ___ ____ ____ ___ Shipping ___ ____ ___ ___ _ Miscellaneous from all departments ________ 1,874 190 1,766 187 100. 0 100. 0 1, 307 158 74. 0 84. 5 374 24 21. 2 12. 8 85 5 4. 8 2. 7 108 3 307 ,298 100. 0 205 68. 8 74 24. 8 19 6.4 9 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis --- ---- 8 ----- - 21 ------ 7 TABLE XVI.-Time in the trade of women who supplied personal information, by departrr.ent-Cigars )---1, c.n t:-,:) 14,182 women for whom personal information was obtained Reporting time in the trade Department All women Total Number Less than 6 months 6 months 1 and less and less than 2 t han 1 year years 2 and less than3 years 3 and less than4 years 4 and less than 5 years 5 and less than 10 y ears 10 and less 15 and less than 20 than 15 years years 4 ---- 30 100.0 1,092 ------- 3 9. 2 648 5.5 1,172 ------ ------ ----- 9. 9 1,059 1 ------ 8. 9 1, 1!5 1 -- ---- 100.0 1,089 LeaL ___ _______ ___ _____ Stripping ___ ______ ____ 203 2,456 199 2,012 100.0 100.0 26 255 13.1 12. 7 26 13.1 125 6. 2 40 203 20. 1 10.1 21 202 10. 6 10.0 18 173 Cigar making __ ____ ___ Rand ___ ___ _______ Machine _____ _____ 9,104 4,862 4,242 7,875 4,415 3,460 100.0 100. 0 100.0 492 37 455 6.2 .8 13. 2 369 33 336 4. 7 .7 9. 7 696 84 612 8.8 1. 9 17. 7 667 136 531 Packing _____ ___ ______ _ Shipping ___ _____ _____ _ Miscellaneous from all departments ____ ____ 1, 874 190 1,481 140 100. 0 100.0 232 70 15. 7 50.0 112 13 7. 6 9.3 200 22 13. 5 15. 7 193 148 100.0 14 9. 5 3 2.0 10 6. 8 1 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 9. 2 Excludes 114 learners. 648 5.5 1,171 9. 9 1,058 9.4 ------ ----- Total reporting ________ 14,020 11,855 1 Time not reported Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per INum- Per INum- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent - All departments_ 1 14, 068 11,885 Not reporting department_ __ _____________ 20 years and more 8. 9 1,115 731 6.2 1 ----- 2,675 8 22.5 1,384 ------ 11. 6 3 ------ 862 1 7.3 21,147 9. 7 12 ----- --- -- 11. 6 861 7. 3 21,135 9.6 2,165 19. 6 19. 2 7 233 3. 5 11. 6 6 146 3.0 7. 3 2. 5 8. 2 4 444 24.1 1,017 30. 7 919 15. 8 98 12. 9 20.8 2.8 638 8.1 604 13. 7 34 l.·O 883 11.2 844 19.1 39 1.1 1,229 447 782 4.3 2. 9 393 50 16 10.8 45 730 6.2 2,667 9. 0 8. 6 11 124 5. 5 6. 2 39 387 8.5 3.1 15. 3 740 9.4 196 4.4 544 15. 7 473 208 265 6.0 4. 7 7. 7 1,900 1,354 546 152 13 10.3 9.3 167 11.3 4 2. 9 106 1 7.2 .7 289 10 19. 5 7.1 102 1 6.9 .7 58 2 3. 9 1. 4 63 4 3 2.0 15 10.1 42 28.4 21 14.2 11 7.4 2 8.8 18 22. 5 1,381 9.4 13 2,183 Three women had been in the trade 50 years. 5 164 TABLE XVII.-Age of women who su pplied personal information, by department-Cigarettes ..... t.;i 2,397 women for whom personal information was obtai n ed er., 00 Reporting ag~ ~ 00 L Department r All ~om• en ..... ..... Total 16 and un• 18 and un• 20 and un• 25 and un• 30and un• 40 and un• 50 and un• 60years and Age not reder 18years der20 years der 25 years der 30years d er40years der 50 years der 60years over ported Num• ber Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per cent ber cent ber cent b er cent ber cent ber cent b er cent ber cent ber cent 2,383 100. 0 --- - - - - - - - - - - All departments . .... . ........ .. ........ 2,397 Not reporting d epartment .. ·-·---·--·-·---·-· 73 128 5. 4 71 ------- ----- - ------ Total reporting..... ....... . ·-·-· ··--- - ··--· __ 2, 324 2, 312 100. 0 300 Leaf____ _-- -- - -- -- . -- . - . -- - • - - -- - -- -- - . - -. - - - Making ______ .. ____ . _____ .. _.. _. . ____ . ___ __ __ 526 Packing.. _______ . __ ____ ___ ______ ___ ____ ._ . ... 1,419 Box. ___ . __ . ______ . ____ . ___ _..... ___ . _. ____ __ _ 41 Miscellaneous from all departments . . .. ______ 38 298 525 1, 411 41 37 100. 0 13 4.4 100.0 26 5.0 100.0 88 6. 2 (1) 1 -----(1) ------ ------ 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 128 5.5 250 10. 5 6 ---- -- 244 10. 6 26 8. 7 72 13. 7 138 9. 8 4 -----4 ------ 740 31. l 24 -----716 31.0 26. 5 32.6 31. 8 11 ----- 7 --- --- 79 171 448 471 19. 8 23 --- --- 488 20. 5 13 -----20. 5 448 19.4 475 59 94 283 11 1 19. 8 17. 9 20.1 65 21.8 108 20. 6 279 19. 8 5 -----18 - ----- ----------- 196 8. 2 4 -----192 8.3 37 12.4 34 6.5 112 7. 9 5 --- - -4 ------ 76 3. 2 34 1. 4 1 ------ ------ ----- 75 3. 2 12 4.0 16 3. 0 43 3.0 1 -----3 ------ 34 1.5 14 2 12 2.3 7 2 4 .8 1 20 1. 4 8 3 ------ ______ 1 ------ ---- -.; 154 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES TABLE XVIII.-Department in which employed, by age group - Women who sup. plied personal information-Cigarettes 2,397 women for whom personal inform ation was obtained Reporting age All women Department Age not 20 25 40 16 18 30 50 60 reand and and and and and and years por tN u m - P er Total under under under under under under under and ed ber cent 40 18 20 25 30 50 60 over years years years years years years years --- -- - All depar t m ents __ ____ 2,397 ------ 2,383 N ot reporting department. _ 73 - ----- 128 71 ------ 250 740 471 488 196 6 24 23 13 4 76 1 Not 12. 9 22. 6 61.1 i.8 12. 9 22. 7 61. 0 1.8 10. 2 20. 3 68. 8 .8 10. 7 29.5 56. 6 1.6 11. 0 23. 9 62. 6 1. 5 13. 2 21. 0 63. 2 2.5 13. 7 22. 7 58. 7 1.1 19. 3 17. 7 58.3 2.6 1. 6 1.6 ------ 1. 6 1. 0 .2 3. 8 2.1 computed ; base less t han 50, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 34 1 ------ Total reporting: Number _____ ____ __ ____ _ 2,324 100. 0 2,312 192 448 75 128 244 475 716 P er cent_ _______________ -- -- -- ------ 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100.0 100. 0 100.0 Leaf. _______ -- -- - - - - - - -- - -- - 300 Making _________ _____ ______ 526 Packing ____ _____ __ __ ______ _ 1,419 Box ____ ________ __ ________ __ 41 Miscellaneous from all departmen ts __ ______________ 38 - - - 34 (1 ) 14 2 12 ------ 2 16.0 ----- 21. 3 -----1 57. 3 -- ---8 1. 3 ------ -- -- -4. 0 ------ 1 TABLE XIX.-Nativity and color of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigarettes 2,397 women for whom personal information was obtained ~ativity not reported Reporting nativity Native born Department All women Total native born Color Total White , ------ , ------➔------_, _ Number - - - -- -- - - -- - - - - - 1 1- 2,397 Not reporting department_ _______________ __ 73 Total reporting ____________________________ _ 2,324 - -Leaf________________________________________ 300 Making __________________________________ ._ 526 Packing ________ __________________________ __ 1,419 Box ___________ ____ ______________________ ___ 41 Miscellaneous from all departments ____ ____ 38 1 Not computed; base less than 60. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Per cent - - - - - - -- All departments ______________________ Total foreign born RePQrting color Total Number - -- Per cent Numbet Per cent - - - 1 - - - 1 1 - -- - 1- _ _ Number - - Colored _ _ __, _ _ __ _ _ _ , Per cent Number ported Per cent 1- - - - - - - - - - - - Number --- - Per cent - - - -- --- 2, 378 100. 0 2,373 99. 8 2,127 100. 0 1,856 87. 3 271 12. 7 246 0. 2 7 ===t===l====t=====l====l====t====l====l====l===:4-===d=== = 11 63 8 3 63 52 -- -- -- - - -- ----- - --- ---- - 2,315 100. 0 2,310 300 522 1,414 41 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 300 519 1,412 41 - - - - -- - -- 38 (1) (1) 38 99. 8 2,116 100. 0 1, 848 87. 3 268 12. 7 194 289 465 1, 295 37 30 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 (1) (1) 42 465 1,288 32 21 14. 5 100. 0 99. 5 247 85. 5 117 4 8 3 2 .6 .1 12 10 2 --- - 11 54 7 .5 5 - - -- - - - 9 -- ---- -- = .2 ---1 ---+---+----➔ ----1---1 ---1----t---11 --- 100. 0 99. 4 99. 9 ~~~ n~~l~!- ,- - - ~ - -, White 3 4 -- 156 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES TABLE XX.-Marital status of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigarettes 2,397 women for whom personal information was obtained Reporting marital status Department All wornen All departments ___ ___ __ 2,397 Not reporting department ___ 73 Single Total Per cent Number P er cent Number Per cent Number Per cent 2,387 100. 0 1,022 42.8 922 38. 6 443 18.6 70 ------ - 21 ------ - 2,317 100. 0 1,001 300 ________ ----- --- ______ --- -- - _____ -- - - Leaf_ Making ___- ____ 526 Packing _________ __ __ ___ __ ____ 1,419 Box ______ __ ________________ __ 41 Miscellaneous from all departments _______________ ___ 38 300 522 1,416 41 100. 0 100. 0 100.0 82 218 666 (1) 15 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Widowed, Marital separated, or status not redivorced ported Number Total reporting _____ __________ 2,324 1 Married 38 (!) 43. 2 27. 3 41.8 47.0 20 -- ----- ------- 36 -- ---- - 10 13 ------- 3 886 38. 2 430 18. 6 104 197 558 15 34. 7 37. 7 39.4 114 107 192 6 38.0 -------20.5 4 13. 6 3 12 ------------- 7 ------- -------- 11 ------- ----- - : ' TABLE XXL-Time in the trade of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigarettes 2,397 women for whom personal _information was obtained Reporting time in the trade Department Total Less than 1 year All women 1 and less than 2 years 2 and less than 3 years 3 and less than 4 years 4 and less than 5 years 5 and less than 10 years 10 and less than 15 years 15 and less than 20 years :l~f:r Time not reported Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent - -- - -- - -All departments ______ ___ _ 2,397 Not reporting department ____ __ Total reporting _______ __________ Leaf. _________________ ________ __ Making ____________ ___ --- -----Packing __ _________ ___ __________ Box. _________ ______ ____________ Miscellaneous from all departments ____ ______ __ ---- --- _____ 1 73 2,307 300 526 1,419 41 517 1,411 41 38 38 - 100. 0 67 ------- 2,324 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 2,374 300 100.0 317 5 312 100. 0 35 100. 0 85 100. 0 189 (1) -----(1) 3 -------- ------ ---13. 4 --- --- 200 2 8.4 ------ 160 3 ----- - 10.2 2 ------ 213 9. 0 4 ------ 631 241 10. 4 209 9. 1 603 24 45 8. 0 8. 7 5. 7 38 12. 7 71 13. 7 127 9.0 4 ------ 32 51 118 5 10. 7 9. 9 8.4 66 108 406 ------ 3 11. 7 16.5 13. 4 38 12. 7 55 10. 6 101 7. 2 4 ---- -- 80 ----- - ------ ------ 3 5 ----------- 1 ----------- 26. 6 28 ------ 6.8 198 -- ---- 243 157 13. 5 8. 6 6. 7 15 8 26. l 355 15. 0 17 --- --- 150 6. 3 5 ------ 105 338 14. 7 145 6. 3 104 20. 9 33 66 28.8 225 11. 0 12. 8 15. 9 25 19 95 1 8. 3 3. 7 6. 7 9 17 70 22. 0 ----------- 5 9 ----------- 5 ----------- 4.4 1 ------ 2 6 4.5 23 6 17 3. 0 ------3. 3 9 5. 0 8 ------ _____ . ------ ------- TABLE XXII.- Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars 1--l Ol 00 A.-WHI'rE WOMEN-11 STATE S Number of women C igar-mak ing department Stripping department I Wee~•s earnings All Leaf occupa- departtions ment Total ___ ______ ____ ___________ ____ 20, 824 Median ___ ________ _s __ _ ____________ ____ $16. 30 Less than $L _______ __ ___ ____ ______ ____ $1 and less th an $2 ____ __ __ ___________ __ $2 and less than $3 _______ ___________ ___ $3 and less than $4- _________ _____ ______ $4 and less than $5 ________ ____________ _ $5 and less th an $6 ______ ______________ _ $6 and less than $7 _______ ____ ___ _______ $7 and less than $8 _______ _____________ _ $8 and less than $9 ____________ _____ ____ $9 and less than $10 __ _______ ___________ $10 and less than $IL __ _________ ___ ____ $11 and less than $12 __________________ _ $12 and less than $13 ___________________ $13 and less than $14 __ _______ ____ ______ $14 an d less than $15 ___________ _______ _ $15 and less than $16 _______ ____ ___ _____ $16 and less than $17 _______ _______ __ ___ $17 and less than $18·____________ __ __ ___ $18 and less t h an $19 ___________ __ _____ _ $19 and less than $20 __ ________________ _ $20 and less than $21- __ ____ _______ _____ $21 and less th an $22 _________ _______ __ _ $22 and less than $23 _______ ___ ______ ___ $23 and less th an $24 __________ __ _____ __ $24 and less than $25 ________ ________ ___ $25 and less than $30 ________ _______ ____ $30 and less than $35 _______ _____ ___ ___ _ $35 and less than $40 _______________ ____ $40 and over ___ --- --------- - ---- - ---- -- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 66 210 195 254 276 322 454 521 619 755 875 897 1, 104 1, 094 1,186 1,195 1, 289 1, 139 1,091 1, 068 1, 142 1, 019 1, 094 i40 586 1, 334 238 52 9 --140 $12. 