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UNITED STATES DEPARTM ENT OF LABO R Frances Perkins, Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Isador Lubin, Commissioner (on leave) A . F. Hinrichs, Acting Commissioner Earnings and Hours in M en’s Cotton-Garm ent Industries and in Plants M anufacturing Single Pants O ther Than Cotton, 1939 and 1941 Prepared by the DIVISION OF W AGE ANALYSIS Robert J. M yers, Chief B ulletin 7\[o. 719 (Reprinted from the M onthly Labor R eview , August 1942, w ith additional data) UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1942 For sale by the Superintendent o f Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 10 cents CONTENTS Part I Page E a r n in g s a n d H o u r s in t h e M e n ’ s C o t t o n - G a r m e n t I n d u s t r ie s , 1939 AND 1941 Characteristics of industry group: Definition of industries___________________________________________________ Size and location of industries___________________________________________ Economic organization___________________________________________________ Scope and method of survey---------------------------------------------------------------------------Hourly earnings of wage earners: Trend of earnings, 19 37-42______________________________________________ Wage structure in March 1941----------------------------------------------------------------Changes in earnings of wage earners, February-March 1939 to March 1941_____________________________________________________________________ Weekly hours and earnings of wage earners: Average weekly hours____________________________________________________ Average weekly earnings_________________________________________________ Earnings and hours of clerical workers, 1941------------------------------------------------- 1 1 2 5 7 8 15 19 19 20 P a r t II E a r n i n g s a n d H o u r s i n P l a n t s M a n u f a c t u r i n g S in g l e P a n t s O t h e r T h a n C o t t o n , 1939 a n d 1941 Average hourly earnings: Wage structure in March 1941__________________________________________ Changes in earnings, February-March 1939 to March 1941___________ Weekly hours and earnings: Average weekly hours-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Average weekly earnings--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22 24 25 25 LETTER OF TRAN SM ITTAL U n it ed S ta tes D epar tm en t of L ab o r , B u r e a u of L abor S tatist ic s , Washington, D. C.y September 8y 191$. The S ecr e tar y of L a b o r : I have the honor to transmit herewith a report covering a study made of earnings and hours in the men’s cotton-garment industries and in plants manufacturing single pants other than cotton, 1939 and 1941. This study was requested by the Administrator of the Wage and Hour Division. The field survey and preparation of the report were under the direction of Robert J. Myers, Chief of the Division of Wage Analysis, and under the immediate supervision of Frances M . Jones. The report was prepared by Lily Mary David, with the assistance of Dorothy S. Stone. A. F . H in r ich s , Acting Commissioner. Hon. F ran ces P e r k in s , Secretary of Labor. n B ulletin 7s[o. 719 o f the U n ited States Bureau o f Labor Statistics [Reprinted from the M onthly L abor R e v ie w , August 1942, with additional datai PARTI E A R N I N G S A N D H O U R S IN M E N ’ S C O T T O N G A R M E N T I N D U S T R I E S , 1939 A N D 1941 Characteristics o f Industry Group DEFINITION OF INDUSTRIES Shirts and work clothing are the principal products of the men’s cotton-garment industries. This report covers establish ments whose major products are dress and sport shirts of woven or purchased knit fabric; collars and sleeping wear of woven fabric; men’s and boys’ all-cotton single pants; and professional coats, aprons and other washable service apparel, work shirts, overalls, overall jackets, and coveralls of any material. Establishments manufacturing these products may be grouped into three industries: (1) dress and sport shirts, collars, and nightwear; (2) cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts; and (3) washable service apparel. Establishments engaged primarily in manufacturing underwear, wash suits, heavy cotton jackets, or oiled cotton garments are omitted, since the study described here was made at the request of the Admin istrator of the Fair Labor Standards Act in connection with a pro posed minimum-wage order that did not include these products. Moreover, at the time of the survey these articles, with the exception of underwear, were subject to a minimum wage 7.5 cents above that in effect for most of the products of the men’s cotton-garment industries. SIZE AND LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES Between 1,400 and 1,500 establishments were engaged principally in the manufacture of men’s dress shirts and nightwear, cotton pants, overalls, work shirts, and washable service apparel in 1939. At that time these establishments employed about 145,000 wage earners, or a fifth of the workers manufacturing all types of cut and sewed gar ments. The total value of these cotton garments manufactured in 1939 amounted to about $375,000,000. This value includes all such products wherever produced, but excludes receipts for contract work and other products manufactured in cotton-garment establishments. Almost half of the wage earners employed in the three industries in 1939 were engaged in the manufacture of cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts; a corresponding proportion were in shirt and nightwear, and only about 2 percent in washable-service-apparel, establishments. 1 2 EARNINGS AND HOURS, 1939 AND 1941 The most important single product was dress shirts, accounting for between 35 and 40 percent of the total value of products within the scope of this survey. The manufacture of men’s cotton garments is widely scattered throughout the country, with a substantial proportion of the industries in the South and in small towns and villages. Other apparel industries demand closer contact with fashion centers or require the higher skills found in the larger labor markets. In contrast, the standardized nature and simpler construction of their product permit cotton-gar ment establishments to utilize the cheap factory space and the lowwage and relatively unskilled labor of smaller cities and agricultural and mining towns in both northern and southern States. At least 40 States now manufacture men’s cotton garments, and only one State, Pennsylvania, had over 10 percent of the wage earners in the combined industries in 1939. More than three-fifths of the wage earners are in the northern region, which includes the Northeast, Middle West, and West. Practically the entire washable-serviceapparel industry and about three-fourths of the wage earners in the shirt and nightwear industry are in this region, principally in the Northeast. Considerable proportions of cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts are manufactured in the Middle West, and a few large work-clothing factories are in the Mountain and Pacific States. The South is the major producer of work clothing, having between 50 and 55 percent of the wage earners in establishments whose principal products are cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts, including almost three-fourths of the workers in the manufacture of work shirts. With the exception of washable service apparel, all products of these industries are manufactured principally outside large metro politan areas. A survey made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1939, which covered about half of the workers in these industries, indicated that between one-fifth and one-sixth of the workers were in communities with a population of less than 5,000 and about two-fifths were in communities with a population of less than 25,000. Plants employing only one-sixth of the labor in the industries were in metro politan areas of 1,000,000 or more. Three-fifths of the employees in work-shirt establishments were in communities of less than 25,000 in 1939. In contrast, the washable-service-apparel industry, which pro duces industrial uniforms and service clothing for professional offices, institutions, and businesses, had about four-fifths of its employees in large cities. ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION Although a large majority of the establishments in the cottongarment industries are small, about three-fourths of the industries’ wage earners are employed in plants with 100 or more workers, and some establishments employ more than 1,000 persons. The average employment per plant was about 100 in 1939, contrasted with an average of between 40 and 45 wage earners in all establishments manu facturing cut and sewed garments. Southern cotton-garment estab lishments are generally larger than northern plants. Standardization of the product and emphasis on price rather than on careful workman ship permit cotton-garment plants to obtain such advantages of largescale production as are possible in the manufacture of apparel. These advantages are distinctly limited, however, and the cotton m e n ’s 3 COTTON-GARMENT INDUSTRIES garment industries are like other clothing industries in the ease with which new plants can be established. These facts, together with consumer price consciousness, make the manufacture of all types of men’s cotton garments highly competitive. Brand names limit com petition to some extent in the manufacture of dress shirts; in the sale of overalls also, competition is somewhat limited by brand names and the use o f the union label. The practice of contracting, with some or all manufacturing opera tions being performed in plants owned by a contractor who does not take title to the goods, is found to a limited extent in all of the cottongarment industries. On the whole, however, despite the highly com petitive nature of the industries, contracting is much less important here than in the manufacture of men’s tailored clothing and women’s coats and dresses. Industrial home work is practically nonexistent. Contracting is most extensive in the manufacture of dress shirts and nightwear, where, according to the 1939 census, about one-fifth of the workers are employed in contract shops. Census data do not indicate the extent of contracting in the other industries discussed here, but on the basis of information collected during a survey made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1939 it is believed that perhaps 5 percent of the employees in the manufacture of cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts are employed in contract shops, and that the amount of contract work in the washable service apparel industry is negligible. Production System s In the factory production of all types of garments, the cutting, stitching, and finishing operations are carried on by different groups of specialized workers, and there is more or less division of work even within each of these operations. Greater division of labor is practi cable in the quantity production of cotton garments than in most other branches of the clothing industry. This specialization is found principally in the stitching operations, which occupy the attention of a large proportion of the working force. Because of this division of labor, organization of the flow of work to reduce handling becomes an important method of reducing costs. Stitching departments of cotton-garment establishments may be organized under the bundle, the straight line, or the progressive bundle system, or a combination of these systems. Under the bundle system each sewing machine operator performs one or a few operations on a bundle of identical parts, then turns the bundle in to a central point to be given out for performance of the next operations. Under the line system the garment parts progress directly and singly from one operation to the next instead of returning in bundles to a central point between operations; s u c h organization reduces handling and is con ducive to greater specialization than is the bundle system. In the progressive bundle system, rpachines are arranged so that work progresses through the shop directly ?ne operation to the next w * parts move m bundles rather than as individual The bundle system has long been the standard in the factory pro duction of cotton ganxients. However, the line system, which was introduced in 1932 is now used extensively; there was a substantial and continued expansion in its use between the early months of 1939 the^Cott^Gament^ntohT/^OTeau^LaK 6«2? 