The full text on this page is automatically extracted from the file linked above and may contain errors and inconsistencies.
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
BULLETIN QF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU, No. 100
THE EFFECTS ON WOMEN
OF CHANGING CONDITIONS IN
THE CIGAR A~D CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
I
'
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[Punuc-No. 259-66TH CoNGREss]
[H. R. 132291
An Act To establish in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the
Women's Bureau
Be it enacled by the Senate and House Qf Representatives of the
United States of America, in Congress assembled, That there shall be
established in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as
the Women's Bureau.
SEc. 2. That the said bureau shall be in charge of a director, a
woman, to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate, who shall receive an annual compensation of
$5,000. It shall be the duty of said bureau to formulate standards
and J>olicies which shall promote the welfare of wage-earning wo~en,
improve their working conditions, increase their efficiency, and advance their opportunities for profitable employment. The said
bureau shall have authority to investigate and report to the said department upon all matters pertaining to the welfare of women in
industry. The director of said bureau may from time to time publish
the results of these investigations in such a manner and to such
extent as the Secretary of Labor may/rescribe.
SEc. 3. That there shall be in sai bureau an assistant director,
to be appointed by the Secretary of Labor, who shall receive an
annual compensation of $3,500 and shall perform such duties as
shall be prescribed by the director and approved by the Secretary
of Labor.
SEc. 4. That there is hereby authorized to be employed by said ,
bureau a chief clerk and such special agents, assistants, clerks, and
' other employees at such rates of compensation and in such numbers
as Congress may from time to time provide by appropriations.
SEc. 5. That the Secretary of Labor is hereby directed to furnish ..
sufficient quarters, office furniture, and equipment for the work of
this bureau.
SEc. 6. That this act shall take effect and be in force from and
after its passage.
Approved, June 5, _1920.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
E Y COLLEGE .UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
W. N. DOAK, Secretary
WOMEN'S BUREAU
MARY ANDERSON, Director
BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU, NO. 100
THE EFFECTS ON WOMEN
OF CHANGING CONDITIONS IN
THE CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
BY
CAROLINE MANNING
AND
HARRIET A. BYRNE
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON: 1932
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
CONTENTS
Page
Letter of transmittaL _ _ ____ ________ ______ _________________________
Part !.-Introduction_ ____ _________ ___ _______ ___ __ __ ________ _____ __
Cigars ________ _________ ________________ _ ___ ______ ________ __ __
Cigarettes ___ ___ ________ _____ __________ _______ _____ ___ ____ ___ _
Purpose and scope of study___ ___ ____ ____ ____ ________ ___ ___ _____
Cigar-factory data _____ ___ ___ _____ ____ ______ _____ ___ ___ ___
Interviews with employers_ ___ ___ _____ ___ _______ __ __ ___ ____
Interviews with women______ __ ______ ________________ ___ ___
Summary ________ ___ ___________ ______ __ ___________ ___________
Part IL-Trends in the manufacture and marketing of cigars and cigarettes__ __ _____________ __________ ___ _________ ____ _________ ______
The cigar industry _________ _"' _____ ~ __________________________ _
Per cent of the total production_ ____ _________ ____ ___ ___ _____
Numbers employed___________ ____ __________ __ ____ _____ ___ _
Changes in localities___ ____________________________________
Kentucky and Tennessee_____ ___ ____ _______________ ____
Philadelphia and Camden_______________ ____ _________ __
New York City, Jersey City, and Newark _______ __ __ ___ __
Ohio____ _________ _________ ___ ___ __ ___ _____ ______ __ ___
The cigarette industry_______________ ___ ____________ ________ ___
Reports from two States__ _______ ___ __ ________________ ___ __
Ohio______________ ______________ _____ __ ________________ __
Pennsylvania__________________ ______ ________ __ __________ _
Part UL-Interviews with cigar-plant officials ___ ______ .:.____________ __
Hand-operated plants__________________ _____ _______ ______ __ ____
Types of plants____________________ ___ __ ____ _________________ _
Difficulties of transition________________ __ ___ __________ ____ _____
Economies of automatic machine ________ ___ _________ ____ ___ _____
Changes in personneL ______ __________ ______ ___________________
P3:rt IV,:--History of cigar and cigarette workers as reported in home
1nterv1ews__________________________________ _________ _____ ______
Home interviews with cigar workers__ __ ____ _________ ______ ______
Age of the women_________________ _____ _____ ____ __ __ ______
Department in which employed_____ ______ ___ ___ _______ _____
Week's earnings ____________________ t ______________________
Time in the cigar industry _________ ______ __ __ ______ ___ ___- Cause of the separation__________ ___________ ____ ___ ____ __ __
Employment status since the chief separation___ ____ _______ ___
Unemployment for industrial reasons since the separation______
Subsequent jobs____________________ __ ________________ ___ _
Separations other than the chief one____ _________ _______ ____ __
Home interviews with cigarette workers __________ _____ __ __ __ _
Employment status in Locality A_______ _______ ___ __________
Time worked in cigarette industry______ _____ __ __________
Status of employment____ _______ ___ _______ ____________
Time unemployed for industrial reasons since losing job__
Time lost between separation and first subsequent job_____
Number and t ype of subsequent jobs _____ __ ____ _________
Reasons for lea ving subsequent jobs______ __ ___ ______ ____
Separations other than the major one__ ____ __ ___ ________ _
Employment status in Localities B _______ ____________ _______
Time worked in cigarette industry_ __ ___ __ ______ _____ ____
Status of employment_ ______ _______ _____ __ ___ ___ __ ___ _
Time unemployed for industrial reasons since losing job__ __
Time lost between separation and first subsequent job__ ___
Number and type of subsequent jobs__ _____ __ __ ___ ______
Reasons for leaving subsequent jobs_ _____ ____ ____ ___ ___ _
Separations other than the major one_________________ __ _
III
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
VII
1
1
4
6
6
8
8
8
11
11
11
13
14
14
16
18
19
20
22
22
23
27
27
29
30
32
36
38
39
40
41
43
49
52
53
56
59
62
62
63
63
65
66
66
67
67
67
67
67
68
69
69
70
70
71
IV
CONTENTS
Part IV.-History of cigar and cigarette workers as reported in home
interviews-Continued.
Home interviews with cigarette workers-Continued.
Earnings before and after the separation ___ __ _______________ _
Occupation and age ______ __ ______________ ~ ____ ______ __
Earnings of the women from making departments ________ _
Earnings of the women from packing departments ___ ____ _
Earnings in Locality A ________________________________ _
Earnings in Localities B ______________________________ _
Part V.-Personal information about women still employed _______ ____ _
The cigar workers _________ ______ __________________ ___________ _
Age _____ ___ ______ .------------------------------------- -
:~~u~\Ystatus ______________ _____ ________________________ _
Time in the cigar industry ________________________________ _
The cigarette industry ___________________________ _____________ _
Age ______ ___________ _________________ __________________ _
Nativity __________ ______________________________________ _
Marital status __________ _________________________________ _
Time in the cigarette industry _____________________________ _
Part VI.-Wage data from factory pay rolls _________________________ _
Week's earnings in the cigar industry _________________________ __ _
Median and range of earnings ____ _________________________ _
Earnings and time worked _______________________ ______ ___ _
Time worked in the _various departments _____ _________ __ _
Method of payment ______________________________________ _
Locality ____ ____________________________________________ _
Size of city __ ____________________________________________ _
Earnings and age ___________ ____ ____ __ ___________________ _
Earnings and time in the trade __ __________________________ _
Data for Florida ______ _________ __________________________ _
Week's earnings in the cigarette industry _______ _________________ _
Median and range _____ ___ ____ ____________________________ _
Earnings and time worked ___________ _____________________ _
Method of payment _______________ _________________ __ ___ _ _
Locality ____________ __ __________________________________ _
Earnings and age _______ __ __________ ________ _________ __ __ _
Fluctuation in the employment of women in two factories ___ __ _
Year's earnings in cigars ______________________________________ _
Part VII.-Working conditions _________________________________ ___ _
Stairways ___________________________________________________ _
Floors and aisles _____________________________________________ _
Lighting __________________ __________________________________ _
Ventilation ________________________________________________ __ _
Seating _______________ ______________________________________ _
Drinking facilities ____________________________________________ _
Washing facilities ____________________________________________ _
Toilet facilities ______ _________ ________ ______________________ __ _
Lunchrooms __ ______________________________________________ _
Cloakrooms ____ _____________________________________________ _
Uniforms ____ · ____________________________ ___________________ _
Part VIII.-Occupations in the industries ___________________________ _
Occupations in the cigar industry ____________ ________________ __ _
Occupations in the cigarette industry _________________ __________ _
Appendixes:
A.-General t ables _________ ______________ _______ ______ ____ ___ _
B.-Schedule forms ___________________________________________ _
Page
71
71
71
72
74
74
76
76
76
77
77
78
79
79
79
79
79
80
80
80
84
85
90
92
94
95
97
99
100
101
104
107
108
110
112
115
118
119
119
119
120
121
122
123
124
124
124
125
. 126
126
129
134
179
TEXT TABLES
1. Number of employees, according to whether hand or machine
factory-Cigars_____________________________________________
2. Per cent women formed of total employees, according to whether hand
or machine factory-Cigars ______________________________ ----3. Trend of employment and wages in the cigar and cigarette industries
in Ohio, 1923 to 1930 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _
4. Trend of employment in five specified counties in Pennsylvania_____
5. Age of the women interviewed, by t ype of locality-Cigars_________
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
7
7
22
23
41
CONTENTS
V
Page
6. Department in which employed at time of separation, by type of
locality in which interviewed-Cigars______________ _____________
7. Earnings in last job before separation and in first subsequent job, by
age at date of interview-Cigars____ ___________________________
8. Time worked in the industry, by type of locality-Cigars___________
9. Employment status since the chief separation, by type of localityCigars___ ___ ___ __________ __________ __ ____ ___________________
10. Time unemployed for industrial reasons between separation and first
subsequent job, by type of locality-Cigars_____________________
11. Department in which employed at time of separation, by age at date
of interview and type of locality-Cigarettes____________________
12. Age of the women interviewed, by type of locality-Cigarettes______
13. Employment status since the chief separation, by type of localityCigarettes_ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ _
14. Time unemployed for industrial reasons between separation and first
subsequent job, by type of locality-Cigarettes:_________________
15. Week's earnings of packing-department workers in last job before
separation and in first subsequent job (identical women)-all
women reporting and those under 30 years of age--Cigarettes_ __ _ _
16. Week's earnings of packing-department workers in last job before.
separation and in first subsequent job-all women reporting and
those under 30 years of age--Cigarettes_ __ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _
17. Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars___________
18. Earnings distribution by department-Cigars_____________________
19. Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in days,
by department-Cigars_______________________________________
20. Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in hours,
by department-Cigars_______________________________________
21. Number and median earnings of timeworkers and of pieceworkers, by
department-Cigars___ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ __ __ _ _ _
22. Median of the week's earnings of white women, by department and
locality-Cigars_____________________________________________
23. Median of the week's earnings -of negro women, by department and
locality-Cigars _____________________________________ __--.---24. Earnings distribution by department-Cigarettes__________________
25. Earnings, by department and occupation-Cigarettes_..:____________
26. Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in days,
by department-Cigarettes ______ :...____________________________
27. Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in hours,
by department-Cigarettes___________________ __ ______________
28. Number and median earnings of timeworkers and of pieceworkers, by
department-Cigarettes_ __ __ __ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ ___ _ __ _ _ __ __ _
29. Year's earnings, by weeks worked-Cigars____ __ __________ ________
30. Year's earnings, by department-Cigars____ ___ ____ __ _____ ________
42
44
49
53
57
63
64
65
66
73
74
81
82
86
87
90
93
94
101
103
104
106
108
115
117
APPENDIX TABLES
I. Department in which employed at time of separation, by age at
date of interview and type of locality-Cigars __ __.:. ________
II. Time worked in the industry, by age at date of interview and
type of locality-Cigars ________ ______________ __ _- _- -- - -III. Steadiness of employment since separation according to age at
date of interview, by type of locality-Cigars______________
IV. Steadiness of employment since separation according to type
of locality, by age at date of interview-Cigars____________
V. Number and type of jobs secured since separation, by age at
date of interview and type of locality-Cigars______ _______
VI. Employment of women subsequent to the separation, by locality
and age group-Cigars____ __ ______ _________ _____________
VII. Number of jobs since separation and time unemployed for
industrial reasons, by type of locality-Cigars_ __ __________
VIII. Time worked in the industry, by age at date of interview and
type of locality-Cigarettes_________________________ _____
IX. Number of jobs since separation and time unemployed for indus.trial reasons, by type of locality-Cigarettes__ _________ ___
X. Employment of women subsequent to the separation, by locality
and age group-Cigarettes______________________________
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
134
135
136
137
138
140
142
144
145
146
VI
CONTENTS
Page
XI. Earnings in last job before separation and in first subsequent
job, by age at date of interview-Cigarettes _____ ___ ______ _
XII. Age
supplied personal information, by depart-_
of women who
-ment--Cigars
_________________________________________
XIII. Department in which employed, by age group-Women who
XIV.
xv.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
xx.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
supplied personal informa tion-Cigars ______ _____________ _
Nativity and color of women who supplied personal information,
by department-Cigars _______ __ ___________ ____ ________ _
Marital status of women who supplied personal information, by
department--Cigars _________________________ __ ________ _
Time in the trade of women who supplied personal information,
by department-Cigars ________________________________ _
Age of women who supplied personal information, by department--Cigarettes _____________________________________ _
Department in which employed, by age group-Women who
supplied personal informati on-Cigarettes ________________ _
Nativity and color of women who supplied personal information,
by department--Cigarettes _______________ ______ ________ _
Marital status of women who supplied personal information, by
department-Cigarettes _____________ _________________ __ _
Time in the trade of women who supplied personal information,
by department--Cigarettes _____________________________ _
Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars _____ _
Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was
reported in days-Cigars ________ ___ __ __________________ _
Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was
reported in hours-Cigars ___ ____ _________ ____ _______ ___ _
Earnings distribution by locality-Cigars __________________ _
W f~:~atf:;in~~g:~t-~~~ _~~ ~~~e~- ~I~~ _s_u~~~~~ -~~r~~~~~ -i~:
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
164
165
166
167
XXVII. Earnings distribution by time in the trade, women who supplied
personal information-Cigars ______________________ ____ 168-169
XXVIII. Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigarettes_ _
170
XXIX. Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was
reported in days-Cigarettes ____ _______________________ _
176
XXX. Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was
reported in hours-Cigarettes ___________________________ _
177
XXXI. Week's earnings and age of women who supplied personal information-Cigarettes ___ _________________________________ _
178
CHARTS
Proportion of total production of cigars manufactured in factories classified yearly according to output, 1921 to 1930_________ ____ __ ________
Index of the trend in the production of cigars in certain localities, by area,
1926to 1930_____ ______ ____ ____ ___ ______ ____ ___________ _____ ____
Index of the trend in the production of cigarettes in certain localities,
1926to 1930__________________ _____ ___ ___________ ______ __ _______
Per cent distribution of women by time worked in the cigar industry, by
loc~Uies _____________ ___ ___ -------- -------- - -----------------Proportion of women entirely unemployed between separation and date
of interview, by age and type of locality-Cigars__ _______ ___________
Per cent distribution of women by time worked in the cigarette industry,
by localities_ ____ ____ ________________________ __ _____ _____ _______
Per cent distribution of current week's earnings of women in selected
departments-Cigars ____ _____ __ ________________________ _______ __
Per cent distribution of current week's earnings of white and negro women,
byage--Cigars __ ___ __________ _______ ___________________________
Per cent distribution of current week's earnings of women in selected
departments-Cigarettes __________ _______________________________
Per cent distribution of current week's earnings of white women, by age-Cigarettes______________________________________________________
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
12
15
21
50
54
64
83
96
102
111
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
UNITE D STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
WOMEN'S BUREAU,
Washington, June 6, 1932.
Sm: I have the honor to submit the report of a survey of the effects
on women cigar and cigarette workers of the recent introduction or
improvement of machines and the concentration of operations in a
greatly reduced number of factories, part of this bureau's extensive
study of human waste in industry.
Interviews with 1,400 women displaced by changes in these industries, many of them after 20 years in their trades, show their unemployment, their economic difficulties, and their reduced earnings in
the new lines of work taken up. The pay-roll section gives the
earnings clistribution of as many as 28,000 women.
I aclmowledge with grateful appreciation the cooperation of
employers who gave access to their pay rolls and information on
changes in their industries, of employees who made out schedules or
gave interviews in their homes, and of various agencies that s·u pplied
production figures or other data.
The field work was in charge of Caroline Manning, industrial supervisor. Parts 2, 3, and 7 of the report have been written by Miss
Manning, and the remainder by Harriet A. Byrne, assistant editor.
Respectfully submitted.
MARY ANDERSON, Director.
Hon. W. N. DoAK,
Secretary of Labor.
VII
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
THE EFFECTS ON WOMEN OF CHANGING CONDITIONS IN THE CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
PART 1.-INTRODUCTION
Since the introduction of intensive cultivation and manufacture of
tobacco in the United States women have been engaged in both these
phases of the work. Women assist in the harvesting of tobacco and
in its preparation for curing. This latter work consists in sewing or
stringing the picked tobacco onto the laths on which the leaves are
hung to be cured before the tobacco is ready for shipment to the warehouse and thence to the plant for manufacture. Many women are
employed in the manufacture of tobacco into cigars, cigarettes, and
other products. · The work of women in cigar and cigarette manufacture and the effects on women of changes in these industries were
the subject of the study made by the Women's Bureau in 1929 and
1930, of which the present report gives the findings.
The tobacco used in domestic manufacture that is cultivated in the
Southern States, chiefly Kentucky, North and South Carolina, and
Virginia, is used mainly for cigarettes and pipe and chewing tobacco,
while that grown in the Connecticut Valley, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin is used largely for making cigars.
CIGARS
It is said that when Columbus landed in America the natives were
smoking rolled-up tobacco leaves. Since this is the make-up of a
cigar, it is, perhaps, in this form that tobacco was first used. The
word "cigar" is derived from the Spanish word "cigarer," to roll.1
The cigar industry is purely a domestic one. Few American cigars
are exported, although some are imported to continental United
States. About 300,000,000 cigars that are manufactured in the
Philippines and Puerto Rico enter the United States annually, duty
free. The present consumption of cigars in the United States, considering those manufactured· here and those imported, although not
so great as before the cigarette increased in popularity, is greater than
in any other country of the world. 2
Manufacture.
Mechanical devices for stripping the tobacco ]eaf-that is, removing the mid rib- have been on the market for at least 50 years. Some
of the early inventions were crude and not a commercial success, but
before the beginning of the century their practical value had been
demonstrated. It may surprise the reader that several patents for
stripping equipment were issued to Oscar Hammerstein in the 1880's.
1 Dushkind, Charles. Tobacco:M anual. Tobacco M erchants Association of the United States.
[1926.]
New York, p. 19.
2 The Tobacco World, Mar. 1, 1929. The United States Export Trade in Tobacco Products, 1928, pp.
10, 18.
1
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
2
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE ~NDUSTRIES
He is said to have taken great satisfaction in applying his inventive
genius to the perfection of an efficient stripping device.
When cis-ars were first made to any considerable extent tnere were
no mechamcal aids used in their manufacture; handmade cigars were
the only kind known to smokers. The cigar industry was, for this
reason, one in which skilled workers were essential, but little capital
or equipment was required. After some time molds as mechanical
aids were introduced, but the process of manufacture was still handwork. The next device to be used was the suction plate, on which
the leaf was cut by foot press; this plate is still used in some places.
The first cigar factory is said to have been established in 1810,
although the making of cigars continued also as a home industry
long after that. Since it was purely a hand operation, requiring no
investment in equipment, small concerns sprang up in widely scattered
parts of Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio. The development of
the cigarette industry, on the other hand, has been quite the opposite.
Almost from the first it was a machine industry, and machine-made
cigarettes had been on the market for years before the first cigar
factory began the manufacture of cigars by machine in 1918. 3
During the past decade or so a marked change has been taking place
in cigar making; that is, the transition from hand to machine work.
It was not until the growing popularity of the cigarette had come to
be recognized that the cigar manufacturers found it necessary to
produce a cigar at a lower price, and this meant a machine-made cigar.
The greatly increased use of the cigarette was especially noted at the
end of the World War. Tobacco at that tjme was 'high in price, and
the process of hand manufacture of cigars was an expensive one.
Machines had been used for part of the manufacture of cigars, but
never had a cigar been made entirely by machine until shortly after
the close of the war, when the automatic cigar-making machine was
introduced.
After years of experimentation this almost human machine was
put upon the market. Since then it has been greatly improved, so
that the only human effort now required is the placing of the raw
material in proper position, after which the machine makes the bunch,
transfers it to the mechanical rolling and shaping devices, and finally
ejects it, a finished cigar. The use of the machine has revolutionized
the whole industry, since all the processes of cigar manufacture but
the packing can now be accomplished by these machines.
Naturally, with the increasing number of machines in use, the
making of cigars by hand is becoming a much less important occupation than it was a decade or two ago. The production of inexpensive machine-made cigars, which retail at 5 cents or thereabouts, has
become the objective of the large manufacturers, and they control
the industry.
The Tobacco World of March 1, 1929, indicates clearly what the
increasing popularity of this machine is doing to the old-time handworker and the small manufacturer:
The American cigar industry emerged from the World War period handicapped
not only by the rising popularity of the cigarette and the increased prices of raw
materials but by an expensive system of hand manufacture, which is gradually
being replaced by machinery, in order to meet the price competition of the cheaper
smoke in the form of the cigarette.
Werner, Carl Avery. Tobaccoland. New York, 1922, p. 263.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
3
INTRODUCTION
The abolishment of hand manufacture, in turn, has thrown numbers of people
out of employment and caused great economic distress in certain sections of the
country. Furthermore, thousands of small manufacturers who have attempted
to keep hand labor have been forced out of business entirely; the number of cigar
establishments, in fact, decreased from 11,483 in 1919 to 7,974 in 1927. 4
One of the first cigar companies to undertake the use of the automatic cigar-making machine took this step in Boston in 1918.5 When
the installation of a cigar-making machine was being contemplated,
the men in the plant, hoping to successfully combat the introduction
of the machine, which had not yet proved its efficiency, refused to
operate it. The following year, in order to be nearer the place of
manufacture of the machine, this company moved to Newark.
With a recognition of the efficiency of the machine, since it was
averaging 3,000 cigars a day, and of the fact that cheap labor could be
trained to operate it, the installation of automatic equipment increased rapidly. The machine has caused the replacement of men by
women to a great extent, since men refused, quite consistently, to
operate the machine. A commercial journal is quoted as stating that
there were 3,000 automatic cigar-making machines in operation in
1929. This made the production of machine-made cigars, when the
machines were operating full capacity, 9,000,000 a day. The machine
installed costs about $3,500, with a royalty of $1 to $1.25 on every
thousand cigars manufactured and a royalty of $3 for every day that
the machine is not in operation. Due to the almost prohibitive price
for small shops, many of these have been forced out of business.
A trade publication concerned chiefly with the business of the few
largest tobacco manufacturers gives a cursory review from year to
year of the trends in the industry. Each successive bulletin emphasized the doom of the hand-operated plant:
Larger units making an increasing percentage of total output [1925 figures].
_As stated in our review last year, a period of declining production such as bas
attended the cigar industry during the past few years tends to eliminate the small
producer because in times of adversity he is unable to endure the stress of tne
intensified competition that allows only the fittest to survive. His quota to the
total production is replaced by an enhanced contribution from his larger, wellentrenched competitors, who can manufacture more cheaply and give the consumer better value. This process may work a hardship on the sma,11 manufacturer, but it is an inevitable part of the relentless workings of the economic law in a
competitive system wherein only those possessing the greatest efficiency can hope
to prosper. Accordingly, although cigar output in the aggregate has registered a
decrescent trend, the production of most of the major manufacturers shows an
increasing tendency from year to year, as a result of the elimination of the smaller
producers and the consequent concentration of the industry among the more
p owerful and efficient units.
*
*
*
*
Growing utilization of cigar machines.
*
*
The cigar machine has been the instrument of the gradual revolution or evolution taking place in the industry. * * * It may be stated that the age of
skepticism concerning the practicability of the cigar machine has passed, and its
important role in the future of the industry is every day gaining wider recognition. * * * To-day the greater part of the doubt that prevailed is dispelled
as a result of the satisfactory performance over a prolonged period of trial, and the
constant improvements that are being made in the machine from time to time.
* * * One of the major corporations in the industry has recently equipped
and put into operation a factory, operated exclusively on machine processes, with
an annual capacity of 150,000,000 cigars, and another of the large corporations
4
6
The Tobacco World, Mar. 1, 1929. The United States Export Trade in Tobacco Products, 1928, p. 18.
Interview with R. E. Van Horn, vice president of the Cigar Makers' International Union.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
4
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARET'.rE INDUSTRIES
has under construction a plant with a similar capacity to be used entirely for
machine production. As an illustration of the trend, this latter-mentioned
organization, which recently was almost wholly on a hand-manufacturing basis,
will be producing over 60 per cent of its entire output by machine within a
relatively brief period. * * *
* * * The process necessarily will be a gradual one, but all the indications
are that within a decade the cigar industry will be operating practically entirely
on machine production. 6
The optimistic tone of the trade review continues in its report of the
year 1928, covering the year 1927, which estimates that 50 per cent
of the cigar production (excepting those of the cheapest grade) was
machine made; that is, the decade since 1918, when the first machineequipped factory began operation, had seen handmade cigars decrease
from the whole to about one-half of the total output. It leaves no
doubt that the small manufacturer was being pushed to the wall and
that the trade wa_s controlled by a few large monopolies.
Mechanization creating production economies (1927 figures) .
* * * The installation of cigar machines is going ahead rapidly and each
year a greater percentage of ·the total output of cigars is a machine product.
The advent of the machine has transformed the cigar industry from a hand-labor
basis to one where large scale production, with its attendant efficiency and manufacturing economies, has been made possible. Since the coming of the machine
the large cigar companies have been closing down their small plants scattered
throughout the country and are concentrating their operations in large up-to-date
plants, modernly equipped in every respect, and run in accordance with the most
up-to-date principles of industrial efficiency. * * *
The percentage of the total output of cigars manufactured by machinery is not
exactly determinable, but excluding the cigars retailing at three for 10 cents and
classified as elass A (retailing for not more than 5 cents) it is estimated that about
50 per cent of the remaining total production of cigars is machine made. A
few of the manufacturers of popular brands of cigars, because of special circumstances, are using hand processes, but wherever competitive conditions are
particularly severe the machine is being utilized. In the course of a few years the
probabilities are that the great bulk of cigars will be manufactured by machinery. 7
The review of 1929, covering the year 1928, looks toward "the
early disappearance of the small manufacturer"; and while the decrease
in total output of cigars for the year was "disappointing to the cigar
industry, it was not discouraging as the year saw a continuation of
the abandonment or absorption of the small uneconomic unit and the
concentration in strong, well financed, ably managed hands of this
important branch of the industry." 8
And again, despite the decrease in total production in 1930, the
attitude is hopeful: "With 375 less factories manufacturing cigars
in 1930 than in 1929, of which 303 were among those producing less
than 500,000 cigars each annually, further evidence is presented of
the concentration of cigar manufacturing in the hands of the large
units.'' 9
CIGARETTES
The manufacture of cigarettes in the United States began about
1864, for which year the total production was reported as approaching
20,000,000. During the next five years production declined, until in
6 The Tobacco Industry: Annual Review, 1926. [1925 figures.]
pp. 121 13, and 15.
7 Ibid., 1928 f1927 figures], p. 16.
s Ibid., 1929 1928 figures], pp. 3, 15.
u Ibid., 1931, p , 3.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Charles D. Barney & Co., New York,
INTRODUCTION
5
1869 it was only about one-tenth of that figure. From then on the
output of cigarettes has increased. 10
Though the manufacture of cigars has been passing through an
industrial revolution in the past decade, comparatively minor changes
have affected the manufacture of cigarettes. However, great improvement has been made in equipment. Furthermore, transfer
mechanism has eliminated much moving of the stock by hand. With
patents on the older type of machines about to expire, new and completely automatic machines are on the market with a production much
m excess of that of some older and now almost obsolete types. From
about 500 to 600 cigarettes a minute it is estimated that production
will be speeded to 900 or more.
The gains made by some manufacturers through the installation of
more efficient making and packing machines were described by officials
as follows: Cigarette manufacture in plant No. 1 had been a machine
job for 35 years. The present equipment, installed in 1917, caused
no change in numbers employed at that time but production increased
about 50 per cent. In 1925 plant No. 2 speeded up production 25 per
cent through the installation of more modern devices.
In Baltimore two cigarette plants had closed during the four years
immediately preceding the survey; in Philadelphia one plant had
closed a few months before. The close of operations in the Philadel·p hia plant brought about an increase in production and in numbers
employed in a Richmond factory of the same company.
Other transfers of manufacturing units were from Virginia to Kentucky (Louisville), and from New York (Brooklyn) to North Carolina.
In the case first mentioned the concentration of operations in Louisville was at the expense of the factory in Virginia, where production
and -employment fell off about two-fifths between December, 1928,
and December, 1929, the period covering the removal to Kentucky.
Altogether, almost 500 men and women, white and negro, lost their
jobs on this account.
The following excerpt from the New York Times of September 26,
1929, refers to the removal from Brooklyn to the South:
The last large manufacturing plant of - - - in New York * * * has
been sold. The sale is part of the policy of the company to liquidate its New
York holdings and centralize manufacturing in the South and West, where the
company obtains its supply of raw material, leaf tobacco. The building was
erected by the company about 10 years ago and occupies a plot 200 by 232 feet.
It has a total floor area of about 300,000 square feet and is assessed at $750,000.
The manufacturing now being done there will be transferred to Durham and
Richmond.
This was too recent a removal for the agents of the Women's
Bureau to discover what industrial adjustments the 600 or more
employees left jobless by this transfer would be able to make, but it
was possible a few months later to see how employment had increased
in one of the company's southern factories due to this transfer of
operations. When the work that had been done in Brooklyn was
running on a good production basis in this plant, employment was
found to have increased from an average of about 700 during the
first months of 1929 to more than double that number by the spring
of 1930.
10
Werner, Carl Avery. Tobaccoland. New York, 1922, p. 43.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
6
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETI'E INDUSTRIES
This movement toward Virginia and North Carolina is typical of
what has happened to other cigarette units formerly located in New
York, Jersey City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and opportunities
for employment have increased in the new territory at the expense of
labor in communities where the factories formerly were located. The
lay-offs have not infrequently affected hundreds of women unable to
follow the factory operations into distant States.
PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF STUDY
The purpose of the survey was to study the effects on the employment of women of the changes taking place in the cigar and cigarette
industries, with their mechanization, concentration, and changed
trends of employment.
From May, 1929, to June, 1930, a total of 110 cigar factories in 11
States were visited, and from 98 of these pay-roll data covering
22,579 women were copied. (See summary.) The States and cities
were as follows: Massachusetts: Boston; New York: New York
and Binghamton; New Jersey: Trenton, Camden, and Newark and
vicinity (Newark, Passaic, Perth Amboy, South Amboy, and Fords);
Pennsylvania: Philadelphia, York, Lancaster, Reading, Harrisburg,
Steelton, and 10 smaller cities or towns; Maryland: Baltimore;
Delaware: Wilmington; Ohio: Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus,
Dayton, Lima, Newark, Sidney, Van Wert, Wapakoneta, Wellston,
and Xenia; Michigan: D etroit; Kentucky: Louisville, Paducah,
and two smaller cities ; Tennessee, one small city; Virginia: Richmond
and Petersburg.
In the survey of women in the cigarette industry, 12 factories in
5 cities (Louisville, Ky.; Durham and Winston-Salem, N. C.; and
Petersburg and Richmond; Va .) were visited.
Industry
Women on t be pay rolls
copied
Number
of
N umber
of
women
plants
in
plants
Total
W hite
Negro
P ersonal-informa•
tion cards
Displaced
women
inter- ·
Women Women
on pay
viewed
not on
rolls
pay rolls at borne
copied
copied
- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 31, 278
24, 492
28, 377
13, 678
2,901
1, 409
3,885
- ------------Cigars _____ _____ _- ____
Total _____ ______
110
Cigarettes _____ _____ __
98
12
1
25, 095
6, 183
I
22, 579
5,798
20, 824
3,668
1, 755
2,130
11,666
2,012
2, 516
385
1,150
259
For 514 of these, year's earnings were secured .
One other State, Florida, in which many cigar factories are located,
was purposely not included in this study, due to the fact that in the
preceding year a State survey of the industries employing women
had been made there by the Women's Bureau, in which study 14
cigar plants, employing 2,835 women, were included.
Cigar-factory data.
In 68 of the 98 cigar plants the work was done by hand, and in 9
others most of it was done by hand. In 11 of the plants only machine
work was engaged in, and in 6 others most of the work was done by
machine. Four of the plants were stemmeries only.
Of the 98 plants, 86 supplied information regarding the total number of employees. Twenty-one plants-almost one-fourth-had
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
7
IN'l'RODUC'rION
100 and under 200 employees; 15 had 200 and under 300. Of the 14
with as many as 500, 3 had at least 1,000. Twenty-four were small
plants, with fewer than 100 workers; 9 of these had under 50. (See
T able 1.)
The smaller plants were all hand plants. No factory with fewer
than 300 employees used chiefly machine processes.
T ABLE
1.-Number of employees, according to whether hand or machine factory-.:.
Cigars
Total number of employees
Number of
Hand
M achine
factories
Stemreporting
p ay-roll 1- - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - 1 meries
in\~~~a- Entirely Chiefly Entirely Chiefly
I
Total._____________________________
98
68
9
11
6
Not reporting number ___ ____ _________ ___ l===12::::;::t===8= l====1= 1===1=l====l====1
Total reporting___________ _______________
86
60
8
Less than 50 ____________________________ _i----9-i- - -9- -__ -__ -__ -__-__
50 and less than 1()()____ _________________
15
13
2
100 and less than 200__ __ _______________ __
21
18
2
200 and less than 300_____________________
15
13
2
300 and less than 500. ______ _____________
12
3
1
11
4
1
500 and less than 1,000___________________
t,000 and over_____ ______________________
3 ____ _____ _ __________
10
5
3
-__-__-_-__-__- _ -__ -__ -__-__-__ -__-__-_-__-__- _
_________ _ ___________________ _
_____ _____ _______ ___
1
________________________ ___ __ _
3
3
2
6 ___________________ _
1
2 ______ ___ _
For 85 plants it was possible to learn the proportion of women
among the total employees. In 58 plants-more than two-thirds of
all-women comprised 75 per cent or more of the total number of
employees. In 21 plants they were one-half but less than threefourths of the total; and in as many as 27, almost one-third of all, they
were at least 90 per cent of the total.
In three-fifths of the hand plants women were at least 75 per cent
of the total; in all the machine plants, at least 80 per cent. It was in
6 of the 68 hand plants that women constituted less than one-half of
the employees.
TABLE
2.-Per cent women formed of total employees, according to whether hand or
machine fac tory-Cigars
All facHand
Machine
•
tories supPer cent women formed of total employees
i - - - - - - - i - - -- - ---1 Stemmeries
informa- Entirely Chiefly Entirely Chiefly
tion
la1f-:1o'h
- - - - - - - - - - - -- 1- - - - 1- - - 1- --
--- - -------
TotalFactories_ _______________ _______
9
11
6
4
98
68
22,579
10,043
Women _______________ _________ l= ======.;::l=====::::::.j:==l,=6=76=1==3=,
6=7=
1 ~==6=·=31~8=l=====87=1
Factories not reporting per cent..._. __ .. _.
1
13
8
T otal factories reporting per cent____ ______ _ _ _85
_, _ _ _
8 _ _1_0 _ _ _4_ _ _ __
60_ _ _ _
1
lOand less than 15 __ ____ __ ______________ _
1
1
25 and less than 30 ____________ __ _______ ___
1
1
35 and less than 40 ____________ __________ _
2
2
40 and less than 45 _________ ____ __ ______ __
1
1 --- -- ----- ------- -- - --- -- - --- 45 and less than 50 ______________________ _
1
1
50 and less than 55 ____ ____________.______ _
2
2
Mand less than 60 ________ ___ ___________ _
6
7
1 ---------- ---------- ---- -----60and less than 65 ______________________ _
7
8
1 ---------- ---------- -- -------65 and less than 70 _____ ____ _______ ______ _
2
2
70 and less than 75 _____ _________ ____ ____ _
1
2
1 --- - ------ ---- -- ---- -- ------ -75 and less than so ______ _______________ __
7
6 --- - ------ -------- - - ----- - ---1
80 and less than 85 ______________________ _
6
13
7 ---------- ---- ---- -85 and less than 90 _____ ________ _______ __ _
1
3
3
2
2
11
90 and less than 95 _____ ____ _______ ______ _
14
11
1 ---------2 ---- -----95 and less than 100 _____________________ _
13
13
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
8
WOME N . I N CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIE:;
Besides a week's pay-roll information, earnings for a year were
taken off for some of the women in the cigar industry who had been
with the plant for 52 weeks and had worked in at least 44 of the 52.
Personal information regarding the individual workers was obtained from cards distributed to the women throughout the factories.
Data regarding 14,182 cigar workers were made available in this manner. Not all of these women reported on every subject, but a large
part did report on nativity, age, marital status, and time in the trade.
In the cigarette manufacturing establishments pay-roll data were
secured for a total of 5,798 women, 3,668 white and 2,130 negro.
Cards distributed among the workers in the plants, calling for name,
address, nativity, marital status, etc., were filled in by 2,397 women.
Of these, 2,012, 1,827 white and 185 negro women, were also in the
group for whom pay-roll information was available. ln two cigarette
plants two pay rolls several months apart were copied, from which
much enlightening information concerning the rapid changes occurring
in the industry has been made available.
Interviews with employers.
In addition to securing the pay-roll data, interviews were had with
one or more members of the firm. In this way information was obtained regarding changes in the methods of manufacture and the
employment trends since the introduction of machines in the cigar
industry and the improvement in machines in the cigarette industry.
Data were secured also regarding the effects of the consolidation of
plants and their removal from one place to another.
Interviews with women.
Visits were made to the homes of 1,150 women who had been
employed in the cigar industry but had been deprived of their jobs.
(See p. 40 for cities included in the study.) The marked changes
that have occurred due to the transition from hand to machine work
or to the transfer or consolidation of plants are brought out clearly
in the analysis of the information obtained in these interviews.
Home visits were made also to 259 cigarette workers. Some of
these were in cities from which the cigarette factories had moved;
and in the case of others changes in manufacture had had an effect in
reducing the number employed.
SUMMARY
Period of the survey: Spring of 1929 to summer of 1930.
Extent of the survey:
Cities and towns ____________________________ ______ _
E st ablishments .. ______ ___ __:.. ______ ________________ _
Cigars
Cigarettes
47
110
5
12
1,150
259
Number reporting __________ _______ _________________
Under 30 years _____ __________________ per cent__
30 and under 40 years __________________ __ do ____
40 years and over ___ ______ _, ___________ ___ do____
1, 147
39. 8
28. 5
31. 7
259
54. 4
29. 0
16. 6
Time in the industry:
Number reporting _________ _____ ____ ____ _______ _____ _
Less than 5 years ____ ___ _________ _____ per cent__
5 and less than 10 years __________ ___ _____ do ___ _
10 and less than 20 years ____________ _____ do __ __
20 years and over_ _______________________ do ___ _
1,086
24. 3
24. 9
31. 5
19. 3
247
21. 1
37. 7
36. 0
5. 3
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
Number of women_ __________ __________________________
Age:
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
9
INTRODUCTION
Employment status since separation:
Number reporting ______________________________ .. __ _
Unemployed entire time ____ ______ __ ___per cent_ _
Employed at some time ________ ______ _____ do ___ _
Cigars
Cigarettes
1, 150
12. 5
87. 5
259
21. 2
· 78. 8
Earnings in last job before separation and in first subsequent
job:
Number reporting first subsequent job in same industry __
139
Median in job before separat ion ____ ____ __ ___ ___ _ _ $19. 60
Median in subsequent job __ __ _______ ___ ________ _ $15. 85
Number
reporting first subsequent
in-_
dustry _______________
_________ __job
____in___another
__ ______
215
Median in job before separation __ __ _____ ___ _____ _ $16. 95
Median in su bseq uen t job ______ ______ __________ _ $12. 20
11
(')
(1)
96
$21. 25
$14. 10
PERSONAL INFORMATION FOR WOMEN STILL EMPLOYED
Nativity:
Number reporting __________ __ ___ __ ___ ___ _____ .. _____ _ 12, 580
Native born _____ __~ ____ __ __ ___ _______ per cent __
75. 2
Foreign born _______ ________ ____ ____ _____ do ___ _
24. 8
Color:
Number reporting __ ___ _____ _____ ___ ____ ___ __ __ ___ _ _ 9,163
White ____ ___ _____ __ ____ ___ ______ ____ per cent_ _
92. 2
Negro ___ ____ ________ ____ ___ _______ _____do __ _ _
7. 8
Age:
Num ber reporting _____ ______ ____________ __ ____ .. ___ _ 13,887
Under 20 years __ _____ ____ __ ________ __per cent __
29. 2
20 and under 30 years ____ __ ___ __ ___ _______ do ___ _
35. 6
30 and under 40 years __ __ ____ _______ ___ __do ___ _
20. 6
40 years and over_ ___ ~ _______ ___ ____ ___ __ do ___ _
14. 5
Marital status :
Number reporting ___ ___ _________ ____ ___ __ ____ _.. ___ _ 13, 791
Single ____ __ _________ __ ____ _____ _____ per cent __
49. 9
Married ______ _____ _____ _____ ____ ________ do __ _ _
39. 3
Widowed, separated, or di vorced ___ ____ ____ do ____
10. 8
Tim e in the trade :
Number reporting ___________ ____ __ __ ___ ______ _____ _ 11,885
Under 1 year ______ __ ____ ___ ___________ per cent_ _
14. 6
1 and under 5 years ______ _____ __ ___ ______ d o ___ _
34.4
5 and under 10 years _____ ____ ___ ____ __ ___do ___ _
22. 5
10 years and over __ ___________________ ____ do ___ _
28. 5
2,378
99. 8
.2
2,127
87. 3
12. 7
2,383
15. 9
50. 8
20. 5
12. 8
2,387
42. 8
38. 6
18. 6
2,374
13. 4
34. 4
26. 6
25. 7
PAY-ROLL INFORMATION
Method of payment:
Number of white women reported __ ______ __________ __ 20,815
Pieceworkers __________ _______ ________ per cent __
86. 3
Timeworkers __ __ _________ ______ _______ __ do __ _ _
11. 9
On both timework and piecework ___ _____ __do __ _ _
1.8
Number of negro women reported ___ _____ _________ ___ 1. 755
Pieceworkers __ ___ __ ___ _____ ___ ___ ____per cent __
74. 4
Timeworkers ___ _____________ __________ __ _do ___ _
25. 4
On both timework a nd piecework __ ___ ____ _do ___ _
.2
Week's earnings:
Number of white women ___________ _____ _____ _____ _ _ 20,824
Less than $5 ____ ____ ___ ______ _____ ___ per cent __
4. 8
$5 and less than $10 ____ __ __ ___ ___ ________ do __ _ _
12. 8
$10 and less than $15 __ _____ ____ _____ ______ do ____
24. 8
$15 and less than $20 __ ___ ___________ _____ do __ __
27. 8
520 and over _____ ____ ______ _______ ______ do ___ _
29. 8
Median of the earnings, all women __________ _ $16. 30
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
126898°-32--2
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
3, 668
42. 0
54. 5
3. 5
2, 115
57. 5
37. 8
4. 7
3, 668
2. 9
5. 5
28. 0
45. 2
18. 3
$17. 05
10
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARET'l'E I DUSTRIES
Cigars
Cigarettes
Week's earnings-Continued.
Number of negro women __________________ __ _______ _ 1, 755
2,130
Less than $5 _________________________ per cent __
9. 5
20. 7
$5 and less than $10 ______________ _______ _d o ___ _
38. 7
66. 5
$10 and less than $15 _____________________ do ____ _
43. 7
11. 5
$15 and over ____________________________ do ___ _
8. 1
1. 3
Median of the earnings, all women __________ _ $10. 10
$8. 00
Year's earnings:
Number of women ________________________________ _
514
(2)
Less than $600 _______________________ per cent __
15. 2 ___ ------28. 8 ____ _____ _
$600 and less than $800 ___________________ do ___ _
34. o______ ___ _
· $800 and less than $1,000 ____ _____________ do ___ _
18. 7 ________ - $1,000 and less than $1,200 __ _____ _·- ________ do ___ _
$1,200 and over _________ _________ _____ __ _do ___ _
3. 3 __ _-- __ ___ _
$827 _________ _
Median of the earnings, all women __________ _
r
Not obtained for cigarette workers.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PART 11.-TRENDS IN THE MANUFACTURE AND
MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES
· On account of the taxes on tobacco products collected by the Federal Government, the Commissioner of Internal Revenue is in a
position to have most accurate information relative to various trends
in the trade-changes in numbers and location of plants as well as
in value of products. The annual reports of that Federal bureau,
therefore, give undeniable evidence of certain striking changes in the
cigar and cigarette industries in the present century.
These reports show for both cigars and cigarettes a decrease in the
number of manufacturing establishments. The method of presenting
the data has been changed somewhat in the 30 years for which figures
are quoted here, but in 1900 .a total of 27,366 cigar manufacturers
were reported and in 1930 there were only 7,552. A similar relative
decrease between 1900 and 1930 was noted in the number of cigarette
·establishments.
Notwithstanding this reduction in the number of factories, the
production of cigarettes has risen by leaps and bounds, in round
numbers from 3,000,000,000 to 124,000,000,000. On the other hand,
the production of cigars (of the class weighing more than 3 pounds per
1,000) has during this time increased by only about 6 per cent.
THE CIGAR INDUSTRY
From these annual reports it is apparent that the total number of
cigar manufacturers dropped from 14,578 in 1921 to 7,552 in 1930, a
decrease of almost one-half. The number of factories has been correlated with the output of cigars. The production has been classified
in groups of from less than 250,000 cigars to more than 40,000,000.
Factories making less than 500,000 a year are small and employ comparatively few workers, while at the other extreme are factories with
an annual output of over 40,000,000, undoubtedly equipped with
automatic cigar-making machines and employing considerable numbers of people. In 1921 about 90 per cent of the establishments
were in the group with the lowest output, less than 500,000 cigars,
and less than one-tenth of 1 per cent were in the group with the
highest output, over 40,000,000. During the 10 years closing with
1930 the number of the factories first named decreased about one-half,
from 13,149 to 6,976. The decrease in other classes was not so large,
though some of the groups had even greater percentage declines.
Only in the two highest groups was there an increase. The number of plants producing over 40,000,000 yearly increased from 11 in
1921 to 35 in 1930; the group next following did little better than
hold its own.
Per cent of the total production.
The classification of the plants by output shows that in 1921 the 11
plants with production of over 40,000,000 made about one-sixth
11
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
12
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
(15.7 per cent) of all the cigars manufactured, and in 1930 the 35
factories in this class made almost one-half. With the exception of the
next largest group, making 20,000,000 to 40,000,000 cigars, all the
other classes of establishments had been steadily losmg ground.
For example, in 1921 the plants with the smallest production had
made about one-seventh (13.7 per cent) of the total output, but by
1930 their part of the production had decreased to about one-twentieth
(5.2 per cent) . To sum up: In 1930 the 6,976 smallest factories
were making slightly more than one-twentieth of the total cigar output, and the 35 largest were making almost one-half.I
The accompanying chart is a graphic presentation of this tremendous development. Beginning in 1921, line 10, representing the proporPROPORTION OF TOTAL PROD UCTIO N OF CI GARS MANUFACTURED
IN FACTORIES CLASSIFIED YEARLY ACCORDING TO OUTPUT, 1921
TO 1930
[Figures from annual reports of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue]
r
j
35
/
30
25
20
1_
15
10
"
8- ~
·~
10-...
"
"✓
I
0
,,.s -
1921
'K
/
x--
V
-~
~~
----.... _
1922
~
1923
....
192'
1/
/
1.
2.
3.
,.
If
15 .
6.
7.
e.
II.
10.
_,,,--
~ ---... ~ ~
2.-..:!._5
/
~
V
I
/10
.,,.,., .......
~
--..........._
- ..
19215
~
1926
--- -" ' '
-
~ r-...
~ ~ 8~
i-- - -
---~ - ---- --~
--
1927
1928
i
Ullder million
1 million
l to 2 million
2 t;o 3 million
l5 to , million
, to 15 million
5 to 10 million
10 to 20 million
20 to ,o million
Over 40 million
i w
1929
r---... 1
I
J
+-
t •
s
1930
tion (15 .7 per cent) of the total output made by the largest plants, is
only a little higher on the scale than line 1, representing the proportion (13.7 per cent) of the total output made in the smallest shops.
In this same year the plants with an output of five to ten million and
of ten to twenty million produced larger proportions of the total than
did any other group, 18.4 per cent and 16 per cent, respectively. In
1923 line 10 begins to increase, and it mounts from 14.1 per cent in
that year to 49.8 per cent in 1930. With one exception, the lines for
all other classes are lower in 1930 than in 1921. For most of them
there is a gradual downward trend over the period of 10 years.
1
Annual Report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 1922, p. 120; 1931, p. 129.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
MANUFAC'rURE AND MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES
13
Due to a difference in the collection of statistics, the number of
establishments reported by the Bureau of the Census does not agree
with the number reported by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
but the census figures indicate a decrease in the number of establishments over this same period of years.
The numbers of establishments shown in the census report fall below the corresponding numbers given in the report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue.
The differences are due to the following causes: (1) On the records of the Bureau
of Internal Revenue the same establishment may appear two or more times;
for example, as a manufacturer of cigars, as a manufacturer of chewing tobacco,
and as a manufacturer of cigarettes-while for census purposes such an establishment might make only one report and would be classified according to its product
of chief value. (2) A separate report is required by the Bureau of Internal
Revenue for each plant or factory, whereas in compiling the census returns two
or more factories operated under the same ownership i_n the same city, town,
or village are treated as a single establishment. (3) Every dealer in scrap
tobacco is required to register with the Bureau of Internal Revenue, whereas
the manufactures-census statistics do not include data for dealers. (4) All gro-w:erf;! of perique tobacco are required by the Bureau of Internal Revenue to register as manufacturers of tobacco, but are not covered by the census of manufactures. (5) A considerable number of manufacturers registered for taxation
purposes reported products valued at less than $5,000, and therefore were not
covered by the census of manufactures. 2
Numbers employed.
The Bureau of the Census gives reliable data regarding the decrease
in numbers employed. For approximately the same period as the
one just discussed, employment figures are available. From about
103,000 in 1899 the average number of wage earners in cigars and
cigarettes increased until in 1914 there were 153,000. From that year
on the figure decreased until in 1929 it was about 105,000, or only
slightly larger than in 1899. The average per factory increased
steadily from less than IO in the earlier years to 30, to 40, to 50 and
more, until in 1929 it was 64 wage earners per establishment. 2
In the various population censuses the women who reported their
own occupations as in the manufacture of tobacco products were
roughly 43,000 in 1900, 77,000 in 1910, 98,000 in 1920, and 74,000 in
1930. The exact figures for 1920 and 1.930 show a reduction of about
24 per cent in the 10 years.
In the present study, made by the Women's Bureau just before the
taking of the 1930 census, more than 30,000 women were employed
in the cigar and cigarette factories scheduled. This number probably
is greater than the actual employment at the present time, for with
the recent changes in manufacture a perceptible reduction has been
noted.
Figures secured by means of a questionnaire sent to local unions
by the president of the Cigar Makers' International Union of America
showed there to be almost 100,000 persons employed in the cigar
industry in the United States in 1925.3 About 79,000 were cigar
makers, and about one-tenth of these were handworkers, making the
complete cigar. · Slightly less than two-thirds of the persons working
as cigar makers at that time were women. Of these 50,648 women,
only about 1 in 20 were making the complete cigar by hand or mold;
all the remainder were working under the team system. About one2 Fifteenth Census of the United States, Manufactures, 1929. Industry Series, Tobacco Manufactures
and Tobacco Pipes. p. 1.
a Perkins, George W. Women in the Cigar Industry. American Federationist. September, 1925, vol.
32, pp. 808-810.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
14
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
half (48 per cent) of all the women worked on rolling machines, and
about 14 per cent were reported as working on the automatic cigarmaking machine. The number of men and women on the automatic
cigar-making machine had increased from 1,928 in 1923 to 3,528 in
1925. Of the latter, 3,371 were women·.
CHANGES IN LOCALITIES
As an interdepartmental courtesy, the Secretary of the Treasury
supplied the Women's Bureau with special tabulations based on the
original reports from collectors of internal revenue, showing the production trends in a number of the communities selected by the
bureau either for the interviews with cigar makers or for the collection of pay-roll data where factories were operating.
The communities for which such information was supplied and
for which production graphs have been made (see page 15) are the
following:
1. Parts of Kentucky and Tennessee, including Louisville, Madisonville,
Fulton, Owensboro, and Paducah, Ky., and Martin, Tenn.
2. Philadelphia and some towns within a radius of 50 miles in Pennsylvan iaBoyertown, Conshohocken, East Greenville, Norristown, Quakertown,
and Sellersville-and Camden, N. J.
3. New York, N. Y., and Jersey City and Newark, N. J.
4. In Ohio, Columbus, Lima, Sidney, and Wapakoneta, as a group; Wellston, Mansfield, Ironton, Jackson, and Manchester, as a group; and
Cincinnati, Cleveland, Dayton, and Newark, also as one.
Kentucky and Tennessee.
The first graph on page 15 pictures the contrast between Louisville, where recently a large new cigar plant had been opened, equipped with the most improved cigar-making machines, and other cities
in the same general district. While production had increased tremendously from 1929 to 1930 in Louisville it was dying in the smaller
towns and cities noted on previous pages. In 1930 the production
in these cities was about one-tenth what it had been in 1929.
The average production of cigars in Louisville during the 5-year
period 1926 to 1930 wai;; about 35,500,000. In the first four years
the index varied from seven-tenths to five-tenths of the average production, but in 1930 the index was almost three times as great as the
average.
In the other towns in Kentucky and Tennessee the opposite was
true. For the first four years the index of production was greater.
than the average, but in 1930 it was little more than one-tenth of
that figure.
In Paducah an important corporation closed its plant in 1930, the
only cigar factory of any size in the city. It had been employing 200
to 300 women, but early in December 70 women were laid off. After
the Christmas holidays only 100 women were sent for, and in February they, too, were laid off. Owensboro, Ky., and Martin, Tenn.,
had each lost a cigar factory in the same year; and the employees
were experiencing how next to impossible it was to find other work.
Even before the final shutdown a few of the plants had been gradually
decreasing their production to a part-time basis. In 1929 Madisonville and in 1930 Fulton saw the doors locked of the only cigar factories in their communities.
·
. The situation in Madisonville was typical of that in more than half
a dozen other towns in Ke~tucky and Tennessee where cigar fac
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
15
MANUFACTURE AND MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES
INDEX OF THE TREND IN THE PRODUCTION OF CIGARS IN CERTAIN
LOCALITIES, BY AREA, 1926 TO 1930
Average for the 5 years= 100
[Figures by courtesy of the Bureau of Internal Revenue]
OHIO AREA
LOi'.l'ISVIIl.E AREA.
275
250
r----...--1--.-'-1-~1---- - ~
- - Louisville
(25 million in 1926)
I
I
Flllton, Ky,
Madisonville, Ky,
Owensboro, Ky.
Paducah, Ky.
~ lartin, Tenn,
( 68 million in 1926)
200
175
150
125
100
>-----
t-----+----+----+-------+1/f-----;
I
I
-Columbus
( 43 million in 1926)
/
>---
225 ~- -
I
ansfield
Ironton
- • - • Jackson
1-
l.hnchester
~ lelleton
(29 million in 1926)
I
i
ima
• • • • Sidney
Wapakoneta
(152 million in 1926)
incinnati
___ Dayton
Newark
~ leveland
(173 million in 192~
.... .,.._
t-----+---+----+----1----l
.
.
,,,,
I
1----+---+------+--L'j~l-l
. ---~
t-------+---------+--=-'-c---+---jc+----l
75 t - - - - + - -- - + - - ----+--t--4--+-----,
--r---..~ . I \
50 1-----1---_j.__:=~~~-~ll~_ _j
'
\
\
\
25 1----+----+------+----+--'-,---,
\
0 _ _ ___.__ _ _..,__ ___,_ _ _....__ __ .
PHILADELPHIA AREA
NEWARK AREA.
225
r------r------r--1---ir------r-,--~
\
200
_ - - -jersey City
( 13 million in 1926)
- - - New York City
(280 million 1n 1926)
\
>------~,.-_ . - ,Newark
-. -
, 1- _ _
\
(155 million 1n 1926)
,
\
I--------"--,----+----1----.....J
'
l
~oyertown
Co11.&hohocken
__ E, Greenville Norri&town
"'1aJtertown
Seller&ville
.
(56 million in 1926)
.
\
\
150
l
--Hiiladelphia
Comden
(175 million 1n 1926) _
\
t----'\r-+-1
1 75
I
I
\
\
125 - - ~ - - - - - - t - . . - --
--,f----+-----1
\/v
'~-~~\-····-·-· -·-
100
1------+---.,~.~.....,,_~-lf---=-=-+---
75
\
r-,....,,_
1------+----+---~,...+----1--::00-~---
·-····-·
\
/"\
~
1
50
~
l------+----+-----,i-o,---1-----I
'
\
\
,__
.......
........
25 1 - -- - - - + - - --+------,--1-,------<f----l
---
0 _ _ _....,_ _ __,__ _....._ _ _......_ _....I
1927
1928
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1929
1930
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
16
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
tories had closed: The cigar plant had been the only establishment
in the community offering employment to any number of people.
Girls had come to Madisonville from smaller towns and rural districts within a radius of 25 miles, and many families had followed
the daughters when they obtained work and had become largely
dependent on the daughters' earnings. The only employment for
men was in the coal mines, several of which were closed and the
others we:r:e on a part-time schedule. After the cigar factory closed
some of the f arr.iilies became stranded in the town, too poor to leave.
The shutdown was a calamity for all Madisonville, from the boardinghouse keeper, who had depended upon cigar workers for her livelihood, to the grocery clerk, who had been laid off because of the sudden falling off in business with the closing of the cigar factory. (See
pages 61 and 62 for case stories from Madisonville.)
Philadelphia and Camden.
Another graph on page 15 illustrates the conditions in Philadelphia,
Pa., and Camden, N. J., together forming one industrial unit and the
most important for cigar manufacturing. With several large factories equipped with automatic cigar-making machines, production
here more than doubled between 1926 and 1930, although during this
period the number of factories varied but little. As compared with
the average production over the 5-year period, the index for Philadelphia and Camden was 60.5 in 1926 and 122.8 in 1930.
Contrasted with this prosperous cigar center were other cities and
communities within 50 miles of Philadelphia in which the cigar industry had come and gone and where frequently the deserted factories were still some of the most prominent buildings in the towns .
. Represented by another line on this graph are six of these cities and
towns, including Norristown, Conshohocken, Boyertown, Sellersville, Quakertown, and East Greenville. Contrasted with the increase in production in Philadelphia and Camden, there was a great
decrease in these six towns. The number of cigars produced in 1930
was less than one-fifth of the number produced in 1926. The index
of production in 1930, as compared with the 5-year average, was less
than one-third (32.6 per cent). In Norristown the cigar trade had
dwindled to almost nothing, from a production of over 12,000,000
cigars in 1926 to about 200,000 (1.6 per cent of that number) in 1930.
Only small units were operating there at the time of interview. The
trend in Conshohocken, a near neighbor of Norristown, had not been
steadily downward, for although business was practically at a standstill in 1926 and in 1930 no cigar factory was in operation, in 1929
Company X had begun operations on a large scale, passing far beyond
the million mark. However, it ceased work and moved away almost
as suddenly as it had come.
In Boyertown, at the time of study, there still were two or three
very small and struggling independent concerns operating irregularly,
with more idle hours than work hours, whose total production was
only about 4 per cent of what it was in 1926 before the Y Company
n_10ved away, at which time Boyertown turned out nearly 10,000,000
cigars a year.
The fertile valley extending north from Norristown to Allentown
and Bethlehem is colloquially called the "Belt" by the cigar makers.
East Greenville, Sellersville, and Quakertown were once the chief
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
MANUFACTURE AND MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES
17
cigar-making centers in the district, but when the survey was made
not a cigar factory was operating in Sellersville, and only three,
running irregularly, were in operation in the other two cities. Production in Quakertown during the 5-year period declined about fourfifths, the result not only of a decrease in number of factories but of
a retrenchment in number of employees and in operating hours in the
few plants that remained.
A man who had been superintendent in one of the largest ;factories
that had closed in the Belt, and who later found employment as superintendent in a clothing factory, described what had happened as
follows:
The last 10 years had seen a falling off of 90 per cent of the cigar industry in
this vicinity. Z Company had at least 300 to 400 employees, and A, B, C, D,
and E also had good-sized shops. There probably were a thousand hand cigar
makers here 10 years ago, but barely a hundred are so employed now. The
clothing trade had come in and absorbed the younger women in some towns. It
was hardest for those over 30, and the older t hey were the harder it was. The
great difficulty was that few of the cigar workers were under 35 or 40 when the
slump came, since no apprentices had been trained in the industry for years. The
cigar workers had been thrifty and had invested in homes when wages were good,
but many now were anchored to homes that they could not sell; however, the
garden lots helped somewhat. Many married women gave up working entirely,
as their families were grown and they had their homes, but it was a hard struggle
for the men. Many worked as day laborers to pay the taxes and eke out an
existence.
·
This man cited his own case as illustrating the difficulty of new
adjustments. He felt that he was one of the most fortunate ones,
yet for a year he "was lost." His adjustment to the clothing industry
had been difficult. He found it very wearing, with its noisy machinery, the piecework speeding, and "the go of it," as he expressed it.
Another resident in the Belt said essentially the same thing. The
men were the hardest hit by the closing of the cigar factories, as the
clothing factories and textile ·mills that came in after the migration
of the cigar industry had employed more women than men. They
had no places for any number of middle-aged men in their factories.
Another town where the cigar industry had "gone out" in this
district was East Greenville. It had been a thriving cigar center at
one time. Large corporations maintained branch factories there,
and there were also locally owned cigar factories of importance.
East Greenville, however, like Quakertown, was not exclusively a
cigar center. A few clothing and textile jobs gradually became
available for those displaced from the cigar factories, but these never
ranked in importance with the cigar industry as it had been in its
day.
.
When East Greenville was visited by the bureau's agents, only one
small cigar unit was operating, and this most spasmodically, busy
when there were orders to work on, but for the most part hours had
been shortened and output curtailed. Some cigar makers still clung
to their poor jobs, hoping for a busy season; a few others had found
work in· other lines, and several were working on men's clothing,
or embroidering children's dresses in their homes under contract with a
distributing agency. To women who had earned a living wage making cigars this petty home work was most discouraging.
For generations Lancaster and York Counties have been famous as
tobacco-growing areas and also for the manufacture into the finished
product. With the development of the factory system literally bun-
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
18
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUS'l'RIES
dreds of small factories sprang up all over the countryside. At the
time of study cigars were being, made by the machine process by one
firm each in the county seats, York and Lancaster, but other large
corporations had practically withdrawn from the district.
Red Lion owed its development to the cigar industry. In 1930 it
was a town of nearly 5,000 population, with paved streets and
substantially built red brick homes belonging to cigar makers. In
every direction were cigar factories, some frame, barnlike structures
with gable roofs; others, two or three story brick buildings. Beginning as small family enterprises, these cigar factories at the time ·of
study dominated the town. Red Lion had been a stronghold of the
smaller independent manufacturers, and in spite of the general decline
in number of plants throughout the county, it was estimated roughly
that one-third of the cigar factories in York County in 1930 centered
in and near Red Lion. Cigar making was still a family affair in this
section, where fathers, mothers, sons, and daughters combined their
efforts to make a family wage. However, such a wage scale undoubtedly had been a factor in making it possible for the manufacturers,
who were civic leaders in the community, to compete successfully
with the machine-made 5-cent cigar.
But the rest of York and Lancaster Counties presented a desolate
contrast to Red Lion, with its active organization of independent
companies, and to the county seats, where factories equipped with
cigar-making machines were located. In Lancaster County small
communities like Hopeland and Terre Hill "went back to the farms
when the cigar factories blew out," but the cigar makers "still need
two jobs to make a living on the farms." Twenty years before there
had been at least six prosperous cigar factories in Brownstown,
where now there was none. Hopeland, a more remote community,
was "shocked" when its two cigar factories closed, laying off possibly
200 employees, with no other industry in the town to turn to. The
cigar industry had left Lincoln and Akron also, and in 1927 two firms
closed their small factories in Rothsville. Notice of the "vacation"
was given to the employees in one factory only three hours before the
final shutdown. The only industry left in the town was a type of
contract shops making a very cheap grade of clothing, a line that
rarely pays a living wage.
It was in communities like these that women were interviewed who
had had great difficulty in making satisfactory adjustments after the
factories closed.
New York City, Jersey City, and Newark.
Another graph on page 15 illustrates the trend in the manufacture
of cigars in New York City, Jersey City, and Newark.
The automatic cigar-making machine had never been used in
New York City, and for this reason the curve indicates the same
decline in New York that characterizes other hand-manufacturing
centers. The number of factories decreased and production.declined
in the period 1926 to 1930. Production in the first two years of the
5-year period was greater than the average, but beginning with 1928
there was a constant decrease to almost seven-tenths of the average
in 1930.
In 1918 the first plant in New Jersey to be equipped with automatic
machines began operation in Newark. The same company had
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
MANUFACTURE AND MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES
19
introduced the machine into a Boston plant, but moved this soon to
Newark. Although many other large factories had closed down in
this locality since then, the pioneer machine plant continued. Its
equipment had been greatly improved during this time and it was
now housed in a thoroughly up-to-date modern building. There was
only one other important cigar factory in Newark, so the comparative level of the trend in the production curve here undoubtedly
is due in large part to the organization of the pioneer among machine
plants. The production of cigars in Newark had increased about
one-eighth in the five years, but the index in 1930 was only 5 per cent
above the average for the 5-year period.