05 2 ----- ------- -- 2 2 1 3 3 17 2 28 9 17 15 5 25 4 -------4 1 Total Hand processes Select Hand Machine Total strip strip - -- --- --- --- --2, 830 $11.80 238 $15. 95 25 -------76 3 44 1 74 1 85 -------2 98 100 -------143 -------1 142 199 6 14 219 204 6 221 9 224 27 12 222 182 39 160 14 15 117 25 99 11 62 14 27 20 10 17 14 6 5 6 6 2 6 2 1 Total Bunch Roll - - - - - - - -- 1, 278 $8. 90 1,314 $13. 20 14, 097 $17. 90 8, 658 $16. 65 2, 596 $17. 25 5, 992 $16. 40 20 62 36 63 5 11 7 24 84 87 125 111 124 197 220 272 383 379 488 587 653 758 800 962 870 805 880 955 908 980 636 441 1, 111 206 45 15 50 57 74 82 105 163 175 221 331 321 383 457 441 503 565 601 511 498 490 422 398 369 277 246 650 203 45 5 7 17 18 21 26 33 8 33 39 53 56 72 113 120 152 252 214 283 350 329 330 415 427 334 347 339 298 274 240 181 153 415 134 28 3 --- ------ --- 66 81 122 114 85 111 88 65 91 66 56 50 44 34 14 6 1 2 10 19 15 28 29 56 82 117 133 121 131 154 93 102 68 60 45 12 8 3 1 ------------------------------- ---------- --------- ------------- -- 1 3 ------ -1 ------ -------- -------- -- -- ---- ----- --- -------- ------------ ---- -------- - ------ - -------- - - -- ----- 6 50 55 68 76 101 96 103 106 170 142 168 176 147 147 122 119 128 93 89 232 68 16 2 Machine processes Outandout Total Bunch --- --- ~ 70 $16. 00 ----------- --------- ------------ ----- ------ -------------- 5, 439 $19: 90 Roll Auto- Examine m atic- machinem achine made make cigars -- 204 $17. 25 62 $20. 40 5, 068 $20. 00 105 $18. 10 - ------ 9 9 -- ------ ----- --34 1 1 32 1 30 29 51 1 1 49 28 29 -- ---- -- --- ----18 19 1 -------32 34 1 1 45 1 -- -- ---43 51 2 -------48 52 46 1 5 1 58 9 47 105 1 9 94 130 6 ------ -123 212 192 13 3 255 18 3 219 2 17 235 209 361 14 325 6 11 1 343 359 2 307 292 8 390 7 5 364 8 494 533 19 11 4 486 510 611 16 6 586 345 8 5 359 2 183 195 6 432 461 17 9 2 --- -- --- --------3 -- - ---- ------------- ---------- --- - --- 1 --- ---- ---- -- ------ 1 1 1 3 -------- -1 6 1 4 1 4 4 6 15 3 7 8 16 6 4 1 4 5 14 4 12 2 5 9 3 1 1 3 4 4 3 3 1 1 1 ------- - ---- - - -- -------- --------- ---------1 ------ -- -------- ------- -1 ------ -- A.-WHITE WOMEN-11 STATES-Continued Packing department Week's earnings Total Various hand or Hand Machine machine band, foil, band and pack, and cellofoil phane band, and Miscellaneous from all departments Shade Inspect Fill container and general Shipping department Total foil Instructors and supervisors Learners Miscellaneous and general - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -1- - - - - , - - - - - 1 - -- - - t - - - - - t - - - - 1 1 - - - -·l - - - - - 1 - - - - - - i - - - - - l - - - - -l·-- - - - - · - - Total __ ________________ ________ ---Median ____ ________ _________ ____________ _ Less than $L ______ _____________________ _ and less than $2 ____________________ __ _ and less than $3 ______________________ _ and less than $4 ____ ____ __ ____________ _ and less than $5 ______________ ___ _____ _ $1 $2 $3 .$4 $5 and less than $6 ____ __________________ _ $6 and less than $7 ______ __ ______________ _ $7 and less than $8 ______________________ _ $8 and less than $9 __ ____________________ _ $9 and less than $10 _____________________ _ 2,821 $14. 70 153 $15. 20 10 --- -------27 ------ ----40 36 -- --------59 65 63 139 134 119 1 1 7 3 7 976 $10. 65 519 $16. 50 7 15 24 27 34 1 7 2 3 3 51 1 44 78 84 70 4 7 12 8 1,001 $18. 65 63 $17. 70 1 ------ ----- 4 10 6 12 308 $11.40 1 2 3 6 12 6 3 -- --------20 18 5 13 2 3 --------- - 17 2 18 26 35 ----------6 25 -- - --- ----35 6 21 2 23 3 1 --------- -3 ---- ----- ------------ -------- - -9 ----------- 628 $12. 50 234 $23. 40 323 $9. 95 109 $10. 95 9 ----------8 33 ----------23 3 28 3 3 5 14 9 3 8 6 10 31 26 26 18 40 4 5 6 1 2 7 3 10 6 8 27 44 54 12 22 64 18 12 1 2 5 6 6 6 3 1 14 5 3 5 4 18 8 11 22 17 7 21 17 23 26 71 $13. 95 4 11 $10 $11 $12 $13 $14 and less and less and less and less and less than than than than than $IL ___________________ _ $12 __ __________________ _ $13 ______ ______ ___ _____ _ $14- _________________ __ _ $15 __ __________ ________ _ 144 124 161 172 167 8 12 7 15 12 82 69 70 62 55 17 17 28 42 48 $15 $16 $17 .$18 $19 and less and less and less and less and less than $16 -- - - ------ --~-------than $17 ____________________ _ than $18 __ __________________ _ than $19 _ ________ ___ ________ _ than $2Q __ __________________ _ 156 150 138 156 104 8 13 12 12 60 42 53 54 70 4 11 34 25 22 15 39 42 36 45 27 46 4 than than than than than 134 84 73 82 107 8 3 1 1 1 17 10 3 4 3 26 19 16 16 18 2 77 4 4 1 1 50 • 1 45 2 6 61 ---- ----- -- --------- - - ----------76 9 ----------3 22 7 23 16 29 22 ---- ------ - ----- -----7 23 15 29 and less than $30_ ____________________ 155 6 9 31 107 2 _____________________ _ and less than $35 __ ________ ________ ___ 19 2 2 4 11 ____________________ ____ ________ _ and less than $40_ ________________ ____ 3 ______________________ ---------- 3 ____________________ ___ _________ _ and over _______ ________________________________________ ___ __ _________________ ______ _______ ___ ___ ___ ____ ______ __ _____________ _ 62 11 4 3 61 --- -------11 4 3 .$ro and less $21 and less $22 and less $23 and less $24 and less $25 $30 $35 $40 $2L ___________ ________ _ $22 ____________________ _ $23 ____________________ _ $24 ____ ____________ ____ _ $25 __ _____ _____________ _ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 46 42 69 23 2 56 3 6 9 4 6 9 2 10 2 4 12 6 4 1 78 - ---------28 1 2 - ---------- J-,l C}l ~ TABLE 1--'- XXII.-Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars-Continued ~ 0 B.-WH~TE WOMEN-PENNSYLVANIA Number of women Cigar-making department Stripping department Week's earnings All Leaf occupa- departtions ment TotaL ______ __ __ ___________ ____ __ 8,170 Median ________________ _____________-_____ $16. 75 Less than $L ___________ _______ ______ ___ 31 $1 and less than $2 ___________________ __ 107 $2 and less than $3 _____ _______ ________ _ 89 $3 and less than $4 ___ ___ _____________ __ 109 $4 and less than $5 _____ _______ _______ __ 116 $5 and less than $6 ____________ _____ __ __ 93 $6 and less than $7 ___ _____________ ___ __ 149 $7 and less than $8 _____ ____ ______ ______ 165 $Sand less than $9 ___ ____ _______ _______ 243 $9 and less than $10 ____________________ 285 $10 and less than $1L ______________ ____ 342 $11 and less than $12 __________ __ __ ___ __ 320 $12 and less than $13 ____ _______________ 410 $13 and less than $14 _____ ___________ ___ 430 $14 and less than $15 ___________________ 412 $15 and less than $16 _________________ __ 446 $16 and less than $17 ________________ ___ 453 $17 and less than $18 ____________ _____ __ 457 $18and less than $19 ____ ____________ ___ 444 $19 and less than $20 __ c ________________ 413 $20 and less than $2L __________________ 529 $21 and less than $22 _________________ __ 389 $22 and less than $23 ___________________ 489 $23 and less than $24 ___________________ 282 $24 and less than $25 _______ __________ __ 287 $25 and less than $30 _________ ____ ____ __ 604 $30 and less than $35 ______ __________ ___ 67 $35 and less than $40 ____ __________ _____ 8 $40 and over __ ________ ----- - -- -- --- - - -1 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Total I --- --56 $11. 00 1,199 $10. 80 2 13 61 31 4 40 36 69 61 66 96 106 77 89 107 60 76 39 30 32 15 14 11 14 4 6 1 1 3 20 3 6 8 3 2 3 3 Select 104 $18. 70 Hand M a chine Total strip strip Bunch Roll Outandout Total Bunch Roll 65 $15. 70 3,126 $19. 95 60 $15. 80 (1) 534 $12. 50 5,260 $18. 85 2,134 $16. 60 402 $18. 80 1,667 $16. 25 11 55 27 39 35 32 2 6 3 5 5 4 11 13 31 37 60 12 29 32 35 34 4 4 9 10 15 16 34 26 44 86 96 103 136 115 140 147 133 108 108 91 102 107 96 2 2 4 7 9 14 12 27 22 39 76 75 77 117 96 111 120 102 87 87 69 58 48 35 1 2 Total 561 $7. 50 58 44 19 24 27 10 18 12 2 4 3 58 62 3 10 70 47 3 8 50 21 6 8 20 14 14 7 5 9 5 4 7 1 13 4 -- - ----- --------6 ---- ---- ----- ---- ------ -- --- ----------- -- ----- -- --------- -------- -------- -- ------ -- - -- -- --------- -------- -------- -- ------ ---- --- -- 24 49 51 83 113 126 149 194 223 260 270 329 348 310 325 446 327 440 223 240 525 55 7 1 ~ 84 78 180 54 7 1 2 1 1 4 7 4 4 7 15 22 15 13 26 19 25 20 17 18 16 19 28 21 26 57 13 84 83 0 ~ Machine processes Hand processes 1 3 6 4 4 6 3 8 6 1 4 4 2 5 1 3 4 67 60 48 123 41 7 - --- -- -1 -------- 11 Auto- Examine matic- machinemachine made make cigars 3,019 $20. 05 8 8 -------- ------ -24 25 23 23 -- --- --- - ------25 25 --- - -- -- ---- ---19 19 -------- ------ - 7 1 8 13 1 15 23 1 25 36 2 39 24 3 27 22 7 30 43 3 46 57 58 -------- ------ -2 98 108 7 114 1 3 120 117 123 5 9 177 196 232 240 6 3 197 202 1 234 230 9 1 331 344 1 -------214 220 344 1 -- -- ---341 138 139 ---- -- -- -- -- ---162 ------ -- - ---- - -161 345 -------- -- --- --345 1 ------ -- ----- -- - --------- 36 (1) trJ z z H C H Q > ~ > z tj 1 1 C H Q > ~ trJ 1 1 2 1 9 2 2 3 3 5 2 1 1 -------- ---- -- -- --- - ---- --- -- - -- - ----------------- -------- -- -- -- -- -- ---- -- - -- -------- 1-3 1-3 trJ H z tj ~ Ul 1-3 ~ H trJ Ul B.-WHITE WOMEN-PENNSYLVANIA-Continued Packing department Va.rious hand or Hand machine band, foil, Machine and cello- ba~~Jnd pack, phane band, and foil Week's earnings Total Total __________ - - -- -- --- - - -- ---- -Median __ __________________ ____________ __ Less than $L ________________________ ___ _ $1 and less than $2 _________ __________ ___ _ $2 and less than $3 ____________________ __ _ $3 and less than $4 ______________________ _ $4 and less than $5 ____ __________ ________ _ $5 and less than $6 __ ___ __ _____________ ___ $6 and less than $7 _________ __ _____ ___ ___ _ 1, 334 15. 05 60 $13. 00 2 ------- ---- 483 $11. 50 Shade Inspect 473 $18. 55 (1) 25 1 --- -------- -- - -------- ------ ----6 4 - ---------- -- --- -----2 4 ----------1 1 4 3 11 21 18 33 13 16 17 28 25 ----------- 21 20 $7 and less than $8 ______________________ _ $8 and less than $9 ____________________ __ _ $9 and less than $10 ____ _______ _____ _____ _ 45 5 29 57 47 1 6 37 31 $10 and less than $11 and less than $12 and less than $13 and less than $14 and less than $1L ___ ______ __________ _ $12 _______ __ ________ ___ _ $13 ____ ______ ______ ____ _ $14 __ __________________ _ $15 ___ ___________ ___ ___ _ 57 68 89 84 79 5 8 31 41 4 44 3 5 39 31 $15 and less than $16 and less than $17 and less than $18 and less than $19 and less than $16 _____ _____ ______ ____ _ $17 __ ________ ___ _______ ·_ $18 _____ _____ ____ ______ _ 87 76 72 90 65 3 5 2 6 4 $19 _____ ____________ ___ _ $20 ___ __ ___ ___ _________ _ 268 $16. 80 Miscellaneous from all departments 1 1 2 4 ----------- 3 8 1 2 2 1 3 -- --------- 25 28 27 26 32 45 34 21 25 18 6 1 3 1 15 6 9 9 $30__ ___ ___ ______ _______ $35_____ ________ ______ __ 54 ---- ------- 4 166 Instructors and supervisors Total 155 $17. 95 90 $23. 