193a?*’ Pro“ * * 4 EARNINGS AND HOURS, 1939 AND 1941 and 1941. Of the sewing-machine operators who could be classified by type of system in the 1941 survey, 50 percent were employed in stitching departments organized under the bundle system, 35 percent under the line system, and 15 percent under the progressive bundle system. In the South, with its larger and newer factories, the line system was more extensively used than the bundle system in 1941. In this region half of the stitchers worked on the line and one-third on the bundle system. In the North, three-fifths of the stitchers were em ployed on the bundle system and one-fourth on the line system. The progressive bundle method of organizing stitching departments was of slightly greater importance in the South than in the North. This regional difference in use of the various production systems is a factor in the relative importance of the systems in the different industries. In cotton-pants, overall, and work-shirt establishments, only 40 per cent of the stitchers were employed on the bundle system in 1941. In the manufacture of dress shirts and nightwear, and washable service apparel—both industries located largely in the North—fully 60 percent of the stitchers worked on the bundle system. M ethods o f W age Payment The most common method of wage payment in cotton-garment plants is by the piece. Almost two-thirds (63.1 percent) of the workers in the plants surveyed in 1941 were piece workers and an additional 7 percent were paid under an incentive bonus system. The remaining 30 percent were time workers. Payment by the piece is usual for direct workers in the making department. The time method of pay ment predominates in the cutting, shipping, and maintenance depart ments, and among such indirect occupations as bundle boys and trim mers in the making departments. However, in the occupations of cutters and markers, about 15 percent of the workers were paid on an incentive basis, either by the piece or by some bonus system. More than four-fifths of the stitchers, who comprise three-fifths of all workers in the industries, were paid on an incentive basis in 1941. Incentive payment is more common in the production of shirts, nightwear, and washable service apparel than in the production of cotton pants or work clothing; it is also more common in the North than in the South. These industry and regional differences may be explained in part by differences in use of the line system. Because the necessity for keeping up with the flow of work on the line provides an incentive to speed, an incentive method of pay is less advantageous in line establishments. Two-fifths of the stitchers working on lines were paid on a time basis, in contrast with less than 10 percent of the stitchers employed on the bundle system, and less than 5 percent on the progressive bundle system. Incentive systems for line workers base the pay of each worker on the output the entire line, since each worker’s supply of work 8^^ »poed depends on that ot other operators. The Labor Force Ratio of labor to total costs.—Labor cost constitutes a relatively high proportion of total costs in the production of cotton garments. Wages average one-fifth of value of product, and salaries and wages to gether amount to about one-quarter of value. Available data indi m e n ’s cotton-g ar m en t i n d u s t r ie s 5 cate that the ratio of labor cost to value of product is about the same in the three industries. Skill.— The occupations in the manufacture of cotton garments are largely semiskilled. A relatively small proportion, principally the cutting occupations, require skilled workers. Very few workers are in occupations that are unskilled in the sense of requiring no training or experience for their satisfactory performance. Of the workers in the plants surveyed in 1941, 5 percent were classified as skilled, 91 percent as semiskilled, and 2 percent as unskilled. Thfe remaining 2 percent were learners and handicapped workers engaged in semiskilled occupations. The fact that the industries produce large quantities of standardized articles has made it advantageous to subdivide operations minutely and thus reduce skill requirements below those in most other apparel industries. Stitching operations may be divided among as many as 40 operators, and little hand sewing or careful finishing is required. Sex and color.—Employees are predominantly white native-born women. Less than 1 percent of the workers in the plants surveyed in 1941 were Negroes, and a corresponding proportion were Mexicans. About 6 out of 7 workers are women; this ratio showed little variation by industry or region. The cutters, markers, and maintenance and ship ping workers are predominantly men, while the sewing-machine oper ators and most of the other occupations in the making department are predominantly women. In some occupations, such as those of work ing supervisors, bundle workers, and pressers, both men and women are employed in significant number. Union organization.—Extensive unionization of workers in the cottongarment industries is of recent origin, although there has been some unionization since the 1890’s. The extent of organization varies among the industries, and in each industry it is markedly stronger in the North than in the South. A large part of the dress-shirt and night wear industry has been organized in the past 10 years by the Amal gamated Clothing Workers of America. The United Garment Workers union also has some agreements in shirt factories. Together, these unions have contracts covering perhaps three-quarters of the workers in the shirt and nightwear industry. Both unions also have agreements with washable-service-apparel establishments. Many overall factories are unionized, but organization in cotton-pants and work-shirt plants is relatively weak. The United Garment Workers, the first union to organize on a wide scale in the cotton-clothing trades, is predominant in the work-clothing field, although the Amalgamated Clothing Workers also has membership in cotton-pants, work-shirt, and overall establishments. Scope and Method o f Survey The Bureau of Labor Statistics made two surveys of hours and earn ings in the men’s cotton-garment industries, covering early spring pay-roll periods of 1939 and 1941, respectively. Representative periods in February and March were covered in 1939. The 1941 pay rolls studied were principally for the month of March.2 This article summarizes the information obtained from the 1941 survey and * Less than 10 percent of the wage earners covered were represented by pay rolls for April, May, or June, 1041. 6 EARNINGS AND HOURS, 1939 AND 1941 describes the changes in earnings that occurred between 1939 and 1941 in a group of identical firms covered in both years. The data for 1941 cover 209 establishments employing 26,239 wage earners and 1,065 clerical workers. This is estimated to be about one-sixth of the workers employed in the industries at the time. The plants for which data are available for both 1939 and 1941 numbered 180, and employed 23,935 wage earners in 1941. The plants in this identical sample were chosen from the larger 1939 sample as being representative of the entire industry, and those surveyed only in 1941 were added to represent new firms in the industries. In selecting the establishments to be covered, care was taken to give adequate representation to type of product, region, size of community, size of plant,3 union affiliation, type of manufacturer, type of production system, and other factors that may affect wages. As shown in table 1, three-fifths of the workers covered by the study were in the North, where the shirt and nightwear, and washable-service-wear industries are concentrated. Over half the workers in cotton-pants, overall, and work-shirt establishments surveyed were in the South,4*reflecting the greater proportion of such clothing manufactured in that region. T a ble 1.— Plants and Wage Earners Included in Survey o f Men’s Cotton-Garment Industries, b y Dom inant Plant Product and Region , March 1941 United States North South Industry and product Plants Workers Plants Workers Plants Workers Total industry group............................................ 209 26,239 146 15,872 63 10,367 Dress and sport shirts, collars, and nightwear. _. Dress and sport shirts and collars................. Nightwear....................................................... Cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts.............. Cotton pants.................................................. Overalls Work shirts..................................................... Washable service apparel____________________ 87 76 11 107 53 36 18 15 12,106 10,850 1,256 13,240 6,815 4,043 2,382 893 71 63 8 60 29 26 5 15 9,066 8,114 952 5,913 2,862 2,561 490 893 16 13 3 47 24 10 13 3,040 2,736 304 7,327 3,953 1,482 1,892 Trained field representatives of the Bureau obtained the information for the study through transcription from pay-roll records and inter views with representatives of the establishments included in the survey. In analyzing the information, plants were classified by product and the products grouped into three industries: Dress shirts and nightwear; cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts; and washable service apparel. All data for an entire plant were classified by the plants dominant product, as shown by total value of production during the 9-month period July 1, 1940, to March 31, 1941. 