A cigar maker, with several years' experience, described the various
removals of hand cigar factories from Newark:
"Four years ago Factory A shut up here and moved to Philadelphia;
a few years ago Factory B went out West; two years ago Factory C
moved to Richmond; Factory D left about the same time; and only
two months ago Factory E quit here."
Formerly Jersey City was one of the leading cigar centers in the
United States, but it lost its high rank to those localities where the
automatic machine had replaced the old hand method, for Jersey
City had no machine plants. To what extent production in the hand
plants of Jersey City had declined in only five years is strikingly
shown in the graph. In 1926 the index of production was more than
two and one-sixth times the average for the 5-year period. By 1930
there had been a tremendous decrease, and the index was only 5.5 per
cent of the average. In other words, the output dropped steadily,from
13,000,000 cigars in 1926, to 9,000,000 in 1927, to 6,000,000in 1928,
and on down to less than one-third of a million (329,723) in 1930.
Ohio.
In the graph on page 15, representing conditions in the State of
Ohio, one line represents the trend of production in the cigar factories
of Columbus. This is the only city charted where output was increasing. In 1926 the index of production as compared with the
average for five years was 94.1 per cent. It declined the next year,
but after that it increased until in 1930 it was 9 .8 per cent above the
average for the period. Undoubtedly the reason that Columbus had
not gone down hill with the other districts is due to the concentration
of operations in a large hand factory there, accomplished at the
expense of the _discontinuance of work by the same company in
Cincinnati.
Lima, Sidney, and Wapakoneta are thrown together to represent
the condition centering about Lima. As in other localities there had
been a decrease in the number of plants operating, but production
had been steadier than in some other parts of Ohio, due probably to
the increased use of the universal buncher and machine roller adapted
to the manufacture of cigars made of "scrap" or "shredded" filler,
as well as to the use of the automatic cigar-making machine. Yet
in spite of these improvements the trend in output had been downward. In 1926 the index of production as compared with the average
for the five years was 97. It increased to 111 in 1927, but declined
in the next three yea.rs, and in 1930 it was 85.1.
Another line shows the decline in the production of such wellknown cities as Cincinnati, recognized for years as a cigar center,
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
20
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
Cleveland, Dayton, and Newark. The index of production in 1926
was 30.4 per cent in excess of the average over the 5-year period.
By 1930 this figure was 41.4 per cent below the average.
Another grouping of cities in Ohio was made on the basis of similarity in percentage decline in output from year to year. Here were
combined Wellston, Mansfield, Ironton, Jackson, and Manchester.
The index of production in 1926 was 72 per cent above the average for
the 5-year period. Production then declined, untH in 1930 the index
was only 21.3 per cent of the average. This great decrease was
cttused largely by the complete discontinuance of cigar manufacture in
Jackson and Manchester.
In Jackson the last cigar factory closed its door in 1927, the last in
Manchester closed in 1929, and the fate of Ironton was almost as bad.
At the time of the survey the only cigar firms operating in this section
were extremely small independent concerns that seemed to be making
the last stand against the inevitable. Only a few years before, a
chain of cigar factories located in these and other Ohio cities had been
doing a thriving business, but in 1926-27 the company moved all
its work from Ohio to Florida, abandoned the small hand factories
scattered through these southeastern Ohio towns, and built a large
modern building in Florida, equipping it with all the latest ano most
improved machinery for mass production of cigars. This is another
case of several hand plants being superseded by one large machine
establishment, accompanied also by a change in geographic location.
In 1929 another important corporation closed hand factories in
Cleveland, Dayton, and Mansfield, while it was expanding machine
production in new factories in Kansas City, Philadelphia, Louisville,
and other southern points. The plant in Dayton had been operating
for 29 years.
THE CIGARETTE INDUSTRY
The movement toward the massing of production in fewer and larger
units taking place in the cigar industry is already an accomplished
fact in the cigarette branch of the trade. With the exception of a
few scattered and for the most part unimportant establishments, the
manufacture of cigarettes is now concentrated in a very few large
plants in five cities-Richmond> Va., Durham, Reidsville, and
Winston-Salem, N. C., and Louisville, Ky. Jersey City and Petersburg, although formerly important centers, are losing their high rank
in the industry.
The migration of cigarette manufacture has been, as one manager
explained, to localities where the tobacco leaf is grown, to good distributing points, and to a "satisfactory" labor market.
The chart on page 21 shows the changes that have been taking
place in the production of cigarettes in the calendar years 1926 to 1930.
The greatest decrease has taken place in the cities included in the
first New York district, where the index of production dropped from
116.7 in 1926 to less than 1 (0.4) in 1930. This was due to the transfer of the operations of a large corporation in this district to one of
the southern cities.
.
Another great change was in the first Pennsylvania district, where
the index of production declined from 173 in 1926 to 2 .4 in 1930,
also caused by the transfer of cigarette manufacture from this district
to a southern city.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
MANUFACTURE AND MARK:mTING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES
21
INDEX OF THE TREND IN THE PRODUCTION OF CIGARETTES IN CERTAIN
LOCALITIES, 1926 TO 1930
Average for the 5 years = 100
[Figures from annual reports of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue]
250.----_~ 1 - - - - i - - - - - - - - - - - 225
•- • -
IentucJc;y
(5 million 1n 1926)
- -
First Bew York District
(6 billion 1n 1926)
i----
-
-
Horth Carolilla
(53 billion 1n 1926)
- - - - - First Pennsylvania District
(5 billion 1n 1926)
200 , - - -
•• •••• •• Virgillia
(16 billion 1n 1926)
.1·
176
/
.
I
I
t--------+-------+------1--------+------~
......
',... ~...
I
I
',
150
/
--------1----'-'---~--+--------l--~·-----l-------l
', '
',
.II
..
.,....,,.i
' ',(" /
......_ -._
,_ I
l.U.i--- -- ------1---------,J'~-....' __'_,_____._._.•_'-_'--.::...----1---.:-··-----l
----✓
/.,
'
I
\
••
~.·l.-----
\,
',
•
..
,X"t.···
\
1001-------+---------i----__,.~..-4--1------l---+-------4
~ ••••'.j
I
~-········ i\
~--···
75
\
i \
\
.. ··
; \
\
r------::
.. .......- - + - - - - - - - + - - - - - 4 - , - + - ' ~ - -,:__--1--+-------t
/ \
'
\
/
\
~
50 1---------1---------1.----l,;__--1-----'\.___ _J-\~------t
'\
/
~--·-·- '-·-·'
25
'
\
\
','
\
r----.--=+--=---··➔""-·-----+-------4-------'~·--1-'----1
I''\ ·,
,,
'\\
OL-------L-------L------L-------L---..J..--....1
1926
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
l 9 2 8
l 9 2 9
l 9 15 o
22
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
As would be expected, due to the increase in production in cigarettes,
the three indexes charted for southern localities all show increases,
some greater than others. In North Carolina (two cities from this
State were included in the study) the index increased from 80 in
1926 to 119 .2 in 1930. In Virginia the increase was greater, from
71.8 in 1926 to 133.9 in 1930. The greatest of all was in Kentucky,
where production in 1930 was almost ten times as great as it had
been in 1926, the index being 222 as compared with 23. Notwithstanding this tremendous increase in output in the 5-year period,
production in 1930 in Kentucky was only about one-sixth what it was
in Virginia and only about one-seventeenth what it was in North
Carolina.
REPORTS FROM TWO STATES
The records of two State departments also furnished data on
recent developments in the trade, showing trends very similar to
those quoted from Federal sources.
Ohio.
The Ohio Department of Industrial Relations furnished data showing the trend in the number of wage earners employed in the cigar
and cigarette industries in that State as well as wages from 1923 to
1930. As the manufacture of cigarettes in Ohio is negligible, the following may be regarded for all practical purposes as representative
of cigars only.
TABLE
3.-Trend of employment and wages in the cigar and cigarette industries in
Ohio, 1923 to 1930
Establishments
Year
Number
1923 _____ - - -- - - - - - - - -1924 _____ - - - - -- - - - - - - 1925 ______ - - ------ - -- 1926 __ _____ ___ ----- -- 1927 ______ ____________
1928 __ - ------ - - - - ----1929 __ -- - --- -- - ---- - -1930 ! _________________
t
134
120
108
99
99
97
80
75
Index
(1923=
100)
100. 0
89. 6
80. 6
73. 9
73. 9
72. 4
59. 7
56. 0
Male employees
Number
2,296
2,011
1,525
1,435
1,213
1,360
1,087
894
Index
(1923=
100)
100. 0
87. 6
66.4
62. 5
52. 8
59.2
47.3
38. 9
Female employees
Median
of wage Number
rates
$20. 50
21. 00
21.00
21. 50
20. 00
21.00
20. 50
19. 00
9,152
9,072
7,763
7, 755
7,204
7, 195
6,465
4,836
Index
(1923=
100)
100.0
99. 1
84.8
84. 7
78. 7
78.6
70.6
52.8
Median
of wage
rates
$16. 50
16. 00
15. 50
15.50
14.50
15. 00
15.00
14.50
Unpublished data by courtesy of the Ohio Division of Labor Statistics.
The trend in Ohio during these eight years shows the same tendencies as data from other sources, but it is particularly pertinent
here because some of the field work in this study was done in Ohio.
The decline in number of establishments was 44 per cent; the decrease
in number of females employed was 47.2 per cent and of males 61.1
per cent. At the same time weekly wage rates for women employees
also declined, from a median of $16 .50 to one of $14.50, or a decrease
of $2 . Though in 1923 more than one-fourth (26 per cent) of the
females had a wage rate of as much as $20, in 1930 only 6.8 per cent
had so high a rate. In 1923, 22 .1 per cent had a wage rate of less than
$12 a week, but by 1930 as many as 31.7 per cent had a rate below
that amount.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
23
MANU FACTURE AN D MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARET'l'E S
Pennsylvania.
The Pennsylvania Bureau of Statistics in the Department of Internal Affairs furnished comparative figures from year to year showing
the trend in the number of cigar factories in operation as well as in
persons employed in those counties in which were made most of the
home visits by the agents of the Women's Bureau.
TABLE
4.-Trend of employment in five specified counties in P ennsylvania
Berks
Bucks
Lancas- Philadelter
pbia
York
Number of plants operating:
1922 ____ _-- ______ __--- - __ ___ __ ____ -- _-- ___ ____ __ _
1930
__ ___decrease
____ __- - -_____
- - - - -____
- - - -___________
- - - -- - - -- - -___
- - -____
- - - -____
-- - -_
Per cent
70
37
8
149
37
-75.2
176
62
- 64.8
154
-47. 1
973
252
- 74. 1
922
320
- 67. 7
1,818
362
- 80. 1
1,391
1,124
- 19.2
2,906
2, 099
- 27. 8
1,008
462
- 54. 2
953
281
-70.5
2,067
999
- 51. 7
4, 567
6,664
+ 45. 9
4, 397
4,680
+ 6.4
23
- 67. 1
(1)
291
Number of men employed:
1922 ___ - ______ __ ___ __ _____ -- - ___ - _- - - -- ____ ______
1930 ___-- _____ ___ __- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _- - -
Per cent decrease ___ __ _______ ___ __ _____ ___ _____ __
Number of women employed:
1922 __ __ ____ - - __ _-- ___ ____- ___ --- ____ __ -- _____-- _
1930
____ --- -- - --__- ---- -- - ----- - -- -____
- - - ------Per cent
change
_________
________
____
____ -_-_
1
Per cent not computed; base less than 50.
In each of the five counties there had been a continuous and
striking decline from year to year in the number of plants. Even in
Philadelphia County, where the industry was flourishing, there had
been a falling off of almost two-thirds in the number of factories.
York County, with the greatest number of plants, showed the lowest
perc~ntage decrease. In contrast to Philadelphia County there were
only two moderate-sized factories in York County in which automatic
cigar machines had been installed, but scattered throughout the
county were numerous independent small plants employing rarely
more than 100 and frequently fewer than 50 persons. Tobacco
had long been an important crop in both York and Lancaster Counties, and hundreds of little shops had sprung up near this source of
supply. The cooperative spirit among the independent employers
in York County was probably responsible in part for their ability to
make a more successful stand against the organization and the
advertising campaigns of big business.
In Philadelphia County, where large corporations have centered
machine production, the number of female workers increased somewhat less than 50 per cent between 1922 and 1930. However, employment ran higher in both 1928 and 1929 than in 1930. And in
1929 the increase from 1922 in fem ale workers was about 60 per
cent. While the trend of women's employment had been decidedly
upward in Philadelphia County, in York County it had varied very
slightly up and down the scale from year to year; but in the other
three counties, with very few minor exceptions, the trend had been
steadily downward. In each of these three counties-Berks, Bucks,
and Lancaster-not half so many women were employed in the trade
in 1930 as in 1922, and the percentage decline was more pronounced
in these three counties than the percentage increase in Philadelphia.
Yet the actual numbers lost from the trade in the three counties were
but little more than the actual gain in Philadelphia.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
24
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
In four counties the employment of men had suffered vastly more
than that of women. In Bucks County not one-third as many men
were in the industry in 1930 as in 1922; in Berks County only about
one-fourth and in Lancaster County only one-fifth as many men were
in the trade. In Philadelphia County, where there was such a marked
increase in the number of women, the total number of men decreased
almost 20 per cent. Although t otal numbers of men employed in
Philadelphia County did not indicate so great a variation as in other
counties, this is no proof that the change in personnel had not been
equally great in Philadelphia. Just as the older woman who was an
experienced worker had given place to the more adaptable young
American girl in machine plants, so the man who had spent years
making cigars at his bench did not easily fit into the modern organization of the industry. He was not trained as a machinist nor was he
physically able to do heavy labor, and the machine plant requires
much of these two extreme types of work. In fact, there is little else
left for men to do.
Government reports give a general view of the entire situation,
but what policy various large corporations were pursuing was described by officials of the companies. The interviews with the officials
add emphasis to the data showing the trend toward concentration
in larger units, and in addition show the movement from hand to
machine operations.
One of the large cigar companies in 1922 was operating 70 factories
in widely scattered towns and cities, and by 1924 it had only 52
plants in operation, a marked evidence of consolidation. By 1929
the number had been still further reduced to 20, the firm having closed
37 plants and opened 5 new ones. To sum up, at the end of the seven
years this firm was managing and maintaining 20 instead of 70 plants.
Included in the 20 _then operating were some thoroughly modern new
buildings in which cigars were manufactured solely by the machine
process. Four-fifths of the cigars produced in 1929 by that firm were
machine made. While in the last five years the net decrease in the
number of factories was more than three-fifths, the number employed
had decreased little more than one-tenth, the total employment having
decreased only from 12,282 employees in 1924 to 10,882 in 1929.
The change from hand to machine work is shown by the changes in
the numbers of women hand and machine workers employed in 1924
and in 1929. Of the 12,282 employed in 1924, 1,103 were in machine
factories and 11,179 in factories manufacturing by hand; in 1929, of
the 10,882 employed, 6,745 were in machine plants and 4,137 in
hand plants. These figures are evidence of the great changes in
personnel in cigar plants, a striking decrease from some 11,000 to
4,000 workers in hand plants .
.An outstanding example of concentration in machine operations
on the part of another company is a splendid new factory in which
there are, on an average, 1,700 employees-1,500 women and 200
men. Even the extensive equipment in this plant proved inadequate
to keep pace with market orders, so the firm was obliged to carry on
machine work in two of their old buildings in the same vicinity. In
more distant towns they still m aintain two hand plants employing
together, on an average, 600 workers, in order to supply the popular
handmade brands for which there is still some trade demand.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
I
MANUFACTURE AND MARKETING OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES
25
From 1923 to 1929 this company had shut down 15 hand factories
in various parts of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Not
all of these 15 plants were operating at one time, although the larger
ones were. They usually occupied rented quarters and shifted around
from town to town, moving small units to the place where the labor
supply was most plentiful. However, in the case of 7 of these 15
factories their closing threw as many as 200 to 400 employees out of
work, and altogether about 3,000 (2,895) in various cities and towns
were left without jobs by the closing of the 15 factories.
A third important company, with extensive machine manufacturing
centered in the Philadelphia and Camden area, although expanding
its Philadelphia units, closed five hand plants, each employing from
about 250 to 375 employees. Although production was steadily
increasing in the plants equipped with cigar-making machines, nearly
1,600 employees (1,503 women and 73 men) had been laid off when
work ceased in the five cities remote from Philadelphia where the
hand plants were located.
A company that had been one of the first to try out the cigar-making
machines now confined production work to two industrial cities.
During recent years it had discontinued operations in 14 other communities where hand operations prevailed. These communities were
located in one State and were for the most part in the same or adjoining counties.
Still another firm had been consolidating its factories in the Middle
West. At present it was operating six cigar plants, all within a
limited area. Hand makers still were employed in many of these,
although only one was exclusively a hand plant. Even the three
largest plants with automatic cigar-making machines also had hand
departments, while two others were equipped with universal bunch
machines.
In 1920, before the company began making cigars by machine, its
operations were scattered in 17 hand plants. From 1921 to 1926 it
closed 10 plants, 4 of them in January, 1926, which was referred to as
the "final house cleaning" of the company. Although the number
of manufacturing units decreased, production increased, and total
numbers employed did not become radically different from what
they were in 1920. But here again work was discontinued in 10
communities, in most of which it had been almost impossible for ci~ar
workers to find jobs in their trade since. However, by commutrng
inconvenient distances the workers from some of the towns had been
more or less successful in finding work in other cigar factories.
Interviews with the management of two of the largest companies
that had not introduced the machine into their factories showed the
same tendency to mass the work in fewer establishments that was
evidenced in firms operating on a machine basis. In 1924 two leading
manufacturers of handmade cigars had consolidated their interests,
and they had gradually been drawing these interests together into
three centers, having discontinued operations in six other cities in the
period from 1924 to 1929. The permanent closing of these six factories left more than 2,000 employees without a job, the shutdown
affecting as many as 775 in one plant and about 450 in another.
Numbers employed in the other factories that closed ranged from 150
to 250. The merger of these two companies was accompanied by a
126898°-32-3
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
26
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
decided geographic shift for one of them-from eastern Pennsylvania
to cities in the Middle West. The character of the labor supply was
mentioned as a cause of this removal.
The report from another outstanding firm in the manufacture of
handmade cigars revealed the same policy of centering operations in
fewer units. In the three years 1926, 1927, and 1928, the company
abandoned operations in 23 factories that employed altogether about
2,000 persons. As the numbers employed would indicate, many were
small plants located in such small communities that there was practically no other opportunity for work for the employees laid off by the
closing of these cigar factories. About one-fourth of all those who
were deprived of their jobs due . to the removals of this firm were men;
in some plants the proportion of men was as high as 50 per cent. In
the reorganization of this company, consolidated with another one,
men constituted only about 5 per cent of the total force. After this
retrenchment in the number of factories, the company's manufacturing
interests were confined chiefly to three cities, Philadelphia, Camden,
and Trenton, although later in 1929 it began work elsewhere in three
plants, furnishing employment for 125 to 150 people each. There was
no certainty, however, that this would be a permanent arrangement.
At the close of 1929 total employment in all the company's manufacturing units was a little more than 2,000.
In Baltimore the downward trend in the various branches of tobacco
manufacturing began to be noticeable in 1925. In January of that
year a large corporation closed its Baltimore branch; in March another
factory went out of business. In 1926 a prominent local concern
stopped manufacturing. In 1927 two important units of large corporations were transferred to other locations. In 1928 branch
factories of two other large concerns were closed, and in 1929 a locally
managed plant of some importance went out of business. This record
of transfers and closings is exclusive of small establishments that had
but few employees. Where only a few years before hundreds of girls
had been employed in flourishing establishments, only a few now
could find work in a limited number of cigar factories, which were, for
the most part, very small.
Wilmington, Del., is another city that the cigar industry has
practically deserted. Within a few months of each other the only
three factories, one of which is said to have operated about 15 years in
Wilmington, closed permanently, throwing more than 700 skilled
cigar workers out of a job. Nor was this all, for about the same
time (1928) three hosiery and clothing factories moved away, which
made it doubly hard for former cigar workers to find other jobs.
After the last cigar factory closed, advertisements in the local papers
made attractive offers of work in Philadelphia cigar factories and a few
girls tried commuting, but $13.50 for monthly railroad tickets, in
addition to street-car fares, was not a paying proposition. A few
who could do so moved to Philadelphia or Camden. Later, a fourth
cigar factory opened up in Wilmington, taking advantage of the
experienced cigar labor, but in time it too followed the example of the
others and closed its doors.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PART III.-INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR-PLANT
OFFICIALS
Through visits with wqmen in their homes it was possible to get
a general survey of the4' industrial experiences since their displacement as hand workers in the cigar trade; but in order to get information about the status of the cigar maker in the present organization
of the industry, employer,s were interviewed about recent developments in the trade.
_ Interviews with management in the many plants that had never
been mechanized, with one or two outstanding exceptions, des0ribed
drastic curtailment in numbers, operating time, and production.
Hand-operated plants.
Comments from interviews with employers in hand plants give
some indication of the irregularity of the comings and goings of the
hand employees. The contrast between this personal freedom and
the steady application necessary in machine work, where the girls
must keep up with the electrically driven machine and must work
as long as the power is on, is a striking one. Among the machine
operators there is hardly a moment to lift one's eyes or to speak to
a neighbor; sometimes there is not even convenient opportunity to
go to the dressing room. Handworkers are entirely independent of
such driving forces, and are free to work long hours or short hours as
they please. The comments of some employers follow:
Often do not work at all on Saturday. Some of the women never come in
on Saturdays.
Girls are not careful to keep factory hours. They often come late and often
quit early.
Women set their own time to work. There is much individual variation in
their work hours.
Hours are very irregular. The workers suit their own convenience.
We always have a number of women who come in late and leave early.
The irregularity in the hours is the worker's own choice. We can not make
them work longer than they want to.
We begin at 7 a. m. and the women work as long as they please. They are
usually done about 3 p. m. The lunch hour is also irregular. They may take
as long as they please.
Pieceworkers come in any time, usually between 7 and 7.30, but nothing is
said if they come later, and frequently they work through the noon hour.
Our hours are quite elastic. Occasionally some go to work at 6 in the morning,
but they leave as early as they are ready.
Our hours are from 7 to 5.30, but the women do not come in on any fixed
schedule, and many leave before closing time.
Our schedule is from 7 a. m. to 5.30 p. m., but the women do not conform to
this schedule. Usually they are not at work until 7.30, and when busy they
may work until 6.
The fact that undertime was reported as more characteristic now
than full time was due also to trade conditions, which the smaller
27
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
28
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
plants were feeling quite severely. They were curtailing the number
of days in operation and restricting the output per individual. The
trade had always been more or less seasonal, with the peak production in the fall, but many firms had failed to experience even this.
From June, 1928, to June, 1929, we had a 3-day schedule for 12 weeks, a
4-day schedule for 5 weeks, and were closed down for four weeks. The big
manufacturers are getting us. They can afford to advertise and we can not.
We keep the balance chiefly by curtailing the number of days to five or four
when we are not busy. Last year we had 5½ days for six months. The rest of
the year we ran a 5-day week.
We worked full time only in October and November. We were closed five
weeks in 1928, and the rest of the time we worked three or four days.
In the fall we may work until 6--that is, for nine hours-but we are slack
much of the rest of the year, and may reduce our time to three days a week.
From January to July or August we did not work a full week, and usually
only four or five days.
We worked four days a week for nine months last year.
In another plant, where orders had been spasmodic, the superintendent said he could not recall having had a full week all the year.
One venturesome manufacturer was still making up stock when
they did not have orders to keep them busy, but more employers
explained how t~ey were limiting production.
We limit production to what orders we have on file. When the work that is
given out for each day is finished, the workers leave the factory.
Production is limited, so when a worker completes her quota she may come or
go as she pleases.
The number of cigars made daily per person is definitely set according to the
demand.
·
Workers leave when the stock supplied for the day is worked up.
The out-and-out cigar workers are limited to making 225 a day.
In one hand plant production h ad fallen off 20 per cent; in another,
they had been retrenching and decreasing for three years. A local
manager said the only change in his factory had been the continuous
decrease in production due to his firm's gradual centralization of
work elsewhere. Another said, "We are slack because the large
firms are crowding the smaller ones off the map."
In one of the plants operating with both hand and machine processes, where there had been a lay-off of handworkers when machines
were first introduced, the employer explained that there had been
no lay-offs since. Experience had taught him that it was better to
spread the work, and for two years he had limited production per
operator so that each could have a share of the comparatively little
handwork now available.
To meet the competition and the price level of the c4eaper machinemade product, manufacturers have had to reduce their scale of wages
for handwork. In one city, where two years ago the wage rate was
70 cents and 75 cents a hundred for an average-priced cigar, now it
is not unusual to find a rate of 50 cents a hundred for a 5-cent cigar
or 58 cents a hundred for a IO-cent cigar. Furthermore, much of the
handwork in some localities is on the cheaper grade of goods.
In addition to this, in factories operating on both the hand and
machine basis, some of the higher-priced work has not infrequently
been transferred to the machine, thus taking away from the hand-
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR-PLANT OFFICIALS
29
workers what have been some of their better-paying jobs. In a
plant where some handwork was continued after the introduction
of the machines, the skilled hand rollers and bunchers were given
work on a smaller, straighter brand, at 50 cents a hundred cigars,
whereas the brand on which they had worked before the introduction
of the machine paid at the rate of 85 cents. The new machine
operators were given the better grade of work. The old handworkers
naturally preferred to do the careful work required for the better
grade, and they found it difficult to adjust themselves to the new
shape and to slighting their work as was necessary to make anything
on the cheap grade, and many quit voluntarily. ·
Not only the large corporations, whose names are familiar, but
smaller companies operating three or four scattered hand plants
have been concentrating their work in one or more units and closing
their poorer-paying factories, often distant from the main centers,
for they too have been forced to learn how to effect economies in management and in handling output.
A branch factory that wds opened in 1913, to take care of increased
production, closed in 1929. It was possible to transfer about onefourth of the employees to another of their units in an adjoining town,
but the rest of the old employees were left stranded and out of work.
Another manager said that when plants were closed in small towns ·of
Pennsylvania and New Jersey no attempt had been made to place
the workers.
Reports from other firms ran thus:
We
We
We
We
closed two factories in other small towns.
closed plant A where 20 had been employed.
closed two plants two years ago.
closed a plant at F and laid off 30 employees.
In contrast to such accounts of close-downs and lay-offs was the
condition in one hand plant where consolidation was taking place:
We are building up our force here; we are concentrating here, but we have
closed large factories in C and D to accomplish this.
Types of plants.
Among the establishments visited were those that had never been
mechanized, present conditions in which have just been described,
those that were partly mechanized, and those entirely mechanized.
The great majority of the factories visited still employed only handworkers in the making departments, while a few others that had been
hand plants originally had later introduced some machines, so that
at the time of the survey they had both band and machine departments. Only a few of the factories visited were organized solely on a
machine basis. In two or three of them the only making machine
was the universal buncher or the combination roller and buncher, but
the larger machine units were fully equipped with the so-called
automatic cigar-making machine.
In the 17 factories visited that were practically all machine
equipped, about half had operated solely by hand before mechanizmg, while work in the others had always been on a machine basis.
Some of the conspicuously large machine units were equipped
with more than 175 cigar-making machines, and from 1,200 to 1,500
persons were employed to run such establishments. But the usual
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
30
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
machine plant had from 75 to 80 machines and employed 600 to 800
persons. In a few factories where hand as well as machine processes
were carried on, and especially in those in which transition to allmachine production was just starting, there were as yet no more than
a dozen or 20 cigar-making machines.
Several of the factories operating on an all-machine basis had
selected new locations fo.r their expansion and had hired a force of
all new employees. The first firm to use the cigar-making machine
successfully in 1918 moved away from the State where it had long
operated on a hand basis under a trade-union agreement, in order
to escape the union opposition to the use of machines. It was
then that it was discovered quite by acciC:ent that women could run
the new machines as efficiently as men.
Years later, after the success of the machine had been demonstrated
and it was no longer -a n experiment, the manager of a small hand
plant anticipating the use of the cigar-making machine decided to
move to Philadelphia, which he had left a few years before because
he had found it "too expensive" paying tlie rates current for out-andout work on a moderate-priced cigar. He was glad to return now
to Philadelphia, for he would be nearer markets and a satisfactory
labor supply for machine work, some of which already had been trained
in· the new way of operating.
Other firms were attracted to new locations by special offers made
by trade bodies in those localities, but many shifted from hand to
machine work where they were already established. It was in these
plants that the readjustment of labor to new processes was a more
embarrassing responsibility. In comparison with this situation it
was easy to lock doors and forsake a town, thus severing all connections there, in order to open a well-equipped new edablishment and
hire an all-new force of employees in a distant community.
Difficulties of transition.
The severity of the possible dislocation of labor by such a radical
change as that caused by the cigar-making machine depends largely
on market conditions, the labor supply, geographic shifts, and the
time allowed for making the machine installations.
In 1918 a sudden geographic shift of operations from one State
to another-Massachusetts to New Jersey-that accompanied the
complete mechanization of a factory caused more or less distress, but
a machine installation in an old concern not accompanied by geographic shift, in 1919, was made without much disturbance. Expanding business and scarcity of handworkers for cheap cigars at
that time combined to make the latter adjustment to machine operations comparatively easy. In this case handwork was not discontinued when machines were added. Still later in 1921 another firm
reported that the machines were introduced so gradually that no
experienced handworkers were laid off. Business was on the up
grade at that time also, and the handworkers were transferred to
examining and inspection work. This was another case where hand
processes continued after the machines had been installed.
In very few instances where management had resorted to a lay-off
of the handworkers did they report that local conditions were such
that the lay-off caused no extended hardship. "Handworkers were
in demand at that time, so they had less difficulty in getting work."
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR-PLANT OFFICIALS
31
(From 100 to 200 were affected by the lay-off in Detroit, 1926.) ''Makers
were given an opportunity to transfer to machine work. We spent
three years in transition to the machine and many hand makers
found jobs in other cigar factories." (York, 1922.)
But adjustments became increasingly difficult in the more recent
years, and the great machine expansion has occurred in the last five
or six years.
A large-scale installation of more than 50 machines within four
months in 1926 in one plant, or as many as 75 machines within a year
in another, entailed serious dislocations, whereas an installation of 6
ma~hines the first year and 20 the next, or of 36 the first year and 32
the year following were not followed by serious results. In the last
instance half of the hand bunchers and rollers stayed on for a year,
until the plant was entirely converted to machine operations.
Employment managers thought they as well as the employees had
grievances. There was quite general agreement among foremen
that a prejudice against the machine existed among the old-time
hand workers. "Old hand workers are not used to the noise and rhythm
of machines and feel rushed and driven." "Most seem to prefer
any kind of wcrk rather than the cigar-making machine." "We
gave them all a chance and some tried it a while, but out of 200
employees only 5 former handworkers are now on machines. Many
were married women who quit working altogether with the coming
of machines."
One firm tried to hold its old employees when it made the change
to machines by offering them a learner's wage of $15 a week instead
of the $8 offered new girls for similar work. But even so, few accepted, and when the last equipment was installed about 250 hand
makers left.
Still other comments follow:
"All were offered a chance to stay, but they resent the coming of
anything new and walk out voluntarily."
"All were offered machine jobs, but only a few of the younger girls
remained.''
In a plant that installed 58 machines in four months about 250
young and inexperienced machine operators were hired, but of 300
hand makers there were only four young girls who were willing to
learn machine work. Incidentally, it may be added that by this
change production increased from about 350,000 cigars a week to
over 1,000,000.
The experience of one firm that located a new machine plant in a
community where several hand plants had closed was no different
from others: "The turnover rate was much higher among those
trained in hand processes than among 'green' girls."
However, there was case after case where management acknowledged that little effort had been made to work out satisfactory adjustments by means of transfers. In one instance the manager
reported that machine jobs were not even offered to handworkers
when the hand department was discontinued; 150 experienced women
were summarily dismissed and 50 young green girls were hired to
run the new machines with which the department was soon provided.
Other reports read:
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
32
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
· "The number of handworkers was reduced by over 100, although
not all were laid off at once."
"Laid off 50 skilled hand makers who t,howed little inclination to
try the machine." While a few mac_hines were being installed in
this unit the owner had closed two others and laid off all the employees, holding out no hope of ever reopening the abandoned
factories.
"Within the year hand bunchers and rollers dropped from about
200 to 70. Poor workers were let go before the machines were
installed and there was no replacement of quits, so it was claimed
that when the actual lay-off came it affected only 32 women." •
Economies of automatic machine.
Almost every employer interviewed in machine plants emphasized
the cheapness of manufacture of this method as compared with the
old hand method.
The owner of a factory organized for decades for handwork said
that he had recently gone over to machine work because he had
never been able to make a long-filler cigar by hand that he could
afford to sell for 5 cents. To meet competition in a salable article he
was forced to resort to the machine.
In another factory a local manager said that the marked development in machine-made cigars was accompanied by a growing market
for the advertised brands of the cheaper-grade goods, and he attributed the growth of his own establishment to the demand for their 5cent cigar. While his firm had been gradually closing its less productive and efficient units, it had been increasing production in this plant.
In the past six years the number of electrically operated machines
had been raised from 20 to almost 200, employment had increased
from about 150 to 1,500, and the plant capacity was then about
4,000,000 cigars a week.
The increase in production effected by machine operations was
stated by several managers, some of whose records were based on a
9-hour day and others on a 10-hour day.
Two superintendents compared the output in round numbers of
two departments operating under the same roof, the one mechanized,
the other not.
"The output of the hand department of about 300 women avera~es
from 350,000 to 400,000 cigars a week; the output of the machine
department, consisting of 230 women, averages 1,120,000 cigars a
week."
"The hand department of 187 hand rollers and bunchers make
only one-third of the plant output, while the machine department of
120 workers manufacture two-thirds." In this establishment, when
30 machines were installed in 1925-26, it had been necessary to lay off
more than 100 handworkers.
One superintendent said, "One machine (requiring 4 operators)
does the work of 15 or 16 out-and-out handworkers," while another
claimed that "production increased five or six times per operator
through use of the machine."
Furthermore, while production rates increased, labor costs dec-reased.
In one organization the direct labor cost per 1,000 cigars was $4.20 by
machine processes and $6.30 when made by hand. In another organization it was $3.40 by machine and $10 by hand. In both plants
the percentage of gain was decidedly in favor of the machine proC'ess.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
INTERVIEWS WITH: CIGAR-PLANT OFFICIALS
33
Although the machine equipment is costly and its upkeep and
maintenance are large items of expenditure, the consensus of opinion
seemed to be that under average conditions it cut the labor cost about
one-half and doubled production with the same space and number of
employees.
All interviews showed that manufacturers were reaping gains in
increased production and lowered labor costs, and furthermore their
opinions were unanimous that average earnings per individual machine operator were as good as they had been for handwork immedi.
ately before the change to mechanization.
One or two felt that earnings were even better since the change,
because they were working more steadily or more regularly. Under
machine organization there were not such great individual differences
in earnings; "that is, they are more uniform because the speed of the
machine sets a limit to which operators must keep up and which they
can not exceed.''
Manufacturers were unanimous also in describing the great economy in teaching beginners for machine work. Formerly it took three
to four months to train hand makers and often it would be from six
months to a year before they reached their capacity in speed and arrived at a good production basis. The cost of such training to the
employer was roughly estimated at from $200 to $300. Now, the
average girl is a paying proposition in two weeks, although it takes
longer to attain speed and it may be six weeks before she is ready to go
onto a piecework basis of pay. She should be thoroughly proficient
to operate at all four positions of the new machine with three or four
months' experience.
In one chain of machine factories it was customary for the '' green
girl" to observe the work for a week, with an occasional try out, before she was ready to take her own position, but she rarely made good
before the end of the second week. If she had not attained some speed
after two or three weeks she usually dropped out voluntarily.
The president of one corporation considered that the employee
benefited by the present method of operation. Formerly a cigar
maker spent months of apprenticeship to learn one operation that in
no way fitted her for any other line of work, and this one skill had
recently proven a handicap in efforts to make adjustments to changed
conditions. But the great advanta.ge to the employee learning to
make cigars by machine will be her easy adaptability to machine jobs
in many other industries, for aptitude in watching machine performance is the main requirement in the trend of modern factory equipment. From a skilled job requiring a few months to learn, cigar
making now is one requiring only a few weeks to acquire proficiency.
Bunching machine.
The development of a bunching machine adapted to the use of scrap
filler, and more recently a machine that satisfactorily rolls cigars
made on this bunching machine, the two occasionally being linked
together by a transfer device, has still further reduced labor cost.
The training cost also is cheaper on this machine, for while it takes a
hand buncher or roller from several months to a year to acquire speed,
a "green" operator can develop speed on the machine in from one to
two weeks. The standard production on the bunching machine, with
two operators, is 4,000 cigars daily, while a hand buncher's daily output was estimated to be 1,000, sometimes less, and occasionally more.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
34
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
At this rate the machine doubles the production per operator and the
labor cost is cut about one-half, for while it costs $3.50 to make 1,000
bunches by hand, it costs $1. 70 to produce as many by machine.
Where the mechanical roller has been introduced, still greater economy has been possible, for in one plant where the hand labor of rolling
had been $4.40 a thousand, the machine cost of production was $1 a
thousand.
Whether or not this equipment dislocated labor depended on
several factors, particularly the extent to which it was used in each
plant and the speed with which the transfer from hand to machine
operations was accomplished. In very few of the factories visited
was trns type of equipment used for the major part of the output.
It frequently happened that in order to adjust production to the
growing emphasis on the 5-cent cigar the smaller manufacturer had
installed a few bunching machines, but in such cases the machinemade bunches were still rolled by hand and in the same room other
employees were making the more expensive brands of cigars entirely
by hand. In one factory the installation of the bunching machines
had covered a period of six months, and as trade in the cheaper
cigar was increasing in the meantime it resulted in no lay-off of the
50 or more women who had been hand bunchers. On the whole, there
seemed to have been less difficulty in transferring experienced handworkers to this type of machine than to· the more automatic type of
equipment. One superintendent attributed the ease of adjustment
in his plant to the fact that the handworkers were employed so little
of the time on the better-grade product that they were willing to
change to the machines that were running full time.
Stripping machine. ·
The stripping machine is not a great labor-saving device, for at
best it does the work of only two hand workers; nor is it suitable for
stripping all grades of tobacco leaf. But one or more stripping machines were in use in most of the factories visited; none were l'ecent
installations, and much of the stripping equipment had been in place
10 to 15 years.
An interesting comment made more than once in York County,
Pa., was to the effect that with the coming of the machine into the
factory hand stripping that had been done in the homes on contract
decreased; "the machine brought a few women strippers into the
plant."
Banding and foiling.
Simple banding machines ·are not new in the industry. The
economy secured by substituting machine banding for handwork was
variously estimated as a displacement of 1, 5, 6, even 8 girls for each
machine introduced.
That "two girls operating one banding machine do the work of six
hand handers" seemed to be a conservative statement. In one plant
the installation of two banding macrnnes resulted jn the lay-off of
eight hand handers. Another statement was that while the average
hand handers may paste the bands on 7,000 cigars a day the machine
tended by two girls turns out 30,000 to 35,000 a day.
The recent and increasing demand for cigars wrapped in tin foil
prompted the putting on the market of a mechanical device adapted to
tin-foil wrapping about 1928. Before this, young girls had covered
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR-PLANT OFFICIALS
35
the cigars with foil by hand. The machine is variously reported to
cover about 45 cigars a minute or from 20,000 to 24,000 in a day of
10 hours, whereas by hand a good production record was 2,500 to
3,500 daily.
The banding mechanism, therefore, has displaced from 4 or 5 to 6
hand handers, varying with different . plant organizations. Many
firms had not gone into foiling extensively before the machine made
it possible to do it economically. On the other hand, gangs of as
many as .50 to 60 young and inexperienced girls were employed jn
some factories on foiling, which required no skill and could be learned
in less than a day, though it took longer to acquire speed.
·
The demand for foiled cigars was increasing at the 6me the machine
was put upon the market, so its introduction did not always result
in laying off the hand handers and it was possible to absorb them in
other kinds of work. In one factory as many as 40 hand foilers had
been transferred to other minor unskilled packing jobs or put upon
the foiling machines. In another factory it had been necessary,
however, to eliminate some of the 60 hand foilers, although a few had
been transferred to the eight new machines or other work and some
girls quit voluntarily. One employer stated that by the use of the
machine the labor cost of foiling had been reduced from 90 cents to
30 cents per thousand cigars.
Soon after an efficient foiling machine was in quite general use a
transfer device was perfected by which the older banding machine
was connected to the foiling equipment, thus eliminating the handling
of the cigar as it came from the foiler and the feeding of it to the
bandjng machine by another pair of hands. The saving in labor cost
is evident from the employment records in one factory that went into
hand foiling extensively with about 150 employees. At the time of
the interview only 62 girls were needed for the 31 machines, and a
further reductjon to 31 girls was anticipated, to be made possible by
the use of another attachment on these machines. One manufacturer
reckoned the labor cost for hand foiling at 70 cents per 1,000 cigars,
of banding at 30 cents per 1,000. By the introduction of the machine requiring two girls to operate it the cost was reduced to 25
cents per thousand, and by the latest equipment, operated by one
girl, it was still further decreased to 12½ cents per thousand. He
estimated that by use of this fully automatic foiler and bander
production per operator had been doubled.
The popularity of the foiled cigar has undoubtedly affected the
older packer most severely-the man or woman who by careful subshading sorted the cigars into as many as 50 shapes or shades, thereby
making the appearance of the cigars in the finished box entirely uniform in color, shape, and size. Employers said that under the old.
regime it took several months to train the skilled packers, who were
in a class by themselves in the trade. But now the shade of a cigar
is not important and in one day a girl learns to operate a machine that
applies the tin foil, a decidedly unskilled job that does not demand
the wage rate of former skilled packers. Packing is no longer the
job of adult men and women, but of young, inexperienced girls.
·
With the decreased necessity of shading, the output of packers is
said to have more than doubled, so that the number of packers, in
the former use of the word, has quite naturally been radically r~-
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
36
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
duced. One employer dropped all the male packers, and in another
establishment the men quit, as they could not afford to work for the
greatly reduced rates offered them on other simple jobs. It was easier
to transfer women packers, who "swallowed their pride," and not
infrequently they were placed on foiling or other packing jobs.
In one factory the packers-that is, shaders-were reduced from
24 to 12. In another all paclcing jobs were discontinued. In a plant
where the shading packers were reduced from 34 to 17, it was possible
to transfer a few from skilled packing work to hand foiling, for the
foiling department was growing and employed 50 hands. Then these
hand foilers were replaced by four foiling machines, and again
because the firm was organized for mass production it was able to
absorb the hand foilers, who in smaller units doubtless would have
been laid off.
Changes in personnel.
The employment of women in cigar factories is an old story.
Cigar making, indeed, has always been in European countries a
recognized occupation of women, and in countries where a government monopoly has existed has been almost exclusively woman's
work. In 1869 "thousands of Bohemian women cigar makers began
to come to New York as the result of the war of 1866 between Prussia
and Austria, during which the invading armies destroyed the cigar
factories of Bohemia. * * * In Philadelphia, where it was said in
1870 that more women were employed at cigar making than in New
York, many Americans were employed, but in New York most of the
women cigar workers were foreigners." 1 "As a result of this woman's
invasion more than one-half of the cigar makers in New York were
females." 2
In other areas, however, there had been a larger proportion qf men
than women cigar makers. One manufacturer said that when they
were working on the out-and-out basis men comprised two-thirds of
the force. Another traced the change in personnel by saying, ''Thirty
years ago there were no women in the factory; 25 years ago only a
few; in 1922, when we reached our peak, there were about half men
and half women employed; but in 1925, when the bunch-breaking
machines were installed, three-fourths of the force were women."
Others explained the shift to women by saying, ''Women were
given a chance to go on the machine but nothing was left for the men
except to leave. No one was fired, hut there was so little handwork
left that men can't make a decent living." "Men seem to consider
cigar making by machine a woman's job." "It is no longer a man's
industry, because it is impossible to earn a family wage in it now."
"When we can we give the old fellows a chance, for they need the
work badly. We could not afford to keep old men if business were
rushing, as young girls are faster."
Comments of management were invariably to the effect. that men
had been harder hit than women. One outstanding case showed
that as much as 80 per cent of the force were men before the introduction of machines, but since then only about 10 per cent are men.
It was felt that there had been not only a reluctance to offer the men
machine jobs but a strong aversion on the part of men to accepting
1 U. S. Department of Labor.
Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage Earners in the United
States, Vol. IX, History of Women in Industry in the United States, 1910, p. 198.
L ' Ibid. Vol. X, History of Women in Trade Unions. 1911. p, 93,
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR-PLANT OFFICIALS
37
them. On the one hand, the jobs were not considered suitable for men,
and, on the other, the men were dissatisfied with simple machine operations and their attendant wage rates. Some superintendents went
so far as to say that cigar making and packing should never have been
a man's job, as women were much better fitted for it.
However, in plants in which the direct labor was almost exclusively
women before the change to machine equipment, more men than
formerly were needed as machine fixers, foremen, and technical men,
but few of these had been cigar makers.
Not only were men being displaced in the modern organization of
the industry but the older women were losing ground to the young
girls. Wherever machine equipment had been installed superintendents expressed a preference for young girls in place of the older
women who were skilled hand makers. "The automatic machine
brought the younger American born, all inexperienced, into the factory." "Put on young girls in large numbers when the change was
made." "Prefer young girls." "Better to hire inexperienced help
and train them." "Now we rarely hire those beyond the twenties
and most are in their teens." "Prefer women under 30." "The
majority now are under 25; before there were many 35 to 60 years
old." One manager gave as his reason for employing younger girls
that "they get the rhythm quicker."
Repeatedly employers referred to the changing source of the labor
supply from the mature woman to the younger girl, from experienced
to inexperienced help, and in some districts from the foreigner to .the
native born. "Machine operators are 90 per cent American born,
but 90 per cent of the handworkers had been foreign born." "We
are employing the daughters of foreign parents now."
Most of the foregoing refers to conditions in those plants only in
which there had actually been a change in method of operation and
whose managers or superintendents were able to describe the manner of
effecting these transitions from hand to machine processes. Such
comparisons were out of the question in establishments that had
always been mechanized, nor could interviews be obtained with managers of units that had been closed to make possible mass production
elsewhere. Yet it was in the desertion of these factories that there
seemed to have been the most ruthless disregard of human needs.
Many of the close-downs came as a shock to the employees. Foremen admitted that they were afraid the girls would resort to violence
and sabotage if they were informed before the stock on hand was
used up that there would be no more work. The favorite closing
time with one corporation was a holiday. In one case the girls_went
home July 3 for the usual Fourth of July holiday, but when they
returned afterward they were told "the end had come." In another
factory belonging to the same firm the employees went home for a
"vacation" over Thanksgiving. They, too, returned to work, to be
greeted with the announcement that the factory had closed.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PART IV.-HISTORY OF CIGAR AND CIGARETTE
WORKERS AS REPORTED IN HOME INTERVIEWS
One of the main purposes of this study was to discover what had
happened to the women who had lost their jobs in cigar and cigarette
factories. The original plan was to visit only women who had lost
their jobs when some radical change had been made in the method
of operation or the equipment in the factory in which they were
employed in order to discover what adjustments they had been able
to make. The field work in two cities, however, where almost all ·
the workers interviewed had been laid off, showed that many had
lost their jobs because the installation of improved equipment
elsewhere had made necessary the transfer of operations, besides
changes in equipment in the factory in which they themselves had
worked, so it was decided to extend the study to women who were
laid off solely because of the transfer of work to other units.
The problem was to discover, in the case of displaced cigar workers,
whether the experienced hand makers were being absorbed by machine
plants, were successful in finding the same kind of work elsewhere,
either in town or-where plants had left--in other places, or were
forced to take up entirely different lines of work. Among the displaced cigarette workers the chief cause of displacement was not a
change from hand to machine but was the improvements made in
machines and certain style changes.
To answer such questions it was necessary to locate and interview
the women who had been affected by these changes. The chief
difficulty was in securing the names and addresses of women who had
been displaced. In reply to the question as to what had become of
the former tobacco workers, few persons could give any definite
information. Trade-union officials were no more able than other
persons to give assistance in locating cigar workers displaced by the
closing of factories or changes in plant operations. The most helpful
individuals, where they could be found, were foremen or foreladies
who had been laid off with the other employees in their departments,
and in whose welfare they were honestly interested. It was rare
good fortune to find a former superintendent who had had charge of a
factory when it closed and who had employment records that could
be used as a basis for locating the women. Only in Binghamton,
N. Y., was a reliable factory record found that gave the personnel of
the plant when it closed; in this case only was it possible to get data
based on 100 per cent of the women employed at the time manufacturing was suspended. Another helpful authority was the women
themselves, who in many cases were able to give reliable information
as to the present addresses of former workers.
In the larger cities the displaced women were scattered far and
wide, but in smaller towns it was easier to locate them. In some
places only a few of the displaced workers could be found. Sometimes
the family, all of whose wage earners had been employed . in the
38
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
39
industry, had moved away. In other cases the women were not
worldng any more, or had eventually found work in other places,
perhaps in distant towns.
One leader in a community said that it was a mystery where they
had gone, as he knew of no woman-employing industry that had been
increasing to the extent that the tobacco industry had been decreasing.
An organization "interested in new development rather than funerals"
suggested the names of about a dozen new firms in the community
that might have employed the former cigar workers, but a canvass of
these yielded nothing of importance. A scattering few of the former
tobacco workers had found work here and there with the new firms;
but many of the companies were hiring only women who had had
experience in their line, others were employing only young and inexperienced girls, while one or two had tried cigar workers and found
them not satisfactory, the girls being dissatisfied with the wage
scale, which was lower than what they had in cigar making.
Indicative of the general trade conditions was the status of the
trade-union membership at th~ time of survey compared with what
it had been in earlier years. An official of what had been an active
organization of the cigar makers' union in the New Jersey district
estimated that the membership in his local had dropped from about
600 to 100 between 1914 and 1929. The change had fallen most
heavily on the older men, as they found it difficult to shift into other
industries and oocupations. It was estimated roughly that tradeunion membership in Baltimore had decreased from 900 to 50, and in
Lancaster from 1,000 to 25, within the past few years.
A total of 1,150 visits were made to the homes of women who had
worked in cigar factories, and of 259 to the homes of former cigarette
workers, all of whom had lost their jobs at some time since 1925.
Data were obtained as to the ages of the workers when they entered
cigar or cigarette work and their industrial history since that time
with the reasons for leaving each job. Information regarding unemployment, its cause and duration, also was secured, as well as the
present economic status. For some of the women it was possible to
compare their earnings on the jobs in cigars or cigarettes at time of
separation with those on their subsequent jobs. Some of the women
commented on the wages, hours, and regularity of work, various
changes and their effects on employment, the changes in equipment or
stock or style, and other conditions.
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH CIGAR WORKERS 1
On account of the widely different conditions existing in the areas
in which cigars had been manufactured or still were being made the
cities and towns in which the women were interviewed who had been
deprived of their cigar jobs have been classified as three groupsLocalities A, Localities B, and Localities C. In some instances the
cities and towns in one class are widely separated geographically, but
they have distinctive characteristics in common that justify their
being considered as one unit in this study. The classification was
based on the conditions that existed at the time of the study in 1929
1 The difficulties of securing exact statements as to dates, wages, and other industrial experiences were
great. For this reason the numbers of women supplying complete data are not large, conflicting statements
having been freely eliminated as "not reported,"
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
40
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
and 1930. For this reason some of the tabulations show for the three
localities different trends from what would be expected, due to changes
that had occurred during the 5-year period, 1925 to 1929.
In the first group, to be called "Localities A" throughout this
section of the report, the cigar industry still offered opportunities for
employment to women. The cities and towns included in this group
are as follows: Boston, Mass.; Binghamton, N. Y.; Wilmington, Del.;
New Brunswick, Trenton, Newark, and Perth Amboy, N. J.; Camden,
N. J., and Philadelphia., Pa., one industrial unit; York and four towns
in York County, Lancaster, Harrisburg, Steelton, and two adjoining
small towns, Reading, Allentown, and Nanticoke, Pa.; Baltimore,
Md.; and Lima and Wapakoneta, Ohio.
In Localities B the cigar industry offered only very limited opportunities, but there was work in other industries. The cities included
here in which home visits were made are these: Jersey City and
Bayonne, N. J.; Norristown, Conshohocken, Boyertown, and Bridgeport, Pa.; Newark, Mansfield, Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Ironton,
Ohio; and Paducah, Ky.
.
In Localities C opportunities in the cigar industry were none or
very limited and opportunity was slight in other industries also.
Here were included 10 rural communities in Pennsylvania, 9 in the
eastern part of Lancaster County (Akron, Hopeland, Rothsville,
Brownstown, Denver, Manheim, Terre Hill, Reamstown, and Lincoln), and Schaefferstown in an adjacent county; and a district
locally spoken of as the "Belt," stretching from Allentown to Norristown and made up of many small settlements, including East Green. ville, Sellersville, Trumbauersville, Gilbertsville, Tylersport, Milford,
and Quakertown. In Ohio the towns included as Localities C were
Jackson, Manchester, and Wellston, in the southeastern part of the
State. Madisonville, Ky., also having only slight opportunities of
employment for women, was among the places visited.
In many of these towns, especially those in Pennsylvania, women
who had been deprived of their jobs had been obliged to seek work
in neighboring communities, which added greatly to their expenses.
Furthermore, in many cases the work they were able to find was
temporary only.
Of the 1,150 women interviewed who had been deprived of their
jobs in the cigar industry in 1925 or at some time within the next
four years, 604 were in Localities A, 258 in Localities B, and 288 in
Localities C. (See Table 5.)
AGE OF THE WOMEN
The cigar-working group interviewed was composed of women of
all ages. Most of the older women had started work in the trade
as young women and had seen many years of service, only to be
deprived of their jobs when machines were introduced on which
young workers, for the most part, were employed, or when the factories were moved or consolidated. Although the younger women,
naturally, had been employed in most instances for shorter periods,
they had started in the industry expecting to have continuous employment. But many of them, like the older women, lost their
jobs by the introduction of the machine or the moving of the factory.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
41
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
TABLE
5.- Age of the women interviewed, by type of locality-Cigars
All localities
Localities A
Localities B
Localities C
Age group
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Num-
ber
Per
cent
-Total women ___ _____ __
1, 150 ---- - -- - -
Not reporting age ____ ________
3 -- ------ -
604
---------
258 -- -- - ----
288
3 ---- - ---- -- ----- -- --- -- ---- ---- - -- - -
-----------------
Total reporting _______ ____ ____
1,147
100. 0
601
100. 0
258
100. 0
288
100. 0
Under 30 years _____ _________ _
30 and under 40 years __ _____ _
40 years and over __ __ _________
456
327
364
39. 8
28. 5
31. 7
259
188
154
43. 1
31. 3
25. 6
111
75
72
43. 0
29.1
27. 9
86
64
138
29. 9
22. 2
47. 9
About two-fifths of the women in the localities included who
reported their ages were not yet 30; almost three-tenths were 30
and under 40, and just over three-tenths were 40 or more. The age
distribution was much the same in Localities A and B and the group
as a whole, but in Localities O the proportion of women under 30
was less than three-tenths and almost one-half were 40 years or
older. The last mentioned is of particular significance when it is
remembered that in this section there was little opportunity for work
in any line.
DEPARTMENT IN WHICH EMPLOYED
Of the 1,150 women included, all but 8 reported the department
in which they were employed at the time of separation. The largest
group (74.3 per cent) had been in hand-making departments. About
one-eighth (12 per cent) had been in packing departments, and less
than one-tenth (9.4 per centfin stripping departments. The remainder were in machine-making departments, in shipping, or classified
as miscellaneous workers in all departments. (See Table 6.)
The prop.o rtions of women from the different departments varied
little with locality. Slightly larger proportions of those in Localities B and O than of the group as a whole had been engaged in the
hand manufacture of cigars. Of Localities A the opposite is true,
but these places had the largest proportion of women who had been
in packing departments.
Of the 84 7 women who had tnade cigars by hand and who reported
age, about two-fifths were less than 30, and about three-tenths in
each case were 30 and under 40 and 40 years of age or more. In
Localities A the proportion under 30 years was somewhat less than
in all localities, as was the group 40 years or more. In Localities B
women under 30 were almost one-half of those who had made cigars
by hand. In Localities O exactly one-half were 40 years or older.
(See Appendix Table I.)
126898°-32-4
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
42
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETT~ INDUSTRIES
TABLE
6.-Department in which employed at time of separation , by type of locali ty
in which interviewed-Cigars
All localities
Localities A
Localities B
Localities C
D epartment
Number Per cent Number P er cent Number P er cent Number Per cent
Total women ___________
-1,150
---- -------------
--
604 ------- --
258 ---------
288 ---------
Not reporting department_ __ _
8
4
---------
Total reporting _______ ________
1, 142
100. 0
602
100. 0
256
100. 0
284
100. 0
Stripping ________ __ _______ ___
107
9. 4
57
9. 5
21
8. 2
29
10. 2
Select and hand strip_____
Machine strip ____________
61
46
5. 3
4. 0
26
31
4. 3
5. 1
14
7
5. 5
2. 7
21
8
7. 4
2. 8
Cigar making _____ __ __ _______
873
76. 4
449
74. 6
202
78. 9
222
78. 2
848
729
119
25
74. 3
63. 8
10. 4
2. 2
424
411
13
25
70. 4
68. 3
2. 2
4. 2
202
198
4
78. 9
77. 3
1. 6
222
120
102
78. 2
42. 3
35. 9
Packing ______ ____ _____ _______
137
12. 0
85
14.1
25
9. 8
27
9. 5
Shippin~ and miscellaneoµs
from a l departments _______
25
2. 2
11
1.8
8
3. 1
6
2. 1
Hand ______________ ___ - -Bunch and roll ______ _
Out-and-out _________ _
Machine ______________ ___
2 -- -------
2
---------
--------- --------- --------- ---------
Of the women whose work had been bunching and rolling, who comprised well over three-fifths of the total, 44.5 per cent were under 30
years, 30.8 per cent were 30 and under 40, and 24.7 per cent were 40
and over. Well over one-half of the bunchers and rollers were in
Localities A. Only 1 in 6 were in C.
The machine makers, too, were young, 20 of the 25 being under 30.
All machine makers were in Localities A.
The out-and-out hand makers, on the other hand, were predominately in the older group, 73.1 per cent being at least 40 and only 3.4
per cent under 30. These workers were almost wholly in Localities C.
In Localities A the proportion of the bunchers and rollers under 30
years was only 40 per cent, in B it was 48.5 per cent, and in C it was
53.3 per cent. Conversely, the proportions 30 and under 40 were
35.6 per cent in Localities A, 28.3 per cent in B, and only 18.3 in C .
Localities C differed further from the others in ·that as many as
28.3 per cent of the women there instead of only 23 or 24 per cent
were at least 40 years of age.
As many as 85.7 per cent of the out-and-out makers interviewed
were found in Localities C, and here three-fourths of them were at
least 40 years of age.
Almost 60 per cent of the packers were under 30 years. The great
majority were in Localities A. Strippers, on the other hand, were an
older group, almost one-half (48.6 per cent) being 40 years or more.
Well over one-half of the strippers were in Localities A.
Only in Localities A were there any machine workers who had lost
their jobs. Here were 25 women, all but 5 of whom had worked at
the automatic machine. Six had worked as examiners of the finished
product at the machine, and 14 had been operators. All but 1 of
these 20 were from plants in two cities where the use of machines had
been tried and discontinued. Only 7 of the 20 women were more
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
43
than 22 years of age. Among the youngest women, 3 of the 13 had
worked in the cigar industry as much as five years.
The 5 remaining machine workers had done bunch making on simple machines that had been in use prior to the automatic machine.
Only 1 of the 5 women was under 30. One of the women had worked
in the cigar industry as much as 19 years before her enforced separation; the least time worked by any of the 5 was 10 years.
About one-half of all the women from stripping departments were
40 years of age or older. In Localities B and C larger proportions
than in Localities A or for the group as a whole were 40 years or more.
(See Appendix Table I.)
Almost three-fifths of those from packing departments were less
than 30 years old, and the remainder were practically evenly divided
between the other two groups. In Localities A, where the largest
part of those from packing departments were found, about two-thirds
of the women were under 30 years of age.
WEEK'S EARNINGS
In the home interviews, earnings on all the jobs the women had
held, beginning with the first one in cigars and including the last job,
were secured wherever possible. Of the 1,150 women interviewed,
549 reported their earnings on the cigar job at the time of separation.
In many cases these earnings were lower than those the women had
been receiving, the wage scale having begun to decline. Furthermore, the lowest earnings probably were for less than full time.
The median of the week's earnings reported by 549 women for their
cigar jobs at time of separation was $17.25, the range being from $5
to $37. Less than one-eighth of the women received $10 or less, and
a like proportion received $23 or more.
Of the 549 women, 354 reported their earnings on the first subsequent job; 143 had a subsequent job but did not report earnings;
and 52 had no subsequent jobs. Of the 354 jobs for which earnings
were reported, only 139 were cigar jobs. The median of the earnings
of the 139 women was $15.85, almost 20 per cent less than the $19.60
median for the same women on the cigar job prior to the separation.
The median of the earnings in the 215 first subsequent jobs in other
lines was $12.20, almost 30 per cent less than the $16.95 median for
the same women on their last cigar job. In every case, judging by
the median, the women who secured subsequent cigar jobs had been
in receipt of higher wages in cigars than had the group as a whole.
Conversely, in most cases the women finding employment in other
lines bad been receiving cigar wages below the median, the women
under 30 being the exception to the rule,
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
7.-Earnings in last job before separation and in first subsequent job, by age at date of interview--Cigars
ALL LOCALITIES
Age group
All
women
Women who reported earnings at time of separation
Number Median
Range
--Tota!_ ___________ __ _______
11,150
Under 30 years ____ _____________
30 and under 40 years __ __ _______
40 years and over _______________
456
327
364
549
260
150
139
$17.25
16.85
18. 65
16.15
$5 to$37
$6to$31
$6to$37
$5to$32
l<'irst subsequent job
Other industry
Cigar industry
Median
Median
Earnings in first
first
in
Earnings
of earnof earnWomen
Women
subsequent job
subsequent job
ings in
ings in
job
last
last job
before
Number
before
Number
Total
Total
Range
separa- Median
Range
separa- Median
number reportnumber reporting
tion
ing
tion
179
78
66
35
No
subsequent
job
$4 to $29
318
215
$16. 95
$12. 20
$3 to $30
52
16.40
15. 85
$6 to $25
$5 to$29
$4 to $25
158
70
90
115
47
53
17.15
12. 60
16. 50
10. 95
$4 to $27
$4 to $30
$3 to $25
24
14
14
$16. 55
$8 to $29
158
121
$18. 40
$13. 40
$3 to $30
17
(2)
~2)
2)
$8 to $25
$10to $29
$10 to $25
96
27
35
79
20
22
17. 60
13. 75
$4 to $27
$5 to $30
$3 to $25
6
7
4
(2)
(2)
$6 to $20
77
53
$15. 85
$4 to $20
11
t
(2)
(2)
(2)
$6to $20
$11 to $20
$9 to $19
40
16
21
28
12
13
$4 to $20
$7 to $18
$6 to $15
4
2
5
139
$19. 60
60
53
26
17. 35
20.25
(2)
$15.85
(2)
(2)
(2)
LOCALITIES A
TotaL ____ -- - _-- -- - - - - -- - Under 30 years _______________ __
30 and under 40 years ____ _______
40 years and over- --------------
I
604
280
$19. 20
$7to $37
105
81
$20.40
259
188
154
148
72
18. 25
20. 60
19. 00
$7 to $31
$9 to $37
$8to$31
46
38
21
37
31
13
(2)
(2)
(2)
60
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
LOCALITIES B
TotaL __ __ ________________
258
120
$17. 15
$5 to $32
32
28
Under 30 years __________ _______
30 and under 40 years ___________
40 years and over_ __ _______ ____ _
111
75
72
51
37
32
15. 95
$6 to $28
$11 to$30
$5 to$32
7
6
16
6
(2)
(2)
19
6
2)
2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
$11. 90
(2)
~2)
2)
LOCALITIES C
TotaL __ __________ ________
288
149
$14. 50
$6 to$25
42
30
(2)
Under 30 years ____ _____ ________
30 and under 40 years ___________
40 years and over _______________
86
64
138
61
41
47
13. 65
$6 to $20
$6 to $25
$6 to $25
25
17
6
7
(2)
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1
. (2)
(2)
Includes 3 not reporting age.
9
8
f)
2)
1-4
z
t;:!
q
~
1-4
t:tJ
(2)
$4 to $21
83
41
(2)
(2)
$4 to$30
24
~2)
2)
(2)
$8to$21
$5 to $19
$4 to$16
22
27
34
8
15
18
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
$5 to $18
$4 to $30
$4 to $22
14
2
Not computed; base less than 50.
5
5
rf).
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
45
By locality.
Earnings varied according to locality. For the 280 women in
Localities A who reported their last cigar earnings before the separation the median was $19.20; for the 120 in Localities B, $17.15; and
for the 149 in Localities C, $14.50.
Only in Localities A did a sufficient number of women for the computation of a median report earnings on the earlier and the subsequent
cigar job; for these the median at the time of separation was $20.40
and that in the first subsequent cigar job was $16.55, a decrease of
almost one-fifth. For the 121 women whose cigar earnings at time
of separation and earnings in a subsequent job other than in cigars
were reported the medians were $18.40 and $13.40, respectively,
both higher than for the group as a whole, though the proportionate
decrease was about the same.
In Localities B 53 women reported earnings on the cigar job at time
of separation and on the first subsequent job other than cigars. The
median earnings in the former were $15.85 and in the latter $11.90.
These amounts were lower than those for the whole group, but the
proportionate decrease was not quite so great.
In Localities C too few women for the computation of a median
reported earnings in cigars at time of separation and earnings in the
first subsequent job.
By department.
As mentioned previously, the largest group of women had been
handworkers in the making departments, the occupation of 848, 74.3
per cent of all. (See Appendix Table I. ) Earnings on the last cigar
job prior to the separation were reported by 365, or slightly more than
two-fifths of these, and their median was $18.50. The lowest earnings on the last cigar job, under $10, were reported by about 5 per cent
of these women, all of whom were bunchers or rollers. Almost onefifth reported earnings of from $10 to $15, and nearly two-fifths
earnings of $15 but less than $20. Too few out-and-out makers for
the computation of a median reported their earnings before the separation. For those who did report the earnings averaged much the
same as those of the bunchers and rollers-$18 and under $19. No
out-and-out maker reported earnings below $11, and one said she
had been paid $37.50, about $4 in excess of the highest earnings
reported by bunchers and rollers.