00 Learners 40 Miscel• laneous and general (1) 25 2 - ----- - ---- - ----- - ---- --- -- ---- - - - - ---- - - - -4 2 2 5 11 8 16 14 13 6 20 6 2 - - - -- ------ 5 - -- - - - --- -- ----------- ----------- -- ---- ----3 2 - ---- - ----2 --------- -4 3 3 28 6 5 22 7 7 14 20 29 1 7 19 ----------17 3 1 ---- - - ----3 ------- ---2 7 3 - -- - ------3 ----------- --- -------- 2 2 1 4 3 5 4 2 3 -- - -------- - ---------- 6 5 7 8 8 5 8 8 2 - -- - ----- -- - -- - - - --- -- 9 9 -- - --- -- --- -- --------- 22 -- - - ----- -- -- - - - - - - --- - - --- --- --- 6 6 4 12 4 12 24 4 24 _____________ ____ ___ __ 4 _________ __ _______ ___ _ 26 28 39 17 1 ---------- 5 1 ---------- 1 1 2 ---- - --- - -1 ----------1 1 2 48 1 7 - ---------1 4 2 __ ______ ___ $35 and less than $40 _____ __ ______________ ----------- - ------ -- -- --- -------- ----------- ----------- ----- - ----$40 and over ____ __ _______________________ ------- - --- - ----------- ----------------- -- --------- - ---- -------- -- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 1 2 5 - - - - - -- ---- - - - - -- - - - - - 7 12 Shipping department $9. 75 31 10 Not computed; base less than 50. 25 12 2 ----------1 11 3 17 3 4 21 1 22 ----------- ---------- - 2 60 50 ---- ---- - -29 51 29 1 (1) 7 4 17 20 21 $20 and less than $2L ___________________ _ $21 and less than $22 _____ _____ __ _____ ___ _ $22 and less than $23 _____ _____ ____ ______ _ $23 and less than $24 _______________ _____ _ $24 and less than $25 _____ ____ _____ ______ _ $25 and less than $30 and less than Fill container and general --------- - _____ ______ ___________ - --- - ------ -------- - - ___________ ___ _____ ___ _________ __ 1 1 -------- --1 1 1 1 ____ _____ ___ _________ _ ___ _______ _ ____________ _____________ _________________ ___ __ _______ _ 162 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES TABLE XXII.-Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars-Contd. C.-NEGRO WOMEN-7 STATES Number of women Miscellaneous from all departments Stripping department Week's earnings All oc- Leaf decupaparttions ment Total _ - _- - --- ------- ---- $10.10 1, 755 Median __ _____________________ Less than $L ______ __________ _ $1 and less than $2 ____ _______ _ $2 and less than $3 __ _________ _ $3 and less than $4 ___________ _ $4 and less than $5 - __________ _ $5 and less $6 and less $7 and less $8 and less $9 and less than $6 __________ __ than $7- ____ ____ __ _ than $8 ___________ _ than $9 ___________ _ than $IQ ____ ______ _ $10 and less $11 and less $12 and less $13 and less $14 and less than $IL _______ __ than $12 - ____ ____ _ than $13 _________ _ than $14 _____ ___ __ than $15 _____ ____ _ 13 20 38 37 59 85 108 146 172 168 $10.144 30 1,596 $10. 00 (1) 1 19 36 35 58 14 17 40 10 ------- ------- - -- --- 15 21 18 18 1 ------- 83 106 143 155 146 51 72 89 68 67 32 - - --- - - ------- ------34 53 87 79 1 --- ---- 24 13 2 2 2 2 3 17 21 79 7 127 2 106 81 4 2 200 165 122 101 76 666 $8. 65 3 4 9 2 4 29 10 54 68 13 30 6 20 2 6 6 $20 and less than $21- ------ -- $21 and less than $22 _________ _ $22 and less than $23 _________ _ 4 1 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 7 -------- 906 $10. 80 106 100 86 72 65 85 63 32 70 32 20 7 2 ~'i;J Select $16------ -- -$17 ____ _____ _ $18 ____ _____ _ $19 _____ ____ _ $20- ___ _____ _ $15 and less than $16 and less than $17 and less than $18 and less than $19 and less than InMisstruc- cellaneous super- and visors general Total 172 281 Hand Mac~ine Total strip strip 1 2 -------- 4 -------- -- ------ 15 (1) ~ 7 (1) (1) 2 --- -- -- 2 3 2 1 3 2 I I 2 1 2 2 23 18 ------- ------ - - - -- --- 6 4 4 -- - ---- ------ - - ------ 1 -------- -- -----1 ------- ------- ------2 2 -- - ----- --- ---- -- ------- --- ---- ------- 163 APPENDDrns TABLE XXII .-Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars-Contd. D.-NEGRO WOMEN-PENNSYLVANIA Number of women M iscellaneous from all depar tments St ripping department Week's earnings All oc- Leaf decupa- partment tions Total _- _ ___ _____________ 1, 092 Median ___ __ ___ __ ____ _________ $10. 40 Total Select 139 $10. 30 944 $10. 45 (1) Less than$!. _____ _________ ____ $1 and less than $2 ____ ________ $2 and less than $3 ___ _______ __ $3 and less than $4 _ _______ ____ $4 and less than $5 __ --- - -----$5 and less than $6 ___ _____ ____ $6 and less than $7 ____________ $7 and less than $8 ____ ____ ____ $8 and less t han $9 ___ ________ _ $9 and less than $10 _____ _____ _ 9 17 25 24 30 1 2 1 9 16 23 23 29 43 47 73 112 95 1 2 3 17 21 42 45 70 95 74 78 7 1 3 2 105 90 77 72 62 $10 and less $11 and less $12 and less $13 and less $14 and less than than than than than $IL _________ $12 __________ $13 _____ _____ $14 __________ $15- ____ _____ 185 97 78 75 67 $15 and less $16 and less $17 and less $18 and less $19 and less t han than t han than than $16 _____ ___ __ $11- --------$18 - ___ __ ____ $19 __________ $2Q __________ 55 28 156 $20 and less than $2L _________ $21 and less than $22 __________ $22 and less than $23 ---------- 3 1 2 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 5 -------- 18 Hand Mac~ine Total strip strip 115 $7. 30 -------- -------- 811 $10. 70 slrtctors and supervisors 4 5 9 (1) (1) (1) Miscellaueous a nd general 9 ------- ------- ---- -- - 2 3 6 14 14 11 31 -- - - --- ------- --- - -- 29 50 82 70 16 20 13 4 20 17 15 1 - - -- --- 2 1 2 9 4 2 98 2 -- - - - -87 -- - -·- - --- - - - - -- - --- - 54 2 26 4 51 1 1 ------21 2 ------2 14 ------- ------- ------- 5 2 4 1 15 1 6 - - ---- -2 --- -- - - 5 71 63 57 3 2 5 3 3 ------ - ------- -- - - --3 ---- - - - - --- - - --1 ------- ---- - -- ----- -1 ---- - --- - - --- - -2 - -- ----- ------- - - ------- --- - --- - ----- 2 TABLE XXIII.-Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in days-Cigars A.-WHITE WOMEN Women with days worked r eported Less than 3 days 3 and less than 4 days 4 and less than 5 5 and less than 5½ 5½ and less than 6 days days days Num- Num- 6days Week's earnings Number Num- Per cent ber P er cent ber Per cent ber Num- P er cent Num- Per cent ber b er P er cent Number Per cent TotaL ____ ________________ __ _____ ___ ____ 14,799 100.0 601 100.0 549 100.0 1,399 100.0 2,604 100.0 8,948 100.0 698 100.0 Median _________ ___ _______ ______ ____________ _-1--,...:$:,::1, 7.-=1..:.5_---,-+-_ _:c$3::..;.• ..:.60;:._...,,--+-- - ,,.:,$8:..:,·..:.85;:.__-1---..:.:$1::.:2,. .5::.:o_ __,....;.---,:.,$1::..::5.,:...oo.::..:.___--.__. . :.$=-20,. ._10'-----c-+-- -=-$=-14...,.._25_·- ~ Lessthan$5 _____________ ______________________ 643 4.3 410 68.2 88 16.0 60 4.3 29 1.1 49 .5 7 1.0 $5 and less than $10_ ---- ---------------------1, 742 11.8 175 29.1 257 46. 8 382 27. 3 332 12. 7 509 5. 7 87 12. 5 $10andlessthan$15 __ _________ ________ ______ _ 3,219 21.8 15 2.5 170 31.0 510 36.5 937 36.0 1,296 14.5 291 41.7 $15 and less than $20____ _______________ _______ 4,126 27. 9 _________ _________ 33 6. 0 344 24. 6 934 35. 9 2,556 28. 6 259 37.1 $20andlessthan$25 ____ ______________________ 3,634 24.6 .2 1 .2 99 7.1 323 12.4 3,163 35.3 47 6.7 $25 and less than $30__________ ___ __ _______ ____ 1, 169 7. 9 _________ ______ ___ _________ __ _______ 4 .3 43 1. 7 1,115 12. 5 7 1. 0 $30 and less than $35_ _____ ___ ____ _____________ 211 1. 4 _________ ______ ___ ______ ___ _________ __ _______ _____ ____ 4 .2 207 2. 3 $35 and over _________ ____ ______________________ 55 . 4 _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ __ _______ 2 .1 53 •6 B.-NEGRO WOMEN I I I I I TotaL ___________ _____ ______ ____________ 1,3871 100.0 621 100.0 661 100.0 134 1 100.0 410 100.0 7151 100.01 ------ ---1--------Median__________________ ________________ _____ $9. 95 $2. 30 $5. 75 $7. 55 $9. 00 $10. 85 _____ ____ --------Less than $5 _____ ____ ________________________ __ i- - 1,...,,3..,..0-,---....,.9-.4-,---5=7-,--- 9-1._,9,-+----,2--,--,3= 5 7-. 9--,---,20,...,..---1.,...4,--.9.,...;---22=-,--_,5,...._...,.4--,----,6,.....,..- -_-=8~ __-_-__-_-__- _~_-___-_-__-_-_ $5 and less than $10_ - - -------------------- ---570 41.1 5 8.1 39 59.1 92 68. 7 223 54. 4 211 29. 5 _________________ _ $10 and less than $15 _ --- ---------------------603 43. 5 _________ _________ 2 3. 0 22 16. 4 153 37. 3 426 59. 6 _________ --------$15 and less than $20_ ___ _________ ___ ________ __ 81 5.8 _________ ________ _ ________ _ ____ ___ __ ____ _____ _____ ____ 12 2.9 69 9.7 __ _______________ _ 3 .2 _________ ______ ___ _____ ___ _ ______ ___ ____ _____ __ _______ _________ _________ 3 .4 ____ ___ ___ __ ___ __ _ $20 and less than $25__ ____ ___ ___________ ______ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis TABLE XXIV.-Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in hours-Cigars A.-WHITE WOMEN Women with than 40 hours worked V isshours reported 40 and less than 44 hours 44 and less than 48 hours 48 hours Over 48 and less than 52 hours 52 and less 56 and less 60 hours and than 56 hours than 60 hours over W eek's earnings Numb er P er cent Numb er P er cen t Numb er P er cent Numb er P er cent Numb er P er cent Numb er P er cent Number P er cent Numb er P er cent Number P er cent - ----TotaL ___ __ ______ _____________________ 100.0 331 100.0 Median _____ _______ ____ ______ _______ ______ __ 2, 211 $14. 40 $7. 85 Less than $5 _____ ____ ____ _____ _______ ________ 110 5.0 105 31. 7 $ 5 and less than $10 _____ ___ ________________ _ 102 12. 8 283 30. 8 $10 and less than $15 ____ _______________ ____ _ 846 38.3 98 29.6 $15 and less th~n $20 ___ ________ ____ ______ ___ 22. 5 23 497 6.9 $ 20 and less than $25 __ ____ ______ ___ ______ __ _ 395 17. 9 .9 3 $25 and less than $30 __ __ ____ ________ ____ ____ 3.1 ------- ---- --68 $30 and over _____ ________ _______ _____________ 12 . 5 --- -- -- ------- 223 100.0 $14. 40 2 .9 14 6.3 116 52.0 25.1 56 22 9. 9 12 5.4 1 .4 334 100.0 318 100.0 389 100.0 $14. 35 $21.40 $14. 50 3 . 9 ------ - ----- - - -- - --- - -- - --- 45 13.5 1 .3 38 9. 8 46. 7 46 14. 5 49. 6 156 193 24. 0 40 122 31.4 12. 6 80 221 11.1 69. 5 26 6. 7 37 2.8 3.9 13 9 7 1. 8 .8 1 .3 3 ----------- -- 427 100. 0 $15. 20 180 100. 0 $13. 45 9 (1) (1) --- -- -- ----- -- ---- --- -- - ---- --- --- ------12.4 53 1 ---- -29 16. 1 151 35.4 45. 0 81 5 ------118 27.6 2 31.1 56 12 1 1 17.1 6. 1 1. 4 73 26 6 1 6. 7 .6 ------.6 -- --- -- ------- ------------- ------- B.-NEGRO WOMEN I I( I I 1-------1-------1 I I I I I I Total ___ __ _____ __ __ ______ _______ ______ 233 1100. o rn (1) 1) 10 (1) 16 1 (1) 21 (1) j 119 100. o 41 (1) 1 (1) Median_______ ____ ______ __ ___ _______________ $12. 70 (1) (1 ) _____ __ __ ____ _ (1 ) $13. 90 (1) (1) Less than $5 _______ _________ _______ __________ 1--8,....,--3-.-4-'---8-'-'-_-__-_-__ -_-'-_-___-_-_-'-_'""__-_-___-_.,.._-___-_-__-'-,'__-___-_-_,..._-__-_-_-__-'-_-_-_-__-_-' _-__-_-___-'_"-'-_-___-_-__-'__-_-__- _-_-___-_-___-'-_-_-___-_-'_'-_-__-_-__-_'-_-___-_-_-'-_'"" __-_-___-_ 34 14.6 8 ___ ____ 5 _______ 4 ___ ____ _______ __ _____ _____ __ ___ ___ _ 10 8. 4 7 _______ __ ___ ____ ____ _ $5 and less than $10__________ _________ ___ ___ 138 59. 2 3 __ ___ __ 4 __ _____ 11 ___ ____ _______ __ ____ _ 17 67 56. 3 29 _______ 7 __ ___ __ $10 and less than $15 __ ____ __________________ 50 21. 5 __ _____ __ _____ 1 __ _____ 1 _______ _______ ___ ____ 3 40 33. 6 5 ___ ___ _ ___ ____ __ ____ _ $16 and less than $2Q__ __ ____________________ 3 1. 'll ____ _____ _____ - -- ---- ------- _____ __ - -- - - -- ------- -- ----1 --- - - -2 1.7 _____ ___ _______ ________ __ ___ $20andlessthan$25____ ____ ________________ 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 166 WOMEN . IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES TABLE XXV.-Earnings distribution by locality-Cigars A.