8 In order to include a sufficient proportion of large plants and yet to avoid giving such plants an undue influence on the results for the entire sample, only part of the workers in each of several large plants were scheduled. The workers covered in these establishments were carefully chosen to obtain a balanced repre sentation of all occupations. The number of workers refers to the number for which data on hours and earnings were obtained and not to total employment in the plants surveyed. Because a relatively small proportion of cotton-garment workers is found in plants with fewer than 20 workers, these small plants were omitted from the survey. An exception was made in the case of separate cutting establishments, however, because such plants typically employ fewer than 20 wage earners. 4 For purposes of the survey, the South is defined to include the following States: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Caro lina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. Because of space limitations no attempt is made to discuss differences among States or groups of States within the North or South. m e n ’s cotton-g arm en t in d u s t r ie s 7 Data were collected on all plant occupations including those of working supervisors and factory clerks, as well as plant and centraloffice employees subject to the Federal minimum-wage order for this industry group.6 Data are reported separately for wage earners and for all clerical workers whether employed in plant or office. Hourly and weekly earnings, unless otherwise stated, are based on straighttime rates of pay, with the extra earnings from all premium overtime rates excluded. Except in discussions of the normal workweek, hours re late to actual working time, excluding lunch but including rest periods.* Hourly Earnings of Wage Earners TREND OF EARNINGS, 1937-42 The average hourly wage in cotton-garment factories in the fall of 1941 and the spring of 1942 was the highest in the history of the industries. A t the time of the field survey in the earlv part of 1941, hourly earnings were at least 20 percent above the level to which they had dropped subsequent to the invalidation of the National Industrial Recovery A ct.7 During the year following the 1941 survey, they were further increased by about one-eighth. Table 2 shows the change in hourly earnings over the period from February 1937 to June 1942, as reported to the Bureau of Labor Statistics by a group of cotton-garment manufacturers. During this time, four successive Federal minimum-wage rates were introduced in the industry under the Fair Labor Standards Act, and during part o f the period an increasing volume of work was done under Government contract and hence under the minimum-wage rates in effect under the Public Contracts Act. The 25-cent Federal minimum applicable to all manufacturing establishments shipping goods in interstate com merce was introduced in October 1938 and rose automatically to 30 cents an hour a year later. The rates in effect at the time of the 1941 survey— 32.5 cents for dress and work shirts, nightwear, cotton pants, and overalls, and 35 cents for washable service apparel— went into effect in July 1940. These rates were raised to 40 cents an hour at the end of September 1941. The minimum wage for single pants other than cotton, made as a minor product in some cotton-garment estab lishments, was 37.5 cents at the time of the 1941 survey and was raised to 40 cents in September 1941.8 The date of each of these increases is marked by a sharp rise in average hourly earnings in the combined industries. Aside from the general Federal minima just referred to, a 37.5-cent minimum hourly wage was mandatory during this period for the pro duction, under Government contract, of the major products of these industries. Furthermore, early in 1941 a 40-cent minimum became * In 1939, information on office employees was not obtained. • Rest periods were included in working time in accordance with the interpretative rulings of the Admin istrator of the Fair Labor Standards Act. When plant records did not consider rest periods as time worked, the hours reported were adjusted to include them. 7 February and March of 1941 witnessed substantial increases in the industries’ employment and a coin cident but temporary slight recession in average earnings. Because the earnings of new workers are normally lower than those of the rest of the labor force, it is not unnatural for an expansion in employment to be accompanied by reduced average earnings for the entire labor force, in the absence of compensating increases in wage rates. 8 The data in table 2 may cover some establishments whose major product was single pants other than cotton. 484462°-42----- 2 8 EARNINGS AND HOURS, 1939 AND 1941 effective for the production, under Government contract, of all-wool trousers. These rates had a growing influence in the cotton-garment industries as the volume of Government contracts for clothing for the armed forces increased. T able 2.— M onthly Indexes o f Average H ourly Earnings in M en 's Cotton -Garment Industries, January 1937-J u n e 1942 [12-month average, 1937=100] Month January................................................................. February......... ..................................................... March.................................................................... April................ ...................................................... May....................................................................... June....................................................................... J u ly __________ ____________________________ A u gu st____________________________________ September__________________________________ October_____ ____ _________________________ November____ _____________________________ December___ ______________________________ 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 94.3 93.8 95.3 96.7 98.4 100.7 102.8 103.6 103.1 104.1 104.1 106.3 106.8 102.3 100.8 99.1 98.3 99.1 98.3 97.0 97.3 97.6 101.1 102.6 101.9 101.4 101.4 100.7 101.9 101.9 101.6 101.6 101.9 102.7 107.1 107.8 108.6 106.5 107.0 107.7 107.9 108.1 109.9 113.1 112.5 113.3 113.9 115.2 115.4 113.3 113.9 115.2 116.5 118.6 120.4 121.2 122.8 129.1 129.6 127.8 1942 129.1 127.8 128.6 131.9 133.2 133.2 The wage increases occurring during this period may be traced not only to the direct and indirect effects of Federal minimum-wage rates but also to such factors as the influence of unions and the necessity o f attracting workers. The increasing amount of overtime during the past year has also contributed slightly to the increased earnings shown in table 2, as these indexes include both straight-time and overtime pay. W AGE STRUCTURE IN MARCH 1941 Wage earners in cotton-garment factories surveyed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics had average earnings of 41.3 cents an hour in March of 1941 (table 3). Establishments whose major products were cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts reported hourly earnings of 40.1 cents; plants manufacturing shirts and nightwear had average hourly earnings of 41.9 cents. Earnings in establishments making washable service apparel, averaging 49.7 cents, were considerably above the level for the other two industries. Overall factories in the work-clothing industry paid higher average wages (44.0 cents) than any product branch of the industry group except washable service apparel. Work-shirt factories paid the lowest average wage (35.8 cents). T able 3.— Average H ourly Earnings o f Wage Earners in M en 's Cotton-Garment Industries, b y Dom inant Plant Product and Region , M arch 1941 Industry and product United States North South Total industry group......................................................... $0,413 $0,439 $0,371 Dress and sport shirts, collars, and nightwear................. Dress and sport shirts and collars.............................. Nightwear.................................................................... Cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts......................... Cotton pants............................................................... Overalls........................................................................ Work shirts............. ................................................... Washable service apparel.................................................. .419 .423 .387 .401 .392 .440 .358 .497 .431 .435 .397 .443 .419 .482 .392 .497 .384 .387 .358 .366 .373 .369 .349 0) i No plants making washable service apparel in the South were surveyed, since practically all plants in this industry are situated in the North. m e n ’s 9 COTTON-GARMENT INDUSTRIES The average wage for each industry covers a small proportion of workers with high hourly earnings and a heavy concentration of workers at low earnings levels, notably at the effective minimumwage rates. Although earnings ranged from less than 30 cents to more than $1,625 an hour, between 55 and 60 percent of the workers earned 37.5 cents or less, and more than 70 percent earned less than 42.5 cents. Between 20 and 25 percent of the workers in the three industries combined were paid exactly 32.5 cents, the minimum wage for all the major products of these establishments except washable service apparel; 13 percent earned exactly 37.5 cents, which was not only the minimum wage for single pants other than cotton (a minor product of many cotton-garment establishments), but was also the minimum for production on Government contracts. The distribution of earnings in each industry is shown in table 4. T able 4.— Percentage Distribution o f Wage Earners in M en 's Cotton-Garment Industries, by Average H ourly Earnings, Industry, and Region , M arch 1941 Dress and sport shirts, Cotton pants, overalls, Wash and work shirts collars, and nightwear able service ap United North South United North South United North South parel, States States North States Total industry group Average hourly earnings (in cents) Under 30.0.......................... 30.0 and under 32.5............ Exactly 32.5....................... 32.6 and under 35.0............ Exactly 35.0....................... 35.1 and under 37.5.—, ___ Exactly 37.5....................... 37.6 and under 40.0............ 40.0 and under 42.5............ 42.5 and under 47.5............ 47.5 and under 52.5............ 52.5 and under 57.5............ 57.5 and under 62.5........... 62.5 and under 67.5............ 67.5 and under 72.5............ 72.5 and under 77.5............ 77.5 and under 82.5............ 82.5 and under 87.5............ 87.5 and under 92.5............ 92.5 and under 97.5............ 97.5 and under 102.5........... 102.5 and under 112.5_____ 112.5 and under 122.5......... 