Of the 365 hand makers who reported earnings on their last cigar
job, 127 had had their first subsequent job in cigars, 205 in other lines,
and 33 had had no subsequent job. The median of the final earnings
of these 127 women before the separation was $20. Of these 127,
102 reported also their earnings on the first subsequent job in cigars.
The median of the earnings of these prior to the separation was $20.15,
while on the first subsequent job it was $16.05, a considerable reduction. For the 205 women whose subsequent job was other than
cigars, the median of the earnings before the separation was $18.20;
but of 142 who reported earnings on both jobs, the median for the
last cigar job was $18.35 and that of the subsequent job $12.55, a
, very great decline.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
46
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
As a few concrete examples of decreases in money earnings for those
who had been making cigars by hand the following are given:
Of the 32 hand makers who reported earnings of $10 and under $15
weekly at time of separation and also reported earnings on the first
subsequent job, 11 had found work in cigars and 21 in other lines.
For 8 in cigars and for 18 in other lines, earnings were less than before.
Of the 27 handworkers whose earnings on the cigar job at time of
separation had been $15 and who reported earnings on the subsequent
job, 6 women who found jobs in cigars earned less than $12, 2 receiving only $9. Of the 19 whose subsequent job was in other lines, only 3
earned as much as $15. Five earned $7 or less.
There were 4 7 hand workers who were earning $20 a week at the
time of separation and who reported earnings on the first subsequent
job. Of these, 27 had found work in cigars, and two-thirds of these
had a loss in wages. Two earned only $10. Of the 20 women whose
subsequent jobs were in other lines, all earned less than $20, 4 earning $10 or less.
'
As noted, the median earnings for the 365 hand makers who reported
earnings on the cigar job at time of separation were $18.50. For
the 173 in Localities A they were $20.55, for the 90 in Localities B
$17 .50, and for the 102 in Localities C $15.
Of the women in Localities A, 132 reported earnings at time of
separation and on first subsequent job. For these the median of the
earnings before separation was $20.60, with a range of from $10 to
$37, but the 58 who found subsequent work in cigars had median
earnings of only $16.45 and the 74 who found other work had median
earnings of only $15.
·
Last earnings before
separation
Cigar
hand
workers
reporting Median
Range
T ype of locality
All localities __________ --------------------Localities A __________________________________ ___
Localities B ____________ _________________________
Localities c ___ ______________ _________ _____ ______
First ~ub~equent job
m cigars
Number Earnings
of
less
women
244
$19. 35
$6 to $37
102
71
132
62
50
20. 60
18.00
15. 80
$10 to $37
$6 to $32
$6 to $25
58
24
20
36
First subsequent job
in cigars- Contd.
20
15
First subsequent job in other lines
Type of locality
Earnings
same
E arnings N umber
of women
more
Earnings
less
Eatnings
same
Earnings
more
All localities ____ ___---- ---- ---
25
6
142
116
11
15
Localities A ____ _________ ___ _________
Localities B ________________________ _
Localities c _____ --------------------
19
2
4
3
2
1
74
38
30
58
6
10
33
25
4
1
1
4
Of the hand makers in Localities. B, 62 reported earnings at the
time of separation and on first subsequent jobs. The earnings before ,
the separation had a median of $18, the range being from $6 to $32.
Of the first subsequent jobs, 24 were in cigars (20 at reduced earnings) and 38 were in other lines of work (33 at reduced earnings).
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
47
HOME INTERVIEWS WI'rH DISPLACED WORKERS
In Localities C 50 women who had been hand makers r ported their
earnings on the last cigar job before separation and on the first subsequent job. Their earnings before the separation had a median of
$15.80, the range being $6 to $25. Twenty of the first subsequent
jobs were in cigars, 15 at less wages, al).d 30 were in other lines, 25
at less wages.
Of the 848 hand makers, 729 were bunchers and rollers and 119
were out-and-out makers. Of the bunchers and rollers, 328 reported
their last wage before the separation, the median being $18.55. For
the women who reported earnings at time of separation and on the
subsequent job as :well, the decreases in earnings are very similar to
those already described.
Of the 119 out-and-out makers from hand-making dep rtments, 102
were in Localities C, and more than three-fourths of these were 40 years
of age or older. (See Appendix Table I.) Little exact information on
the earnings of these women was available. In many cases several
years had elapsed since their separation from the industry. Only 22
women reported their last earnings before the separation and their
first on a subsequent job, and in all cases but 1 the earnings were
lower on the subsequent job.
In Localities A 57 women under 30 years of age had been employed
in packing departments. Of these, 32 reported their earnings on
cigar job at time of separation and on first subsequent 'ob. Twelve
had had their first subsequent job in cigars and 20 in other industries.
Exactly one-half of each of these groups had earned les on the subsequent job than on the cigar job at time of separation.
By age.
That age had some influence on the earning capacity of the women
may be seen in the following:
The median earnings for the 260 women reporting age and earnings
who were under 30 years of age were $16.85; for the 150 who were 30
and less than 40 years, $18.65; and for the 139 who were 40 years or
over, $16.15. The range of earnings for the whole group was from $5
to $37, for those under 30 years of age it was from $6 to $31, for those
30 and under 40 years it was $6 to $37, and for those 40 years or
older, $5 to $32. Furthermore, a reduction in earnings in the first
job subsequent to the separation was most common and was greatest
for the women of 40 and over. The extent to which reduced earnings were most common among the older women is illustrated in the
following figures for hand makers:
Relation of subsequent earnings to last earnings before
separation
I
3()and40 40 years
All ages U nder 30 under
and over
years
years
___ ___ - - ,
Cigars:
All women ______ ____ ____ __ ____ ------------------------ - -Earnings same or more____________________________________ _
Earnings less _____________ .:. __ _______________ _______ - -- -- -_-_
Other:
All women __ ______ _____ -------------------------------- -Earnings same or more _____________ __ _____ ___________ _____ _
Earnings less ______________________________________________ _
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
102
37
42
23
31
16
21
12
30
20
142
73
36
33
26
116
18
7
29
32
71
55
3
1
48
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND C1GARETTE INDUSTRIES
The following cases are examples of the reduction in earnings that
many women experienced because of changes in cigar factories. The
first two are from Localities A.
·
Quit because of reduced earnings.-An Italian woman in Philadelphia, aged 36
and married, who had been employed in cigar work as a bunch .maker ~ost of
the time since she was 18, left her work in August, 1929, shortly after bunching
machines were introduced. Used to making $16 to $17 a week, the rates on the
only grade of work on which handworke.rs were retained were so reduced that
she could make only $9 to $10, so she left. At the time of interview she had
been employed for two months as an enrober in a candy factory, where she
earned $12 to $13 a week. She had not looked for cigar work, as it seemed
useless to do so.
All factori es but one left town.-A native-born woman, 29 years of age, married,
and living in Lancaster, Pa., had begun work in cigars at the age of 14. She
experienced four cases of the factory closing. She had worked 9½ years at the
first plant as a cigar roller when it closed down in May, 1926. She was out of
work for one month, and then secured another job as roller. This plant closed
after she had been there one year. After more than two months she secured
another job as roller, where work again lasted for one year. After nearly four
months of unemployment she secured her fourth job 'a s roller, but this lasted only
five months. When the factory closed she tried to get another job, but "all the
factories have left town but one, and they don't pay anything. Never tried
automatic-machine factory. Afraid of getting sick." After two months of unemployment she secured a place as a salesgirl in a 5-and-10-cent store, where she
had been for nearly eight months at time of interview. Her wages there were
$10 a week, as compared to $15 or $16 in cigars.
The four case stories following, all from Localities B, show clearly
the effect of changes in the cigar industry on the earnings of women.
Subsequent earnings just one-half.-A married woman 53 years old, native born
and living in Newark, Ohio, had started work in cigars at the age of 13. She had
done making, bunching, rolling, and other work. When she was 50 the plant in
which she was working left the city, the "worst thing ever happened to cigar
makers." For seven weeks after December, 1927, when the factory moved, she
had no employment. At the end of this time she did some practical nursing; she
had three jobs: actually four months' employment out of a possible seven months.
She was again unemployed for three months and then secured a job as roller at the
struggling and very small cigar factory where she was employed at date of interview. Her highest earnings in the present cigar job were $10, whereas in 1927,
before the other factory moved away, she was making $20.
Temporary shutdowns; difference in hand processes.-A native-born woman in
Ironton, Ohio, single and 26 years of age, had begun work in cigars at the age of 16.
She had worked eight years as a roller when the factory went out of business, in
December, 1927. She was unemployed for seven months, and then secured work
as roller at another plant, where she had worked for only five months when it was
shut down, in December, 1928. She was out of work seven months again, when
she secured reemployment at the place that had shut down. She had been working there six months when the factory shut down again, two days before the
interview. She had no idea when it would reopen. "Maybe a week, maybe
six months."
Work had always been steady at the first cigar factory where this woman
worked, and the girls worked regularly, since they received a bonus for attendance.
She had learned cigar rolling on suction plate and die, but at the second factory
rolling was done without these. This she found much harder. On the first job
her rate was 35 cents a hundred, and she could roll 1,000 a day. On the last job
the rate was 25 cents a hundred, and due to the change in method she could make
only 500 to 550 a day.
Subsequent job in another city.-One of the women interviewed in Conshohocken,
Pa., native born, single, and 29 years old, had worked in cigars since she was 16.
She had not worked continuously, due to ill health of herself or her family, but
had been employed about 8 of the possible 13 years. Her work was that of a
roller. When the company went out of business in .November, 1927, she was
rolling cigars at 85 cents a hundred. After this loss of job she was at home for one
year for personal reasons.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
49
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
She then secured work as a roller at 50 cents a hundred in another factory, and
was employed there only nine months when the firm went out of business, in
August, 1929. She was unemployed for two weeks, when she found employment
as a roller in P hiladelphia, a distance of 13 miles, where she still was employed at
time of interview. Here she received 70 cents a hundred as roller, but the increase
in rate over what she had received at the last place did not mean much , for her
commutation ticket cost $10.30 a month. Work was slack; she made 500 cigars
a day at best, and her job was on a 5-day basis. There was no opportunity for
work in the t own in which she lived, except in the glass factories. In commenting
on the scarcity of work there she said, "Some one has to die before you get in
there."
Learned another industry.-A native-born woman, 32 years of age, single, and
living in Newark, Ohio, had begun work in the cigar industry at the age of 18.
She had been in this work for 12 years when the company went out of business
in February, 1928. She had worked as roller, inspector, and teacher. At the
time the factory closed she was on a salar y of $30 a week. She had made $20
to $22 as a roller. She secured work immediately in another cigar company,
through her uncle, and there she stayed more than a year, averaging only $11 a
week. She left this for what she considered a better job in a shoe factory, where
she was doing fancy stitching and vamping at the time of the interview. While
learning this work on shoes, she received $9 a week, but on piecework she was
making from $10 to $17. The work was very irregular; sometimes a machine was
out of order and sometimes she had to wait for work.
TIME IN THE CIGAR INDUSTRY
By locality.
Many of the interviewed women, especially the older women, had
been in the cigar industry a long time. The making of cigars by
hand, whole or in part, has given employment to women for many
years.
Of the 1,150 women included in the study, 1,086 reported the time
worked in the cigar industry. The proportions with experience of
less than 5 years differed little by locality. Of those who had worked
5 but less than 10 years, the proportion of those in Localities A was
much greater than in B and C. T he greatest difference was for the
period 25 years or more, Localities C having a proportion more than
three times as large as the figures for the other localities.
TABLE
8.-Time worked in the industry, by type of locality-Cigars
All localities
Time worked in cigar
industry
Total women __ ________ _
Localities A
Localities B
Localities C
Number Percent Number P ercent Number P ercent Number Percent
1, 150 ---------
604
Not reporting time_________ __
64
Total reporting __ ________ __ __
1,086
100. 0
559
Less than 5 years _____________
5 and less than 10 years _______
10 and less than 15 years _____
15 and less than 20 years __ ___
20 and less than 25 years ______
25 years and over _____________
264
270
193
149
97
113
24. 3
24.9
17.8
13. 7
8. 9
10. 4
125
167
109
74
46
--- ------
---------
38
258 --- ------
288 -- - --- ---
6
---------
13
-- -------
100. 0
252
100. O'
'1:75
100.0
22.4
29.9
19. 5
13. 2
8.2
6.8
70
50
46
46
25
15
27.8
19. 8
18.3
18. 3
9.9
6.0
69
53
38
29
26
60
25.1
19.3
13.8
10.5
9.5
21. 8
45 -- - --- ---
By age.
Of the 1,086 who reported time w .1rked in the cigar industry, all
but one reported age also. As will be noted, about one-four th of all
the women had worked less than 5 years; of those less than 30 years
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
50
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
of age, slightly more than one-half had had this brief experience, as
compared with about one-fifth of t hose 40 years or older. Naturally,
almost none of those under 30 years of age had worked as long as 15
years, but about one-sixth of those 40 years or more had been 15 to
20 years in the industry. Of the oldest group, the proportion who
bad worked 25 years or more was greatest in Localities C, where
almost one-half (46.9 per cent) had worked that long. (See Appendix
Table II.)
PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF WOMEN BY TIME WORKED IN THE CIGAR
INDUSTRY, BY LOCALITIES
TIME WORKED
Per cent
20
40
10
-------~------,,.....------......-------,
0
WCALITIF.S A
Le118 than 5 years
5 and less than 10 years
10 IIDd less than 15 years
15 and less than 20 years
20 and less than 25 years
25 years and over
UlCALITIF.S B
Less than 5 years
5
IIDd less than 10 years
10 and less than 15 years
15 and less than 20 years
20 and less than 25 years
25 years and over
UlCALITIF.S C
Less than 5 years
5
and less than 10 years
10 and less than 15 years
15 and less than 20 years
20 IIDd less than 25 years
25 7ears and over
The three following work histories of women in Localities A show
the effects of changes in the cigar industry on women who had spent
many years in this work.
Work in eight or more factori es that closed.- A. native-born woman living in
Lancaster, Pa., 43 years of age and single, had worked in cigars most of the time
since she was 20. Prior to this she had been employed as a weaver in silk mills.
Her occupation in cigars was that of roller. She had worked in at least eight
factories that closed. Four jobs were before the slump, so these caused her
little inconvenience, but lately business had been "off and on." Some factories
had closed entirely; "others say, 'Maybe we'll start up again in a few months,'
but they don't." At t ime of interview she had been unemployed for nine
months and no jobs were available in cigar factories or silk mills.
Some of her jobs had been in neighboring towns, which made the expenses of
the job greater and the working day much longer. On one of these jobs she left
Lancaster at 5.30 in the morning to be at the shop by 7. She left work at 5 and
arrived home anywhere from 6.30 to 7.30 on account of poor transportation.
This job had lasted five months, when the factory closed.
When this woman was first employed as silk weaver, she was persuaded that
cigar m~king was a better job, and it was so until the last five or six years. t\.QQ\lt
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HOME INT~RVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
51
four or five years prior to the interview she went back to the silk mill where she
had been almost 15 years before, but she found the work very exhausting. When
the cigar superintendent sent word that another cigar factory was opening, she
quit the silk mill after only two weeks' work.
She said, '' The machine has killed our trade and we will never get it back.
We were foolish not to have got control of the machines, and to have operated
them from the first. Now they won't hire us for machine work."
Some plants gave the girls warning of the closing, but the commoner practice was not to tell the workers beforehand, for fear of
destruction of the stock. In one case the superintendent informed
the workers at 9 in the morning that they were closing permanently
at noon. Another time they were told at night that the next day
would be.the last.
Tried work as finisher on machine.-A widow in Lancaster, Pa., 39 years of age
and native born, had begun work in the cigar industry at the age of 14. She
worked as a cigar roller for 21 years in various plants, during an over-all working
period of 23 years, until the plant in which she was then employed closed in
February, 1928. She moved to Philadelphia, where she stayed for three months
employed as a roller, but went back home when she heard that one of the cigar
companies was taking a 5-year lease. This removal and return took all her
savings, about $300; and after all that expenditure the plant she had been counting
on to remain open for 5 years remained open only 5 months.
After this she secured employment as a finisher on an automatic cigar-making
machine. Her own story tells this tale: "I tried automatic cigar manufacturing,
finishing a t - - - - - ; stayed three days. Got so nervous, had to quit. The finisher has to do too many things. The cigars come through at the rate of 8 a minute.
All have to be examined, and if they are not perfect they have to be patched up.
Along with the patching the finisher has to get water for the wrapper and binder
layer to wash their dies with, and drinking water for them, and also tie finished
work, and bring it to be checked and counted. It is a continual rush, and having
to patch up so many, regardless of shading, just gets an experienced girl's nerves.
A green girl can see cigars go by this way and does not know any better, but an
experienced girl gets nervous. On the last day I handled 4,600 cigars. If the
finisher gets too far behind, they stop the machine, and all have to help finish.
This is a terrible thing, as the machine is supposed to run all the time."
After that job this woman tried dressmaking at home, but quit after one
month. At the time of the interview she had been employed for eight months
as a hand cigar roller.
Quit machine work after one day.-A native-born American in Binghamton,
N. Y., between 40 and 45 years of age and married, had started work as a roller
when 17 or 18. After learning bunching, she worked up to the position of forelady. She had been employed in the factory 25 years when it closed. Work
had always been steady until the actual closing at this factory, which was one of
the best in the city.
After her lay-off in November, 1927, she was unemployed for eight months.
At the end of this time she tried work in a machine cigar plant, but quit after
one day, feeling that she could not adjust herself to machine work nor even work
in a machine factory. Her comment was, "Have to learn a trade young or
nobody wants you."
The two women from Localities B whose cigar histories are noted
below give the subsequent industrial history for those who were young
. and those who were no longer young.
From cigars to radio.-A. single woman in Bayonne, N. J., 29 years old and
born in this country, had worked in a cigar factory as a roller for 15 years when
the plant closed in April, 1929. She was out of work for two weeks or so. She
knew younger girls were being taken on at radio plants, but she was afraid she
was too old, so she put off trying there until she had "tried everything, everywhere else." When she applied there, and secured the job, she avoided acknowledging that she was 29. She liked the work in radio and was "making out"
all right.
It was "like a funeral" when the cigar factory shut down on the girls who had
spent their lives there. "Never will feel the same about any other place I
work."
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
52
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
Unemployed at 63.-An older woman, 63 years of age, living in Ironton, Ohio,
was single and native born. She was employed in domestic service until she
was 48, when she started work as a hand stripper in a tobacco factory, and she
did this work for 15 years, until December, 1927, when the plant went out of
business. At the time of interview she had been at home and out of work for
more than two years, hoping that some cigar factory would open up.
The following two cases, in Localities C, are typical examples of
women giving much of their working lives to the cigar industry, only
to have the factories close and leave them to find other work at middle
age. One secured employment in cigars in a neighboring town, the
other in a different industry. Both women lived in the "Belt" in
Pennsylvania, the district where opportunities for any work were very
limited.
Husband, self, and son thrown out.-A native-born woman in Hopeland, Pa.,
married and 44 years old, had worked off and on in tobacco from the time she
was 10. Her father had a shop, where she worked as a stripper irregularly until
she was 16. She was employed as a roller and as an out-and-out maker for about
17 years, when the plant in which she was then working closed down, in December, 1927. She was out of work for a few weeks, but found work as a roller at
a plant in another locality, where she stayed for five months and then left because
she could not make anything, the stock was so poor. Her car fare was over $5
a month. She was unemployed for about a month, when she secured the temporary job in a cigar plant in an adjoining town that she held at time of interview.
The closing of two plants in her home town, both in December, 1927, threw
this woman, her husband, and her grown son out of work. Each of the three
then had to go to a different town to work. "Getting where I hoped to have
it easier," the woman said, "but life is harder than ever. Wouldn't be so bad if
wages were what they used to be." On the next to the last job she was paid
25 cents a hundred for rolling cheap unfinished cigars. Since she had never done
poor work, she found it difficult to slight things and so work fast enough to compensate her for the lower rate.
Learned a new trade after 40.-A married woman in Trumbauersville, Pa., 46
years old and native born, had started work in cigars at th~ age of 16. She
had been employed for about 26 years as buncher and out-and-out cigar maker
in different plants when the one in which she was working in March, 1925, closed
down. She was out of work for a few weeks, and since there was, as she expressed
it, "no prospect of decent work in cigars again," she secured employment as a
machine operator in a clothing factory, where she had been for the past four
years at time of interview. This woman gave up her trade before many others
did so. She decided she would better get into what work was left while she
could. She would go back to work in cigars, however, if there were a good
opportunity.
CAUSE OF THE SEPARATION
Many things were mentioned by the women interviewed as the
cause of their losing their jobs, but for the purposes of the study
they have been grouped under two general headings, closing of the
factory and slack work. Included under closing of the factory are
t~e following reasons as given by the women: Factory closed, force
la1.d off, factory moved, shutdown, close due to burning of factory,
and (applying to only part of the plant) a department closing or the
introduction of machines. Under slack work are the following:
Partial or temporary lay-off, work slack or temporary, factory closed
temporarily, quit because of slack work, quit because close imminent.
The closing of the factory meant in some cases its permanent discont~nuance; in other cases, it was merged with others, usually in a large
mty.
All of the 1,150 women gave a reason for the separation from the
cigar job that was the basis for inclusion in this study. The proportion of these whose enforced separation was due to the closing of the
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
53
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
factory was 96 per cent, and the remainder gave as the cause the
slackness of work. The proportions of women reporting these reasons
differed little by locality from those for the group as a whole.
Of the 1,101 women who gave the closing of the factory as the
reason for their separation and also reported their age, two-fifths were
less than 30, almost three-tenths were 30 and less than 40, and more
than three-tenths were 40 or older. In Localities A and B the proportions were similar to those for the group as a whole, but in Localities
C the proportion of younger women was considerably less and that
of the women 40 or more was much greater. The proportion of
older women who gave slack work as the cause of separation also
was greatest in Localities C.
EMPLOYMENT STATUS SINCE THE CHIEF SEPARATION
By locality.
Of the 1,150 women included in the study, one-eighth had been
unemployed the whole of the time since their ~nforced separation.
Of the remainder, only 11 per cent had been employed the entire
time. In Localities B the proportion who had been unemployed the
whole of the time was much greater than for the entire group, almost
one-fourth (22.5 per cent) having had no employment since the separation. This larger proportion of unemployed women in Localities
B bears out the conclusion that the conditions found in 1929-30 were
different from those existing earlier in the 5-year period.
Of the 1,006 women who had had some employment since their
enforced separation, slightly more than one-third (35.4 per cent) had
worked only in cigars, almost three-tenths (28.3 per cent) had worked
in both cigars and other lines of work, and the largest proportion
(36.3 per cent) had had. jobs only in other industries.
As would be expected, the largest proportion with subsequent jobs
only in the cigar industry was in the localities designated as A, which
still offered cigar employment at the time of survey: Here more
than two-fifths (43.9 per cent) reported such employment, in contrast
to only about one-fourth in the other types of localities. There was
less difference in the proportions that had found employment both
in cigars and in other lines of work.
TABLE
9.-Employment status since the chief separation, by type of locality-Cigars
All localities
Localities A
Number
Per
cent
Number
Employed all or part of time ___________ ______ 1,006
87. 5
All women who had had employment __ 1,006
100.0
677
218
Having employment ___ __ ______ ________ __ ____ 1,006
356
365
285
Employment status
LocalitiesB
Per
cent
Number
558
92.4
558
100. 0
67.4
383
21. 6
90
100.0
35.4
36.3
28. 3
Localities 0
Per
cent
Number
200
77.5
248
86. 1
200
100.0
248
100.0
68. 8
120
60.0
174
70.2
16. 0
66
33.0
62
25.0
558
100. 0
200
100.0
248
100.0
245
147
166
43. 9
26. 3
29. 7
46
108
46
23. 0
54.0
23.0
65
· 110
73
26.2
44.4
29.4
Per
cent
------ ---- -All women ___ _______ ______ _____ ___ __ ___ 1,150 100. 0
604 100.0
258 100.0
288
100.0
- 7.6- - -22.--13.-9
Unemployed entire time ____ _______ ___ ______ _ 144
46
5
40
12. 5
58
Steadily employed_- --- - -- ---- - -- - -- -- - -----Employed
at date
of interview
but had been
___ _____
___ ___ __________________
unemployed
Unemployed
at
date
of
interview
but had
___
been employed ____ ______ __ ______________
In
only_
--- -- -------- - ------In cigars
other only
___----__ __ -________________
_____ _
In cigars and other ___ _______________ _____
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
-111
- - 11.0- - -15.--7.0
---14
85
3
12
4.8
54
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
By age.
Of the 1,006 women employed at some time since the separation,
all but one reported age. The age distribution of those who bad
been employed was very similar to the distribution of the group as a
whole, but unemployment for the entire time was less among those
under 30 years than for the whole group, practically the same for
those 30 and less than 40, and more for those 40 years or older.
PROPORTION OF WOMEN ENTIRELY UNEMPLOYED BETWEEN SEPARATION AND DATE OF INTERVIEW, BY AGE AND TYPE OF LOCALITY-CIGARS
AGE
-
Per
Under· 50 7eare
:50 8Ild un<ler 40 7eare
40 years 8Ild over
cent
so
10
,--------r--------,---------,
20
0
LOCALITIF.S A
LOCALITIF.S B
Under :50 year&
:50 and under 40 year&
40 ye&r& end over
LOCALITIF.S C
Under :50 7ears
50 and under 40 7ears
40 7ears 811d over
I
I
In Localities A and B the proportion of women employed the entire
time since the separation on which the study is based decreased with
increase in age, but the opposite is true of Localities C.
In Localities A 73.7 per cent of the women with subsequent employment had found such employment in cigars; in Localities B, 46 per
cent; and in Localities C, 55.6 per cent. These proportions indicate
that conditions of cigar employment in these localities grew worse
during the 5-year period covered by the study, for at the time of the
survey there were few or no opportunities for work in cigars in
Localities B and C.
The following are examples in Localities A of women no longer
young who were laid off, one due to the closing of the factory and the
other because of slack work. Neither had had any subsequent
employment.
Too old at 38 to learn a trade.-A Polish woman living in Newark, N. J., married
and 38 years old, had begun work in the cigar industry at the age of 16. She
was laid off, after 15 years' experience in cigar work, when the factory closed.
She felt that she was too old to start in a new trade, because friends had told her
that only girls of about 20 were being taken on in radio plants and those making
other electric products, the large woman-employing industries in the city in which
she lived. She had been out of work seven months at the time of interview.
Laid off after 35 years' experience.-A native-born woman living in Lancaster,
Pa., 49 years old and a widow, had worked for 35 years as a roller and out-andout cigar maker in several plants. She had begun work at the age of 12. Just
before Christmas of 1927 work was slack and she was laid off. She and four or
five others were told they would be sent for, but they never were. Prior to this
lay off there had been no trouble in finding work, but there has been nothing
since, though she looks and asks from time to time.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
55
In the following work histories of three women from Localities A
the experiences of individual women deprived of their jobs in cigars
are illustrated.
Unable to become adjusted.-A native-born woman in Baltimore, 35 years old
and married, had begun work in cigars at the age of 11. Of the 24 years since
then, she had worked as a machine stripper for about 15. But the plant closed
down, and since then she had not been able to get a job that paid. She found
employment in another cigar plant but quit after one day because the s1,ripping
machine ran so hard. She worked part of one season at a tomato cannery, but
work there was so slow that she made hardly any money. She tried cleaning in
a hotel, but after three nights she quit; "hotel cleaning was too hard, not used
to such hard work."
Did washings.-Another n ative-born woman in Baltimore, aged 32 and married,
had done her first work in a cigar fact ory at the age of 24. She labeled cigars
and worked at odd jobs for five years, until the factory closed in June, 1926.
Since she could get nothing else, for t he next two years she did washings "off
and on." At the time of interview she had again been employed for almost a
iear as a labeler. Her comment on the situation in the cigar industry was:
'When three cigar plants close down at once, it is hard for the employees to find
work, especially the older, experienced ones."
Subsequent job at hand work.- A foreign-born woman in Camden, N. J., 33
years old and married, had begun work in, cigars at the age of 14. She had worked
actually for about 14 years when she was laid off, in December, 1927, because
machines were introduced. She was so fortunate as to secure a job in another
cigar factory, where she was employed as a cigar roller at the time of interview.
In this city there still were more opportunities than in most phi.ces for handwork
in cigars.
From Localities B the work histories of two women, one a forelady
\>f packers and one a roller, both of them at least 40 years old, have
been selected. One woman had found subsequent work in a shoe
factory, the .other very irregular work as a roller in a cigar factory.
Irregular earnings i n shoes.- A native-born woman ir Ironton, Ohio, 40 years
of age and sep arated from her husban d, had started work in cigars as a packer
at the age of 16. She worked in cigars for 22 years, until the company went out
of business in D ecember, 1927. At that time she was forelady of packers, making
$15 a week at steady work.
After looking for work for four and one-half months she secured employment
on a cement machine in a shoe factory, where she had been employed for a year
and eight months at time of interview. Her earnings were very irregular, as
there was much time when work was siack. The highest pay she received was
$24.22 for t wo weeks, and she had been paid as little as $6 for the same period.
"Often girls go in and then have to wait for work and only make a few cents in
the day."
Subsequent work slack.-An unmarried, fordgn-born woman of 44, living in
Cleveland, Ohio, had found her first job in t his country at the age of 21 as a
roller in a cigar factory. She worked there for 23 years until the firm left the
city. After hunting work for about a month she found employment again as
roller. However, work in this plant had been very slack-" off a week, then off
two weeks, off three weeks at Christmas, and not a full week since. Very bad."
Two women in Localities C, one young and one middle-aged, who
had tried to adjust themselves after the closing of the cigar factories
in which they worked, had histories as follows:
Resorted to home work.-A native-born woman from East Greenville, Pa., 46
years old and married, had begun work as a tobacco stripper at 15 and as maker
at 17. She had worked as a cign r ()ller for 24 years when the factory in which
she was then employed was closed. She was unemployed for a few weeks and
then started making children's dresses at home. After two weeks she became ill
and gave up this work. For the past year she had beeP doing home work, finishing pants by hand. "Could not find a decent job now, so took what I could get, "
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
56
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
Laid off at 20 years.-A native-born woman in Wellston, Ohio, aged 20 and
single, had worked in cigars since she was 16. She had been a roller for two
years when the firm went out of business in December, 1927. Her comment on
this was, "Such a long-faced set of girls. It sure was a shock; they sure did
hate it." She stayed at home for seven weeks, not looking for work, and then
went to a large city near by, where she at once got work as a roller. She stayed
there 11 months, and then returned home because she was homesick. She remained at home, not looking for work, for six months, and then secured a job as
roller, which she held for two months. At the end of that time she was laid off,
due to slack work.
·
UNEMPLOYMENT FOR INDUSTRIAL REASONS SINCE THE
SEPARATION
In any discussion of the causes of unemployment two general
classes present themselves-personal and industrial. Since one of
the purposes of this study was to secure information as to the effects
on the employment of women of changes in the cigar industry, only
the unemployment due to industrial reasons will be discussed here.
Time unemployed for industrial reasons since losing job.
Of the 1,006 women who had held one or more subsequent jobs, 821,
or about four-fifths, reported the time lost for industrial reasons between the chief separation and the date of interview. Almost onesixth had lost no time, and close to three-fifths had lost less than six
months' time. A much smaller proportion, about one-tenth, had
lost as much as a year's time. Five women had lost two years or
more for such causes.
Two women in nine had been unemployed for at least 60 per
cent of the time, and one-half of these had been unemployed the entire time. Only two-fifths of the women had lost less than 20 per cent
of their time.
Time lost between separation and first subsequent job.
Of the 1,006 who had had a subsequent job, 855 reported the time
elapsed between losing their cigar employment and securing another
job. Just over one-fifth reported no loss of time before finding
work. Almost one-half lost less than 3 months' time, and about onesixth lost 3 and under 6 months. For about one-eighth the unemployment lasted 6 to 12 months, and exactly 1 in 25 lost at least a
year.
In Localities A more than one-fourth lost no time between separation and subsequent job, while only about one in seven in the other
localities were so fortunate as this. The proportions in A and B who
lost six months or more before securing a job after losing their employment in the cigar industry were very similar (about one-eighth), while
in Localities C more than double this proportion were unemployed for
industrial reasons for so long a time.
The proportions unemployed for one year for industrial reasons in
Localities A, B, and C were respectively 1.8 per cent, 5.6 per cent,
and 8.5 per cent.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
57
HOME I NTERVIEWS W ITH DISPLACED W OR KERS
TABLE
10. -Time unemployed for industrial reasons between separation and first
subsequent job, by type of locality-Cigars
Localities A
Localities B
All localities
Localities C
Time unemployed for indu st rial reasons between separation and first subsequentjob
N umber Percent Number P er cent Number Per cent N umber P er cent
Total ___ __ __ _________ __
1,006 ---- - ----
558
-----------------
200 ---------
248 ---------
Indefinite and not reporting __
151
Total reporting __________ ____ _
855
100.0
488
100. 0
179
100. 0
188
100. 0
None __ _____________ __ _____ __ _
L ess t han 3 mont hs __ ____ ___ _
3 and less than 6 m onths _____
6 and less t han 9 m onths _____
9 and less than 12 months ____
12 months and over __ ________
188
389
144
83
16
35
22. 0
45. 5
16.8
9. 7
1. 9
4.1
134
197
97
46
5
9
27. 5
40.4
19. 9
9. 4
1.0
1. 8
26
110
20
11
2
10
14. 5
61. 5
11. 2
6. 1
1.1
5. 6
28
14. 9
43. 6
14. 4
13. 8
4. 8
8. 5
---------
70
21
---------
60 ------ ---
82
27
26
9
16
Time elapsed between separation and date of interview.
Of interest in connection with the amount of time unemployed for
industrial reasons is the lapse of t ime between the separation and the
interview. This was reported by all but 10 of the 1,150 women.
For only 300 (26.3 per cent), almost evenly divided between 6 months
and over and less than 6 months, was such elapsed time less than a
year. For 485 (42.5 per cent) it was 1 and under 2 years, and for
355 (31.1 per cent) it was 2 years or more, 100 of these women having
been separ ated from their cigar employment as much as 3 years
before, 30 of them as much as 4 years before.
All women
reporting
ess than
elapsed time L
separ- 6months
since
Am oun t of elapsed time u nation
employed fo r industrial
reasons
6 an d less
t han 12
months
12 and less
than 18
m onths
18 and less 24 months
than 24
and over
months
Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- P er
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
------
Total _________________ 1, 140
-----No time lost for in dustrial
reasons __ _________ ____ _____
Some
time____
lost
strial
__ for
____indu
__________
reasons
990
Not reporting amount. ______
187
150 ------
-----------
Total reporting ____ ___ _______
803 100. 0
L ess t han 20 per cen t.. ______
20 and less than 40 per cent __
40 and less than 60 per cent._
60 and less than 80 per cent __
80 and less t han 100 per cent.
100 per cent ______________ ___
321
200
100
44
48
90
40. 0
24. 9
12. 5
5. 5
6. 0
11. 2
154 -----16 ---- - 138
12
-----------
126 100. 0
17
21
14
11
6
57
13. 5
16. 7
11. 1
8. 7
4. 8
45. 2
146 -----24
------
122 -----9 -----113 100. 0
44
26
22
3
6
12
38. 9
23. 0
19. 5
2. 7
5. 3
10. 6
185 -----26 -----159
------
300 -- ---47 -- -- -253
------
355 --- -37
318
------ ---
37 ------
50 ------
79 -----
122 100. 0
203 100. 0
239 100. 0
48
39
17
8
5
5
39. 3
32. 0
13. 9
6. 6
4.1
4. 1
78
69
16
11
21
8
38. 4
34. 0
7. 9
5. 4
10. 3
3. 9
134
45
31
11
10
8
56. 1
18. 8
13. 0
4. 6
4. 2
3. 3
In Localities B and C between 40 and 50 per cent of the women
had lost their cigar employment at least two years before, but in
Localities A this figure was only 18.2 per cent.
Naturally, it was among the women interviewed less than 6 months
after their separation that nearly one-half (45.2 per cent) were found
l26898°-32--5
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
58
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
to have had no subsequent employment. Where the time elapsed
was longer, few of the women had been unemployed the entire time.
Of the 802 women who reported age and amount of time lost, the
proportions losing at least one-half the time increased with age, from
22.8 per cent of the women who were under 30 years to 38.6 per cent
of those 40 years or older. These proportions differed widely with
locality. In Localities A only 15 per cent of the women under 30, in
contrast to 27.7 per cent of those 40 and over, had been unemployed
at least one-half the time since the separation. In Localities B 22.2
per cent of those under 30 and 50 per cent of those 40 and over had
lost half the time. In Localities C the proportion unemployed as much
as 50 per cent of the time did not increase with age.
The following three cases of women in Localities A show unemployment due to industrial reasons:
Two factories closed down.-A native-born woman in Baltimore, Md., 36 years
of age and single, had begun work in the cigar industry at the age of 16. She had
worked two years before this in candy. In cigars she was employed as a roller
for 17 years at one place, but it went out of business in June, 1926. She at once
secured employment as a roller in another cigar factory, where she remained two
years, until it too went out of business, in June, 1928. From that time on she had
been unemployed except for two weeks, when she did cleaning at a hospital,
which proved to be too hard wor~ for her and too small pay.
Three factories closed.-Another native-born woman in Baltimore, 30 years of
age, had begun work in cigars at 12 or 13. She falsified her age at that time, in
order to secure employment. Her work in cigar factories had been on stripping
machines. Her first job lasted 14 years; it was terminated because the company
. left the city. She secured another stripping-machine job, but after 4 months
that factory closed also. Since then she had worked 6 months at a stripping
machine in still a third factory that closed and the firm left the city. After being
unemployed for 6 months she secured temporary work as a restaurant waitress,
but after 3 months the friend whose job it was returned to it.
Commenting on the closing of the cigar factories, she said, "At the---there
was no advance notice. They closed all at once. One day you had work, the
next day you had none."
"No cigars anywhere."-A Polish woman in Baltimore, 40 years of age and
married, had started work in cigars at the age of 14. After 25 years of bunching
cigars in three different factories the plant in which she was then employed closed,
in January, 1928. She was unemployed for 5 months, and then secured another
job in cigars, which she quit after 7 months-"They just got on my nerves."
She commented as· follows:
·
"Where am I to go? There's no cigars anywhere. I am not going to scrub.
When the - - - company closed, we worked until the last minute; it seemed
almost impossible that we were out of work."
The following cases, one of a young girl and the other of a woman
approaching middle age, show unemployment due to industrial
reasons as it affected women in Localities B.
Dissatisfied with subsequent jobs.-A native-born woman in Bayonne, N. J., 22
years old and single, had started work in cigars at the age of 17. She was employed
as a maker for five years, until the factory moved out of the city in April, 1929.
She was out of work for about a month, when she secured a job at painting in a
furniture factory. She remained there 2½ months, and left because of unsteady
work and loss of appetite due to the smell of paint, which she considered much
more objectionable than the odor of tobacco. After this she was unemployed for
about a month, when she secured work in a food factory, packing cake. She had
been there for one month at time of interview. She was earning the least amount
she had ever worked for, but she found it easier than the furniture work.
To quote this woman, "It broke our hearts to leave that cigar factory. Do
you suppose it will come back?"
A canvasser of books.-A native-born woman in Mansfield, Ohio, 40 years old
~nd sin~le, had begun work jn the ci~ar jrn;lustr;v at the a~e of 17. ~h~ h~tj. w9r}{~q
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
llOME INTERVIEWS 'W!TH DtsPLACED WORKERS
59
there as a packer for 23 years when the factory closed, in November, 1929. On
the same day on which she was laid off, her brother was laid off from another
industry, where he, too, had been for years. The woman was unemployed for
two months, but at the time of interview she had been working for one month
canvassing for books.
While employed in cigars she made from $15 to $18 a week, but her commission at canvassing for books had amounted to $5.40 in one week and to $7 in
another. She hoped to make $25 a month, but she was wondering what she would
do when she had covered the town in which she lived.
The two following cases in Localities C illustrate the work histories
of women past middle age, both of whom had experienced unemployment due to factories closing.
Decline in earnings.-A native-born woman in Boyertown, Pa., 48 years old
and married, had worked in the· cigar industry since she was 16. Her parents
had died while she was young, and she had worked as a "hired girl" on a farm
until she became 16. A friend paid her room and board for her while she was
a cigar apprentice. She had worked as cigar maker for 23 years and more when
the factory closed. She was out of work for 3 months, during which time she
could not find any cigar work and was afraid, owing to a defect of speech, to
try anything else. Eventually she secured a job in cigars, but it was most uncertain-as she expressed it, "always off and on."
About seven years ago the rate was $11 a thousand for a good 10-cent cigar;
later it was $8 a thousand for a poorer grade. She used to earn $20 a week
then $15, later $12, but at time of interview she felt fortunate to earn $10 a week:
A drop of $11 in earnings.-A native-born woman in East Greenville, Pa., 49
years old and married, had begun work in cigars at the age of 17. Since that time
she had worked as an out-and-out cigar maker for 18 years when the factory
closed in December, 1927. After six months' unemployment she secured a job on
a power sewing machine in a shirt factory, but in three months that plant closed
also. At time of interview she had been out of work for almost a year.
In cigars she could depend on $18 for a full week, but she never earned over $7
on shirts. Yet she liked the work, it was "clean and nice." She said, "We heard
of cigar factories closing all around us. I guess we were only surprised that ours
held out as long as it did."
Another case, this of a younger woman in Localities C, illustrates
unemployment due to industrial reasons.
Housework and laundry work.-A native-born woman in Jackson, Ohio, 23
years old and married, had begun work in cigars as a machine stripper. She
worked at this for three years, until the company went out of business in December, 1927. She was out of work for a week or two and then took a job at housework, where she remained 4 months. After 9 months' unemployment, she secured
a job as stripper and foiler at a cigar plant in a neighboring town, but she left
this because the pay was not sufficient to warrant her paying bus fare. She was
unemployed then for about five months, when she obtained the job of general
helper in a laundry that she held at time of interview.
SUBSEQUENT JOBS
The types of jobs that the women deprived of their cigar employment were able to secure were affected by locality and by age. Some
women reported only one subsequent job, some had had several.
Of the total 1,1.50 women, 144 had had no job since the enforced
separation. The 1,006 with subsequent work had had 1,889 jobs.
Almost one-half of these, 477 women, had had only one job, 306 had
had two, and 223 had had three or more.
Of the 1,889 subsequent jobs reported by the 1,006 women, just
over 80 per cent were in manufacturing pursuits. Almost two-thirds
of these were in tobacco, practically all in cigars. The proportion of
the women 40 years of age or more who had found manufacturing
jobs was less than such proportions in the other age groups. Manu-
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
6{)
WOMEN IN
CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
facturing jobs in other lines than cigars were reported much more
commonly by the women under 30 years of age than by those older,
indicating the greater adaptability of younger women to entirely new
types of work. (See Appendix Tables V and VI.)
By locality.
Of the 604 women in Localities A 46 had had no job since their
separation from the cigar factory. The 558 with subsequent work
had had 1,110 jobs, an average of practically 2. More than twofifths had had one job only; one-fourth had had three or more jobs,
some as many as six. (See Appendix Table VII.)
Of the 1,110 subsequent jobs reported, just over 86 per cent were
in manufacturing. More than seven-tenths of these were in tobacco,
practically all in cigars.
In Localities B 58 of the women had had no subsequent job. The
200 who reported subsequent work had had 332 jobs. Almost threefifths had had only one job; less than one-sixth had had as many as
three.
Of the 332 subsequent jobs reported in Localities B not quite 73
per cent were in manufacturing. Well under one-half of these (47.3
per cent) were in tobacco, all but one such job being in cigars.
In Localities C 40 of the women had had no subsequent job. The
248 who reported subsequent work had had 447 jobs. Almost onehalf had had only one job; about one-seventh had had three, and the
remainder four or more.
Of the 447 subsequent jobs in Localities C, 75 per cent were in
manufacturing. Almost three-fifths (58.5 per cent) of the manufacturing jobs were in tobacco, all in cigars.
A number of case stories follow:
Handwork preferable.-A native-born woman in Philadelphia, 30 years old and
single, had been employed about 10 years in the cigar industry, where she began
at 16 years of age. She was laid off from her job in September, 1929, when the
automatic machines were introduced. The superintendent, in laying her off,
explained that they did not train their own workers on the machines, but got
experienced machine help. At the time of interview this woman had been
employed three months on an automatic machine in another plant, as she could
find no handwork in Philadelphia or Camden. Her comment was, "Like handwork best. Can work in peace. Not such long hours."
"Hunted and hunted for handwork."-An Italian woman in Philadelphia, 26
years old and single, had started work in the cigar industry at the age of 16.
After being in one factory for eight years, she was transferred to a branch. She
worked there only one year when this branch was moved; furthermore, it installed
machines. After being unemployed for two months and finding no work in
handmade cigars, she took a job as wrapper layer on the automatic cigar-making
machine in a factory nearer home. She had been there for a year at time of
interview. She "hated to try machine work, after working by hand so long.
Hunted 'a nd hunted for handwork, but slack everywhere. Only a few hand
plants left in Philadelphia, and they had work for only their own employees."
In one plant 22 years.-A native-born woman in Harrisburg, Pa., 39 years old
and single, had started work in cigars at the age of 15. She worked as a bunch
maker for 22 years at one plant until December, 1927, when the firm went out of
business. Without loss of time she secured another job as bunch maker, and
there she worked for 15 months until this firm, too, closed down. "Had put my
name in at a company at Steelton, but no response. After I'd worked for them
22 years you'd think they would show me some consideration." She had sought
work in stores, but all wanted experienced help. At time of interview she had
three boarders. Planned to try for cigar work again in the fall.
Adjustment not difficult.-A native-born woman in Binghamton, N. Y., 26
years old and single, began work in cigars at 15 years of age. She had worked
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
itOM'.E INTERViEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
61
as a hand roller for nine years when the factory closed. She was one of the best
and fastest rollers in the factory, with wages up to $28 a week. After the factory
closed she was unemployed for one week, and then secured work in a shoe factory
as a stitcher. She makes $22 to $25 a week at this work.
When the cigar factory closed she felt "as though the world had turned upside
down." She was afraid she could not learn anything else, but the adjustment
proved easier than she expected. Still, she would rather work in cigars.
Only a few days lost.-A native-born woman in Bloomfield, N. J., 24 years old
and single, had begun work in a cigar factory at the age of 14. She had worked
there as a roller for nearly 10 years when the plant closed. "Work had been
steady right up to closing time. Did not know factory was going to close; only
one day's notice." She was unemployed for a few days and found work with a
radio firm, where she had been employed for six months when interviewed.
Handicapped.-A native-born woman living in Ironton, Ohio, 32 years old and
separated from her husband, had begun work in the cigar industry at 21 years of
age. She worked as a hand stripper for nine years until the plant in which she
was then employed went out of business in December, 1927. She had had no
employment since that time. There was nothing else she felt capable of doing.
She had lost one eye as a child, and the sight in the other was not perfect.
Went into the shoe industry.-Another woman in Ironton, native born, 35 years
of age and single, had started cigar work at 20. She worked as a roller for 13
years until the firm went out of business in December, 1927. From that time
on, for about 14 months, she looked unsuccessfully for work. Her first job, at
the end of that time, was in shoe manufacturing, where she still was employed
at time of interview. The work was very irregular and the rates were low.
"Even when work is steady, can't make as much as at cigars, and it is often slack."
Nothing so good as steady cigar work.-A native-born woman in Mansfield, Ohio,
26 years old and separated from her husband, had begun work in cigars when 16.
She had worked in one factory as a roller for seven years when the factory was
abandoned, in November, 1929. She was out of employment for one month and
then secured a job as salad girl in a hotel pantry. She enjoyed this job and was
sure of her food, which "seemed like a blessing from heaven" after the month
she was out of work. However, she said, there was "nothing for a girl to do
like the steady work of the cigar factory ."
A scrubber in a hotel.-Another foreign-born woman in Mansfield, 46 years of
age, had been employed as a buncher in a cigar factory 21 years when it closed
in November, 1929. She considered work in cigars "nice and easy." After
being out of work more than a year she secured employment in a hotel. Much
of her work was scrubbing halls, which she described as "terrible, almost kills me."
Low pay did not warrant bus fare.-A native-born woman in Jackso:µ, Ohio, 26
years old and single, had started work in cigars at 16. She worked on the
banding machine, and as general helper in the packing department, for eight
years, until the company went out of business in December, 1927. She was out
of work for 10 months, and then got a job as hand foiler in an adjoining town,
which she gave up after only two months because the pay was so low that she
could not make her bus fare. She had been at home for more than a year when
interviewed.
Three factories closed down.-A woman in Tylersport, Pa., 51 years of age,
native born and married, had begun work in cigars as a roller at the age of 16.
She had spent about 18 years in this work when the factory in which she was
employed closed down. She was out of work about two months, and then got
a job as roller in a neighboring town. After two years that factory, too, closed
down. She was unemployed for a month and then found work as roller in a
somewhat distant town, but she quit after three months because it was so far
to go. She was out of work for more than a month, but secured a job as cigar
roller nearer home. This lasted for five mont hs, until the factory closed.
She had been unemployed for more than a year and a half at time of interview, and had given up in despair her search for a cigar job. A clothing factory
occupied the building that had housed her first cigar factory, but she had been
refused work there repeatedly. They said they needed experienced help, but
she felt that they wanted younger women. In commenting on the cigar business,
she said, "It has been dead here for five years."
·Machine factory would take no one over 30.-A native-born woman, 48 years old,
and living in Madisonville, Ky., had begun work in the cigar industry only six years
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
62
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
before. Her daughter worked in this factory and secured the job for her mother
because it was impossible for them to make a living off their farm.
Both were thrown out of work when the factory closed. The daughter went
to Louisville, where she got work in an automatic-machine factory operated by
the same company, but she could not get work for her mother there, as the
machine factory would not take people over 30.
One factory burned, another closed.-A native-born woman in Terre Hill, Pa., 23
years of age and married, had begun work as a stripper and roller in a cigar factory when she was 12. She had worked for more than seven years when the
factory burned down in February, 1927. In less than a month she secured a job
at sewing shirts, where she stayed about two months, but quit because the
machine was "so ugly." She was idle about a month, and then found another
job as cigar roller. She had worked for six months when that factory closed.
Again she was idle for about one month. She then decided to do the finishing
of shirts at home, whlch occupied her for nine months, until "it went dull" and
no longer paid. She was out of work at time of interview.
Was instructor and forelady.-A native-born woman in Madisonville, Ky., 28
years old and married, had begun work as a cigar roller when 17. She had
worked for seven years at this job when she was promoted to be instructor and
forelady. She had held that position four years when her factory closed, in
December, 1929. At time of interview she had been unemployed three months
and no work seemed to be available. Her husband, too, was out of work, and
their savings were almost exhausted.
SEPARATIONS OTHER THANJ_THE ICHIEF ONE
Due to the rapid changes in the cigar industry, many of the women
had experienced one or more separations from cigar jobs in addition
to the original shutdown, removal, or other termination that was the
basis for inclusion of the women in the study. Some reported the
loss of jobs in other industries also.
Four hundred and twelve of the women interviewed reported a loss
of job other than the chief separation. Most of the3e lost jobs, and
their number was 576, were in cigars.
All but 3 of the women reported the year of separation. For 71
of these the additional separation was prior to the chief one, and not
significant, but 301 women had had a loss of job after, and 40 had
had one both before and after, the principal separation. Almost
three-fourths of the women who reported an additional separation
had experienced such separation in 1927 or later.
Little difference was noted in the three types of localities. In
each approximately 70 per cent of the women reporting on separations had had only one besides the chief one, some 20 or 25 per cent
had had two, and the remainder had had three or more.
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH CIGARETTE WORKERS 2
During the course of the survey there were interviewed in Philadelphia and Baltimore-called here Localities B-women who had
been laid off when the cigarette factories in which they had been employed closed their doors and moved farther south.
The major closings in Baltimore had occurred early in 1925 and in
1927, respectively four years and two years before the survey, so the
former cigarette workers had become widely scattered and it was
possible to locate very few of them. In Philadelphia, on the other
2 As explained in the section on home interviews with cigar workers, the difficulties of securing exact
statements as to dates, wages, and other industrial experiences were great. For this reason the numbers
of women supplying complete data are not large, conflicting statements having been freely eliminated as
"not reported."
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
63
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
hand, the closing of the factory preceded the survey by only a few
months, so it was a simpler task to locate the former employees.
The other city in which visits were made to cigarette workers who
had lost their jobs was Richmond, Va. (Locality A). Here one large
cigarette factory had closed, due to the opening of a factory elsewhere
and the firm's large operations in other places.
Of the 259 women interviewed in cigarettes, 201 reported the
department in which they were employed at time of separation.
Almost two-thirds of these (132) were in packing departments, and
more than one-fourth (53) were in making departments. The few
remaining (11) were all in leaf departments. Little difference in
the two types of localities was noted in this respect. (See Table 11.)
TABLE
11.-Department in which employed at time of separation, by age at date of
interview and type of locality-Cigarettes
Locality A
All localities
Localities B
30
30
30
Un•
40
40
40
All Un• and years
All Un• and years
All der• and years
under and wom• der
under and
un• and wom• der
wom• 30
30
30
en years der 40 over en years 40 over en years 40 over
years
years
years
Department
- ---
------Total. .......... . . . ..
Not reporting department . .
Total reporting.. ---- · · ·-·-·
Leaf._ . ___ ____ __ ------ -- -...
259
141
58
201
31
110
11
7
75
43
15
12
Making53
Number_-- ·· -- -- · -····
Per cent . . . · -· -·------·. 100.0
-
60
31
-- - -
21
15
195
113
54
28
20
44
10
18
6
15
4
38
9
11
157
21
92
45
8
20
11
7
3
1
11
24
5
11
----1
3
------ ------ ------ ------
16
30. 2
29
54. 7
8
15.1
8
25
Operate machine· -- --·28
8
Other. -· .. · -·---·-- ·- . .
Packing:._
84
Number - -- -·--· · ---··- 132
Per cent..·--·- · -······ · 100.0 63. 6
15
14
2
6
27
20. 5
21
15. 9
13
6
------
28
------------
-
64
13
5
5
3
40
3
2
4
1
3
18
22
5
6
13
2
3
10
7
105
74
70. 5
17
16. 2
13. 3
25
23
13
13
6
4
4
7
3
7
1
------
------ ------ ------ (1) ------ -- ---- ----- ------------------------
Old machine:
Feed or operate... _.
Cup or inspect.. ....
Hand pack .. ·-· -----· -Other --- --- -- --· ---- --·
Box_._._. ___ .. _._._._._ ....
1
50
26
20
36
31
25
13
15
4
3
10
11
5
3
1
1
1
(l)
7
6
27
(1)
15
3
·---9·
4
10
------ ------ ------ 100.0
----
6
2
2
3
7
2
1
---------3-
4
------
1
35
23
20
27
1 --- ---
14
Not computed; base less than 50.
EMPLOYMENT STATUS IN LOCALITY A
Time worked in cigarette industry.
Of the 64 women interviewed in Locality A who had been deprived
of their jobs in the cigarette industry, 28 were not yet 30 years of age,
21 were 30 but not yet 40, and the remaining 15 were 40 years of age
or more. Of the 63 reporting time worked in the cigarette industry
prior to their enforced separation (see chart following), 9 had been
employed less than 5 years, 23 for 5 but less than 10 years, and
31-practically one-half-for 10 years or more. One had worked for
30 years. As would be expected, the older women had worked the
longer periods, but 6 of the 27 women under 30 had been employed
at least 10 years and another 14 had worked 5 and under 10 years.
(See Appendix 'fable VIH f<;>r details.)
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
64
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF WOMEN BY TIME WORKED IN THE
CIGARETTE INDUSTRY, BY LOCALITIES
TIME l'iORltED
UlCALITY A
Per
cant
so
10
20
... ,.-.....-----',------r-----.--------.40
0
Lesa than 5 ;rears
5 and less than 10 7eara
10 and less than 15 7eare
15 and less than. 20 yeore
20 and less tban 25 ;rear&
25 -,ears and over
■
WCALITIF.S B
Less than 5 7ears
5
and less than 10 7eara
I
10 and less than 15 ;rears
I
15 and less than 20 years
20 and les·s than 25 :rears
25 ;rears and over
TABLE
I
12.-Age of the women interviewed, by type of locality-Cigarettes
All localities
Locality A
Localities B
Age group
N umber
Percent Number
Per cent Number
Per cent
- -Total women-all reporting __ ___ __ ___
259
100. 0
64
100. 0
195
100. 0
Under 30 years ___ _______ ____ __ ______ ____ __
30 and under 40 years __ __ __ _____ ______ ___ _
40 years and over_ __ _________________ ___ ___
141
75
43
54.4
29. 0
28
113
16. 6
15
43.8
32.8
23.4
57. 9
27. 7
14.4
21
54
28
The following stories of three women deprived of their jobs in
cigarettes show how long they had worked in the industry and their
employment status at time of interview. It will be recalled that the
chief change in the industrial condition here had occurred late in 1929.
Unemployed at time of interview.-A native-born woman, 36 years of age and
married, had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 23. She had worked in the
packing department for nearly 11 years when the faciory went out of business
in Oct ober, 1929. She was unemployed 6 to 7 weeks, and then secured a temporary job as salesgirl in a 5-and-10-cent store. This lasted only one month, and
at the time of interview she had been at home and out of work for 6 months.
Her earnings for full-time work in cigarettes were $18 a week; in the store, $10.
No subsequent job.-Another na.tive-born woman, 33 years old and single, had
begun work in the cigarette factory at the age of 21. She was employed there for
11 years as a feeder at the packing machine until late in 1929, when the company
went out of business. At the time of interview she had been unemployed for
8 months.
Subsequent job.-A married woman, now 40, had begun work in a cigarette
factory at the age of 26. Of the 14 years she had actually worked about 10.
After the factory went out of bu siness she was at home for three weeks, when she
~ecured the job at a paper-box factory that she still held at time of interview.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
•
65
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
Status of employment.
. Of the 64 women visited, 21, or about one-third, had been unemployed all the time since the cigarette factory closed. Four had been
steadily employed since the separation, three of them in cigarette
jobs. Of the remaining 39 who had been employed at some time,
though not steadily, only 11 had had jobs in cigarettes.
TABLE
13.-Employment status since the chief separation, by type of localityCigarettes
Locality A
All localities
Localities B
Employment status
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
All women __________________________
259
100. 0
64
100. 0
195
100.0
Unemployed entire time _______ _____ ______
Employed all or part of time ______________
55
204
21. 2
78. 8
21
43
32. 8
67. 2
34
161
17. 4
82. 6
204
100. 0
43
161
100. 0
11
5. 4
4 ----- ---- -
7
4.3
136
66. 7
26 --- -------
110
68.3
Allment
women
who had had
employ__________________
__ _______
___
Steadily employed ___
Employed at date of interview but bad
been unemployed _______________ ___ ____ _
Unemployed
at date
of interview but______
bad
____________________
been employed
All women who had had employment_ ____
In cigarettes only _____________________
In other only ___ ____________ ____ ____ ___
In cigarettes and other ___________ ___ __
1
(1)
57
27.9
13
----------
44
27.3
204
100. 0
43
(1)
161
100.0
16
174
14
7.9
85. 7
6.4
2
145
14
1. 2
90.1
8. 7
14 ---- ----- 29 ------ -- --
------- --- --- -------
Not computed; base less than 50.
In three of the four cases following the women were unemployed at
the time of interview. The other had roomers and boarders. Two
of the three unemployed had had no subsequent work after being
deprived of cigarette jobs; one had worked two nights only.
No subsequent job.-A single woman, 30 years of age, who had begun work in
cigarettes at the age of 21, had worked about 9 years in the packing department
when the factory closed late in 1929. She was unable to find any work for three
months. Her funds were exhausted, so she gave up, and at the time of interview
she was living with relatives in the country.
A native-born woman, 38 years of age and divorced, had begun work in a
cigarette factory at the age of 24. She worked there for 13 years as a t imekeeper until the factory went out of business in 1929. At the time of interview
she had been unemployed for eight months, and, as she expressed it, she "sold
hr r insurance" to pay her board in the home of her brother and his wife.
No subsequent job, except on two nights.-A native-born woman, 30 years of age
and married, had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 17. Of the 13 years,
she was employed for at least 7; home duties kept her away from the factory the
rest of the time. In October, 1929, she was laid off because the plant went out
of business. At t he time of interview she had been unemployed for eight months,
except for two nights' work "sorting out foreign matter" in a felt factory. This
job she quit because working at night was too hard. Work in cigarettes had
been slack before the factory closed; she had been making $19 a week when
working full t ime, but toward the last only $13 to $14.
Roomers and boarders; subsequent work.-A married woman, 34 years old, had
begun work in a cigarette factory when 22. She worked there for 12 years,
until the factory closed in 1929, 9 months ago. She tried for months to get
work; she would "take lunch along" and "go from place to place." She was
told she was "too old" at a silk mill, and no cigarette factory was hiring anyone.
Her average wage in cigarettes had been $19 to $21. At the time of interview
she had roomers and boarders and did washing part of the time to help to keep
up payments on their home.
·
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
•
66
WOMlnN IN CIGAR AND CIGAR.ETTE INDUSTRIES
Time unemployed for industrial reasons since losing job.
Of the women who had had some employment since the separation,
39 reported on the extent of time lost for industrial reasons between
such separation and the date of interview. Four had lost no time.
Seven had lost less than 1 month; 4 in each case had lost 1 and under
2 months and 2 and under 3; 9 had lost 3 and under 6 months; and
11 had lost 6 months and more.
Practically all the women reported the time elapsed between separation and mterview a~ about eight months. A correlation of this
with the time lost by industrial causes shows that just over 50 per
cent of the women had been idle for industrial reasons more than
half the time that had elapsed since the separation.
Time lost between separation and first subsequent job.
Taking into consideration only such loss of time as was due to
industrial causes, the following shows the experience of the women
reporting on this. All but seven had lost some time for industrial
reasons between losing the cigarette job and securing another job.
Of these 36, 31 reported the extent of such loss. Twelve lost less
than 1 month, 8 lost 1 and under 2 months, 3 lost 2 and under 3
months, 4 lost 3 and under 6 months, and 4 lost at least 6 months.
TABLE
14.-Time unemployed for industrial reasons between separation and first
subsequent Job, by type of locality-Cigarettes
All localities
Locality A
Localities B
Time u nemployed for industrial reasons
between separation and first subse- 1- - - - - --1 - - - - - - - 1 - - - - , - - - - - quent job
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
- - - - -- - -Total. .. _________________________ ___
204
43
Indefinite and not reporting __ ____ __ ______ _
27
5
'I'otal reporting _________ _________________ _
177
161
l===:J=====l====!====!====!====
100. 0
38
16. 9
7
23
22
(1)
139
100. 0
23
96
16. 5
69.1
11. 5
1---------i
N one ____________________ __ _______________ _
Less than 3 months ___________________ ____
3 and less than·6 months ____ __________ ___ _
6 and less than 9 months ________________ _
12 mont hs and over ______ ____ ____________ _
1
30
119
20
7
1
67. 2
11. 3
4. 0
======
. 6 ---------- ====
------ ---:
C
16
3
1
2.2
.7
Not computed; b ase less than 50.
The two women whose work histories follow were among those
unemployed, due to industrial reasons, at the time of interview.
Subsequent job but unemployed at time of interview.-A native-born woman, 23
years old and single, had begun work in a cigarette factory as a catcher at the
age of 18. She was employed at this until the factory closed. She was out of
work then for three or four weeks, hunting for a job. She secured a temporary
one as a kitchen worker in a restaurant. She worked there for two months, but
was laid off because of the return of a former employee. At time of interview
she had been out of work four months; meanwhile, she was "visiting a bit."
No subsequent job.-A widow, native born and 35 years of age, had begun work
in a cigarette factory eight years before, when her husband died. For about
7½ years she was employed as a feeder for the packing machine; then the plant
went out of business. At the time of interview she had been out of work for
eight months. During her last six months of employment work had been slack, ·
with only about three days' work a week.
Within recent years the packing machine had been changed. The improved
machine required the same number of girls but worked much faster than the
old. The rate was 9 cents per thousand on the old machine and 7½ cents on the
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
67
new. It was possible to earn about the same on the new machine as on the old,
but the increased speed made the work much harder.
Number and type of subsequent jobs.
Of the 64 women in Locality A, one-third had had no subsequent
job, and for all these the time elapsed between separation and the
date of interview was six but less than nine months. Of the 43
reporting subsequent jobs, 34 had had one job and 9 two jobs.
Of the 34 women who had held only one job subsequent to being
separated from their old cigarette jobs, only 13 had found work in
cigarettes. Of the 9 who had held two jobs subsequent to their
separation, only 1 woman secured work in cigarettes.
The following story is that of a woman who secured her subsequent
job in cigarettes:
.
Reemployed in cigarettes.-An American woman, 30 years of age and married,
had started work in the cigarette industry at the age of 17. She operated a
making machine for 12 years. In October, 1929, the company went out of business. After this she was out of work for six or seven weeks, until she again found
.employment in cigarettes as a catcher from a making machine, where she was
working at time of interview.
Shortly before her lay-off from the original cigarette job her earnings of $25 a
week were reduced to $12 or $13 by part time. On her subsequent job she was
making $16 if she worked a full week, but there was much undertime.
Reasons for leaving subsequent jobs.
There were only 22 cases of subsequent jobs being terminated; 30
were still held at time of interview. All but one of the terminations
were due to industrial reasons.
The case histories of two young women who had had subsequent
employment follow here•.
·
Subsequent job.-An American-born woman, 22 years old and single, had worked
for a year as a timekeeper in a cigarette factory, when the plant went out of
business. After only a week at home she secured a job in a clothing factory as
a machine operator. Here she stayed for about six months. She quit this job
to complete a beauty course, which she had been studying at night. After three
weeks she secured work in a beauty parlor, and she had been an operator there
for two weeks at time of interview.