--WHITE WOMEN Per cent distribution of women Locality Number Median of women earnings Less than $5 $5 and less than $10 $10 and $15 and less less $20 and than than over $15 $20 All localities __ __ ________ _____ ___ _ 20,824 $16.30 4.8 12. 8 24. 8 27.8 29.8 New York 1 _____ ____ _ _________________ New York City __ _________ __ ______ 1,988 1,184 17.60 20. 00 2. 0 1. 4 7. 2 3. 0 23. 7 12. 9 34. 2 32.9 32. 9 49. 8 New Jersey __ ______ _____ ___________ ____ Trenton _______________________ ____ Camden _____ ______ ________ ____ ____ N ewark and near-by cities 2 _ _ _ ____ 4,025 882 1,537 1,606 19. 05 18. 25 21.30 18. 25 2. 4 .8 3. 5 2.1 8. 5 6.8 11.5 6. 5 17. 8 19. 0 13. 9 20. 8 26. 5 39. 1 15. 0 30.6 44. 9 34. 2 56.1 39. 9 Pennsylvania __________________ ________ Philadelphia _____________________ __ Other a_--------------------------Maryland and Delaware ______________ _ Baltimore ____ ______ ----- ---- - -- --- 8,170 3,704 3,986 16. 75 21.20 13. 55 5.5 3.0 8.5 11.4 6.0 17. 7 23.4 11.8 34. 7 27.1 18. 7 31.8 32. 5 60. 4 7.5 600 352 14. 35 13. 85 4. 5 2. 6 14. 2 12. 2 39. 0 51.4 30. 7 27.0 11. 7 6.8 Ohio ____________________ ---- ------ --- 7 cities'----- --- -- -- ------· -- ---- -Michigan-Detroit ___ _________________ Kentucky and Tennessee ______________ M;~~husetts-Boston ________________ Vrrg1n1a __________________ -- ___ -- _-- -- _ 2, 102 1,764 13. 15 12.85 7.1 8.2 22. 5 22. 7 37. 3 39. 2 26.4 24.9 6.8 4.9 2,164 1,088 443 244 17. 45 8.85 19.10 12. 10 2.3 14.9 .7 10.2 5. 3 46.4 2. 5 25. 4 21.1 32. 5 30. 5 38.5 39. 9 5. 1 23. 7 24. 6 31.5 1.1 42. 7 1. 2 0.4 B.-NEGRO WOMEN All localities 6__________ _ _________ 1,755 $10.10 9.5 38. 7 43. 7 7. 7 New Jersey-Camden_- -- ----- - ------Pennsylvania _____ _____ ___ _________ ____ Philadelphia _______________________ 87 12. 05 8. 0 20. 7 59.8 11. 5 1,092 1,051 10. 40 10.50 9. 6 9.0 33. 9 32.4 46.0 47. 7 10.0 10. 3 Ohio-7 cities'- _______ _____________ ___ 515 9. 25 8. 5 50.1 38.4 2. 9 o. 5 .6 New York City and Binghamton. Includes Newark, Passaic, Perth Amboy, South Amboy, and Fords. a Includes York, Lancaster, Reading, Harrisburg, and Steelton and vicinity. ' Lima, Sidney, Wapakoneta, Van Wert, Columbus, Dayton, and Xenia. N egro women were found in Columbus and Xenia only. • Localities with fewer than 50 women not shown separately . t 2 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis TABLE XXVI.-Week's earnings and age of women who supplied personal information-Cigars A.-WHITE WOMEN Women whose earnings and age were reported Week's earnings and under 20 and under 25 and under 30 and under 40 and under 50 and under 60 years and All women Under 18 years 18 20 years 25 years 30 years 40 years 50 years 60 years over N=-J ber cent p~ Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent - - - -- - - - TotaL __ _______ ________ ___ ___ __ __ --- __ 100. 0 1,515 100. 0 Median _____________________________________ 10, 687 $13. 90 $1 . 55 Less than $5 ______ ________ ____________ _______ 222 2. 1 4.6 70 $5 and less than $10 _______ _____ ______ _____ ___ 947 8.9 301 19. 9 $10 and less than $15 __________ ________ ___ ____ 2,506 23. 4 472 31. 2 $15 and less than $20 _____ ________ ____ _____ ___ 3,285 30. 7 23.8 360 $20 and less than $25 ____ _______________ __ __ __ 2,904 27. 2 19.0 288 $25 and less than $30 _________________________ 1. 1 694 6.5 17 $30 and over _____ _______________________ ___ __ 1.2 .5 129 7 1,834 100.0 $18. 80 26 1.4 97 5. 3 392 21.4 563 30. 7 674 36. 8 4. 3 79 3 .2 2,397 100.0 $19. 05 1. 2 28 4. 3 103 450 18.8 784 32. 7 31. 7 759 246 10. 3 27 1.1 1,323 100. 0 $18. 45 1.4 18 81 6.1 247 18. 7 434 32.8 29. 7 393 125 9.4 25 1. 9 2,134 100.0 $18.15 30 1.4 134 6. 3 21. 5 458 703 32. 9 26. 9 573 182 8. 5 54 2. 5 1,015 100.0 340 100.0 129 100.0 $15. 85 $13. 50 $10. 45 21 2.1 13 3. 8 16 12. 4 115 11. 3 73 21. 5 43 33.3 312 30. 7 130 45 38. 2 34.9 32.0 325 95 27. 9 21 16. 3 187 18.4 27 7. 9 2. 3 3 42 4.1 2 1 .6 .8 13 1. 3 ------ - ------- --- -- -- ------- B.-NEGRO WOMEN I I I ( I I I I I I I I I I 1) TotaL_______ ______ _______ _____ _______ 101 100. o 21 90 100.0 225 100.o 141 100.0 1561100.0 551100.0 15 j (1) 4 / (1) Median ___ __ __ ____ __________________________ t ---=-; $1,....0,.... . 5_5-=-:;-;---=--i (1,) --;,---$-'-::1,-,0.,-2_5-:-;;--i-- $'-:-:1,1._l_0..,....,,+--$'-=1,0._9_5-=-=--i--'$,--,-10..c...,.-'--30.:....,...-,,-e-__,...,.$.:,,8·-=4.:c..0-..,,.+-_-..:<~1)_ _...!....__ _('...;t)'.......__ Less than $5 ______________ ____________ ___ ____ 53 7. 5 5 ----- -7 7. 8 9 4. 0 7 5. 0 11 7.1 12 21. 8 1 ____ ___ 1 __ ____ _ $5 and less than $10_____ ______________ _____ __ 245 34. 7 7 ----- -32 35. 6 66 29. 3 49 34. 8 60 38. 5 21 38. 2 8 _____ __ 2 ___ __ __ $10 and less than $15____ ___ ______________ ____ 340 48.1 9 ___ ____ 47 52. 2 128 56. 9 74 52. 5 62 39. 7 14 25. 5 5 _______ 1 ____ __ _ $15 and less than $20________ _________________ 66 9. 3 _____ __ --- - - -4 4. 4 22 9. 8 11 7. 8 20 12. 8 8 14. 5 1 ____ ______ ___ ___ ___ __ $20 and less than $25_____ ___ _______ __________ 3 • 4 - ------ ------ - ------- -- - - --- ------- --- - -- - ___ ____ ______ _ 3 1. 9 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 168 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES TABLE X X VII.- Earn ings distri bution by time in the A .- WHIT E WO M E N Women 6 months and 1 nd reporting time Less th an 6 less than 1 a less in trade mont hs year than 2 years Week's earnings Num• b er - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -1· -- Per N um• Per Num• Per Num• P er cent ber cent b er cent ber cent l - -- t -- - l -- - - - - -- -- TotaL. . ... . ............................. 8,998 100. o 656 100. O 498 100. O 974 100. o Median.-..... .. ...... .. .. . . .................. . $17. 25 $12. 75 $15. 15 $17. 25 Less than $5 .. . ... ..... ................ . ........ 1--1~81,.....,.------,2,-.o-=- 1-- 4.,...,4-.---,-6-, . 7-i--1-1--2-=-_....,.2- 1---,-18=----1,-_-=-8 1 $5 and less than $10 ...... ............ .... .. ..... 781 8. 7 140 21. 3 51 10. 2 89 9.1 $10 and less than $15 . . . .............. .. ........ 2, 164 24. 0 271 41. 3 18.1 36. 7 263 27. 0 $15andlessthan$20 ..... . . . ~ ...... .. .......... 3,022 33. 6 137 20.9 168 33.7 325 33. 4 $20 and less than $25.. . ..... . .......... . ....... 2, 146 23. 8 60 9. 1 81 16. 3 252 25. 9 $25andlessthan$30 .. ..... . ..... . ............. 603 6.7 4 .6 4 .8 26 2.7 $30 and over........ .. . . ... ... ...... . ....... . ... 101 1.1 . . ... . . .... . . . . .... .. .. ... 1 .1 B .-NEGRO WOMEN I l 4831100. 0 ss \ 100. o 60 100. 0 TotaL. _ - · .. .... .... ... . . . ............ .. . 40 (1) 1) $10. 25 $8. 75 $9. 65 Median----·---·---------- - - - ------ - ·- ·····- ···1---,;.::--:------,:-::--l--::--:::--:---=~ 1----:i--,---::-~,---:::--;5.0 2 ....... 7. 5 Less than $5 ....... ........... .. ............... . 10 ----- -185 38.3 51. 7 12 $5 and less than $10.-- -····· · ·················· 220 45.5 25 41.7 $10 and less than $15 . ... . . .. .. ...... . ... . ..... . 28 - -----42 1.7 ------ -- ----8. 7 1 $15 and less than $25. ·--··· · · · ················· Ml 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 113.' ...~...ggJ. al I 169 APPENDIXES trade, worr~en who supplied personal information-Cigars A.- ~HITE WOMEN 2 and less than 3 years 3 and less than 4 years 4 and less than 5 years 5 and less 10 and less than 10 years than 15 years 15 and less than 20 years 20 years and over Num- Num- Num- Num- Num- Num- ber Per cent ber Per cent ber Per cent Per cent ber Num- Per cent ber Per cent ber ---------------- -836 100.0 $17. 80 11 1. 3 71 8. 5 176 21.1 32. 7 273 249 29.8 54 6. 5 2 .2 891 100. 0 $18. 65 14 1.6 6. 3 56 150 16. 8 317 35.6 32.0 285 61 6.8 8 .9 592 100.0 $18. 25 9 1.5 33 5. 6 127 21. 5 190 32.1 171 28.9 9.5 56 1.0 6 2,041 100. 0 $18. 45 26 1. 3 116 5. 7 357 17. 5 36. 1 737 536 26. 3 11. 3 230 39 1.9 P er cent ber -- 1,059 100. 0 $17. 55 1.4 15 8.9 94 221 20.9 34. 7 368 23.4 248 8.1 86 2.5 27 100. 0 636 $17. 05 1.6 10 44 6. 9 163 25.6 242 38.1 123 19. 3 46 7.2 1. 3 8 815 100.0 $15.85 2.8 23 87 10. 7 253 31.0 265 32. 5 141 17. 3 4.4 36 1. 2 10 B.-NEGRO WOMEN 39 1 (1) (1) :; !:::::: 561100. 0 $10. 90 3.6 28.6 34 60. 7 4 7.1 1~ I I (IJ (1) 1411 ----- - ---- 11 ------- 31 126898°-32--12 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 5 -- --- -- I ' 123 100. 0 $10. 70 9.8 29. 3 36 47. 2 58 17 13. 8 121 31 I (1) (1) 12 I (1) (1) 31 (1) (1) ------r------ 1r--- - -------11------- 8 - -----132 ------8 - ---- - - 3 --- - - --3 ------- 5 -------- 1 - -- - -- 1 --- ---- TABLE XXV II I.-Week's earnings, by departmen t and occupation-Cigarettes A .-WHITE WOMEN-3 STATES Number of women Leaf department Week's earnings All occupations Total Hand stem Pick ---- - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - ---1-- 3,- 668 -t-- --+----1-- - Total_ _- -- -- - - ______ ____ ____ ____ __ ______ __ ___ _____ _______ _ Median__ __________ ____________________ _____ _____ ___ _____ _____ _ $17. 05 228 $11.33 99 $10. 96 46 (1) ' Making department-Making machine Machine stem Miscellaneous and general help Feed Total Operate Catch Inspect - - --1-----t-- - - - -- - - - - - -- 1-- - 67 $12. 31 (!) 16 912 $15. 40 98 $12. 81 188 $17. 85 462 $14. 28 164 $17. 78 1-------+-----+-------1-----1----1-----+----l----+------Less than $L _____ ---------------------- --- ----- - ----- __ ___ ____ _ 8 $1 and less than $2______________________ ___ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ _ $2 and less than $3________ _____ __ ____ ________ ___________________ $3 and less than $4____________________ _____ _________ ___ ____ ____ _ $4 and less than $5_____ _______ ______ __ _____________ ___ ____ _____ _ $5 and less than $6___________________________________ ________ ___ $6 and less than $7________ _____ ___ ____________ ___ _______ ___ _____ $7 and less than $8_________ _______ ______________________________ $8 and less than $9___ ______ _______ __ __________ _____ ___ ______ ____ $9 and less than $10_____________________________________________ $10 and less than $1L ______ ___ _____ _________ _____________ ___ __ _ $11 and less than $12______ ______________ ________________________ $12 and less than $13____________________ ________________________ $13 and less than $14____ __ ____ __ ________ ______ __ __________ __ __ __ $14 and less than $15_ ___________________________________________ $15 and les~ than $16_____ ______________ ________ _________________ $16 and less than $17____ ____________________ ____________________ $17 and less than $18____________ __ ____________ _____ __ ___ _____ ___ $18 and less than $19_______ _________ ___ ________ _____ _______ _____ $19 and less than $20____ _____________________ ________ _____ ______ $20 and less than $21____________________________ ________________ $21 and less than $22___ __________ ___ __ _______________ ___________ $22 and less than $23____ _____ _____ __________ ___ ________________ _ $23 and less than $24____ _______ __ ___ ___ _______ ___________ __ _____ $24 and less than $25___ _________ ______________________ _______ ___ $25 and less than $30_____ _________________ ________________ ____ ___ $30 and less than $35____ _____ ________ _______________ ____________ $37 ____ -- --- - - --- -- ---- --- - - ___ __ __ -- _______ -- -- __________ -- ____ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 4 2 2 24 10 6 4 23 ~ 22 31 11 5 4 34 9 2 5 26 6 2 2 31 11 4 5 48 13 6 6 61 11 5 5 84 22 13 2 166 18 6 5 220 41 9 1 269 11 3 23 289 20 16 2 233 9 3 235 4 ---------- ----- -- - -556 2 2 ------ ---387 2 2 - ---- --- -248 -------- -- - ---- ----- -- ------- 289 1 ---------- ---------131 64 54 62 58 14 1 ; --- ----- -- ---------- ---------- --------- - ------- --- ---------- ------------ - ------ ---------- 1i 2 2 2 2 1 1 7 4 21 9 1 5 3 ----- -- - -- - --- - ---- ------- -1 1 15 9 ~ --...