122.5 and under 132.5_____ 132.5 and over.................... 1.7 .9 22.6 8.6 3.8 6.4 13.0 6.9 7.3 9.5 6.4 3.9 2.8 1.8 1.2 .9 .5 .3 .5 .3 .2 .2 .1 .1 .1 1.5 1.1 14.1 5.7 5.0 6.4 11.4 7.0 8.9 11.5 8.8 5.6 4.0 2.5 1.7 1.3 .8 .5 .7 .4 .3 .3 .2 .1 .2 2.2 .7 35.6 13.0 1.9 6.4 15.5 6.6 4.7 6.4 2.8 1.3 1.0 .6 .5 .4 .1 .1 .2 (!) (l) (0 (v 1.6 1.7 15.6 5.9 5.1 7.2 9.7 7.3 8.4 12.7 9.1 5.8 3.0 1.9 1.2 1.1 .7 .4 .4 .2 .2 .3 .2 .1 .2 2.7 .6 33.2 13.5 2.9 8.8 7.1 7.8 5.4 5.0 3.9 2.9 2.5 1.1 1.1 .7 0) .1 .3 .1 .1 0) 1.9 1.4 19.9 7.8 4.6 7.6 9.0 7.4 7.6 10.7 7.8 5.1 2.9 1.7 1.2 1.0 .5 .4 .4 .2 .2 .2 .2 .1 .2 T o ta l....................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number of plants.............. 146 63 209 Number of workers. ......... 26,239 15,872 10,367 Average hourly earnings. _ $0,413 $0,439 $0,371 0.2 .1 .1 .4 11.6 7.8 4.9 8.0 10.0 14.3 12.8 8.3 5.0 4.5 2.9 2.6 1.2 1.2 1.2 .6 1.0 .8 .1 .2 .2 1.4 .3 14.5 6.2 3.7 5.0 15.1 6.4 9.6 9.3 7.8 5.0 5.3 3.2 2.2 1.4 .8 .5 1.0 .6 .3 .2 .1 .1 0) 2.0 .8 36.7 12.7 1.5 5.4 19.0 6.1 4.4 6.9 2.3 .6 .4 .5 .2 .2 .i .1 .1 0) (0 .1 1.7 .6 26.7 9.8 2.5 5.2 17.3 6.3 6.7 8.0 4.8 2.5 2.6 1.7 1.1 .7 .4 .2 .5 .3 .2 .1 .1 0) (0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 107 60 47 13,240 5,913 7,327 $0,401 $0,443 $0,366 15 893 $0,497 71 16 87 12,106 9,066 3,040 $0,419 $0,431 $0,384 0) 1Less than a tenth of 1 percent. Regional Differences Hourly earnings were distinctly higher in the North than in the South. The average for the combined industries in the North was 43.9 cents, 18 percent above the 37.1-cent average for the South. The regional difference in the shirt and nightwear industry was 12 percent of the southern average, and in cotton-pants, overall, and work-shirt factories it was 21 percent. In the North, average earnings in the work-clothing industry were slightly above those in the shirt and nightwear industry, but a reverse relationship existed in 10 EARNINGS AND HOURS, 1939 AND 1941 the South. No regional comparison of wages in washable-serviceapparel establishments can be made, as this industry is situated almost entirely in the North. Considering separately the products that comprise the industries, the regional difference in average hourly earnings was smallest in the case of nightwear, where the northern wage was only 11 percent above that for the South. The greatest difference was found in overall establishments, where the northern average was 31 percent above southern earnings. Whereas northern overall plants had aver age hourly earnings second only to the washable-service-apparel industry, earnings in southern overall plants were exceeded by earn ings in both dress-shirt and pants factories. It will be observed that the product division (work shirts) that paid the lowest wages in the North (39.2 cents) nevertheless had higher average earnings than were paid by southern dress-shirt factories, which paid the highest average wages (38.7 cents) in the southern region. That the southern plants constitute a more homogeneous wage area than do the more widespread northern establishments may be in ferred from the wider variation of individual workers’ earnings in the latter region. In the North, earnings of half the workers were in cluded in a range of 7.5 cents; in the South half of the workers’ earnings were within a 2.5-cent range. This characteristic of the pattern of northern earnings is reflected also in the extent of variation in average earnings among plants. Excluding separate cutting establishments, plant average hourly earnings ranged from 32.7 to 61.8 cents in the North, as compared with a range of from 30.9 to 56.8 cents in the South. The greatest concentration of plant average hourly earnings in the North was between 42.5 and 47.5 cents, plants in this group employing a fourth of the northern workers. In contrast, almost two-fifths of the southern workers were employed in plants with hourly earnings averaging between 35.0 and 37.5 cents. Difference by S ize o f C ity It has been pointed out that many of the cotton-garment factories are located in small towns. Arrangement of the plants by size of T able 5.— Average H ourly Earnings o f Wage Earners in M en 's Cotton-Garment Industries, by Size o f C ity ana Region, M arch 1941 North United States Size of city (population) Aver Aver Aver Num Num age Num Num age Num Num age ber of ber of hourly ber of ber of hourly ber of ber of hourly plants workers earn plants workers earn plants workers earn ings ings ings All cities____________ ____ ______ 209 Under 2,600..................................... 2,600 and under 10,000.................... 10,000 and under 50,000.................. 60,000 and under 100,000................. 100,000 and under 260,000............... 260,000 and under 600,000............... 600,000 and under 1,000,000........... 1,000,000 and over ____ __________ 26 41 43 15 16 17 14 37 26,239 $0,413 2,706 6,169 7,543 2,228 1,970 2,872 1,039 1,712 .366 .377 .394 .426 .447 .490 .418 .604 1An average is not computed for fewer than 3 plants. South 146 15 21 26 10 15 10 12 37 15,872 $0,439 1,328 2,433 4,714 1,340 1,859 1,604 882 1,712 .374 .411 .415 .464 .453 .516 .425 .504 63 10,367 $0,371 11 20 17 5 1 7 2 1,378 3,736 2,829 888 111 1,268 157 .359 .355 .358 .370 (l) .459 0) m e n ’s cotton-garm en t in d u s t r ie s 11 city reveals a clear but not invariable tendency for average hourly earnings to increase with population. This tendency is apparent in the combined industries and in each industry considered separately, but is less pronounced in the South than in the North (table 5). Variation b y Unionization Plants that were working under union agreements had average hourly earnings of 46.5 cents, 22 percent above the average of 38.1 cents reported by nonunion plants. About this same difference be tween union and nonunion wages was found in both the dress-shirt and nightwear industry and the cotton-pants, overall, and work-shirt industry; in washable service apparel, however, earnings in nonunion establishments were 2 percent above the level in union plants. In the North, factories with union agreements reported earnings 15 percent above those in unorganized plants. The number of unionized southern plants was too small to warrant comparison. Variation by Production System and M ethod o f Paym ent In comparing earnings under different production systems and methods of wage payment, data for stitchers only have been analyzed, since the possibilities of different methods of organization and pay ment are limited principally to the stitching department. This comparison reveals that m the northern region, stitchers employed on the line system in the combined industries had average hourly earnings (39.6 cents) that were somewhat lower than the earnings of stitchers in bundle plants (42.3 cents). Northern stitchers on the progressive bundle system had higher average earnings (45.0 cents) than stitchers in either line or bundle plants. A similar variation between line and other plants is observed in both the shirt and the work-clothing industries. These differences undoubtedly reflect a combination of influences. The differential between line and bundle systems is not so apparent in the generally lower-wage southern region, but progressive bundle workers earned somewhat higher wages (38.9 cents) than did either bundle workers (36.3 cents) or line stitchers (36.0 cents). Hourly earnings of stitchers paid under a piece or bonus system were higher in both regions than the earnings of stitchers paid on a time basis. For the combined industries, earnings of workers paid under an incentive system averaged 12 percent above those of time workers. Time payment is encountered most frequently in plants operating under the line system. In general, the average wages of stitchers paid by the hour were below the earnings of other stitchers regardless of the organization of production. Variation b y Sex , Skill, and Occupation The average hourly earnings of the major occupational groups in the industries are shown in table 6. Among these occupations, earn ings ranged from 37.8 cents for examiners and inspectors to 72.9 cents for machine adjusters. Except for skilled workers and stock and shipping clerks and order fillers, the average earnings of all occupa 12 EARNINGS AND HOURS, 1939 AND 1941 tional groups ranged between 37.8 and 49.0 cents. Earnings of women in the lowest-paid stitching operation averaged 36.7 cents and in the highest-paid stitching operation, 42.8 cents an hour. The average for all stitchers, both men and women, was 39.9 cents. Marked regional differences exist among all occupational groups but they tend to be wider for the higher than for the lower skills. T able 6.— Average H ourly Earnings o f W age Earners in Men’s Cotton-Garment Industries, by Skill, Occupational Group, Sex, and Industry, A ll Regions, March 1941 Average hourly earnings Skill, occupational group, and sex Num ber of work ers All workers _ ____ _ __ ___ 26,239 Male . ___ 3,663 Female_______________________________________ 22,586 Skilled workers _ _ Male________ _____ ___________ _____ ______ Female................................................................ Cutters and markers................................................ Male............... .................................................. Machine adjusters, male___ __ ____ ____________ Working supervisors___________________________ _____ _ __ _____ __ _ Male Female.................................................. ............ Miscellaneous occupations, maintenance and service, male............................................... ......... Semiskilled workers. __ _ ______ ____ _ Dress and sport shirts, collars, and night wear Cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts $0,413 .509 .396 $0,419 .539 .400 $0,401 .476 .386 1,190 870 320 548 543 138 458 143 315 ~640 .698 .480 .687 .688 .729 .560 .735 .479 .697 .762 .496 .790 .792 .725 .596 .783 .496 .578 .626 *.458 .594 .596 .730 .512 .646 .459 46 23,879 2,335 21,544 346 189 157 .604 .404 .460 .397 .379 .392 .364 .616 .410 .482 .402 .377 .417 .358 0) Male_____________________________________ Female______________ ____________________ Bundle workers _ r _ Male____ _________________________________ Female.................. .... ............................. ........... Buttonhole and button sewing and riveting ma chine operators______________________________ 1,364 54 Male................. ...... ............................................ 1,310 Female___________________________________ Creasers and crimpers....... ................... ......... ......... 87 Male.......................... ...................................... . 28 59 Female............. .............. .................................. •Cutters, small parts......... .................... .................. 125 105 Male_____________________ ____ ___________ Examiners and inspectors______________________ 1,959 94 Male______________ _____________ _________ 1,865 Female............................................................... Fitters. ..................................................................... 