One subsequent job; unemployed at interview.-A native-born woman, 23 years
old and single, had begun work on a making machine in a cigarette factory at 16.
She had been employed there for six years when the plant went out of business.
In about a week she secured a job as a machine operator in a clothing factory,
hut she stayed only two weeks and quit because of her low earnings as an apprentice. "I'm not going to work myself to death for so little, $8 a week," was her
comment. At the time of interview she had been out of work for more than
seven months; "had tried everywhere."
Separations other than the major one.
In Locality A only 12 women reported on the termination of jobs
other than the main separation that is the basis of the study. The
12 women had lost 15 jobs. Most of them had experienced a loss
of job subsequent to the major separation; only one had experienced
one prior to and one after such separation.
EMPLOYMENT STATUS IN LOCALITIES B
Time worked in cigarette industry.
In Localities B the 195 women interviewed who had been deprived
of their jobs in cigarette manufacture were, on the whole, younger
than those in Locality A. Almost three-fifths (57.9 per cent) were
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
68
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
less than 30 years of age. More than one-fourth (27.7 per cent) were
30 but less than 40, and one-seventh (14.4 per cent) were 40 or more.
(See Table 12.)
As would be expected from the proportion of younger women,
considerably more had had but little experience in the industry.
Almost one-fourth (23.4 per cent) of the 184 women reporting the
time they had been employed h ad worked less than 5 years, the
remainder being about equally divided (70 and 71) between 5 and
under 10 years and 10 years and over. Five had worked for 25 years
or more, 1 for as much as 31 years. (See chart on page 64.)
The experience of three women in the cigarette industry and their
employment after being deprived of their cigarette jobs are illustrated
in the following work histories. T he chief industrial changes in these
localities had occurred at dates v arying from less than six months
ago to as much as four years ago.
One subsequent job; great reduction in wages.-A.n Italian woman, 33 years of
age, had begun work in a cigarette factory at the age of 23. Of these 10 years
she had act ually worked nine. The factory went out of business in 1929, and
she was unemployed for six weeks. At the end of that time she secured work as
a machine operator in a shirt factory, .and she was there at time of interview.
While employed on cigarettes she made $21 to $22 a week, but at shirt manufacturing she made only $6 to $7, because work was so slack.
Three subsequent jobs.-An American woman, 42 years old and single, had
begun work in the cigarette industry as a girl of 12, doing stamping and labeling.
She worked there for 25 years, and then the firm left the city. She moved with
it to its new location as an instructor, but remained for only three months because
she wanted to return home. She was unemployed for one month, when she
secured a job as a matron with the telephone company, where she worked for
four months. After about two months' unemployment she secured work in the
chocolate-sirup department of a can dy factory, where she had worked for about
four years at time of interview. She is quoted as saying," I gave my life to an
industry that left me when too old to find anything else as good."
Four subsequent jobs.-A single woman, 37 years old, had begun work in
cigarettes at the age of 14. She had worked there for 21 years when the firm
left the city in 1927. She was unemployed for about a week, and then secured
a job examining shirts in a clothing factory. She was there only one month,
when she was laid off. After about two weeks she secured work as a packer and
examiner in a candy factory. where she st ayed for only about two weeks, because
the smell of chocolate made her sick. Her next employment was in cigars,
operating an automatic making machine, where she was employed about four
months until that firm also lefL the city. After this work she was unemployed
for three or four months, when she secured a job as a press operator in a laundry.
At time of interview she had had two a dvances in wages since beginning in the
laundry. Her comment was, "Guess I'm too old to learn anything nice now."
She was keenly disappointed when the cigar company left the city, because she
had hoped her job held a chance for a dvancement. "Felt more at home there
than anything else tried; was promoted after two weeks."
Status of employment.
Thirty-four of the 195 women (17.4 per cent) had been unemployed
the entire time since the original separation. Only 7 had had steady
employment for the entire time, and all of these in industries other
than cigarettes. Of the remaining 154 women, only 16 had held any
jobs in cigarette manufacturing; 138 had had one or more jobs but
not in the cigarette industry to which they were trained.
The three women whose work histories are given here all had had
subsequent employment, one or more jobs, and all were employed at
time of interview.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
69
One subsequent Job.-An American-born woman, 25 years old and single, had
begun work in cigarettes at the age of 20. She had been employed in a shoe
factory before this. After four years' work in cigarettes, feeding the packing
machine, she lost her job because the company went out of business in May, 1929.
She was unemployed for about 3½ months, during which time she was not well.
Then a friend secured a job for her at a straw-hat factory, where she used a power
sewing machine. Her earnings in cigarettes were from $18 to $20; in hats,
at the time of interview, they were from $10 to $15.
Three subsequent Jobs.-A woman about 35 years of age, native born and
married, had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 24. She had worked there
for about 11 years when, in May, 1929, the firm went out of business. She was
out of work only one day, at once securing a job as machine operator in an
underwear factory. There she stayed for six weeks, when she left for a better
job. This was assembling in a radio plant, where she was employed for five
months. Then she was laid off because work was slack. After two or three
days she secured a job with a radio-cabinet company, where she still was employed
at time of interview. Her husband, who was employed at the same cigarette
factory, had been out of work most of the time since the lay-off.
This woman had earned $21 to $22 a week at cigarettes. At underwear she
earned as much as $13. Har first radio job paid $16 while learning, and she
earned as high as $28 on piecework, but the industry is seasonal. At the
second radio job she had not yet had a full week and earnings had been only $9
or $10 a week.
A young woman of 20, native born and single, had begun work in the cigarette
industry at the age of 16. She worked as a cupper at a packing machine for four
years, until the company went out of business. She was unemployed for two
weeks, and then secured work as a coil winder in a radio plant, but was laid off
after seven weeks because work was slack. After two weeks she found employment in another radio factory, where she stayed one month, again being laid
off because of slack work. After two weeks she secured a job as a sales clerk
in a 5-and-10-cent ~tore, where she had been for five weeks at time of interview.
In cigarelites she had made $20 to $25 a week, in the 5-and-10-cent store her
wage was $12 a week for very long hours.
Time unemployed for industrial reasons since losing job.
Of the women who had found some employment since their separation from the cigarette industry, 135 reported on the time lost for
industrial reasons between such separation and the interview. Ten
women had lost no time. Eighty had lost less than 3 months and
32 had lost 3 and less than 6 months; together these comprised well
over four-fifths of the total. Only 13 women had lost as much as 6
months, 5 of these losing from 1 to 2 years. Three-eighths of all the
women reporting on unemployment had lost at least half of the time
elapsed since the separation. (See Appendix Table IX.)
The women were about 64 per cent under 30 years of age, and an
analysis of the figures by age is not productive.
·
Time lost between separation and first subsequent job.
Of the women who found jobs, almost seven-eighths (85.7 per cent)
lost some time for industrial reasons before finding them. Of these,
116 reported the amount of time lost. Sixty-two women lost less
than 1 month, 20 lost 1 and under 2 months, 14 lost 2 and under 3
months, and 16 lost 3 and under 6. Only 4 lost as much as 6 months,
1 of these-a woman of 40 or more-being unemployed for 15 and
under 18 months. (See Table 14.)
Unemployment due to industrial reasons after the separation from
the cigarette job is shown in this work history.
Three subsequent Jobs.-A native-born woman of 21 had begun work in cigarettes at the age of 17. She had worked as a packing-machine operator for three
years when the factory shut down. She was unemployed for more than two
months, and then secured a job in a radio factory. She quit this job after only
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
70
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
a few weeks and went to another radio factory, where .she was laid off after
working two months. In about six weeks she found work in a department
store, putting price tags on goods, and was still there at time of interview. While
employed at cigarettes she earned from $19 to $21 a week; in the store, $13
a w~ek.
Almost one-tenth of the 194 women had lost no time up to date of
interview. Of those who did lose time, 148 reported its extent.
About one-eighth had been unemployed the entire time and almost
as many four-fifths of the time. One in three of the women had lost
less than one-fifth of the time, and one in four had lost one-fifth and
less than two-fifths.
Two subsequent jobs.-A married woman, 27 years of age, had begun cigarette
work at 21 and had worked four of the six years. She operated a packing machine. After the company went out of business she secured a job in a radio
factory, where she was laid off due to slack work after only four or five weeks.
At the time of interview she was employed in a sugar refinery at packing sugar.
Her total lost time was between one and two months.
In cigarettes she made $22 to $23 a week, in radio about $18, and at packing
sugar $12.50.
Number and type of subsequent jobs.
More than one-sixth (17.4 per cent) of the women reporting had
held no subsequent job. Of the 160 reporting as to number of subsequent jobs, almost one-half had held one job only, close on threetenths had held two, and slightly less than one-fourth three or more.
One-eighth of those not yet 30 years of age, as compared with more
than one-fifth of those 40 years of age or over, had held no job. Of
those who reported one or two subsequent jobs, a very large proportion had jobs in work other than cigarettes. Of those who had held
three jobs or more, about one-fourth had held jobs in the cigarette
industry and other lines as well. (See Table 13 and Appendix Tables
IX and X.)
A total of 309 subsequent jobs had been held by the 160 women
reporting. Almost four-fifths of these were in manufacturing pursuits. More than one-fourth of the manufacturing jobs were in
electrical goods, and the next largest group were in tobacco, only one
in three of these being in cigarettes. Textiles came next in number of
jobs, and clothing and food followed.
In manufacturing, almost all the jobs in electrical work were held
by women under 30, as were exactly one-half of those in tobacco,
more than seven-tenths of those in textiles, and more than one-half
of those in clothing.
In occupations other than manufacturing, 15 of the 20 store jobs
were held by women under 30. The 13 jobs held in domestic service
were about evenly distributed among the different age groups.
Reasons for leaving subsequent jobs.
Of the 309 subsequent jobs held by these women, 193 had been
terminated, with reason reported in 189 cases. More than fourfifths of the last named-9 cases in cigarettes and 14 7 in other pursuits- were stopped for industrial reasons. Less than one-tenth
(8.3 per cent) of these industrial reasons were plant or department
shutdowns, but almost one-half were lay-offs, temporary or otherwise.
All the lay-offs were in jobs other than cigarettes. Age seemed to
have little effect on the number of jobs terminated for specific reasons.-
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
lIOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
71
The young girl whose work history follows had experienced two
separations from jobs.
Two subsequent jobs.-An American-born girl, 19 and single, had begun work
in the cigarette industry at the age of 17. She had worked for two years as hand
packer and general helper when the department in which she worked was closed,
in April, 1929. She was out of work for five months, and then secured a job as
wrapper in a candy factory. This job she kept for only one month, because there
was "not enough pay." After one week she found work as salesperson in a
department store, where she had been for three months at time of interview;
During the past year she had studied stenography and typewriting at night, and
hoped to find an office job when she :finished the course.
While working on cigarettes she made $19 to $20 a week, in candy $10 (and
$3 for overtime), and in the store she was making $18 to $20 with commission.
Separations other than the major one.
In these localities 68 women had held 93 jobs that had not been
permanent and whose dates of termination -they reported. By far
the largest part of the terminations had occurred in 1929, nearly
all subsequent to the major separation. Only three women had suffered a loss of job prior to the chief separation, and no woman had
had one before and after as ·well.
The following is an example of a woman who experienced two shutdowns and one lay-off and secured another job each time.
~A native-born woman, 48 years of age and single, had begun work in the
cigarette industry at the age of 21. She had worked for about 24 years as examiner and packer when the plant closed, in January, 1925. She was unemployed
for only a few days, when she secured a job at the same work in another factory,
which she kept for 2½ years. Then that plant, too, closed and left the city.
After three months she secured a job at packing candy, where she worked for three
months, until the season was over. After 1½ years of unemployment and lpoking
for work she secured a job as inspector in a tinware plant, where she was employed at the time of interview.
The woman's comments are interesting: "Could not get a job, tried everywhere, walked and walked. When you are old, no one bothers about you. Every
· one wants experienced help. I would have paid to learn a job."
EARNINGS BEFORE AND AFTER THE SEPARATION
Occupation and age.
Of the 259 women interviewed, 141 (54.4 per cent) were under 30
years of age, 75 (about 29 per cent) were 30 and under 40, and only
43-1 woman in 6-were as much as 40.
The women had been preponderately (185 of the 259) in making
and packing departments, and they were even more preponderately
(195 of the 259) in Localities B, where cigarette jobs now were few
or none.
Of the 53 women who had been in making departments, 42 had
been feeding or operating the making machine. Two-thirds of these
were 30 and under 40 years of age.
Of the 132 who had been in packing departments, 80 had worked
on the old packing machine and 28 had done hand packing. None
had worked on the new type of machine. Of the 80 who had worked
on machines, 58 were under 30; 50 of these, and all the 28 hand
packers, were in Localities B.
Earnings of the women from making departments.
Among the 53 women who had been in making departments, the
first subsequent job of only 8 was also in the cigarette industry; 27
found employment in other industries and 18 had no subsequent job.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
72
WOMEN lN CIGAR AND ClGARETTE INDUSTRIES
As many as 35 of the 53 women reported the week's earnings they
were receiving when the separation came. In some cases these were
far below normal, having begun to decline. The range was from $10
to $25, but only 5 women were below $17 and only 4 were above $23.
For 22 women the amounts of the earnings in the last cigarette
job and the first subsequent job were secured. These figures follow.
They are too small for percentages but speak for themselves.
Week's earnings
Last
cigarette
job before
separation
First subsequent
job 1
22
22
T otal. _____ ______ __ ______ __ ___ _
1 - --
Less than $15.... . __ ___ ___ ____ _____ ___
$15 and less than $18_____ _______ ____ _
$18 and less than $2L ______________ __
$21 and less than $24 ____________ ____ _
$24 and over___ ________ _________ _____ _
t
- - - 1 - - -- 1
2
4
6
9
1
13
7
1
1
In only 2 cases was the subsequent job in the cigarette industry.
Unpublished details show that all but 3 of these women had lower
earnings than before-14 of the 19 at least $5 less. The greatest
declines, showing losses of from $9 to $16 a week, were as follows:
Had been getting-
Wage on first subsequent job was-
$20 ·_______
- -- - - - -___
- - -___
- - __
- - -_____
- - - - -~
- - - - - - - - - - - -______
- - - - - _$21
_____________
$22-------------- ______
- --- ---~-- ----- - -- - - -___
-$23 _____ ___ _______
____ -____________
$24 _____ ________ ____ _______________________
$1Q
$11 and $12.
$~
$7 and $10.
$15.
Earnings of the women from packing departments.
Among the 132 women who had been in packing departments, the
first subsequent job of only 13 was in the cigarette industry; 100 had
found employment in other industries and 19 had no subsequent job.
The fact that 85 per cent of the packing-department workers, in contrast to 66 per cent of the making-department workers, had found
subsequent employment probably is due largely to the youth of the
packers, of whom the proportion under 30 years of age was more
than twice that of the makers.
Ninety of the 132 women reported the week's earnings they were
receiving when the separation came. As was true of making departments, earnings were already below normal in a number of cases, as
the minimum indicates. The range was from $5 to $30 a week, but
only 8 women were below $15 and only 6 were above $23.
For 59 women it is possible to show week's earnings in the last
cigarette job before the separation and in the first job secured after
that. The contrast is striking. In the cigarette industry only 3
women had received under $15 a week and 35 had received $21 and
over. But in the first jobs secured by the 59 women, only 9 received
$21 and over, and instead of the 3 receiving under $15 there now
were 28 in that wage class. The table follows:
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
73
ROME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
15.-Week's earnings of packing-department workers in last job before separation and in first subsequent job (identical women)-all women reporting and
those under 30 years of age--Cigarettes
TABLE
All ages (59 reporting)
Week's earnings
Under 30 years (41 reporting)
Last cigarette job First subsequent Last cigarette job First subsequent
job 1
job 1
before separation
before separation
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
TotaL ________________ _
59
100. 0
59
100. 0
41
100. 0
41
100. 0
Under $15 ________ ___________ _
$15 and under $18 ____________
$18 and under $2L __________ _
$21 and under $24 ___________
$24 and over_ ______ ______ _____
3
7
14
31
4
5. 1
11. 9
23. 7
52. 5
6. 8
28
47. 5
22. 0
15. 3
5. 1
10. 2
1
1
2. 4
3.4
26.8
58.5
9.8
18
8
7
3
5
43. 9
19. 5
17. 1
7. 3
12. 2
13
9
3
6
11
24
4
1 In only 4 cases among all women and 2 among those under 30 was the subsequent job in the cigarette
industry.
Unpublished details show that all but 14 of these had lower earnings
than before-32 of the 45 at least $5 less. The greatest declines,
showing losses of from $11 to $20 a week, were as follows:
Had been getting$21 ___________________________________
$22 ___________________________________
$23------------------------ -~-------$24 ___________________________________
$30 ___________________________________
Wage on first subsequent job was-
$6and $10.
$10.
$10and
$11.
$10.
$10, $14, and $16.
The four women whose first subsequent job was in cigarettes
reported earnings as high or higher than before. Five women entering
other lines of employment also materially improved their wage status.
' The younger women from packing departments appear to have
secured subsequent jobs somewhat more readily than did the older
women, but the earnings data indicate that in such subsequent jobs
their youth was of less advantage in the matter of wages than it had
been in the cigarette industry. For example, the proportion with
earnings in cigarette packing of $21 or more was 52.2 per cent of all
women and 67.2 per cent of those under 30 years. But in the first
subsequent job the difference according to age was slight: The proportion paid $21 or more was 14.3 per cent of all women and only
17 .8 per cent of those under 30 years.
A tabulation of all the packing-department women reporting, not
confined to identical women describing conditions before and after
the separation, makes this comparison for considerably larger numbers
and shows about the same condition. The table follows.
126898°-32--6
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
74
WOMEN IN ClGAR A D ClGARETTE I DUS'l'RIES
16.-Week's earnings of packing-department workers in last job before separation and in first subsequent joo--all women reporting and those under 30 years
of age-Cigarettes
TABLE
All ages
Week's earnings
Under 30 years
Last cigarette job First subsequent Last cigarette job First subsequent
job t
job 1
before separation
before separation
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
--- ------
TotaL _________________
90
100.0
63
100.0
58
100.0
45
100.0
Under $15 __ ________ ______ ____
$15 and under $18 ___ _________
$18 and under $2L __ _________
$21 and under $24 ___ ___ ___ ___
$24 and over_ __ ___ _______ __ ____
8
8. 9
12. 2
26. 7
45.6
6. 7
31
13
10
3
6
49.2
20.6
15. 9
4.8
9.5
2
3
14
3.4
5.2
24. 1
56.9
10.3
21
8
8
3
46. 7
17. 8
17.8
6. 7
11.1
11
24
41
6
33
6
5
1 In only 5 cases among all women and 3 among those under 30 was the subsequent job in the cigarette
industry .
Earnings in Locality A.
Only 33 of the 64 women in Locality A reported the last wage received in the cigarette job before the separation. Due to their being
so few, the median of the earnings has not been computed, but their
range was from $5 to $28. The wages on jobs subsequent to the
separation did not reach so high a figure as $28. The highest figures
reported were $22 for subsequent work in cigarettes and $16 for work
in other lines. Without exception, the highest amounts, both before
and after the separation, were earned by women under 30 years of
age. (See Appendix Table XI.)
Two examples of reduction in wages are given below:
A native-born woman, 31 years old and single, had been employed in the cigarette industry from the time she was 15. She had worked for 15 years as a repairer
and inspector when the factory closed, late in 1929. She was unemployed for
two or three weeks, when through a friend she secured a job in a meat-packing
plant. This job lasted only one month, because work was slack. She was unemployed for three months, and then secured the job at sorting and picking waste
out of cot ton that she held at time of interview. This woman made $15 to $17
in cigarettes and $12 in meat packing, but $7.35 is not unusual in her present job.
Another native-born woman, 30 years old and single, had begun work in the
cigarette industry at the age of 19. She was employed in the packing department
for 10 years, until the factory closed in October, 1929. She was out of work until
nearly Christmas, "disheartened looking for work." She then got a temporary
job in a printing and binding establishment, where she was laid off after one
month, but two months later she was reemployed there and still had the job at
time of interview.
.
While working on cigarettes she made $19, but her wage in the printing plant
is $8 weekly. She said, "Lucky I have a father t o support me."
Earnings in Localities B.
The wage received on the last cigarette job prior to the separation
was reported by 137 women in Localities B. The median of their
week's earnings was $21.45, and the range was from $12 to $30. Only
5 women had their first subsequent job in cigarettes. Of 119 women
whose first subsequent job was in some other industry, 88 reported
their week's earnings. The median for the 88 was $14.25, a considerable loss from the former earnings ($21.45) in cigarettes, and the range
was from $6 to $29. As was the case in Locality A, the highest
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HOME INTERVIEWS WITH DISPLACED WORKERS
75
amounts, both before and after the separation, were earned by women
under 30 years of age. (See Appendix Table XL)
Reduced wages in subsequent jobs are illustrated by the two work
histories following:
Reduction in wages on subsequent job.-A girl of 18 had worked as a machine
stripper for two years, when the factory went out of business in September, 1929.
She at once secured work in a hosiery mill, as a folder, where she worked for two
months until she was transferred to a job as helper on the boarding machine, where
she still was at time of interview.
While working on cigarettes she earned $19 to $20 a week-she said, "I bought
nice clothes then "-but work in the hosiery :mill had been slack ever since she
took the job. The hours had been from 9 to 3, with no work on Saturday. While
employed as folder she earned $8 a week; her last pay was $7. She said, "I'm
sick and tired of it."
Many jobs.-An American-born woman, 21 years old and single, had begun
work in cigarettes at the age of 18. She had worked as a cupper for three years
when the factory closed, in January, 1929. She was out of work for two weeks
and then secured a job as spotter in a dry-cleaning establishment. There she
remained for seven months until laid off. She was out of work for one week, and
then found work as an assembler in a radio factory. After a few weeks there she
again was looking for work, which she secured in another radio plant. This
lasted only a few weeks, and again she was unemployed for about a week. Her
next work was as a packer of baby clothes; this lasted only two weeks. After a
few days she secured work in the stock room of a department store, and there she
had been employed for one month at time of interview. On cigarettes she made
$22 to $23 a week, in the department store $15 a week, "and this is more than most
of the girls make, because it's a heavy job, lots of lifting."
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PART V.-PERSONAL INFORMATION ABOUT WOMEN
STILL EMPLOYED
In this study of the cigar and cigarette industries, as .of any other,
facts concerning the women workers themselves are of interest to the
employers and to the communities of which the workers are a part.
Information was obtained from a large number of employed women
on age, nativity, marital status, and time worked in the industry.
These factors, important in themselves, are especially significant when
correlated with earnings (see pages 95-99 and 110-112), and they
assist in presenting a picture of the social and economic conditions
of the women employed in the cigar and cigarette industries.
THE CIGAR WORKERS
A total of 14,182 women, well over one-half (56.5 per cent) of all
included in the cigar study, made out the cards calling for personal
information that were distributed in the plants while the pay rolls
were being copied. Naturally, not every card returned by the women
was complete in all details. Furthermore, not every woman who
made out a card had been at work in the week for which pay-roll
figures were secured; nor did every woman for whom pay-roll information was available make out a personal card. The numbers vary
from about 12,000 (time in the industry) to close on 14,000 (age and
marital status).
Since Florida in 1929 ranked third among States according to value
of cigars produced, data regarding the women in this industry obtained in the survey of Florida industries made by the Women's
Bureau in 1928 are included here. The study covered 2,835 women
in 14 cigar factories. For about 1,300 of these women, facts regarding personal history were obtained from cards made out by the
women themselves.
Age.
Of the 14,182 women who made out personal cards, all but 295
reported age. Of this large number reporting, more than one-half
(51.9 per cent) were less than 25 years old. Almost three-tenths were
below 20 years and more than one-eighth were not yet 18. In fact,
as many as 308 girls, two-thirds of them in packing departments,
gave their ages as below 16.
By far the largest group of those at least 25 years of age were 30
and under 40, 3 in 7 being so reported. These comprised 20.6 per
cent of all the women who reported age. Although 14.5 per cent of
the total were at least 40, only a small number, 1.2 per cent of the
total, had reached 60 years.
More than one-half of the girls 16 and under 18 years and more
than two-thirds of those 18 and under 25 years were in cigar-making
departments, in each case preponderately in machine making. Other
large groups were in packing. From the group 25 and under 30
76
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PERSONAL INFORMATION ABOUT EMPLOYED WOMEN
77
years, however, to and including 50 and under 60 years, though most
of the women still did cigar making, it was as handworkers instead of
machine workers-striking evidence of the importance of youth in
adapting oneself to machine operating.
Women who were as much as 60 years of age had a larger number in
the stripping departments than in cigar making.
In the Florida survey 1,257 white and 186 negro women reported
age. One-half (50.2 per cent) of the white and nearly two-thirds
(65.6 per cent) of the negroes were under 25. This figure for white
women is very similar to that for white women in the States covered
in the present study, in which 53.8 per cent of those reporting were
under 25.
Nativity.
Of the 12,580 women who reported as to their nativity, three-fourths
(75.2 per cent) were native born. The proportions of native and
foreign born workers in the leaf, stripping, and cigar-making departments were not greatly unlike those of the group as a whole. In
packing, however, with one-third of its workers girls under 18 years,
well over 90 per cent of the employees were native born.
In the cigar-making departments native women were fairly evenly
divided between hand and machine workers, but the proportion of
foreign-born women making cigars by hand was much greater than
the proportion making them by machine. In the packing and
shipping departments the proportions of foreign born were smaJl6.5 per cent and 9.7 per cent, respectively.
Of the 1,432 women in cigar factories in Florida who reported
nativity and race in the State survey, 1,245 were white and 187 negro.
All but 74 of the 1,245 were native born, and more than one-third of
the foreign born were Cubans.
Marital status.
All but 391 of the women furnishing personal data reported as to
their marital status. Of the 13,791 reporting, practically one-half
(49.9 per cent) were single, nearly two-fifths (39.3 per cent) were
married, and slightly more than one-tenth (10.8 per cent) were
widowed, separated, or divorced.
Unpublished figures show that of the 11,312 women who reported
as to color as well as marital status, 10,627 were white and 685 were
negro. Of the white women, more than one-half (53.3 per cent)
were single, approximately two-fifths (37 .6 per cent) were married,
and the remainder (9.1 per cent) were widowed, separated, or divorced.
Of the negro women, about 3 in 10 (29.6 per cent) were single, somewhat less than one-half (45.7 per cent) were married, and about onefourth (24.7 per cent) were widowed, separated, or divorced.
In the leaf department, where one-half the women were at least 30
years of age, just over two-fifths (41.8 per cent) were married, about
three-tenths (29.9 per cent) were widowed, separated, or divorced,
and less than three-tenths (28.4 per cent) were single. In the stripping department, and here, too, more than one-half were at least 30,
almost one-half (47.8 per cent) were married and about one-third
(34.3 per cent) were single. Less than one-fifth ·(18 per cent) gave
their status as widowed, separated, or divorced.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
78
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
In the cigar-making department as a whole, with 8,920 women
reporting age, nearly one-half (48.6 per cent) were single. Of the
group employed at hand-making processes, with the largest proportion over 30, less than one-third (30.7 per cent) were single, while of
those working at machine processes-a much younger group-more
than two-thirds (69.3 per cent) were single.
As would be expected from the large proportion of women under 20
years of age in the packing and shipping departments, 74 per cent
and 84.5 per cent, respectively, were single.
.
Of the white women in the Florida study who reported as to marital
status, three-tenths (30 per cent) were single, more than two-fifths
(43.6 per cent) were married, and more than one-fourth (26.4 per
cent) were widowed, separated, or divorced. Approximately onethird of the negro women fell in each of the three groups.
Time in the cigar industry.
Of the 11,885 women by whom time in the trade was reported,
almost three-tenths (28.5 per cent) had worked in the cigar industry
at least 10 years, practically 10 per cent (9.7) at least 20 years.
Three women gave their years in the trade as 50. More than onefifth of all (22.5 per cent) had worked 5 and under 10 years. The
34.3 per cent with 1 and less than 5 years in · the trade were fairly
evenly divided, but the 4-year group was the smallest. The 14.6
per cent who had been less than a year at work showed nearly twothirds of their number employed less than 6 months.
Only 199 women in the leaf departments reported their time in the
industry, and about 45 per cent of these had worked 1 and under 5
years. More than one-fourth had worked less than a year and practically one-fifth had had 5 and less than 10 years' experience.
Of the 2,012 women in the stripping departments, more than onethird had been in the industry 1 and under 5 years and just under
20 per cent in each case had been 5 and under 10 years and less than
1 year. These departments had one of the largest proportions with
experience of at least 10 years, more than one-fourth of all being in
that group.
The 7,875 cigar makers reporting had about one-third with experience of 1 and under 5 years and one-third with experience of 10 years
or more, due to the fact that well over one-half the hand makers had
been at least 10/ears in the trade and over three-fourths the machine
makers had ha less than 5 years' experience. Another good-sized
group-nearly one-fourth-of the machine makers had been at work
less than a year. More than two-fifths of the 1,481 women in the
packing departments who reported their time in the industry were in
the group 1 and under 5 years. Almost one-fourth had begun work
within the year, but about 15 per cent had been in the trade at least
10 years.
·
Exactly one-half of the 140 in the shipping departments had begun
work within the past 6 months. Only 17 women had worked as much
as 5 years.
In the Florida survey, almost three-fourths (73.6 per cent) of the
white women had been less than five years in the industry.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PERSONAL INFORMATION ABOUT EMPLOYED WOMEN
79
THE CIGARETTE INDUSTRY
Practically 2,400 cigarette workers (2,397) made out the white
cards that called for personal information as to age, marital status,
and other inquiries. The incomplete cards were few in number.
Age.
Of the 2,397 women, all but 14 re-ported age. Not far from onehalf (46.9 per cent) were under 25 years, more than one-third of these
being under 20. About one-fifth of the total were 25 and under 30
and a similar proportion were 30 and under 40. Only about oneeighth of- the women were as much as 40 years old, and practically
two-thirds of these were not yet 50.
Of the larger departments, the only one differing greatly from the
. total in age distribution is leaf work, which had more older women
and fewer under 25 than had the other departments.
Nativity.
Only 19 women failed to report their nativity, and all but 5 of
those reporting were native born. One in 8 whose color was specified were negroes, more than 90 per cent of whom were in the leaf
departments.
Marital status.
Women who failed to report on marital status were only 10 in
number. The largest proportion (42.8 per cent) were single. Less
than two-fifths (38.6 per cent) were married, and almost one-fifth
(18.6 per cent) were widowed, separated, or divorced. The department differing greatly from the total was again the leaf department,
where only 27 .3 per cent of the women were single and as many as 38
per cent gave their status as widowed, separated, or divorced. Only
13.6 per cent in the packing departments reported the broken marital
relation.
Time in the cigarette industry.
Of the 2,374 women reporting their years in the cigarette industry,
more than one-third {34.4 per cent) gave the time as 1 and under 5
years. However, as man_y as one-fourth (25.7 per cent) had been at
least 10 years in the trade and a similar proportion (26.6 per cent)
had been there 5 and under 10 years.
The large packing group agreed fairly closely with the total, but
had somewhat larger proportions with at least 5 years' experience and
a less proportion 1 and under 5 years in the trade. The opposite is
true of the leaf and making departments, where much smaller proportions had been in the industry for 5 or more years and more than twofifths reported experience of 1 and under 5 years Considerably more
in the making departments than elsewhere had begun work within
the past year.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PART VI.-WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY PAY ROLLS
WEEK'S EARNINGS IN THE CIGAR INDUSTRY
For 98 of the 110 plants included in the survey, pay rolls for a
week in 1929, selected as a representative week by some one connected
with the plant, were copied. In this way week's earnings for 22,579
women-20,824 white and 1,755 negro-were made available for
analysis. Since some of the women whose earnings were copied had
worked irregularly, there is a great variation in amounts received.
Furthermore, it must be borne in mind that few hand plants were
opera.ting full time and wages of handworkers were below normal.
To better interpret these earnings, the department in which employed, the days or hours worked, and the method of payment-time
or piece-also were copied from the pay rolls. To determine the
effect on earnings of locality and size of city, correlations for these
also have been made. Furthermore, the relation between earnings
and such factors as age and time worked in the trade is made clear
by the personal information secured from the women themselves.
On account of the large numbers much of the discussion in the text
following will be by range and median of week's earnings. (For
detailed week's earnings, see Appendix Table XX.II.)
For a much smaller number of women-only 514-year's earnings
were obtained. These records were not taken off unless the woman
was on the books for a full year-52 weeks-and had worked in at
least 44 of the 52.
MEDIAN AND RANGE OF EARNINGS
Of the 20,824 white women for whom week's earnings were secured,
more than two-thirds were in cigar-making departments, about oneeighth each were in stripping and packing departments, and only
small proportions were employed elsewhere. In the making departments more than 60 per cent of the women still were in hand processes,
but only 70 women (0.5 per cent) were out-and-out makers responsible
for the entire cigar.
The 1,755 negroes were more t han nine-tenths in the stripping departments, almost one-tenth in the leaf departments, and less than
1 per cent elsewhere.
Only in the stripping departments were there considerable numbers
of negroes. Here they constituted 36.1 per cent of all whose pay-roll
records were secured. Well over one-half of them (56.6 per cent) were
in Philadelphia, as were the solitary cigar maker and practically all
the women in the leaf departments. Almost one-third of the strippers
were in Ohio. The one packer was in Detroit.
80
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
81
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
TABLE
17.-Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Per cent distributionNumber
Department and occupation
By de- By occupartmen t pation
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -1
1 --Total ___________________ ---------- - -------_____
Earnings
1-----,-----1------Median
Maximum
- ----- ------
20, 824
100. 0 ------ ----
$16. 30
$50
---i=====~-i---------------=--=---=---=--=--=,~-~
Leaf department-general leaf work_________________
Stripping department_ _____ --- ------------------ ----
140
•7
100. 0
12. 05
19
2,830
13. 6
100. 0
11. 80
32
8. 4
45. 2
46. 4
15. 95
8. 90
13. 20
30
25
32
---1----+----,--
Select ____ --------------------------------------Hand strip _________________ ___________________ __
Machine strip_-------------------------------___
238
1,278
1,314
Cigar-making department_________________________ __
14,097
100. 0
17. 90
46
8,658
2,596
5,992
70
67. 7
61.4
18. 4
42. 5
.5
16. 65
17. 25
16. 40
16. 00
43
43
~m
38. 6
1.4
.4
36. 0
.7
19. 90
17. 25
20. 40
20. 00
18.10
~
100.0
14. 70
38
34. 6
18. 4
35. 5
2. 2
3. 9
5.4
10. 65
16. 50
18. 65
17. 70
10. 95
15. 20
31
34
38
27
22
31
----1-----1---
Hand processes ________ ____ ______________________
Bunch make ____ ---- - ----------------------Cigar roll _______________ __ __________ ___ ______
Out-and-out_ _______ -------------- - ------- - -Machine processes ___ ____ _-- -- -- __ -- _______ _____ _
Bunch-making machine ____________________ _
Cigar-rolling machine _________ ___ ___________ _
Automatic cigar-making machine _________ __ _
Examine _______________ ____ ______ __________ _
Packing department___ __ ____________________________
204
62
~~
105
2,821
Hand band and foil_ ___ ________________________ __
Machine band and foil__________________________
Shade _____________________ --- - --- ------ ------ -- _
Inspect______ __ ______ ________ ________ ___ _________
Fill containers and general__ _____________________
Various _____________________ -------------- -------
13. 5
41
37
30
27
~
~
- - --,--- - 1 - - - - t - - - - 1 - - - - 976
519
1, 001
63
109
153
Shipping department_____ __________ _________ ________
308
1. 5
100. 0
11.40
24
Miscellaneous from all departments_________________
628
3. 0
100. 0
12. 50
50
37. 3
51. 4
11. 3
23. 40
9. 95
13. 95
50
15
26
Instruct and supervise___________________________
Learners___________ _____________ _________________
Miscellaneous and general help__________________
-----1----f-----+----1----234
323
71
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
TotaL_________ _______ _________________________
Leaf department-general leaf work_________________
Stripping department_ ___ - ----- ---------------------
1,755
100. 0
$10.10
$22
144
8. 2
100. 0
10. 30
14
1, 596
90. 9
100. 0
10. 00
22
(I)
22
18
21
!=====!====!====1====!====
>-----+----,
Select_ ____ ---------------- -------- ------ ---- ---Hand strip __ --- - ----------- -- ---- ------ ------- -Machine strip_------------- - - - ------------------
24
666
906
All other ___ ---- - ----------- ------ -------------------
15
1
1. 5
41. 7
56.8
8. 65
10.80
. 9 __________ __________
16
Not computed; base less than 50.
White women.
For the 20,824 white women for whom pay-roll data were obtained,
the median of the week's earnings-one-half receiving more and onehalf less-was $16.30, and the range was from less than $5 to $50.
Naturally, the lowest amounts represent only a few hours' work.
The maximum was paid to instructors or supervisors.
Almost three-tenths of the total group were paid $20 or more.
About one-fourth were paid $10 and under $15, and somewhat more
$15 and under $20. Only about 1 in 20 earned less than $5, and l
jp, 12 were in the group at $5 but less than $10,
·
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
82
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
TABLE
18.-Earnings distribution by department-Cigars
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Women with earnings reported
All departments
Leaf department
Stripping department
Number
Number
Cigar-making department
Week's earnings
Hand processes
Total
Number
Per
cent
Per
cent
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
- ------- ---- - - Total _________ - _____ - _ 20,824
Less than $5 ________________ 1, 001
$5 and less than $10 ______ ___ 2,671
$10 and less than $15 _____ ___ 5,156
$15 and less than $20 ________ 5,782
$20 and less than $25 ____ ____ 4,581
$25 and over_ ______ ______ __ __ 1,633
100. 0
4. 8
12. 8
24.8
27.8
22. 0
7. 8
140
100. 0
2,830
100. 0
14,097
100. 0
8,658
100. 0
4. 3
304
6
26
18. 6
732
74
52. 9 1,090
34
24. 3
620
76
------- ------8
------- -------
10. 7
25. 9
38. 5
21. 9
2. 7
.3
431
1,196
2,865
4,317
3,920
1,368
3.1
8. 5
20. 3
30. 6
27.8
9. 7
278
995
2,105
2,665
1,712
903
3. 2
11. 5
24. 3
30. 8
19. 8
10. 4
Women with earnings i:eportei:l
Cigar-making
departmentContinued
Packing department
Shipping department
Miscellaneous
from all departments
Week's earnings
Machine processes
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Total ____________________
5,439
100.0
2,821
100.0
308
100. 0
628
100.0
Less than $5 ____________ __ __ __
$5 and less than $10 ___ ____ ___
$10 and less than $15 __ ____ ___
$15 and less than $20 __ __ _____
$20 and less than $25 _________
$25 and over _______ ___________
153
201
760
1,652
2. 8
3. 7
14. 0
30. 4
40. 6
8. 5
172
520
768
704
6. 1
18. 4
27. 2
25. 0
17.0
29
· 81
159
9. 4
26. 3
51. 6
31
8
59
116
200
10.1
2.6
97
9. 4
18. 5
31. 8
12. 1
15. 4
12. 7
2,208
465
480
177
6.3
--------- ---------
76
80
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
Women with earnings reported
Week's earnings
All departments
Number
Per
cent
departLeaf department Stripping
ment
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Total ______ __________ __
1, 755
100. 0
144
100.0
1,596
100. 0
Less than $5 __________________
$5 and less than $10 __________ _
$10 and less than $15 _____ __ __
$15 an~ over _______ ______ _____
167
679
767
142
9. 5
38. 7
43. 7
8.1
5
45
94
3. 5
31. 2
65.3
161
633
664
138
10.1
39. 7
41. 6
8. 6
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
--------- ---------
Other
Number
15
Per
cent
(1)
1 --------1 --------9 --------4 ---------
83
WAG~ DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT WEEK'S EARNINGS OF WOMEN
IN SELECTED DEPARTMENTS-CIGARS
WHITE IOtlllt
.&LL DEPARftO!:RTS
Leee than ts
0
t6
and 1 ... than t10
tlo
and leu than
10
20
Pe r
50
c en t·
40
5v
80
tis
tl5 and less tban t20
t20 and ewer
STIUPPIIG
LeH tban ·t6
ts
ud leH t.hen
tlO ud leH
than
tl0
tl5
tu
u11 lu& than t20
·t20
ud ewer
ldD ilAmlG
LeH tblD
■
t6
t6 ud leas
tio
•
than t10
ud less than $15
tl6 ud l■H ~ t20
t20
and ayer
MACIII]fl MAIDIG
Lue than $6
;
tio
t6
and leH thllD
tlO
and leH Ulan 1119
tl6
and °leH than t20
t20
and onr
PAClllG
Lee• than ts
ts
and leee than $10
110 and loee than
tu
tzo
tl5
and l.ese than $20
-
and onr
llmRO WOIIDI
.&LL DEPAR'nO!JITS
Less than $5
ts
and leas than
tio
$10 and leH than $15
tl6 and onr
LEAF ·
· Leu than
ts
•
ts
~ le&& t.ban $10
110
and leH t.ban $15
STBIPPDG
;Leee tbaD
ts 1111d
than $10
$10 1111d leH than
tl5
~
I
t6
lHII
i1s.
OYC'
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
I
I
84
WOMEN' IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE lNDUSTRIES
Cigar making.-In the cigar-making departments were 14,097
(67.7 per cent) of all the white women. The median of their earnings
was $1 7. 90, and the range of earnings was from less than $5 to $46.
Almost three-fifths earned $15 and less than $25, and about onetenth earned $25 or more. Slightly more than one-fifth were paid
$10 and less than $15. Only about 3 per cent received less than $5,
and about one-tenth earned $5 and less than $10.
Just over three-fifths of the women in these departments were in
hand manufacture. For these the median was $16.65, the bunch
makers having the highest median, $17 .25, and the small group of
out-and-out makers the lowest, $16. For the remainder, engaged in
machine manufacture, the median was considerably higher, $19.90.
Among these the lowest median was that of the 204 women on bunch- .
making machines, $17 .25, and the highest was that of the 62 on cigarrolling machines, $20.40. More than 90 per cent of the women in
machine manufacture worked at the automatic cigar-making machine,
and these had a median of $20.
Packing.-In the packing departments were 2,821, or 13.5 per cent,
of the white women for whom pay-roll data were obtained. The
range of earnings was from less than $5 to $38, and the median was
$14.70. Similar proportions, about one-fourth, earned less than $10,
$10 and less than $15, and $15 and less than $20, and the remainder
earned $20 or more. In these departments the differences in medians
were wide, from $10.65 for the women who did hand banding and
foiling to $18.65 for those who did shading.
Stripping.-In the stripping departments were 2,830 of all the
white women whose earnings were obtained. The range of these was
from less than $5 to $32, with a median of $11.80. Almost two-fifths
received $10 and less than $15, and almost one-fourth $15 or more.
About one-tenth were paid less than $5 and more than one-fourth
$5 and less tban $10. The hand strippers had a median of only
$8.90, while the machine strippers, a group of practically the same
size, had a median of $13.20. For the remainder, the women who
did selecting, the figure was $15.95.
Negro women.
For the 1,755 negro women included in the pay-roll study the
median earnings were $10.10. The range was from less than $5 to
$22. About one-tenth earned less than $5 and a slightly smaller
. proportion $15 or more; the remainder earned some amount between
$5 and $15.
In stripping departments, where 90.9 per cent were employed,
the median was $10. Of the 666 women who did hand stripping, the
median was $8.65, and for the 906 machine strippers it was $10.80.
(See Tables 17 and 18.)
EARNINGS AND TIME WORKED
Most of the women for whom time worked and earnings were available had their time reported only in days. For white women this
number was 14,799, in contrast to 2,211 whose time worked was
reported in hours. For the negroes the corresponding figures are
1,387 and 233.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
85
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
White women whose time worked was reported in days.
Of the almost 15,000 white women whose time worked war reported
in days, about five-sixths bad worked on 5 days or more, much the
largest part of them on 5½ days. Practically 8 per cent (7.8) had
worked on less than 4 days (more than half of them on less than 3),
and a slightly larger proportion (9.5 per cent) on 4 but less than 5
days. (See Table 19.)
For all the women whose time worked was reported in days, the
median earnings were $17 .15. As the days worked increased, the
median earnings increased up to 5½ days, but there was a considerable
decline in median for the women who had worked as much as 6 days.
This rule, as to consistent increase and then a decline where the week
was in excess of 5}~days, obtained in all departments. (See Appendix
Table XXIII.)
White women whose time worked was reported in hours.
Of the 2,211 white women whose time worked was reported in
hours, almost one-third (32 per cent) had worked 48 and undet 52
hours. For more than one-half of this group the hours exceeded 48.
One-fourth of all the women had worked less than 44 hours, 3 in 5
of these working less than 40. About 28 per cent of the total had
exceeded 52 hours. Almost two-thirds of the group last mentioned
had worked more than 54 hours; 9 had worked as much as 60.
For these 2,211 women the median earnings were $14.40, considerably less than for those whose time worked was reported in days
seen in Table 19 as $17.15. For those who worked less than 40
hours the median earnings were $7 .85, for those who worked 40 and
less than 44 hours they were $14.40, and for those who worked 44 but
less than 48, they were $14.35.
The median was much the highest ($21.40) for those who worked
exactly 48 hours, almost wholly machine makers. For the women
with longer hours the median declined almost $7. Unlike the earnings
by days worked, the amounts did not inc.rease consistently as time
worked increased.
TIME WORKED IN THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS
In the summary below may be seen the number and median earnings of the white women for whom time worked, in hours or days, was
reported by department. For the group as a whole, for the women
Time worked repor ted in days
Time worked reported in hours
Department
Number Median Number Median
of women earnings of women earnings
All departments __ --- - ----- - ------------------------- - -- -
14, 799
$17.15
2,211
$14. 40
1---+----+---t----
L eaL ____________________ --- ---- ----------------------- - --- --- _
Stripping ________ ____ __ __ ____ ---------- -- ------ - -----______ ____
20
1, 221
Cigar making_----- --- -- - --- - ----- - ----------- - --- - --- --- --- --Hand__ ____ ______ _________ __________ ___ ________________ ____
Machine_________________________________________________ __
11,220
6, 879
4,341
P acking_______ _______ __ __________ _____ ________ ________ __ _______
Shipping_________________ ____ __________________ _____ ___________
Miscellaneous from all departments ____ __ ______ ____ ___________ _
1,859
116
363
1
Not computed; b ase less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
(1)
11.05
117
589
11. 65
14. 50
18. 30
16. 95
20.15
740
55
685
16. 65
11. 50
16. 75
15. 25
11. 65 .
12. 35
393
127
245
12. 40
11. 90
12. 70
TABLE
19.-Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in days, by department-Cigars
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Women with days
worked reported
Less than 3 days
3 and less than 4
days
4 and less than 5
days
5 and less than 5½
days
5½ and less than 6
days
6 days
Department
Number
Median
Number
Median
Number
Median
umber
Median
Number
Median
Number
8,948
- -Total
Number Median
-----$14. 25
698
$20.10
Median
1 ___________________ _
14, 799
$17. 15
601
$3.60
549
$8.85
1,399
$12. 50
2,604
$15. 00
Stripping ____________ _____ ______
1,221
11. 05
50
2.15
65
5. 20
167
8. 40
482
10. 90
349
14. 95
108
11. 55
Cigar making _____ ____ ___ _______
Hand __ ____ _________________
Machine ____________________
11,220
6,879
4,341
18. 30
16. 95
20.15
440
278
162
3. 85
3. 95
3. 70
380
244
136
9. 85
9. 45
10. 70
962
605
357
13. 65
12. 60
15. 90
1,674
1,469
205
16.15
16.05
16. 65
7,337
.4, 138
3,199
20. 70
19. 60
21. 45
427
145
282
15. 35
11. 40
17:00
P acking ___________________ ______
Shipping ____________________ ____
Miscellaneous from all departments ___ ____________________ __
1,859
116
15. 25
11. 65
81
4
3. 95
74
3
7.15
233
13
(2)
398
21
14.80
(2)
1,016
(2)
10. 60
(2)
73
17. 80
12. 35
57
2
363
12. 35
25
(2)
27
(2)
21
(2)
25
(2)
163
15. 50
102
16. 70
(2)
12. 65
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
Total! ____________ _______ _
1,387
$9. 95
62
$2.30
- ------ ---- --- - -- --_
·--- ----Leaf
______________________
Stripping
115
1, 266
10. 25
9. 75
4
58
(2)
2. 25
66
$5. 75
134
8
66
5. 75
125
$7. 55
410
$9. 00
715
$10. 85
(2)
16
392
(2)
87
625
10. 45
11.15
7. 45
9. 20
~ I
1
j
Includes departments with too few women for the computation of a median, not shown separately.
Not computed; base less than 50.
z·
t:1
c:t'
w,
8.
~
~
'fft.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
20.-Median earnings of women whose time worked was report~d in hours, by department-Cigars
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Women with
hours worked
reported
Department
Less than 40
hours
40 and less
than 44 hours
44 and less
than 48 hours
48 hours
Over 48 and
less than 52
hours
56 and less
than 60 hours
52 and less
than 56 hours
60hours and
over
Num- Median Num- Median Nurn- Median Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
- - --- - - --- - - - - -- - - - - - - - --TotaL ______________________
(I)
9
180 $13. 45
2,211 $14. 40
331
$7.85
223 $14. 40
334 $14. 35
318 $21. 40
389 $14. 50
427 $15. 20
--
LeaL __ --------------------------,S tripping ____ --------------- - ----_
Cigar making _____________________
117
589
11. 65
14. 50
13
54
(1)
9. 00
6
70
14. 70
(1)
6
83
15.10
(1)
4
22
740
16. 65
123
10. 70
97
17. 25
115
14. 70
269
Hand ________________ -- ___ -- __
Machine __ -------- - ------- __ __
Packing ______________ _______ _____ _
Shipping ______________ __________ __
Miscellaneous from all departments_______________ ---- · _______
55
685
11. 50
16. 75
8
115
(1)
(I)
11.05
24
73
15. 70
393
127
12. 40
11. 90
92
10
7. 30
(1)
13
6
(1)
(1)
87
13
13. 50
245
12. 70
39
(1)
31
(1)
30
(1)
(1)
(1)
29
(1)
21
14.10
190
15. 90
16
(1)
(1)
21.45
86
16. 30
21
(1)
29
(1)
-- ------ ----- - --
(I)
(1)
(1)
19
(I)
(1)
-------- -- - ---- -
--------------(1)
3
(1)
------- ------- 12
(1)
(1)
34
153
------------- --- 269
---- -------115
14. 70
2L45
11
4
1
(1)
(1)
(1)
1
85
16. 35
3
18
63
14
13.60
(1)
55
50
11. 30
11. 70
72
31
13. 85
39
(1)
82
24. 20
11
(1)
1
(1)
(1)
119
13. 90
!
41
(1)
7
(I)
(1)
112
13.85 1
24
(1)
10
(1)
--- - ---- --------
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
---1
Total '- _________ --- --- -Stripping ___________________ ______
233
12. 70
19
(1)
10
(1)
198
13. 00
16
G1)
10
(1)
16
15
MH=1-------(1)
-- -- - - - --------
I
21 I
21
-------- --------
1 Not
2
computed; base less than 50.
Includes departments with too few women for the computa tion of a median, not shown separately.
00
---l
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
88
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
in cigar making, both hand and machine, and for those in packing,
the numbers are much larger and the medians much higher for the
women whose time worked was reported in days. These women were
largely pieceworkers. (See page 91.)
Cigar making.
Of the white women in these departments whose earnings could be
correlated with time worked, 11,220 had such time reported in days
and 740 had it reported in hours. The median earnings of the former
were $18.30. Nearly two-thirds (65.4 per cent) had worked on 5½
days, and for these the median was $20.70. For the 740 women
whose time worked was reported in hours in this department, the
median was $16.65.
Hand manufacture.-Of the 8,658 women, all white, whose pay-roll
records showed that they had worked at some hand process in cigarmaking departments, 6,934 had time worked reported, and for 99.2
per cent of these it was reported in days. Only 55 women had time
worked reported in hours.
The median earnings for those with days worked reported were
$16.95. Practically three-fifths of the total had worked on 5½ days,
and the median earnings for this group were $19.60.
As noted before, only 55 white women whose time worked was
recorded had it reported in hours. The median earnings for these
were $11.50.
Machine manufacture.-Of the 5,439 white women for whom week's
earnings were obtained and who · were working at some machine
process in the making of cigars, 5,026 had the time worked reported.
Nearly seven-eighths (86.4 per cent) of these had the time reported
in days and about one-eighth (13.6 per cent) in hours. For women
who had worked on 5½ days the median was $21.45.
For 685 white women who made cigars by machine the time worked
was reported in hours, the median earnings being $16.75. For those
who worked less than 40 hours the median was $11.05. The women
who worked 48 hours had the highest median, $21.45; for those who
had worked over 48 and under 52 hours the amount was $16.35.
More than nine-tenths (93.2 per cent) of the white women making
cigars by machine worked at the automatic cigar-making machine.
Of these 5,068 women, 4,124 had time worked reported in days and
537 had it reported in hours. The median earnings for the 4,124
were $20.25. Those who had worked on five days had a median of
$16.75, and those who had worked on 5}~ a median of $21.50. For
the 537 women for whom hours worked were reported, the median
was $16.60.
Stripping.
A total of 4,426 women for whom week's earnings were obtained
worked in these departments, and 2,830 were white women.
The 1,221 white women whose time worked was reported in days
had median earnings of $11.05. The median earnings for those who
worked on less than three days were $2.15, and from that point on
they constantly increased to $14.95 for the women who worked on
5½ days, declining for those with a 6-day week.
For the 589 white women in the stripping departments whose hours
worked were reported, the median earnings were $14.50 7 considerably
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
89
higher than the earnings for the women whose time was reported in
aays, and thus differing from other important departments. The
highest median was $15.90, for the women who worked 52 and under
56 hours.
Packing.
Of the 2,822 women in packing departments whose week's earnings
were obtained, all white but one, 1,859 white women had time worked
reported in days and 393 in hours. For the group as a whole the
median was $15.25. Nearly four-fifths (79.1 per cent) had worked
on five days or longer, and for these the median was $16.65. More
than one-half (54.7 per cent) had worked on 5½ days, and for these
the median was the highest for any group, $17 .80.
The median of the earnings for the 393 white women whose hours
worked were reported was $12.40, much lower than for those whose
time was reported in days.
The most highly skilled job in the packing department is that of
shading. At the time of the survey it had been superseded to some
extent by the foiling and cellophaning processes, these making exact
shading of less importance. Nevertheless, shading was reported for
1,001 women. For 770 of these the time worked was reported, by
days worked for 747, and by hours worked for 23. The median
earnings for the group with time reported in days were $19 .10. For
those who worked on five days or more, about five-sixths of the total,
the median earnings were $20.55, and for those who worked on 5}1z
days they were $21.70.
Negro women whose time worked was reported in days.
The 1,620 pay-roll records of negroes were 1,387 by days worked
and 233 by hours. Like the white women, more than four-fifths of
those with days reported had worked on 5 days or more, most of them
on 5½ days, but those with work on less than 4 days were a larger
proportion than was the case with white women. The median
earnings for the whole group of women were $9.95. For those who
had worked on 5 days or over the median was $10.45, and for 5½
days it was $10.85. (See Table 19.)
Negro women whose time worked was reported in hours.
Of the 233 negro women whose hours worked were reported, just
over one-half had worked 52 and under 56 hours. About one-fifth
had exceeded this; only one-eighth had worked less than 44 hours.
For the 233 women the median earnings were $12.70-$2.75 in excess
of the median for days worked, and an opposite condition from that
of white workers. For the 51.1 per cent working 52 and under 56
hours, the median was $13.90. (See Table 20.)
·
The 115 women in the leaf departments whose days worked were
reported had a median of $10.25. The vast majority of the strippers,
1,266, had days worked reported and had a median of $9.75; the 198
whose hours were a matter of record had median earnings of $13.
Nearly four-fifths (79.3 per cent) of the negro women in the stripping
departments whose time worked was reported in hours had worked
more than 48 hours in the week.
126898°-3~--7
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
90
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARE'l'TE INDUSTRIES
METHOD OF PAYMENT
In the payment of wages two very different methods are in common
use. One is based on the time worked, measured by the hour, day,
week, or longer period, while the other, the piece-rate system, depends
on the amount of work completed. In some companies both systems
are in use. In many cases women on a new job are paid on a time
basis while learning, as a means of encouragement, and later are
changed to piecework.
White women.
A total of 20,815 white women had earnings and method of payment
reported. Nearly seven-eighths (86.3 per cent) of these were paid on
a piece-rate basis, slightly more than one-ninth (11.9 per cent) on a
time basis, and less than 2 per cent on both time and piece. The
median earnings were the lowest, $13.50, for the women paid by both
time and piece, next higher, $\3.75, for those paid by time, and highest, $16.85, for the pieceworkers. (See Table 21.)
T A BLE
21.- N umber and median earnings of timeworkers and of pieceworkers, by ·
department-Cigars
A.-WHITE WOMEN
All women
D epartment
N umber
All departmen ts ___ ________ 20, 815
Per
cent
Timeworkers
1
Median Numearnber
ings
P ieceworkers
edian NumP er Mearncent
ber
ings
Per
cen t
11. 9
$13. 75
17,958
86. 3
92.1
12.10
2
1. 4
(2)
-(2)-
100.0
$16. 30
2,481
100. 0
12.05
129
Stripping __ _____ _____ ____ ______ __ 2, 828
100. 0
11. 80
838
29. 6
15. 10
1,980
70. 0
238
1, 277
1, 313
100. 0
100. 0
100. 0
15. 95
8. 90
13. 20
236
278
324
99. 2
21. 8
24. 7
15. 95
14. 00
15. 60
1
997
982
.4
78. 1
74. 8
Cigar m aking ______ _____ ___ __ ____ 14,094
Leaf_ ______ - - --- - __ _- - __ _- - _- ____
Select
_- -_____
- - - - -___
- - __
- - -________
- - - - - - - -___
-Han
d ___
M achine ______ __ ___ ______ ___
-
-
140
- -- -- -
--
M ed ian
earnings
$16. 85
10. 10
7. 55
12. 25
100.0
17. 90
202
1. 4
15. 50
13, 643
96. 8
18.10
8, 656
5,438
100. 0
100. 0
16. 65
19. 90
44
158
.5
2. 9
(2)
16. 60
8, 608
5,035
99. 4
92. 6
16. 65
20. 20
Packing ____ __________ ______ ____ _ 2, 818
Shipping ___ __ ___ __ ________ ______
308
Miscellaneous from all depar tmen ts ____ __ __ _______ ____ __ ____
627
100.0
100.0
14. 70
11. 40
508
262
18. 0
85.1
11. 95
11. 75
2,Zl7
42
80. 8
13. 6
(2)
100.0
12. 50
542
86.4
12. 90
14
2. 2
(2)
11. 50
1, 306
74. 4
H and ____ _____ - -- _-- _____ __ __
M achine _____ _________ ___ ___
15. 65
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
All departm ents _______ __ __
1,755
100.0
10.10
446
25. 4
LeaL ________ ____ ______ _____ _____
144
100.0
10. 30
144
100.0
Stripping _____ ____ ____ ___________
1, 596
100. 0
10.00
288
18. 0
Select_ ___- - - - - - - - - - __ - - - - - - - Hand __ ______ __- -- - - --- - - -- - M achine _____ ________________
24
666
906
(2)
(2)
100. 0
100. 0
8. 65
10. 80
24
25
239
All other departments _______ ____
15
(2)
(2)
14
1
2
3. 8
26. 4
9. 25
10. 30 - -- - - - -- - - ----- --- --- -13. 30
1, 305
81. 8
9.25
(2)
(2)
- - --- -- - ----- --------641
96. 2
8. 45
13. 25
73. 3
10. 05
664
(2)
1 ---- - --
(2)
Totals include 376 white wom en and 3 negro women who work ed oo oot h timework and piecework,
N ot computed ; base less than 50,
.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
91
Nearly 97,:per cent of the women in the cigar-making departments
worked on a piece-rate basis. For the pieceworkers the median
earnings were $18.10, as compared with $14.35 for the much smaller
group who worked on both time and piece and $15.50 for those who
did time work only.
Practically all (99.4 per cent) of those employed at hand making of
cigars had been paid a piece rate. The median for this group was
$16.65.
In the three specific processes done by hand, namely, bunch
making, cigar rolling, and out-and-out cigar making, more than 99
per cent in each were pieceworkers. Tlie median earnings in these
three processes were $16 for those in out-and-out making, $16.45 in
rolling, and $17 .25 in bunch making.
In machine work, as in hand manufacture, more than nine-tenths
(92.6 per cent) had been employed on piecework. Of the small
remainder, less than two-fifths (39.2 per cent) were on a time basis,
the others being on both time and piece. The median earnings of the
timeworkers were $16.60 and of the pieceworkers $20.20.
The earnings of the white women employed at piece rates on the
bunch-making, cigar-rolling, and automatic cigar-making machines
had medians of $17.30, $20.40, and $20.25, respectively. For those
who examined and inspected machine-made cigars pay was on a time
basis for most of the women, and the median earnings for these
were $19.
In packing departments there were 2,818 white women for whom
week's earnings and method of payment were reported. About onefifth (18 per cent) were paid on a time basis, slightly more than fourfifths (80.8 per cent) did piecework, and about 1 per cent were on both
time and piece. The median for those on timework was $11.95, while
for pieceworkers it was $15.65.
More than one-third of the women in packing departments whose
earnings and method of pay were secured were shaders. Of these,
more than nine-tenths (94.5 per cent) were employed at piecework.
The median earnings for the timeworkers were $7.75, as compared
with $19 for the pieceworkers.
In stripping departments week's earnings and method of payment
were reported for 2,828 women. Of these, seven-tenths were paid at
piece rates and nearly three-tenths (29.6 per cent) on a time basis.
The median earnings of the pieceworkers were $10.10. For the timeworkers they were considerably higher, $15.10. The unusual condition of a higher median for timeworkers may be due in part to the
irregularity in time worked by the hand strippers paid at piece rates
and to the large proportion of older women thus employed.
Selecting was paid almost entirely (99.2 per cent) on a time basis.
The median earnings of this group of timeworkers, $15.95, were the
hig~est of any in the stripping departments.
Nearly four-fifths (78.1 per cent) of the hand strippers were paid
on a piece-rate basis, and all but two of the remainder on a time basis.
The median earnings for the pieceworkers were $7 .55 and those for
the timeworkers $14. This great difference, one median almost
twice the other, may be ascribed in part, as mentioned above, to the
irregularity of time worked and the age of the hand strippers.
The proportion of machine strippers on piecework was 74.8 per
cent; practically all the others were straight timeworkers. The
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
92
~
WOMEN iN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
median earnings for those on a time basis were $15. 60, and for the
pieceworker'S they were $12.25. This smaller difference in the medians
of machine than of hand probably is due in part to the fact that the
machine strippers were younger than those who did hand stripping
and worked more regularly.
Negro women.
Nearly three-fourths of the negro women whose method of payment
was reported worked at piece rates. The median for the timeworkers
was $11.50 and for the pieceworkers it was $9.25.
In the stripping departments, where a large part of the negro
women worked, more than four-fifths (81.8 per cent) did piecework.
The median earnings for these were $9.25, the timeworkers having a
median of $13.30. All but 25 of the 666 hand strippers with time or
piece reported were pieceworkers. The median of their earnings was
$8.45. (See Table 21.)
Only 73.3 per cent of the machine strippers were pieceworkers.
Their median was $10.05, in contrast to $13.25 for those who did
machine stripping on a time basis.
LOCALITY
White women.
As explained previously, the median of the earnings of the 20,824
white women for whom pay-roll data were available was $16.30.
That the localities in 11 States in which these women worked had a
direct relation to the amount of their earnings will be noted in the
following analysis. The median earnings for those employed in
Kentucky and Tennessee 1 (five cities and five hand plants, one in
each, included) considered together were $8.85, the lowest in the
survey. The medians for Camden, $21.30, Philadelphia, $21.20
(these two form one industrial unit), and New York City, $20, were
the three highest. The median earnings in other localities ranged
from $12.10 for the women from selected districts (two cities, one
hand plant in each) in Virginia, to $19.10 for Boston.
The rank of localities is not the same for specific departments as
for all occupations considered together. Women in cigar-making
departments in Boston had the highest median, $24.40, followed by
Camden, $22.40, Philadelphia, $22.20, and New York City, $21.65.
The median declined by locality to $9.45 for Kentucky and Tennessee,
where the low earnings were influenced by the fact that all the women
were hand makers. Philadelphia led in the median for hand work
and Boston for machine work.
In packing departments New York City had the highest median,
followed by Trenton. In stripping, Boston led, closely followed by
New York City.
1
States as a whole are not included in this analysis if any subdivisions are shown separately.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
22.-Median of the week's earnings of white women, by department and locality-Cigars
Cigar making
All departments
Stripping
Leaf
All
Locality
Hand
Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median Num- Median
ber
ber
ber
ber
---- - -----
Tota}. _____________ ________ 20,824
New York! ____ __________________ 1,988
New York City ______________ 1,184
New Jersey ____ ___ _________ __ ____
Trenton ______________ _- ---- -Camden _____ __ __ ____________
Newark and near-by cities a_.