------- 7 5 3 10 1 -- ------- --- - ------ - ----------- ---- -- - 9 11 23 51 49 101 124 78 91 148 76 43 30 10 8 1 1 2 ---------- 4 ~ 2 g 3 ~ 1 -- - ------- - - - ------- ---------9 b 2 5 1 4 3 2 4 4 3 4 4 2 2 15 6 2 43 16 6 4 23 4 1 4 92 12 5 9 98 4 6 7 61 11 61 7 12 34 54 10 50 41 3 4 28 24 1 3 15 17 12 3 6 2 6 1 ------ ---- ---------- - --------1 1 - --------- ---- ------ A.-WHITE WOMEN-3 STATES (Continued) Number of women-Continued Department not specified Packing department Week's earnings Total Operate new packing machine Old packing machine Operate Operate stampwrapping ing and Cup machine banding Feed or opor machine erate inspect Hand pack Miscel- Box Hand departSalvage lanePack stamp, ous ment in car- paste, Inspect and and tons and repair general wrap help - - - --- - Total Misoel· Super- lanevisory ous and and clerical general help -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- 42 591 485 105 38 46 90 87 40 14 277 221 233 273 26 TotaL _---- ---------- -- ----- -- - 2,401 (1) Median ___ _______ ________ ______ ____ __ $17. 76 (1) (1) (1) $17. 32 $17. 74 $12. 69 (1) $17. 05 $16. 65 (1) $18. 20 $18. 13 $18. 29 $19.10 1---1-- - - + -- -+----l-- - - f - - - - - + - - - - + - - - + -- --l----+-- - -l----l----i----l----l----Less than $L _____________ __________ _ 1 -------- --- --- -- -------1 -- - ----- ---- -- -- ----- --- -------- $1 and less than $2 ________ ________ ___ $2 and less than $3 ____ _____ ___ ______ _ $3 and less than $4 _ ________ ______ __ _ _ $4 and less than $5 _ -----------------$5 and less than $6 _-- ---- --------- --$6 and less than $7 __________________ _ $7 and less than $8 ______ ____________ _ $8 and less than $9 ____ _____ _________ _ $9 and less than $10- ________________ _ $10 and less than $1L _______________ _ $11 and less than $12 ___ ___________ __ _ $12 and less than $13 ____ ____________ _ $13 and less than $14 ________________ _ $14 and less than $15 ____ ______ ______ _ $15 and less than $16 ______ __________ _ $16 and less than $17 ________________ _ $17 and less than $18 ___ _________ _____ $18 and less than $19 ____ _____ _______ _ $19 and less than $20 ____ ________ ____ _ $20 and less than $2L ____ ___________ _ $21 and less than $22 _______ _________ _ $22 and less than $23 _____ __ _________ _ $23 and less than $24 __ ______________ _ $24 and less than $25 ________________ _ $25 and less than $30 ________________ _ $30 and less than $35 __ _____ __ ___ ____ _ $37 --- - - ----- - ---- --- - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 4 ---------- -------- -------- -- ------ -7 1 -------- - - ---- -- -6 2 7 19 10 11 15 21 37 36 87 117 136 141 138 128 370 305 200 255 121 56 47 61 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 9 20 9 10 57 83 54 16 2 2 2 3 4 17 17 5 5 15 15 16 20 13 49 18 12 1 1 -- ------ -1 ---------1 -------- -- 1 1 5 2 8 27 3 9 36 16 4 12 16 59 30 3 55 ------ ---- ----- --- -------10 1 2 2 - 4 5 11 14 9 10 11 24 39 35 29 5 - 4 6 5 2 7 2 6 2 2 1 4 1 33 23 2 9 1 4 2 5 5 10 10 12 19 30 45 62 31 37 55 42 37 45 2 1 1 2 10 4 12 6 27 19 11 15 179 70 32 48 1 2 1 12 1 ----- --- -------- ---- ---- 4 1 ----- --- -------- -------- ---- ---2 ------ -- ------ -1 ------ - - - - ---- -- -------3 1 ----- --- ------ -- -- ------ - ------ 2 ------ -- - ------- -------5 ----- -- - -- --- --4 -------- -------- 8 -------- -------- - ------4 6 8 7 2 8 10 4 10 4 3 6 6 3 12 4 3 11 4 4 8 21 3 3 1 7 23 8 2 1 3 5 2 4 2 -------- -------- -------- 2 7 9 1 3 6 4 7 1 2 10 2 2 3 1 3 4 7 1 2 2 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 2 4 -------- -------- --- ----- -------- -- ------ - - -----33 3 12 44 5 18 5 2 3 26 10 1 1 1 -- -----1 1 14 12 21 7 2 10 -------- - ------- -------- --- ----- -------- -------1 - ----- ----------------------- 6 6 -------- 2 2 --- ----- 4 4 ------ -~ ---1 ~ TABLE XXVIII.-Week's earnings, by department and occu pation-Cigarettes-Continued B.-WHITE WOMEN-N OR'l'H CAROLINA Number of women Week 's earnings AH occupat ions TotaL ____ __ __ __ _____ ___ ___ ____ _______ __ - - -- -- - - -- - - - - - - --- - - - - -- - - - ----- --- - - - - - - -- -- - --- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- · - - Median __ ______________ _____________ _________ _______ ___ ___-- · - - - -- _____ ______________ ___ _____ ______ __ ______________ _ Less than $!_ ________ _______ ________ ____ ______ ________ ______ __________ _____ _________ ___ ______________ __ ___________ ___ $1 and less than $2 ___ _ ·______ ______________ _______________ _____________ __________ ____ ______ ________ ____________ _____ $2 and less than $3 ___ ___ _____________ • ____ ____ __________ ___ ___ __ ________ ___ ____ ___ ____ __________ ___ ____________ ___ $3 and less than $4 _____ ____ _______ ___________ _____________ ____ _______ ___ __ _________ ____ ______ __________ ____________ _ $4 and less than $5 ____ ____ ___ __ _· _________ ____ ________ _____ ____ ___ ________ __ __ __________ ________ ____ ______________ __ _ $5 and less $6 and less $7 and less $8 and less $9 and less than than than than than $6 __ ____ ________________ ___ _____ _____ ______ ___________ ___ __ ____ ___________ ___ ____ ___ ______ _____ ____ _ $7 ___ __________ ______________ ___ ___________ ________ ____ ____________ __________ ______ _____ ___________ _ $8 __ _____ _________ ___________ ____________ __ ________ ____ ___ ___________ ______________ _________ ___ ____ _ $9 ____ ______________ _______ ___ ___ ___ _____ ____ ______ ______ ____ ______________________ ________________ _ $10 ________ ________ ____ ____ __ ___ _________ ________________ ____________________________ ___ ___________ _ M aking depar t ment-Making m achine Total Operate Cat ch Inspect 93 79 194 1,840 14 366 (!) $17. 80 $14. 10 $15. 35 $17. 70 $17. 60 - - -- 1-- -- -1----+- - - -l-- - -+-- - 2 ----- - -- -- - ----- -- -- - -- -- ----- - - - -- ----- - -- -- ----- 4 1 1 - - - - -- ---- 1 - -- - ----- - 4 3 ------- - - 3 ---- -,--- 5 - - - ---- -- 1 - --------1 ---- - -- - -7 4 ----- ----- - - - -- - - - - - -- -- - ----- --- - ---- -12 15 4 4 - -- - --- -- 6 --- - - ----- 4 - - - - ---- - 5 1 9 -- ---- - - -- ---- ---- -- ---- -- - --- -- -- - --- -- ---- -- - --15 3 2 2 -- - - ----- - 24 1 26 46 48 4 $10 and $11 and less less $12 and less $13 and less $14 and less than _-----________ - --------------- - -___________ - --- - - - - - - -__----- ----- - -__- ___ --- -__--__________ - -------- -____ -------- ------------ ----than $IL $12 __________ _______ -_____ __ _________ .. _________________ _____ than $13 _________ __ ______________ ___ __________ ____ ___ ___________ ____ _____ __ __ ________ _____ _____________ _ than $14 ____ _____ ___ __ _____ __ ____ ___ _______________________ ____________________ ______ ____ ___________ __ __ than $15 ___.__ _- ---- ---.-- ________ __ ___________ ________ ______ ______ ________ ________ ___ __ _____ ____ ________ _ $15 and less $16 and less $17 and less $18 and less $19 and less than than than than than $16 __ _____ __ __ ________ ______ __ __________ _____ ________ ______ ___ ______ __ ____ _______ ______ _______ _____ $17 ____ ___ ________ _______ ____ __ ____________ _________________________________ ______________ ____ ____ _ $18 ___ ___ ______ ______________ __ ___________________ _____ __ ___ ___ _______ __ ____ __ ____ ___ __ __ _____ _____ $19 __ ______ ___ __ ___________ __ ____ _________ ____________ _____ _________ ___ __________ _____ ____________ _ $20 __ __--•- ___ ___ _______ __________ ____ __________ ________ __________ ________ ___ _____ ____ __________ ___ 71 89 425 $20 and less $21 and less $22 and less $23 and less $24 and less $25 and less than $21 __ __ _________ __________ __ ___ _________ __ __ ____ ______ ____ ____ _____ ______ ___________ _________ _____ _ than $22 __ ________ ___ ___________ __ ___________ __ ______________ ___ _________ ___________ _________ _______ __ __ than $23 ____ ____ ___ ________ ____ ____________ ____ ____ ______ __________ ________ ___________ __ ____________ __ __ than $24 ____ ___·__ _____ _______ _______ ___ ____ ________ ____ __ ____ ____________ _____ _________ ___ ___________ ___ than $25. ___ __ ______ __ __ ____ _____ ___ ___________ ______ ____ _____ __ _________ _____ __ __ ___ __ _____ ________ ____ than $30 __ _________ ______ ________ _______ ___ ___ ____ __________ __ _______ _____ ___ ________________________ ___ 200 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Leaf depar tment 115 177 283 137 79 28 13 5 1 1 ----- ----- - --- - -- -- - 1 18 10 44 82 3 19 20 82 46 13 1 3 41 23 5 1 3 17 10 43 77 15 7 3 2 1 2 - - - -- - ---- - ----- - -- - 3 3 1 1 2 3 10 38 21 7 2 3 3 1 1 B.-WHITE WOMEN-NORTH CAROLINA-Continued Number of women-Continued Packing department Week's earnings O~fct~eng o~:~te packing machine Total Operate Operate stamping 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 wrapping and Feed or Cup or machine ~a~tfii~ operate inspect Hand pack Pack in cartons - - - - - - - - - - - -1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -- - - 1- - - - - -- TotaL _ _____ ______________ Median____________ ____________ _ 1,404 $17. 90 Less than $L ____ ______ _________ _ $1 and less than $2 _____ ________ _ $2 and less than $3 ______ _______ _ $3 and less than $4 ____ _________ _ $4 and less than $5 _____ ________ _ $5 and less than $6 _____________ _ $6 and less than $7 __ ___________ _ 194 $18. 15 $19. 20 11 (1) 403 $16. 10 2 ---------- ---------- ---------- - --------- ---------- 1 2 4 --- - - --- -- ---------- - --- --- --- 9 9 $10and less :$11 and less $12 and less $13 and less $14 and less 1 1 20 25 34 64 92 $15 and less than $16 and less than $17 and less than $18 and less than $19 and less than $16 ___________ _ $17 __ _________ _ $18 ______ _____ _ $19 ___ ________ _ $20 ___________ _ 50 65 313 235 124 7 7 57 80 13 $20 and less than $2L ___ _______ _ $21 and less than $22 _____ ______ _ $22 and less than $23 ____ _______ _ $23 and less than $24 ____ ___ ____ _ $24 and less than $25 ___________ _ $25 and less than $30 ____ _____ __ _ 198 76 13 1 12 4 1 1 1 ---------1 1 - - - --- ---4 - --------- --- ----- -- 2 $1L __________ _ $12 ____ _______ _ $13 ___________ _ $14 ___________ _ $15 ____ _______ _ 25 1 -------- -- 2 ---------- - - - --- ---- - --------- - --- - - - --- than than than than than https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 116 2 -- ---- ---- --- - -- ---- ------- - -- ---------- ------- --- 10 22 Not computed; base less than 50. 117 $20. 40 Inspect 23 25 (1) (l) MisCAllaneous and general help +---- - - 1 - - - - - 1 - - -- 350 $17. 60 Salvage and repair 12 (1) Box department - - - ---- ---63 $17. 55 (1) 38 (1) 18 1 - ------ --- ------ -- -- -- ------ -- ----- - ---- ---------1 - --------- ------- --- -- - ------- ---- ------ ---------- ---------- ---------4 1 1 --- - ------ -- - ---- - -2 ------- - - - --- --- ---- - - - ------- - ·-------- ---------- ---------3 1 --- ------- - --------- ---------2 $7 and less than $8 _____ ________ _ $8 and less than $9 ___ __________ _ :!;,9 and less than $IQ _____ _____ ___ 1 90 $20. 