111 Female.......................... .............................. ...... 97 Packers, boxers, and folders...... ........... .................. 669 Male............ .................................. ................... 152 Female______ __________ __________________ 517 Pressers, off, pants__________ ______ ___________ 296 Male____________________ _________________ 253 Female_______ ____ _____ ____ ______ _______ 43 Pressers, other............. ..................................... ........ 1,975 Male.................... ...................................... ........ 384 Female_________ _______ ________________ _ 1,591 Stitchers......... .......................................................... 15,419 Male_____________________ ________________ 223 Female................................................................ 15,196 294 Back makers, shirts.................................... See footnote at end o f table. Total industry group .393 .451 .391 .395 .410 .389 .490 .513 .378 .378 .378 .421 .415 .395 .406 .391 .486 .503 .377 .442 .490 .430 .399 .482 .398 .392 .402 0) .399 .398 (i) (i) .517 .539 .384 0) .384 .430 .422 .393 .405 .391 0) (0 .451 .531 .436 .401 .531 .400 .401 .394 .440 .388 .377 .382 .357 .384 .436 .381 .394 Wash able service apparel $0,497 .650 .467 .790 .841 0) .791 .792 n\ 0) (1) .473 .541 .466 (l) 0) 0) .459 0) .459 0) .383 .451 .481 .370 .379 .369 .393 0) .397 .405 .393 .487 .505 .377 .395 .414 .380 .392 .451 .391 .351 8 .403 .403 (t) ( (0 0) .480 .572 .476 m e n ’s cotton-g ar m en t 13 in d u s t r ie s T a b le 6.— Average H ourly Earnings o f W age Earners in Men’s Cotton-Garment Industries, by Skill, Occupational Group, Seje, and Industry, AU Regions, M arch 1941 — Continued Average hourly earnings Skill, occupational group, and sex Semiskilled workers—Continued. Stitchers—Continued. Female—Continued. Back makers, overalls__________________ Bar tackers..'............................................... Coat makers___________________________ Collar makers arid setters, shirts____ Collar makars and Setters^ other __ _ Facing stitchers............................................ Fellers.-...................... ................................ Fly makers and setters................................ Front makers, shirts and nightwear______ Hemmers. ................................................... Label sewers................................................ Lining stitchers________________________ Pocket makers and setters, shirts________ Pocket makers and setters, other................ Seamers and joiners.................................... Sergers.......................................................... Sleeve makers and setters............................ Trimmings and small-parts makers............ Waistband sattars Miscellaneous stitchers............ ................... Stock and shipping clerks and order fillers.............. Male.................................................................... Turners, p a r t s _____ Famala Miscellaneous occupations, cutting room................ Male.......................................................... ......... Female................................................................ Miscellaneous occupations, maintenance and service, m a le......................................................... Miscellaneous occupations, making department... Female................................................................ Unskilled workers......... .................................................. Male.................................................................... Female................................................................ Handicapped workers..................................................... Female................................................................ Learners........................................................................... Female................................................................ Num ber of work ers 51 595 224 1,570 105 341 641 590 352 968 265 151 847 1,827 1,407 297 2,005 322 397 1,947 282 264 282 260 509 389 120 Total industry group $0,426 .394 .425 .402 .428 .398 .397 .394 .402 .395 .384 .367 .387 .398 .406 .380 .391 .418 .396 .403 .523 .532 .409 .402 .397 .403 .376 154 301 291 639 431 208 68 67 463 447 .465 .387 .382 .379 .380 .379 .273 .273 .260 .260 Dress and sport shirts, collars, and night wear $0,380 .414 .391 .391 .402 .408 .392 .390 .398 0) .404 CO .398 .473 CO .384 .541 .557 .419 .410 .401 .410 .380 .461 .400 .388 .382 .379 .386 .275 .275 .260 .260 Cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts $0.426 .394 .409 .360 .408 .381 .402 .391 .387 .393 .374 .367 .359 .395 .397 .380 .370 .405 .395 .400 .501 .506 .356 .357 .385 .388 .368 .466 .374 .373 .373 .377 .356 CO (0 .259 .259 Wash able service apparel (i) $0,540 .485 .464 (0 CO CO .498 .485 (0 .452 .432 .471 CO CO CO CO CO (0 v) (1) .422 Q) v) v) ?1) (1) 0) *Number of workers too small to justify computation of average. Earnings of men employed in the cotton-garment industries averaged 50.9 cents an hour, compared with 39.6 cents for women. Substantial differences are observed in both the northern and the southern regions, where the earnings of men were respectively 35 percent and 17 percent above the average for woman workers (table 7). These differences were due principally to differences in occupation, but were apparent to some extent in earnings of men and women in the same occupation. Skilled workers earned almost 60 percent more than semiskilled and about 70 percent more than unskilled workers. Learners and handi capped workers, who could be paid at subminimum rates, earned about 30 percent less than unskilled workers. A comparison of earnings for identical skill groups in the two regions shows earnings in the North to be 22.2 cents (44 percent) higher than in the South for skilled workers, 6.2 cents (17 percent) for semiskilled, and 3.6 cents (10 percent) for unskilled workers. 14 EARNINGS AND HOURS, 1939 AND 1941 T able 7.— Regional Variations in Average H ourly Earnings o f W age Earners in M en 's Cotton -Garment Industries, b y Skill, Occupational Group, Sex , and Industry, March 1941 North Skill, occupational group, and sex Dress Cotton Dress Cotton and and Wash Total pants, Total sport pants, able indus sport indus shirts, over shirts, over alls, serv alls, try collars, try collars, and ice ap and and group and work parel group work night shirts night shirts wear wear All workers............................................................ $0,439 Male.......................................................... .564 Female...................................................... .417 $0,431 .567 .409 $0,443 $0,497 $0,371 .545 .423 .650 .423 .363 .467 Skilled workers...................................................... Male.......................................................... Female...................................................... Cutters and markers...................................... Male......................................................... Machine adjusters, male................................ Working supervisors....................................... Male.......................................................... Female...................................................... Miscellaneous occupations, maintenance and service, male................................................ .732 .793 .538 .795 .795 .813 .628 .787 .535 .755 .815 .544 .838 .838 .796 .643 .780 .544 .686 .748 .514 .739 .739 .835 .570 .708 .514 0) (0 0) Semiskilled workers.............................................. Male.......................................................... Female...................................................... Bundle workers............................................... Male-----------------------------------------------Female...................................................... Buttonhole and button sewing and riveting machine operators....................................... Male________________________________ Female...................................................... Greasers and crimpers_________ _______ ___ Male......................................................... Female __________________________ Cutters, small parts........................................ Male............... .......................................... Examiners and inspectors.............................. Male _ ______ _ _ __ Female...................................................... Fitters__________________________________ Female ___________________________ Packers, boxers, and folders........................... Male......................................................... Female..................................................... Pressers, off, pants.......................................... Male.......................................................... Female____ ____ ____ ________________ Pressers, other................................................. Male.......................................................... Female...................................................... Stitchers.......................................................... Male.......................................................... Female........ ............................................. Back makers, shirts..____ _________ Back makers, overalls....................... Bar tackers......................................... Coat makers_______________ ____ _ Collar makers and setters, shirts— Collar makers and setters, other____ Facing stitchers................................. Fellers................................ ............... Fly makers and setters..................... Front makers, shirts and nightwear. Hemmers............................................ Label sewers...................................... Lining stitchers__________________ Pocket makers and setters, shirts.... Pocket makers and setters, other— Seamers and joiners........................... Sergers................................................ Sleeve makers and setters................. Trimmings and small-parts makers.. Waistband setters. ........................... .428 .505 .419 .389 .420 .367 .419 .505 .410 .372 .407 .358 .434 .502 .425 .409 .430 0) .419 .477 .416 .420 (i) .410 .530 .556 .392 .403 .391 .424 .425 .409 .430 .402 .568 .591 (i) .465 .533 .447 .423 .521 .422 .403 .492 .434 .457 .422 .474 .411 .421 .434 .420 .419 .398 .436 .403 .443 .433 .418 .412 .453 .433 .404 .552 .565 .411 (i) .408 0) (i) (i) .555 .583 .388 (0 .388 .427 .428 .405 .410 .404 .426 (i) .423 0) (i) 0) M 0) .398 0) .396 (0 0) .419 .456 .389 .574 .600 (0 .436 .447 .424 .431 .498 .429 0) .492 .438 .438 .392 .463 .419 .453 .437 .440 .441 .398 .436 .401 .440 .431 .417 .418 .445 .433 .400 .544 .551 Miscellaneous stitchers.................. Stock and shipping clerks and order fillers_ Male............................................... See footnote at end o f table. South (l) 0) .468 .558 .448 .409 .535 .408 .405 .392 .427 .395 .400 .416 .416 .401 .398 .403 0) .414 0) .410 .500 (i) .384 .551 .573 $0,384 .444 .376 $0,366 .415 .357 .498 .532 .422 .479 .481 .652 .474 .605 .424 .790 .841 (0 .791 .792 0) 0) 0) 0) .510 .551 .417 .503 .504 .637 .471 .634 .417 .541 .602 .403 .593 .595 0) .459 0) .399 ........... .532 (0 (0 .473 .541 .466 0) 0) 0) .366 .386 .364 .364 .367 .354 .380 .399 .379 .394 0) (i) .361 .383 .358 .354 .355 (0 .459 (i) .459 .356 .371 .356 .380 0) 371 .397 .408 .358 .360 .358 .413 390 .376 .371 .377 .387 .396 0) .391 .368 .395 .363 .387 .363 .371 (i) .354 .362 .366 .378 .362 .369 .348 .366 .358 .358 .339 .357 .352 .353 .350 .360 .353 .354 .400 .450 .452 .371 .351 m/ \ .350 .369 (i) .349 (0 0) .351 .360 .350 (i) (i) .387 .369 .394 .387 .396 (0 0) .403 .403 0) h 0) 0) 0) .480 .572 .476 (0 .540 .485 .464 0) CO 0) .498 .485 0) .452 .432 .471 CO CO w (*) 0) .372 (i) .372 m 0) .358 (0 .356 (l) .402 .333 .408 .374 0) .374 .388 <0 .382 0) .367 (0 .383 .365 .361 .38i .374 0) .372 (0 .383 <0 (0 .365 .383 .355 .359 .388 .359 .338 (i) V 354 .362 .341 .378 .365 .370 .348 .347 .354 .356 .339 .334 .352 .347 .350 .344 .355 .354 .401 .437 .439 m e n ’s cotton-g ar m en t 15 in d u s t r ie s T able 7.— Regional Variations in Average H ourly Earnings o f Wage Earners in M en 's Cotton-Garment Industries, by Skill, Occupational Group, Sex9 and Industry, M arch 1941 — Continued North South Dress Cotton Dress Cotton and and Wash Total sport pants, Total sport pants, over able over indus shirts, indus shirts, serv alls, try collars, alls, try collars, and ice ap and and and group work parel group work night shirts night shirts wear wear Skill, occupational group, and sex Semiskilled workers—Continued. Turners, parts _______________________ $0,423 .412 __________________________ Female Miscellanoues occupations, cutting room___ .419 Male........................................................ .431 Female...................................................... .379 Miscellaneous occupations, maintenance and service, male..... .......................................... .510 Miscellaneous occupations, making depart ment............................................................. .404 Female...................................................... .397 Unskilled workers................................................. .394 Male------- ----------------------------------------- .399 Female...................................................... .385 Handicapped workers........................................... .275 Female...................................................... .273 Learners................................................................. .267 Female...................................................... .268 $0,429 .418 .413 .426 .377 (i) 0) $0,426 .429 0) .509 .506 .408 .392 .390 .394 .383 0) 0) .265 .265 .392 0) .391 0) .398 $0,422 .400 0) 8 (9 0) 0) .270 (i) .271 o (9 $0.374 .376 .367 .365 .372 $0,383 .383 .375 .370 .384 $0,361 .364 .361 .362 0) 0) .411 .401 .424 .361 .360 .358 .354 .369 .272 .272 .250 .250 .377 .377 .361 .344 .394 0) 0) .251 .251 .356 .355 .356 .359 .347 (9 <9 .250 .250 8 1Number of workers too small to justify computation of average. CHANGES IN EARNINGS OF W AGE EARNERS, FEBRUARY-MARCH 1939 TO MARCH 1941 At the time of the 1939 survey of earnings, the legal minimum wage for experienced, nonhandicapped workers in the cotton-garment indus tries was 25 cents an hour. When the 1941 survey was made the minimum was 35 cents for washable service apparel and 32.5 cents for the other products covered. Over the intervening period the volume of public contracts, for which a 37.5-or 40-cent minimum wage was fixed, increased greatly. In March 1941, plants employing 30 percent of the workers surveyed were working on such contracts. This increase in Government contracts, combined with the general increase in employ ment and national income, resulted in a marked expansion of cottongarment production in the spring of 1941, as compared with 1939 levels. Data for 180 firms covered in both the 1939 and 1941 surveys indi cate some of the changes in earnings that occurred over the intervening period.9 Between the early months of 1939 and March 1941 average hourly earnings in identical plants in the combined industries increased by about one-eighth (table 8). In 1939, almost two-fifths of the industries’ workers were paid less than 30 cents an hour and about half earned less than 32.5 cents; the corresponding proportions in 1941 were 1.8 percent and 2.4 percent. In the latter year, three-fifths of the workers earned between 32.5 and 40 cents contrasted with about one-fourth of the workers in 1939 (chart 1). 9 The slight differences between the earnings reported here for 1941 and those shown earlier are explained by differences in the number of plants covered by the two sets of data. DISTRIBUTION OF WORKERS IN IDENTICAL PLANTS IN THE MEN’S COTTON-GARMENT INDUSTRIES BY AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS AND REGION EARNINGS AND HOURS, 1939 AND 1941 O AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS IN CENTS h e n ’s c o t t o n - g a r m e n t 17 i n d u s t r ie s T able 8.— Average H ourly Earnings in Identical Plants in M en 's Cotton-Garment Industries, by Industry and Region , 1939 and 1941 United States North South Industry 1939 1941 1939 1941 1939 1941 Average hourly earnings Total industry group..................................................... Dress and sport shirts, collars, and nightwear....... Cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts................. Washahlp sp.rvipp apparp.l _ _ $0,367 .369 .354 .514 $0,414 .419 .403 .509 $0,407 .391 .418 .514 $0,443 .431 .451 .509 $0,307 .313 .305 $0,372 .386 .366 Number of wage earners Total industry group......... ........................................... Dress and sport shirts, collars, and nightwear....... Cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts................. Washamp sp.rvipp apparp.l 21,721 10,711 10,373 637 23,935 11,190 11,953 792 13,124 7,810 4,677 637 14,194 8,300 5,102 792 8,597 2,901 5,696 9,741 2,890 6,851 Increased average hourly earnings were found only in the shirt and work-clothing industries, where the increases averaged between 13 and 14 percent. In the washable service-apparel industry average wages in the small number of plants surveyed actually declined slightly, due to the absence of important wage increases and to the expansion of employment, which reduced the ratio of higher-paid workers to the total labor force. The necessity for advancing the wages of so large a segment of the industries’ workers in order to conform to the 7.5-cent increase in the legal minimum wage resulted in a general narrowing of existing wage differences. Earnings in the northern plants advanced 3.6 cents (9 per cent), compared with an increase of 6.5 cents (21 percent) in the South. The regional difference was thus narrowed from 10 cents, or a third of the 1939 southern average, to 7.1 cents or less than one-fifth of the 1941 average for that region. In both regions changes in minimumwage rates resulted in large shifts of workers from the lowest wage classes of 32.5 cents or less to earnings classifications between 32.5 and 40 cents. Even in the North, a quarter of the workers earned less than 30 cents in 1939 contrasted with only 1.5 percent in 1941 (table 9). Whereas less than one-third of the workers in the northern region earned between 32.5 and 40 cents an hour in 1939, half of them fell in this wage classification in 1941. In the South, three-fifths of the workers earned less than 30 cents and almost three-fourths less than 32.5 cents in 1939, compared with 2.2 and 2.9 percent in 1941. The proportion of southern workers paid between 32.5 and 35 cents in creased from 6 to about 50 percent, and the proportion with wages between 32.5 and 40 cents increased from 16 to more than 75 percent. A t the same time that wage levels were raised generally, the wage differences among establishments were reduced. Plants with relatively high earnings levels in 1939 had much smaller wage increases (both absolute and proportionate) than did the low-wage plants. Table 10 shows the wage changes in plants with different wage levels. 18 EARNINGS AND HOURS, 1939 AND 1941 T able 9.— Percentage Distribution o f W age Earners in Identical Plants in M en 's Cotton-Garment Industries, b y Average H ourly Earnings and Region , 1939 and 1941 United States North South Average hourly earnings 1939 1941 1939 1941 1939 1941 Under 30.0 cents............................................................. 30.0 and under 32.5 cents................................................ 32.5 and under 35.0 cents................................................ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents................................................ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents................................................ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents................................................ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents................................................ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents................................................ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents................................................ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents................................................ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents................................................ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents................................................ 72.5 and under 77.5 cents................................................ 77.5 and under 82.5 cents................................................ 82.5 and under 87.5 cents.............................................. . 87.5 and under 92.5 cents................................................ 92.5 and under 100.0 cents.............................................. 100.0 cents and over............................ ........................... 38.0 9.8 8.1 8.1 7.2 5.8 7.5 5.0 3.0 2.1 1.5 1.0 .7 .4 .3 .5 .3 .7 1.8 .6 32.1 10.4 18.0 7.5 9.8 6.6 4.1 3.0 1.8 1.2 .9 .5 .3 .5 .3 .6 24.0 6.8 9.5 10.0 8.6 7.9 10.1 7.1 4.5 3.2 2.3 1.5 1.1 .7 .5 .7 .4 1.1 1.5 .5 20.6 11.7 16.0 9.3 12.0 9.2 5.9 4.2 2.6 1.7 1.3 .8 .5 .7 .5 1.0 59.4 14.2 6.0 5.2 5.2 2.5 3.5 1.8 .8 .5 .3 .3 .1 .1 0) .1 0) h 2.2 .7 48.8 8.5 20.9 4.8 6.6 2.9 1.3 1.1 .7 .5 .4 .1 .1 .2 .1 .1 Total...................................................................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number of plants........................................................... Number of workers........................................................ Average hourly earnings........................................... . 180 21,721 $0.367 180 23,935 $0.414 124 13,124 $0,407 124 14,194 $0,443 56 8,597 $0,307 56 9,741 $0,372 i Less than a tenth of 1 percent. T able 10.— Changes in Average H ou rly Earnings in Identical Plants in M en 's CottonGarment Industries, 1939 and 1941 , b y Region and Group o f Plants W ith Specified W age Levels in 1939 Average hourly earnings Region and 1939 plant average hourly earnings class Number of plants 1939 1941 Percentage change, 1939-41 United States, all classes___________________ ____ ___ 180 $0.367 $0,414 +12.8 North, all classes............................ .................................. Under 30.0 cents_______________________________ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents...................... .................... 32.5 and under 35.0 cents________________________ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents________________________ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents__________ ______ _______ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents........................................... 42.5 and under 47.5 cents....... ................................... 47.5 and under 52.5 cents_________________ ______ 52.5 rwifs and ovap 124 13 8 11 9 19 9 20 10 25 .407 .284 .318 .336 .356 .388 .411 .447 .499 .586 .443 .358 .379 .386 .411 .421 .437 .468 .519 .575 +8.8 +26.1 +19.2 +14.9 +15.4 +8.5 +6.3 +4.7 +4.0 —1.9 South, all classes__________________________________ Under 30.0 cents................... ......... ........................... 30.0 and under 32.5 cents_______ _____ __________ 32.5 cents and over_____________________________ 56 32 14 10 .307 .276 .311 .382 .372 .352 .360 .436 +21.2 +27.5 +15.8 +14.1 A decrease of 2 percent was reported for establishments with aver age hourly wages of 52.5 cents or over, apparently because of changes in the occupational structure of some of these plants. There were cases in which cutting plants in that wage classification took on additional functions requiring lower-paid labor, whereas the expansion of employment in other plants reduced plant averages. In establish ments with lower wage levels, the effect of the minimum-wage rates offset the tendency for average earnings to be reduced as additional workers were added. m e n ’s cotton-g ar m en t 19 in d u s t r ie s Earnings of men rose 3.2 cents or 7 percent. Women’s earn ings advanced by 4.9 cents or 14 percent. Wage differences by skill likewise were reduced, the earnings of skilled workers advancing only 2 percent contrasted with an increase of 13 percent for workers of all degrees of skill combined. Weekly Hours and Earnings o f Wage Earners AVERAGE W EE K LY HOURS The regular workweek reported in practically all cotton-garment establishments in 1941 was 40 hours. The only important exceptions were found in 6 of the 13 separate cutting plants where the scheduled workweek was 36 hours and in 1 cutting plant where it was 44 hours. Actual hours worked during the period surveyed averaged 37.7 per week (table 11). Over four-fifths of the employees worked 40 hours or less; two-fifths worked exactly 40 hours. There was no marked variation in hours among the three industries or between regions. There was a tendency in the South, however, for the higher-wage plants to work longer weekly hours than did the lower-wage plants. No consistent variation of weekly hours with plant wage level was apparent for the northern plants. T able 11.— Average W eekly Hours o f Wage Earners in M en 's Cotton-Garment Industries, b y Industry, Region , and Sex , 1941 North All regions Industry All work Male ers Total industry group..................... Dress and sport shirts, collars, and nightwear.................... ........ Cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts......................................... Washable service apparel.............. Fe male All work ers Male South Fe male All work Male ers Fe male 37.7 40.7 37.3 37.7 40.5 37.2 37.8 41.0 37.3 37.5 40.4 37.1 37.3 39.9 36.9 38.1 42.5 37.5 37.9 38.4 40.9 40.1 37.4 38.1 38.1 38.4 41.3 40.1 37.5 38.1 37.7 40.5 37.2 Male wage earners had an average 40.7-hour week; women averaged only 37.3 hours. This difference in the workweek resulted partly from the fact that men were employed principally in occupations for which longer hours were required. However, the hours of men were also longer than those of women in occupations which employed both sexes. The average workweek for skilled workers was 42.3 hours, compared with 37.5 for semiskilled and 39.4 for unskilled workers. The rela tively short workweek of learners, 34.8 hours, apparently resulted from the fact that some worked only part of the pay period studied. AVERAGE W EEK LY EARNINGS Earnings in the cotton-garment industries averaged $15.56 per week at the time of the 1941 survey (table 12). This average is reasonably representative of earnings in both the shirt and nightwear industry and the cotton-pants, work-shirt, and overall industry, but the weekly 20 EARNINGS AND HOURS, 1939 AND 1941 earnings in washable service-apparel establishments averaged $19.12. Wide variations in weekly earnings (from less than $5 to more than $50) are apparent in each of the three industries. About three-fourths of all wage earners earned more than $10 but less than $20; a third of the workers earned between $12.50 and $15, the earnings bracket corresponding to the minimum hourly wage rates and maximum workweek required by Federal law at the time. T ab le 12.— Average W eekly Earnings o f Wage Earners in M en 's Cotton-Garment Industries, by Industry, Region , and Sex9 1941 North All regions Industry Total industry group..................... All work ers Male $15.56 $20.69 Dress and sport shirts, collars, 15.72 21.79 and nightwear............................. Cotton pants, overalls, and work shirts........................................... - 15.18 19.45 19.12 26.08 Washable service apparel.............. Fe male All work ers Male South All work ers Fe male Male Fe male $14.73 $16.56 $22.81 $15.53 $14.04 $17.33 $13.52 14.84 16.09 22.62 15.09 14.63 18.89 14.08 14.43 17.81 16.89 22.55 19.12 26.08 15.87 17.81 13.80 16.83 13.28 Northern plants reported average weekly earnings of $16.56 com pared with earnings of $14.04 for the South. As a result of higher hourly earnings and longer average hours, skilled workers earned about 80 percent more per week than did the semiskilled and unskilled workers, and men received approximately 40 percent more than women. Because unskilled employees worked longer hours than did the semiskilled workers, the weekly earnings of these two groups differed by only about 1 percent, contrasted with a variation of 7 per cent in their hourly pay. Among occupational groups, the average weekly earnings ranged from $13.01 for women lining stitchers to $31.70 for machine adjusters. Earnings as high as $20 a week were attained only by workers in the skilled occupations and in two semi skilled occupational groups. The figures quoted do not include premium overtime pay, but the inclusion of such pay in either the hourly or weekly earnings figures would not increase these averages significantly. In none of the indus tries and in neither region would the average increase amount to as much as 2.5 percent. Between 1939 and 1941 weekly earnings in the combined industries increased by about 20 percent. The respective figures for the North were 16 percent and for the South 26 percent. The increase in earn ings in shirt and nightwear factories and in cotton-pants, overall, and work-shirt establishments was slightly greater than the average in crease for the combined industries. A small reduction in both hourly earnings and weekly hours accounted for a decrease of 2 percent in the weekly pay of workers manufacturing washable service apparel. , Earnings and Hours o f Clerical Workers 1941 Clerical workers in the cotton-garment industries earned an average of 49.0 cents an hour in March 1941. This figure is almost 20 percent above the average wage of the manual workers. The earnings of m e n ’s cotton-g ar m en t in d u s t r ie s 21 about three-fifths of the clerical workers were concentrated between 37.5 and 52.5 cents. More than one-third of them earned between 40 and 47.5 cents and a fourth averaged less than 40 cents. The pro portion receiving exactly the minimum-wage rates set for these in dustries was relatively small. Earnings varied relatively less among industries and between regions than did the earnings of factory workers. Clerical workers in the North were paid about 12 percent higher wages than southern workers, contrasted with an 18 percent difference for factory workers. Grouping workers into broad occupational classifications, stenograph ers and typists, general clerks, and miscellaneous office workers earned an average of 45 cents per hour; department heads and special ists were paid approximately 60 cents; and accountants and book keepers averaged 75 cents. The average weekly earnings of clerical workers ($19.95) were 28 percent above those of factory workers. A third of them received between $15 and $17.50. In the North, earnings averaged $20.46 a week, which was 10 percent above the average of $18.52 in the South. The average workweek reported was 40.7 hours. Threequarters of the clerical employees worked 40 hours or less, two-thirds of them having a 40-hour workweek. About 6 percent worked 48 hours or more. The average workweek in the North was 40.6 hours, and in the South it was 41.1 hours. P A R T II E A R N IN G S A N D H O U R S IN PLA N TS M A N U F A C T U R I N G S IN G L E P A N T S O T H E R T H A N C O T T O N , 1939 A N D 1941 The wage surveys made in 1939 and 1941 covered not only cottongarment plants but also establishments whose principal product was single pants made of materials other than cotton. Industrial classi fication of single pants of various fabrics has been a problem since the N. R. A. At that time trousers of fabrics which were chiefly cotton in content were included in the cotton-garment industry, and other trousers were put under the code for the men’s-clothing industry. The apparel industry committee which was established in 1939 under the Fan- Labor Standards Act set a 32.5-cent minimum-wage rate for single pants of all-cotton fabric and a 37.5-cent minimum for all other single trousers. Because of the difference in minimum rates which remained in effect at the time of the 1941 survey, establish ments which produced primarily single pants other than cotton are discussed separately here. Moreover, although many plants manufac ture both cotton and other products, separation of pants factories on the basis of their major product isolates what is essentially a cotton-garment industry group, discussed in part I. The 1941 survey covered 3,112 wage earners in 47 establishments whose major product was single pants other than cotton. Of these, 39 establishments with 2,385 workers were also covered in 1939 and hence provide information on changes in earnings and weekly hours over the intervening period. Average Hourly Earnings W AGE STRUCTURE IN MARCH 1941 Wage earners in plants whose principal product was single pants other than cotton earned an average of 45.7 cents an hour in March 1941. Although hourly pay ranged up to $1,625 or more, about two-thirds of the workers earned less than 42.5 cents, and one-half were paid less than 40 cents an hour. Thirty percent of the workers earned exactly 37.5 cents, the minimum wage in effect for experienced workers making this product, and about 13 p e r c e n t rpp^ived less than 37.5 cents. The latter were principally handicapped W o r k e r s and learners, or worked on minor products that were subject to a lower minimum wage (table 13). Earnings in the North averaged 48.3 cents, which was 23 percent above the 39.2-cent average for the South. The two regions had approximately the same proportion of workers earning exactly 37.5 cents an hour. However, because southern factories produced 22 23 SINGLE PANTS, OTHER THAN COTTON, INDUSTRY relatively more cotton pants than did the northern plants, and also employed more learners, almost a quarter of the workers in the South earned less than this amount compared with about one-tenth in the North. Over nine-tenths of the southern workers and about three-fifths of the northern workers had average earnings lower than 42.5 cents an hour. T a b l e 13 .— Percentage Distribution o f Wage Earners in Plants M anufacturing Singfe Pants Other Than Cotton, b y Average H ourly Earnings and Region , M arch 1941 Average hourly earnings Under 30.0 cents.......... ........ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents___ Exactly 32.5 cents_________ 32.6 and under 35.0 cents___ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents___ Exactly 37.5 cents_________ 37.6 and under 40.0 cents___ 40.0 and under 42.5 cents___ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents___ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents___ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents___ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents___ 62.5 and Under 67.5 cents___ A7 R cU o nlU d u id r 79 V i «U UrlL Ua vx • R f*anf*Q . . wlLvw.. 72.5 and under 77.5 cents___ 77.5 and under 82.5 cents— United North States 1.9 .5 2.0 3.0 6.0 29.8 6.5 17.9 8.0 5.7 4.7 2.8 2.9 2.0 1.6 1.0 2.5 .7 1.8 1.9 2.4 29.4 6.1 12.6 10.1 7.6 6.4 3.7 3.8 2.5 2!l l.Z South 0.3 2.5 5.5 14.7 31.1 7.3 31.1 3.1 1.1 .5 .5 .8 g .*3 .2 Average hourly earnings 82.5 and under 87.5 cents___ 87.5 and under 92.5 cents___ 92.5 and under 97.5 cents___ 97.5 and under 102.5 cents... 102.5 and under 112.5 cents.. 112.5 and under 122.5 cents.. 122.5 and under 132.5 cents.. 132.5 and under 142.5 cents.. 142.5 and under 152.5 cents.. 152.5 and under 162.5 cents.. 162.5 cents and over _ _ United North South States 0.5 .7 .4 .3 .4 .2 .1 .1 .1 .8 .1 0.7 1.0 .5 0.1 .4 .1 T ota l.......................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number of workers.............. 3,112 2,199 Average hourly earnings___ $0,457 $0,483 913 $0,392 .5 .2 .1 .2 .1 1.2 .2 The wage levels of individual plants, excluding cutting plants, ranged from 36.6 cents to 72.5 cents. Plants paying average wages of less than 40 cents an hour employed a fifth of the workers in the North and three-fifths of the workers in the South. One-fourth of the workers in the North were in establishments with average hourly earnings of 52.5 cents or more, while the average in all southern plants (excluding cutting plants) was less than 42.5 cents. An analysis of earnings by production system showed that establish ments organized on the line system paid their stitchers 13 percent less an hour than did the progressive-bundle-system plants, and 11 percent less than plants organized on the bundle system. This variation in earnings with method of organization of the stitching department was found in both regions, although it was smaller in degree in the South. Piece workers had earnings averaging 14 percent above those of workers paid by time rates. Reflected in this difference is the higher proportion of time workers in the South as well as the higher propor tion of time workers employed in line-system plants. The hourly pay of time workers in the South was 6 percent above that of piece workers. There were no bonus workers in the plants covered. Earnings were about 20 percent higher in unionized plants (largely northern) than in establishments not covered by union agreements. Plants engaged in work on Government contracts reported hourly earnings about a tenth lower than plants without such contracts. Earnings of men were almost 40 percent higher than those of women workers, the respective figures for the northern and southern regions being 14 percent and 44 percent. Skilled occu pations, employing about 16 percent of the men and 1 percent of the women, had average hourly earnings of 85.5 cents compared with 44.1 cents for semiskilled workers and 38.7 cents for unskilled 24 EARNINGS AND HOURS, 1939 AND 1941 jobs. The average wages paid the various occupational groups may be seen in table 14. T a ble 14.— Average H ourly Earnings o f W age Earners in Plants M anufacturing Single Pants Other Than Cotton, by Skill, Occupational Group, and Sex, 1941 Skill, occupational group, and sex Num Average ber of hourly workers earn ings All workers.................................... Male........................................ Female..................................... 3,112 721 2,391 $0,457 .582 .418 Skilled workers.............................. M a le ................................ Female..... ................... . Cutters and markers, male.. . Miscellaneous occupations__ Male.......... ............... ...... Female.............................. 143 117 26 89 54 28 26 .855 .946 .466 .995 .635 .795 .466 Semiskilled workers...................... 12,823 Male................................. 553 Female.............................. 2,270 Bundle workers...................... 28 Male__________________ 26 Buttonhole and button sew ing-machine operators......... 125 Female________________ 109 Examiners and inspectors___ 228 Female.............................. 208 Fitters.................. ...... ........... 29 Packers, boxers, and folders— 37 33 Male................................. Pressers, off, pants................. 142 134 Male................................. .441 .519 .422 .391 .393 .420 .406 .404 .400 .463 .474 .482 .607 .606 Skill, occupational group, and sex Semiskilled workers—Continued. Pressers, other......................... Male................................. Stitchers................... _............. Male................................. Female................... ......... Stock and shipping clerks and order fillers_______ _______ Male............... ................. Miscellaneous occupations, cutting room........................ M ale................. .............. Female............ ............... Miscellaneous occupations, making department, main tenance, and service___. . . . M a le............................... Female.............................. Num Average ber of hourly workers earn ings 107 84 1,872 112 1,760 $0,475 .490 .432 .533 .425 50 49 .567 .568 68 40 28 .414 .412 .416 1137 28 109 .418 .422 .416 Unskilled workers......................... Male........................................ 70 49 .387 .389 Learners......................................... Female..................................... 76 74 .289 .289 includes 5 handicapped workers (2 male, 3 female). CHANGES IN EARNINGS, FEBRUARY-M ARCH 1939 TO MARCH 1941 Between early 1939 and March 1941, hourly earnings in 39 identical plants that manufactured single pants other than cotton increased from 39.4 to 45.7 cents. In 1939, when the Federal minimum wage was 25 cents an hour, almost two-fifths of the workers earned less than 30 cents an hour, and three-fifths earned less than 37.5 cents. By 1941, these proportions declined to 1.4 and 16 percent, respectively. At the time of the 1941 survey, when the minimum rate for single pants other than cotton was 37.5 cents, almost two-fifths of the workers earned between 37.5 and 40 cents an hour, compared with 6 percent in 1939. The percentage increase in average hourly earnings was almost three times as great in the South as in the North (31.4 compared with 11.3 percent). The difference in average wages between the two regions was narrowed from 13.7 cents, or 46 percent of the southern average, in 1939 to 9.3 cents, or 24 percent, in 1941. In the South, almost three-fourths of the workers earned less than 30 cents in 1939 while in 1941 a corresponding proportion earned between 35 and 40 cents. The proportion of southern employees receiving between 37.5 cents and 40 cents increased from 1.5 percent to more than 50 percent. In the North, although the change in wages was less marked than in the South, half of the workers earned less than 37.5 cents in 1939, con trasted with only 10 percent in 1941. The proportion of northern workers earning between 37.5 and 42.5 cents increased from 15 to almost 50 (47.8) percent. SINGLE PANTS, OTHER THAN COTTON, INDUSTRY 25 Because of the different incidence of the minimum-wage rates among plants and occupations, earnings of higher-paid employees increased less than did those of lower-paid workers. Hourly earnings of women rose by 21 percent compared with 9 percent for men. The increase for skilled workers between 1939 and 1941 was about 6 percent; that for semiskilled and unskilled workers was 19 percent. Weekly Hours and Earnings AVERAGE W EEK LY HOURS The regular workweek in plants manufacturing single pants other than cotton was 40 hours. The only important variation from this schedule was found in 8 of the 13 cutting plants where cutters were on a 36-hour week. Actual time worked averaged 38.2 hours. At the time of the survey, four-fifths of the employees worked 40 hours or less, 46 percent working exactly 40 hours. Less than 3 percent worked 48 hours or more. Skilled workers averaged 3.4 hours more than semiskilled and about 2 hours more than unskilled workers. Hours averaged 38.6 in the North and 37.1 in the South. AVERAGE W EEK LY EARNINGS Weekly earnings in establishments manufacturing single pants other than cotton were $17.44 in the spring of 1941. Exactly 40 percent of the workers earned between $15 and $17,50. Weekly pay averaged $18.64 in the North compared with $14.54 in the South. Half (50.7 percent) of tHe northern workers and almost three-fourths (72.7 percent) of the southern workers received between $12.50 and $17.50. Earnings of men were 44 percent higher than those of women, the earnings of the two groups being $22.79 and $15.82, respectively. Skilled workers averaged $35.37, or more than twice the earnings of $16.77 for semiskilled workers and $15.21 for unskilled workers. Among occupations, earnings varied from $14.34 for bundle workers to $40.44 for cutters. Stitchers, the largest occupational group, earned $16.36.
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