Pennsylvania __ _____ ___ ________ __
Philadelphia ________ - _____ ___
Other 4___ ____________________
--
$16. 30
140
17. 60
20. 00
7
3
$12. 05
f)
2)
4,025
882
1,537
1,606
(2)
19. 05
42
(2)
18. 25
22
21. 30 ------·· -------(2)
18. 25
20
8,170
3,704
3,986
16. 75
21. 20
13. 55
600
56
7
49
11.00
(2)
(2)
Maryland and Delaware _________
Baltimore ______ ______________
0 hio ________________ __ ________ ___
Seven cities 6__ __ _____________
352
14. 35
13. 85
2,102
1,764
13. 15
12. 85
Michigan (Detroit) ______________
Kentucky and Tennessee ________
JM;~~husetts (Boston) __________
Vrrgm1a ____________________ ------
2,164
1,088
443
244
(2)
17. 45
24
8. 85 ------- -------(2)
19. 10
1
12.10 -------
------- -------------· -------10
8
~2)
2)
--------
Shipping
Packing
Machine
Miscellaneous
from.all
departments
umNumNumNumNumber Median ber Median ber Median ber Median ber Median
- - - --
2,830
$11.80
14,097
$17. 90
8,658
$16. 6,5
5,439
$19. 90
2,821
$14. 70
308
$11.40
628
$12. 50
347
181
14. 05
16. 55
1,311
868
19. 20
21. 65
9.48
852
21.10
21. 75
363
16
16.10
(2)
158
99
17. 95
19. 95
28
25
(2)
(2)
137
8
12. 20
(2)
344
12. 90
12.10
14. 65
12. 60
2,934
693
1,052
1,189
20. 35
19. 00
22. 40
19. 35
1,959
693
485
781
975
19. 35
21.80
19. 00 --- - --- -------21. 75
567
22. 55
408
20.80
18. 70
555
83
307
165
15. 00
18. 85
11. 35
16. 95
68
10
37
21
12. 20
(2)
(2)
(2)
82
2
52
28
22.40
(2)
12. 65
(2)
10.80
16.10
9. 70
5,260
2,613
2,343
18. 85
22. 20
15. 20
2,134
739
1,390
16. 60
22.40
14. 60
1,334
701
593
15. 05
17. 35
13. 05
166
145
19
9. 75
9.80
(2)
155
57
73
17. 95
24. 40
14. 25
20
8. 30
(2)
472
295
14. 90
14. 00
472
295
14. 90
14. 00
434
405
9. 50
9. 55
1,351
1,076
14. 25
14. 00
1,117
849
14. 20
13. 85
234
227
14. 35
14. 25
266
78
79
2
14. 05
7. 20
16.80
(2)
1,532
819
235
183
18. 45
9.45
24. 40
12. 60
1,005
819
31
172
17. 35
9.45
(2)
12. 45
526
19.80
11
(2)
72
89
183
1,199
181
909
81
1 New York City and Binghamton .
2 Not computed; base less than 50.
a Includes Newark, Passaic, Perth Amboy, South Amboy, and Fords.
3,126
1,874
953
19. 95
22.15
16.10
------- -------------- ------ - -
-------------204
24.80
(2)
(2)
45
35
(2)
(2)
1
1
(2~
(2
1
234
12. 05
12.05
8
8
(2)
(2)
63
9. 95
17.00
8. 20
~2)
2)
17
4
12
4
(2)
38
(2)
6. 20
11. 70
(2)
204
287
137
83
38
I
~:~
(2)
1
65
50
83
17
10.10
• Includes York, Lancaster, Reading, Harrisburg, and Steelton and vicinity.
6 Lima, Sidney, Wapakoneta, Van Wert, Columbus, Dayton, and Xenia.
co
~
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
94
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
Negro women.
Of the 1,755 negro women for whom pay-roll information was
available, more than three-fifths (62.2 per cent) were employed in
Pennsylvania, almost all in Philadelphia. Nearly three-tenths (29 .3
per cent) worked in two cities of Ohio, and the remainder, 148, were
in New Jersey (87), Virginia (28), Michigan (22), and Maryland and
Delaware (11). The median earnings for the group as a whole were
$10.10, in Philadelphia $10.50, and in Ohio $9.25. In Camden, where
one-twentieth of the negro workers were employed, the median earnings were the highest, $12.05. (See Table 23.)
As before stated, almost all the negro women were employed in the
leaf and stripping departments. Nearly all those in leaf departments
were in Philadelphia, where the median was $10.30. Of the 1,596 in
stripping departments, 59.1 per cent were in Pennsylvania and 32.1
per cent were in Ohio. The median earnings for the strippers as a .
whole were $10, for those in P hiladelphia $10.65 and for those in Ohio
$9.20. The highest median was $11.90 for the 84 women employed
in Camden.
The median earnings for the 666 negro hand strippers were $8.65;
and for those in Ohio, the largest group who did this work, they were
$9.20. For the hand strippers in Pennsylvania, more than one-sixth
of the total, the median was $7 .30; for those in Philadelphia, $7 .55.
Machine stripping was reported for 906 (51.6 per cent) of the negro
women for whom pay-roll data were available. The median earnings
for all the machine strippers were $10.80; they were slightly less
($10.70) in Pennsylvania, where 89.5 per cent of them were employed,
and higher ($11.90) in Camden, in which city almost all the remainder
were reported.
TABLE
23.- M edian of the week's earnings of negro women, by department and
locality- Cigars
All departments
Stripping
Leaf
Other
Locality
Number M edian Number Median Number Median Number Median
TotaL _ ________________
1, 755
$10. 10
$10. 00
12. 05 -- - - - ---- ---------
84
11. 90
3 ------- --
139
139
944
904
40
10.45
10. 65
9 ---- ----8 -- -------
87
1,092
1,051
41
(1)
Maryland and D elaware ___ __
Baltimore _______________ _
11
(1)
(1)
Ohio (7 cities) a______________ _
~ic~i~an (Detroit) _________ _
Virgmia ___ - _- - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - -
515
7
22
28
(1)
1, 596
Pennsylvania _______________ _
Philadelphia ____________ _
Other 2__________________ _
10.40
10. 50
144
15
$10. 30
New J ersey (Camden) ______ _
10. 30
10. 30
9. 25 --------- --------(1)
2
(1)
(1)
3
(1)
11
7
513
19
25
(1)
1 ---- -----
(1)
(1)
9. 20
(1)
(1)
2 ---------
1 -- ----- --
1 Not computed; base less than 50.
2 Includes York, Lancaster, Reading, Perth Amboy, South Amboy, and Fords.
Negro women were
found only in York.
a Lima, Sidney, Wapakoneta, Van Wert, Columbus, Dayton, and Xenia. Negro women were found
only in Columbus and Xenia.
SIZE OF CITY
As a basis for comparing earnings of women engaged in the cigar
industry according to size of city the following grouping of cities
included in the study was made: A, cities with a population of 400,000
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
95
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
or more; B, cities with 100,000 and less thstn 400,000; C, cities with
20,000 and less than 100,000; and D, cities with less than 20,000.
White women.
As will be seen from the summary following, almost one-half of the
white women were working in cities of the largest size. About one- .
eighth (12 .6 per cent) were in class B, more than one-fourth (26.3 per
cent) in class C, and slightly less than one-eighth (12.3 per cent) in
class D.
White women
Size of city
Class
Class
Class
Class
Negro women
Median Number P er cent Median
Number Per cent earnings
earnings
All cities ___________________ _____ ____
20,824
100.0
$16. 30
1,755
100.0
$10.10
A
B
C
D
10, 171
2,614
5,469
2,570
48.8
12. 6
26.3
12. 3
19. 75
14.95
14.40
11.35
1,167
187
69
332
66.5
10. 7
3.9
18. 9
10.55
10. 20
6. 90
8. 55
(400,000 and over) ___ _______ _______
(100,000 and under 400,000) _____ ___
(20,000 and under 100,000) _________
(less than 20,000) __ _____ _________ _
The median of the women's earnings was much the highest ($19.75)
in class A. It decreased as the size of city decreased until for class D
the median was $11.35.
In the making departments the median earnings for all the women
were $17.90. For hand and machine workers the median decreased
with size of city. For the women in cities of class A, where almost
equal numbers made cigars by hand and by machine, the median
was $2 1. In class B, where a large proportion of the cigar makers
were hand workers, it was $16.15; and in class C it was only slightly
less, $16. In class D the median was the lowest, $12.35.
This same decrease was true of packing-department workers. For
those in class A the median was $16. 75; for those in B, $13 .80; in C,
$13.40; and in D, $11.95.
In the stripping departments the median earnings for the women in
cities of class A were $15 .35; in cities of class B, where the proportion
of hand strippers was greater than for cities of either A or C, the
·median was $10.40. For the next group, class C, the median was
$10.85. In D it was $8.70.
Negro women.
For all negro women the median earnings were $10.10. They
decreased with size of city from $10.55 for those in class A to $6.90 for
those in class C; but there was a considerable rise in median for those
in class D, $8.55.
Almost all the women in leaf departments were in cities of class A;
for these women the median earnings were the same as for the group
as a whole, $10.30. For those in stripping departments there was the
decrease with size of city from A to C noted for the entire group, and
also the increase for cities of class D.
EARNINGS AND AGE
Earnings could be correlated with age for 11,394 women-10,687
white and 707 negro. As an indication of the average, medians have
been computed for these. One-half the women earned more a.nd onehalf earn~d less th~n the amounts specified
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
96
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
The median for the 10,687 white women was $17.55. To a certain
point the median increased with the age of the women, but earnings
for the older groups declined. For the total the median increased
PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT WEEK'S EARNINGS OF WHITE
AND NEGRO WOMEN, BY AGE- CIGARS
NF.GRO 1IOllffi
WHITE mum
Per cent
20
F..ARNINGS
0
Per cent
40
20
0
UNllm 18 YEARS
Lessand
thanIese
$5
$5
$10 end less
$15 and less
$20 and less
$25 and over
than $10 - than tis
thAJl $20
.~ .
- ·
than $25
18 AND UNDIB 20 YEARS
t ...and
thmless
$5
$5
$10 and less
$15 and less
$20 and less
$25 and over
than
than
than
than
$10
$15
$20
$25
20 AND UNDIB 25 YEARS
Los,
·$5
$5 and
less
$10 and less
$15 and less
$20 and less
$25 !llld over
than
than.
than
than
.
$10
$15
$20
i
60
y
y
l 1:/
r
iii
t\25
25 AND UNDIB 30 YEARS
Less than $5
$5 and less than $10
$10 and less than $15
$15 and less than $20
$20 and less than $25
$25 and over
40
·
L
I
30 AND mmm 40 YEARS
Less than $5
$5 and less than $10
$10 and less than $15
$15 and less than $20
$20 and less than $25
$25 and over
40 AND UNDIB 50 YEARS
Less and
than
$5
$5
J.ess
$10 and less
$15 and less
$20 and lees
$25 and over
than $10 •
than $15
than $25
than $20
50 AND UNDER 60 YEARS
Lees than $5
$5 and Iese
$10 and less
$15 and lees
$20 and less
$25 and over
than $10
than $15
than $20
than $25
60 YEARS AND ovm
Leesand
than
$5
$5
less
$10 and less
$15 and less
$20 and less
t2s and over
1:/
than $10
than $15
than $20
than $25
F
-
t
I1:/1:/
1:/
!/
y
1
Per cent not c01Dpited; less than 50 cases 1n the age group,
from $13 .90~for girls under 18 years of age, to $18.80 for those 18
but not yet 20, and to the maximum of all groups, $19.05 for those
20 and under 25. After this the median declined until for women
60 years of age and over it was $10.45.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
97
The median for the 707 negro workers was $10.55. The highest
was $11.10 for women 20 and under 25 years of age. The oldest
women had the lowest medians.
For the white workers the medians varied greatly with department,
the figures being as follows: Leaf departments, $10.75; shipping,
$11.80; stripping, $12.55; packing, $15.65; and making, $19.20. In
the department last named hand makers had a median of $18 and
machine makers one of $20.15. The shaders in the packing departments also had a high median, $19.05. For the shaders, the stripping
departments, and the hand makers, women 30 and under 40 years of
age had the highest medians. For the machine makers, a still older
group-40 and under 50-had the highest median, this figure being
$20.65; however, the much larger group 20 and under 25 years of age had
practically the same figure, $20.55, and for the making departments as
a whole the highest figure ($20.10) was for the girls 18 and under 20.
For the negro workers with age and earnings reported the median
earnings were $10.55, exactly the figure for those in the stripping
departments.
In each of the three age groups that together cover 18 and under 30
years at least 40 per cent of the white women earned $20 or more.
For the women 30 and under 40 the figure is about 38 per cent. Of
the age group next above--40 and under 50-less than one-fourth
(23.8 per cent) earned as much as $20; for women 50 and under 60
the proportion dropped to 8.5 per cent, and for those 60 and over it
was only 3.1 per cent. Among the young girls, those under 18, 1 in
5 (20.6 per cent) earned at least $20.
In four of the age groups the largest proportion of the women had
earnings of $15 and under $25-from about 60 per cent to about 68
per cent. Of women 40 and under 60 years more than 60 per cent
had earnings of $10 and under $20, as had about 55 per cent of the
girls under 18. The small group of women at least 60 years old had
more than two-thirds of their number in the wage groups $5 and
under $15.
Among the 707 negro women there were few girls under 18 years
and few women as much as 50. In the three age groups that together
cover 18 and under 30 years, more than 50 per cent of the women had
earnings of $10 and under $15. The women 30 and under 40 had
about equal numbers at $5 and under $10 and $10 and under $15.
The 55 women 40 and under 50 years had 12 of their number-about
22 per cent-with earnings of less than $5 on the pay rolls copied.
Three negro women, all 30 and under 40 years, earned at least $20.
(See Appendix Table XX.VI.)
EARNINGS AND TIME IN THE TRADE
White women.
For 9,000 white women--strictly speaking, 8,998-earnings could
be correlated with years worked in the cigar industry. One-half of
them had worked at least 5 years, and for as many as 27.9 per cent
the time was at least 10 years.
Of the 49.4 per cent with experience of less than 5 years, roughly
l in 4 had begun work within the past 12 months.
For the total, 8,998, the median of the earnings was $17.25. Correlated with experience, the median was $13.85 for the women new to
the trade, advancing to $18.65 for those with experience ,of 3 and
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
98
WOM'.EN IN ClGAR AND CIGARETTE !N:OUSTRIES
under 4 years, but declining again until it reached $15.85 for the 815
women as much as 20 years in the industry.
The white women in the stripping departments had median earnings of $12.25. For the women with less than a year's experience the
median was only $10.85, but this figure advanced to $13.40 for those
4 years in the trade. A decline in the median followed-to $13.15 for
5 and under 10 years' experience and to $12.05 for experience of 10
and under 15 years-but the women who had worked 15 and under
20 years had a median of $13.45.
More than 6,000 women (6,224) were in the cigar-making departments, with a median of $18.-60. For the extremes of less than 1 year
and as much as 20 years in the trade the median was considerably
lower-$16.25 for the latest comers in the industry and only slightly
more for the most experienced workers.
All the groups from 1 and under 2 years to 5 and under 10 years had
medians of $19 or $20, but the figure declined with as much as 10
.y ears' service. For 10 and under 15 years it is $18.15; for 15 and
under 20 years, $17.60; and for 20 years or more, $16.65.
The large groups of hand and machine workers, respectively 3,340
and 2,884 women, show significant differences as to time in the trade.
More handworkers had been at least 20 years in the trade (593 women)
than had entered it within the past 5 years (521 women). Among
machine makers the opposite is true: There were more women with
less than 1 year's experience (608) than the entire number reporting
as much as 5 years' experience (593).
The entire group of hand makers had median earnings of $17.65.
The effect of experience is shown in the fact that the median was
$14.50 for women 1 and under 2 years in the trade, $16.65 for those 2
and under 3 years, and between $18 and $18.50 for the next three
experience groups, covering 3 and under 10 years. It then declined
to $17 .50 and under $18 for women with 10 and under 20 years' experience, and again to $16.50 for the practically 600 women as much
as 20 years in the trade.
The 2,884 machine makers had a higher median than that of the
hand makers, the machine group averaging $19.60. Correlated with
experience, the earnings medians follow: $16.35 for women less than
a year in the trade and $19.55 for those at work 1 and under 2 years;
$20 and under $21 for the four experience groups that cover 2 and
under 10 years; a slight decline (to $19.85) for the women 10 and
under 15 years at work, and a considerable one (to $18.90) for those
15 or more years in the trade.
The 1,236 women in the packing departments had a median of
$16.15. An increase in the median with years in the trade is more
regular in these departments than in stripping or making, the figure
rising from $11.80 for the women less than a year in the trade to
$20.65 for those with 10 and under 15 years' experience, the only
exception in the steady rise being an insignificant decline for the group
with experience of 4 and under 5 years. For the 52 women as much
as 20 years in the trade the median is $17.
The effect of experience is made even clearer by the figures for
earnings distribution. Of the white women just beginning work
(less than 6 months in the trade), though learners as such are excluded
from the tabulation, only 30.6 per cent received as much as $15,
but of those with experience of 6 months and under 1 year 50.8 per
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
99
cent received $15 or more. This per cent increases, irregularly, to
75.6 for the women 5 and under 10 years in the trade, but declines
after that, presumably on account of the age of the workers, and of
the women as much as 20 years in the trade the proportion with
earnings of $15 or more is 55.5 per cent. The proportions with earnings in the lowest groups are much the largest for the women with
experience of less than a year and of as much as 20 years. (See
Appendix Table XXVII.)
Negro women.
The 483 negro women with earnings and time in the trade reported
had median earnings of $10.25, the group with 3 and under 4 years'
experience exceeding this by 65 cents. As many as 148 of the women
had been in the industry less than a year; these had a median of $9.20.
A comparable number, 123, had been in the industry 5 and under 10
years, and for these the median was $10.70. Only 46 negro women
had been in the cigar industry as long as 10 years.
More than four-fifths of all the women (83.9 per cent) were in the
stripping departments, and the median here was $10.05. More than
one-fourth of the women had been 5 and under 10 years in the trade,
and these had a median of $10.90. The 127 with experience of less
than a year, most of them less than 6 months, had a median of only
$8.90.
Only 1 in 3 of the 88 beginners had earnings of as much as $10,
but of the next group (60 women 6 months and under a year in the
trade) more than 40 per cent had such earnings. Of the 123 women
5 and under 10 years in the trade, 75 (just over 60 per cent) received
as much as $10, and 17 of them were paid $15 or more. The 56
women with experience of 3 and under 4 years had a large proportion38 of their number-with earnings of as much as $10. (See Appendix
Table· XXVII.)
DATA FOR FLORIDA
As was true of the section on personal information, it is thought well
to include here some data regarding cigar workers reported in the survey by the Women's Bureau of the State of Florida in 1928-29.
Department and occupation.
Of the 2,775 women for whom department and occupation were
reported, nearly three-fifths (59.9 per cent) were in making departments, 24.3 per cent were in stripping, 12.5 per cent in packing, and
about 3 per cent in leaf departments.
All the women in leaf departments were engaged in general leaf
work as described in the occupations on cigars. Of the 675 in stripping departments, almost three-fifths (57.5 per cent) were hand strippers and only 7.6 per cent were machine strippers. For three-tenths
of all in the stripping departments it was not reported whether they
did stripping by hand or by machine. Only 30 women were reported
as engaged in selecting.
Three-fifths (59.9 per cent) of the workers were employed in the
making departments. All the machine manufacture of cigars was
carried on in two plants, one employing 380 workers on machine
rollers and bunchers, and the other employing 219 on these two machines. More than one-half of the women in the making departments
were engaged in hand bunching or rolling or in both of these processes.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
100
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
About one-eighth of all in these departments worked at out-and-out
cigar making.
One-eighth of the women worked in packing departments. Only
a .very small part of these, about 3 per cent, were machine banding.
More than one-half were hand banding, and more than one-half of
these were in plants where the cigars were made by machine.
White women
Week's earnings
N umber
Per cent Number Per cent
TotaL____ ___ __ __________________________ __ ______ _______ ___
2,494
100. 0
Median ________ _________ ___ ______ __ ________________________ f - _ _
2 $c...,16_.6_5_ _
Less
than
__ ----------- - -- ------ ------- - --- ---_
$5
and
less$5
than
$10 ___________
___ ------------___ __________________________
less than $15 __ --- - - -- --------------------------------- less than $20 __ ---------------------------------- --- - -- less than $25 __ - -- --- -- --- -- --- -- ------------------- ___ _
less than $30 ___ _______ ___________ ___ ___ ---- -----------less
__ --- ----- - ------------- - - - ----- - ----- - - --less than
than $35
$40 ____ ___ ___________________________________ _
$10 and
$15 and
$20 and
$25 and
$30 and
$35 and
$40 and
1
2
Negro women
1
over __ -------------------------------- - ---- -- -------- --
103
460
453
680
417
240
104
26
11
4.1
18. 4
18. 2
27. 3
16. 7
9. 6
4. 2
1. 0
•4
155
100. 0
2-'$~7._10_ _
__ _
1
33
105
11
6
21. 3
67. 7
7.1
3. 9
_- -- __-- - _ - - - - - - -- --- -------- -------------- ----- --- --- ----
- - --- ----- ---- - -------- ------ -- ------- -
Survey by Women's Bureau in 1928-29 (see Bull. 80).
Computed from more d etailed figures.
Week's earnings.
Week's earnings were reported for 2,494 of the 2,680 white women
in cigar factories in the Florida survey. The median earnings for
these were $16.65, slightly higher than the median ($16.30) for white
women included in the present study. The median for the 155 negro
women was $7 .10, considerably lower than that for the 1,755 in the
dgar study.
'
A large proportion of the women in Florida had time worked reported in days. For this group of 1,932 white women the median was
$15.55, or somewhat less than the figure ($17 .15) for the white women
for whom time was reported in days in the cigar study. The median
earnings increased as days worked increased from $2.40 for those who
worked on 1 day and $5.15 for those who worked on 2, to $12.65 for
5 days' work and $16.25 and $17 .55 for those working on 5½ and 6
days, respectively. Nearly two-thirds of this group with days worked
reported had worked on 6 days.
WEEK'S EARNINGS IN THE CIGARETTE INDUSTRY
In collecting data regarding earnings in the cigarette industry
actual amounts were copied from the companies' pay rolls for a representative week in 1929 or 1930. For some of the women correlations
have been made with age, and for most of them correlations with
method of payment and with time worked during the week.
Many of the women worked irregularly and for only a part of the
week, so some of the amounts reported are low, even less than $1.
From the actual earnings reported the median-the point at which
half the women received more and half received less-has been computed. The medians, with the range of earnings, serve to give a
picture of the earning power of the women employed in cigarettes.
Pay-roll data for a representative week were obtained for 5,798
women, 3,668 white and 2,130 negro. In this section on earnings
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
101
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
range and median are discussed. For details of week's earnings see
Appendix T able XXVIII. A marked difference appears between
white and negro workers in the distribution by department. In the
leaf departments were 228 (6 .2 per cent) of the white women, as
compared with 2,065 (96.9 per cent) of the negro women. The
largest proportion of the white women in these departments (43.4 per
cent) were engaged in "picking" the tobacco, while nearly three-fifths
(57.7 per cent) of th e negro workers were hand stemming. Almost
three-tenths (29.4 per cent) of the white women were machine stemming, as compared with 13.1 per cent of the negro women.
Practically one-fourth (24.9 per cent) of the white women were in
m aking departments. About one-tenth of these women fed the
m achine, about one-fifth were operators, and more than one-half
caught the finished product as it came from the machine. The
remainder did inspecting. Only three-tenths of 1 per cent of the
n egroes (7 women) were in the making departments.
About 2 in 3 (65. 5 per cent) of the white women worked in packing
departments. The occupations at which the largest numbers were
employed were Ii.and packing and packing in cartons, which together
employed about 45 per cent of the women. Operating the new
packing machine and the wrapping m achine gave employment to 11.5
per cent and 11.4 per cent, respectively, of all in these d~partments,
while feeding or operating the old packing machine and cupping or
inspecting its product employed, respectively, 9.2 and 9.7 per cent.
Only 29 negro women (1.4 per cent) were in the packing
departments.
MEDIAN AND RANGE
White women.
For the 3,668 white women for whom pay-roll data were obtained
the earnings ranged from less than $5 to $37.
Almost ·one-half of these women were paid $15 and less than $20.
About three-tenths earned $10 and less than $15, and another considerable proportion earned $20 or more. However, as many as 8.4
per cent received less than $10. The median for this group as a
whole was $17.05. The lowest median was for the leaf departments,
$11.35, where no woman was paid more than $20 and 99 pickers
averaged only $10.95.
T A BLE
24.- Earnings distribution by department-Cigarettes
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Week's earnings
M iscellaneAll depart- Leaf depart - Making de- P acking de- Box depart- ous from all
ments
ment
partment
partment
m ent
departm ents
Num- Per N um- P er Num- Per N um- Per N um- P er Num- Per
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
,
------ I -- ------ -- -
________ ,__ _ __
All women ___________ 3,668 100. 0
Less than $5________________ 108
$5an dlessthan$lQ ________ 200
$10 andlessthan$15 __ _____ l,028
$15 an d less than $20 __ _____ 1,659
$20 an d less than $25_ ______ 600
$25 an d over_ _____ _______ __ 73
1
N ot com pu ted; b ase less t han 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
228 100.0
2. 9
36 15. 8
5.5
50 21.9
28. 0
124 54.4
45. 2
17
7. 5
16. 4
1
.4
2. 0 _______ __ __ _
912 100. 0 2,401 100. 0
28
49
348
436
50
1
3. 1
43
5. 4
94
38. 2
517
47. 8 1, 141
5. 5
540
.1
66
87 100.0
40
(1 )
1. 8
1
1. 1 ------ - - --- 3. 9
7
8. 0 ------ --- - - 21. 5
23 26. 4
16 --- - - 47. 5
55 63. 2
10 ---- -22. 5
1
1.1
8 -----2. 7 - - - -- - - - ---6 - -----
102
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
TABLE
24.-Earnings distribution by department-Cigarettes-Continued
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
All department s
All women _________ ____ ________ ___ __
Less than $5 _________ ___ ____ __ __ _____ ____ __
$5 and less than $10 __ __ _______ __ ___ ____ __ _
$10 and less than $15 ____ _____ _____________
$15 and less than $20 ___ _____ __ ____ __ ______
N umber
P er cen t
2,130
100.0
440
1,417
246
20. 7
66. 5
11. 5
1. 3
---27
Other departments
Leaf department
Week's earnings
Number
Per cent Number
Per cent
- - - - - - - -- - - 2,065
65
100.0
100. 0
- - - -- - - 435
1, 38fi
242
3
21.1
67.1
11. 7
.1
7. 7
49. 2
6. 2
36. 9
5
32
4
24
PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT WEEK'S EARNINGS OF WOMEN
IN SELECTED DEPARTMENTS-CIGARETTES
c e nt
Per
WHITE W0llffi
ALL DEPARTlmlTS
Less than. $5
$5 and less than $10
$10 and less than $15
$15 and less than $20
$20 and over
LEAF
Less than $5 ·
$5
and less than $10
$10 and less than $15
$15 and less than $20
$20 and over
MAKING
Less than $5
$5
and leos than $10
$10 and le:is than $15
$15 and less than $20
$ 20 and over
PACKING
Less thllll $5
$5
and l e ss than $10
$10 and less than $15
$15 and less than $20
$20 and over
,
NF,GRO WOllEll
.ALL DEPAR'l'lmlTS
Less than $5
$5 and less than $10
$10
and less
than $15
$15 and less than $20
LEAF
Less than $5
$5
and less than $10
$10 and les s thrul t\15
$15 and l ess than t,20
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
10
50
40
50
60
103
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
The median for the making departments was $15.40. Approximately the same proportion of those in the making departments as of
the group as a whole, almost one-half, earned $15 and less than $20.
Almost two-fifths received $10 and less than $15. Only about onetwentieth earned $20 or over, as compared with about one-tenth who
were paid less than $10. The machine operators and the inspectors
had medians several dollars higher than the medians for feeders and
catchers.
The highest median for any group as a whole was for the packing
departments, $17.75. Almost one-half of the women in these departments received $15 and less than $20, and more than one-fourth $20
or more for the week's pay. Slightly more than one-fourth received
less than $15. Women operating the wrapping machine had a median
of $19.10, the highest of all occupations reported. The large group
of hand packers had a median of $17 .30 and those who packed in
cartons a median of $17.75.
TABLE
25.- Earnings, by department and occupation-Cigarettes
White women
Negro women
Per cent distribution-
Earnings
By
By
de- OCCU·
part- pation
ment
Me- M axidian mum
Per cent dis•
tribution-
Earnings
Department and occupation
Number
$17. 05
Total. .. . . · ---····· ···· · ·· 3,668 100. O
Leaf department. ... .•••.. •. · -· -
Number
$37
2,130
20
2,065
By
By
de- OCCU·
Me- Maxipart- pation
dian mum
ment
100. 0
$8.00
l===!===t===l====J:====t===ll===l===t===l==
228
6. 2
100. 0
11. 35
1 - - - 1 - - - + - - - - t - - - t - -· l-
piCk .. · · -·· ·········· · · · · · · ·
99
46
67
Hand stem . . --········-·····
M achine stem ..• ·-·········Miscellaneous and general
help .... . . · -·· -····--·· · · ··
16
Making department.. ........ . __
912
43. 4
20. 2
29. 4
7. 0
24. 9
100. 0
12. 30
459
1,192
270
(1)
16
144
15. 40
25
7
(1)
$18
100. 0
8. 00
18
22. 2
57. 7
13. 1
8. 55
5. 95
8. 65
13
15
12
7. 0
8. 80
18
(1)
17
-
18
14
20
10. 95
96. 9
.3
(1)
1---1---+----t---t---t--
Feed machine........... . .. .
Operate machine....... _. ___
Catch. ... . .............. . ...
Inspect .......•..•••..•. ·-·- ·
98
188
462
164
Packing department. ..... ..... . 2,401
Operate new machine ...... _
Feed or operate, old machine···· · ·· · ··· -· --· · - --· Cup or inspect, old machine .
Operate wrapping m achine..
O.perate sta!llping and bandmg machme............ _. .
Hand pack. ·-·····--··-·-- ·P ack cartons . ... . ·-- --- · --··
Hand stamp, paste, and
wrap.· -· · ·······-··- -·····
Inspect.. ... . . .............. .
Salvage and repair • .... .. __ _
Miscellaneous and general
help ..• •·······-···· · ·--- ·-
277
Box department•••••.• ·--- -- · -- -
87
2. 4
40
1. 1
Miscellaneous from all depart•
ments- -···· ····· ·-·-··· ----- -Supervisory and clerical . __._
Miscellaneous and general
help.· ---····-· -· ......... .
1
Not computed; base less than 50,
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
21
25
18. 0
100. 0
17. 75
37
11. 5
18. 20
21 ······· ·- · ···- · ·· -·· · ·•··- · · ..... .
9. 2
25
50. 7
65. 5
19
24
233
9. 7
273
11. 4
18. 15
18. 30
19.10
42
591
485
1. 7
(1)
24.6
20. 2
17.30
17. 75
105
38
46
4. 4
12. 70
1. 6
1. 9
(1)
(1)
90
3. 7
17. 05
23
100. O 16. 65
20
221
------- -- ----- -- -- -- - -------- ---6 ------ - ----- -- (1)
17
-- - ---- ----- -- --- - -~- - -----(1)
1
17
12. 80
17. 85
14. 30
17. 80
10. 7
20. 6
23
22
--- ---- ------ -
29
1. 4
(1)
6 .. • ..•. --··· · 7 ··- · ··· -- · -· ··
5 - - · · ·-- ·· ·----
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
18
18
18
7
25
15
2 ------- -- ---- - (1)
37 -- - -- -- - ------ -- --·-· -- · ··· - --····
(1)
25
16
1 - ------ ------25 ---- - -- ---- - -- ------ - - - ----- -- - --·
24
20
8 -- · --·- -- · -- - -
.3
(1)
15
(1)
17
(1)
14
(1)
30
14 ·-·· - - - - - -- ---
(1)
30 - - - --- - ·- -- - -- ------- --·- - - - - - - - --
26 -- --- -- - ----- -
(1)
20
(1)
22
1. 0
(1)
22 -- -··- - -· --··-
(1)
14
104
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
Negro women.
About 97 per cent of the 2,130 negro women for whom pay-roll data
were obtained worked in leaf departments, and for these the median
earnings were the same as for the group as a whole, $8. More than
two-thirds earned $5 and less than $10, about one-fifth less than $5,
and the remainder $10 or more. Almost 1,200 of the women were
hand stemmers, with a median of $5.95. The other groups, comprising nearly 900 women, had medians between $8.80 and $9. The
range of earnings for all the negro women included in the study was
from less than $5 to $18.
EARNINGS AND TIME WORKED
Figures giving the amounts of earnings present only a partial
picture of existing conditions ; but when coupled with the time worked
by the women in earning these amounts a clearer understanding of
the situation can be had. In the cigarette study it was possible to
secure the actual time worked for just over 86 per cent of all the women
white and negro . For some the time was reported in hours and for
others in days . In the latter group were included pieceworkers who
worked irregularly and for whom no time record was necessary in a
computation of earnings, as well as some timeworkers reported to
have worked on certain days regardless of whether they remained at
work all day. Bearing this in mind, a discussion of earnings according
to time worked, whether in hours or days, is next presented.
White women whose time worked was reported in days.
Of the white women included in the cigarette study, 1,553 had
time worked reported in days and 2,013 in hours; for 102 there was
no report as to time worked.
For the 1,553 whose days worked were reported the median earnings were $18.70. There was a steady increase in median with each
additional day of work, from $6.20 for those working on less than 3
days to $20.20 for those working on 5%. Nearly seven-eighths
(86.2 per cent) of all the women had worked on five or more days,
and for these the median was $19.40. More than two-thirds of these
had worked on 5½ days, with the somewhat higher median of $20.20.
For all the women the range of earnings was from less than $5 to $37.
(For details see T able XXIX in the Appendix.)
TABLE
26.-Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in da ys,
by department-Cigarettes
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Department
Women with
days worked
reported
Less than 3
days
3 and less
than 4 days
4 and less
I t han
5 days
5 and less
than 5½ days
5½ and less
than 6 days
Num- Me- Num- Me- Num- Me- Num- Me- Num- Median
ber
ber
ber dian
ber
ber
dian
dian
dian
- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - 1, 553 $18. 70
277 $16. 20 1,061 $20. 20
50 $6. 20
109 $13. 65
56 $10. 40
Num- Median
ber
Total 1 ___
Leaf.. ___ _____ __
80
Making ________
106
Packing___ _____ 1,356
-
- -
10. 15
16. 90
19.15
9
3
38
(2)
f)
2)
6
6
44
(2)
(2)
(2)
4
10
95
(2)
(2)
13. 65
53
4
216
10. 90
(2)
17. 15
8
83
963
(2)
17. 90
20. 30
B.- NEGRO WOMEN
Total 1___ , 660 I $8. 451
171
LeaL __ ___ ____ ~ SAO -1-1
1
2
(2) I
11 I (2)
42
(2)
464 1 $8. 50
<2>
~ -'-<2'-->--1--42-1--'<__;_
2>-1--46-4
8. 50
126 1~
11 5
9. 60
Includes departments with too few women for the computation of a median, not shown separately.
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
105
White women whose time worked was reported in hours.
The median earnings for the 2,013 white women for whom hours
worked were reported were $15.65, more than $3 below the median
for those whose time was reported in days. The median rose with
increased hours from $7 .50 for the women who worked less than 40
hours to $17 .30 for the women who worked over 48 but less than 52
hours. For longer hours than these there was a decline in earnings.
The range for the whole group was from less than $5 to $32. (For
details see Table XXX in the Appendix.)
Time worked in the various departments.
The median earnings for the two groups of white women with time
worked reported show the same relation by department as for the
group as a whole. The median was lowest for the leaf departments
and higbest for the packing departments.
Time reAll w h 1·t e . ported
in
women
h ours
Department
Time reported in
days
All departments ____ ______ _____ _______________ ___ ___ __ __ ____ __
$17. 05
$15. 65
$18. 70
1- - -- 1 - - - - - 1 - - - LeaL _________________________ ___ ____ ____ _____ ___ ____ ______ ______ __
11. 35
12. 20
10. 15
Making_____ _______ ______ ____________ ___ ____ _____ ___ ________ _______ _
15. 40
15. 15
16. 90
Packing_ _____ ____ ______ ___ ___________ _______ _____ _______ _________ __
17. 75
17. 05
19. 15
Box______ _______________ ___ _____ _________________________________ ___
16. 65
16. 35
(')
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
•
In only two departments, making and packing, were there sufficient
white women in specified hour groups to warrant computation of
median earnings. In packing, the same group as for the whole-that
is, those working over 48 but less than 52 hours-had the highest
median, $17 .65. For those who worked longer hours, 52 but less
than 56 hours, the median was less. In making departments the
highest median was $16.65 for the women who had worked over 48
and less than 52 hours. In both the making and the packing departments the women who worked on 5½ days had the highest medians.
In the leaf departments the highest median was for those who had
worked on 5 days.
Negro women whose time worked was reported in days.
For the negro women time worked was reported for 660 in days and
for 799 in hours; for 671 the time worked was not reported. The 660
whose time worked was reported in days had median earnings of
$8.45. Those who worked on 5 days, about seven-tenths of the total,
had a median of $8.50, while for the smaller group, who had worked
on 5½ days, about one-fifth, it was $9.80. Thus, nearly nine-tenths
(89.4 per cent) had worked on 5 days or more, and for this combined
group the median was $8.70. The range of earnings for all the women
was from less than $5 to $18. (See Tables 26 and XXIX.)
For the negro women in the leaf departments the highest median
was for those who had worked on 5½ days.
Negro women whose time worked was reported in hours.
For the 799 negro · women whose time was reported in hours the
median earnings were almost the same as those for days worked.
The highest median, as in the case of white women, was for those who
126898°-32--8
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
106
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CWARETT:ffi INDUSTRIES
TABLE
'
27.- Median earnings of women whose time worked was reported in hours,
by department-_Cigarettes
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Women wi th
hours worked
reported
I
Less t han 40
hours
40 and less t han 44 and less t han
44 hours
48 h ours
Department
NumMe- Num- Me- NumMe• NumMedian
ber
dian
ber
dian
ber
dian
ber
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 -- - -1-- - - - - - -1-- --t--- -1-- - - - - - - - 2 227
$12. 55
245
$7. 50
67 $12. 50
Total' ------------------------- 2,013 $15. 65
- - --- - - - -- -1----+----- - -1- - - - - - - - - Leaf ______ ______________ __ ________ _
(3)
35
(3)
41
137
12.
20
3
Making_____________________ ________ _
51
13.15
89
6. 65
18
794
15.15
Packing_______ ___ ____ _______ ____ _____
12. 60
115
9. 25
37
116
973
17. 05
Box ___ _____ __ ____ ___ _______ __ _____ ___
(3)
3
(3)
9
12
81
16. 35
!1l
B.-NEGRO WOME N
Total 1 _ ________________ _ __ _ _ _ __ 1
LeaL _______________________ ______ ___
7991
8. 551
747
8. 55
8. 551 - - 1031_5_.
50- 1 -103
-1-97
5. 60
96
8. 55
·424
~ I
8. 60
8.60
A.-WHITE WOMEN-Continued
Over 48 and
less than 52
hours
48 hours
52 and less
than 56 hours
56 and less
than 60 hours
Number
Number
60 hours and
over
Department
Num-
ber
Median
Number
Median
(3)
1, 138
$17. 30
Median
Median
Number
--- - - - --- T ot al 1 _ ___ _ ___
21
Leaf_ __ ______________ --- - ----------M aking _____________
13
(3~
P acking_____ ________
(3
7
Box _________ ___ _____ -------- --- -- ---
47
513
515
53
(3)
16.65
17. 65
17. 20
231
$15.10
10
64
149
3
(3)
13. 80
16.15
(3)
73
Median
-- --11
$15. 70
1
4
6
--------------42
28
1
(3~
g)
---- ----
(3)
g
(3~
---- ----
B.-NEGRO WOMEN-Continued
Time worked
:o:~~
Number of Median
earnings
REPORTED IN HOURS
TotaL _____ ______ -- ________ ___ ___ _-____ _________ - -- -- -- -- - -- -- - --· - -- -- -- -- - -
2,013
1- - - - -1245
Less than 40 hours ___ _-----------------------------------------------------------67
40 and less than 44 hours_ ----------- -- ----- - ------- ---- --------------------------2
227
44 hours
and less
than
48 hours
- -- ------------------- ----____________________________
=-------- - ------- - ---- - -----_
48
__ ___
_______
_____ _-_______________________
______
21
Over 48 and less than 52 hours ________________ __________ ________ __________________ _
1,138
52 and less than 56 hours ___________ __________ _______ _____ _____ __ ____ -- __________ -231
73
56
and less
than
-- - ___
------- -- ----- - ----------------------------------_
60 hours
and
over60__hours_
_________
____ ____
___ ____
________
_____
____ _______ ____ _______
11
$15. 65
7. 50
12. 50
12. 55
(3)"
17. 30
15. 10
15. 70
(3)
REPORTED IN DAYS
Total ____ - - _- _- _-- -- -- -- -- -- -- - -- - --- - -- -- -- --- - -- -- -- -- - - -- -- - -- - -- -- -- -- - Less than 3 days ___ ____________________________________________ __________________ _13 and less than 4 days __ ______ _______ ________ ___ __ ____ ______________.____ _____ _____ _
4 and less than 5 days ______ ________ ____ __ ____ __________ __ ____________ ____ ________ _
5 and less than 5½ days _______________________ ___ ______ ________ __________________ _
5½ and less than 6 days _________ ___ ____ __ ___________ ___ ________ __________________ _
1,553
50
56
109
277
1,061
----l-
$18. 70
6. 20
10. 40
13. 65
16. 20
20. 20
1 Includes departments with too few women for the computation of a median, not shown separately.
2 Only 14 had worked exactly 44 hours.
s Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
107
had worked over 48 and less than 52 hours. (See Tables 27 and
XXX.) The range of earnings for all was from less than $5 to $18.
Only in the leaf departments were there sufficient negro women
for the computation of median earnings. For these the median was
the same as for all negro women, $8.55.
METHOD OF PAYMENT
In some of the processes in the manufacture of ·cigarettes the
workers were doing piecework, with the amount of earnings depending
on the quantity produced. In other processes they were paid for the
time worked, measured by the hour, day, week, or longer period.
White women.
For all the white women for whom pay-roll data were secured,
the method of payment was reported. The median earnings for all
women were $17.05, for those who worked on a time basis (54.5 per
cent) they were $15.60, and for those on piecework (42 per cent)
they were $18.65. Approximately 130 women did both timework
and piecework.
In the packing departments, where nearly two-thirds of the women
were employed, the proportions on timework and piecework were
respectively 39.9 per cent and 56.2 per cent. The timeworkers had a
median of $17.10 and the pieceworkers one considerably higher,
$19.10.
Among the timeworkers in the packing departments the operators
of the new packing machine had the highest median, $18.05. This
group comprised about one-fourth of all the timeworkers and more
than seven-eighths of the new packing-machine operators. The
lowest median among the timeworkers was that for hand stampers,
pasters, and wrappers, $11.20.
Among the pieceworkers in the packing departments the highest
median was for those who packed in cartons, $19.90. Three other
groups of pieceworkers in these departments had medians almost as
high-$19.70 for the 187 cuppersandinspectorsatoldpackingmachines
(four-fifths of the total group of cuppers or inspectors), $19.75 for the
163 feeders and operators of the old packing machines (nearly
three-fourths of the total feeders and operators), and $19.85 for the
216 operators of the wrapping machines (about four-fifths of all
the wrapping-machine operators).
Almost seven-eighths (87 per cent) of the women in the making
departments were timeworkers, and for these the median earnings
($15.15) were slightly lower than for the whole group ($15.40). For
the small group engaged on piecework the median was $17.15.
Nearly two-thirds (64.4 per cent) of the women who operated
making machines worked on a time basis, and for these the median
earnings were practically the same as for the whole group of operators,
$17 .90 as compared with $17 .85. The piece-rate median was identical
with that for timeworkers. All inspectors were on a time basis.
In the leaf departments the median earnings were $11.35. For
the timeworkers, 60.1 per cent of all in these departments, the median
was $12.20; for the pieceworkers, 38.2 per cent of the total, the
median was the least of all, $9.60. This may be explained by the fact
that all the hand stemmers but one were pieceworkers.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
108
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
Negro women.
Among the negro women the method of payment was reported for
all but 15. Unlike the white women, there were more pieceworkers
(57.5 per ·cent) than timeworkers (37 .8 per cent) . About 100 women
did both timework and piecework. The median earnings for the total
group of 2,115 women whose method of payment was reported were
$8. The median of the timeworkers was $8.55 and that of the pieceworkers was $6.05. These lower earnings are no doubt due to the
fact that the women on piecework, largely hand stemmers, worked
very irregular hours.
Nearly all the women (97 per cent) were employed in the leaf
depar tments. Almost three-fifths of these were hand stemmers,
with a median of $5.90; about one-fourth were pickers, with a median
of $8.55; and more than one-eighth were machine stemmers, their
median being $8.65 .
As stated, most of the hand stemming was on a piecework basis,
and for these workers the median was $5 .80. Very little of the
picking was piecework, and only about one-third of the machine
stemmers were on that basis. The median earnings for the machine
stemmers who did piecework ($10 .05) were the highest for any group,
regardless of the basis of payment.
TABLE
28.-Number and median earni ngs of timeworkers and of pieceworkers, by
department-Cigarettes
A.-WHITE WOMEN
All women1
Department
TotaL _________ -- --
Numbar
Timeworkers
Median· Numearnings ber
Per
cent
Per
cent
Pieceworkers
Median Numearnings ber
Per
cent
Median
earnings
- ---- - -- 3, 668
LeaL ____ ______________ ___
228
Making ____ _________ ____ _
912
Packing ______ _________ ___ 2, 401
Box ___ __ __ __ _____ ___ ___ ___
87
Miscellaneous from all
departments ________ ____
40
100. 0
$17. 05
1, 998
54. .5
$15. 60
1,541
42. 0
$18. 65
100. 0
100. 0
100. 0
100. 0
11. 35
15. 40
17. 75
16. 65
137
793
958
80
60.1
87. 0
39. 9
92. 0
12. 20
15. 15
17.10
16. 30
87
98
1,350
6
38. 2
10. 7
56. 2
6. 9
9. 60
17. 15
19.10
(2)
(2)
(2)
30 -- ------
(2)
--- -- - -- -- - -- --- --- --- ---
B .-NEGRO WOMEN
TotaL _____ ___ __ __ _ 2,115
Leaf__ __ _______ __ ______ ___ 2, 051
Making ______ ___ __ ____ ___
7
Packing __ _____ _______ ____
29
Box ____ _______ __ ____ ______
7
Miscellaneous from all
departments _______ ____ _
21
1
2
100. 0
100. 0
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
$8. 00
8. 00
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
800
748
7
17
7
21
37. 8
$8. 55
1,216
57. 5
36. 5
8. 55
(2)
(2)
(2)
1,204
58. 7
1? ---- -- --
$6. 05
6. 00
(2)
(2)
Totals include 129 white women and 99 negro women who worked on both timework and piecework.
Not computed; base less than 50.
LOCALITY
Pay-roll records were copied for some of the cigarette firms in
Durham and Winston-Salem, N. C ., in Louisville, Ky., and in Richmond and Petersburg, Va. I n the summary below are shown t he
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
109
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
number and per cent of white and negro women for whom pay-roll
data were secured in the various localities.
All women
White
Negro
L ocality
N umber Per cent N u mber Per cent N umber P er cent
------- - --All localit ies included __ ___ ________ ___ ___ __
5, 798
100. 0
3,668
63. 3
2,130
Kentucky (L ou isville) _________________ _____ ____
N ort h Carolina (Durham an d W inston-Salem) __ _
Virginia (R ichmond and Petersburg) _____ _______
569
3,661
1,568
100. ·o
100. 0
100. 0
569
1,840
1, 259
100. 0
50. 3
80. 3
1, 821
309
-
36. 7
49. 7
19. 7
Of the 569 white workers included in Louisville, Ky., nearly twofifths (38.5 per cent) were in the packing departments, where they
worked at old and new packing machines, stamping and banding
machines, and wrapping machines. Other work carried on in these
departments consisted of packing in cartons and hand stamping,
pasting, and wrapping. More than one-third of the women (34.6
per cent) were in the leaf departments, and nearly one-half of these
were engaged in picking tobacco. About one-fourth (23.4 per cent)
were in the making departments. The occupation of nearly one-half
of the women in these departments was catching the packs of cigarettes
as they came from the machine.
A.-WHITE W OME N
All States
D epartment in which women
were em ployed
Kentucky
North Carolina
Virginia
Number P er cent Number Per cent N umber P er cent N umber Per cent
--- --- - ----- ---------
All women ___ _____ _____
3, 668
100. 0
569
100. 0
1,840
100. 0
1,259
100. 0
LeaL ___ _____ ____ __-- -- -- -- -Making _____ ______ ________ ___
Packing ________ __ ______ ______
Box ___________ __ ___ ___ _______
Miscellaneous from all departments ________ ______ ____
228
912
2, 401
87
6. 2
24. 9
65. 5
2. 4
197
133
219
19
34. 6
23.4
38. 5
3. 3
14
366
1, 404
38
0. 8
19. 9
76. 3
2. 1
17
413
778
30
1. 4
32. 8
61. 8
2. 4
40
1.1
1
.2
18
1. 0
21
1. 7
B .-NEGR O WOME N
All women __ _____ ____ __
2, 130
100. O ____ _____ __ _______
1, 821
100. O
309
100. 0
LeaL ___ __ _____ __ ___ _
All other_ ___, __ _____ _________
2,065
65
96. 9 _________ _________
1,777
44
97. 6
2. 4
288
21
93. 2
6. 8
J
__ _ _ _ _
3. 1 _____ ___ _ _______ __
The workers in North Carolina for whom pay-roll d at a were
obtained totaled 3,661, almost equally divided between white and
negro. Slightly more than three-fourths of the white women were
in the packing and about one-fifth in the making depar tments.
Most of the negro workers, nearly 98 per cent, were in the leaf
departments.
In Virginia about four-fifths of the 1,568 workers were white.
More than three-fifths (61.8 per cent) of the white women worked
in packing departments; nearly one-third were in making departments. Of the negro workers, more than nine-tenths (93.2 per cent)
were in the leaf departments.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
110
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
The median of the weekly earnings of white women was highest
($17.60) in North Carolina, where more than one-half of the white
women were employed; Virginia followed, with more than one-third
of the women and a median of $17.35; and Kentucky, with about
one-sixth of the women, had the lowest median, $12.45. The much
lower median in Kentucky may be explained by the fact that one
of the largest plants in that State was not operating full time.
For the negro women in North Carolina, where nearly seveneighths (85.5 per cent) were employed, the median was $7 .95. In
Virginia, where the remainder were employed, the median was $8.30.
EARNINGS AND AGE
White women.
Of all the 1,819 white cigarette workers, the greatest proportion
(46.3 per cent) received $15 and under $20 on the pay rolls copied.
This was the chief wage class for all age groups of considerable size
with two exceptions: (1) The 137 women 40 and under 50 years of
age had an equal proportion in the wage class $20 and under $2.5;
and (2) of the girls under 18 years, just over one-half (51.8 per cent)
received $10 and under $15.
The women 40 to 49 years old had much the highest proportion
earning $20 and under $30--40.9 per cent, as contrasted with 32.5
per cent for the next age group in rank.
Only about 1 per cent (1.3) of all the 1,819 women earned less
than $5. As age increased the proportion earning less than $5 decreased from 4.5 per cent of those under 18 years to 0.7 per cent of
those 40 and under 50 years. Only about 3 per cent earned $25 or
more. None under 18 earned as much as this, and the proportions
earning $25 or above varied from 2.1 per cent of those 18 and under
20 years old to 5.5 per cent of those who were 50 and under 60. (See
chart on page 111, and Appendix Table XXXI.)
Negro women.
Of the 185 negro women in cigarette manufacture for whom both
wage and age were obtained, nearly two-thirds (64.9 per cent) had
earnings of $5 and under $10. Almost one-eighth (11.9 per cent)
earned less than $5. All but two of these were at least 25 years old.
Less than one-fourth-only 43 women-earned as much · as $10.
Twenty-four who earned such amounts were at least 25 years old.
All the negro women included earned less than $13 a week. (See
.
Appendix Table XXXI.)
In specified departments.
- Practically three-fourths (74.9 per cent) of the 171 negroes who
worked in the leaf departments earned less than $10 on the pay rolls
copied. More than one-half of these were 30 years of age and over.
In the making departments were employed 467 white women whose
age and earnings were reported. Nearly seven-eighths of these, 403
women, earned $10 and under $20, and 200 of these were 20 and under
30 years of age. Of the 273 who did catching from the machine, all
but 8 earned $10 and under $20. Well over one-half (56.2 per cent)
.
were under 25 years.
Only 47 worked at feeding the making machine. Twenty-four
of them were not yet 25 years of age, and of these women only 3
earned less than $10 and only 1 earned as much as $20. Of the 79
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
111
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
women who operated the making machine, 56 earned $10 and under
$20 and 17 earned $20 or more. Well over one-half (41) of the
women who earned as much as $10 were at least 25 years of age.
Forty-one of the 68 women who were inspectors at the making
machine earned $10 and under $20. Only one earned less than $10
and the remainder earned $20 and under $25. Seventeen of those
PER CENT DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT WEEK'S EARN. INGS OF WHITE WOMEN, BY AGE-CIGARETTES
EARNINGS
Per cent
0
20
40
60
UNDER 18 YEARS
Less than $5
$5 and less
$10 and less
$15 and less
$20 and less
$ 25 and over
than
than
thsn
than
$10
$15
$20
$25
18 AND UNDER 20
Less than $5
$5 and less
$10 and less
$15 and less
$20 and less
$25 and over
YEARS
20 AND UNDER 25
Less than $5
$5 and les s
$10 and less
$15 and less
$20 and less
$25 and over
YEARS
25 AND UNDER 30
Less than $5
$5 and less
'10 and less
$15 and less
$20 and less
$25 and over
YEARS
30 AND UNDER 40
Less than ts
$5 and less
$10 and less
$15 and less
$20 and le:;s
$25 and over
YEARS
40 AND UNDER 50
Less than $5
$5 and less
'10 and less
$15 and less
$20 and less
$25 and over
YEARS
50 AND UNDER 60
Less than f,S
$5 and les s
$10 and less
$15 and less
$20 and less
$25 and over
YEARS
than $10
than $15
than $20
than $25
than
than
than
than
L
p::.
$10
f,15
$20
$ 25
than $10
than $15
t han $20
t han $25
t-
t han '10
t han t,15
than $20
t han $25
t han
than
t han
t han
$10
$15
$20
$25
t hr.n $10
than tis
t han $20
t han $25
E
who earned $10 and under $20 and 7 of those who earned $20 or
more were not yet 25 years of age.
Of the 1,263 white women in the packing departments, about
three-fifths (59.2 per cent) earned $10 and under $20. Only 39 women
earned less than $10, and the 476 remaining earned from $20 to
$30 or more. Of the 748 who earned $10 and under $20, 152 were
less than 20 years old and only 85 were as much as 40.
Of 96 women operating the new packing machine, 77 earned $10
and under $20. Twenty-seven of these were under 25, 26 were 25
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
112
WOM:filN IN CIGAR AN'.D CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
and under 30, and 24 were 30 and under 50, all but 2 of the last
named being under 40. Of the 17 women who earned $20 or more,
only 1 was less than 25.
Feeding or operating the old packing machine occupied 174 women
whose age and earnings were obtained. Well over one-half (95) of
these women earned $10 and under $20, and 50 of this group were at
least 30 years old. A much smaller number (76) earned $20 and under
$24, and 61 of these were 30 or more, 8 being at least 50.
A slightly larger number, 186, worked at cupping or inspecting at the
old packing machine. Of these, 95 earned $10 and under $20 and 87
earned $20 and under $23. Thirty-one of the 95 who earned $10
and under $20 and 32 of the 87 earning $20 or over were less than 25
years of age.
Operating the wrapping machine gave employment to 213 white
women for whom age and wage data were obtained. Only 3 of these
earned less than $10, well over one-h alf (56.3 per cent) earned $10
and under $20, and more than two-fifths (42.3 per cent) $20 or over.
Of those who earned $10 and under $20, the largest group, 42, were 20
and under 25 years. Almost equal proportions of those earning $10
and under $20 and $20 or over were 30 years of age or more.
A total of 273 white women who reported as to age worked at handpacking cigarettes. All but 7 had earn·e d at least $10 and as many as
107 earned $20. or more. One-half (50.9 per cent) of those who earned
$10 and under $20 were girls under 20. Of the 107 who earned $20
and more, just over one-half (55 women) were 20 and under 30.
A considerable group, 198 women, put the cigarette packs in cartons.
Only 5 of these women had earned less than $10. Nearly three-fifths
(58.6 per cent) had earned $10 and under $20, and nearly two-fifths
(38.9 per cent) had earned $20 and under $30. These women were
not so young as the hand packers. Sixty of the 116 who earned $10
and under $20 and 31 of the 77 who earned $20 or over were at least
25 years of age.
FLUCTUATION IN THE EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN TWO
FACTORIES
To secure evidence of the changes that have been taking place in
cigarette factories, pay rolls of two firms were copied for two separate
periods, a few months apart. For one firm, Plant A, the pay rolls
were copied for a week in September, 1929, and for a week in May, 1930,
nearly eight months later and after a change in operation had been
made. For the other, Plant B, the records were obtained' for a week
in April and another in December, 1929. In each case the plant was
revisited some months later, when still further change was noted.
Plant A.
The earlier pay-roll records of Plant A showed 597 women employed,
while at the later date there were only 375. A great decrease was
evident in the numbers employed in the packing department, a
declinefrom356 to 145, or211 women. The number in the box department had declined from 15 to 0, and the number of miscellaneous
workers from all departments from '48 to 1. The decrease in the
packing department was due to the introduction of the new packing
machine. The workers on the old packing machine had all been girls
working in teams, one feeder for two machines, one operator, and one
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
113
catcher, who put packs in the tray. The new packing machine occupied only one operator, and this was a man. In the leaf and making
departments the numbers of women had increased from 30 to 42
and from 148 to 187, respectively.
The return visit was made in October of 1930. At this time it
was found that during the late summer and early fall of that year the
company had made other changes in machine equipment, by installing 42 glassine-wrapping machines, which gave employment to 84
women; 128 additional making machines, employing 256-equal
numbers of men and women; and 8 banding machines, employing 8
men and 8 women. Furthermore, they had added 21 women examiners in the making department.
There was very little difference in average hourly earnings between
the 239 on the early pay roll and the 261 on the late who were paid
an hourly rate. The median of the average hourly earnings for the
239 was 31½ cents, while the median for the 261 was 32 cents. Twofifths (40.6 per cent) of those on the early pay roll and about threetenths (29.5 per cent) of those on the late pay roll had average earnings
of less than 30 cents an hour. On both late and early pay rolls the
largest proportion were earnll!g 30 and under 35 cents. More than
one-tenth of the early pay-roll group and somewhat less than onetenth of the late pay-roll group had average hourly earnings of 40
cents or more.
As was true of hourly earnings, there was little difference between
the two periods in median of the average daily earnings. This was
$4.55 for the 353 on the early pay roll and $4.45 for the 112 on the late
pay roll. Only about 1 per cent of the women whose daily earnings
were reported. averaged less than $3 a day. Almost seven-eighths
(87 per cent) of those on the early pay roll and more than nine-tenths
(91.1 per cent) of those on the late pay roll had average daily earnings
of $4 and over.
Of the 597 women employed in Plant A at the date of the early pay
roll, 295 were employed there eight months later, the date of the second
pay roll. One hundred and thirty-seven of these, for all but 1 of whom
hours worked were reported, were employed at the same work at
both dates. There was little variation in average hours or earnings,
though for the 9 who had worked in the leaf department the average
hours were 50.3 on the early pay roll and 53.2 on the late. The
average earnings of these women were $10.31 on the early pay roll and
$10.90 on the late.
In the making department 92 women were employed-74 catchmg
from the machine and 18 inspecting the finished product. The average
hours worked by these two groups on the early pay roll were respectively 52.8 A-nd 53.1, but by the late pay roll they were 48.9 and 51.2.
Average hourly earnings for those catching from the machine were 32
cents on the early pay roll and 33 cents on the late. For those who
did inspecting the average hourly earnings were 39 cents on the early
pay roll and 40 cents on the late.
In the packing department the time worked was reported in days,
and for the three occupations at which women were employed, operating the wrapping machine, operating the stamping and banding
machine, and packing in cartons, the average time worked varied
little. The average daily earnings for women operating the wrapping
machine decreased from $4.66 on the early pay roll to $4.37 on the
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
114
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
late pay roll, and for those packing in cartons they decreased from
$4.60 to $4.36, while for the women operating the stamping and banding machine there was an increase from $3.88 to $4.20.
The facts regarding the women engaged in the same work on both
dates show no great differences in the average time worked or the
average earnings, but for the 158 women whose occupation had
changed some differences were noted. As an example, the 20 women
who had worked at feeding or operating the old packing machine on
an average 5.3 days a week, and whose average daily earnings had
been $4.55 ($23.12 weekly) were employed on the late pay roll as ·
catchers in the making department, working an average week of
47 hours, at an average of 30.9 cents an hour ($14.52 weekly), greatly
reduced earnings.
A like reduction in earnings was noted for the 25 who had done
cupping or inspecting at the old packing machine, where they worked
on an average 5.4 days a week and had average daily earnings of
$4.56 ($24.62 weekly). On the late pay roll they worked an average
of 50 hours a week, for which they received 32 cents an hour ($16
weekly).
Plant B.
In the other firm, Plant B, the number employed at the date of
the early pay-roll records, in April, 1929, was 610, but eight months
later an increase of 95 in numbers had taken place. The three
departments in which an increase was noted were the packing department, showing an increase from 372 to 481; the making department,
from 38 to 145; and the leaf department, an increase from 45 to 53.
The great increase in the making department was due to the introduction of a new kind of cigarette. This kind had been made formerly
in another city, but during the summer previous to the copying of the
pay-roll records the company had transferred their manufacture to
this city. The increase in the packing department was due partly
to the increased production and partly to the introduction of flat
containers in which the cigarettes were packed by hand.
The median of the average hourly earnings at the time of the early
pay roll was 33 cents; at the time of th e late pay roll it was 34 cents.
Nearly three-tenths (28.8 per cent) of the women at the earlier date,
as compared with about one-sixth (17.4 per cent) of those at the later
date, had average earnings of less than 20· cents an hour. As indicated by the median earnings, a slightly larger part of those on the
late pay roll (64.9 per cent) than of those on the earlier one (61.8 per
cent) had average hourly earnings of 30 cents or more.
For women with earnings reported in days, the median of the average dail.Y earnings was $3.35 for the 391 women on the early pay roll
and $3.50 for the 395 women on the late. Less than 5 per cent of
the former, but well over one-fifth of the latter, had average daily
earnings of as much as $4.
When a return visit was made in October, 1930, it was learned
that the number in the packing department had decreased considerably; about 100 had been laid off during the summer . .
In addition to securing pay rolls for two specified weeks in Plant
B material was made available for a longer consecutive period for
1928 and 1929. These figures show even more strikingly the effect
on numbers employed brought tiibo-ut by changes j:q the style of pack..
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
115
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
ing, in the method of operation, or in the installation of improved
machinery. The one increase due quite largely to trade demands
occurred in 1928, when the fl.at container suddenly grew in popularity.
Within six months the hand-packing department, for these boxes
necessarily were packed by hand, increased tremendously. However,
a change in 1928 that led to a decrease in numbers was traceable to
an improved method of processing the leaf. With an added amount
of steam, fewer negro women were required to pick the leaf apart, and
consequently employment in this department dropped considerably.
In the next year, 1929, radical improvements in the mechanical
equipment were immediately reflected in the employment records.
Earlv in the year the old-style packing machine was so improved
tha( a large number of women who were hopper feeders were eliminated, but this lay-off was partially compensated within a few weeks
by the introduction of a number of the latest type of making machines,
on which it was possible to place 25 women as operators. Before that
no women had been employed on making machines. At about the
same time the company transferred work here from its plant in another
city, which gave added employment for a large number of women.
While the women in this locality benefited by this removal, those in
the other city, a number of whom had been many years with the firm,
were laid off to hunt for jobs in a community where there was no
demand for experienced cigarette workers.
YEAR'S EARNINGS IN 'CIGARS
Thus far, the pay-roll earnings discussed have been those which the
women received for one week, considered by company officials to be a
representative week, having neither overtime nor undertime to excess.
But it is not to be taken for granted that each woman earned during
the year fifty-two times the amount of the week's earnings reported.
Due to various causes, personal and other, year's earnings in industry
rarely equal such a figure.
The total year's earnings are of utmost importance to the woman
worker, for itjs on this amount that she and her dependents must live.
Again the reader is reminded that in few cases were hand plants
operating full time.
TABLE
29.-Year's earnings, by weeks worked-Cigars
All
women
Year's earnings
....
l=1
8
(l)
.0
~
z
~
p..
--
Total ________ _- - _- - __ 514 100.0
Median ________________ ____
$827
Less than $400____ _______ ___
24
4. 7
$400 and less than $600 ____ _
54 10.5
$600 and less than $800 _____ 148 28. 8
$800 and less than $1,000 _____ 175 34.0
$1,000 and less than $1,200 ___
96 18..7
$1,200 and over_ ____________
17
3.3
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
44 and less
than 46
weeks
....
l=1
8
....
(l)
.0
~
z
(l)
p..
17
(1)
(1)
3 -----2 -----5 -----5 -----1 -----1 ------
46 and less
than 48
weeks
....
(l)
.0
~
z
l=1
0
....
(l)
(l)
p..
48 and less
than 50
weeks
~
.0
~
z
l=1
0
....
(l)
(l)
p..
------
80 100.0
$805
7. 5
6
7
8.8
26 32. 5
25 31.3
15 18. 8
1
1.3
169 100. 0
$846
3
1.8
19 11. 2
44 26.0
58 34.3
37 21.9
4. 7
8
50 and less
than 52
weeks
~
.0
~
z
l=1
8
~
p..
197 100. 0
$814
9
4. 6
20 10. 2
63 32.0
73 37. 1
27 13. 7
5
2. 5
52 weeks
~
.0
~
z
~
8
~
p..
51 100. 0
$917
5. 9
3
11. 8
6
10
19. 6
14
27. 5
16
31.4
2
3. 9
116
WOMEN lN CiGAR. AND CIGARETTE tNDUST.ntEs
As would be expected, the 514 cigar workers, white and negro,
for whom year's earnings were secured were steady workers. All of
them had been on the rolls for 52 weeks and had worked in at least
44 of the 52. More than four-fifths had worked in at least 48 weeks;
10 per cent of all were on every pay roll of the year. The median
of the earnings of the latter group is $917, well over one-third of the
women earning $1,000 or more. The fact that the 197 women who
worked 50 and under 52 weeks had a median more than $100 below
that of the 52-week workers is indicative of a lower wage scale or of
considerable undertime.
Only about one-sixth of these women earned as much as $1,000.