50 Hand stamp , paste, and wrap Department not specifledMiscellaneous and general help 2 2 1 1 2 4 ---------1 1 5 9 46 17 6 1 3 ---------2 -------- -- ------ -- -2 2 1 2 3 3 1 ---------1 2 1 3 14 2 6 12 19 32 59 29 2 2 24 4 1 2 --- --- ---- ---------- ------- - -1 ---------- --- - ------ - --------5 1 -- - ------- --------- - - ------- - 1 ---- - ----- ---------5 1 ---------- --- - - ----- --- ----- -- ---------- --------- - - - - ------5 2 ----- - - - -- -- - ------- ------- --- --------- - ---------- - --------- 6 8 - --- - - ---- -- - ----- - - -------- -- 10 13 21 43 • 58 25 26 37 29 25 1 ---------3 1 3 2 3 2 ---------- -------- - - - --- ------ -------- - - -------- - - 6 4 8 17 7 12 175 65 21 1 ---------- --- ------1 1 3 --- - - ----1 1 3 6 5 2 4 3 6 3 4 1 3 5 2 7 1 1 2 5 3 1 20 29 1 21 1 1 1 --- ----- - - ---- -- ---- 31 13 2 4 1 - -------- 24 5 1 2 ------- - -- - --- -----16 --- - - - - - -- - --------1 -------- ··- ---- ---- -11 1 ------- - -- --- ----- -- ---------- --- - - ----4 1 ----- ----- - -- - --------- - ------------ - ---- - - - ------------ - ---------------- - TABLE XXVIII.-Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigarettes-Continued C.- NEGRO WOMEN-2 STATES Number o! women Making departmentMaking machine Lea! department Week's earnings All occupations Total TotaL________________ __________ 2,130 Median_____ ___ _______ ______ ___ ____ ___ $8. 00 Less than$!__ __ ___ ____ ____ ___________ _ $1 and less than $2 __________________ __ $2 and less than $3 ____ ______ _____ ____ _ $3 and less than $4 ____ _______________ _ $4 and less than $5 ___________________ _ 27 42 126 236 $5 and less than $6 ___ ______ __________ _ $6 and $7 and $8 and $9 and less less less less than than than than $7 _______ _________ ___ _ $8 ___ ______ __________ _ $9 ________ _______ ____ _ $10 ____ ______________ _ $10 and less than $11 and less than $12 and less than $13 and less than $14 and less than $1L ___________ _____ _ $12 __________ ___ ____ _ $13 ___ ___ ______ ___ ~-$14 ______ ___________ _ $15 __________ _______ _ $15 $16 $17 $18 $16-----------------$17 _________________ _ $18 _________ ________ _ $19 ______ ___________ _ and and and and less less less less than than than than https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Pick I MiscelMacbine laneous Hand and Total stem stem general help I 1,192 $5. 95 270 $8.65 8 26 42 124 235 2 1 3 2 2 3 3 13 155 33 : ======== ========= = ==== === 24 -------- ---------------33 -------- -- - - - ---- -------21 -------- --- -- ---- -------- 19 24 22 - ------- ------- - - -------16 - ------- ----- ---- (i 240 166 194 592 193 7 16 38 279 46 219 146 119 125 93 119 87 24 27 21 51 24 9 9 1 4 3 42 11 -------- -------1 --- - ----- 3 1 - - ------ -------- ------ --- 240 174 208 598 197 121 88 10 5 1-------- 26 12 ~ 144 (1) ~~ Box depart- miscellaOperate ment neous wrap0th 1 Operate Inspect Tota1 - - - -- - -, ping er and general help F eed or 1Cup or mach ine operate inspect 459 $8.55 $8.8:J Department not I Old packing machine 2, 065 $8.00 3 20 35 109 2~ 9 Packing department 7 1 (1) 29 (1) 11 7 (1) (1) (1) 7 22 (1) 3 - - ------ --------- - ------- - ------- - ------- - -- ------ --------- -------- --- ----5 -------- ---- - ---- -- ---- - - -- - ---- - -- -- - ---- -------- --------- -------- -------- --------2 -------- ----- ---- - ------1 ----- ---- - ------- --------1 1 ---- ----2 1 --------- 8 5 ================---==---= 6 --------------- --===-=== 5 ======== -------3 -85 3 -------- ·· ---- ---- --------3 1 1 --------1 ----- ---- ---- ---- -------- 2 3 -------- -- ------------ -- --------1 --------1--------2 ----------------- ---------------- --------2 -------- 2 -------- --------- -------- --- ---- - -------- - ---- ---- ------- -- -------- ------ -- --------- ----- ---- ______ 2_ ~======= ===== ==== ======== ================= ======== =============== == ========--------1 1--------- --------1 --------------1--------- ----- -- -- --------1 - ------- 18 -------- --- --- -- -------- ------ --- -------- 7 6 ---------1 31 ------ ------ --- ----------- -- -------- --- 31 ----------- --- ----- --------- -- 1 10 5 5 ----- ---- -------- 1 - --- --- - - -------- -- ---- -- 2 1 1 - -------- ------- - -------- -- ------ - 1 --------- D.-NEGRO WOMEN-NORTH CAROLINA Total ___ ---___ - ----- ___ --- -- - --- ----_ Median _________ _____ __________ 1,821 $7. 95 1,777 $7.90 412 $8.55 1,107 $6.00 177 $8.45 81 $8.80 (1) 7 (1) 6 (1) 1 - - - 1 1 - - - - 1 - - - 1 - - --t-- - - 1 1 - - - -1 - - - 1 -- --1-- Less than$!_ ____ ______________ _____ __ $1 and less than $2 ___________________ _ $2 and less than $3 _______________ ___ __ $3 and less than $4 ___ __________ ______ _ $4 and less than $5 _____ __ ------------~ $5 and $6 and $7 and $8 and $9 and less less less less less than than than than than $6 _________ ____ ______ _ $7- _________ _________ _ $8 __ ___ ____________ _ $9--- --- - -- ----- ---~ $10 _____ ______ __ _____ _ $10 and less $11 and less $12 and less $13 and less $14 and less than than than than than $15 and less $16 and less $17 and less $18 and less than $16 _________ ________ _ than $17 ______ __ ____ _____ _ than $18 _________ ________ _ than $19 ____ _________ ____ _ 1 $IL ______ _____ _____ _ $12 ________ ___ ______ _ $13 __ _____ ______ ____ _ $14 _____________ ____ _ $15 _________________ _ Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 7 17 33 33 114 207 114 207 7 6 28 103 200 219 158 162 556 158 219 150 157 555 156 7 14 29 259 44 204 133 112 120 92 82 50 18 8 4 82 49 18 8 3 21 18 4 1 51 4 2 2 8 18 14 26 12 6 3 3 -------- --- ----- ------ - -2 1 --- ----- --- - -- - -2 3 - --- ---- ---- - ---3 1 -------- --- - ----1 5 9 148 4 1 17 (1) (1) 7 --------- (1) 4 (1) 1 19 - + - - - t - - - - - 1 - - - - t - - - - t - - - - t - - - - t - -- - - ----- ----------- --- -- - ------ ------ ------------------ - ---- -------------------------- - ------ --- ------ ------ -------------- -- - --------------------------- -- - ----------------- - ---- - ------ -------1 -------1 ---- ---- - - -- ------------ -------- - 3 -------- - -------- - ------- -------· -- ------- -------- --- -- ---- - - ------ -------- --------8 3 5 7 1 28 1 16 1 ------- -1 --------- -------- ------ -- 10 -------- --- ---- -- - ------- ----- -- - - ------ -- -- ------ --- - ----- -------- --- ----- -- ------5 2 1 --------- - ---- --- -------- -- ----- -- - ------- 1 -------- --- - --- - -------- --------- - --- ---- -------- --- --- --- ------ -18 -------- --- ----- -------- -- - -- -- -- -------7 6 1 3 1 -------- -------- -- - - ----1 -------- - -- -- ---- -------- 3 ---- - --··- -------- ---- - - --3 --- ----1 --- -- ---- ·---- --- - -------1 --- - ---10 5 5 - ---- ---- -------1 2 1 1 ------- -- - ---- --- -- -- -- -- - -------- ---- ---- -- ------ --- --- -- TABLE XXIX.-Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in days-Cigarettes A.-WHITE WOMEN Women with days worked reported Less than 3 days 3 and less than 4 days 4 and less than 5 days 5 and less than 5½ days 5½ and less than 6 days Week's earnings ---T-o-ta_l_____- _-_-__-___-_-__-___-_-__ - _-_-__-_-__-___-_-__-_-_-__-_-__-___-t-N-um_l_,._5:-:-;-P-e_rl-:-~-: _N_um __ b_er_1_P_er_c_e_nt_1-_N_um_b_e_r-1-P_e_r_ce_n_t-;_N_um __b_er _F_ee_r_ce_n_t-1-N-um_b_er-1--P-er_c_e_n_t_1_N_um_l_,:-e-t:.tO Median ____ __________________________________________ Less than $5 __ __ ___________ ________________ ____ __ __ ___ $5 and less than $10 ____ ____ ___ __ ___ _______________ __ _ $10 and less than $15 ______ __ _______ _________________ _ $15 and less than $20 ___________ _____ _______ _________ _ $20 and less than $25 _______ _________________________ _ $25 and less than $30 ________________ ________________ _ $30 and over ______ ____ ____________________ _____ _____ __ 100.0 50 $6. 20 $18. 70 29 76 245 619 517 56 1. 9 23 26 1 46.0 52.0 2.0 56 iOO.O $10. 40 3 4. 9 19 15. 8 33 39. 9 ---------- --- ------1 33.3 ------ ---- - --------- ---------3. 6 .7 11 5.4 33. 9 58.9 1.8 ---------- 109 100.0 $13.65 1 7 72 26 3 100.0 277 $16. 20 . 9 ------ --- - ---------21 7. 6 6.4 32.1 66.1 89 23. 9 57.4 159 2. 9 2.8 8 $20. 20 2 3 50 433 506 56 11 .2 .3 4. 7 40.8 47. 7 5.3 1.0 B .-NEGRO WOMEN I TotaL ___________________ ___ ______ ___ ___ __ ____ _ Median ______________ __ ________________ _____ ___ _____ _ 100.0 660 $8.45 Less than $5 ______ ______ _______ ___ __ ___ ________ ______ _ $5 and less than $10 ____ __ ____________ _______________ _ $10 and less than $15 ___ _____________________________ _ $15 and less than $20 ____________________ ____________ _ 58 451 139 12 8.8 68.3 21. 1 1.8 (1) (1) 16 ---------- 7 ---------- 1 -- ------ -- 4 -------- - - 12 ----- - -- -30 ---------- 100.0 464 1 $8. 50 4 366 93 1 .9 78. 9 20.0 .2 1261 $9.80 19 50 46 11 100.0 15. 1 39. 7 36. 5 8. 7 I-! 1 Not computed; base less than 50. z i:, ~ i U). https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis TABLE XXX.-Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in hours-Cigarettes A.-WHITE WOMEN Women with hours worked reported Less than 44 hours 44 and less than 48 hours 48 hours Over 48 and less than 52 hours 52 and less than 56 and less than 56 hours 60 hours 60 hours and over Week's earnings Num• ber Per cent Total .... ---- ··· - - - --- ·--- -··------ - Median .. _.·----··-·----- ·-· - __________ ·· -_ 2,013 100. 0 $15. 65 Less than $5 ••••• ·-··---- ---·-------------$5 and less than $10·-·· ---------·-· - - - ·---$10 and less than $15 ••• · ·-·-- · --- - - - - -----$15 and less than $20. -· -- -------------- - - -$20 and less than $25 _____ _________________ _ $25 and less than $30 ____ __________________ _ $30 and over. ___ ___ ________________ ________ 72 111 747 1,004 73 2 4 3. 6 5. 5 37.1 49. 9 3. 6 .1 •2 Num• ber Per cent Num• ber P er cent 312 100. 0 $9. 20 2'1:l 100. 0 $12. 55 72 105 108 'l:l 5 197 23.1 33. 7 34. 6 8. 7 24 1 2. 2 86. 8 10. 6 .4 Num• ber P er cent 21 (1) (1) Num• ber 1,138 100. 0 $17. 30 1 289 799 43 13 7 1 Per cent 2 4 Num• ber P er cent 231 100. 0 $15.10 Num• ber Per cent 73 100. 0 $15. 70 Num• ber Per cent 11 (1) (1) .1 - ------- --- ----- -------- ------ -- ----l..--- -------25. 4 113 48. 9 'l:l 37. 0 --- - ---- -------109 47. 2 31 42. 5 7 (1) 70. 2 9 3.9 15 20.5 4 (1) 3.8 .2 .4 B.-NEGRO WOMEN I Total ________ --- -- - -- ---- -- --- - -- - - -Median _______ --· ___ ·- ____________________ _ 7991 100. 0 $8. 55 200 100. 0 $7.85 4291 100. 0 $8.55 131 (1) (1) Less than $5 • • ___ _______ ______ ___ ____ _____ _ $5 and less than $10 ____ _______ __ _____ ___ ___ $10 and less than $15 ___ __________________ __ $15 and less than $20 _____ _____ ___ ____ __ ____ 43 642 99 15 43 152 11 399 30 11 (1) (1) 1 Not computed; base less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 5.4 80.4 12. 4 1. 9 20. 9 73.8 5. 3 93. 0 7.0 2 991 100. 0 $8.65 78 8 13 78.8 8. 1 13.1 391 (1) (1) 1 36 (1) (1) (1) 2 12 I (1) 12 (1) 1 I (l) (1) . TABLE XXXI.-Week's earnings and age of women who supplied personal information-Cigar,ttes t,-l " 00 A.-WBITE WOMEN W omen whose earnings and age were r eported Under 18 years All women Week's earnings Number - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - -1- - - - Per cent Number Per cent 18 and under 20 years 20 and under 25 and under 30 and under 40 and under 25 years 30 years 40 years 50 years 50 and under 60 years 60 years and over Number Numb er Number N umber Per cent Per cent N umber Per cent Num-1 Per ber cent Number Per cent Per cent Per cent - -1--- 1-- - 1 - - -~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Total ___ ---- - ----- - -- - -------- - -- - - --- 1,819 100. 0 112 100. 0 192 100. 0 581 100. 0 353 100. 0 365 100. 0 137 100. 0 55 100. 0 24 (1) Median __ ___ _______ _______ ________ ________ __ 1_ _:::. $.:..: 17,.:....8.:.5::..,.....,,....:,__ · . ::.$.:. :1::...·3:..:5:...__-',-:..,__$::.:1:.:; 6.:. .:3..::.5_.....!,__...:::$.:..:18:.:... .:..:40:___:__..::.$1:..:8.:..: . 5:..:0:...___:__.:::.: $1:..:.:...:.50:_::____:__ ___..::.$1::.8.:..:. ,:: 1:..:0_ _:__..::.$1:..:5.:..: . 95::..:.....__:.._ _(:.,.:)'---_ Less than $5_____ __________ __ _______ ___ __ __ __ 24 1. 3 5 4. 5 4 2. 1 6 1. 0 4 1.1 4 1.1 1 . 7 ___ __ ____ _____ ______ _ ___ ___ _ $5andlessthan$10 _____ ___ ____ __ ____ _______ 52 2. 9 4 3.G 6 3.1 18 3.1 10 2. 8 7 1.9 5 3.6 __ ___ ______ ___ 2 $10 and less than $15_______ __ ____ ____________ 367 20. 2 58 51. 8 58 30. 2 101 17. 4 41 11. 6 62 17. 0 21 15. 3 20 36. 4 6 ---- --$15 and less than $20_ __ __ ___ ______ ______ ____ 8{2 46. 3 36 32. 1 94 49. 0 261 44. 9 196 55. 5 171 46. 8 54 39. 4 19 34. 5 11 -- ----$20 and less than $25_ ____ ____ _______ ___ _____ 477 26. 2 9 8. 0 26 13. 5 169 29. 1 95 26. 9 106 29. 0 54 39. 4 13 23. 6 5 __ ___ __ $25 and less than $30---------------------- --45 2. 5 ____ ___ _______ 3 1. 6 20 3. 4 7 2. 0 12 3. 3 2 1. 5 1 1. 8 _____ __ ---- --$30 and ov er________ ___ ____ ___ _________ ____ __ 12 • 7 _____ __ __ _____ 1 .5 6 1. 0 _______ ____ ___ 3 . 8 ____ ___ ______ _ 2 3. 6 _______ ---- - -B.-NEGRO WOMEN I I( I I I I I I I( I I 1) 1) TotaL____ ______ ______ ____ __ __ ____ ____ 185 1 100. o 2 13 (1) 471 (1) 35 1 (1) 451 (1) 21 81 (1) 81 (1) Median ____ ____ __ __ __ _____ ___ ________ ------- 1--- $8 '---. 4---'5---'-_ _. :. . (l'---)_ ____.:_ _. :. (l..:. . )_ _;....__....:(....:1)_ _--'--_ __..:..,_(1)'--------'----'-(1..:..)_ _.:,___....:(c...: ')_ _...;___ __..:..,_(1'---)-----'-----'-(1,-c..)_ _ Less than $5___________ __ ________ ____________ fioa~gJf~st~~~n$~k == ============= ======== 1 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 22111. 9 1---- - --1- - - -- - -1 /~g gg ---- -2· ======= Not computed; b ase less than 50. 1 1-- --- - -1 i ======= 1 1-------1 fi ======= 51- - ---- - 1 2 ~ ======= 81 - - - ----1 2 i ======= 31 ---- -- - 1 1 ~ ======= ' No woman earned as much as $13. 2 1- -- - ---1 ~ 21-- - -- - - =======-----~- ======= APPENDIX B.-SCHEDULE FORMS SCHEDULE I [Used for home interviews with former cigar and cigarette employees deprived of their jobs by changes in the industry] , [Front] Present fl.rm ______ --------------------------- - ------ Address ______ ________ ________ · ___ _____ _______ ____ __ Name __ --- _--- ______ ____ ___ ________ __ ______________ Address ________ ________ ___ __ __________ _____ ________ Age of beginning work in cigar or cigarette industry---------- - --- ------- --- - ------ -- -- --- - ---- ---- --- -- __ OCCUPATIONAL HISTORY Industry Occupation Timeempl. Reason left 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 UNEMPLOYMENT Previous industry (see above) Date begun Cause Duration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Explanatory comments: [Back] If unemployed, describe present economic status: --x.--Comparisoii°bet~eenjol:is-~ -cigar [or cigarettefaiid other industries: (1) Wages, (2) hours, (3) regularity, (4) other conditions. B. Comments on changes and effects of changes in cigar [or cigarette] industry on: (1) Unemployment and irregularity of work, (2) change in equipment or stock or style, (3) wages, (4) personnel of workers, (5) other. Agent_ __ _______ --- --- - - -- -- --- ---- - --_-_ Date ______________ _____ ________ ______ -_____________ _____ ______ 179 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 180 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES SCHEDULE Il [Used for interviews with employers as to changes and their effects, policies, etc.] Firm name_______ ____ ____________ _________________ _ Address ___________________________________________ _ Person interviewed_________________________________ Position ___ _____ _______ __ ________________ __________ _ I. Numbers employed Women Men Whit e Negro Total White Negro '.rotal D ay ________________ ____________ ___________ -- ----- - -- ---------- ---------- --- ------- ---------- ----------_ Night_ __ ________________________ __ ___________________________________________________________________ TotaL __ ---------------------------- ________________________________________ ---------- ---------What fluctuations in numbers employed during year? II. Hours of work: D aily : Begin _________ End __________ Lunch _______ Rest_ _______ _ T otal-Daily ____ __________ _ Sat.: Begin _______ ___ End__________ Lunch _______ ResL _------SaL --------- ------Wkly _____________ __ What irregularity in hours during year? Night If night shift ever run, are men and women employed on same operations as day ___ ___ ________ __ ____ If not, why? __ ___ __ _____ ___________ ___________________ __ _____ ______ __ shift?work: Number of men Number of women III. Occupations (specify) White N egro White Negro L -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - -- - - . - --- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - 2- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- -- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - .. - - 3 _________ --- - - -- -- ---- - -- - - -- -- - ------ - ----- - -- --- - - - - --- ---- - - ---- ---- -- - -- - ---- -- - -------- - - - -- -- - - - - [to 14 or 15 lines] · Comments on occupational distribution by sex _________________ ___ ________________ ______________ _ IV. Changes: 1. How long has firm been established in present location? ____ ____________ ___ _____ __ ______ __________ _ 2. If there has been a change in ownership, were changes in method of manufacture installed by form er owners?____ ___ _____________ Specify: 3. If made present owners removed t o new____ location with changes in method,____ why move to new location? ___________ _______coincident _______ ___ __ __ ______ ________________ __·was ____ __ ___ _ 4. Describe changes made by present firm and give approximate dates of changes: a. Enlargement or plant, b. equipment, c. type of product, d. method of manufacturing _________________ __ ____ _____ V. Effects of changes (enlargement; equipment; type of product ; method of operation. Give dates): 1. Effect on personnel; sex; age; race; experience. 2. Effect on numbers of men and women. 3. Effect on quantity production. 4. Effect on method of pay or wages. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 181 APPENDIXES VI. Various plant policies: 1. Length of training for skill, hand and machine. 2. Personnel of plant: What was firm's policy in regard to retaining of old employees when changes were made in method of operation or change in equipment? 3. Compare present with former employment policy: a. Type and source of labor supply. b. Experience vs. plant training. c. Race. d. Age. e. Education. · ._ f. Marital status. VII. Industrial relations: 1. Employment methods; 2. Number and responsibilities of foreladies; 3. Shop committee; 4. Safety committee; 5. Marked welfare activities; 6. Vacations; 7. Insurance. Agent_ __________________________________________ _ Date ______________________________________ ______ _ SCHEDULE Ill [Used for recording week's pay-roll data, one card for each woman. from schedule V] Establishment J Employee's No. Certain information is added later Department J Name Male Occupation R ate of Pay J Female / Age Conjugal condition Address I{ s Piece Hour I$ Day I M Iw I I $ Week I: month I $ Month i $ D I NR Additions $0. D ays worked Regular weekly hours Country of birth At home Earnings Overtime Undertime hours hours Hours worked this period Deductions Th!sperlodl Computed $ for regular time Began work Age Time at wo,k I $ $ In this t,ooo This ftcm Boarding SCHEDULE IV [Used for recording year's earnings of a group of employees a year or more with the firm and working in at least 44 weeks of the 52] No. ______ Name ____ -------------------------- Dept. ______ - -------------- -- -- -- --- - -- ---- -- --- - --- Occ. __ ____ -------- -- - --- -- -- -- --- --- -- -- -- --- - --- - -Date Wage Date --------- I Wage Date -- -------- ___ ___ - --------- Wage ---- ------ -- -- -- II Date Wage -------- --- -- ----- -- --- - [Columns of 13 lines.] Total amount, weeks worked, average per week, etc. ______________________ _______________ _____ _____ -----Firm __________________ ____ ___ -·· ___ __ _____ ___________ City ________________________________________ ---- -- -Agent_ ____________________________ ----- - --- - ------ -Date ______________________ __________ ____________ _ __ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 182 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES SCHEDULE V [Distributed in factories to be filled in by women employees. Certain information is later transferred to Schedule III] Firm _______________________ _-- --- - --- -- --- -- -- --- --City ___ _______ ________ ______ ____ _________________ __ _ Name ___ -- -- -- --- ---- - -- ---- - -------- - ---- - - ____ __ ____ ________ _________ ___ __ ________ No. ____ ______ ___ _ Address ________ ________________________________________ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ________________ __ ______________ __ _ Age_______________ ______ _______________ Country of birth _____________________________________________ __ Single, married, widowed, or separated ___ __ _________ ___________ ___ ____ ___ -- --------------------------- -- How long have you worked in cigar or cigarette factories? __ --------- - ------------- - ------------------- -- What is your job in this factory?---------- -- ---------- - -------------------------------------------------Have you ever done any ot her kind of work in cigar or cigaret te fact ories? ____ ___ ___ ____ ____ ____________ __ What other kinds of work h ave you done besides work in cigar or cigarette factories? ____________________ _ Have you beenJ aid off from work at all during the1past few years?-- --- ~---- ---- - -- --- ----------- ------- - SCHEDULE VI [Used for recording numbers of employees in factory, scheduled hours, working conditions, etc.] Firm name___ _________________ ___ _________ ____ __ ______ _ Address ______________________________ ________ __ Product_ ______________ ___________ ____ Brands __---- ---- ---------- -- ___ ___ _________ ____________________ _ Person interviewed ___________ ___________________________________ P osition _________ ____ ________________ _ Description of building______ _______ _____ ____ __ ___ ___ __ __ ___ _____ _____ ____ ___ _________ ___________________ _ Stairways: Mat. Wind'g Light 0. K. Handrail N ar. Stp. Rpr. Location Notes Employees allowed to use elevators: Workrooms: Rooms Workroom Code - - Appr. Floor no. of empl. Floors Aisles Mat. Rpr. Cln. Obstr. N ar. - 1- - - 1 -- - - 1 1 1- - - - - - - -- Natural ventilation Source InuseAdeq. ~fr. - --111 - - - - - --1-- - l - - Artificial ventilation: Kind, location, adqcy., use ______ __ __ ____ __________ _________ ____ ___ ___ ___ ___ ______ _ Natural light: Source ___________ --=- ___________________ __________________ ________ ________ _______________ _ Adqcy., shades, glare ________________________________________________________ -=-=-_--= -- ____________ -_ Artificial light: Kind, genl. and indiv ------------------------------------------------------=--- ---------Adqcy., shades, glare ______ __ __________________ ____________ _______________________ _________ --=-_ : ____ _ Cleaning (by whom and frequency): Sweep ______ _________ ___ Scrub-- -------- ---- ------- =- ------ --- --- Notes __ _____________________ ________ ___________ __ _______ __________________ ____ __________________ - _____ _ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 183 APPENDIXES Seating: Occupations Seats Foot rests Appr. 