More than one-third of the women (34 per cent) earned $800 and less
than $1,000, and the median earnings for the 514 women-one-half
earning more and one-half less-were $827. Almost three-tenths
of the women (28.8 per cent) earned $600 and less than $800, and
almost one-fifth (18.7 per cent) $1,000 and less than $1,200. For
about one-tenth (10.5 per cent) the year's earnings were $400 and less
than $600. Less than 5 per cent earned below $400 in the year, and
only 3.3 per cent earned as much as $1,200.
Earnings were the highest in the cities of 400,000 or more
population.
Stripping departments.
Nearly one-fifth of those for whom year's earnings were reported
were employed in stripping departments. As would be expected, the
year's earnings were considerably lower for these 96 women than for
the group as a whole. More than two-fifths, in contrast to less than
one-sixth of all the women, earned less than $600. Only one-fourth
earned $800 or more.
Only one woman in the stripping departments earned as much as
$1,000. In these departments the median earnings were $650, for
those who worked at hand stripping they were $450, and for the
machine strippers $7 50.
Cigar-making departments.
In the cigar-making departments were 323, or more than threefifths, of the women for whom year's earnings were reported. The
median earnings for the 323 women were $899. Two in three of all
in these departments were in hand manufacture.
Hand and machine manufacture.- Almost 12· per cent of the women
in the hand manufacture of cigars, but no woman in machine making,
had earned less than $600. Just over three-tenths of the handworkers had earned $600 and under $800, and practically the same
number were in the next higher group, $800 and under $1,000.
More than one-fourth of all earned at least $1,000. Of the women in
machine manufacture, where more than nine-tenths were on the
automatic cigar-making machine, more than one-third earned at
least $1,000. Practically one-half were in the group $800 and under
$1,000. About one-fourth of the handworkers had done bunch
making, almost all the remainder being rollers. About one-third of
the bunch makers and more than two-fifths of the rollers had earned
less than $800.
The median earnings for the 222 women in hand manufacture were
$842. For the 101 in machine manufacture the median was $950.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
117
WAGE DATA FROM FACTORY ROLLS
Packing departments.
In the packing departments one-third of the women had earned $600
and under $800, and a few more had earned $800 and under $1,000.
Ahnost 1 in 8 (11 of the 93) had earned less than $600. Only 17
earned as much as $1 ,000. The median earnings for the 93 in the
packing departments were $825.
TABLE
Department
30.-Year's earnings, by department- Cigars
$600 and
$800 and
$1,000 and $1,200 and
Less than
less than
less than
less than
over
$600
Me$1,200
$1,000
$800
Num- dian Per
ber of earn- cent
women ings
Num- Per Num- Per Num- P er Num- Per Num- P er
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
---------All departments
Stripping _____ ______
514
$827 100. 0
78
15. 2
148
28. 8
175
34. 0
96
96
650 100. 0
40
41. 7
32
33. 3
23
24. 0
1
Cigar making ___ ____
Hand ___ ___ ___ __
Machine _____ __
323
222
101
899 100. 0
842 100.0
950 100. 0
26
26
8. 0
11. 7
85
69
16
26. 3
31. 1
15. 8
U7
67
50
36. 2
30. 2
49. 5
80
46
34
24.8
20. 7
33. 7
15
14
1
4. 6
6. 3
1.0
Packing. ___ __ ____ __
Shipping _________ __
93
2
825 100. 0
(1)
(1)
15
16.1
2
2. 2
1
------ ------
11. 8
31 33. 3
1 ---- -- --- - -- ---- --
11
34 36. 6
1 -- ----
18. 7
17
1. 0 ---- --
3. 3
-----
------ -- ---- - - - - - - - - - --
Not computed; base less than 50.
By locality.
More than one-half of the 514 women whose year's earnings were
reported were in Pennsylvania, where 267 records were secured.
In New Jersey there were 69 , in Ohio 61 , and in Massachusetts 52 .
The remainder, 65, were in various States.
Of the large group in Pennsylvania, about 40 per cent had earned
$600 and under $800, and three-tenths were jn the next higher group.
In New Jersey all the women earned at least $600 or more, and
ahnost one-half (49.3 per cent) earned $1,000 or more--a great
contrast to Pennsylvania, where this proportion was only 8.2 per cent.
Just one-half of the women in Massachusetts were in the earnings
group $800 and under $1,000. Almost three-tenths earned $1,000
or more.
Fifteen of the 61 workers in Ohio earned less than $600, but more
t han three-tenths earned $1,000 and under $1,200.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PART VII.-WORKING CONDITIONS
It means much when one must sit in the same corner of the same
room year after year, to have it clean, bright, and comfortable.
Depressing surroundings in the shape of dull walls and dirty floors,
the strain of bad lighting, the annoyance caused by the lack of
decent dressing rooms and other service facilities, undoubtedly have a
cumulative effect that engenders discontent and in time kills what
joy there may have been in the job.
What the physical surroundings were in the workrooms of the
cigar factories whose working conditions were reported in the survey
and what service facilities were provided for the comfort of the
employees are briefly summarized in the following pages. Descriptions of a few plants will make clear the main characteristics of the
better and the less desirable working conditions.
Plant 1.-In an important manufacturing city a small hand cigar
factory occupied parts of an old 3-story frame builcling. The upper
hall was dark and narrow. The dirty walls of the workrooms,
together with the old-type sash windows on only one or two sides,
made the rooms seem dark. The natural light was inadequate for
most of the workers, and the artificial lighting was poor. Drop
lights were supplied, but the majority were unshaded and the few
shades provided were not satisfactory. A stove in each room was the
only means of heating. The sanitary conveniences were below
average. In general, the housekeeping was bad, and the place was
drab and dirty.
,
Plant 2.-Another hand plant, employing about 50 women, is
described as follows: Three-story frame builcling, 30 or 40 years old.
Narrow stairways, with treads worn, rough, and splintered. Housekeeping poor-general neglect in upkeep and maintenance: Floors
dirty, walls dirty, windows dirty, the few window shades soiled and
ragged. Insanitary bubbling fountain. Washing facilities inadequate and badly kept; no hot water. Toilet rooms .dirty, electric
light out of repair; one toilet ventilates into adjoining room. Firstaid kit-almost no supplies. In general, poor conditions-building
and equipment old and dirty.
·
Plant 3.-But not all the hand plants were unpleasant places.
An outstanding example of what a hand plant can be was found in a
fireproof 5-story building of recent construction. It had ample
factory windows and more than 90 per cent of the 600 women found
the natural light sufficient. A passenger elevator with a full-time
operator took employees to the upper floors. The stairways were
inclosed in fireproof walls. Janitors swept continuously, and the
housekeeping was excellent-floors, walls, windows, and worktables
all very clean. The roomy and airy lavatories were models, equipped
with modern fixtures and in perfect order. Sanitary bubblers were
convenient for all. In addition, there were quite complete service
118
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WORKING CONDITIONS
119
facilities, including a lunch room and a rest room with clean cot and
comfortable chairs. There were lockers for wraps. This was one
of the few hand plants having a washed-air system of ventilation and
temperature control. It was used throughout the building, both
winter and summer.
Plant 4.--A large machine plant with superior working conditions
is described as follows: A new brick and concrete building of the
modern factory type; elevators; good stairways; artificially ventilated;
clean; large windows on four sides, adequate except for machine
obstruction and having shades or curtains, and good artificial lighting,
no glare; seats for more than four-fifths of workers; bubbling fountains
of the sanitary type; hot water, soap, paper towels; individual lockers,
in charge of matron; caps and aprons sold at cost; very good toilet
rooms; good and inexpensive cafeteria; full-time nurse.
Stairways.
More often than not the stairways in the buildings were rated as
satisfactory, though few were made of cement and inclosed in fireproof
wells. A bout three-fourths were of wood. In onlv 5 factories were
there winding stairways; in only 5 was the light unsatisfactory.
A few (14) were narrow, but only 1 was without a handrail. A
stairway that failed to measure up to good standards was described
as follows: "Winding, wood, dimly lighted, too narrow for 2 persons
to pass easily, the only stairs provided for about 50 women to use."
One adequate in most respects was "not inclosed by any walls and leads
from the middle of one workroom to another."
Floors and aisles.
Only two plants, each of which occupied a new building, had composition or cement floors throughout. Wooden floors prevailed,
even in the plants equipped with machinery. Though worn or broken
floor boards were noted in about 1 in 6 factories and dirty floors in
about 1 in 5, housekeeping generally was good, many schedules
commenting on this. Almost every plant claimed to have some
sweeping done every day; one factory stated that it had only a weekly
sweeping, and in a few others the same economy was apparent.
In 10 factories some or all of the aisles were narrow and in 9 the
passages were not clear but had obstructions of one kind or another.
Lighting.
Since the work in a cigar factory is not fine detail, the problem of
lighting is less difficult to control than in €stablishments where
the work requires close attention. Shading is the only occupation
that requires the best of light, and it is customary to place the~e
workers on the top floor, near north windows, if possible, or under a
skylight. Only occasionally is such an exposure inadequate, and
in these cases daylight electric bulbs are used to supplement the natural
light. Natural light was adequate under ordinary circumstances in
about 30 factories, most of which were operating solely on a hand
basis and were, on the whole, the smaller establishments. Besides
the 30 plants where daylight was sufficient throughout it was adequate
for most of the employees in about 45 other establishments. A glare
from daylight conditions affected some of the employees in 10
factories.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
120
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
Artificial light was reported as sufficient in all but 4 plants at the
time · of the visit, but a glare from badly placed or unshaded bulbs
was noted in one or more instances in as many as 20 factories.
Excerpts from the inspection schedules show in a general way what
the conditions were in regard to lighting.
Walls needed painting and windows washing; light fair to poor.
Walls freshly painted; very clean and light. Natural light adequate except
near ~enter of rooms (about 97 women employed).
Workrooms light; ceiling and all walls above wainscoting were white and in
excellent condition.
Natural light excellent in all rooms (except at middle) from large factory
windows; saw-toothed roof for packers on top floor. Window shades supplied
where needed, so no glare.
Bunchers and rollers sat facing a row of many sash windows. Several workers
wore visors to shield the eyes.
Artificial lighting poor; drop lights, some unshaded and others with fl.at reflectors
hung at a level that caused a glare for most workers.
Lighting haphazard; drop cords, some with shades, many without, causing
a glare for some because of poor placing.
Approved dome lights throughout except in packing department, where daylight bulbs were in use.
Ventilation.
For the most part the workrooms in the hand plants were not
large and workers sat fairly near the windows. Occasionally there
was an open skylight, and electric fans were a help in keeping the
air in motion. Small sash windows prevailed in the older buildings,
but frequently descriptions on the schedules read "good cross draft
in all rooms," "large airy plant," "light and airy." Occasionally,
however, the comments read "very stuffy when windows closed,"
"in the leaf department humidity was high and no circulation of
air," "stripping department had no artificial ventilation and odor of
tobacco very oppressive."
One of the most striking differences between the machine-equipped
and hand-operated plants was in the method of ventilation. When
cjgars are made by hand, the woman handling the leaf is the best
judge of how the tobacco is working up and whether or not it is too
dry or too moist, but with making machines some mechanical control
of moisture was necessary. Consequently, where making machines
were in use, artificial conditioning equipment had been installed. In
this way a uniform quality of the leaf was assured summer and winter,
and when conditioners were combined with a heating and cooling
system, as was invariably the case, temperature as well as humidity
conditions remained constant throughout the year. At first there
was no little prejudice among the workers against working in a
"sealed room," but they soon learned that the overhead carriers
through which the washed air was forced were likely to produce an
atmosphere more comfortable than the outside air.
In only a few of the hand plants was the carrier system of artificial
ventilation in use. On~ large hand factory, thoroughly modern in
construction, depended entirely upon artificial ventilation, and
windows were never opened. It was equipped with a washed-air
carrier system throughout.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WORKING CONDITIONS
121
Other factories, with simpler humidifying systems, did not use
them continuously but depended on natural ventilation much of the
time. A few had o·n ly unit humidifiers, whose purpose was to keep
the tobacco leaf in the room moist enought to work up efficiently. In
a stripping room where the moisture was thrown into the air by
local jets it had been necessary to attach trays to protect women from
the spray:
Seating.
Under the old hand method of making cigars the chief complaint
was against the constant sitting posture and toiial lack of opportunity
to change position. With the introduction of the machine there has
been added a certain element of risk, but except for the girl at the
first position at the machine, who sometimes stands and sometimes
sits, cigar making is still largely a sitting job. Moreover, the machine
being foot controlled, the girls on the team who control the power
have no freedom of the leg or foot while the power is on. It is practically impossible for them to shift about, and many assume a strained
and awkward position in keeping the slight pressure constantly
applied.
In the 76 factories where numbers of women were noted, over 16,000
women sat at their work, while only about 1,700 stood and comparatively few-something over 600-were fortunate enough to have
work at which the posture could be either standing or sitting. Since
it is necessary for thousands of the employees to sit from morning
until night, week after week and year after year, the suitability of the
seat is a very important factor in the comfort and efficiency of the
worker.
The types of seats provided in the cigar factories ranged from
boxes, crude benches, high or low stools without backs, stools with
boards nailed on to serve as backs, and ordinary wooden kitchen
chairs with rounded backs, to the latest and most approved type of
chairs with legs and back rests adjustable to the various requirements
of employees and jobs.
The most common type of seat was the kitchen chair, found in
the majority of the cigar factories visited. But there were also large
numbers of stools and of benches and boxes. Tall women and short
women used the same type of stools and chairs, and the same seat
was supposedly adapted for work at low tables or at higher workbenches. There were no factories where adjustable seats ·were provided for all workers, but in about one-third there were at least
some chairs that could be made to fit the individual employee by
changing the position of the back rest or the height of the seat.
More seats of this type were found in the machine plants than in
hand establishments.
In most cases the backs of ordinary chairs were useless as supports
while working but in. moments of relaxation they were better than the
narrow benchlike seats and stools with no backs. However, in one
fair-sized department it was stated that the girls preferred stools,
saying that chair backs would be in the way. The type of chair that
had been suggested in this case was not reported. In some stripping
departments the backs of seats had been removed or turned under, as
they interfered with the free movement of the women's arms.
126898°-32--9
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
122
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
Nine firms supplied foot rests for all their workers. There was
nothing uniform in the types: Rough blocks of wood, boxes, and small
planks served the purpose of ten in a haphazard way; more of ten a
rail on the bench, a low shelf on the table, or a rod on the machine
relieved the position, though not always conveniently placed. One
large firm supplied small individual stools as foot rests for all workers
who needed them, and it was as much a part of the day's work to
pick up the stool at night and leave it on the chair as it was to hang
up one's apron.
Some stripping machines were equipped with metal seats with or
without backs. In more than one stripping department, as already
described, the operators preferred not to use the backs, as they were
not adjustable; the girls complained that they interfered with the
free use of their arms, because they did not fit. They were also
called a "nuisance" in getting on and off the chair.
In some factories girls sat perched on high stools while they fed
the tobacco filler into the cigar-making machines; and for a foot rest
they twisted their feet about the legs of the stool or caught their heels
on the rungs. In one case an effort had been made to supply a metal
foot rest for these feeders, but it was neither large enough nor conveniently placed, and the arrangement was the same regardless of
whether the operators were tall or short.
On banding and foiling machines the workers could alternate jobs,
thus making it possible to have a change in posture, first sitting while
they fed the machine and then standing to take the cigars away from
the machine.
·
Stools were the most common seats furnished for .this kind of work.
Some were low; others were high; and many had nothing but the rungs
of the stools for a foot rest. In six of the departments where all the
jobs required standing, extra stools or chairs had been provided for
the employees to use during relief or other spare moments.
Although employees in the packing and shipping departments
stood more than elsewhere, it was rare to find these departments
devoid of at least a few seats, convenient for relief of an occasional
minute now and then.
The following extracts from schedules illustrate the seating equipment in some factories:
Miscellaneous array of seating arrangements with chairs a nd stools of all
kinds. Some operators at the automatic machines had new adjustable chairs,
but most seats in the plant were old chairs and stools of all varieties.
Chairs poor throughout. Many broken, old and dirty.
Several had kitchen chairs and some had their own cushions. A few had low,
benchlike stools. Most were able to reach the floor with their feet, but one or
two had blocks of wood and some had sawed off the legs of their chairs to make
them a more convenient height.
It was not unusual to see a motley array of cushions, some shaped
to fit the backs of the chairs and faotened to the frames while others
were used as seat pads.
Drinking facilities.
A summary of drinking facilities shows that bubbler drinking fountains had been installed in 28 establishments, but in only 4 were all
of the approved sanitary type in which the water can not fall back
nor be forced back onto the point of discharge. The common cup
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WORKING CONDITIONS
123
was still in evidence in 17 factories, but none were noted in the modern
machine plants. Even in the most immaculate up-to-date factories
it was not customary for the firm to furnish individual paper drinking
cups. Many employees furnished their own cups.
In one establishment electric refrigeration showed the eagerness of
the management to keep up with the times, but too often the oldstyle barrel-like tank-not always with close-fitting cover, of doubtful
cleanliness, and with ice floating in the water until it melted-was
the cheaper substitute for sanitary coolers. Some entries on the
inspection blanks reported as follows:
Faucet at sink but no special drinking facilities. Stated that in summer a
tank was installed.
,
Tank provided, but cover off and no water in it on day of inspection.
Tin cup for common use at sink faucet.
Washing facilities.
The following summarizes the outstanding features of the washing
facilities as reported for 80 factories: Hot water was supplied in only
15 establishments; soap in only 19 (in another there were soap cont ainers but some were broken and all were empty); towels in only 15.
In 10 plants the towels supplied were paper, and in one place some of
the containers were empty. Two had individual cloth towels-one
the pull-clean variety and the other those strung on rods. In two
instances the employees were expected to pay for individual towel
service. Electric dryers were inst alled in some plants.
The common towel was seen in four factories. In one of these the
forelady apologized for soiled towels and explained that they had a
dozen clean ones two or three times a week. In another plant only
four clean towels a day were supplied for over 200 women. On the
whole, towels were most conspicuous by their absence.
In about half of the plants washing facilities were reported as
inadequate; it is no wonder, then , that in almost half the cases the
equipment was dirty. There is no definite standard as to what constitutes an adequate number of washing facilities per given number
of employees, but cleanliness is essential in the handling of tobacco
and there can be no doubt that in such extreme cases as one sink for
the use of 150 women, or one for 100, 60, or even 30 women, such
arrangements were most unsatisfactory for all concerned. The
situation was further complicated by the fact that in over twothirds of the plants the washbowls were used by both men and women.
In the majority of the machine plants, many of which were newer
than the hand plants, hot water was abundant and washbowls were
adequate and conveniently located. Probably this was not alone
for the accommodation of the workers but was intended for the efficient cleaning of the machine dies and plates-a necessary and
frequent operation.
There was often a general correspondence between conditions of
the plumbing equipment and other standards in the plant. "Black
iron troughs with some spigots out of repair" were not found in
plants whose workrooms were described as "spotlessly clean," nor,
on the other hand, were the workrooms supplied with white porcelain
sinks having 10 or 12 hot and cold water spigots described as "grimy
with dirt and dust."
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
124
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
Toilet facilities.
An adequate number of toilet accommodations is important in
eliminating confusion and unnecessary loss of time and in conserving
health. Some States have fixed by law the ratio between number of
facilities and number of employed. Their standards vary, but the
standard of the Women's Bureau requires one seat to every 15 women.
Twenty-four of the 80 cigar factories came up to this standard, but
some of the others fell far short of it. In none of the machine plants
was the average more than 30 women to a seat, but in 16 hand factories it was higher and in half of these the number of women per
seat varied from about 40 to 80. In a factory where two seats were
provided for 137 women they were described as "very dirty."
Not only were the accommodations inadequate in many instances,
but other conditions were unsatisfactory. Possibly the most serious
fault was one of construction. In seven factories none of the toilet
rooms had outside windows and in 11 others only some of the rooms
had windows. Occasionally one had a shaft or vent pipe, but these
were a poor substitute for windows. One such arrangement was
described as having "no natural light in the combined toilet and
wash room, with seven seats for 110 workers. A IO-inch pipe in tb.e
side wall opens into the hallway-no other ventilation." In this
same factory, however, facilities for about 350 women in other
departments were described as satisfactory.
In all but 15 plants the toilet rooms were clean, but in 28 the plumbing itself was checked as dirty; in 2 factories all the fixtures were out
· of order. On the whole, the repair of both rooms and plumbing
averaged better than the cleanliness.
Conditions as to privacy were adequate in all but six factories.
In some of these there were no doors to compartments; in others, rows
of fixtures were without separating partitions or doors.
Lunch rooms.
Almost two-thirds of the companies had neglected to furnish even
the simplest arrangement in the _way of lunch-room facilities, so the
employee had little choice but to eat her lunch at the same workbench where she· made her cigars. Naturally, it was customary for
many employees in small towns to go home for the noon hour, and
others went outside for lunch, yet it was not unusual to see the women
,
eating the noon meal in the workrooms.
Here and there a firm was running a cafeteria, sometimes at a
loss. In two others there were lunch counters where hot foods
could be purchased, but these provided no place for the eating of
lunch. In five others special tables and chairs were set aside for
lunch purposes, and here it was possible to buy a hot drink.
In 15 factories gas or electric plates were provided for the convenience of the employees in making coffee and tea. Sometimes these
were in the workrooms, sometimes in the dressing rooms. The chief
drawback to this arrangement seemed to be the impossibility of
serving all with such limited equipment as was found in many plants.
Cloakrooms.
Fifty-eight of the factories made provision in the way of cloakrooms for their employees. Though some were little more than
closets, all were lighted and most of them were clean, The em-
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WORKING CONDITIONS
125
ployees themselves undoubtedly were responsible for the rubbish in
those that were dirty. In about half of the cloakrooms there were
shelves where hats, lunch boxes, or shoes could be stored, and in
about half there was a box, bench, or chair for the changing of shoes.
Thirteen plants had lockers. Racks for hangers, or wall hooks, were
much more in evidence. In rare cases the checking system was used
to insure greater safety or the rooms were supervised by matrons.
In several cases an unpleasant condition arose from toilets ventilating into cloakrooms. In fact, 10 of the cloakrooms were like
closed boxes, with no air inlets except from the opening of the doors.
The factories reported as having no cloakrooms were chiefly the
hand plants, some with few employees. In these plants an array of
aprons, coats, hats, and umbrellas usually hung on wall hooks or
nails in the workroom, or occasionally in the toilet rooms.
Facilities for resting in an easy chair during the noon hour were
rare; however, in about half of the establishments there was a cot
available in case of emergency. Many were in first-aid rooms;
others, which were used more freely by the women, were in cloakrooms. Sometimes the cot was folded away in a corner, or there was
only a stretcher. They were of all sorts and varieties, from the row
of white cots in a combined hospital and first-aid room to the uncovered cot with no mattress, or the cots with dirty cretonne covers.
Only in factories with cigar-making machines were nurses employed. These had charge of first aid and the general welfare of
the girls. In a factory that required physical examination at the
time of employment, a doctor was in attendance half of the day. In
another, a doctor made daily visits.
In the larger and more up-to-date establishments there were
first-aid or hospital rooms, but in the other factories arrangements
for relief from physical ills were for the most part very casual. There
were first-aid kits, in some cases in the factory, in other cases in the
office; some were well equipped and o·t hers were practically empty.
Iodine and aspirin were the chief remedies. One superintendent remarked that he gave out many headache tablets every week, and in
another case it was said that the girls helped one another but that an
employee with some nursing experience cared for the sick girls. As
many as 14 firms made no pretense of carrying simple first-aid
remedies.
Uniforms.
Simple uniforms, consisting of coverall aprons, smocks, or caps and
aprons, were found in a few plants operating wholly or in part on a
machine basis. They were a new feature, a custom since the advent
of the cigar machine. As yet they were not compulsory, but all except the older women, who were slower to adopt new ideas, were
wearing the coveralls. Usually the uniforms were supplied by the firm
at cost to the employees, their price varying with style and quality
from 75 cents to $1.80. The more usual prices were $1.25 or $1.50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
...
PART vm.-OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIES
To understand better the conditions under which women work in the
cigar and cigarette industries, the time they work, and the earnings
they receive, it is essential to have some knowledge of the processes in
the industries. For this reason a short description of the occupations
at which women work is given here.
OCCUPATIONS IN THE CIGAR INDUSTRY
In the manufacture of cigars the work is carried on in :five distinct
departments, namely, leaf, stripping, cigar making, packing, and
shipping.
Leaf department.
The tobacco as it comes to the factory and is brought to the leaf
department is in bunches, bound together with a leaf of tobacco or
tied with a string, depending on the method of curing. The first thing
the workers do is to shake the bunches to free them from dust and
then to open them. Next they pick out any sticks or trash that may
have adhered to the leaves, after which the tobacco is placed in piles·
or containers for seasoning (flavoring) or moistening (steaming to
make pliable) preparatory to the stripping operations. These and
the other processes in the leaf department are classified as general
leaf work. Padding is the work of spreading out the leaf afteT it has
been put through the ordering (steaming) machine for the strippers.
All work in this depaTtment is of an unskilled n ature and takes only a
day or so to learn. Women in this department stand, except those
inspecting and padding.
Stripping department.
In the stripping department are three distinct processes-selecting,
hand stripping, and machine stripping. Selecting is the sorting of
leaves to be used for the various parts of the cigars, as fillers, binders,
and wrappers, according to color and quality, and putting them into
bundles. Sometimes it involves weighing the bundles. Women
who do this work usually are chosen from among the strippers.
Selectors sit at their work.
Stripping, sometimes spoken of as stemming, is done by hand or
machine, depending largely on the kind of tobacco · and the use to
which it is to be put. Stripping consists of removing the midrib
from the leaf. When the leaves are to be used as :filler, this work
requires no special care, but in stripping binders and wrappers great
care must be taken that the leaves are not broken and that each half
of every leaf remains intact.
In stripping by hand the pile of leaf is usually spread smoothly on
a pad or on the worker's knee, and the worker, holding the tip in one
hand and taking the midrib in the other hand, with a quick turn of
the wrist takes the midrib out. The women sit while doing this work.
126
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIES
127
Machine stripping involves the placing of a leaf in such a position
that it will be carried under a knife that cuts out the midrib. The
operator holds the edges of the leaf in both hands and feeds it into the
machine, controlled by a foot treadle. A seat frequently is attached
to the machine.
Cigar-making department.
In the cigar-making departments there are two specific methods of
procedure- one, that of making the cigar by hand, the original method
of manufacture; and the other, that of machine manufacture, which is
fast displacing the older hand method.
Hand manufacture.
Bunch making.-Although the hand making of cigars is decreasing
tremendously, a description of hand processes is given here, since
many of the women included were handworkers.
The making of cigars by hand involves two distinct processes,
namely, bunch making and cigar rolling. Both are skilled operations.
A combination of the two is called out-and-out cigar making. In
making bunches the tobacco filler is held together by a piece called a
binder, cut from the half tobacco leaf. The filler may consist of
narrow strips of tobacco, called a long filler, or small shreds, called a
scrap filler. The bunch is made entirely by hand on a table, or by
means of a small apron or sheet of rubber attached to a roller and
operated by hand. The bunches are sometimes put into a wooden
mold that helps to shape them. Those who work at making bunches
always sit. Several weeks are required to learn the work, and three to
six months to attain skill.
Cigar rolling.-In rolling the worker takes the bunches of tobacco
and rolls them in the wrapper in such a way as to give the cigar a
smooth surface. The roller must exercise great care in cutting the
wrapper from the tobacco leaf so as to use the tobacco to best advantage. In some establishments suction is used to hold the wrapper
down, either connected with the board or as a metal die in the shape of
the wrapper. Rollers sit at their work. This is one of the most
skilled jobs in the industry. It takes from 3 to 18 months to become
proficient.
Out-and-out cigar making.-This, as the name indicates, is the
making of a complete cigar, the same worker making the bunch and
rolling it in the v.Tapper. The worker sits at this job.
Machine manufacture.
Bunch making.- ln making bunches two different types of machine
are used. One of these makes bunches of scrap filler and the other of
long filler. In the machines that use scrap filler the filler is fed automatically from the hopper and the operator places the binder on the
belt of the machine. In the other machine the worker places the
binder on the machine and then puts the filler on the binder. A second
worker takes the bunch as it comes from the machine and places it in a
mold. The operators at the bunch-making machines sit. The operation may be learned in a few days.
Cigar rolling.- The operator lays the wrapper on a suction plate
and the machine rolls the bunch in the wrapper. Occasionally the
bunching machine and rolling machine are connected by an automatic transferring device. Operators at the cigar-rolling machine sit.
From one to two weeks are required for learning its operation.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
128
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
Automatic cigar making.-On this machine, the one that has revolutionized the industry, the whole cigar is made. There are four operators. One feeds the filler into the machine, one lays the binder on a
suction plate, one lays the wrapper, and the fourth examines the cigar
as it comes from the machine and makes any needed repair. All
workers may sit, although the feeders sometimes stand. From oneto
two months' time is taken to become proficient in operating this
machine.
After the cigars are taken from the automatic cigar-making machine
they are passed on to another t able at which they are further examined
for any imperfections that may have been missed by the swift examination at the machine. Experienced hand cigar makers are valuable
for this job, as it requires a knowledge of what constitutes a good
finished product. The examiners also gather the cigars into bunches
before sending them on to the packing department. These women
usually stand at their job.
Packing department.
Many different processes are carried on in the packing department.
Among these should be mentioned shading, banding, foiling, and
cellophaning, the last three processes hand or machine. Some of
these have become of less importance, due to the introduction of
methods of packing brought about by style changes. Among the
latter should be mentioned shading, the process of sorting cigars
according to color, preparatory to packing in boxes. Since many
cigars are now being wrapped in tin foil or cellophane, less careful
shading is required. Shaders usually stand at their work. To do
the fine shading requires from five months to a year to learn, while
those who do shading demanding less careful work can acquire skill
in from one to three months.
Hand foiling, cellophaning, and banding.-In the packing department all cigars are marked in some way to distinguish them from other
brands. This distinctive wrapping may be a special kind of tin foil,
cellophane, or a band with the name of the brand on it. On some
cigars both a wrapping and band may be used. Women employed
at this work sit. To acquire speed usually requires from one to two
weeks.
Machine banding and foiling. - Two workers cooperate in running
the banding machine. One operator feeds the cigars into the machine,
while a second takes them from the machine and packs them in a
box. The operators generally stand.
Cigars are usually fed automatically into the foiling machine and
are removed by the operator and packed into boxes. If the cigars
are to be foiled and banded as well, there is frequently a device tha.t
carries the cigar from the machine foiler to the banding machine, and
both machines are tended by one operator. The workers stand.
From one to two weeks' time is required to learn machine banding
and foiling.
Examining or inspecting.-Workers employed at these jobs inspect
the finished boxes of cigars, noting the shading, foiling, and banding,
and the general appearance of the box. Those engaged in this work
generally stand. Women experienced in other jobs in the packing
department usually are placed at this work.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIES
129
Shipping department.
Workers in the shipping department paste labels on cigar boxes,
attach revenue stamps, and wrap paper around boxes or other containers. The work in this department is very quickly learned.
OCCUPATIONS IN THE CIGARETTE INDUSTRY
Some occupations in the making of cigarettes are similar to those
in cigar manufacture. However, much of the work in which white
women are engaged is carried on in the packing department-i. e.,
putting the finished cigarettes in packages. The negro women in
cigarettes, as in cigars, are employed mainly in the leaf department,
which in the cigarette plants includes both the general leaf work, as
done in cigar factories, and the work of stemming, either by hand or
by machine. In the following analysis the work in the cigarette factories is classified in four departments, namely, leaf, making, packing,
and box.
Leaf department.
In picking, the women open up the "hands" of tobacco or remove
the strings from the bunched tobacco if it has been tied for curing,
pick out any trash that may have adhered to the leaves, and separate
the leaves preparatory to ''ordering, ''-i. e., the steaming of the tobacco
before it is stemmed.
The work of stemming the tobacco is done by hand or machine, as
in the case of cigar manufaqturing. The stemming need not be so
carefully done as for cigars, since all the tobacco is to be cut or ground
to make filler for the cigarettes.
In machine stemming there generally are five workers, two who
feed the leaves into the machine and three who are searchers or
examiners. The feeders usually stand. The first feeder puts small
bundles of loose leaves onto a moving belt that carries them to the
second feeder, who feeds the leaves into the machine in such a way
that the stem of the leaf is removed. Two of the examiners watch
the strips that come from the machine, and remove any stem still
attached. These women sit. The third examin.e r watches the stems
that have been cut out to see that no leaf is wasted on these.
Miscellaneous and general work in the leaf department includes,
among various jobs, the work of blenders, who walk from one pile of
tobacco to another, taking a few leaves from each and putting them
onto a moving belt, thus insuring a mixture of the different kinds of
tobacco.
Making department.
In the cigarette plants included in the study three types of making
machines were in use. One of these requires three workers for operation, namely, a feeder, an operator, and a catcher. The feeder keeps
the tobacco, previously shredded, moving smoothly into the machine,
where it is carried onto paper and formed into cigarettes. The operator watches the machine and makes minor adjustments, and the
catcher watches the cigarettes as they drop into the tray, and then
places them in a container for transfer to the packing machine. In
addition to these three workers there is a woman who attends to
several machines, weighing a given number of cigarettes to see that
the weight is correct.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
130
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
The second type of cigarette-making machine requires the services
of two workers, an operator and a catcher. The feeding is all done
by men; one man can tend 8 or 1 machines. The operator in this
arrangement is more frequently a man. As in the case of the machine
first described, there is an inspector or weigher, who weighs the cigarettes, inspecting output from a number of machines.
The third type of machine requires an operator only, sometimes a
man and sometimes a woman. The filling of hoppers for this type of
machine is done by men, as in the other types, and the inspecting is
done by women; inspectors and feeders attend to a group of machines.
Packing department-New packing machine.
· The latest type of machine-which makes, packs, and wraps, a
man keeping the various magazines filled and girls filling cartons at
the end of the line-was not in common use at the time of the survey.
The more common machine requires one or two people to operate it,
either men or women. There are several types of this new machine.
In one of them the cigarettes are fed automatically into the machine
from a hopper. As soon as one hopper is empty the machine tender
removes it and moves another hopper into place. On machines for
which there is only one operator s e watches the cigarettes as they
feed into the machine and removes any defective ones, and also
watches for defective packages as they leave the machine. Revenue
stamps .and the printed label, both of which are placed on the package, are fed automatically in the same machine, but the operator
must fill the magazines for labels and stamps at frequent intervals.
In some cases this same type has an inspector as well as the operator
or tender. The work of the inspector is to watch for defective
packages. The inspector and operator change places at regular intervals. Both are classified as operators. The packages as they come
from this machine are taken by the glassine feeder, if the package is
to have also a glassine wrapper.
In a slightly different arrangement a girl called the catcher takes
the packs as they come from the machine, inspects them, and stacks
them up to be passed on for further operations.
Packing machine-Old type.
The types of old packing machines are more varied than the new,
and require a larger team. On one type of old machine there are a
feeder who keeps the cigarettes feeding in to the machine and two
cuppers who inspect the packs and in some cases feed them into the
stamping machine, thus eliminating that operation. On another
type of old packing machine there is no feeder, since there is a hopper
similar to that on the new machine. The operator of this type
attends to both feeding and operating the machine. In addition to
this operator there are two cuppe s as mentioned above. A third
type of old packing machine has four workers-a feeder, an operator,
a cup feeder, and an inspector. The revenue stamping on cigarettes
packed on these machines must be done on a separate machine or
by hand.
In packing the smaller packages of cigarettes there are two women
employed-one who both feeds and operates the machine and watches
the automatic feed of the cigarettes and of the two parts of the
pack:a~e, and a second worker wh inspects the packages and feeds
them mto the stamping machine or puts them into small cartons.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIES
131
In the classification of occupations in the present report feeders and
operators on these machines have been thrown together, as have
cuppers and inspectors.
Wrapping machine.
The operator of the wrapping machine takes the packs from the
packing or stamping machine, depending on which type of packing
machine is used, and transfers them to the wrapping machine. The
feed usually is automatic, the operator placing as many packs as she
can pick up conveniently at one time into a magazine. Sometimes
there is one wrapping machine to one packing machine, and when the
older type of packing machine is used there is one wrapping machine
to two stamping machines. The individual packs may be wrapped in
gl assine paper and the small cartons may be wrapped in either glassine
or waxed paper. Cartons to be wrapped are brought to the worker
on a belt conveyor. The operators sit at their work.
Operating stamping machines.
Machines for stamping the more standardized packs are equipped
with automatic feed. The worker places the packs in a magazine as in
the case of the machineforwrapping packs. The worker usually stands.
Hand packing.
Hand packing is done only when the type of container is used so
infrequently that the use of a machine is not justified. Speed and
deftness are required for proficiency in this work.
Packing in cartons.
Included in this group are the persons whose duty it is to take the
packs from the packing, stamping, or wrapping machines and place
them in cartons; also those who pack into cartons apart from the
machine. These workers usually sit, although they sometimes stand.
Hand stamping, pasting, and wrapping.
Work in this department includes the affixing of revenue stamps,
special advertising stickers, holiday labels, etc., by hand, and also the
wrapping of packs or cartons of special shapes, for which the wrapping
machines are not adjusted. The same worker may do all types of
this work. She usually sits.
·
Inspecting.
This includes the work of persons not considered as part oi any of
the packing-machine teams who do inspecting of work apart from the
machines, usually of hand packing or wrapping.
Salvaging and repairing.
In this department, as the name signifies, as much as possible is
saved from defective work. If the packages are defective, they may
be repaired by hand; if they are beyond repair, the packages are torn
open and the revenue stamp, cigarettes, and tin foil are saved. If the
cigarettes themselves are defective, they are returned to the leaf department to be ripped open, by machine, thereby saving the tobacco.
Box department.
Since this -department is comparatively small in most cigarette
factories, all jobs have been grouped in one classification. Workers
tend or take off from the box-making machines, and other workers
stack the boxes or cartons. Machines making the cups used on the
older packing machines are automatic, and one worker tends to three
or four machines.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
APPENDIXES
A- GENERAL TABLES
B-SCHEDULE FORMS
133
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
APPENDIX A- GENERAL TABLES
T A B LE
!.-Department in which employed at time of separation, by age at date of
interview and type of locality-Cigars
All localities
Department
Total __________________
All
women
Under
30
years
11, 150
456
Not reporting department_ __ _
2
8
Localities A
30and 40 years
All
under
and
women
40years
over
Under
30
years
1 604
259
327
1 -- -------
364
5
30 and 40 years
under
and
40 years
over
188
154
2 ----- ---- ------- - - ---- ----25!)
3 602
188
154.
2
Total reporting _______________
3 1,142
455
327
359
Stripping:
Number ___________ ___ __ _
Per cent_ _____ ____ ____ ____
107
100. 0
21
19. 6
34
31.8
52
48. 6
57
100. 0
16
28.1
17
29.8
24
42. 1
Select and hand strip _____
Machine strip ____________
61
46
5
16
18
16
38
14
26
31
3
13
7
10
16
8
Cigar making:
H andNumber _______ ______
P er cent_ _______ ______
3 848
100. 0
328
38. 7
2,52
29.8
267
31. 5
3 424
100. 0
164
38.8
151
3,5. 7
108
25. 5
729
119
324
4
224
28
180
87
146
5
100
8
25
20
3
2
25
20
3
2
137
100. 0
81
59.1
30
21. 9
26
19. 0
85
100.0
57
67.1
14
16. 5
14
16. 5
25
5
8
12
11
2
3
6
All
women
Under
30
years
30and 40 years
All
and
under
women
40 years
over
Under
30
years
Total _______________ ___
258
Ill
Not reporting department_ __ _
Total reporting ___ ___________ _
2
B unch and roll _______
Out-and-out_ _________
Machine____ _____ ________
Packing:
Number ___ _______ _______
Per cent _________________ _
Shipping and m iscellaneous
from all departments___ ____ _
3
4
4
3 411
164
13 ---------
Localit ies
Localities B
Department
Stripping:
N umber ________ _______ __
Per cent_ _____ ____ _____ ___
75
1 -- ------110
75
2..'\6
72
12
1
8
--------- ---- ----- --------·
Select and hand strip ___ __
Machine st rip ____________
14
7
---· -----
Cigar making:
HandN u mber _______ ______
Per cent_ _____________
Bunch and roll _______
Out-and-out_ _________
Machine_ ______ __ .. _______
P acking:
Number _______________ __
Per cent ________ __________
Shippin~ and m iscellaneou s
from a 1 departments ______
J34;
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
64
(4)
29
138
4
134
4
9
16
-- ------ - - -------- ------- --
5
3
9
3
21
8
2
2
6
3
13
1
202
100. 0
97
48. 0
57
28. 2
48
23.8
222
100. 0
67
30. 2
44
19.8
111
,50. 0
198
4
96
56
46
2
120
102
64
3
22
34
77
--------(4)
1
12
25
--------48
1
22
3
--------- --------- ------- -- --------- --------- ---- --- -- ---------
---------
I ncludes 3 not reporting age.
2 Includes ~ 119t reporting age,
1
86
4 · -------- --- -----284
86
64
71
21
(4)
288
1
C
30and 40 years
under
and
40 years
over
8
5
2
6
--------- ------- --
(4)
27
12
-- ------ -
6
3
8
7
3
-------- -
----- ---- --- --- - --
a Includes 1 not reporting age.
'Per cent not computed ; base less than 50.
-
135
APPENDIXES
TABLE
IL-Time worked in the industry, by age at date of interview and type of
locality-Cigars
ALL LOCALITIES
All women
Under 30 years
Time worked in cigar
industry
30 and under
40 years
40 years and over
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
TotaL _________________
11,150
---------
456 --- -- ----
-----------327 --------364 --- ------
Not reporting time ____ _______
2
Total reporting _______________
31,086
100.0
450
100.0
301
100.0
334
100.0
Less than 3 years _____________
3 and less than 5 years ________
5 and less than 10 years _______
10 and less than 15 years ______
15 and less than 20 years ______
20 and less than 25 years ______
25 years and over ___________ __
146
118
270
193
3149
97
113
13.4
10.9
24.9
17.8
13. 7
8.9
10.4
130
96
172
48
4
28.9
21.3
38. 2
10. 7
.9
11
13
65
99
89
22
2
3. 7
4.3
21. 6
32.9
29.6
7.3
.7
5
9
33
46
55
75
111
1.5
2. 7
9. 9
13. 8
16. 5
22. 5
33.2
64 ---------
6 -------- -
--------- ----------------- ---------
26 ---------
30 ---------
LOCALITIES A
TotaL _____ ____________
Not reporting time ___________
1
604
2
45
259
188
4
21
154
18
Total reporting _____ ___ _______
3 559
100. 0
255
100.0
167
100.0
Less than 3 years _____________
3 and less than 5 years _______
5 and less than 10 years _______
10 and less than 15 years ______
15 and less than 20 years ______
20 and less than 25 years ______
25 years and over _____________
73
52
167
109
3 74
46
38
13.1
9. 3
29.9
19.5
13. 1
8. 2
6.8
69
45
107
32
2
27.1
17. 6
42.0
12. 5
.8
4
5
40
55
48
13
2
2.4
3.0
24.0
32.9
28. 7
7.8
1. 2
--------- ----------------- ---------
136
100. 0
----------------2
1. 5
14. 7
16. 2
16. 9
24. 3
26. 5
20
22
23
33
36
LOCA LITIES B
Total ___ ---------------
258
Not reporting time ___ __ ______
6
Total reporting _______________
252
Less than 3 years _____________
3 and less than 5 years ________
5 and less than 10 years _______
10 and less than 15 years ______
15 and less than 20 years ______
20 and less than 25 years ______
25 years and over ______ _______
31
39
50
46
46
25
15
111
75
72
3
100.0
110
100. 0
12. 3
25. 5
28
15. 5
30.0
33
19.8
30.9
34
18. 3
13
11.8
18. 3
2
1.8
9.9 --------- --------6.0 ----- --- - ---------
2
72
100. 0
70
2
5
14
20
27
4
2.8
6.9
19.4
27.8
37.5
5.6
1
1
2
13
17
21
15
--------- ---------
100.0
1.4
1.4
2.9
18. 6"
24.3
30.0
21.4
LOCALITIES C
TotaL _________________
288
Not reporting time ___________
13
Total reporting ________ __ _____
275
Less than 3 years ___________ __
3 and less than 5 years ________
5 and less than 10 years _______
10 and less than 15 years ____ __
15 and less than 20 years ______
20 and less than 25 years ______
25 years and over _____________
42
27
53
38
29
26
1
Includes 3 not reporting age.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
60
2
86
64
138
2
100.0
85
100.0
62
10
100.0
15. 3
38.8
8.1
5
33
9.8
18
21. 2
3
4.8
19. 3
11
17. 7
31
36. 5
13. 8
3. 5
38. 7
3
24
10. 5 --------- --------14
22.6
9. 5 -- ------- --------8.1
5
21.8 -- ------- --------- --------- -------- Includes 2 not reporting age.
128
100.0
4
6
11
11
15
21
3.1
4. 7
8.6
8. 6
11. 7
16. 4
46.9
60
a Includes 1 not reporting age.
136
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
T ABLE
III. -Steadiness of ernployment since separation according to age a.t date of
interview, by type of locality-Oigars
ALL LOCALITIES
Steadiness of employment
All women who had had employmentNumber
---------------------------------------------Per cent____
__________________________________
________ ______ _
and 40 years
Under 30
All ages 30
years 40under
years and over
I
1,006
100. 0
407
100. 0
285
100. 0
313
100. 0
11. 0
67. 3
21. 7
9. 8
70. 0
20.1
13. 3
66. 3
20. 4
10. 5
64. 9
24. 6
100. 0
250
100. 0
171
100. 0
136
100. 0
68.6
16.1
73. 6
13. 2
64.9
18.1
64. 7
18. 4
200
100. 0
92
100. 0
57
100. 0
51
100. 0
7. 0
60. 0
33. 0
6. 5
66. 3
27. 2
10. 5
56. 1
33. 3
3. 9
52.9
43. l
248
100. 0
65
100. 0
57
100. 0
126
100.0
70. 2
25. 0
61. 5
36. 9
80. 7
14. 0
69.~
Steadily employed _________________________ ______ _________________ _ - - - - - - - - - - - Employed at date of interview but had been unemployed _________ _
Unemployed at date of interview but had been employed ___ ____ __ _
LOCALITIES A
All women who had had employmentNumber
___ -- - - -- ---- ---- --------- ---- -------------------_
Per cent _________________________________________________
Steadily employed _____________________________ _____ ____ _____ __ ___ _
Employed at date of interview but had been unemployed _________ _
Unemployed at date of interview but h ad been employed _________ _
1
558
- -15.-2 - -13.-2 - -17.-0 - -16.9
-
LOCALITIES B
All women
had had employmentNumberwho
________________________________________________
_
Per cent_ ___ ___ _______ __________ ____________ ______ __ --- --Steadily employed __ --- ------ -- -- ---------------------------------Employed at date of interview but had been unemployed _________ _
Unemployed at date of interview but had been employed _________ _
--- ------ ---
LOCALITIES C
All women
had h ad employmentNumberwho
________________________
__________________ ____ __ _
Per cent_ ____ __ _________ ____________ ______ ___ ________ ____ _
---- - - - - - - - - Steadily employed _________________ ---------------------------- ---4. 8
5. 3
6. a
1. 5
Employed at date of interview but had been unemployed _________ _
Unemployed at date of interview but had been employed ___ __ ____ _
1
Includes 1 not reporting age.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
23.8
137
APPENDIXES
TABLE
IV. -Steadiness of employment since separation according to type of locality,
by age at date of interview-Cigars
ALL WOMEN WHO HAD HAD EMPLOYMENT
All locali- Localities Localities Localities
ties
A
B
C
Age group
All womenNumber ___ ____ __________ __ ____________________ __
Per cent _________________________________________ _
Under 30 years __ ----- --- ---- ----------- ---- -~--- ----------30 and under 40 years ___ ----------------- --------- --- -----40 years and over ___ ___ ____________________________________ _
11,006
I
558
200
100.0
100. 0
100. 0
40.5
44.9
30. 7
24.~
46.0
85
14
28.4
31.1
248
100.0
26. 2
23.0
28. 5
25. 5
50.8
STEADILY EMPLOYED
All womenN umber _________________________________________ _
Per cent. _______ __~- ------------ ______ _____ ______ _
100. 0
100.0
Under 30 years ____________ _____________________ ___ ____ ____ _
30 and under 40 years ______________ ______ _________________ _
40 years and over ________ __ __ __________ ___ _________________ _
36.0
34.2
29. 7
34.1
111
(3)
12
38.8
27.1
EMPLOYED AT DATE OF INTERVIEW BUT HAD BEEN UNEMPLOYED
All womenNumber _____ ___________________________________ _
Per cent _________________________________________ _
Under 30 years _________ __ ---------------------------------30
40 years
----------------------------------40 and
yearsunder
and over
__ _______
_________________________
___ __ ______ _
677
100.0
42.1
27. 9
30.0
383
100. 0
120
100.0
174
100.0
48. 0
29.0
50.8
26. 7
22. 5
26.4
50.6
23.0
23. 0
UNEMPLOYED AT DATE OF INTERVIEW BUT HAD BEEN EMPLOYED
All womenNumber ________________________________________ _
Per cent __________ ------- ------ - ----------------Under 30 years ____________________________________________ _
30
40 years
___ -------------__------------ --40 and
yearsunder
and over
____________________
__ ___ _____
___----______
__
1 218
100.0
1 90
100.0
100.0
37.8
26. 7
35. 5
37. 1
37.9
34.8
28.1
Includes 1 not reporting age.
Per cent not computed. For the respective age groups the figures are 6, 6, and 2.
a Per cent not computed. For the respective age groups the figures are 1, a, and 8.
1
2
126898°-32-10
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
66
62
100.0
38. 7
28.8
12. 9
33. 3
48.4
TABLE
,-.
V.-Nurnber arid type of jobs secured since separation, by age at date of interview and type of locality-Cigars
~
00
ALL LOCALITIES
Women employed since
separation
Type of subsequent job
Number
of
women
30 and under 40 years
Under 30 y ears
Jobs
Number
of
women Number Per cent
Number Per cent
Jobs
40 years and
over
Jobs
Jobs
Number
Number
of
of
women Number Per cent women Number Per cent
- - - - - - --
All jobs ______________________________________________
1
Manufacturing __ _________ ______________ ___ ____ ___
Other _________________________________________ __ _
Type of manufacturing:
T otal ________ ____ __________ ________ - - - - -- - -- - - Cigars ____________________________________________
Other tobacco ____________________________________
Other manufacturing _____________________________
1,006
1,889
100. 0
407
764
100.0
285
551
100. 0
313
573
100. 0
I
815
191
1,537
352
81. 4
18. 6
339
68
634
130
83. 0
17. 0
250
35
460
91
83. 5
16. 5
225
88
442
131
77. 1
22. 9
I
815
1,537
100.0
339
634
100. 0
250
460
100. 0
225
442
100. 0
I
534
3
278
996
4
537
64.8
.3
35. 0
193
1
145
378
1
255
316
21
143
(18. 7
.2
31.1
158
2
65
301
2
139
68.1
.5
31. 4
182
59. 6
.2 - -- - -----40. 2
68
LOCALITIES A
All jobs_____________________ ________ ____ _____________
1 558
100. 0
171
351
100. 0
136
266
100.0
959
151
86. 4
13. 6
224
26
436
56
88. 6
11. 3
156
15
310
41
88. 3
11. 7
104
32
212
54
79. 7
20. 3
1485
959
100. 0
224
436
100. 0
156
310
100.0
104
212
100. 0
348
686
3
270
61. 5
129
242
21
67
78. 1
.3
21.6
89
2
13
175
2
35
82. 5
.9
16. 5
1, 110
100. 0
250
492
l - - - - - + - - - - + - - - - - + - - - - + - - - ---1
Manufacturing_________ _____ ___ ___ ___ __ ___ ___ __ __
Other________ ______ ______ ______________ _____ ___ __
Type of manufacturing:
Total _________________ - __ ---- ---- -- -- --- --- - - - -
l====l=====l====lc====l====l====l=====l=====l====l=====l====Jc===
Cigars ______________________________ --- - -- - - - - - - -Other tobacco _________ ______ _________________ -- -Other manufacturing _____________________ ______ __
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1 485
73
I
2
135
71. 5
129
268
. 3 --- - ------ ---------28. 2
95
168
--- ---------------38. 5
27
LOCALITIES B
.All jobs ________ __ _______________________ ___ __ ________
Mt~~facturing ____________________ ________ --- -- --
200
iii
332
100. 0
92
159
100. 0
57
86
100. 0
51
87
100.0
1 - - - - 1 - - - - - 1- - - - - 1 - - - - - l - - - - - - l - - - - + - - - - 1 - - - - - 1 - - - - - 1 - - - - + - - ---1-- - -
241
91
72. 6
27. 4
68
24
117
42
73. 6
26. 4
49
8
69
17
80. 2
19. 8
27
24
55
63. 2
32
36.8
l====l=====l====t====t====f====l=====l=====ll====l=====l====t====
Type of manufacturing:
T otal ___ ____________ ____________ ----- -- -- - -- ---
144
241
100. 0
68
117
100. 0
49
69
100.0
27
55
100.0
Cigars _____________ -- _-_-- - -- - -- -- - - -- -- - - -- - ---- Other tobacco __ _____________________ _-------- -- -Other manufacturing ____________ ____ _________ ___ _
70
1
73
113
1
127
46. 9
.4
52. 7
26
1
41
48
1
68
41. 0
.9
58.1
31
38
55.1
13
27
49.1
14
28
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------------------------50.9
18
31
44. 9
IlOCALITIE S C
All jobs __ ________________ _________ ___ ______ -------- --
248
447
100.0
65
113
100. 0
57
114
100. 0
126
220
100.0
Mt~~acturing __ ___ ___ _________ __________________
186
62
337
110
75. 4
24. 6
47
18
81
32
71. 7
28. 3
45
12
81
33
71. 1
28. 9
94
32
175
45
79. 5
20. 5
>
"d
Total ______________ --------- ------------- -- ____
186
337
100. 0
47
81
100. 0
45
81
100. 0
94
175
100.0
zt:I
8it~s manufacturing ________________ ____ ___.______
116
70
197
140
58. 5
41. 5
38
9
62
19
76. 5
23. 5
22
23
36
45
44. 4
55. 6
56
38
99
56.6
43. 4
"d
tr.J
Type of manufacturing:
76
~
~
tr.J
rJl
1 Includes
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1 not reporting age.
2
One of the women who had jobs in cigars.
140
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
TABLE
VI.- Employment of women subsequent to the separation, by locality and
age group-Cigars
LOCALITIES A
N0TE .-For 63 per cent of the wo!Ilen, 1 and under 2 years had elapsed since separation; for 19 per cen t ,
less; and for 18 per cent, more]
Type and number of subsequent jobs
Number Women
of
under 30
women
years
Women
30 and
under
40
Women
Age
40 years
not
and ov er reported
years
Total interviewed ___ __________ ___________ ____ _
Women with subsequent jobs_ _ ---- -------------~----
604
558
259
250
188
171
154
136
M anufacturing __ _______________ __ ________ _________ __
485
224
156
104
Cigars ___________ --- - - _- -- -- -- - -- - - - ---- - -- - - - - - Other _________________________ __________________ _
348
137
129
95
129
27
89
15
Other than manufa cturing __________________________ _
73
26
15
32
1 job only _____________________________ ______ ____ _
2jobs __________________________ ___________ ______ _
3 jobs _______________ - - - - - -- - - -- -- - --- - ------- - - - 4 or more jobs ___ ________ __________ _____________ _
244
171
78
65
108
80
33
29
69
58
24
20
66
33
21
16
266
The 1,110 jobs of these women may be classified as
follows:
TotaL _____________________ ________________ ___ _
1,110
492
351
Manufacturing _____________________________________ _
959
436
310
212
Cigars ____ __ _____________________ __ ____ ____ _____ _
Other________ ___ _________ ___ ______________ ______ _
686
273
268
168
242
68
175
37
C lothing ___ ________________ ___ ___ ___________ _
Electrical products _________________________ _
Food products ____ __________________________ _
Leather products __ _______ ____ ______________ _
Metal products _____ __ ___ ___________________ _
Textiles ________ __ ____ __ ________ ___ __ __ _____ _
Other ____ _____ ___ _____ _____ ___ ___ ___________ _
56
21
20
75
23
28
50
46
15
9
41
13
·16
28
8
4
7
24
4
7
14
2
2
4
10
6
5
8
Other than manufacturing ____ - - --- - - - --- - -- - --------
151
56
41
54
Stores __ ____ ________ _· _____-- ____ - -- - --- - -- - ---- Hotels and restaurants ___ _________ __ ____ __ _____ __
Domestic and personal service ___ _______ ________ _
Other ________ -- -- - - -- -- -- -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- -- - - - -
39
30
50
32
21
11
9
12
9
7
11
31
5
10
7
18
LOCALITIES B
[N0TE.-For 52 per cent of the women, less than a year had elapsed since separation; for 47 per cent, 2 and
under 3 years had elapsed]
Total interviewed ____ ___ ____ ___ ______ __ _____ __
258
111
75
72
Women with subsequent jobs_ __ _________ ______ _____
200
92
57
51
l=====ic====i=:====F====i====;;:=
Manufacturing_-- - - -- --------------- - ----------- - --144
68
49
27
Cigars __ _____ _________________________________ ___
Other___ _______ _____ __ __ ____________ _____ ________
- - - -1-----1----+----I----70
74
26
42
Other than manufacturing_______ ____________ ______ __
56
1 job only_____ ______ __ _____ ___________ ___ _______ _
2 jobs_______ __________ ____________________ ___ ____
3 jobs____ _______________________________________ _
4 or more jobs ___ - --------------------- - -------- -
115
55
20
10
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
31
18
13
14
24
8
24
49
29
9
5
37
12
7
1
29
14
4
.4
141
APPENDIXES
TABLE
VI.-Employment of women subsequent to the separation, by locality and
age group--Cigars-Continued
LOOALITIES B-Continued
Number Women
of
under 30
women
years
Type and number of subsequent jobs
Women
30 and
Women
Age
40 years
not
under
40
and over reported
years
The 332 jobs of these women may be classified as
follows:
TotaL _____________ ____ _________ _____ __ ___ ____ _
332
159
86
87
M anufacturing __________ _____ ____ ____ __ __ ___ __ ______
241
117
69
55
128
69
31
28
Electrical products ___ _______________________
Food products_____________ ___ ______ _____ ___ _
Leather products_______ ___ _________________ _
Metal products_______ _______________________
Textiles __________________ ____ ____ __ ___ ______
Other____________ __ ____ ___ __ __ ______ _________
10
12
26
12
15
53
9
4
12
5
9
30
5
11
5
4
6
1
3
3
2
2
17
Other than manufacturing________ _____ __ ____ _______ _
91
42
17
32
Stores _________ __ __ __ ____ · --- -- ---- -- -- -- -------Laundries ___________________ ____ ________ ____ ____
Hotels and restaurants____ __ _____ _____ ______ ____ _
Domestic and personal service__ ________________ _
Other__ __ ________________________________________
19
12
16
30
14
I 11
1
1
7
8
7
2
1
17
5
Cigars __________ ______ __ ______ __ ____________ _____
Other______ _____________________ __________ _______
•------------------113
48
38
27
1--- ----------+----•1--- 9
8
5
9
LOCALITIES C
[NOTE.- For 39 per cent of the women, 1 and under 2 years had elapsed since separation; for 29 per cent,
2 and under 3 years; for 17 per cent , less than a year; and for 14 per cent, more than 3 years]
Total interviewed _------ --------- ------------Women with subsequent jobs__ __ _____ ________ ______ _
288
248
86
65
64
57
138
126
l====t===~===:::!====:t====
47
45
94
186
Manufacturing __ --------- - --- ------- ---- - ---- ---- __ _
1----t----+-----+-----t---116
70
38
9
22
23
56
38
Other than m anufacturing __ __ __ ______ ____ __ ___ ____ __
62
18
12
32
1 job only-- -- -------------- ----------------- - ---2 jobs __ - - _____ ---- - --- - -- -- --- --- -- -- ---- -- -- -- - --___
_- - ___
-- - ----- -- ---_____
-- -- --- - --- -- -_
34 jobs
_______
___ __--_______
______
_____
or more
jobs
118
80
35
15
31
21
12
1
21
21
10
5
38
13
9
TotaL ____ __ ____ ___ ____ -- -- --- -- __ -- -- -- -- •. -. _
447
113
114
220
Manufacturing ____ ____ __ __ --- -- ---- ----------- --- ---
337
81
81
175
197
140
62
19
36
45
99
76
--- ----- .--.
- --_
Textiles
_____ --Other __ ______
__ -__-._____
. . _.--__ -___
___--___- .--..--___
98
18
24
8
4
7
30
10
5
60
4
12
Other than manufacturing ___ __ ____ __ _____ ___ __ __ ___ _
110
32
33
45
- --- -- - --- --- - ---_______
- --- ---__---- -- -_______
--- - - --_
igars_
C
- --_________________
Other
____
______
66
The 447 jobs of these women may be classified as
follows :
1----t--------1-----t----
Cigars____
_. __. __
_- .--__--__- --. -- -- --·
--- - -- --- ._
Other
__ ___
_._.. -________
_________
___--__--__
1----t----+-----1-----t---Clothing ___ ____ .. _. _. __ _____ . _____ ___ ____ ____
1------------+----+---__ .. ____ ____
14
8
6
------ ---4
12
5
3
7
18 -------- -40
15
14
24 ---- ---- ·44
6
Stores ____________ --- - ------ ----- -- ------ --- --- -Hotels and restaurants __ _____ ______ ____ __ _______ _
Domestic and personal service ___ __________ _____ _
Other __ ___ ______ ______ ___ _______ ________________ _
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
VII.-Number of jobs since separation and time unemployed for industrial reasons, by type of locality-Cigars
Localities A
All localities
H ad subsequent jobs
All women
'Time unemployed for industrial reasons since
se{Jaration
Number
TotaL ____ ___ ___ ____ _________ _____ __ ___ ___ __ 1,150
Indefinite and not reporting ____________________ __
Total reporting _____ _____ __ ___ ___ ___ ______ ________
190
960
None _______ ___ __ _.._____ __ ____ _____ __ ______ __ ___ __
Under 3 months ______________ ________ ________ ____
3 and under 6 months __ - - -- --- - -------- - - -- - - - - -6 and under 9 months __ __ ____ _______________ ____ _
9 and under 12 months _____ ______________ ______ __
12 and under 15 months _______ __ ___ __ ____ __ __ ____
15 and under 18 months ____ ____ _____ ________ _____
18 and under 21 months ___________ ______ _______ __
21 and under 24 months ___ ____ ___ ____ ____ ______ __
24 months and over ___________ _____ ________ __ _____
155
324
218
106
40
41
15
30
16
15
All women
Had np
subse- Total
quent report5 or
Per
job
ing
1 job 2 jobs 3 jobs 4 jobs more Number
cent
jobs
number
H ad subsequent jobs
Had no
subse- Total
quent report5 or
Per
ing
job
1 job 2 jobs 3 jobs 4 jobs more
cent
numjobs
ber
-- -- ----- -
--------100.0
-----
144
1,006
477
5
139
185
821
76
401
54
252
16.1
33.8
22. 7
11. 0
4. 2
4. 3
1. 6
3.1
1. 7
1. 6
29
126
312
166
66
172
64
41
16
19
8
7
4
4
12
52
12
1
5
2
8
8
10
94
39
36
13
22
8
5
60
30
33
100
13
47
9
21
35
12
11
80
63
29
38
11
7
2
11
6
1
1
306
15
11
5
10
133
26
13
3
5
10
4
1 ---- ----- 2-- ----------3
------
1 - ----- - ----3
1 --- -- - --- - -- ------
-
604 -- - --- -
46
558
244
171
78
42
23
87 -- - -- -517 100. 0
2
44
85
473
29
23
148
19
59
7
7
16
112
166
116
65
18
12
5
9
12
2
18
1
5
4
1
2
1
94
165
111
61
17
21. 7
32. 1
22. 4
12. 5
3. 5
2. 3
1. 0
1. 7
2. 3
.4
3
8
1
10
4
6
4
1
215
35
45
27
10
2
10
9
75
46
27
8
43
45
13
4
6
17
30
7
7 -----2
1
8
6 -- -- - 2
1
1 _____..,
6
4 --- - -- -- -- -- -- ---- -----1
3
1
1 -----2
2 - -- - -- --- - -- -- ---1 ------ - - - - - - ------ ------
1-4
z
0
1-4
~
~t:,
0
1-4
~ti:.l
1-3
1-3
t:cJ
z
t:,
c:j
Ul
1-3
~
1-4
ti:.l
Ul
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Localities B
Time unemployed for industrial reasons since
separation
Localities C
All women
Had subsequent jobs
Had subsequent jobs
All women
, _ _ _ _ _ ,Had no, _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ 11 _ _ _ _ _ _ ,Had noi - -- -,------,-------,---------:--subse- Total
subse- Total
5 or Num- Per
5 or
quent reportNum- Per q~ent reportJob
ing
1 job 2 jobs 3 jobs 4 jobs more
ber
cent
job
ing
1 job 2 jobs 3 jobs 4 jobs more
ber
cent
number
jobs
number
jobs
- - - -Total ________________ --------- . --------- -- __
258
58
---1--+---+----l-- - - -
200
1- ----~- - 25
104
49
16
9
9
2
4
2
7
11.0
45. 8
21. 6
7. 0
4.0
4. 0
.9
1. 8
.9
3. 1
9
10
23
7
2
5
16
94
26
9
9
7
2
4
2
2
55
10
3
18
9
5
3
3
2
3
1
- - - - - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - 1 - - - ,- --t---t---
-
3
288
4
40
20
248
118
35
11
80
l===t====l== =l===l====l===l===l===l===-==ll===l====t====!====l===l====l====l====I===
Indefinite and not reporting_____________________ _
29
31
2
72
1
2
16
8
4
1
71
31
23
5
10
Total reporting_____ _________________________ _____ _
171
227 100.0
2
56
99
47
16
216 100.0
177
57
3
6
39
87
25
6
N one __ __ ______ ___ ___ ______ __________________ _____
Under 3 months __ .______ ______ ___________ ___ ____ __
3 and under 6 months____ ___ ___ __ _________________
6 and under 9 months____________________ ____ ____
9 and under 12 months___ __ ______________________
12 and under 15 months__ _____ _____ ______ ________
15 and under 18 months ____ __________ ________ ____
18 and under 21 months _______ ___ ____ ____ __ _____ _
21 and under 24 months_____________ _____________
24 months and over___________________ __ ___ _______
115
67
11
3
2
3
2
2
7
3
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
2 - ----1 ---- -- ---- --
------ --- --- -- -- ----- 1-- -- ---- ---- - -
- - ---- ----- -
-- ---- ------ ------ ----- -
18
54
53
25
13
20
8
17
2
6
8. 3
25.0
24. 5
11. 6
6.0
9. 3
3. 7
7. 9
.9
2. 8
2
1
24
1
16
53
29
24
13
1
1
5
19
4
7
12
2
2
11
30
10
5
16
9
7
------ ----------4
2
10 ------ -----2
8
6
1
6
6
10
3
6
4
3 -----5
4
2 ------ - --- - 1
1 --- ---
- ---- - ------
------ ----------- -----2 ---- ------- ----------- -- ----
>
""d
""d
tr.l
zti
~
~
t,,j
rt).
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
144
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
TABLE
VIII.-Time worked in the industry, by age at date of interview and type
of locality-Cigarettes
ALL LOCALITIES
All women
Under 30 years
30 and under 40
years
40 years and over
Time worked in cigarette
industry
-
- -- - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
- - - - - - - --
TotaL __ ___ ________ ____
259
141
75
Not reporting time ___________
12
5
4
Total reporting ______________
247
Less than 3 years ___ ___ _____ __
3 and less than 5 years ____ ___
5 and less than 10 years ______
10 and less than 15 years ____ _
15 and less than 20 years _____
20 and less than 25 years __ ___
25 years and over ____________
10
42
93
100.
136
100. 0
71
43 ------ ---
--------3
100. 0
4.
9
6. 6 --------- --------2. 8
17.
39
28. 7
2
25. 4
37. 7
48. 5
18
66
42. 3
26. i
22
16. 2
30
23. 9
9. 3 --------- --------17
2. --------- --------5. 6
4
2. 4 ----- -- -- --------- --------- ---------
66
23
7
6
40
(1)
1
1
9
14
6
3
6
LO CALITY A
Total_ - ---- ---- -- - -- - -Not reporting time ____ ______ _
64 --------
Total reporting _________ _____ _
63
Less than 3 years ____________ _
3 and less than 5 years _____ __
5 and less than 10 years __ ___ _
10 and less than 15 years ____ _
15 and less than 20 years ____ _
25 years and over ___ _________ _
2
7
23
26
1 -- - --- - -
100.
28 ---------
21 ------- --
15 ------ ---
1 --- - ----- --- ------ -- -- -- --- --------- -- - ----- -
27
(1)
21
(1)
15
(1)
3. 2
11. 1
4
36. 5
41. 3
6. 3
1
1.6
LO CALITIES B
Total _________________ _
Not reporting time __________ _
=
195 --- ------
=
11 --- ------
Total reporting ____ _________ _
184
10 and less than 15 years __ __ _
15 and less than 20 years ____ __
20 and less than 25 years __ __ _
25 years and over ____________ _
40
70
19
113
M
28
4
3
====l====l====:t====l====I====
4
(1)
50
100. 0
25
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - 1 - - - - + - -Less than 3 years ___ _____ __•___
1
8
4. 3
7
6. 4 --------- ------ --3 and less than 5 years ______ _
1
35
19. 0
34
31. 2 ------- -- -- - -----5 and less than 10 years _____ _
5
38. 0
52
47. 7
13
26. 0
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
7
5
100. 0
I
109
100. 0
21. 7
16
14. 7
10. 3 --------- --- ------
18
15
36. 0
30. 0
3. 8 ----- ---- --------4
8. 0
2. 7 ,----- --- - --------- --------- ---- - - ---
6
4
3
5
145
APPENDIXES
TABLE
IX. -Number of jobs since separation and time unemployed for industrial
reasons, by type of locality-Cigarettes
All localities
All women
T ime unemployed for industrial reasons since separation
Number
TotaL __ _____ -- ----- - --
1258
Indefinite and not reporting __
Had subsequent jobs
H ad no
subsequent
Total
job
reporting
number
P er cent
ljob
4 or
more
jobs
---- ------
55
1203
109
55
22
5
30
8
10
7
5
1173
101
45
15
12
1223
100. 0
50
None __ ___________ -- -- ---- - -Under 3 months ___ ___ ________
3 and under 6months __ ______
6 and under 9 months ________
9 and under 12 months _______
12 months·and over __________
25
96
56
36
5
125
11. 2
43. 0
25. 1
16. l
2. 2
2. 2
11
13
1
52
27
21
12
12
4
2 ------ -1
1
14
1
15
95
20
16
3
41
2
1
14
Locality A
All women
-
3 jobs
35 - -- -- -----
Total reporting __ ____ ________
Time unemployed for industrial reasons since
separation
2jobs
17
-------- --------
7
3
9
5
-------- --------1
-------1
1
Localities B
Had
quentsubsejobs
~
Had subsequent jobs
sl t Total
sl1:_ Total
2 Num- P er q~ent p~~t- 1 2 3 4 or
Num- P er q~ent p~~t- 1
ing job jobs ber cent Job
ing job jobs jobs more
ber cent Job
numnumjobs
ber
ber
- - - - - - - - 1 - - - 1- - 1 --
Total _____ --- -----
64 -- ----
Indefinite and not reporting ____ ____________
7 -- ----
Total reporting _________
57 100.0
6 10. 5
None ___ -------- ----- --·
Under 3 months . . __ ___ __ 15 26. 3
3 and under 6 months ___
9 15. 8
6 and under 9 months ___
25 43.9
9 and under 12 months __
2
3. 5
12 months and over __ ___ _____ _ -- ---1
- 1 - - --1- -
21
43
3
4
2
18
39
32
2
-- -- ------16
------
4
4
15 12
9
6
9 8
2
2
------ - ---
1 Excludes 1 woman not rePQrting number of jobs.
2 All but 1 woman, 1 and under 2 years.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
·-
34
- - - - --
9 1194
---
-
-
--
17
------
34
2
28 -- -- -7 1 166 100. 0
2
26
6
8
7
5
32
1134
69
38
15
12
9
1
15
4
2
10
80
32
7
1
14
9
40
15
4
1
24
---33
1
--- -
19
81
47
11
3
125
11. 4
48.8
28. 3
6. 6
1.8
3. 0
1
1160
75
46
9
22
--------7
9
5
3
---- -- ----1
---------1
1
1
1
3
146
TABLE
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
X.-Employment of women subsequent to the separation, by locality and age
group-Cigarettes
LOCALITY A
[N0TE.-For most women 8 months had elapsed since separation]
ro
0
Number Wotnen
:el Women
of women u nd er 30 under 40 i~l~~~r
years
years
Type and number of subsequent jobs
Total interviewed _________ _____ "----- _____ ________ ______ _
Women with subsequent jobs _________________________________ _
15
64
28
21
43
20
9
14
l====t=====!====1====
Manufacturing __ ________ __ __ _______ _______ __________ ___________ _
29
17
11
Cigarettes _______________________ - __________________ _______ _
Other -- _--------------------------------------------------.
14
15
8
9
6
5
3
8
16
4
11.
3
7
11
Other t han manufacturing __ ----------------------- -- --------- -
14
. 1 job only- ------------- ------- ---- ----- ---------------- ---2 jobs ___ _______ -- ____ --- ----- ----- ----- -- -- -- -- _-- _------- -
34
9
The 52 jobs of these women may be classified as follows :
TotaL __________________________________________________ _
.'\2
24
17
Manufacturing ___ ______ _______________ - _______________________ _
34
19
14
-t----1-Cigarettes _________________________________________________ _.--- - 15
9
19
10
Other ----_ -_-- -- --- ---- -- -- -- ---- ---- -- -· ----- --------- ---Other t han manufacturing ___ ------------ ------- ______________ _
18
5
2
6
8
LOCALITIES B
[N0TE.- For 55 per cent of the women, 6 and under 12 months had elapsed since separation ; for 28 per cent
less, and for 17 per cent more, up to 4 years]
Total interviewed ____ ________________ ___ ________ __ _______ _
Women with subsequent jobs ______ _____________ ___ _______ ____ _
195
161
113
54
40
28
99
Manufacturing __ ____----- __ -- --- -- ______________ ___ ___________ _
141
89
36
16
Cigarettes _______ ------ ___ __________ ___ __________________ . __
Other ________________________ ______ ______ ___ _____ _______ __ _
14
127
7
82
3
33
4
12
4
5
1
22
,=--=--=--=--=--=--=--,.-------------_ ,_____________ - -- -
Other t han manufacturing _______ ________ ________ ___ __________ _
Not reported ________________ ---- _____ _--------------- __ __ _____ _
1 job only _______________ ____________ ___ ____ ______ __ _______ _
2 jobs __________ ---- ____ -- ----- ---_________________________ _
3 or more jobs ___ ____________ __________ __ ______ ____ ________ _
Not reported ______________________________________________ _
19
10
1 ---------75
46
39
1
----------
44
32
23
21
9
10
--------- - ----------
10
5
6
1
The 309 jobs of these women may be classified as follows:
309
191
76
TotaL ________ _-- ---- --- ---- ----------- -- --------------- Manufacturing ___ _________________________ _____ __ ___ ___ ___ ___ __l====l=====t====t=
244
153
64
- -- -f------1---
16
8tt~ettes_============= ==========================' =========
Clothing ___________ _______ ____ __ ____________ ____ ______ _
Electric products ______ _________________ __ _____________ _
Food products
Textiles
_______ __
___--------------------------------------___ _______________________ ___________ _
Other ___ ___ _____________ _____ ________ _____ _______ _____ _
228
8
145
4
60
4
23
36
64
25
45
58
20
57
8
33
27
12
6
9
10
23
4
1
8
2
8
38
12
15
Other than manufacturing _________ __ ___ __ _________ __ __________ ,__ _
65_,
Stores --- __ _____ -- ------- ------ -------- ------ --- --------- --8r::stic service ___ -- -- ------ ----------- ---- -- --- -----
-----1
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
-
42
27
20
13
32
~i 1-------T
5
4
13
TABLE
XL-Earnings in last job before separation and in first subsequent job, by age at date of interview--Cigarettes
ALL LOCALITIES
First subsequent job
Cigarette industry
Women who reported earnings at time of separation
Age group
All
women
Other ind ustry
Median Earnings in first
Women
subsequent job
of earnings in
last job
before
Total Number
Total Number
report- separa- Median
Range
Range number
number reporting
ing
tion
--- (1)
(I)
11
$12 to $25
137
$5 to $30
13
96
Women
Number Median
TotaL. _____ -- ___________
259
170
$21. 05
Under 30 years __ _______________
30 and under 40 years ___________
40 years and over_ ______________
141
75
43
94
50
26
$21.35
$21.45
(1)
$10 to $30
$5 to $25
$11 to $23
6
5
2
5
4
2
(1)
(1)
(1)
Median E arnings in first
subsequent job
of earnings in
last job
before
Range
separa- Median
tion
No subsequent
job
$21. 25
$14. 10
$6 to $29
20
(1)
(1)
$13 to $25
$12 to $18
$15 to $19
82
37
18
57
30
9
$21. 40
(1)
(1)
$14. 60
(1)
(I)
$6 to $29
$7 to $25
$9 to $16
6
8
fl
(1)
$12 to $22
18
8
(1)
(1)
$8 to $16
7
7
7
4
3
5
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
$8 to $16
$8 tu $15
1
2
4
(I)
LOCALITY A
TotaL __________ _________ _
64
33
(1)
Under 30 years ______ ___________
30 and under 40 years ___________
4() years and over ______________ _
28
21
15
13
12
8
(1)
(1~
(1
$5 to $28
8
7
(1)
(1)
(1)
$13 to $22
4
$10 to $28
5
(1)
(1)
$5 to $24
$12 to $16
3
3
$11 to $20 --------- -- - ------ ------ - -- -- ------- -----------
--------- -- ------- ------ --- -----------
LOCALITIES B
TotaL _____________ __ ____
195
137
$21. 45
$12 to $30
5
4
(1)
(1)
$15 to $25
119
88
$21. 4.5
$14. 25
$6 to $29
13
Under 30 years_---------------30 and under 40 years ___________
40 years and over _____ __________
113
54
28
81
38
18
$21. 60
(1)
(1)
$12 to $30
$15 to $25
$14 to $23
1
2
2
1
1
2
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
$25
$18
$15 to $19
75
30
14
54
25
9
$21. 50
(1)
(1)
$14. 65
(1)
(1)
$6 to $29
$7 to $25
$9 to $16
5
6
2
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
XII.-Age of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigars
14,182 women for whom personal information was obtained
R eporting age
Department
All
women
Total
Under 16
years
16and under 18and under 20and under 25and under 30and under 40 and under 50and under 60 years and Age
18 years
20 years
25 years
30 years
40 years
50 years
60 years
over
not re-
ported
umber
P er Num- Per
cent
ber cent
um- P er Num- Per
ber
cent ber cent
I
um- P er
ber cent
um- Per Num- P er Num- Per Num- Per
ber
cent
ber
cent
ber cent
ber cent
um- Per
ber
cent
- -- - - - - All departments
Not
reporting
department_
___________
__ _
14, 182
13,887
100. 0
308
2.2
1,486
10. 7
2,262
16. 3
---
3,146
22. 7
1,800
13. 0
2,867
20. 6
- - -1,384
10. 0
464
3. 3
170
l. 2
295
48
41
Total reporting ________ 14,134
13,846
100.0
308
2.2
1,485
10. 7
2,260
16. 3
3,143
22. 7
1,794
13.0
2,854
20.6
], 371
9.9
463
3. 3
168
l. 2
288
2,456
202
2,403
100. 0
100. 0
1
18
.5
.7
18
161
8.9
6. 7
23
248
11. 4
10.3
38
451
18.8
18.8
21
282
10.4
11. 7
47
23.3
23, 6
39
404
19.3
16. 8
11
568
182
5. 4
7.6
4
9
3. 7
z.o
1
53
Cigar making ___ ______
Hand __________ ___
Machine __________
9,104
4,862
4,242
8,920
4,771
4,149
100. 0
100.0
100.0
34
25
9
.4
.5
.2
783
112
671
8. 8
2.3
16. 2
1,543
198
1,345
17. 3
4. 2
32.4
2,100
877
1,223
23. 5
18. 4
29.5
1,289
924
365
14. 5
19. 4
8.8
2,011
1,631
380
22. 5
34. 2
9. 2
845
707
138
9. 5
14.8
3.3
248
231
17
2.8
4.8
.4
67
.8
1.4
1 ------
184
91
93
P acking _______________
Shipping ___________ ___
Miscellaneous from all
departments ________
1,874
190
1,839
189
100.0
100. 0
208
42
11. 3
22. 2
405
58
22.0
30. 7
357
36
19. 4
19. 0
439
27
23. 9
14. 3
165
12
9.0
6. 3
187
9
10. 2
4.8
57
3
3.1
1. 6
14
2
.8
1.1
307
293
100. 0
5
1. 7
60
20. 5
53
18. l
88
30.0
25
8. 5
32
10.9
23
7. 8
6
2.0
Leaf_
- -- -------- ----Stripping
_____________
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
--203
-- -- --- - ----- ------
1 ------
2
------
3
------
6 ------
13
------
13 -- ----
l
------
2 -- ----
66
7
7
.4
35
1
~
.3
14
------- ------
TABLE
XIII.-Department in which employed, by age grou p--W01rien who supplied personal information-Cigars
14,182 women for w hom personal information was obtained
Reporting age
All wom en
Department
umber Per cent
Total
Under 16
years
16 and
under
18 years
18 and
under
20 years
20 and
under
25 years
25and
under
30 years
30 and
under
40 years
40and
under
50 years
50and
under
60 years
Age not60 years reported
and over
- --- - --All departments ______ _________ ____ __
14, 182
Not reporting department_ ______________ __
48
Total reporting:
Number ________________ _____ __________
Per cent _______________ ________________
14, 134
------------------100.0
---------- --- - ------
13,887
308
41 -- - ---- - --
1,486
2,262
3,146
1,800
2,867
1,384
464
170
295
1
2
3
6
13
13
1
2
7
13,846
100. 0
308
100. 0
1, 485
100. 0
2,260
100. 0
3,143
100. 0
1,794
100. 0
2,854
100. 0
1, 371
100.0
463
100. 0
168
288
100. 0 __ _____ ,.. __
Leaf ____ ____ __ ___ __ ______ _____ _______ ____ __
Stripping __________ ____ _____ ______ ___ __ ____
203
2, 456
1.4
17. 4
1. 5
17. 4
.3
5. 8
1.2
10.8
1.0
11. 0
1. 2
14. 3
1. 2
15. 7
1. 6
19. 9
2. 8
29. 5
2. 4
39. 3
2.4
53.0
53
Cigar m aking ____ __ ____________________ ____
Hand
__________
-- - - - ___________
- - - - ---- -- --____
-- Machine
______ __
___- -______
9,104
4,862
4,242
64.4
34.4
30.0
64.4
34. 5
30.0
11.0
8.1
2.9
52. 7
7. 5
45. 2
68.3
8.8
59. 5
66.8
27.9
38.9
71.9
51.5
20.3
70. 5
57. 1
13. 3
61. 6
51.6
10.1
53. 6
49.9
3. 7
39. 9
39. 3
.6
184
91
93
P acking ___ ___________ ______ _______ ________
Shipping ___ __ ______ ________ ____ ___ _____ ___
Miscellaneous from all departments ____ ____
1,874
190
307
13. 3
1.3
2. 2
13. 3
1.4
2.1
67. 5
13. 6
1. 6
27.3
3.9
4. 0
15.8
1.6
2.3
14.0
.9
2. 8
9. 2
.7
1. 4
6. 6
.3
1.1
4. 2
.2
1.7
3.0
.4
1. 3
4. 2
35
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
---------.6
1
1
14
TABLE
XIV.-Nativity and color of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigars
1---l
01
0
14,182 women for whom personal information was obtained
Reporting nativity
Nativity not
reported
N ative born
Department
All
women
Total
Reporting color
T otal native
born
Total
umber
- -All depar tments _____ ___________ ___ ___ 14,182
Not reporting depar tment ___________ _____ __
48
12,580
NumPer
NumPer
cent
cent
ber
ber
------ --- - -100.0
37 --------
9,455
19
75. 2
7,600
-
White
Per
cent
rumber
100. 0
0,889
Colored
NumPer
cent
ber
-- --- --- ------ -
Per
cent
90.0
717
9.4
--- ----- -------- ------- - ------ - - -------- ---- ---- --- -- ---
Tot al reporting ___ __ __ ____ ______________ __ __ 14, 134
12,543
100. 0
9,436
75. 2
7,606
100.0
6,
Total foreign
born
Color
White not reported
Number
Per
cent
- - - -- - - - - - - - - 1,849
3,125
19
18
24.8
1,557
-------- --- -----
9
90. 6
717
9. 4
1,830
3,107
24.8
74
635
65.5
41.4
45
289
45
483
22. 2
21.0
1,188
701
487
2,431
1,671
760
29.8
36.3
21.4
925
246
679
238
34
36
96
14
6. 5
9. 7
14.8
386
46
38
Leaf_ ___ -- - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Stripping __---------- - -------------- __. ____
Cigar m aking _____ ___________ ________ ______
Hand __________________ ________ ___ ___ __
Machine ___ ______ _______ ___ ___ _________
203
2,456
203
2,304
100.0
100.0
158
1,821
77.8
79. 0
113
1,532
100. 0
100.0
39
897
34. 5
58.6
9, 104
4,862
4,242
8,151
4,598
3, 553
100.0
100.0
100.0
5,720
2,927
2,793
70.2
63. 7
78.6
4,532
2,226
2,306
100.0
100. 0
100.0
4,532
2,226
2,306
100. 0
100.0
100.0
P acking ________ ________ ____ _____ __ __ _____ __
Shipping __ ______ ___ ___ __________ ___ ________
Miscellaneous from all departments ________
1,874
190
307
1,485
144
256
100. 0
100.0
100.0
1,389
130
218
93. 5
90.3
85.2
1,151
96
182
100.0
100. 0
100.0
1,150
96
175
99. 9
100.0
96.2
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Color
not reportednumber
-------- --------------- --- - -------- --- -------l ---------------------3.8
7
1,557
45
11
34
--- -------- ----2
150
50
28
18
10
3
--------1
151
APPENDIXES
TABLE
XV.-Marital status of women who supplied personal information, by
department-Cigars
14,182 women for whom personal information was obtained
Reporting marital status
Department
All departments_
All
women
14, 182
Total
Single
Number
Per
cent
Number
13, 791
100. 0
6,888
Married
Widowed,
separated, or
divorced
Status
not
reported
NumPer NumPer
ber
cent
ber
cent
- ---- -------49. 9
1,489 10.8
391
5,414 39. 3
Per
cent
Not reporting department_ ______ ____ ___ _
48
36
------
12
Total reporting _____ __
14, 134
13, 755
100. 0
6,880
50. 0
5,393
39. 2
1,482
10.8
379
LeaL ______ ___ ________
Stripping __ __ _____ ____
203
2,456
201
2,361
100. 0
100. 0
57
809
28. 4
34. 3
84
1,128
41. 8
47. 8
60
424
29. 9
18.0
2
95
Cigar making _______ __
Hand ____ _________
Machine ___ _______
9,104
4,862
4,242
8,942
4,800
4, 142
100. 0
100. 0
100. 0
4,344
1,473
2, 871
48. 6
30. 7
69. 3
3,709
2,684
1,025
41. 5
55. 9
24. 7
889
643
246
9. 9
13. 4
5. 9
162
62
100
Packing ___ ____ ____ ___
Shipping ___ ____ ___ ___ _
Miscellaneous from all
departments ________
1,874
190
1,766
187
100. 0
100. 0
1, 307
158
74. 0
84. 5
374
24
21. 2
12. 8
85
5
4. 8
2. 7
108
3
307
,298
100. 0
205
68. 8
74
24. 8
19
6.4
9
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
--- ----
8
----- -
21 ------
7
TABLE
XVI.-Time in the trade of women who supplied personal information, by departrr.ent-Cigars
)---1,
c.n
t:-,:)
14,182 women for whom personal information was obtained
Reporting time in the trade
Department
All
women
Total
Number
Less than
6 months
6 months 1 and less
and less
than 2
t han 1 year
years
2 and less
than3
years
3 and less
than4
years
4 and less
than 5
years
5 and less
than 10
y ears
10 and less 15 and less
than 20
than 15
years
years
4
----
30
100.0 1,092
-------
3
9. 2
648
5.5 1,172
------ ------ -----
9. 9 1,059
1 ------
8. 9 1, 1!5
1 -- ----
100.0 1,089
LeaL ___ _______ ___ _____
Stripping ___ ______ ____
203
2,456
199
2,012
100.0
100.0
26
255
13.1
12. 7
26 13.1
125 6. 2
40
203
20. 1
10.1
21
202
10. 6
10.0
18
173
Cigar making __ ____ ___
Rand ___ ___ _______
Machine _____ _____
9,104
4,862
4,242
7,875
4,415
3,460
100.0
100. 0
100.0
492
37
455
6.2
.8
13. 2
369
33
336
4. 7
.7
9. 7
696
84
612
8.8
1. 9
17. 7
667
136
531
Packing _____ ___ ______ _
Shipping ___ _____ _____ _
Miscellaneous from all
departments ____ ____
1, 874
190
1,481
140
100. 0
100.0
232
70
15. 7
50.0
112
13
7. 6
9.3
200
22
13. 5
15. 7
193
148
100.0
14
9. 5
3
2.0
10
6. 8
1
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
9. 2
Excludes 114 learners.
648
5.5 1,171
9. 9 1,058
9.4
------ -----
Total reporting ________ 14,020 11,855
1
Time
not
reported
Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per INum- Per INum- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per
cent
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber
cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
- All departments_ 1 14, 068 11,885
Not reporting department_ __ _____________
20 years
and more
8. 9 1,115
731
6.2
1 -----
2,675
8
22.5 1,384
------
11. 6
3 ------
862
1
7.3 21,147
9. 7
12
-----
--- --
11. 6
861
7. 3 21,135
9.6
2,165
19. 6
19. 2
7
233
3. 5
11. 6
6
146
3.0
7. 3
2. 5
8. 2
4
444
24.1 1,017
30. 7
919
15. 8
98
12. 9
20.8
2.8
638 8.1
604 13. 7
34 l.·O
883 11.2
844 19.1
39 1.1
1,229
447
782
4.3
2. 9
393
50
16 10.8
45
730
6.2
2,667
9. 0
8. 6
11
124
5. 5
6. 2
39
387
8.5
3.1
15. 3
740 9.4
196 4.4
544 15. 7
473
208
265
6.0
4. 7
7. 7
1,900
1,354
546
152
13
10.3
9.3
167 11.3
4 2. 9
106
1
7.2
.7
289
10
19. 5
7.1
102
1
6.9
.7
58
2
3. 9
1. 4
63
4
3
2.0
15 10.1
42
28.4
21
14.2
11
7.4
2
8.8
18
22. 5 1,381
9.4
13
2,183
Three women had been in the trade 50 years.
5
164
TABLE
XVII.-Age of women who su pplied personal information, by department-Cigarettes
.....
t.;i
2,397 women for whom personal information was obtai n ed
er.,
00
Reporting ag~
~
00
L
Department
r
All
~om•
en
.....
.....
Total
16 and un• 18 and un• 20 and un• 25 and un• 30and un• 40 and un• 50 and un• 60years and Age
not reder 18years der20 years der 25 years der 30years d er40years der 50 years der 60years
over
ported
Num•
ber
Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per Num• Per
cent
ber cent ber cent b er cent ber cent ber cent b er cent ber cent ber cent
2,383
100. 0
--- - - - - - - - - - - All departments . .... . ........ .. ........ 2,397
Not reporting d epartment .. ·-·---·--·-·---·-·
73
128
5. 4
71 ------- ----- - ------
Total reporting..... ....... . ·-·-· ··--- - ··--· __ 2, 324
2, 312
100. 0
300
Leaf____ _-- -- - -- -- . -- . - . -- - • - - -- - -- -- - . - -. - - - Making ______ .. ____ . _____ .. _.. _. . ____ . ___ __ __
526
Packing.. _______ . __ ____ ___ ______ ___ ____ ._ . ... 1,419
Box. ___ . __ . ______ . ____ . ___ _..... ___ . _. ____ __ _
41
Miscellaneous from all departments . . .. ______
38
298
525
1, 411
41
37
100. 0
13
4.4
100.0
26
5.0
100.0
88
6. 2
(1)
1 -----(1)
------ ------
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
128
5.5
250
10. 5
6 ---- --
244
10. 6
26
8. 7
72 13. 7
138
9. 8
4 -----4 ------
740
31. l
24 -----716
31.0
26. 5
32.6
31. 8
11 ----- 7 --- ---
79
171
448
471
19. 8
23 --- ---
488
20. 5
13 -----20. 5
448
19.4
475
59
94
283
11
1
19. 8
17. 9
20.1
65 21.8
108 20. 6
279 19. 8
5 -----18 - -----
-----------
196
8. 2
4 -----192
8.3
37 12.4
34
6.5
112
7. 9
5 --- - -4 ------
76
3. 2
34
1. 4
1 ------ ------ ----- 75
3. 2
12
4.0
16
3. 0
43
3.0
1 -----3 ------
34
1.5
14
2
12
2.3
7
2
4
.8
1
20
1. 4
8
3 ------ ______
1
------ ---- -.;
154
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
TABLE
XVIII.-Department in which employed, by age group - Women who sup.
plied personal information-Cigarettes
2,397 women for whom personal inform ation was obtained
Reporting age
All women
Department
Age
not
20
25
40
16
18
30
50
60
reand and and and and and and years por
tN u m - P er Total under
under under under under under under and
ed
ber cent
40
18
20
25
30
50
60 over
years years years years years years years
---
-- - All depar t m ents __ ____ 2,397 ------ 2,383
N ot reporting department. _
73 - -----
128
71 ------
250
740
471
488
196
6
24
23
13
4
76
1 Not
12. 9
22. 6
61.1
i.8
12. 9
22. 7
61. 0
1.8
10. 2
20. 3
68. 8
.8
10. 7
29.5
56. 6
1.6
11. 0
23. 9
62. 6
1. 5
13. 2
21. 0
63. 2
2.5
13. 7
22. 7
58. 7
1.1
19. 3
17. 7
58.3
2.6
1. 6
1.6
------
1. 6
1. 0
.2
3. 8
2.1
computed ; base less t han 50,
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
34
1 ------
Total reporting:
Number _____ ____ __ ____ _ 2,324 100. 0 2,312
192
448
75
128
244
475
716
P er cent_ _______________
-- -- -- ------ 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100.0 100. 0 100.0
Leaf. _______ -- -- - - - - - - -- - -- - 300
Making _________ _____ ______ 526
Packing ____ _____ __ __ ______ _ 1,419
Box ____ ________ __ ________ __ 41
Miscellaneous from all departmen ts __ ______________
38
- - -
34
(1 )
14
2
12
------
2
16.0 ----- 21. 3 -----1
57. 3 -- ---8
1. 3 ------ -- -- -4. 0
------
1
TABLE
XIX.-Nativity and color of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigarettes
2,397 women for whom personal information was obtained
~ativity not
reported
Reporting nativity
Native born
Department
All
women
Total native
born
Color
Total
White
, ------ , ------➔------_, _
Number
- - - -- -- - - --
-
- - - - 1 1-
2,397
Not reporting department_ _______________ __
73
Total reporting ____________________________ _ 2,324
- -Leaf________________________________________
300
Making __________________________________ ._
526
Packing ________ __________________________ __ 1,419
Box ___________ ____ ______________________ ___
41
Miscellaneous from all departments ____ ____
38
1
Not computed; base less than 60.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Per
cent
- - - - - - --
All departments ______________________
Total foreign
born
RePQrting color
Total
Number
- --
Per
cent
Numbet
Per
cent
- - - 1 - - - 1 1 - -- - 1-
_
_
Number
-
-
Colored
_ _ __, _ _ __ _ _ _ ,
Per
cent
Number
ported
Per
cent
1- - - - - - - - - -
-
-
Number
--- -
Per
cent
-
-
- --
---
2, 378
100. 0
2,373
99. 8
2,127
100. 0
1,856
87. 3
271
12. 7
246
0. 2
7
===t===l====t=====l====l====t====l====l====l===:4-===d=== =
11
63
8
3
63
52 -- -- -- - - -- ----- - --- ---- -
2,315
100. 0
2,310
300
522
1,414
41
100. 0
100. 0
100. 0
300
519
1,412
41
- - - - -- - --
38
(1)
(1)
38
99. 8
2,116
100. 0
1, 848
87. 3
268
12. 7
194
289
465
1, 295
37
30
100. 0
100. 0
100. 0
(1)
(1)
42
465
1,288
32
21
14. 5
100. 0
99. 5
247
85. 5
117
4
8
3
2
.6
.1
12
10
2
--- -
11
54
7
.5
5 - - -- - - - 9 -- ---- --
=
.2
---1 ---+---+----➔ ----1---1 ---1----t---11 ---
100. 0
99. 4
99. 9
~~~
n~~l~!- ,- - - ~ - -, White
3
4
--
156
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
TABLE
XX.-Marital status of women who supplied personal information, by
department-Cigarettes
2,397 women for whom personal information was obtained
Reporting marital status
Department
All
wornen
All departments ___ ___ __ 2,397
Not reporting department ___
73
Single
Total
Per
cent
Number
P er
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
2,387
100. 0
1,022
42.8
922
38. 6
443
18.6
70 ------ -
21 ------ -
2,317
100. 0
1,001
300
________
----- --- ______
--- -- - _____
-- - - Leaf_
Making
___- ____
526
Packing _________ __ __ ___ __ ____ 1,419
Box ______ __ ________________ __
41
Miscellaneous from all departments _______________ ___
38
300
522
1,416
41
100. 0
100. 0
100.0
82
218
666
(1)
15
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Widowed, Marital
separated, or status
not redivorced
ported
Number
Total reporting _____ __________ 2,324
1
Married
38
(!)
43. 2
27. 3
41.8
47.0
20 -- -----
-------
36 -- ---- -
10
13 -------
3
886
38. 2
430
18. 6
104
197
558
15
34. 7
37. 7
39.4
114
107
192
6
38.0 -------20.5
4
13. 6
3
12
-------------
7
------- --------
11 -------
----- -
:
'
TABLE
XXL-Time in the trade of women who supplied personal information, by department-Cigarettes
2,397 women for whom personal _information was obtained
Reporting time in the trade
Department
Total
Less than
1 year
All
women
1 and less
than 2
years
2 and less
than 3
years
3 and less
than 4
years
4 and less
than 5
years
5 and less
than 10
years
10 and less
than 15
years
15 and less
than 20
years
:l~f:r
Time
not reported
Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per
ber
cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
- -- - -- - -All departments ______ ___ _ 2,397
Not reporting department ____ __
Total reporting _______ __________
Leaf. _________________ ________ __
Making ____________ ___ --- -----Packing __ _________ ___ __________
Box. _________ ______ ____________
Miscellaneous from all departments ____ ______ __ ---- --- _____
1
73
2,307
300
526
1,419
41
517
1,411
41
38
38
-
100. 0
67 -------
2,324
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
2,374
300
100.0
317
5
312
100. 0
35
100. 0
85
100. 0
189
(1)
-----(1)
3
--------
------ ---13. 4
--- ---
200
2
8.4
------
160
3 ----- -
10.2
2 ------
213
9. 0
4 ------
631
241
10. 4
209
9. 1
603
24
45
8. 0
8. 7
5. 7
38 12. 7
71 13. 7
127
9.0
4 ------
32
51
118
5
10. 7
9. 9
8.4
66
108
406
------
3
11. 7
16.5
13. 4
38 12. 7
55 10. 6
101
7. 2
4 ---- --
80
----- - ------ ------
3
5
-----------
1
-----------
26. 6
28 ------
6.8
198
-- ----
243
157
13. 5
8. 6
6. 7
15
8
26. l
355
15. 0
17 --- ---
150
6. 3
5 ------
105
338
14. 7
145
6. 3
104
20. 9
33
66
28.8
225
11. 0
12. 8
15. 9
25
19
95
1
8. 3
3. 7
6. 7
9
17
70
22. 0
-----------
5
9
-----------
5
-----------
4.4
1 ------
2
6
4.5
23
6
17
3. 0 ------3. 3
9
5. 0
8
------ _____ . ------ -------
TABLE
XXII.- Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars
1--l
Ol
00
A.-WHI'rE WOMEN-11 STATE S
Number of women
C igar-mak ing department
Stripping department
I
Wee~•s earnings
All
Leaf
occupa- departtions
ment
Total ___ ______ ____ ___________ ____ 20, 824
Median ___ ________ _s __ _ ____________ ____ $16. 30
Less than $L _______ __ ___ ____ ______ ____
$1 and less th an $2 ____ __ __ ___________ __
$2 and less than $3 _______ ___________ ___
$3 and less than $4- _________ _____ ______
$4 and less than $5 ________ ____________ _
$5 and less th an $6 ______ ______________ _
$6 and less than $7 _______ ____ ___ _______
$7 and less than $8 _______ _____________ _
$8 and less than $9 ____________ _____ ____
$9 and less than $10 __ _______ ___________
$10 and less than $IL __ _________ ___ ____
$11 and less than $12 __________________ _
$12 and less than $13 ___________________
$13 and less than $14 __ _______ ____ ______
$14 an d less than $15 ___________ _______ _
$15 and less than $16 _______ ____ ___ _____
$16 and less than $17 _______ _______ __ ___
$17 and less than $18·____________ __ __ ___
$18 and less t h an $19 ___________ __ _____ _
$19 and less than $20 __ ________________ _
$20 and less than $21- __ ____ _______ _____
$21 and less th an $22 _________ _______ __ _
$22 and less than $23 _______ ___ ______ ___
$23 and less th an $24 __________ __ _____ __
$24 and less than $25 ________ ________ ___
$25 and less than $30 ________ _______ ____
$30 and less than $35 _______ _____ ___ ___ _
$35 and less than $40 _______________ ____
$40 and over ___ --- --------- - ---- - ---- --
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
66
210
195
254
276
322
454
521
619
755
875
897
1, 104
1, 094
1,186
1,195
1, 289
1, 139
1,091
1, 068
1, 142
1, 019
1, 094
i40
586
1, 334
238
52
9
--140
$12. 05
2
----- ------- -- 2
2
1
3
3
17
2
28
9
17
15
5
25
4
-------4
1
Total
Hand processes
Select
Hand Machine
Total
strip
strip
- -- --- --- --- --2, 830
$11.80
238
$15. 95
25 -------76
3
44
1
74
1
85 -------2
98
100 -------143 -------1
142
199
6
14
219
204
6
221
9
224
27
12
222
182
39
160
14
15
117
25
99
11
62
14
27
20
10
17
14
6
5
6
6
2
6
2
1
Total
Bunch
Roll
- - - - - - - --
1, 278
$8. 90
1,314
$13. 20
14, 097
$17. 90
8, 658
$16. 65
2, 596
$17. 25
5, 992
$16. 40
20
62
36
63
5
11
7
24
84
87
125
111
124
197
220
272
383
379
488
587
653
758
800
962
870
805
880
955
908
980
636
441
1, 111
206
45
15
50
57
74
82
105
163
175
221
331
321
383
457
441
503
565
601
511
498
490
422
398
369
277
246
650
203
45
5
7
17
18
21
26
33
8
33
39
53
56
72
113
120
152
252
214
283
350
329
330
415
427
334
347
339
298
274
240
181
153
415
134
28
3
--- ------ ---
66
81
122
114
85
111
88
65
91
66
56
50
44
34
14
6
1
2
10
19
15
28
29
56
82
117
133
121
131
154
93
102
68
60
45
12
8
3
1
------------------------------- ---------- --------- ------------- -- 1
3
------ -1
------ -------- -------- -- -- ---- ----- --- -------- ------------ ---- -------- - ------ - -------- - - -- -----
6
50
55
68
76
101
96
103
106
170
142
168
176
147
147
122
119
128
93
89
232
68
16
2
Machine processes
Outandout
Total
Bunch
--- --- ~
70
$16. 00
----------- --------- ------------ ----- ------ --------------
5, 439
$19: 90
Roll
Auto- Examine
m atic- machinem achine
made
make
cigars
--
204
$17. 25
62
$20. 40
5, 068
$20. 00
105
$18. 10
- ------
9
9 -- ------ ----- --34
1
1
32
1
30
29
51
1
1
49
28
29 -- ---- -- --- ----18
19
1 -------32
34
1
1
45
1 -- -- ---43
51
2 -------48
52
46
1
5
1
58
9
47
105
1
9
94
130
6 ------ -123
212
192
13
3
255
18
3
219
2
17
235
209
361
14
325
6
11
1
343
359
2
307
292
8
390
7
5
364
8
494
533
19
11
4
486
510
611
16
6
586
345
8
5
359
2
183
195
6
432
461
17
9
2 --- -- --- --------3
-- - ---- ------------- ---------- --- - ---
1
--- ---- ---- -- ------
1
1
1
3
-------- -1
6
1
4
1
4
4
6
15
3
7
8
16
6
4
1
4
5
14
4
12
2
5
9
3
1
1
3
4
4
3
3
1
1
1 ------- - ---- - - -- -------- --------- ---------1 ------ -- -------- ------- -1
------ --
A.-WHITE WOMEN-11 STATES-Continued
Packing department
Week's earnings
Total
Various
hand or
Hand
Machine
machine band, foil, band and
pack,
and cellofoil
phane
band, and
Miscellaneous from all departments
Shade
Inspect
Fill container and
general
Shipping
department
Total
foil
Instructors and
supervisors
Learners
Miscellaneous
and
general
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -1- - - - - , - - - - - 1 - -- - - t - - - - - t - - - - 1 1 - - - -·l - - - - - 1 - - - - - - i - - - - - l - - - - -l·-- - - - - · - -
Total __ ________________ ________ ---Median ____ ________ _________ ____________ _
Less than $L ______ _____________________ _
and less than $2 ____________________ __ _
and less than $3 ______________________ _
and less than $4 ____ ____ __ ____________ _
and less than $5 ______________ ___ _____ _
$1
$2
$3
.$4
$5 and less than $6 ____ __________________ _
$6 and less than $7 ______ __ ______________ _
$7 and less than $8 ______________________ _
$8 and less than $9 __ ____________________ _
$9 and less than $10 _____________________ _
2,821
$14. 70
153
$15. 20
10 --- -------27 ------ ----40
36 -- --------59
65
63
139
134
119
1
1
7
3
7
976
$10. 65
519
$16. 50
7
15
24
27
34
1
7
2
3
3
51
1
44
78
84
70
4
7
12
8
1,001
$18. 65
63
$17. 70
1 ------ -----
4
10
6
12
308
$11.40
1
2
3
6
12
6
3 -- --------20
18
5
13
2
3 --------- - 17
2
18
26
35 ----------6
25 -- - --- ----35
6
21
2
23
3
1
--------- -3
---- ----- ------------ -------- - -9
-----------
628
$12. 50
234
$23. 40
323
$9. 95
109
$10. 95
9 ----------8
33 ----------23
3
28
3
3
5
14
9
3
8
6
10
31
26
26
18
40
4
5
6
1
2
7
3
10
6
8
27
44
54
12
22
64
18
12
1
2
5
6
6
6
3
1
14
5
3
5
4
18
8
11
22
17
7
21
17
23
26
71
$13. 95
4
11
$10
$11
$12
$13
$14
and less
and less
and less
and less
and less
than
than
than
than
than
$IL ___________________ _
$12 __ __________________ _
$13 ______ ______ ___ _____ _
$14- _________________ __ _
$15 __ __________ ________ _
144
124
161
172
167
8
12
7
15
12
82
69
70
62
55
17
17
28
42
48
$15
$16
$17
.$18
$19
and less
and less
and less
and less
and less
than $16 -- - - ------ --~-------than $17 ____________________ _
than $18 __ __________________ _
than $19 _ ________ ___ ________ _
than $2Q __ __________________ _
156
150
138
156
104
8
13
12
12
60
42
53
54
70
4
11
34
25
22
15
39
42
36
45
27
46
4
than
than
than
than
than
134
84
73
82
107
8
3
1
1
1
17
10
3
4
3
26
19
16
16
18
2
77
4
4
1
1
50
•
1
45
2
6
61 ---- ----- -- --------- - - ----------76
9 ----------3
22
7
23
16
29
22 ---- ------ - ----- -----7
23
15
29
and less than $30_ ____________________
155
6
9
31
107
2 _____________________ _
and less than $35 __ ________ ________ ___
19
2
2
4
11 ____________________ ____ ________ _
and less than $40_ ________________ ____
3 ______________________ ---------- 3 ____________________ ___ _________ _
and over _______ ________________________________________ ___ __ _________________ ______ _______ ___ ___ ___ ____ ______ __ _____________ _
62
11
4
3
61 --- -------11
4
3
.$ro and less
$21 and less
$22 and less
$23 and less
$24 and less
$25
$30
$35
$40
$2L ___________ ________ _
$22 ____________________ _
$23 ____________________ _
$24 ____ ____________ ____ _
$25 __ _____ _____________ _
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
46
42
69
23
2
56
3
6
9
4
6
9
2
10
2
4
12
6
4
1
78 - ---------28
1
2 - ----------
J-,l
C}l
~
TABLE
1--'-
XXII.-Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars-Continued
~
0
B.-WH~TE WOMEN-PENNSYLVANIA
Number of women
Cigar-making department
Stripping department
Week's earnings
All
Leaf
occupa- departtions
ment
TotaL ______ __ __ ___________ ____ __ 8,170
Median ________________ _____________-_____ $16.
75
Less than $L ___________ _______ ______ ___
31
$1 and less than $2 ___________________ __
107
$2 and less than $3 _____ _______ ________ _
89
$3 and less than $4 ___ ___ _____________ __
109
$4 and less than $5 _____ _______ _______ __
116
$5 and less than $6 ____________ _____ __ __
93
$6 and less than $7 ___ _____________ ___ __
149
$7 and less than $8 _____ ____ ______ ______
165
$Sand less than $9 ___ ____ _______ _______
243
$9 and less than $10 ____________________
285
$10 and less than $1L ______________ ____
342
$11 and less than $12 __________ __ __ ___ __
320
$12 and less than $13 ____ _______________
410
$13 and less than $14 _____ ___________ ___
430
$14 and less than $15 ___________________
412
$15 and less than $16 _________________ __
446
$16 and less than $17 ________________ ___
453
$17 and less than $18 ____________ _____ __
457
$18and less than $19 ____ ____________ ___
444
$19 and less than $20 __ c ________________
413
$20 and less than $2L __________________
529
$21 and less than $22 _________________ __
389
$22 and less than $23 ___________________
489
$23 and less than $24 ___________________
282
$24 and less than $25 _______ __________ __
287
$25 and less than $30 _________ ____ ____ __
604
$30 and less than $35 ______ __________ ___
67
$35 and less than $40 ____ __________ _____
8
$40 and over __ ________ ----- - -- -- --- - - -1
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Total
I
--- --56
$11. 00
1,199
$10. 80
2
13
61
31
4
40
36
69
61
66
96
106
77
89
107
60
76
39
30
32
15
14
11
14
4
6
1
1
3
20
3
6
8
3
2
3
3
Select
104
$18. 70
Hand M a chine Total
strip
strip
Bunch
Roll
Outandout
Total
Bunch
Roll
65
$15. 70
3,126
$19. 95
60
$15. 80
(1)
534
$12. 50
5,260
$18. 85
2,134
$16. 60
402
$18. 80
1,667
$16. 25
11
55
27
39
35
32
2
6
3
5
5
4
11
13
31
37
60
12
29
32
35
34
4
4
9
10
15
16
34
26
44
86
96
103
136
115
140
147
133
108
108
91
102
107
96
2
2
4
7
9
14
12
27
22
39
76
75
77
117
96
111
120
102
87
87
69
58
48
35
1
2
Total
561
$7. 50
58
44
19
24
27
10
18
12
2
4
3
58
62
3
10
70
47
3
8
50
21
6
8
20
14
14
7
5
9
5
4
7
1
13
4 -- - ----- --------6 ---- ---- ----- ----
------ -- --- ----------- -- ----- -- --------- -------- -------- -- ------ -- - -- -- --------- -------- -------- -- ------ ---- --- --
24
49
51
83
113
126
149
194
223
260
270
329
348
310
325
446
327
440
223
240
525
55
7
1
~
84
78
180
54
7
1
2
1
1
4
7
4
4
7
15
22
15
13
26
19
25
20
17
18
16
19
28
21
26
57
13
84
83
0
~
Machine processes
Hand processes
1
3
6
4
4
6
3
8
6
1
4
4
2
5
1
3
4
67
60
48
123
41
7 - --- -- -1 --------
11
Auto- Examine
matic- machinemachine made
make
cigars
3,019
$20. 05
8
8 -------- ------ -24
25
23
23 -- --- --- - ------25
25 --- - -- -- ---- ---19
19 -------- ------ - 7
1
8
13
1
15
23
1
25
36
2
39
24
3
27
22
7
30
43
3
46
57
58 -------- ------ -2
98
108
7
114
1
3
120
117
123
5
9
177
196
232
240
6
3
197
202
1
234
230
9
1
331
344
1 -------214
220
344
1 -- -- ---341
138
139 ---- -- -- -- -- ---162 ------ -- - ---- - -161
345 -------- -- --- --345
1 ------ -- ----- -- - ---------
36
(1)
trJ
z
z
H
C
H
Q
>
~
>
z
tj
1
1
C
H
Q
>
~
trJ
1
1
2
1
9
2
2
3
3
5
2
1
1
-------- ---- -- -- --- - ---- --- -- - -- - ----------------- -------- -- -- -- -- -- ---- -- - -- --------
1-3
1-3
trJ
H
z
tj
~
Ul
1-3
~
H
trJ
Ul
B.-WHITE WOMEN-PENNSYLVANIA-Continued
Packing department
Va.rious
hand or
Hand
machine band, foil, Machine
and cello- ba~~Jnd
pack,
phane
band, and
foil
Week's earnings
Total
Total
__________ - - -- -- --- - - -- ---- -Median
__ __________________
____________
__
Less than $L ________________________ ___ _
$1 and less than $2 _________ __________ ___ _
$2 and less than $3 ____________________ __ _
$3 and less than $4 ______________________ _
$4 and less than $5 ____ __________ ________ _
$5 and less than $6 __ ___ __ _____________ ___
$6 and less than $7 _________ __ _____ ___ ___ _
1, 334
15. 05
60
$13. 00
2 ------- ----
483
$11. 50
Shade
Inspect
473
$18. 55
(1)
25
1 --- -------- -- - -------- ------ ----6
4 - ---------- -- --- -----2
4 ----------1
1
4
3
11
21
18
33
13
16
17
28
25 -----------
21
20
$7 and less than $8 ______________________ _
$8 and less than $9 ____________________ __ _
$9 and less than $10 ____ _______ _____ _____ _
45
5
29
57
47
1
6
37
31
$10 and less than
$11 and less than
$12 and less than
$13 and less than
$14 and less than
$1L ___ ______ __________ _
$12 _______ __ ________ ___ _
$13 ____ ______ ______ ____ _
$14 __ __________________ _
$15 ___ ___________ ___ ___ _
57
68
89
84
79
5
8
31
41
4
44
3
5
39
31
$15 and less than
$16 and less than
$17 and less than
$18 and less than
$19 and less than
$16 _____ _____ ______ ____ _
$17 __ ________ ___ _______ ·_
$18 _____ _____ ____ ______ _
87
76
72
90
65
3
5
2
6
4
$19 _____ ____________ ___ _
$20 ___ __ ___ ___ _________ _
268
$16. 80
Miscellaneous from all departments
1
1
2
4
-----------
3
8
1
2
2
1
3 -- ---------
25
28
27
26
32
45
34
21
25
18
6
1
3
1
15
6
9
9
$30__ ___ ___ ______ _______
$35_____ ________ ______ __
54 ---- -------
4
166
Instructors and
supervisors
Total
155
$17. 95
90
$23. 00
Learners
40
Miscel•
laneous
and
general
(1)
25
2 - ----- - ---- - ----- - ---- --- -- ---- - - - - ---- - - - -4
2
2
5
11
8
16
14
13
6
20
6
2 - - - -- ------
5 - -- - - - --- -- ----------- ----------- -- ---- ----3
2 - ---- - ----2 --------- -4
3
3
28
6
5
22
7
7
14
20
29
1
7
19 ----------17
3
1 ---- - - ----3 ------- ---2
7
3 - -- - ------3 ----------- --- --------
2
2
1
4
3
5
4
2
3 -- - -------- - ----------
6
5
7
8
8
5
8
8
2 - -- - ----- -- - -- - - - --- --
9
9 -- - --- -- --- -- ---------
22 -- - - ----- -- -- - - - - - - --- - - --- --- ---
6
6
4
12
4
12
24
4
24 _____________ ____ ___ __
4 _________ __ _______ ___ _
26
28
39
17
1 ---------- 5
1 ---------- 1
1
2 ---- - --- - -1 ----------1
1
2
48
1
7 - ---------1
4
2 __ ______ ___
$35 and less than $40 _____ __ ______________ ----------- - ------ -- -- --- -------- ----------- ----------- ----- - ----$40 and over ____ __ _______________________ ------- - --- - ----------- ----------------- -- --------- - ---- -------- --
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1
1
2
5 - - - - - -- ---- - - - - -- - - - - -
7
12
Shipping
department
$9. 75
31
10
Not computed; base less than 50.
25
12
2 ----------1
11
3
17
3
4
21
1
22 ----------- ---------- -
2
60
50 ---- ---- - -29
51
29
1
(1)
7
4
17
20
21
$20 and less than $2L ___________________ _
$21 and less than $22 _____ _____ __ _____ ___ _
$22 and less than $23 _____ _____ ____ ______ _
$23 and less than $24 _______________ _____ _
$24 and less than $25 _____ ____ _____ ______ _
$25 and less than
$30 and less than
Fill container and
general
--------- - _____ ______
___________
- --- - ------
-------- - - ___________
___ _____ ___
_________ __
1
1 -------- --1
1
1
1 ____ _____ ___ _________ _
___ _______ _ ____________ _____________ _________________ ___ __ _______ _
162
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
TABLE
XXII.-Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars-Contd.
C.-NEGRO WOMEN-7 STATES
Number of women
Miscellaneous from
all departments
Stripping department
Week's earnings
All oc- Leaf decupaparttions
ment
Total
_ - _- - --- ------- ---- $10.10
1, 755
Median
__ _____________________
Less than $L ______ __________ _
$1 and less than $2 ____ _______ _
$2 and less than $3 __ _________ _
$3 and less than $4 ___________ _
$4 and less than $5 - __________ _
$5 and less
$6 and less
$7 and less
$8 and less
$9 and less
than $6 __________ __
than $7- ____ ____ __ _
than $8 ___________ _
than $9 ___________ _
than $IQ ____ ______ _
$10 and less
$11 and less
$12 and less
$13 and less
$14 and less
than $IL _______ __
than $12 - ____ ____ _
than $13 _________ _
than $14 _____ ___ __
than $15 _____ ____ _
13
20
38
37
59
85
108
146
172
168
$10.144
30
1,596
$10.
00
(1)
1
19
36
35
58
14
17
40
10 ------- ------- - -- --- 15
21
18
18
1 -------
83
106
143
155
146
51
72
89
68
67
32 - - --- - - ------- ------34
53
87
79
1 --- ----
24
13
2
2
2
2
3
17
21
79
7
127
2
106
81
4
2
200
165
122
101
76
666
$8. 65
3
4
9
2
4
29
10
54
68
13
30
6
20
2
6
6
$20 and less than $21- ------ -- $21 and less than $22 _________ _
$22 and less than $23 _________ _
4
1
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
7 --------
906
$10. 80
106
100
86
72
65
85
63
32
70
32
20
7
2
~'i;J
Select
$16------ -- -$17 ____ _____ _
$18 ____ _____ _
$19 _____ ____ _
$20- ___ _____ _
$15 and less than
$16 and less than
$17 and less than
$18 and less than
$19 and less than
InMisstruc- cellaneous
super- and
visors general
Total
172
281
Hand Mac~ine Total
strip
strip
1
2 --------
4 -------- -- ------
15
(1)
~
7
(1)
(1)
2 --- -- --
2
3
2
1
3
2
I
I
2
1
2
2
23
18 ------- ------ - - - -- ---
6
4
4 -- - ---- ------ - - ------
1 -------- -- -----1 ------- ------- ------2
2 -- - ----- --- ---- -- ------- --- ---- -------
163
APPENDDrns
TABLE
XXII .-Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigars-Contd.
D.-NEGRO WOMEN-PENNSYLVANIA
Number of women
M iscellaneous from
all depar tments
St ripping department
Week's earnings
All oc- Leaf decupa- partment
tions
Total _- _ ___ _____________ 1, 092
Median ___ __ ___ __ ____ _________ $10. 40
Total
Select
139
$10. 30
944
$10. 45
(1)
Less than$!. _____ _________ ____
$1 and less than $2 ____ ________
$2 and less than $3 ___ _______ __
$3 and less than $4 _ _______ ____
$4 and less than $5 __ --- - -----$5 and less than $6 ___ _____ ____
$6 and less than $7 ____________
$7 and less than $8 ____ ____ ____
$8 and less t han $9 ___ ________ _
$9 and less than $10 _____ _____ _
9
17
25
24
30
1
2
1
9
16
23
23
29
43
47
73
112
95
1
2
3
17
21
42
45
70
95
74
78
7
1
3
2
105
90
77
72
62
$10 and less
$11 and less
$12 and less
$13 and less
$14 and less
than
than
than
than
than
$IL _________
$12 __________
$13 _____ _____
$14 __________
$15- ____ _____
185
97
78
75
67
$15 and less
$16 and less
$17 and less
$18 and less
$19 and less
t han
than
t han
than
than
$16 _____ ___ __
$11- --------$18 - ___ __ ____
$19 __________
$2Q __________
55
28
156
$20 and less than $2L _________
$21 and less than $22 __________
$22 and less than $23 ----------
3
1
2
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
5
--------
18
Hand Mac~ine Total
strip
strip
115
$7. 30
-------- --------
811
$10. 70
slrtctors
and
supervisors
4
5
9
(1)
(1)
(1)
Miscellaueous
a nd
general
9 ------- ------- ---- -- -
2
3
6
14
14
11
31 -- - - --- ------- --- - -- 29
50
82
70
16
20
13
4
20
17
15
1 - - -- ---
2
1
2
9
4
2
98
2 -- - - - -87 -- - -·- - --- - - - - -- - --- -
54
2
26
4
51
1
1 ------21
2 ------2
14 ------- ------- -------
5
2
4
1
15
1
6 - - ---- -2 --- -- - - 5
71
63
57
3
2
5
3
3 ------ - ------- -- - - --3 ---- - - - - --- - - --1 ------- ---- - -- ----- -1 ---- - --- - - --- - -2 - -- ----- ------- - - ------- --- - --- - ----- 2
TABLE
XXIII.-Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in days-Cigars
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Women with
days worked
r eported
Less than 3 days
3 and less than 4
days
4 and less than 5 5 and less than 5½ 5½ and less than 6
days
days
days
Num-
Num-
6days
Week's earnings
Number
Num-
Per
cent
ber
P er
cent
ber
Per
cent
ber
Num-
P er
cent
Num-
Per
cent
ber
b er
P er
cent
Number
Per
cent
TotaL ____ ________________ __ _____ ___ ____ 14,799
100.0
601
100.0
549
100.0
1,399
100.0
2,604
100.0
8,948
100.0
698
100.0
Median _________ ___ _______ ______ ____________ _-1--,...:$:,::1,
7.-=1..:.5_---,-+-_ _:c$3::..;.• ..:.60;:._...,,--+-- - ,,.:,$8:..:,·..:.85;:.__-1---..:.:$1::.:2,. .5::.:o_ __,....;.---,:.,$1::..::5.,:...oo.::..:.___--.__. . :.$=-20,. ._10'-----c-+-- -=-$=-14...,.._25_·- ~
Lessthan$5 _____________ ______________________
643
4.3
410
68.2
88
16.0
60
4.3
29
1.1
49
.5
7
1.0
$5 and less than $10_ ---- ---------------------1, 742
11.8
175
29.1
257
46. 8
382
27. 3
332
12. 7
509
5. 7
87
12. 5
$10andlessthan$15 __ _________ ________ ______ _ 3,219
21.8
15
2.5
170
31.0
510
36.5
937
36.0
1,296
14.5
291
41.7
$15 and less than $20____ _______________ _______
4,126
27. 9 _________ _________
33
6. 0
344
24. 6
934
35. 9
2,556
28. 6
259
37.1
$20andlessthan$25 ____ ______________________
3,634
24.6
.2
1
.2
99
7.1
323
12.4
3,163
35.3
47
6.7
$25 and less than $30__________ ___ __ _______ ____
1, 169
7. 9 _________ ______ ___ _________ __ _______
4
.3
43
1. 7
1,115
12. 5
7
1. 0
$30 and less than $35_ _____ ___ ____ _____________
211
1. 4 _________ ______ ___ ______ ___ _________ __ _______ _____ ____
4
.2
207
2. 3
$35 and over _________ ____ ______________________
55
. 4 _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ __ _______
2
.1
53
•6
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
I
I
I
I
I
TotaL ___________ _____ ______ ____________
1,3871 100.0
621 100.0
661 100.0
134 1 100.0
410
100.0
7151 100.01 ------ ---1--------Median__________________ ________________ _____
$9. 95
$2. 30
$5. 75
$7. 55
$9. 00
$10. 85
_____ ____ --------Less than $5 _____ ____ ________________________ __ i- - 1,...,,3..,..0-,---....,.9-.4-,---5=7-,--- 9-1._,9,-+----,2--,--,3=
5
7-. 9--,---,20,...,..---1.,...4,--.9.,...;---22=-,--_,5,...._...,.4--,----,6,.....,..- -_-=8~ __-_-__-_-__- _~_-___-_-__-_-_
$5 and less than $10_ - - -------------------- ---570
41.1
5
8.1
39
59.1
92
68. 7
223
54. 4
211
29. 5 _________________ _
$10 and less than $15 _ --- ---------------------603
43. 5 _________ _________
2
3. 0
22
16. 4
153
37. 3
426
59. 6 _________ --------$15 and less than $20_ ___ _________ ___ ________ __
81
5.8 _________ ________ _ ________ _ ____ ___ __ ____ _____ _____ ____
12
2.9
69
9.7 __ _______________ _
3
.2 _________ ______ ___ _____ ___ _ ______ ___ ____ _____ __ _______ _________ _________
3
.4 ____ ___ ___ __ ___ __ _
$20 and less than $25__ ____ ___ ___________ ______
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
XXIV.-Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in hours-Cigars
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Women with
than 40
hours worked V isshours
reported
40 and less
than 44
hours
44 and less
than 48
hours
48 hours
Over 48 and
less than
52 hours
52 and less
56 and less
60 hours and
than 56 hours than 60 hours
over
W eek's earnings
Numb er
P er
cent
Numb er
P er
cen t
Numb er
P er
cent
Numb er
P er
cent
Numb er
P er
cent
Numb er
P er
cent
Number
P er
cent
Numb er
P er
cent
Number
P er
cent
- ----TotaL ___ __ ______ _____________________
100.0
331 100.0
Median _____ _______ ____ ______ _______ ______ __ 2, 211
$14. 40
$7. 85
Less than $5 _____ ____ ____ _____ _______ ________
110
5.0
105
31. 7
$ 5 and less than $10 _____ ___ ________________ _
102
12. 8
283
30. 8
$10 and less than $15 ____ _______________ ____ _ 846
38.3
98
29.6
$15 and less th~n $20 ___ ________ ____ ______ ___
22. 5
23
497
6.9
$ 20 and less than $25 __ ____ ______ ___ ______ __ _ 395
17. 9
.9
3
$25 and less than $30 __ __ ____ ________ ____ ____
3.1 ------- ---- --68
$30 and over _____ ________ _______ _____________
12
. 5 --- -- -- -------
223 100.0
$14. 40
2
.9
14
6.3
116
52.0
25.1
56
22
9. 9
12
5.4
1
.4
334 100.0
318 100.0
389 100.0
$14. 35
$21.40
$14. 50
3
. 9 ------ - ----- - - -- - --- - -- - --- 45
13.5
1
.3
38
9. 8
46. 7
46
14. 5
49. 6
156
193
24. 0
40
122
31.4
12. 6
80
221
11.1
69. 5
26
6. 7
37
2.8
3.9
13
9
7
1. 8
.8
1
.3
3
----------- --
427 100. 0
$15. 20
180 100. 0
$13. 45
9
(1)
(1)
--- -- -- ----- -- ---- --- -- - ---- --- --- ------12.4
53
1 ---- -29
16. 1
151
35.4
45. 0
81
5 ------118
27.6
2
31.1
56
12
1
1
17.1
6. 1
1. 4
73
26
6
1
6. 7
.6 ------.6 -- --- --
-------
-------------
-------
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
I
I(
I
I
1-------1-------1
I
I
I
I
I
I
Total ___ __ _____ __ __ ______ _______ ______
233 1100. o
rn (1) 1)
10
(1)
16 1 (1)
21
(1) j 119 100. o
41
(1)
1
(1)
Median_______ ____ ______ __ ___ _______________
$12. 70
(1)
(1 )
_____ __ __ ____ _
(1 )
$13. 90
(1)
(1)
Less than $5 _______ _________ _______ __________ 1--8,....,--3-.-4-'---8-'-'-_-__-_-__
-_-'-_-___-_-_-'-_'""__-_-___-_.,.._-___-_-__-'-,'__-___-_-_,..._-__-_-_-__-'-_-_-_-__-_-'
_-__-_-___-'_"-'-_-___-_-__-'__-_-__- _-_-___-_-___-'-_-_-___-_-'_'-_-__-_-__-_'-_-___-_-_-'-_'""
__-_-___-_
34
14.6
8 ___ ____
5 _______
4 ___ ____ _______ __ _____ _____ __ ___ ___ _
10
8. 4
7 _______ __ ___ ____ ____ _
$5 and less than $10__________ _________ ___ ___
138
59. 2
3 __ ___ __
4 __ _____
11 ___ ____ _______ __ ____ _
17
67
56. 3
29 _______
7 __ ___ __
$10 and less than $15 __ ____ __________________
50
21. 5 __ _____ __ _____
1 __ _____
1 _______ _______ ___ ____
3
40
33. 6
5 ___ ___ _ ___ ____ __ ____ _
$16 and less than $2Q__ __ ____________________
3
1. 'll ____ _____ _____ - -- ---- ------- _____ __ - -- - - -- ------- -- ----1 --- - - -2
1.7 _____ ___ _______ ________ __ ___
$20andlessthan$25____ ____ ________________
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
166
WOMEN . IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
TABLE
XXV.-Earnings distribution by locality-Cigars
A.--WHITE WOMEN
Per cent distribution of women
Locality
Number Median
of
women earnings
Less
than
$5
$5 and
less
than
$10
$10 and $15 and
less
less
$20 and
than
than
over
$15
$20
All localities __ __ ________ _____ ___ _
20,824
$16.30
4.8
12. 8
24. 8
27.8
29.8
New York 1 _____ ____ _ _________________
New York City __ _________ __ ______
1,988
1,184
17.60
20. 00
2. 0
1. 4
7. 2
3. 0
23. 7
12. 9
34. 2
32.9
32. 9
49. 8
New Jersey __ ______ _____ ___________ ____
Trenton _______________________ ____
Camden _____ ______ ________ ____ ____
N ewark and near-by cities 2 _ _ _ ____
4,025
882
1,537
1,606
19. 05
18. 25
21.30
18. 25
2. 4
.8
3. 5
2.1
8. 5
6.8
11.5
6. 5
17. 8
19. 0
13. 9
20. 8
26. 5
39. 1
15. 0
30.6
44. 9
34. 2
56.1
39. 9
Pennsylvania __________________ ________
Philadelphia _____________________ __
Other a_--------------------------Maryland and Delaware ______________ _
Baltimore ____ ______ ----- ---- - -- ---
8,170
3,704
3,986
16. 75
21.20
13. 55
5.5
3.0
8.5
11.4
6.0
17. 7
23.4
11.8
34. 7
27.1
18. 7
31.8
32. 5
60. 4
7.5
600
352
14. 35
13. 85
4. 5
2. 6
14. 2
12. 2
39. 0
51.4
30. 7
27.0
11. 7
6.8
Ohio ____________________ ---- ------ --- 7 cities'----- --- -- -- ------· -- ---- -Michigan-Detroit ___ _________________
Kentucky and Tennessee ______________
M;~~husetts-Boston ________________
Vrrg1n1a __________________ -- ___ -- _-- -- _
2, 102
1,764
13. 15
12.85
7.1
8.2
22. 5
22. 7
37. 3
39. 2
26.4
24.9
6.8
4.9
2,164
1,088
443
244
17. 45
8.85
19.10
12. 10
2.3
14.9
.7
10.2
5. 3
46.4
2. 5
25. 4
21.1
32. 5
30. 5
38.5
39. 9
5. 1
23. 7
24. 6
31.5
1.1
42. 7
1. 2
0.4
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
All localities
6__________ _ _________
1,755
$10.10
9.5
38. 7
43. 7
7. 7
New Jersey-Camden_- -- ----- - ------Pennsylvania _____ _____ ___ _________ ____
Philadelphia _______________________
87
12. 05
8. 0
20. 7
59.8
11. 5
1,092
1,051
10. 40
10.50
9. 6
9.0
33. 9
32.4
46.0
47. 7
10.0
10. 3
Ohio-7 cities'- _______ _____________ ___
515
9. 25
8. 5
50.1
38.4
2. 9
o. 5
.6
New York City and Binghamton.
Includes Newark, Passaic, Perth Amboy, South Amboy, and Fords.
a Includes York, Lancaster, Reading, Harrisburg, and Steelton and vicinity.
' Lima, Sidney, Wapakoneta, Van Wert, Columbus, Dayton, and Xenia. N egro women were found in
Columbus and Xenia only.
• Localities with fewer than 50 women not shown separately .
t
2
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
XXVI.-Week's earnings and age of women who supplied personal information-Cigars
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Women whose earnings and age were reported
Week's earnings
and under 20 and under 25 and under 30 and under 40 and under 50 and under 60 years and
All women Under 18 years 18 20
years
25 years
30 years
40 years
50 years
60 years
over
N=-J
ber
cent
p~
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
- - - -- - - -
TotaL __ _______ ________ ___ ___ __ __ --- __
100. 0 1,515 100. 0
Median _____________________________________ 10, 687
$13. 90
$1 . 55
Less than $5 ______ ________ ____________ _______
222
2. 1
4.6
70
$5 and less than $10 _______ _____ ______ _____ ___
947
8.9
301
19. 9
$10 and less than $15 __________ ________ ___ ____ 2,506
23. 4
472
31. 2
$15 and less than $20 _____ ________ ____ _____ ___ 3,285
30. 7
23.8
360
$20 and less than $25 ____ _______________ __ __ __ 2,904
27. 2
19.0
288
$25 and less than $30 _________________________
1. 1
694
6.5
17
$30 and over _____ _______________________ ___ __
1.2
.5
129
7
1,834 100.0
$18. 80
26
1.4
97
5. 3
392
21.4
563
30. 7
674
36. 8
4. 3
79
3
.2
2,397 100.0
$19. 05
1. 2
28
4. 3
103
450
18.8
784
32. 7
31. 7
759
246
10. 3
27
1.1
1,323 100. 0
$18. 45
1.4
18
81
6.1
247
18. 7
434
32.8
29. 7
393
125
9.4
25
1. 9
2,134 100.0
$18.15
30
1.4
134
6. 3
21. 5
458
703
32. 9
26. 9
573
182
8. 5
54
2. 5
1,015 100.0
340 100.0
129
100.0
$15. 85
$13. 50
$10. 45
21
2.1
13
3. 8
16
12. 4
115
11. 3
73
21. 5
43
33.3
312
30. 7
130
45
38. 2
34.9
32.0
325
95
27. 9
21
16. 3
187
18.4
27
7. 9
2. 3
3
42
4.1
2
1
.6
.8
13
1. 3 ------ - ------- --- -- -- -------
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
I
I
I (
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1)
TotaL_______ ______ _______ _____ _______
101 100. o
21
90 100.0
225 100.o
141 100.0
1561100.0
551100.0
15 j (1)
4 / (1)
Median ___ __ __ ____ __________________________ t ---=-;
$1,....0,....
. 5_5-=-:;-;---=--i
(1,) --;,---$-'-::1,-,0.,-2_5-:-;;--i-- $'-:-:1,1._l_0..,....,,+--$'-=1,0._9_5-=-=--i--'$,--,-10..c...,.-'--30.:....,...-,,-e-__,...,.$.:,,8·-=4.:c..0-..,,.+-_-..:<~1)_ _...!....__ _('...;t)'.......__
Less than $5 ______________ ____________ ___ ____
53
7. 5
5 ----- -7
7. 8
9
4. 0
7
5. 0
11
7.1
12
21. 8
1 ____ ___
1 __ ____ _
$5 and less than $10_____ ______________ _____ __
245
34. 7
7 ----- -32
35. 6
66
29. 3
49
34. 8
60
38. 5
21
38. 2
8 _____ __
2 ___ __ __
$10 and less than $15____ ___ ______________ ____
340
48.1
9 ___ ____
47
52. 2
128
56. 9
74
52. 5
62
39. 7
14
25. 5
5 _______
1 ____ __ _
$15 and less than $20________ _________________
66
9. 3 _____ __ --- - - -4
4. 4
22
9. 8
11
7. 8
20
12. 8
8
14. 5
1 ____ ______ ___ ___ ___ __
$20 and less than $25_____ ___ _______ __________
3
• 4 - ------ ------ - ------- -- - - --- ------- --- - -- - ___ ____ ______ _
3
1. 9
1 Not
computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
168
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
TABLE
X X VII.- Earn ings distri bution by time in the
A .- WHIT E WO M E N
Women
6 months and 1 nd
reporting time Less th an 6 less than 1
a
less
in trade
mont hs
year
than 2 years
Week's earnings
Num•
b er
- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -1· --
Per N um• Per Num• Per Num• P er
cent
ber
cent
b er
cent
ber
cent
l - -- t --
-
l --
-
-
- - -- --
TotaL. . ... . ............................. 8,998 100. o 656 100. O 498 100. O 974 100. o
Median.-..... .. ...... .. .. . . .................. .
$17. 25
$12. 75
$15. 15
$17. 25
Less than $5 .. . ... ..... ................ . ........ 1--1~81,.....,.------,2,-.o-=- 1-- 4.,...,4-.---,-6-,
. 7-i--1-1--2-=-_....,.2- 1---,-18=----1,-_-=-8 1
$5 and less than $10 ...... ............ .... .. ..... 781
8. 7
140
21. 3
51
10. 2
89
9.1
$10 and less than $15 . . . .............. .. ........ 2, 164
24. 0
271
41. 3
18.1
36. 7
263
27. 0
$15andlessthan$20 ..... . . . ~ ...... .. .......... 3,022
33. 6
137
20.9
168
33.7
325
33. 4
$20 and less than $25.. . ..... . .......... . ....... 2, 146
23. 8
60
9. 1
81
16. 3
252
25. 9
$25andlessthan$30 .. ..... . ..... . .............
603
6.7
4
.6
4
.8
26
2.7
$30 and over........ .. . . ... ... ...... . ....... . ...
101
1.1 . . ... . . .... . . . . .... .. .. ...
1
.1
B .-NEGRO WOMEN
I
l
4831100. 0
ss \ 100. o 60 100. 0
TotaL. _ - · .. .... .... ... . . . ............ .. .
40
(1)
1)
$10. 25
$8. 75
$9. 65
Median----·---·---------- - - - ------ - ·- ·····- ···1---,;.::--:------,:-::--l--::--:::--:---=~
1----:i--,---::-~,---:::--;5.0
2 .......
7. 5
Less than $5 ....... ........... .. ............... .
10 ----- -185
38.3
51. 7
12
$5 and less than $10.-- -····· · ··················
220
45.5
25
41.7
$10 and less than $15 . ... . . .. .. ...... . ... . ..... .
28 - -----42
1.7 ------ -- ----8. 7
1
$15 and less than $25. ·--··· · · · ·················
Ml
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
113.'
...~...ggJ. al I
169
APPENDIXES
trade, worr~en who supplied personal information-Cigars
A.- ~HITE WOMEN
2 and less
than 3 years
3 and less
than 4 years
4 and less
than 5 years
5 and less
10 and less
than 10 years than 15 years
15 and less
than 20 years
20 years and
over
Num-
Num-
Num-
Num-
Num-
Num-
ber
Per
cent
ber
Per
cent
ber
Per
cent
Per
cent
ber
Num-
Per
cent
ber
Per
cent
ber
---------------- -836 100.0
$17. 80
11
1. 3
71
8. 5
176
21.1
32. 7
273
249
29.8
54
6. 5
2
.2
891 100. 0
$18. 65
14
1.6
6. 3
56
150
16. 8
317
35.6
32.0
285
61
6.8
8
.9
592 100.0
$18. 25
9
1.5
33
5. 6
127
21. 5
190
32.1
171
28.9
9.5
56
1.0
6
2,041 100. 0
$18. 45
26
1. 3
116
5. 7
357
17. 5
36. 1
737
536
26. 3
11. 3
230
39
1.9
P er
cent
ber
--
1,059 100. 0
$17. 55
1.4
15
8.9
94
221
20.9
34. 7
368
23.4
248
8.1
86
2.5
27
100. 0
636
$17. 05
1.6
10
44
6. 9
163
25.6
242
38.1
123
19. 3
46
7.2
1. 3
8
815
100.0
$15.85
2.8
23
87
10. 7
253
31.0
265
32. 5
141
17. 3
4.4
36
1. 2
10
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
39 1 (1)
(1)
:; !::::::
561100. 0
$10. 90
3.6
28.6
34
60. 7
4
7.1
1~ I
I (IJ
(1)
1411
----- - ---- 11 -------
31
126898°-32--12
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
5 -- --- --
I
'
123 100. 0
$10. 70
9.8
29. 3
36
47. 2
58
17
13. 8
121
31
I
(1)
(1)
12
I
(1)
(1)
31
(1)
(1)
------r------ 1r--- - -------11-------
8 - -----132 ------8 - ---- - -
3 --- - - --3 ------- 5 --------
1 - -- - -- 1 --- ----
TABLE
XXV II I.-Week's earnings, by departmen t and occupation-Cigarettes
A .-WHITE WOMEN-3 STATES
Number of women
Leaf department
Week's earnings
All occupations
Total
Hand
stem
Pick
---- - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - ---1-- 3,- 668
-t-- --+----1-- - Total_ _- -- -- - - ______ ____ ____ ____ __ ______ __ ___ _____ _______ _
Median__ __________ ____________________ _____ _____ ___ _____ _____ _
$17. 05
228
$11.33
99
$10. 96
46
(1) '
Making department-Making machine
Machine
stem
Miscellaneous
and
general
help
Feed
Total
Operate
Catch
Inspect
- - --1-----t-- - - - -- - - - - - -- 1-- - 67
$12. 31
(!)
16
912
$15. 40
98
$12. 81
188
$17. 85
462
$14. 28
164
$17. 78
1-------+-----+-------1-----1----1-----+----l----+------Less than $L _____ ---------------------- --- ----- - ----- __ ___ ____ _
8
$1 and less than $2______________________ ___ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ _
$2 and less than $3________ _____ __ ____ ________ ___________________
$3 and less than $4____________________ _____ _________ ___ ____ ____ _
$4 and less than $5_____ _______ ______ __ _____________ ___ ____ _____ _
$5 and less than $6___________________________________ ________ ___
$6 and less than $7________ _____ ___ ____________ ___ _______ ___ _____
$7 and less than $8_________ _______ ______________________________
$8 and less than $9___ ______ _______ __ __________ _____ ___ ______ ____
$9 and less than $10_____________________________________________
$10 and less than $1L ______ ___ _____ _________ _____________ ___ __ _
$11 and less than $12______ ______________ ________________________
$12 and less than $13____________________ ________________________
$13 and less than $14____ __ ____ __ ________ ______ __ __________ __ __ __
$14 and less than $15_ ___________________________________________
$15 and les~ than $16_____ ______________ ________ _________________
$16 and less than $17____ ____________________ ____________________
$17 and less than $18____________ __ ____________ _____ __ ___ _____ ___
$18 and less than $19_______ _________ ___ ________ _____ _______ _____
$19 and less than $20____ _____________________ ________ _____ ______
$20 and less than $21____________________________ ________________
$21 and less than $22___ __________ ___ __ _______________ ___________
$22 and less than $23____ _____ _____ __________ ___ ________________ _
$23 and less than $24____ _______ __ ___ ___ _______ ___________ __ _____
$24 and less than $25___ _________ ______________________ _______ ___
$25 and less than $30_____ _________________ ________________ ____ ___
$30 and less than $35____ _____ ________ _______________ ____________
$37 ____ -- --- - - --- -- ---- --- - - ___ __ __ -- _______ -- -- __________ -- ____
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
4
2
2
24
10
6
4
23
~
22
31
11
5
4
34
9
2
5
26
6
2
2
31
11
4
5
48
13
6
6
61
11
5
5
84
22
13
2
166
18
6
5
220
41
9
1
269
11
3
23
289
20
16
2
233
9
3
235
4 ---------- ----- -- - -556
2
2 ------ ---387
2
2 - ---- --- -248 -------- -- - ---- ----- -- ------- 289
1 ---------- ---------131
64
54
62
58
14
1
;
--- ----- -- ---------- ---------- --------- - ------- --- ---------- ------------ - ------ ----------
1i
2
2
2
2
1
1
7
4
21
9
1
5
3
----- -- - -- - --- - ---- ------- -1
1
15
9
~
--...-------
7
5
3
10
1
-- ------- --- - ------
- ----------- ---- -- -
9
11
23
51
49
101
124
78
91
148
76
43
30
10
8
1
1
2 ----------
4
~
2
g
3
~
1 -- - ------- - - - ------- ---------9
b
2
5
1
4
3
2
4
4
3
4
4
2
2
15
6
2
43
16
6
4
23
4
1
4
92
12
5
9
98
4
6
7
61
11
61
7
12
34
54
10
50
41
3
4
28
24
1
3
15
17
12
3
6
2
6
1
------ ---- ---------- - --------1
1 - --------- ---- ------
A.-WHITE WOMEN-3 STATES (Continued)
Number of women-Continued
Department not specified
Packing department
Week's earnings
Total
Operate
new
packing
machine
Old packing
machine
Operate
Operate stampwrapping
ing and
Cup machine banding
Feed
or opor
machine
erate inspect
Hand
pack
Miscel- Box
Hand
departSalvage lanePack stamp,
ous
ment
in car- paste, Inspect and
and
tons
and
repair general
wrap
help
- - - --- -
Total
Misoel·
Super- lanevisory
ous
and
and
clerical general
help
-- - -- - - - - - - - - - - --
42
591
485
105
38
46
90
87
40
14
277
221
233
273
26
TotaL _---- ---------- -- ----- -- - 2,401
(1)
Median ___ _______ ________ ______ ____ __ $17. 76
(1)
(1)
(1)
$17. 32 $17. 74 $12. 69
(1)
$17. 05 $16. 65
(1)
$18. 20 $18. 13 $18. 29
$19.10
1---1-- - - + -- -+----l-- - - f - - - - - + - - - - + - - - + -- --l----+-- - -l----l----i----l----l----Less than $L _____________ __________ _
1 -------- --- --- -- -------1 -- - ----- ---- -- -- ----- --- --------
$1 and less than $2 ________ ________ ___
$2 and less than $3 ____ _____ ___ ______ _
$3 and less than $4 _ ________ ______ __ _ _
$4 and less than $5 _ -----------------$5 and less than $6 _-- ---- --------- --$6 and less than $7 __________________ _
$7 and less than $8 ______ ____________ _
$8 and less than $9 ____ _____ _________ _
$9 and less than $10- ________________ _
$10 and less than $1L _______________ _
$11 and less than $12 ___ ___________ __ _
$12 and less than $13 ____ ____________ _
$13 and less than $14 ________________ _
$14 and less than $15 ____ ______ ______ _
$15 and less than $16 ______ __________ _
$16 and less than $17 ________________ _
$17 and less than $18 ___ _________ _____
$18 and less than $19 ____ _____ _______ _
$19 and less than $20 ____ ________ ____ _
$20 and less than $2L ____ ___________ _
$21 and less than $22 _______ _________ _
$22 and less than $23 _____ __ _________ _
$23 and less than $24 __ ______________ _
$24 and less than $25 ________________ _
$25 and less than $30 ________________ _
$30 and less than $35 __ _____ __ ___ ____ _
$37 --- - - ----- - ---- --- - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - 1
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
4 ---------- -------- -------- -- ------ -7
1 -------- - - ---- -- -6
2
7
19
10
11
15
21
37
36
87
117
136
141
138
128
370
305
200
255
121
56
47
61
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
3
3
9
20
9
10
57
83
54
16
2
2
2
3
4
17
17
5
5
15
15
16
20
13
49
18
12
1
1 -- ------ -1 ---------1 -------- --
1
1
5
2
8
27
3
9
36
16
4
12
16
59
30
3
55 ------ ---- ----- --- -------10
1
2
2
-
4
5
11
14
9
10
11
24
39
35
29
5
-
4
6
5
2
7
2
6
2
2
1
4
1
33
23
2
9
1
4
2
5
5
10
10
12
19
30
45
62
31
37
55
42
37
45
2
1
1
2
10
4
12
6
27
19
11
15
179
70
32
48
1
2
1
12
1 ----- --- -------- ---- ----
4
1 ----- --- -------- -------- ---- ---2 ------ -- ------ -1 ------ - - - - ---- -- -------3
1 ----- --- ------ -- -- ------ - ------ 2 ------ -- - ------- -------5 ----- -- - -- --- --4 -------- --------
8 -------- -------- - ------4
6
8
7
2
8
10
4
10
4
3
6
6
3
12
4
3
11
4
4
8
21
3
3
1
7
23
8
2
1
3
5
2
4
2 -------- -------- --------
2
7
9
1
3
6
4
7
1
2
10
2
2
3
1
3
4
7
1
2
2
2
3
1
1
2
3
2
2
4 -------- -------- --- ----- -------- -- ------ - - -----33
3
12
44
5
18
5
2
3
26
10
1
1
1 -- -----1
1
14
12
21
7
2
10 -------- - ------- -------- --- ----- -------- -------1
- ----- -----------------------
6
6 --------
2
2 --- -----
4
4 ------ -~
---1
~
TABLE
XXVIII.-Week's earnings, by department and occu pation-Cigarettes-Continued
B.-WHITE WOMEN-N OR'l'H CAROLINA
Number of women
Week 's earnings
AH occupat ions
TotaL ____ __ __ __ _____ ___ ___ ____ _______ __ - - -- -- - - -- - - - - - - --- - - - - -- - - - ----- --- - - - - - - -- -- - --- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- · - - Median __ ______________ _____________ _________ _______ ___ ___-- · - - - -- _____ ______________ ___ _____ ______ __ ______________ _
Less than $!_ ________ _______ ________ ____ ______ ________ ______ __________ _____ _________ ___ ______________ __ ___________ ___
$1 and less than $2 ___ _ ·______ ______________ _______________ _____________ __________ ____ ______ ________ ____________ _____
$2 and less than $3 ___ ___ _____________ • ____ ____ __________ ___ ___ __ ________ ___ ____ ___ ____ __________ ___ ____________ ___
$3 and less than $4 _____ ____ _______ ___________ _____________ ____ _______ ___ __ _________ ____ ______ __________ ____________ _
$4 and less than $5 ____ ____ ___ __ _· _________ ____ ________ _____ ____ ___ ________ __ __ __________ ________ ____ ______________ __ _
$5 and less
$6 and less
$7 and less
$8 and less
$9 and less
than
than
than
than
than
$6 __ ____ ________________ ___ _____ _____ ______ ___________ ___ __ ____ ___________ ___ ____ ___ ______ _____ ____ _
$7 ___ __________ ______________ ___ ___________ ________ ____ ____________ __________ ______ _____ ___________ _
$8 __ _____ _________ ___________ ____________ __ ________ ____ ___ ___________ ______________ _________ ___ ____ _
$9 ____ ______________ _______ ___ ___ ___ _____ ____ ______ ______ ____ ______________________ ________________ _
$10 ________ ________ ____ ____ __ ___ _________ ________________ ____________________________ ___ ___________ _
M aking depar t ment-Making m achine
Total
Operate
Cat ch
Inspect
93
79
194
1,840
14
366
(!)
$17. 80
$14. 10
$15. 35
$17. 70
$17. 60
- - -- 1-- -- -1----+- - - -l-- - -+-- - 2 ----- - -- -- - ----- -- -- - -- -- ----- - - - -- ----- - -- -- -----
4
1
1 - - - - -- ----
1 - -- - ----- -
4
3 ------- - - 3 ---- -,--- 5 - - - ---- -- 1 - --------1 ---- - -- - -7
4 ----- ----- - - - -- - - - - - -- -- - ----- --- - ---- -12
15
4
4 - -- - --- -- 6 --- - - -----
4 - - - - ---- - 5
1
9 -- ---- - - -- ---- ---- -- ---- -- - --- -- -- - --- -- ---- -- - --15
3
2
2 -- - - ----- -
24
1
26
46
48
4
$10 and
$11
and less
less
$12 and less
$13 and less
$14 and less
than
_-----________
- --------------- - -___________
- --- - - - - - - -__----- ----- - -__- ___
--- -__--__________
- -------- -____
-------- ------------ ----than $IL
$12 __________
_______ -_____
__ _________
.. _________________
_____
than $13 _________ __ ______________ ___ __________ ____ ___ ___________ ____ _____ __ __ ________ _____ _____________ _
than $14 ____ _____ ___ __ _____ __ ____ ___ _______________________ ____________________ ______ ____ ___________ __ __
than $15 ___.__ _- ---- ---.-- ________ __ ___________ ________ ______ ______ ________ ________ ___ __ _____ ____ ________ _
$15 and less
$16 and less
$17 and less
$18 and less
$19 and less
than
than
than
than
than
$16 __ _____ __ __ ________ ______ __ __________ _____ ________ ______ ___ ______ __ ____ _______ ______ _______ _____
$17 ____ ___ ________ _______ ____ __ ____________ _________________________________ ______________ ____ ____ _
$18 ___ ___ ______ ______________ __ ___________________ _____ __ ___ ___ _______ __ ____ __ ____ ___ __ __ _____ _____
$19 __ ______ ___ __ ___________ __ ____ _________ ____________ _____ _________ ___ __________ _____ ____________ _
$20 __ __--•- ___ ___ _______ __________ ____ __________ ________ __________ ________ ___ _____ ____ __________ ___
71
89
425
$20 and less
$21 and less
$22 and less
$23 and less
$24 and less
$25 and less
than $21 __ __ _________ __________ __ ___ _________ __ __ ____ ______ ____ ____ _____ ______ ___________ _________ _____ _
than $22 __ ________ ___ ___________ __ ___________ __ ______________ ___ _________ ___________ _________ _______ __ __
than $23 ____ ____ ___ ________ ____ ____________ ____ ____ ______ __________ ________ ___________ __ ____________ __ __
than $24 ____ ___·__ _____ _______ _______ ___ ____ ________ ____ __ ____ ____________ _____ _________ ___ ___________ ___
than $25. ___ __ ______ __ __ ____ _____ ___ ___________ ______ ____ _____ __ _________ _____ __ __ ___ __ _____ ________ ____
than $30 __ _________ ______ ________ _______ ___ ___ ____ __________ __ _______ _____ ___ ________________________ ___
200
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Leaf
depar tment
115
177
283
137
79
28
13
5
1
1 ----- ----- - --- - -- -- -
1
18
10
44
82
3
19
20
82
46
13
1
3
41
23
5
1
3
17
10
43
77
15
7
3
2
1
2 - - - -- - ---- - ----- - -- -
3
3
1
1
2
3
10
38
21
7
2
3
3
1
1
B.-WHITE WOMEN-NORTH CAROLINA-Continued
Number of women-Continued
Packing department
Week's earnings
O~fct~eng
o~:~te
packing
machine
Total
Operate
Operate stamping
1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 wrapping
and
Feed or
Cup or machine ~a~tfii~
operate
inspect
Hand
pack
Pack in
cartons
- - - - - - - - - - - -1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -- - - 1- - - - - --
TotaL _ _____ ______________
Median____________ ____________ _
1,404
$17. 90
Less than $L ____ ______ _________ _
$1 and less than $2 _____ ________ _
$2 and less than $3 ______ _______ _
$3 and less than $4 ____ _________ _
$4 and less than $5 _____ ________ _
$5 and less than $6 _____________ _
$6 and less than $7 __ ___________ _
194
$18. 15
$19. 20
11
(1)
403
$16. 10
2 ---------- ---------- ---------- - --------- ----------
1
2
4 --- - - --- -- ---------- - --- --- ---
9
9
$10and less
:$11 and less
$12 and less
$13 and less
$14 and less
1
1
20
25
34
64
92
$15 and less than
$16 and less than
$17 and less than
$18 and less than
$19 and less than
$16 ___________ _
$17 __ _________ _
$18 ______ _____ _
$19 ___ ________ _
$20 ___________ _
50
65
313
235
124
7
7
57
80
13
$20 and less than $2L ___ _______ _
$21 and less than $22 _____ ______ _
$22 and less than $23 ____ _______ _
$23 and less than $24 ____ ___ ____ _
$24 and less than $25 ___________ _
$25 and less than $30 ____ _____ __ _
198
76
13
1
12
4
1
1
1 ---------1
1 - - - --- ---4 - --------- --- ----- --
2
$1L __________ _
$12 ____ _______ _
$13 ___________ _
$14 ___________ _
$15 ____ _______ _
25
1 -------- --
2 ---------- - - - --- ---- - --------- - --- - - - ---
than
than
than
than
than
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
116
2 -- ---- ---- --- - -- ---- ------- - -- ---------- ------- ---
10
22
Not computed; base less than 50.
117
$20. 40
Inspect
23
25
(1)
(l)
MisCAllaneous
and
general
help
+---- -
- 1 - - - - - 1 - - --
350
$17. 60
Salvage
and
repair
12
(1)
Box
department
- - - ---- ---63
$17. 55
(1)
38
(1)
18
1 - ------ --- ------ -- -- -- ------ -- ----- - ---- ---------1 - --------- ------- --- -- - ------- ---- ------ ---------- ---------- ---------4
1
1 --- - ------ -- - ---- - -2 ------- - - - --- --- ---- - - - ------- - ·-------- ---------- ---------3
1 --- ------- - --------- ---------2
$7 and less than $8 _____ ________ _
$8 and less than $9 ___ __________ _
:!;,9 and less than $IQ _____ _____ ___
1
90
$20. 50
Hand
stamp ,
paste,
and
wrap
Department
not specifledMiscellaneous
and
general
help
2
2
1
1
2
4 ---------1
1
5
9
46
17
6
1
3 ---------2 -------- -- ------ -- -2
2
1
2
3
3
1
---------1
2
1
3
14
2
6
12
19
32
59
29
2
2
24
4
1
2 --- --- ---- ---------- ------- - -1 ---------- --- - ------ - --------5
1 -- - ------- --------- - - ------- - 1 ---- - ----- ---------5
1 ---------- --- - - ----- --- ----- -- ---------- --------- - - - - ------5
2 ----- - - - -- -- - ------- ------- --- --------- - ---------- - ---------
6
8 - --- - - ---- -- - ----- - - -------- --
10
13
21
43 •
58
25
26
37
29
25
1 ---------3
1
3
2
3
2 ---------- -------- - - - --- ------ -------- - - -------- - -
6
4
8
17
7
12
175
65
21
1 ---------- --- ------1
1
3 --- - - ----1
1
3
6
5
2
4
3
6
3
4
1
3
5
2
7
1
1
2
5
3
1
20
29
1
21
1
1
1 --- ----- - - ---- -- ----
31
13
2
4
1 - -------- 24
5
1
2 ------- - -- - --- -----16 --- - - - - - -- - --------1 -------- ··- ---- ---- -11
1 ------- - -- --- ----- -- ---------- --- - - ----4
1
----- ----- - -- - --------- - ------------ -
---- - - - ------------ - ---------------- -
TABLE
XXVIII.-Week's earnings, by department and occupation-Cigarettes-Continued
C.- NEGRO WOMEN-2 STATES
Number o! women
Making departmentMaking machine
Lea! department
Week's earnings
All
occupations
Total
TotaL________________ __________
2,130
Median_____ ___ _______ ______ ___ ____ ___
$8. 00
Less than$!__ __ ___ ____ ____ ___________ _
$1 and less than $2 __________________ __
$2 and less than $3 ____ ______ _____ ____ _
$3 and less than $4 ____ _______________ _
$4 and less than $5 ___________________ _
27
42
126
236
$5 and less than $6 ___ ______ __________ _
$6 and
$7 and
$8 and
$9 and
less
less
less
less
than
than
than
than
$7 _______ _________ ___ _
$8 ___ ______ __________ _
$9 ________ _______ ____ _
$10 ____ ______________ _
$10 and less than
$11 and less than
$12 and less than
$13 and less than
$14 and less than
$1L ___________ _____ _
$12 __________ ___ ____ _
$13 ___ ___ ______ ___ ~-$14 ______ ___________ _
$15 __________ _______ _
$15
$16
$17
$18
$16-----------------$17 _________________ _
$18 _________ ________ _
$19 ______ ___________ _
and
and
and
and
less
less
less
less
than
than
than
than
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Pick
I
MiscelMacbine laneous
Hand
and
Total
stem
stem general
help
I
1,192
$5. 95
270
$8.65
8
26
42
124
235
2
1
3
2
2
3
3
13
155
33
: ========
========= =
==== ===
24
-------- ---------------33 -------- -- - - - ---- -------21 -------- --- -- ---- --------
19
24
22 - ------- ------- - - -------16 - ------- ----- ----
(i
240
166
194
592
193
7
16
38
279
46
219
146
119
125
93
119
87
24
27
21
51
24
9
9
1
4
3
42
11 -------- -------1 --- - -----
3
1 - - ------ -------- ------ ---
240
174
208
598
197
121
88
10
5
1--------
26
12
~
144
(1)
~~
Box
depart- miscellaOperate
ment
neous
wrap0th
1
Operate Inspect Tota1 - - - -- - -, ping
er
and general
help
F eed or 1Cup or mach ine
operate inspect
459
$8.55
$8.8:J
Department not
I
Old packing
machine
2, 065
$8.00
3
20
35
109
2~
9
Packing department
7
1
(1)
29
(1)
11
7
(1)
(1)
(1)
7
22
(1)
3 - - ------ --------- - ------- - ------- - ------- - -- ------ --------- -------- --- ----5 -------- ---- - ---- -- ---- - - -- - ---- - -- -- - ---- -------- --------- -------- -------- --------2 -------- ----- ---- - ------1 ----- ---- - ------- --------1
1 ---- ----2
1 ---------
8
5
================---==---=
6 --------------- --===-===
5 ======== -------3
-85
3 -------- ·· ---- ---- --------3
1
1 --------1 ----- ---- ---- ---- --------
2
3
-------- -- ------------ -- --------1
--------1--------2 ----------------- ---------------- --------2 --------
2 -------- --------- -------- --- ---- - -------- - ---- ---- ------- -- -------- ------ -- ---------
----- ---- ______ 2_ ~======= ===== ==== ======== ================= ======== =============== == ========--------1
1--------- --------1 --------------1--------- ----- -- -- --------1
- -------
18 -------- --- --- -- -------- ------ --- --------
7
6
---------1
31 ------ ------ --- ----------- -- -------- ---
31 ----------- --- ----- --------- --
1
10
5
5 ----- ---- --------
1 - --- --- - - -------- -- ---- --
2
1
1 - -------- ------- - -------- -- ------ -
1 ---------
D.-NEGRO WOMEN-NORTH CAROLINA
Total
___ ---___
- ----- ___
--- -- - --- ----_
Median
_________
_____
__________
1,821
$7. 95
1,777
$7.90
412
$8.55
1,107
$6.00
177
$8.45
81
$8.80
(1)
7
(1)
6
(1)
1 - - - 1 1 - - - - 1 - - - 1 - - --t-- - - 1 1 - - - -1 - - - 1 -- --1--
Less than$!_ ____ ______________ _____ __
$1 and less than $2 ___________________ _
$2 and less than $3 _______________ ___ __
$3 and less than $4 ___ __________ ______ _
$4 and less than $5 _____ __ ------------~
$5 and
$6 and
$7 and
$8 and
$9 and
less
less
less
less
less
than
than
than
than
than
$6 _________ ____ ______ _
$7- _________ _________ _
$8 __ ___ ____________ _
$9--- --- - -- ----- ---~ $10 _____ ______ __ _____ _
$10 and less
$11 and less
$12 and less
$13 and less
$14 and less
than
than
than
than
than
$15 and less
$16 and less
$17 and less
$18 and less
than $16 _________ ________ _
than $17 ______ __ ____ _____ _
than $18 _________ ________ _
than $19 ____ _________ ____ _
1
$IL ______ _____ _____ _
$12 ________ ___ ______ _
$13 __ _____ ______ ____ _
$14 _____________ ____ _
$15 _________________ _
Not computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
7
17
33
33
114
207
114
207
7
6
28
103
200
219
158
162
556
158
219
150
157
555
156
7
14
29
259
44
204
133
112
120
92
82
50
18
8
4
82
49
18
8
3
21
18
4
1
51
4
2
2
8
18
14
26
12
6
3
3 -------- --- ----- ------ - -2
1 --- ----- --- - -- - -2
3 - --- ---- ---- - ---3
1 -------- --- - ----1
5
9
148
4
1
17
(1)
(1)
7 ---------
(1)
4
(1)
1
19
- + - - - t - - - - - 1 - - - - t - - - - t - - - - t - - - - t - -- -
- ----- ----------- --- -- - ------
------ ------------------ - ----
-------------------------- - ------
--- ------ ------ --------------
-- - --------------------------- -- -
----------------- - ---- - ------
-------1
-------1
---- ---- - - -- ------------ -------- -
3 -------- - -------- - ------- -------· -- ------- -------- --- -- ---- - - ------ -------- --------8
3
5
7
1
28
1
16
1 ------- -1 --------- -------- ------ --
10 -------- --- ---- -- - ------- ----- -- - - ------ -- -- ------ --- - ----- -------- --- ----- -- ------5
2
1
--------- - ---- --- -------- -- ----- -- - -------
1 -------- --- - --- - -------- --------- - --- ---- -------- --- --- --- ------ -18 -------- --- ----- -------- -- - -- -- -- -------7
6
1
3
1 -------- -------- -- - - ----1 -------- - -- -- ---- --------
3 ---- - --··- -------- ---- - - --3 --- ----1 --- -- ---- ·---- --- - -------1 --- - ---10
5
5 - ---- ---- -------1
2
1
1 ------- -- - ---- --- -- -- -- --
- -------- ---- ---- -- ------ --- --- --
TABLE
XXIX.-Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in days-Cigarettes
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Women with days
worked reported
Less than 3 days
3 and less than 4
days
4 and less than 5
days
5 and less than 5½
days
5½ and less than 6
days
Week's earnings
---T-o-ta_l_____- _-_-__-___-_-__-___-_-__
- _-_-__-_-__-___-_-__-_-_-__-_-__-___-t-N-um_l_,._5:-:-;-P-e_rl-:-~-: _N_um
__
b_er_1_P_er_c_e_nt_1-_N_um_b_e_r-1-P_e_r_ce_n_t-;_N_um
__b_er _F_ee_r_ce_n_t-1-N-um_b_er-1--P-er_c_e_n_t_1_N_um_l_,:-e-t:.tO
Median ____ __________________________________________
Less than $5 __ __ ___________ ________________ ____ __ __ ___
$5 and less than $10 ____ ____ ___ __ ___ _______________ __ _
$10 and less than $15 ______ __ _______ _________________ _
$15 and less than $20 ___________ _____ _______ _________ _
$20 and less than $25 _______ _________________________ _
$25 and less than $30 ________________ ________________ _
$30 and over ______ ____ ____________________ _____ _____ __
100.0
50
$6. 20
$18. 70
29
76
245
619
517
56
1. 9
23
26
1
46.0
52.0
2.0
56
iOO.O
$10. 40
3
4. 9
19
15. 8
33
39. 9 ---------- --- ------1
33.3 ------ ---- - --------- ---------3. 6
.7
11
5.4
33. 9
58.9
1.8
----------
109
100.0
$13.65
1
7
72
26
3
100.0
277
$16. 20
. 9 ------ --- - ---------21
7. 6
6.4
32.1
66.1
89
23. 9
57.4
159
2. 9
2.8
8
$20. 20
2
3
50
433
506
56
11
.2
.3
4. 7
40.8
47. 7
5.3
1.0
B .-NEGRO WOMEN
I
TotaL ___________________ ___ ______ ___ ___ __ ____ _
Median ______________ __ ________________ _____ ___ _____ _
100.0
660
$8.45
Less than $5 ______ ______ _______ ___ __ ___ ________ ______ _
$5 and less than $10 ____ __ ____________ _______________ _
$10 and less than $15 ___ _____________________________ _
$15 and less than $20 ____________________ ____________ _
58
451
139
12
8.8
68.3
21. 1
1.8
(1)
(1)
16 ----------
7 ----------
1 -- ------ --
4 -------- - -
12 ----- - -- -30 ----------
100.0
464 1
$8. 50
4
366
93
1
.9
78. 9
20.0
.2
1261
$9.80
19
50
46
11
100.0
15. 1
39. 7
36. 5
8. 7
I-!
1
Not computed; base less than 50.
z
i:,
~
i
U).
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
XXX.-Earnings distribution and time worked, women whose time was reported in hours-Cigarettes
A.-WHITE WOMEN
Women with
hours worked
reported
Less than 44
hours
44 and less than
48 hours
48 hours
Over 48 and
less than 52
hours
52 and less than 56 and less than
56 hours
60 hours
60 hours and
over
Week's earnings
Num•
ber
Per
cent
Total .... ---- ··· - - - --- ·--- -··------ - Median .. _.·----··-·----- ·-· - __________ ·· -_
2,013
100. 0
$15. 65
Less than $5 ••••• ·-··---- ---·-------------$5 and less than $10·-·· ---------·-· - - - ·---$10 and less than $15 ••• · ·-·-- · --- - - - - -----$15 and less than $20. -· -- -------------- - - -$20 and less than $25 _____ _________________ _
$25 and less than $30 ____ __________________ _
$30 and over. ___ ___ ________________ ________
72
111
747
1,004
73
2
4
3. 6
5. 5
37.1
49. 9
3. 6
.1
•2
Num•
ber
Per
cent
Num•
ber
P er
cent
312
100. 0
$9. 20
2'1:l
100. 0
$12. 55
72
105
108
'l:l
5
197
23.1
33. 7
34. 6
8. 7
24
1
2. 2
86. 8
10. 6
.4
Num•
ber
P er
cent
21
(1)
(1)
Num•
ber
1,138
100. 0
$17. 30
1
289
799
43
13
7
1
Per
cent
2
4
Num•
ber
P er
cent
231
100. 0
$15.10
Num•
ber
Per
cent
73
100. 0
$15. 70
Num•
ber
Per
cent
11
(1)
(1)
.1 - ------- --- ----- -------- ------ -- ----l..--- -------25. 4
113
48. 9
'l:l
37. 0 --- - ---- -------109
47. 2
31
42. 5
7
(1)
70. 2
9
3.9
15
20.5
4
(1)
3.8
.2
.4
B.-NEGRO WOMEN
I
Total ________ --- -- - -- ---- -- --- - -- - - -Median _______ --· ___ ·- ____________________ _
7991 100. 0
$8. 55
200
100. 0
$7.85
4291 100. 0
$8.55
131
(1)
(1)
Less than $5 • • ___ _______ ______ ___ ____ _____ _
$5 and less than $10 ____ _______ __ _____ ___ ___
$10 and less than $15 ___ __________________ __
$15 and less than $20 _____ _____ ___ ____ __ ____
43
642
99
15
43
152
11
399
30
11
(1)
(1)
1 Not
computed; base less than 50.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
5.4
80.4
12. 4
1. 9
20. 9
73.8
5. 3
93. 0
7.0
2
991 100. 0
$8.65
78
8
13
78.8
8. 1
13.1
391
(1)
(1)
1
36
(1)
(1)
(1)
2
12
I
(1)
12
(1)
1
I
(l)
(1)
. TABLE
XXXI.-Week's earnings and age of women who supplied personal information-Cigar,ttes
t,-l
"
00
A.-WBITE WOMEN
W omen whose earnings and age were r eported
Under 18
years
All women
Week's earnings
Number
- - - - - - -- - -- - - - - -1- - - -
Per
cent
Number
Per
cent
18 and under
20 years
20 and under 25 and under 30 and under 40 and under
25 years
30 years
40 years
50 years
50 and under
60 years
60 years and
over
Number
Numb er
Number
N umber
Per
cent
Per
cent
N umber
Per
cent
Num-1 Per
ber
cent
Number
Per
cent
Per
cent
Per
cent
- -1--- 1-- - 1 - - -~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Total ___ ---- - ----- - -- - -------- - -- - - --- 1,819 100. 0
112 100. 0
192 100. 0
581 100. 0
353 100. 0
365 100. 0
137 100. 0
55 100. 0
24
(1)
Median __ ___ _______ _______ ________ ________ __ 1_ _:::.
$.:..:
17,.:....8.:.5::..,.....,,....:,__
· . ::.$.:. :1::...·3:..:5:...__-',-:..,__$::.:1:.:;
6.:. .:3..::.5_.....!,__...:::$.:..:18:.:... .:..:40:___:__..::.$1:..:8.:..:
. 5:..:0:...___:__.:::.:
$1:..:.:...:.50:_::____:__ ___..::.$1::.8.:..:.
,:: 1:..:0_ _:__..::.$1:..:5.:..:
. 95::..:.....__:.._ _(:.,.:)'---_
Less than $5_____ __________ __ _______ ___ __ __ __
24
1. 3
5
4. 5
4
2. 1
6
1. 0
4
1.1
4
1.1
1
. 7 ___ __ ____ _____ ______ _ ___ ___ _
$5andlessthan$10 _____ ___ ____ __ ____ _______
52
2. 9
4
3.G
6
3.1
18
3.1
10
2. 8
7
1.9
5
3.6 __ ___ ______ ___
2
$10 and less than $15_______ __ ____ ____________
367
20. 2
58
51. 8
58
30. 2
101
17. 4
41
11. 6
62
17. 0
21
15. 3
20
36. 4
6 ---- --$15 and less than $20_ __ __ ___ ______ ______ ____
8{2
46. 3
36
32. 1
94
49. 0
261
44. 9
196
55. 5
171
46. 8
54
39. 4
19
34. 5
11 -- ----$20 and less than $25_ ____ ____ _______ ___ _____
477
26. 2
9
8. 0
26
13. 5
169
29. 1
95
26. 9
106
29. 0
54
39. 4
13
23. 6
5 __ ___ __
$25 and less than $30---------------------- --45
2. 5 ____ ___ _______
3
1. 6
20
3. 4
7
2. 0
12
3. 3
2
1. 5
1
1. 8 _____ __ ---- --$30 and ov er________ ___ ____ ___ _________ ____ __
12
• 7 _____ __ __ _____
1
.5
6
1. 0 _______ ____ ___
3
. 8 ____ ___ ______ _
2
3. 6 _______ ---- - -B.-NEGRO WOMEN
I
I( I
I
I
I
I
I
I( I
I
1)
1)
TotaL____ ______ ______ ____ __ __ ____ ____
185 1 100. o
2
13
(1)
471 (1)
35 1 (1)
451 (1)
21
81 (1)
81 (1)
Median ____ ____ __ __ __ _____ ___ ________ ------- 1--- $8
'---. 4---'5---'-_ _. :. . (l'---)_ ____.:_ _. :. (l..:. . )_ _;....__....:(....:1)_ _--'--_ __..:..,_(1)'--------'----'-(1..:..)_ _.:,___....:(c...:
')_ _...;___ __..:..,_(1'---)-----'-----'-(1,-c..)_ _
Less than $5___________ __ ________ ____________
fioa~gJf~st~~~n$~k == ============= ========
1
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
22111. 9 1---- - --1- - - -- - -1
/~g gg
---- -2· =======
Not computed; b ase less than 50.
1 1-- --- - -1
i
=======
1 1-------1
fi
=======
51- - ---- - 1
2
~ =======
81 - - - ----1
2
i =======
31 ---- -- - 1
1
~ =======
' No woman earned as much as $13.
2 1- -- - ---1
~
21-- - -- - -
=======-----~- =======
APPENDIX B.-SCHEDULE FORMS
SCHEDULE I
[Used for home interviews with former cigar and cigarette employees deprived of their jobs by changes in
the industry]
,
[Front]
Present fl.rm ______ --------------------------- - ------ Address ______ ________ ________ · ___ _____ _______ ____ __
Name __ --- _--- ______ ____ ___ ________ __ ______________ Address ________ ________ ___ __ __________ _____ ________
Age of beginning work in cigar or cigarette industry---------- - --- ------- --- - ------ -- -- --- - ---- ---- --- -- __
OCCUPATIONAL HISTORY
Industry
Occupation
Timeempl.
Reason left
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
UNEMPLOYMENT
Previous
industry
(see above)
Date begun
Cause
Duration
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Explanatory comments:
[Back]
If unemployed, describe present economic status:
--x.--Comparisoii°bet~eenjol:is-~ -cigar [or cigarettefaiid other industries: (1) Wages, (2) hours, (3) regularity, (4) other conditions.
B. Comments on changes and effects of changes in cigar [or cigarette] industry on: (1) Unemployment
and irregularity of work, (2) change in equipment or stock or style, (3) wages, (4) personnel of workers, (5)
other.
Agent_
__ _______
--- --- - - -- -- --- ---- - --_-_
Date
______________
_____ ________
______ -_____________
_____
______
179
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
180
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
SCHEDULE Il
[Used for interviews with employers as to changes and their effects, policies, etc.]
Firm name_______ ____ ____________ _________________ _ Address ___________________________________________ _
Person interviewed_________________________________ Position ___ _____ _______ __ ________________ __________ _
I. Numbers employed
Women
Men
Whit e
Negro
Total
White
Negro
'.rotal
D ay ________________
____________ ___________
-- ----- - -- ---------- ---------- --- ------- ---------- ----------_
Night_
__ ________________________
__ ___________________________________________________________________
TotaL __ ---------------------------- ________________________________________ ---------- ---------What fluctuations in numbers employed during year?
II. Hours of work:
D aily : Begin _________ End __________ Lunch _______ Rest_ _______ _ T otal-Daily ____ __________ _
Sat.: Begin _______ ___ End__________ Lunch _______ ResL _------SaL --------- ------Wkly _____________ __
What irregularity in hours during year?
Night
If night shift ever run, are men and women employed on same operations as day
___ ___ ________
__ ____ If not, why? __ ___ __ _____ ___________ ___________________ __ _____ ______ __
shift?work:
Number of men
Number of women
III. Occupations (specify)
White
N egro
White
Negro
L -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - -- - - . - --- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - 2- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- -- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - .. - - 3 _________ --- - - -- -- ---- - -- - - -- -- - ------ - ----- - -- --- - - - - --- ---- - - ---- ---- -- - -- - ---- -- - -------- - - - -- -- - - - -
[to 14 or 15 lines]
·
Comments on occupational distribution by sex _________________ ___ ________________ ______________ _
IV. Changes:
1. How long has firm been established in present location? ____ ____________ ___ _____ __ ______ __________ _
2. If there has been a change in ownership, were changes in method of manufacture installed by form er
owners?____ ___ _____________ Specify:
3. If made
present
owners
removed
t o new____
location
with
changes
in method,____
why
move
to new
location?
___________
_______coincident
_______ ___ __
__ ______
________________
__·was
____ __
___ _
4. Describe changes made by present firm and give approximate dates of changes: a. Enlargement or
plant, b. equipment, c. type of product, d. method of manufacturing _________________ __ ____ _____
V. Effects of changes (enlargement; equipment; type of product ; method of operation. Give dates):
1. Effect on personnel; sex; age; race; experience.
2. Effect on numbers of men and women.
3. Effect on quantity production.
4. Effect on method of pay or wages.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
181
APPENDIXES
VI. Various plant policies:
1. Length of training for skill, hand and machine.
2. Personnel of plant: What was firm's policy in regard to retaining of old employees when changes
were made in method of operation or change in equipment?
3. Compare present with former employment policy:
a. Type and source of labor supply.
b. Experience vs. plant training.
c. Race.
d. Age.
e. Education.
·
._
f. Marital status.
VII. Industrial relations: 1. Employment methods; 2. Number and responsibilities of foreladies; 3. Shop
committee; 4. Safety committee; 5. Marked welfare activities; 6. Vacations; 7. Insurance.
Agent_ __________________________________________ _
Date ______________________________________ ______ _
SCHEDULE Ill
[Used for recording week's pay-roll data, one card for each woman.
from schedule V]
Establishment
J
Employee's No.
Certain information is added later
Department
J
Name
Male
Occupation
R ate of
Pay
J
Female /
Age
Conjugal condition
Address
I{
s
Piece
Hour
I$
Day
I
M
Iw I
I $ Week I: month I $ Month i $
D
I NR
Additions
$0.
D ays
worked
Regular
weekly
hours
Country of birth
At home
Earnings
Overtime Undertime
hours
hours
Hours
worked
this period
Deductions
Th!sperlodl Computed
$
for regular
time
Began work
Age
Time at wo,k
I
$
$
In this t,ooo
This ftcm
Boarding
SCHEDULE IV
[Used for recording year's earnings of a group of employees a year or more with the firm and working in at
least 44 weeks of the 52]
No. ______ Name ____ -------------------------- Dept. ______ - -------------- -- -- -- --- - -- ---- -- --- - --- Occ. __ ____ -------- -- - --- -- -- -- --- --- -- -- -- --- - --- - -Date
Wage
Date
---------
I
Wage
Date
-- -------- ___ ___
-
---------
Wage
---- ------ -- -- --
II
Date
Wage
-------- --- -- ----- -- --- -
[Columns of 13 lines.]
Total amount, weeks worked, average per week, etc. ______________________ _______________ _____ _____ -----Firm __________________ ____ ___ -·· ___ __ _____ ___________ City ________________________________________ ---- -- -Agent_ ____________________________ ----- - --- - ------ -Date ______________________ __________ ____________ _ __
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
182
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
SCHEDULE V
[Distributed in factories to be filled in by women employees. Certain information is later transferred to
Schedule III]
Firm _______________________ _-- --- - --- -- --- -- -- --- --City ___ _______ ________ ______ ____ _________________ __ _
Name ___ -- -- -- --- ---- - -- ---- - -------- - ---- - - ____ __ ____ ________ _________ ___ __ ________ No. ____ ______ ___ _
Address ________ ________________________________________ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ________________ __ ______________ __ _
Age_______________ ______ _______________ Country of birth _____________________________________________ __
Single, married, widowed, or separated ___ __ _________ ___________ ___ ____ ___ -- --------------------------- -- How long have you worked in cigar or cigarette factories? __ --------- - ------------- - ------------------- -- What is your job in this factory?---------- -- ---------- - -------------------------------------------------Have you ever done any ot her kind of work in cigar or cigaret te fact ories? ____ ___ ___ ____ ____ ____________ __
What other kinds of work h ave you done besides work in cigar or cigarette factories? ____________________ _
Have you beenJ aid off from work at all during the1past few years?-- --- ~---- ---- - -- --- ----------- ------- -
SCHEDULE VI
[Used for recording numbers of employees in factory, scheduled hours, working conditions, etc.]
Firm name___ _________________ ___ _________ ____ __ ______ _ Address ______________________________ ________ __
Product_ ______________ ___________ ____ Brands __---- ---- ---------- -- ___ ___ _________ ____________________ _
Person interviewed ___________ ___________________________________ P osition _________ ____ ________________ _
Description of building______ _______ _____ ____ __ ___ ___ __ __ ___ _____ _____ ____ ___ _________ ___________________ _
Stairways:
Mat. Wind'g Light 0. K. Handrail N ar. Stp. Rpr.
Location
Notes
Employees allowed to use elevators:
Workrooms:
Rooms
Workroom
Code
-
-
Appr.
Floor no. of
empl.
Floors
Aisles
Mat. Rpr. Cln.
Obstr. N ar.
- 1- - - 1 -- - - 1 1 1- - - - - - - --
Natural ventilation
Source
InuseAdeq. ~fr.
- --111 - - - - - --1-- - l - -
Artificial ventilation: Kind, location, adqcy., use ______ __ __ ____ __________ _________ ____ ___ ___ ___ ___ ______ _
Natural light: Source ___________ --=- ___________________ __________________ ________ ________ _______________ _
Adqcy., shades, glare ________________________________________________________ -=-=-_--= -- ____________ -_
Artificial light: Kind, genl. and indiv ------------------------------------------------------=--- ---------Adqcy., shades, glare ______ __ __________________ ____________ _______________________ _________ --=-_ : ____ _
Cleaning (by whom and frequency): Sweep ______ _________ ___ Scrub-- -------- ---- ------- =- ------ --- --- Notes __ _____________________ ________ ___________ __ _______ __________________ ____ __________________ - _____ _
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
183
APPENDIXES
Seating:
Occupations
Seats
Foot rests
Appr. 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - no. of
women
. N
No.
Kind provided
AdJ.
Kind provided
one adeq.
- - - - --------1---1---
Sit_ ________________ _ -------------------------- ---------------------
[9 or___________
10 lines.] ______ ________________________ ____________________ _
Stand
Sit or stand __ __ _______________ ___ ____________________ ___ __ _________ _
Notes ____ __ __ _______ ___________ · ___ ___ ______ ___ ____ _______________ ___ __ _____________________ _____ ____ __
Heating_______ _____ ________ ___ _____ ________ _____ ____ ____ __ ________________ Temperature __ ____ ______ ___ _
Washing facilities
Towels
Drinking facil.
Fir. Kind No." Adeq.
o::r
Cln.
w1!i!r Soap
Individual
Fur.
Common
f..-----1-----
Kind Freq. No.
Freq,
- - - - - - --11---t-- - 1 - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - l - - - l - - 1 - - - 1 - - - - -- - - -
Public __________ ___ - _
Conven ____________ _
Bblr. san __________ _
Bblr. insan _________ _
Cooled __ __ _________ _
Tank ___ ____ ____ ____ _
Cooler _____ ________ _
Faucet_ _______ _____ _ -- ---- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ - ----- -- ·--Other __ ______ ___ ___ _
Cup indiv __________ _
Cup com __ _________ _
------ ------ _. ---- ------ ------
Notes __- - - -- --- -- - -- - -- -- -- -- -- --- --- -- -- -- - - --- - -- -- -- -- -- - - -- -- -- --- - --- - --- -- - --- -- -- - - -- -- -- - - -- - -Toilets: Kind ____________ Paper_ _________ Instrtns _____________ __ ______ Cleaning done bySeat in rpr _________ __ Clean __________ Hand flush _________ _ Seat flush ____ _ Sweep'g ___ ___ Freq. _____ __ __
Plbg. in rpr _________ _ Clean __________ Auto. flush __________ Freq ___________ Scrub'g ______ Freq. ____ ___ __
Ventilation
Number using
Fl.
Women
Wkrs. 0th. Men
PNt
No. No. S t R
Fir. Room
of per . eal d ~m Scro. non- ceilseats seat me . es1g.
absb. ed
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
~~~- Artif.
Light
~!~-~~~- Artif.
.§~
S
~0
184
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARE'l'TE INDUSTRIES
Service facilities:
Lunch
Fl. gi~~d Cln. ;\rtif. Out.
light wnd.
with-
~~ttr
into
S~per- Oaf~ Tab. Seats fHooodt
vised
dHr1·ontks
Cooking conveniences
- --1- -1--- --1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --1 -- - - - -
Lckrs. Shlvs. Racks
Cloak
- - - - - - - - - - -- - ~- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - ----.--- --
----
------ -
iY:;.1~ e a t s
---
---- - ---- --- ------ -- ----- ------- -- ---- ----- -- - - -- - -- -- -- --- ------ --- - ----- -- -- - -
by firm__ _______ _ Kind ________ __ Supplied by firm __ --- --- ---- ---------- ----------Uniforms: Req.
Laundered by firm ____ ___ ___ Free ___ ______ _ Cost to girl. ______ ___ ____ _____ ___ _____________________ _
Health service: Hosp, ____ __ First aid _____ _ Chg. of doctor full time __ ____ Doctor part time __ _________ _
Other ___ ___ No one resp, __ ____ Med. exam, ______ ____ _______________ ______ _______ __ ________ ______ _____ _
Special notes __ ____ __ _____ ____ ___ ____ __ ___ ____________ ____ _________ ________ __ ____ __ ______ __ __ _______ ___ _
Summary _____ ______ __ ____ ____ _____ ________ ____ ____ __ _____ ______ _______ ___ __ ______ _________ __________ __
Agent __________ _____________ _____ ___ __ ______ ________
Date _______ ________________________________________ .
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PUBLICATIONS OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU
[Any of these bulletins still available will be sent free of charge upon request]
*No. 1. Proposed Employment of Women During the War in the Industries of
Niagara Falls, N. Y. 16 pp. 1918.
*No. 2. Labor Laws for Women in Industry in Indiana. 29 pp. 1919.
No. 3. Standards for the Employment of Women in Industry. 8 pp. Fourth
ed., 1928.
No. 4. Wages of Candy Makers in Philadelphia in 1919. 46 pp. 1919.
*No. 5. The Eight-Hour Day in Federal and State Legislation. 19 pp. 1919.
No. 6. The Employment of Women in Hazardous Industries in the Uniterl
States. 8 pp. 1921.
No. 7. Night-Work Laws in the United States. (1919.) 4 pp. 1920.
*No. 8. Women in the Government Service. 37 pp. 1920.
*No. 9. Home Work in Bridgeport, Conn. 35 pp. 1920.
*N o. 10. Hours and Conditions of Work for Women in Industry in Virginia. 32
pp. 1920.
No. 11. Women Street Car Conductors and Ticket Agents. 90 pp. 1921.
*No. 12. The New Position of Women in American Industry. 158 pp. 1920.
*No. 13. Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls. 48 pp.
1921.
*No. 14. A Physiological Basis for the Shorter Working Day for Women. 20
pp. 1921.
No. 15. Some Effects of Legislation Limiting Hours of Work for Women. 26 pp.
1921.
No. 16. (See Bulletin 98.)
No. 17. Women's Wages in Kansas. 104 pp. 1921.
No. 18. Health Problems of Women in Industry. 6 pp. Revised, 1931.
No. 19. Iowa Women in Industry. 73 pp. 1922.
*No. 20. Negro Women in Industry. 65 pp. 1922.
No. 21. Women in Rhode Island Industries. 73 pp. 1922.
*No. 22. Women in Georgia Industries. 89 pp. 1922.
No. 23. The Family Status of Breadwinning Women. 43 pp. 1922.
No. 24. Women in Maryland Industries. 96 pp. 1922.
No. 25. Women in the Candy Industry in Chicago and St. Louis. 72 pp. 1923.
No. 26. Women in Arkansas Industries. 86 pp. 1923.
No. 27. The Occupational Progress of Women. 37 pp. 1922.
No. 28. Women's Contributions in the Field of Invention. 51 pp. 1923.
No. 29. Women in Kentucky Industries. 114 pp. 1923.
No. 30. The Share of Wage-Earning Women in Family Support. 170 pp. 1923.
No. 31. What Industry Means to Women Workers. 10 pp. 1923.
No. 32. Women in South Carolina Industries. 128 pp. 1923.
No. 33. Proceedings of the Women 's Industrial Conference. 190 DD. 1923.
No. 34. Women in Alabama Industries. 86 pp. 1924.
No. 35. Women in Missouri Industries. 127 pp. 1924.
No. 36. Radio Talks on Women in Industry. 34 pp. 1924.
No. 37. Women in New Jersey Industries. 99 pp. 1924.
No. 38. Married Women in Industry. 8 pp. 1924.
No. 39. Domestic Workers and Their Employment Relations. 87 pp. 1924.
No. 40. (See Bulletin 98.)
No. 41. Family Status of Breadwinning Women in F our Selected Cities. 145
pp. 1925.
No. 42. List of References on Minimum Wage for Women in the United Stat es
and Canada. 42 pp. 1925.
No. 43. Standard and Scheduled Hours of Work for Women in Industry. 68
pp. 1925.
No. 44. Women in Ohio Industries. 137 pp. 1925.
No. 45. Home Environment and Employment Opportunities of Women in CoalMine Wor~ers' Families. 61 pp. 1925.
• Supply exhausted.
126898°-32--13
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
185
186
WOMEN IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE INDUSTRIES
No. 46. Facts About Working Women-A Graphic Presentation Based on Census Statistics. 64 pp. 1925.
No. 47. Women in the Fruit-Growing and Canning Industries in the State of
Washington. 223 pp. 1926.
*No. 48. Women in Oklahoma Industries. 118 pp. 1926.
No. 49. Women Workets and Family Support. 10 pp. 1925.
No. 50. Effects'' of Applied Research upon the Employment Opportunities of
American Women. 54 pp. 1926. ,
,. Np. 51. Women in Illinois Industries. 108 pp. 1926.
;'No: 52. Lost Time and Labor Turnover in Cotton Mills. 203 pp. 1926.
No. 53. The Status of Women in the Government Service in 1925. 103 pp. 1926.
N:o. 54. Chb.nging,Jobs. 12 pp. 1926.
'· 'No. 55. ·Women -iri Mississippi Industries. 89 pp. 1926.
No. 56. Wom~n in Tennessee Industries. 120 pp. 1927.
No. 57. Women Workers and Industrial Poisons. 5 pp. 1926.
, No. 58. Wo~en in pelaware Industries. 156 pp. 1927.
·No. 59. Short Talks About Working Wdmen. 24 pp. 1927.
No. 60. Industril:l,l, Accidents to Wo:men in New Jersey, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
316 pp. ' 1927.
No. 61. The Development of Minimum-Wage Laws in the United States, 1912
to 1927. 635 pp. 1928.
·}fo. 62·. Women's Employment in Vegetable Canneries in Delaware. 47 pp .
. 1927.
.
.
.
No. 63. (See Bi,Illetin 98.)
N:o. 64. The Empioyrnerit of Women at Night. 86 pp. 1928.
*No: 65. The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Opportunities of
Women. 498 pp. 1928.
.
~:No; 66-,:-L History of Labor Legislation for Women in Three States. 136 pp. 1932.
No. ,66-IL Chronological Development of Labor Legislation for Women in the
,: ' ,,
· . United States. Revised, December, 1931. 176 pp. 1932.
·
No. 67. Women Workers in Flint, Mich. 80 pp. · 1929.
No. 68. Summary: The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Opportunities of Women. (Reprint of Chapter II of Bulletin 65.) 22
~pp. 1928.
No. 69. Causes of Absence for Men and for ·Women in Four Cotton Mills. 24
pp. 1929.
No. 70. Negro Women in Industry-in 15 States. 74 pp. 1929.
No. 71. Select~d References on the Health of Women in Industry. 8 pp. 1929.
No. 72. Conditions of Work in Spin Rooms. 41 pp. 1929.
No. 73. Variations in Employment Trends of Women and Men. 143 pp. 1930.
··No. 74. The Immigrant Woman and Her Job. 179 pp. 1930.
No. 75. What the Wage-Earning Woman Contributes to Family Support. 21
pp. 1929.
No. 76. Women in 5-and-10-cent Stores and Limited-Price Chain Department
Stores. 58 pp. 1930.
.
· No. 77. A ·Study of Two Groups of Denver Married Women Applying for Jobs.
11 'pp'. 1929.
·
No. 78. A Survey of Laundries and Their Women Workers in 23 Cities. 166 pp.
1930.
No. 79. Industrial Home Work. 20 pp. 1930.
No. 80. Women in Florida Industries. 115 pp. 1930.
No. 81. Industrial Accidents to Men and Women. 48 pp. 1930.
No. 82. The Employment of Women in the Pineapple Canneries of Hawaii. 30
pp . . 1930.
No. 83. Fluctuation of Employment in the Radio Industry. 66 pp. 1931.
. No. 84. Fact Finding with the Women's Bureau. 37 pp. 1931.
· }{o. 85. Wages of Women in 13 States. 213 pp. 1931.
No. 86. Activities of the Women's Bureau of the United States. 15 pp. 1931.
No. 87. Sanitary Drinking Facilities, with Special Reference to Drinking Fountains . . 28 pp. 1931.
·· No. 88. The Employment of Women in Slaughtering and Meat Packing. 210
pp. 1932.
_:~o. 89 . . The lndµstrial Experience of Women Workers at the Summer Schools,
' 1928' to 1930. 62 pp. 1931.
No. 90. Oregon Legislation for Women in Industry. 40 pp. 1931.
•supply exhausted.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
APPENDIXES
187
No. 91. Women in Industry. A Series of Papers to Aid St udy Groups. 79 pp.
1931.
No. 92. Wage-Earning Women and the Industrial Depression of 1930-A Survey of South Bend. 84 pp. 1932.
No. 93. Household Employment in Philadelphia. 88 pp. 1932.
No. 94. State Requirements for Industrial Lighting. A H a ndbook for the Protection of Women Workers, Showing Lighting Standards and Practices. 65 pp. 1932.
No. 95. Bookkeepers, Stenographers, and Office Clerks in Ohio, 1914 to 1929.
34 pp. 1932.
'
No. 96. Women Office Workers in Philadelphia. 17 pp. 1932.
No. 97. The Employment of Women in the Sewing Trades of Connecticut-Preliminary Report. 13 pp. 1932.
No. 98. Labor Laws for Women in the States and Territories. (Revision of Bulletin 63.) 71 pp. 1932.
No. 99. Installation and Maintenance of Toilet Facilities in Places of Employment.
No. 100. The Effects on Women of Changing Conditions in the Cigar and Cigarette Industries. 187 pp. 1932.
No. 101. The Employment of Women in Vitreous Enameling. 64 pp. 1932.
Pamphlet-Women's Place in Industry in 10 Southern States. 14 pp. 1931.
Annual Reports of the Director, 1919*, 1920*, 1921 *, 1922, 1923, 1924*, 1925,
1926, 1927*, 1928*, 1929*, 1930*, 1931, 1932.
• Supply exhausted.
0
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
/
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
@FedFRASER