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - no. of women . N No. Kind provided AdJ. Kind provided one adeq. - - - - --------1---1--- Sit_ ________________ _ -------------------------- --------------------- [9 or___________ 10 lines.] ______ ________________________ ____________________ _ Stand Sit or stand __ __ _______________ ___ ____________________ ___ __ _________ _ Notes ____ __ __ _______ ___________ · ___ ___ ______ ___ ____ _______________ ___ __ _____________________ _____ ____ __ Heating_______ _____ ________ ___ _____ ________ _____ ____ ____ __ ________________ Temperature __ ____ ______ ___ _ Washing facilities Towels Drinking facil. Fir. Kind No." Adeq. o::r Cln. w1!i!r Soap Individual Fur. Common f..-----1----- Kind Freq. No. Freq, - - - - - - --11---t-- - 1 - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - l - - - l - - 1 - - - 1 - - - - -- - - - Public __________ ___ - _ Conven ____________ _ Bblr. san __________ _ Bblr. insan _________ _ Cooled __ __ _________ _ Tank ___ ____ ____ ____ _ Cooler _____ ________ _ Faucet_ _______ _____ _ -- ---- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ - ----- -- ·--Other __ ______ ___ ___ _ Cup indiv __________ _ Cup com __ _________ _ ------ ------ _. ---- ------ ------ Notes __- - - -- --- -- - -- - -- -- -- -- -- --- --- -- -- -- - - --- - -- -- -- -- -- - - -- -- -- --- - --- - --- -- - --- -- -- - - -- -- -- - - -- - -Toilets: Kind ____________ Paper_ _________ Instrtns _____________ __ ______ Cleaning done bySeat in rpr _________ __ Clean __________ Hand flush _________ _ Seat flush ____ _ Sweep'g ___ ___ Freq. _____ __ __ Plbg. in rpr _________ _ Clean __________ Auto. flush __________ Freq ___________ Scrub'g ______ Freq. ____ ___ __ Ventilation Number using Fl. Women Wkrs. 0th. Men PNt No. No. S t R Fir. Room of per . eal d ~m Scro. non- ceilseats seat me . es1g. absb. ed https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ~~~- Artif. Light ~!~-~~~- Artif. .§~ S ~0 184 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARE'l'TE INDUSTRIES Service facilities: Lunch Fl. gi~~d Cln. ;\rtif. Out. light wnd. with- ~~ttr into S~per- Oaf~ Tab. Seats fHooodt vised dHr1·ontks Cooking conveniences - --1- -1--- --1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --1 -- - - - - Lckrs. Shlvs. Racks Cloak - - - - - - - - - - -- - ~- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - ----.--- -- ---- ------ - iY:;.1~ e a t s --- ---- - ---- --- ------ -- ----- ------- -- ---- ----- -- - - -- - -- -- -- --- ------ --- - ----- -- -- - - by firm__ _______ _ Kind ________ __ Supplied by firm __ --- --- ---- ---------- ----------Uniforms: Req. Laundered by firm ____ ___ ___ Free ___ ______ _ Cost to girl. ______ ___ ____ _____ ___ _____________________ _ Health service: Hosp, ____ __ First aid _____ _ Chg. of doctor full time __ ____ Doctor part time __ _________ _ Other ___ ___ No one resp, __ ____ Med. exam, ______ ____ _______________ ______ _______ __ ________ ______ _____ _ Special notes __ ____ __ _____ ____ ___ ____ __ ___ ____________ ____ _________ ________ __ ____ __ ______ __ __ _______ ___ _ Summary _____ ______ __ ____ ____ _____ ________ ____ ____ __ _____ ______ _______ ___ __ ______ _________ __________ __ Agent __________ _____________ _____ ___ __ ______ ________ Date _______ ________________________________________ . https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PUBLICATIONS OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU [Any of these bulletins still available will be sent free of charge upon request] *No. 1. Proposed Employment of Women During the War in the Industries of Niagara Falls, N. Y. 16 pp. 1918. *No. 2. Labor Laws for Women in Industry in Indiana. 29 pp. 1919. No. 3. Standards for the Employment of Women in Industry. 8 pp. Fourth ed., 1928. No. 4. Wages of Candy Makers in Philadelphia in 1919. 46 pp. 1919. *No. 5. The Eight-Hour Day in Federal and State Legislation. 19 pp. 1919. No. 6. The Employment of Women in Hazardous Industries in the Uniterl States. 8 pp. 1921. No. 7. Night-Work Laws in the United States. (1919.) 4 pp. 1920. *No. 8. Women in the Government Service. 37 pp. 1920. *No. 9. Home Work in Bridgeport, Conn. 35 pp. 1920. *N o. 10. Hours and Conditions of Work for Women in Industry in Virginia. 32 pp. 1920. No. 11. Women Street Car Conductors and Ticket Agents. 90 pp. 1921. *No. 12. The New Position of Women in American Industry. 158 pp. 1920. *No. 13. Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls. 48 pp. 1921. *No. 14. A Physiological Basis for the Shorter Working Day for Women. 20 pp. 1921. No. 15. Some Effects of Legislation Limiting Hours of Work for Women. 26 pp. 1921. No. 16. (See Bulletin 98.) No. 17. Women's Wages in Kansas. 104 pp. 1921. No. 18. Health Problems of Women in Industry. 6 pp. Revised, 1931. No. 19. Iowa Women in Industry. 73 pp. 1922. *No. 20. Negro Women in Industry. 65 pp. 1922. No. 21. Women in Rhode Island Industries. 73 pp. 1922. *No. 22. Women in Georgia Industries. 89 pp. 1922. No. 23. The Family Status of Breadwinning Women. 43 pp. 1922. No. 24. Women in Maryland Industries. 96 pp. 1922. No. 25. Women in the Candy Industry in Chicago and St. Louis. 72 pp. 1923. No. 26. Women in Arkansas Industries. 86 pp. 1923. No. 27. The Occupational Progress of Women. 37 pp. 1922. No. 28. Women's Contributions in the Field of Invention. 51 pp. 1923. No. 29. Women in Kentucky Industries. 114 pp. 1923. No. 30. The Share of Wage-Earning Women in Family Support. 170 pp. 1923. No. 31. What Industry Means to Women Workers. 10 pp. 1923. No. 32. Women in South Carolina Industries. 128 pp. 1923. No. 33. Proceedings of the Women 's Industrial Conference. 190 DD. 1923. No. 34. Women in Alabama Industries. 86 pp. 1924. No. 35. Women in Missouri Industries. 127 pp. 1924. No. 36. Radio Talks on Women in Industry. 34 pp. 1924. No. 37. Women in New Jersey Industries. 99 pp. 1924. No. 38. Married Women in Industry. 8 pp. 1924. No. 39. Domestic Workers and Their Employment Relations. 87 pp. 1924. No. 40. (See Bulletin 98.) No. 41. Family Status of Breadwinning Women in F our Selected Cities. 145 pp. 1925. No. 42. List of References on Minimum Wage for Women in the United Stat es and Canada. 42 pp. 1925. No. 43. Standard and Scheduled Hours of Work for Women in Industry. 68 pp. 1925. No. 44. Women in Ohio Industries. 137 pp. 1925. No. 45. Home Environment and Employment Opportunities of Women in CoalMine Wor~ers' Families. 61 pp. 1925. • Supply exhausted. 126898°-32--13 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 185 186 WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES No. 46. Facts About Working Women-A Graphic Presentation Based on Census Statistics. 64 pp. 1925. No. 47. Women in the Fruit-Growing and Canning Industries in the State of Washington. 223 pp. 1926. *No. 48. Women in Oklahoma Industries. 118 pp. 1926. No. 49. Women Workets and Family Support. 10 pp. 1925. No. 50. Effects'' of Applied Research upon the Employment Opportunities of American Women. 54 pp. 1926. , ,. Np. 51. Women in Illinois Industries. 108 pp. 1926. ;'No: 52. Lost Time and Labor Turnover in Cotton Mills. 203 pp. 1926. No. 53. The Status of Women in the Government Service in 1925. 103 pp. 1926. N:o. 54. Chb.nging,Jobs. 12 pp. 1926. '· 'No. 55. ·Women -iri Mississippi Industries. 89 pp. 1926. No. 56. Wom~n in Tennessee Industries. 120 pp. 1927. No. 57. Women Workers and Industrial Poisons. 5 pp. 1926. , No. 58. Wo~en in pelaware Industries. 156 pp. 1927. ·No. 59. Short Talks About Working Wdmen. 24 pp. 1927. No. 60. Industril:l,l, Accidents to Wo:men in New Jersey, Ohio, and Wisconsin. 316 pp. ' 1927. No. 61. The Development of Minimum-Wage Laws in the United States, 1912 to 1927. 635 pp. 1928. ·}fo. 62·. Women's Employment in Vegetable Canneries in Delaware. 47 pp . . 1927. . . . No. 63. (See Bi,Illetin 98.) N:o. 64. The Empioyrnerit of Women at Night. 86 pp. 1928. *No: 65. The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Opportunities of Women. 498 pp. 1928. . ~:No; 66-,:-L History of Labor Legislation for Women in Three States. 136 pp. 1932. No. ,66-IL Chronological Development of Labor Legislation for Women in the ,: ' ,, · . United States. Revised, December, 1931. 176 pp. 1932. · No. 67. Women Workers in Flint, Mich. 80 pp. · 1929. No. 68. Summary: The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Opportunities of Women. (Reprint of Chapter II of Bulletin 65.) 22 ~pp. 1928. No. 69. Causes of Absence for Men and for ·Women in Four Cotton Mills. 24 pp. 1929. No. 70. Negro Women in Industry-in 15 States. 74 pp. 1929. No. 71. Select~d References on the Health of Women in Industry. 8 pp. 1929. No. 72. Conditions of Work in Spin Rooms. 41 pp. 1929. No. 73. Variations in Employment Trends of Women and Men. 143 pp. 1930. ··No. 74. The Immigrant Woman and Her Job. 179 pp. 1930. No. 75. What the Wage-Earning Woman Contributes to Family Support. 21 pp. 1929. No. 76. Women in 5-and-10-cent Stores and Limited-Price Chain Department Stores. 58 pp. 1930. . · No. 77. A ·Study of Two Groups of Denver Married Women Applying for Jobs. 11 'pp'. 1929. · No. 78. A Survey of Laundries and Their Women Workers in 23 Cities. 166 pp. 1930. No. 79. Industrial Home Work. 20 pp. 1930. No. 80. Women in Florida Industries. 115 pp. 1930. No. 81. Industrial Accidents to Men and Women. 48 pp. 1930. No. 82. The Employment of Women in the Pineapple Canneries of Hawaii. 30 pp . . 1930. No. 83. Fluctuation of Employment in the Radio Industry. 66 pp. 1931. . No. 84. Fact Finding with the Women's Bureau. 37 pp. 1931. · }{o. 85. Wages of Women in 13 States. 213 pp. 1931. No. 86. Activities of the Women's Bureau of the United States. 15 pp. 1931. No. 87. Sanitary Drinking Facilities, with Special Reference to Drinking Fountains . . 28 pp. 1931. ·· No. 88. The Employment of Women in Slaughtering and Meat Packing. 210 pp. 1932. _:~o. 89 . . The lndµstrial Experience of Women Workers at the Summer Schools, ' 1928' to 1930. 62 pp. 1931. No. 90. Oregon Legislation for Women in Industry. 40 pp. 1931. •supply exhausted. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis APPENDIXES 187 No. 91. Women in Industry. A Series of Papers to Aid St udy Groups. 79 pp. 1931. No. 92. Wage-Earning Women and the Industrial Depression of 1930-A Survey of South Bend. 84 pp. 1932. No. 93. Household Employment in Philadelphia. 88 pp. 1932. No. 94. State Requirements for Industrial Lighting. A H a ndbook for the Protection of Women Workers, Showing Lighting Standards and Practices. 65 pp. 1932. No. 95. Bookkeepers, Stenographers, and Office Clerks in Ohio, 1914 to 1929. 34 pp. 1932. ' No. 96. Women Office Workers in Philadelphia. 17 pp. 1932. No. 97. The Employment of Women in the Sewing Trades of Connecticut-Preliminary Report. 13 pp. 1932. No. 98. Labor Laws for Women in the States and Territories. (Revision of Bulletin 63.) 71 pp. 1932. No. 99. Installation and Maintenance of Toilet Facilities in Places of Employment. No. 100. The Effects on Women of Changing Conditions in the Cigar and Cigarette Industries. 187 pp. 1932. No. 101. The Employment of Women in Vitreous Enameling. 64 pp. 1932. Pamphlet-Women's Place in Industry in 10 Southern States. 14 pp. 1931. Annual Reports of the Director, 1919*, 1920*, 1921 *, 1922, 1923, 1924*, 1925, 1926, 1927*, 1928*, 1929*, 1930*, 1931, 1932. • Supply exhausted. 0 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis / https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis