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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR Frances Perkins, Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Isador Lubin, Commissioner Earnings and Hours in the Leather and Leather Belting and Packing Industries, 1939 + Prepared by the Division of Wage and Hour Statistics of the Bureau of Labor Statistics J. PERLMAN, Chief B ulletin 7\lo. 679 U N IT E D ST A T E S G O V E R N M E N T P R IN T IN G OFFICE W A S H IN G T O N : 1941 For sale by the Superintendent o f Documents, Washington, D . C. - - Price 15 cents U N IT E D STATES D E P A R T M E N T OF LABO R F ra n ces P e r k in s , S ecreta ry + B U R E A U OF L A B O R S T A T IS T IC S Isa d o r L u b i n , C o m m issio n er A . F . H in r ic h s . A s sis ta n t C om m issio n er Donald Davenport, Chief, Employment and Occupa tional Outlook Branch Henry J. Fitzgerald, Chief, B u sin e ss M a n a g e m e n t Branch Hugh S. Hanna, Chief, Edi torial and Research c h ie f s OF Aryness Joy, Chief, Prices and Cost of Living Branch N. Arnold Tolies, Chief, Working Conditions and In dustrial Relations Branch Sidney W . Wilcox, Chief Sta tistician d iv is io n s Herman B. Byer, Construction and Public Employment Florence Peterson, Industrial Relations J. M . Cutts, Wholesale Prices Charles F. Sharkey, Law Information Swen Kjaer, Industrial Acci dents John J. Mahaney, Tabulation Machine Robert J. Myers, Wage and Hour Statistics Boris Stern, Labor Informa tion Bulletin Stella Stewart, Retail Prices Lewis E. Talbert, ment Statistics Faith M . Willian ls, Cost of Living II Labor Employ CONTENTS Page Preface______________________________________________ Introduction and summary___________________________________________________ P art I.— Earnings and hours in the leather industry_______________________ Description of the industry and scope of survey_______________________ Definition of the industry___________________________________________ Characteristics of the industry_____________________________________ Fluctuations in employment and pay rolls_________________________ Description of the sample___________________________________________ Average hourly earnings__________________________________________________ Methods of wage payments_________________________________________ Hourly earnings of all workers______________________________________ Variations by sex and skill__________________________________________ Geographical differences_____________________________________________ Hourly earnings in relation to Fair Labor Standards A ct________ Differences between union and nonunion plants__________________ Variations by size of community________________ Product differences_______________________ Occupational differences_____________________________________________ Variations by race of workers_______________________________________ Extra rates for overtime work______________________________________ Comparisons with 1932 survey_____________________________________ Weekly hours and earnings______________________________________________ Full-time weekly hours______________________________________________ Actual weekly hours_________________________________________________ Weekly earnings_____________________________________________________ P art II.— Earnings and hours in the leather belting and packing industry. Description of the industry and scope of survey_______________________ Definition of the industry___________________________________________ Characteristics of the industry_____________________________________ Scope of the survey__________________________________________________ Average hourly earnings__________________________________________________ Methods of wage payments_________________________________________ Hourly earnings of all workers______________________________________ Variations by sex and skill__________________________________________ Geographical differences_____________________________________________ Hourly earnings in relation to Fair Labor Standards A ct________ Variations by size of community and unionization________________ Product differences__________________________________________________ Occupational differences_____________________________________________ Weekly hours and earnings_______________________________________________ Full-time weekly hours______________________________________________ Actual weekly hours_________________________________________________ Weekly earnings___________________________________________________ m ix 1 5 7 7 7 10 12 15 15 15 16 18 22 23 25 26 30 34 35 36 36 36 37 37 39 41 41 41 42 42 42 43 44 45 49 50 51 53 54 54 54 55 IV CONTENTS L is t o f T a b le s Page T able 1.— Number of establishments, number of wage earners, and wages paid in the leather industry, 1921 -3 7_________________________ 2. — Classification of establishments in the leather industry, by size, 1937_____________________________________________________________ 3. — Geographical distribution of establishments and wage earners in the leather industry, by State, 1937________________________ 4. — Value of products in the leather industry, 1937______________ 5. — Index numbers of employment and pay rolls in the leather industry, 1 9 2 3 -3 9 _______________________________________________ 6. — Earnings and hours in the leather industry, 19 32 -3 9________ 7. — Coverage of survey in the leather industry, by States, Septem ber 1939________________________________________________________ 8. — Percentage distribution of leather workers, by average hourly earnings, sex, and skill, September 1939_______________________ 9. — Percentage distribution of leather workers, by average hourly earnings, sex, and district, September 1939___________________ 10. — Percentage distribution of leather workers, by average hourly earnings, region, sex, and skill, September 1939______________ 11. — Percentage distribution of leather workers, by average hourly earnings, and by groups of plants, September 1939__________ 12. — Average hourly earnings of leather workers in the northern region, by size of community, unionization, sex, and skill, September 1939_________________________________________________ 13. — Average hourly earnings of leather workers, by product, sex, and skill, September 1939___________________________________________ 14. — Percentage distribution of leather workers, by average hourly earnings and by product, September 1939____________________ 15. — Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of leather workers, by sex, skill, and occupation, September 1939_ 16. — Percentage distribution of leather workers, by average hourly earnings, 1932 and 1939________________________________________ 17. — Percentage distribution of leather workers, by actual weekly hours, sex, and skill, September 1939__________________________ 18. — Percentage distribution of leather workers, by average weekly earnings, sex, and skill, September 1939_______________________ 19. — Number of establishments, number of wage earners, and wages paid in the leather belting and packing industry, 19 2 1 -3 7 ___ 20. — Coverage of survey in the leather belting and packing industry, by States, September1939______________________________________ 21. — Percentage distribution of leather belting and packing workers, by average hourly earnings, sex, and skill, September 1939__ 22. — Distribution of leather belting and packing plants, by average hourly earnings and by district, September 1939_____________ 23. — Percentage distribution of leather belting and packing workers, by average hourly earnings, region, sex, and skill, September 1939______________________________________________________________ 24. — Percentage distribution of leather belting and packing workers, by average hourly earnings, sex, and district, September 1939_ 25. — Percentage distribution of leather belting and packing workers, by average hourly earnings and by groups of plants, Sep tember 1939_____________________________________________________ 8 9 9 10 11 12 14 16 20 21 23 24 27 30 32 36 37 38 42 43 45 46 47 48 50 CONTENTS V Page 26. 27. 28. 29. — Percentage distribution of leather belting and packing workers, by average hourly earnings and by product, September 1939_ — Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of leather belting and packing workers, by sex, skill, and occu pation, September 1939________________________________________ — Percentage distribution of leather belting and packing workers, by actual weekly hours,sex,and skill, September 1939________ — Percentage distribution of leather belting and packing workers, by average weekly earnings, sex, and skill, September 1939________________________________________________________________ 52 55 56 56 Letter o f Transmittal U n it e d S tates D B epartm ent of ureau of L abor L abor, S t a t is t ic s , W a sh in g to n , D . C ., M a y 2 4 , 1 9 4 0 . The S e c r e t a r y o f L a b o r : I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on wages and hours of labor in the leather and leather belting and packing industries in 1939. The report was prepared under the direction of Jacob Perlman, Chief, Division of Wage and Hour Statistics, in response to a request of the Research and Statistics Branch, Wage and Hour Division. I sador L u b in , C o m m is s io n e r . Hon. F r a n c e s P e r k in s , S ecreta ry o j L a b o r. VII PREFACE The present survey of wages and hours in leather tanning and finishing is the third of a series made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in this industry. The first survey was made in 1919 and the second in 1932. The former surveys did not, however, include leather belting and packing. The Bureau wishes to acknowledge its debt to the various firms that voluntarily cooperated in furnishing the information upon which this bulletin is based. The Bureau also expresses its grateful appreciation to the Tanners’ Council of America, American Leather Belting Asso ciation, and New England Shoe and Leather Association, as well as the various unions, for their valuable cooperation. In preparing this bulletin, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has strictly adhered to its long-established policy of keeping confidential all infor mation submitted to it by individual establishments included in the survey. The survey was made under the supervision of Jacob Perlman, Chief of the Division of Wage and Hour Statistics of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. P. L. Jones was in charge of the field work and O. R. Witmer supervised the office work. The text was written by H. O. Rogers. Acknowledgment for valuable suggestions is also extended to A. B. Long, of the Indust^ Committee Branch, and W. P. Fallon, of the Research and Statistics Branch of the Wage and Hour Division. I sador L u b in , Commissioner o j Labor Statistics . M a y 24, 1940. IX 240482°— 41------ 2 Bulletin 7s[o. 679 o f the United States Bureau o f Labor Statistics Earnings and H ours in the Leather and Leather Belting and Packing Industry, 1939 Introduction and Summary Two industries are covered by this report on wages and hours. The first and more important is the manufacture (tanning, currying, and finishing) of leather from hides and skins. The second includes the manufacture of leather belting, leather packing, and textile leathers.1 In the leather tanning and finishing industry, hourly earnings aver aged 62.3 cents in September 1939. Earnings in the leather belting and packing industry were somewhat lower, averaging 56.5 cents an hour. Both industries, however, showed a wide range in individual earnings. An outstanding feature of the leather tanning and finishing industry is the relatively small proportion of workers in the low-earnings classes. Taking the industry as a whole, only 1.2 percent were paid less than 30 cents an hour, 2.7 percent earned less than 35 cents, and 5.8 percent received less than 40 cents. There was a fairly substantial scattering of employees in the higher-earnings classes, 13.2 percent averaging 82.5 cents an hour or better. This is particularly noteworthy in view of the predominance of the semiskilled and unskilled workers in the industry. The differences in hourly earnings in the leather industry can be explained in part by the sharply contrasting wage levels of the differ ent groups of employees. For male workers, the averages were 77.3 cents for the skilled, 65.6 cents for the semiskilled, and 53.8 cents for the unskilled. The female workers averaged 44.5 cents, or 9.3 cents less than the average for the unskilled males. Female employees, however, constitute only a twelfth of the industry’s total labor force. In the leather tanning and finishing industry, as in many other branches of manufacturing, there is a pronounced geographical differ ence in hourly earnings. Against an average of 65.3 cents for all male employees of the northern plants surveyed, those in the South averaged 46.1 cents. In the Northern States, 1.9 percent of the male wage 1 For additional information concerning wages and hours in the manufacture of leather products, see Earnings and Hours in Shoe and Allied Industries, During First Quarter of 1939, U. S. Departm ent of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bull. N o. 670, W ashington, 1939. 1 2 E A R N IN G S AND H OURS, LEATH ER IN D U S T R IE S earners were paid below 40 cents an hour, but 15.6 percent received 82.5 cents and over. In the South 27.9 percent received less than 40 cents, and only 0.7 percent earned as much as 82.5 cents. Hourly earnings in the leather industry are also influenced in an important fashion by the kind of products manufactured. Among the more important industry divisions, hourly earnings were highest (82.7 cents) in plants specializing in the production of glove leather, which represented 4.3 percent of all leather value. Relatively high hourly earnings (72.3 cents) were also reported for the plants specializ ing in calf upper leather, with a representation of 9.9 percent of pro duction value. The lowest hourly earnings (56.7 cents) were shown for workers employed by plants making primarily sole and belting leather. Total value of their products, however, was the highest in the industry. In contrast with the leather tanning and finishing industry, a rela tively large proportion of leather belting and packing employees were found in the lower-wage classes. Roughly one out of every six wage earners (17.3 percent) earned under 40 cents an hour, and 5.6 percent received less than 35 cents. Hardly any of the employees earned less than 25 cents, but there was a small concentration at exactly 25 cents. As in the leather industry, sharply contrasting wage levels are shown for each of the principal groups of employees in the belting and packing industry. Compared with an average of 68.2 cents an hour for skilled males, semiskilled males averaged 54.4 cents, and unskilled males had an average of 42.2 cents. The few female employees in the industry, most of whom were semiskilled workers, averaged 40.5 cents. In the belting and packing industry, there is a sharp contrast in average hourly earnings between the northern and southern estab lishments. As there were no female workers employed in the southern establishments, any comparison between regions should be confined to male employees. For all males, the average hourly earnings were 62.1 cents in the Northern States and 43.9 cents in the South. Weekly hours in the tanning and finishing industry averaged 39.1 in September 1939, as against 43.4 hours in the leather belting and packing industry. Average weekly earnings amounted to $24.42 in the leather tanning and finishing industry and $24.51 in the leather belting and packing industry. The information presented in this report was collected by actual visits of the Bureau’s field representatives to every plant included in the survey. Using pay-roll and other records, the field representa tives obtained for every worker (including working supervisors and plant clerks)2 in each establishment the occupation, sex, color, total 2 The survey did not cover higher supervisory officials and office workers in central or other offices that are separate and distinct from the plants. IN T R O D U C T IO N AND SUM M ARY 3 hours actually worked, and total earnings for a pay-roll period between September 10 and October 1, 1939.3 In addition, certain general plant information concerning full-time hours, overtime rates, methods of wage payment, and employer-employee dealings was secured from the officials of the cooperating firms. Descriptions of the various occupations were obtained from a number of establishments, especially where there was some doubt as to the duties involved. This information, coupled with that ob tained from previous surveys of the leather industry, furnished the basis for the detailed occupational groupings used in the report. In addition, the occupations were classified according to skill. This classification was developed on the basis of the prevailing opinion of plant supervisors, or foremen, as well as other information available in the Bureau. Any classification of occupations by skill tends to be somewhat arbitrary. Despite this limitation, it is be lieved that the skill designations used in this report are essentially accurate. It should be noted that the data collected cover a period prior to October 24, 1939, the effective date of the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act establishing an hourly minimum of 30 cents, as well as a maximum workweek of 42 hours. As only a small pro portion of the workers in the leather industry fell short of the 30-cent minimum at the time of the survey, the wage structure shown here is not likely to be much different from the one now in existence. During the period covered by the survey, the Fair Labor Standards Act provided for a workweek of 44 hours for plants engaged in inter state commerce, and employees working in excess of this standard received time and a half for overtime. Unless otherwise indicated, the hourly earnings shown in this report are based on regular rates. Consequently, they do not reflect the compensation from the extra rates paid for overtime work.4 3 In establishm ents where the pay-roll period exceeded 1 week, there was also obtained the number of hours worked during 1 continuous week w ithin the pay-roll period. This enabled the Bureau to present weekly hours, as w ell as w eekly earnings for all workers. * In m ost surveys made b y the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the compensation resulting from the extra rates for overtime work is included in com puting average hourly earnings. The present survey, how ever, was made at the request of the Economic Section of the Wage and Hour Division, in order to provide reliable information on wages for use of the industry committee that has been established under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. For this reason, it was considered desirable to exclude the earnings at the extra rates. Although made primarily for the Wage and Hour Division, the Bureau has strictly adhered here to its long established policy of keeping confidential all data obtained from individual establishments. Part I Earnings and Hours in the Leather Industry 5 Description of the Industry and Scope o f Survey D efin ition o f the Industry The manufacture of leather from hides and skins includes two principal processes, namely tanning and finishing.5 Most establish ments are integrated, thus performing all processes. A few plants do tanning only, but a substantial number engage in finishing only. The Bureau’s survey included integrated establishments, as well as those confining their operations to either tanning or finishing. In defining the industry, the Census of Manufacturers makes a distinction between regular and contract factories, the former covering plants working primarily on hides and skins owned by them, and the latter including establishments that manufacture leather on contract. Some of the regular plants, however, also do some contract work, and some of the contract establishments also manufacture small amounts of leather from hides and skins owned by them. The present survey includes both regular and contract plants. The survey excluded all integrated plants having fewer than 20 employees, or any separate tanning or finishing establishments with fewer than 10 workers. This reduced the total number of plants in the industry to about 300, which employed somewhat less than 50,000 wage earners. Characteristics o f the Industry As an employer of labor, the leather industry is fairly important. In the aggregate, the 402 establishments6 in the industry, according to the Census of Manufacturers, provided work for 50,687 wage earners in 1937. The total wage bill of these plants amounted to $61,288,375, which represented 54.0 percent of the value added by manufacture. For many years, an outstanding feature of the leather industry was the remarkable decrease that had taken place in the number of estab lishments. This was accompanied by an almost steady rise in the number of wage earners. According to the Census of Manufactures, the number of plants declined from somewhat less than 7,000 in 1849 to 680 in 1919,7 but the number of wage earners increased from approxi6 Includes currying, a secondary process of finishing leather after tanning. 6Includes only plants w ith an annual production valued at $5,000 and over. 7 Prior to 1905, all kinds of manufacturing and mechanical establishments were included by the Census of Manufactures. Since 1905, however, only manufacturing establishments conducted under w hat is known as the factory system have been included. This change affects the comparability of the data as regards the number of plants for the various industries. 240482°—41 3 7 8 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATHER IN D U S T R IE S mately 26,000 to 72,000. This was the result of a gradual expansion in the size of establishment. T a b l e 1 .— Num ber o f establishments, number o f wage earners, and wages paid in the leather ind ustry, 1 9 2 1 -8 7 1 [Based on data from Census of Manufacturers] Year 1921___________________________________________ 1923___________________________________________ 1925_____________________________ _____________ 1927___________________________________________ 1929___________________ _______________________ 1931___________________________________________ 1933___________________________________________ 1935___________________________________________ 1937___________________________________________ 1 Includes Num ber of Num ber of es wage earners tablishments (average for the year) 608 597 531 494 471 418 374 384 402 Average num Wages paid ber of wage (thousands earners per establishment of dollars) 48,955 59, 703 52,263 52,924 49,932 42,047 44,191 50,877 50,687 81 98 107 106 100 101 118 133 126 $57, 741 73,784 65,834 67,887 63,414 49, 542 43, 076 55, 683 61.288 only plants having an annual production valued at $5,000 and over. Even between 1921 and 1937, the number of establishments in the leather industry decreased by about one-third.8 On the other hand, the number of wage earners, which was subject to considerable fluctua tion during this period, never approached the high level reached in 1919. It will be noted, however, that the size of plant in terms of number of wage earners has increased generally during these years. Although the size of the producing unit in the leather industry has been growing steadily, the typical plant is still relatively small. In 1937, for example, the average per establishment was 126 wage earners. Of the 402 plants in that year, only 20 reported between 501 and 1,000 workers, and only a single establishment showed over 1,000 employees. In contrast, about three-fifths of the plants employed 100 workers or less, and virtually one-fourth showed 20 employees or less. Leather manufacturing is widely scattered geographically. (See table 3.) The New England States, the early center of the industry, still remain an important producing region. Most of the leather plants in the Pacific States are located in the vicinity of San Francisco. In the Southern States, by contrast, establishments making leather are scattered throughout the Appalachian belt, but their combined employment constitutes only a minor portion of the industry’s total. 8 Likewise, the figures since 1921 arc not strictly comparable w ith those for 1919 and prior years. Before 1921, the Census of Manufactures covered all establishm ents w ith a value of product amounting to $500 and over. Beginning w ith that year, however, the m inim um requirement was extended to a product value of $5,000 and over. T his change probably accounts for m ost of the decrease in number of plants between 1919 and 1921. The establishm ents excluded due to the shift in definition were very small, so that the reduction in number of wage earners between the 2 years was due primarily to other causes. D E S C R IP T IO N T able OF THE 9 IN D U S T R Y 2 . — Classification o f establishments in the leather ind ustry, by siz et 1937 [Based on data from Census of Manufactures! Num ber of N um ber of establish wage earners ments Size of establishm ent 402 3 31 63 81 70 87 46 Total_____________________ N o wage earners__________ 1 to 5 wage earners________ 6to 20 wage earners_______ 21 to 50 wage earners______ 51 to 100 wage earners____ 101 to 250 wage earners___ 251 to 500 wage earners___ 501 to 1,000 wage earners,-. 1,001 to 2,500 wage earners_ 2,501 wage earners or more. 50,687 99 742 2, 792 5,256 14.182 15,161 12,455 0) 20 1 1 As this figure could not be shown without disclosing data for an individual establishment, it has been included w ith that for the previous size group. T able 3 .— Geographical distribution o f establishments and wage earners in the leather ind ustry, by State, 1937 [Based on data from Census of Manufactures] State Wage N u m earners ber of (aver estab age lish the m ents for year) L e a th e r : T a n n e d , c u r r ie d , a n d f in is h e d — r e g u la r f a c to r ie s U nited S t a t e s ___ ____ _______ California - _ _ ______ D elaw are... . ________________ Illin o is.__________ ___________ Indiana________ ___________ . K entucky . ________ __________ M aryland_______ ______ M assachusetts . _ _______ MinhiVan Missouri _ _____________ N ew Jersey ________ N ew Y ork___ __ . . . . N orth Carolina__________________ 331 48,132 13 667 10 2, 692 4, 376 26 368 5 442 3 3 520 66 9, 325 13 2 569 4 ’ 182 2, 930 33 4, 710 37 1,133 9 State Ohio_____________________________ Oregon______ _____ _____ _____ Pennsylvania_____ . . . .............. Virginia, W est V irginia.. _ . . . . _______ W isconsin . . . _ . _ . . . ._ Other States 1______________ . . . N um ber of estab lish m ents 14 4 44 7 6 17 17 W age earners (aver age for the year) 1,825 25 8, 541 770 937 4, 307 1,813 L e a th e r : T a n n e d , c u r r ie d , a n d fin is h e d — c o n tra c t fa c to r ie s U nited States ___ _____ ________ M assach u setts___ N ew Jersey . _________ N ew Y ork___ _ . _. ________ Other States 2____________________ 71 30 8 20 13 2, 555 880 335 838 502 1Connecticut, 2 establishm ents; Georgia, 2; M aine, 1; M innesota, 3; N ew Hampshire, 3; Rhode Island, 1; Tennessee, 2; Texas, 2; W ashington, 1. 2Colorado, 1 establishm ent; Delaware, 1; Illinois, 3; M aine, 2; N ew Hampshire, 1; Pennsylvania, 3; W isconsin, 2. At first glance, the leather industry appears reasonably homogeneous in terms of product. Actually, however, it is an industry of extreme diversity. The factors that contribute to the complexity of the industry are the variations in the kinds of animal skins or hides em ployed for conversion into leather and the specific uses for which the finished leather is intended. These factors, in turn, determine the tanning and finishing methods employed in the manufacturing process. Some idea of the variety and relative importance of the various products manufactured in the leather industry may be obtained 10 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATHER I N D U S T R IE S from table 4, which has been condensed from a more detailed table presented by the Census of Manufactures for 1937. It will be seen that, in terms of value, the most important products are sole and belting (30.3 percent), side upper leather (20.2 percent), kid upper leather (10.8 percent), and calf upper leather (9.9 percent). T able 4 . — Value o f 'products in the leather ind ustry, 1937 [Based on data from Census of Manufacturers] Kind of leather Value of product Per cent i $362, 094, 589 100.0 All k in d s.-. ______ Sole and belting leather______ 110, 212, 195 30.3 Side upper leather, cattle 2___ 73, 044, 815 20. 2 K id upper leather___________ 39,132, 725 10.8 35, 705, 736 9.9 Calf upper leather___________ Sheepskin and goatskin— Glove and garment leather. 15, 639, 069 4.3 Lining leather_____________ 13,965, 396 3.9 Splits, other than upper and 2.8 upholstery leather. _____ 10, 230,174 Kind of leather Upholstery leather (automo bile, furniture, and car riage) — Patent upper leather________ Fancy leather_______________ Bag, case, and strap leather. _ Harness and collar leather___ H orsehide.. . . . ____________ W elting leather_________ Miscellaneous leather 3______ Value of product $7,138, 787 9, 326, 345 6, 625, 961 5, 315, 613 6, 000, 303 5, 750, 321 2, 297, 520 21, 709, 629 Per cent 2.0 2.6 1.8 1.5 1.7 1.6 .6 6.0 1 Includes the value of leather only, whether made as a primary product in this industry or as a secondary product in other industries. In order to avoid duplication, the value of rough leather has been excluded. 2 Includes also wax and finished splits. 3 This includes all other leather which is not classified w ith the above items. Fluctuations in Employment and Pay Rolls As stated previously, the figures of the Census of Manufactures indicate important fluctuations in the total number of wage earners in the leather industry between 1921 and 1937. Such fluctuations are confirmed by the index numbers of employment and pay rolls since 1923, which are published monthly by the Bureau’s Division of Em ployment Statistics. (See table 5.) In connection with these figures, it* is interesting to note how the changes in business conditions affected employment and pay rolls in the leather industry since 1937. The highest point in employment during recent years was reached in April 1937, when the index stood at 98.8 (using 1923-25 as a base of 100). After that month, employment declined almost without interruption until June 1938, when the index stood at 73.3. This was followed by a general rise that brought the index up to about 88 percent of the 1923-25 average in the fall of 1939. The highest point reached by the index numbers of pay rolls during recent years (99.5) was also recorded in April 1937, after which there was a general decline that continued until the following April, when the index stood at 65.7. Subsequently, a general increase occurred, which raised the index to 88 percent of the 1923-25 average in the fall of 1939. Although frequently overshadowed by cyclical changes, employ ment and pay rolls are affected by seasonal fluctuations in the leather industry. Generally, the slack period occurs during the summer, and the busy months are during the fall and winter. D E S C R IP T IO N OF THE IN D U S T R Y 11 Based on the monthly reports of employment and pay rolls, the Bureau computes average weekly earnings. Likewise, using the figures on man-hours, which are reported by a substantial number of establishments, there are computed average hourly earnings and average hours worked per week. These figures are presented by months since 1932 in table 6. Average hourly earnings in the leather industry showed a strong tendency to remain constant for relatively long periods of time. The lowest figure during the depression of the early thirties was reached in April 1933, when the average amounted to 38.4 cents. Following the adoption of the President’s Reemployment Agreement and the in dustry code during the N. R. A., average hourly earnings rose to about 56 cents at the close of 1934. Hourly earnings remained at approxi mately this level until the fall of 1936. During the latter part of 1936 and early part of 1937 the average increased again, attaining a level of approximately 63-64 cents. Since that time, earnings have remained relatively stable. T able 5 , — In d ex num bers o f em ploym ent and pa y rolls in the leather ind ustry, 1923-39 1 [Indexes are based on 3-year average 1923-25=100 and are adjusted to 1937 Census of Manufactures] M onth 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 Em ploym ent January_____ February____ March ____ April________ M ay ______ June______ __ Ju ly_________ A ugust______ Septem ber__ October_____ Novem ber___ Decem ber___ Average___ 114.6 103.1 116. 2 103.5 115. 1 102.4 113.3 98. 1 108.9 93. 2 108.4 90. 2 107.7 87.4 106.3 88. 2 105. 2 92.9 104.9 94. 0 105.7 95. 2 103.0 96.8 109. 1 95.4 97.8 99. 0 98.7 96.0 93.3 93.0 91.4 93.1 95. 2 95.8 96.3 95.9 95.5 97.4 99.4 98.4 101.3 98.6 99. 5 96.4 95.4 94.5 94.0 92.0 94. 1 93. 6 95.1 96.4 95. 5 98.3 96.4 98.1 96. 0 98.4 96.3 98. 6 96.4 96.7 96. 6 98.0 98.8 98.0 94.7 94.7 93.4 94. 1 94.4 94.3 93. 0 89.9 88.3 94.3 89.8 90. 2 89. 0 88.3 88. 2 89.0 92.0 93. 2 94.3 95. 2 93. 2 91.3 91. 1 89. 5 77.6 70.9 70.3 90.7 91.8 95.0 95.8 76. 1 87. 3 89. 0 77.7 72.3 71.8 92.8 93.3 93.6 96. 2 77.1 88.3 88. 2 78.6 71.3 69.9 94. 1 93. 1 93.1 97.6 75.9 87. 3 87.6 77. 9 70.8 65.8 92. 1 92.0 92.5 98.8 74. 0 85.8 86.1 77.6 67.7 73.2 90.9 90.6 91.8 98.0 73.4 83.3 84.4 83.9 84. 1 83.7 82.9 79.9 76. 2 84. 6 77.7 79.5 80.5 77.9 75.0 72.] 70. 5 76.9 80.5 85.7 91. 6 91.9 90.8 87. 2 90. 2 68.8 80.7 90. 2 90. 2 91. 3 96.9 73. 3 84.8 90. 1 90.8 92. 2 93.8 75.1 85.5 86.8 91.7 94.0 93.0 78.5 85.5 85. 1 92. 4 95.9 91.7 79.8 86.5 86. 4 94. 2 95.8 88.882. 5 88.4 87. 3 97.4 96.9 82. 3 85. 3 87.9 90.7 97. 5 97.0 78.1 86.687.0 86.5 89.8 92.9 94. 1 92.6 50. 2 53.3 49.3 44. 1 55.6 65.7 70.9 74.6 74.1 74.6 69.9 74.2 63.0 73.0 77.0 85. 9 91.8 67.9 85.8 77. 2 80. 5 83. 1 93.6 70.9 87. 3 78.2 81.6 80.6 95.9 69. 1 85. 2 76. 1 78.8 81.1 99.5 65.7 81.4 75.9 77.5 82.2 98. 2 66.078.7 73.6 78.3 81.0 96.8 67.3 82. 2 72.7 78. 3 80.9 92.6 70. 1 82.0 69.6 80.9 84. 5 92.4 75.7 83. 1 66.9 81.8 85.8 87.6 76.7 84.2 69.9 85.6 88.9 84.3 79.4 88.2 71.4 87. 3 90.4 73.2 82. 3 87.2 75.4 89. 5 94.1 69. 4 85. 1 86.5 73.3 81.4 84.9 89.6 73.0 84.5 63. 8 63.4 64.8 67.3 70. 2 72.1 71. 0 Payrolls January_____ February____ M arch,.. April________ M a y ________ June. ______ July_________ August______ Septem ber__ October_____ Novem ber___ Decem ber___ Average___ 1 Compiled 105.1 105. 6 98.8 98. 5 103.0 100.6 88.0 89. 1 108.9 107.0 102.8101. 6 105. 1 102.4 92. 5 89.3 110. 6 104.8 102.4 102. 2 102. 2 102.3 88.7 86. 5 109. 5 99.3 94.3 99.4 97.7 95. 5 89.4 85.7 111. 1 92.9 94.9 97.3 96.4 96. 1 90. 2 85. 2 109.8 91.1 92.3 94.7 97.3 93.8 91.9 83.8 106. 5 83.6 88.3 94.7 96. 2 94.2 93. 1 82.3 104. 5 87.4 93.4 99. 6 99.1 94.3 97.1 83.8 105. 6 90.3 92.6 100.6 97.7 94. 2 96.9 82.0 108. 5 94.3 98.1 103.1 98. 1 94.4 99.9 80. 1 107.4 94. 1 98.6 100.4 98.1 88. 8 93.8 75.6 106.7 98.8 99. 1 102.4 101.0 89.7 92.0 73.0 107.9 95.8 96.3 99.5 99.3 95. 5 92.8 83.0 by Bureau’s Division of Em ploym ent Statistics. 71.3 73.9 76.0 75.7 76.4 75.8 76.9 78.4 73.4 68.4 63.0 60.9 72.5 58.0 61. 5 60. 1 56. 8 51.1 47.7 46.9 49. 1 52.4 56.3 54.9 53.6 54.0 12 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATHER IN D U S T R IE S T a b l e 6. — E arnings and hours 1 in the leather industry, 1 9 3 2 -3 9 2 1932 M onth 1933 1934 1936 1935 1937 1938 1939 Average hourly earnings January_____ __________________ $0.443 $0. 393 $0. 523 $0. 561 $0. 557 $0. 587 $0. 638 .444 .393 .525 .561 .555 .590 .634 February__________________ _______ .399 .522 .564 .558 .591 M a rc h _____________ ________________ .449 .638 .521 .451 .565 .562 .384 .614 .636 A pril________ _____________________ .396 .524 .563 .558 .624 .633 --- - --- .449 M a y______ ___ __ .407 .524 .561 .556 .626 .630 June________________________________ .440 .419 .529 .561 .417 .558 .631 Ju ly________________________________ .628 .452 .538 .560 .563 A ugust_________ . . _ _____ - .421 .628 .629 .544 .564 .563 .486 September__________ _______ _______ .417 .630 .629 .552 .560 .507 .559 .633 October________ _______ _______ .419 .630 .505 .559 .560 .565 N ovem ber__________________________ .410 .628 .629 .398 .515 .558 .561 D ecem ber________________ _______ .576 .638 .631 .429 .562 .446 .537 .561 Average______________________ .617 .632 $0. 639 .634 .630 .629 .629 .630 .629 .633 .634 .633 .639 .643 .634 Average hours worked per week January____________________________ February_________________________ _ M arch______________ _____ . ___ A pril_______________________________ M ay . . . . _______________________ June________________________________ Ju ly________________________________ A ugust_________________ _________ Septem ber. _ ______________________ October ____________________________ N ovem ber__________________________ D ecem ber________________ ________ A verage_______ _____ ________ 41.2 44.4 43. 7 42. 2 39.0 40.0 41.3 41.5 41.9 43.2 42.7 43.1 42.0 41.8 43.3 42.3 40. 7 44.9 46.5 46.3 41. 7 37.9 37.8 37. 5 38. 2 41.1 37.1 37.9 37.4 37.2 37.7 37.6 36.2 35.9 35. 1 35.9 36.6 37.3 36.8 37.6 37.6 38.2 37. 5 37.4 37.6 37.8 38.4 38.3 39.3 38.9 39.6 38.2 39.3 38.8 37.7 38.2 38.9 38.6 38.3 39.5 39.2 40.6 40.1 41.3 39.2 40.2 40. 5 40.9 40.6 39.7 39.3 38.6 38.9 37.7 37.5 35.2 35.2 38.8 35.4 36.6 36. 1 35.1 35.8 36.8 37.4 38.7 38. 7 38. 5 38.6 39.2 37.3 39.0 39.4 38.9 37.8 37. 9 38.7 38.0 38.6 38.6 39.4 38.7 38.8 38.7 $21. 96 $23. 55 $22.43 21.51 23.95 23.11 21.05 24. 11 22.91 21.38 24. 76 22. 32 21.69 24. 64 22. 57 21.63 24.54 23.11 21.48 24.32 23.44 22. 01 24.64 24. 29 21.94 23. 70 24.24 22. 75 23.60 24. 23 22. 79 22.13 24. 30 23. 72 22. 23 24. 77 21.99 23. 90 23. 52 $24. 76 24. 88 24.47 23. 83 23. 78 24. 30 23.96 24. 29 24.32 24.91 24. 76 24.88 24.43 Average w eekly earnings January_______________ ______ _____ February_____ _______________ _____ M arch______ ____________________ _ April _______________________________ M a y____ _ ________ . . . ______ June_______________________ _______ Ju ly________________________________ A ugust_____________________________ Septem ber.. ._ . . . . . . . . October____ _____ _________ N ovem ber_____ .. ______ __________ D ecem ber. ____________ ___________ Average_____ _________________ $19. 96 $17. 51 $19. 73 $21. 26 20.47 18. 24 20. 43 21.20 20. 34 17 52 20. 33 21.43 19.48 16. 78 20. 21 21.04 18. 43 18. 54 20.41 20. 96 18. 37 19. 92 20. 16 21.26 17. 79 20. 07 19. 84 21.10 18. 69 19. 73 19. 84 21.59 18. 67 19. 50 19. 57 21. 59 19.32 19. 86 20.18 22. 00 18.44 19. 50 20. 45 21.78 18.31 20.08 20. 88 22.21 19.03 19.06 20.17 21.47 1 A verage w e e k ly earnings are co m p u ted from figures fu rn ish ed b y a ll rep orting e sta b lish m e n ts. A verage h ours an d average h o u rly earnings are co m p u ted from d a ta su p p lied b y a sm aller n u m b er o f esta b lish m en ts as all rep orting firm s d o n o t fu rn ish m an -h ou rs. T h e figures are n o t str ic tly com parab le from m o n th to m o n th b ecau se of ch an ges in th e size a n d co m p o sitio n of th e rep ortin g sa m p le. 2C o m p iled b y th e B u r e a u ’s D iv isio n of E m p lo y m e n t S ta tistics. Description o f the Sample In the present survey, no attempt was made to cover all of the leather plants. Instead, the survey was restricted to a carefully selected sample of 152 establishments, from which wages and hours data were obtained for 25,617 wage earners. The method of sampling used by the Bureau in this survey differs from that employed in other surveys. In the outlying States, where D E S C R IP T IO N OF THE IN D U S T R Y 13 a relatively small proportion of the industry is located, the survey covered virtually all establishments. This included California and a number of Southern States; namely, Virginia, Tennessee, North Caro lina, Georgia, and Texas. Similarly, the Bureau covered all single plant companies with 500 wage earners and over. For the small and medium-sized single-establishment concerns, however, as well as the plants of multi-unit companies in all regions, which are located in other parts of the country, the coverage was on a sample basis. The “ cell” method of sampling was used, in accordance with which a number of cells were formed, each constituting a more or less homogeneous entity with respect to size of plant, location, size of community, product, unionization, etc. Depending upon the number of establishments in the cell, one or more plants were selected to represent each cell, which were later weighted to bring the figure up to the total size of the cell. Upon the completion of the weighting, the coverage was checked to make sure that it afforded an accurate crosssection of the industry, from the standpoint of size of plant, corporate affiliation, product, geographical distribution, size of community, and unionization. An indication of the extent to which the geographical composition of the sample corresponds to that of the total industry is shown by table 7, which compares the distribution of the industry by States, as shown by the Census of Manufactures, and that in the Bureau’s survey. In making this comparison, it is important to note that the present survey was made in September 1939, but the most recent availa ble data for the Census of Manufactures are for 1937. It should also be kept in mind that the wage survey included only establishments with 20 or more workers, whereas the Census of Manufactures covered all plants with an annual production valued at $5,000 and over. Finally, it will be noted that, in several of the States shown, data on the wage earners employed by contract factories are not available from the information of the Census of Manufactures, while such establishments are included in the data for each State in the Bureau’s survey. In spite of these differences, an examination of the figures indicates that the proportion of wage earners covered by the survey in most States corresponds very closely with that reported by the Census of Manu factures. Massachusetts, for example, accounted for 20.1 percent of the wage earners in 1937, as compared with 21.0 percent in the survey. In other States, likewise, the correspondence between the two series is striking. 14 T E A R N IN G S a b l e 7.—Coverage AND HOURS, LEATHER IN D U S T R IE S o f survey in the leather ind ustry, hy States, Septem ber 1989 C en su s of m a n u fa ctu res, 1937 S ta te U n ite d S ta te s_______ ___________________________________ C a lifo rn ia ____________________________________________________ D e la w a r e__________ _______ ______ _____ - _____ I llin o is -.- ________ ___________________________ __________ M a ssa c h u se tts-. ______ - - - - - - - - - . . . . - - - - - M ic h ig a n _____________________________________________________ N e w J e r se y ---------------------- ---------------------------------------------------N e w Y o r k ._ _____ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ ________ N o r th C a ro lin a . __ _ ____ __ _ __ _ _ .. .. O h io .. - . . - - - - - - - - -_- _ ------- -_- _____ . P e n n sy lv a n ia - - - - _ _ ______ __ _______ ____ W isc o n s in .. _ . __ _______ _______ _____ _____ ____________ - . . . -------------O th er p la n ts______________ N u m b e r of w orkers 50, 687 667 2 2,692 3 4,376 10, 205 2, 569 3,265 5, 548 1,133 1,825 48,541 s 4, 307 6 5,559 P er c e n t of w ork ers P er c e n t of w o rk ers in B u rea u su rvey1 100. 0 100.0 1.3 1 .3 5 .1 10.7 21.0 2 .5 5 .3 8.6 20. 1 5. 1 6 .4 10.9 2.2 3 .6 16.9 8 .5 11.1 6.1 10.5 1.8 2.2 1 6.4 12 .9 7 9 .5 1Excludes integrated plants w ith less than 20 employees, as well as finishing establishm ents w ith less than 10 workers. 2 Excludes 1 contract plant. 3 Excludes 3 contract plants. < Excludes 3 contract plants. fi Excludes 2 contract plants. 6Includes 2 regular factories in Connecticut, 2 in Georgia, 5 in Indiana, 3 in K entucky, 1 in M aine, 3 in M aryland, 3 in M innesota, 4 in M issouri, 3 in N ew Hampshire, 4 in Oregon, 1 in Rhode Island, 2 in Tennes see, 2 in Texas, 7 in Virginia, 1 in W ashington, and 6 in W est Virginia; includes also 1 contract factory in Colorado, 1 in Delaware, 3 in Illinois, 2 in M aine, 1 in N ew Hampshire, 3 in Pennsylvania, and 2 in W is consin. 7Includes 3 plants in Connecticut. 1 in Georgia, 2 in Indiana, 2 in M aryland, 1 in M innesota, 2 in Missouri, 2 in N ew Hampshire, 3 in Tennessee, 1 in Texas, 2 in Virginia, and 2 in W est Virginia. The estimated (weighted) number of workers as computed from the Bureau’s survey was approximately 47,900.9 Applying to the figure of 50,687 wage earners, as reported by the Census of Manufactures for 1937, the net change in employment disclosed by the Bureau’s index numbers, the estimated number of workers in the industry at the time of the survey in September 1939 was about 47,300, which is only slightly less than the weighted figure shown above. In September 1939 the Bureau obtained information by mail questionnaire on employment and pay rolls from 169 establishments in the leather industry, with 34,300 employees. These workers averaged 63.4 cents for hourly earnings, 38.6 for weekly hours, and $24.32 for weekly earnings,10 which may be compared with 62.3 cents, 39.1 hours, and $24.42, respectively, on the basis of the present field survey.11 The close correspondence between the respective figures of two independent surveys is evidence of the accuracy of both samples. o This figure excludes integrated establishm ents w ith fewer than 20 employees, as w ell as finishing plants w ith fewer than 10 workers, neither of which were included in the survey. These establishments covered approximately 800 employees. The figures on average hourly and weekly earnings include the extra earnings due to overtime work. 11The figures on average w eekly hours and earnings in the survey are exclusive of 1 establishment, which did not report total hours worked. PLATE 1.-FLESHING-MACHINE OPERATOR. P l a t e 2.—S h a v i n g - M a c h i n e O p e r a t o r s . AVERAGE HOURLY E A R N IN G S 15 Average H ourly Earnings Methods o f Wage Payments A majority of the wage earners in the leather industry are paid on a straight time-rate basis. Although the proportion varied from plant to plant, some time workers were found in each of the establishments included in the survey. Most of these employees were paid on an hourly basis, but there were a few occupations, such as working fore men and maintenance workers, that were customarily on a weekly or monthly basis. Including the salaried employees, 51.8 percent of the wage earners in the industry were paid on a time-rate basis. Although time workers predominated in the industry, some em ployees were paid straight piece rates in approximately three-fourths of the establishments, the total number of workers affected being 38.5 percent of the labor force. In general, employees paid at piece rates were most frequent in the finishing departments. The occupa tions showing a considerable number of piece workers were machine stakers, togglers, tackers, buffers, machine setters-out, glazingmachine operators, hand finishers or seasoners, and shaving-machine operators. Moreover, group piece rates were frequently applied to some of the occupations. Togglers and tackers, for example, in many plants, customarily worked in teams and split their total earnings. Production-bonus systems of wage payment were reported by a few of the larger establishments, affecting approximately one-tenth of the total wage earners in the industry. In some of these plants, moreover, only certain classes of employees were affected. H ourly Earnings o f A ll Workers For all wage earners in the leather industry, earnings in September 1939 averaged 62.3 cents an hour, but varied considerably among establishments. Indeed, for the plants covered by the survey, the averages ranged from under 30 cents to almost $1. Despite the wide differences, a substantial number of establishments, employing more than one-half of the workers, showed averages that fell within the 15-cent range between 55 and 70 cents. On the other hand, the establishments averaging under 55 cents employed less than one-fifth, and those with averages of 70 cents and over accounted for more than one-fourth of the total labor force.12 Considering the hourly earnings of individual workers, which are shown in table 8, the largest proportion (13.9 percent) in any 5-cent interval was found between 57.5 and 62.5 cents. Approximately one-half (48.7 percent) received between 47.5 and 67.5 cents, and over four-fifths (81.0 percent) were paid between 40.0 and 82.5 cents. A substantial proportion, namely 13.2 percent, earned 82.5 cents and 12 These proportions are based on the weighted number of workers. 240482°—41------4 16 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATHER IN D U S T R IE S over. On the other hand, relatively few (5.8 percent) received less than 40 cents. This is particularly noteworthy, in view of the pre dominance of semiskilled and unskilled workers in the industry. T a b l e 8 .— Percentage distribution o f leather w orkers, by average hourly earnings, sex, and skill, Septem ber 1939 Males All work ers Average hourly earnings Under 25.0 cents Exactly 25.0 cents_ 25.1 and under 27.5 27.5 and under 30.0 30.0 and under 32.5 cents____ _ cents.._ _ . . . ____ __ cents.. _________ ______ 0.6 .3 .3 .7 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 and and and and and under 35.0 under 37.5 under 40.0 under 42.5 under 47.5 cents______________ _ . cents. _______________ cents. . . . _ . . cents. . cents___________________ .8 1.9 1.2 5.5 7.4 .6 .6 .9 4.0 6.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 and and and and and under under under under under 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 cents___ _____ _____ __ cents. ________________ cents. cents. . . . . _________ c e n t s .. ___ _________ 11.5 12.5 13.9 10.8 8.2 72.5 and 77.5 and 82.5 and 87.5 and 92.5 and under under under under under 77.5 cen ts.._ _________ __ 82.5 c e n t s .______ ______ 87.5 cents._ . . .. _ _ 92.5 cents_____ _ _________ 100.0 cents. ______ _ 100.0 110.0 125.0 150.0 _ _ _ _ Total and under 110.0 cents____ __ _ _ and under 125.0 cents . . _ _ and under 150.0 cents . _. ___ cents and over. _ _ _ 0) Skilled Semi skilled U n skilled Fe males .2 0.1 .2 .2 .4 0.1 1.6 .3 .4 1.1 1.7 1.0 1.8 2.1 .2 .2 .3 .7 1.8 .5 .4 .6 2.7 5.2 .9 1.3 1.8 7.9 11.2 2.4 15.2 4.5 22.8 17.4 11.4 12.7 14.7 11.7 8.7 3.8 5.9 8.9 11.7 11.4 8.9 11.3 15. 5 13.7 10.7 19.7 18.5 15.7 8.1 3.8 12.1 9.8 4.7 1.4 2.4 6.1 5.1 3.2 2.7 3. 1 6.7 5.5 3.5 3.0 3. 3 9.1 8.6 6.2 8.0 10.1 8.1 6.8 3.9 2.8 3.1 2.9 1.8 1.3 .8 .5 2.3 1.0 .7 .2 2.5 1.1 .8 .3 7.4 2.6 2.0 .8 2.4 1.3 .9 .3 0) 0.5 .2 .2 .6 0.1 0) 0) .2 .1 .3 .2 C) .1 .1 0) 0) _ _____________ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number of workers (weighted)____________ 47, 904 43, 895 6, 439 24, 280 13,176 4, 009 Average hourly earnings.. $0. 623 $0.638 $0. 773 $0. 656 $0. 538 $0. 445 Total_______________ _. . ... 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. Variations by Sex and Skill Leather manufacturing is largely a man’s industry. In contrast with many other industries that have been mechanized extensively, women constitute only a minor fraction of the wage earners in this industry. Taking the industry as a whole, only one-twelfth of the total labor force were women. The proportion of females, however, varied conspicuously in the different divisions of the industry. Vir tually no women were employed in the plants manufacturing sole and belting and glove leather, but 18.3 percent of the workers found in the kid-leather plants and 17.0 percent of those employed in calf-upper plants were females. Even in the branches where females were rela tively numerous, their employment was largely restricted to the finishing departments. No females were found in the southern establishments. AVERAGE HOURLY E A R N IN G S 17 Converting raw hides and skins into leather is one of the oldest processes known to man. Tho principal objective is to preserve the material and at the same time to give it certain desired physical properties. For some purposes, such as gloves, the requisite qualities are softness, flexibility, and porosity. Firmness, thickness, and dur ability, on the other hand, are the properties needed in high-quality sole and belting leather. To bring out the desired qualities formerly required craftsmen with an intimate knowledge of leather and the treatment of leather. At the present, however, the processes in volved are largely chemically controlled, and modern machinery has displaced all except a relatively small remnant of the highly skilled craftsmen. In spite of the progressive decline in the demand for highly skilled craftsmen in the leather industry, a few machine operations still require a high degree of manual dexterity. This is due largely to the fact that very few of the machines used in making leather are com pletely automatic. As shown by this survey, skilled males constituted over one-eighth of the total workers in the industry. Most of the females were semiskilled employees. The semiskilled males consti tuted approximately one-half, and the unskilled males accounted for over one-fourth of the total labor force. The dispersion of hourly earnings in tho leather industry may be explained in part by the sharply contrasting wage levels among the different groups of employees. For male workers, the averages were 77.3 cents for skilled, 65.6 cents for semiskilled, and 53.8 cents for unskilled. Hence, the difference between skilled and semiskilled was about the same as that between semiskilled and unskilled employees. The female workers averaged 44.5 cents, or 9.3 cents less than the average of the unskilled males. An outstanding feature of the distribution of individual hourly earnings is the relatively small proportion of the more important groups of employees in the low-wage classes. Among semiskilled males, numerically the largest single group, only 2.4 percent of the total were found below the 40-cent level. Moreover, hourly earnings of this amount or less are shown for only 1.0 percent of the skilled and no more than 7.5 percent of the unskilled males. On the other hand, 28.7 percent of the females were paid under 40 cents, but it must be remembered that this is the smallest group of workers in the industry. Among each of the more important groups of employees, a fairly generous scattering is found in the upper wage classes. Thus, earnings of 82.5 cents an hour and over are shown for more than one-third (37.1 percent) of the skilled and over one-seventh (14.7 percent) of the semiskilled males. Even among the unskilled males, the hourly earnings of a small minority (2.9 percent) amounted to 82.5 cents and 18 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATHER I N D U S T R IE S orer. By contrast, hardly any females received that figure and above. Hourly earnings in excess of $1 were confined largely to the skilled and semiskilled males, the respective proportions amounting to 12.8 and 4.9 percent. Geographical Differences Under the N. R. A., the code for the leather industry provided for two regions with respect to wages. One was the southern area, includ ing Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. For these States, the minimum rate set was 32.5 cents an hour. For the remainder of the United States, including all of the Northern and Western States, the minimum was 35 cents for females and 40 cents for males. Generally speaking, there is a difference in the wage levels of these two areas. Of the Southern States mentioned in the code, the survey covered Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee, North Caro lina, Georgia, and Texas, as the other States either had no establish ments or had none of any importance in the leather industry. These seven States, which employed 6.9 percent of the total wage earners in the industry, had a considerably lower wage level on the whole than that found in the Northern States, despite the fact that no females were employed in the plants covered by the survey in the Southern States. The wage level in the Southern States, however, was by no means uniform. In fact, these States may be divided into two districts, each of which had a different wage level. One district (including Tennes see, North Carolina, Georgia, and Texas) may, for the sake of con venience, be termed the lower Southern States. These States gen erally showed the lowest hourly earnings, as evidenced by an examina tion of the averages of the various establishments. Thus, all but one of the plants covered here by the survey averaged less than 45 cents. Moreover, all of the establishments in the industry with an average un der 35 cents were in this district. The other district (including West Virginia, Maryland, and Virginia) may be designated as the border States. A somewhat higher wage level generally prevailed in this district. With one exception, the averages of the plants included by the survey in these States fell within a relatively narrow range, between 45 and 50 cents. The wage level of these border States overlaps with that of the Northern States. Thus, there are individual establishments in a number of Northern States with average hourly earnings of less than 45 cents. These are exceptional, however, as a large proportion of the northern plants have average hourly earnings of more than 50 cents, AVERAGE HOURLY E A R N IN G S 19 Although the general wage level in the northern region is substantially higher than that in either of the two southern wage districts, hourly earnings in the North show less concentration. Broadly speaking, hourly earnings in this area varied considerably even within a single State. This was especially true of the more important States. In Massachusetts, for example, the averages of the plants covered in the survey ranged from 37 to 83 cents, although most of the establishments averaged between 60 and 80 cents. In Pennsylvania, the plant averages covered a spread from 39 to 71 cents, with the majority of establishments concentrated between 50 and 70 cents. The range of plant averages in New York State was from 52 to 99 cents, but most of the establishments averaged between 65 and 85 cents. A similar dispersion was found in other States having a substantial number of plants, such as Delaware, Illinois, New Jersey, and Wisconsin. With hourly earnings in the northern region differing considerably in most instances within a single State, it is obviously difficult to conceive of homogeneous wage districts that are composed of more than one State. The three districts that are shown in this report represent more or less arbitrary groupings of States that correspond to areas that the trade frequently regards as competing producing areas. These groupings include plants surveyed in the New England, Middle Atlantic, and Middle Western States, respectively. The New England States covered in the survey included Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Connecticut. Delaware was added to the Middle Atlantic States which, under the Bureau of the Census classification, include New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The Middle Western States, as used in the present survey include not only the East North Central States (Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin), as defined by the Bureau of the Census, but also Minnesota, Missouri, and Cali fornia. Each of these groups of States is important, accounting re spectively for 23.2, 38.0, and 31.9 percent of the total workers in the industry. The differences in the wage structure of these three districts are not sufficient for them to be regarded as distinctive wage areas. The most concentrated distribution of hourly earnings is found in the Middle Western States (including California). In this District only 2.9 per cent of the workers received less than 40 cents, and 2.6 percent were paid more than 92.5 cents. On the other hand, more than two-thirds (67.7 percent) earned 47.5 to 72.5 cents. The average for all workers was 62.0 cents, while most establishments averaged less than 65 cents. (See table 9.) 20 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATHER IN D U S T R IE S T a b l e 9 .— Percentage distribution o f leather w orkers, by average hourly earnings, sex, and district, Septem ber 1939 All workers Average hourly earnings and and and and and Females1 M id M id M id dle dle dle W est W est W est M id M id M id New New ern New ern ern South South dle dle dle Eng Eng Eng in in in A t ern ern A t A t land land land clud clud clud lantic lantic lantic ing ing ing Cali Cali Cali fornia fornia fornia . __ _ cents cents______ cents______ 0.1 .4 .3 .3 .5 (2) 0.1 (2) .1 .6 (2) 0.4 .2 .4 .8 5.0 2.4 1.8 4.1 0.1 .4 .2 .2 .4 (2) 0.1 (2) .1 .4 under 35.0 cents.. under 37.5 cents______ under 40.0 cents______ under 42.5 cents______ under 47.5 cents. ____ .2 1.9 .9 7.8 6.6 .5 2.7 1.0 5. 1 6.6 .2 .8 .6 3.6 6.7 6.5 1.6 6.5 9.6 18.2 .1 .8 .5 4. 6 4.8 .2 .7 .5 3.5 6.0 Under 25.0 cents._ Exactly 25.0 cents 25.1 and under 27.5 27.5 and under 30.0 30.0 and under 32.5 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 Males 0.1 .1 5.0 2.4 1.8 4.1 0.2 .8 1.0 1.1 0.5 2.3 4. 7 2.2 3.6 2.9 .1 .3 .4 2.7 5. 7 6.5 1.6 6.5 9.6 18.2 1.1 10.6 3.5 32.5 20. 7 5.0 29.4 7.4 25.1 14.6 1.2 6.4 2.8 12.2 16.9 10.5 12.2 3.5 .3 1.8 6.6 1.5 3.8 .9 2.0 18.4 14.9 6.6 2.8 3.2 (2) 47.5 and 52.5 and 57.5 and 62.5 and 67.5 and under under under under under 52.5 cents______ 57.5 cents______ 62.5 cents______ 67.5 cents______ 72.5 cents______ 9.9 10.4 12.2 10. 1 7.0 12.4 12.5 12.0 10.2 7.1 11.0 13.5 18.1 13.7 11.4 12.5 13.1 9.8 3.9 3.6 9.9 10.2 13.2 11.4 7.7 12.9 13.5 12.6 10.9 7.5 10.2 13.3 19.1 14.7 12.3 12. 5 13. 1 9.8 3.9 3.6 72.5 and 77.5 and 82.5 and 87.5 and 92.5 and under 77.5 cents under 82.5 cents______ under 87.5 cents under 92.5 cents______ under 100.0 cents.. 6.2 5.6 3.8 4.2 4.6 6.9 5.8 3. 5 2.8 4.1 6.4 4.9 3.0 2.2 1.3 .5 .2 .2 .2 .1 7.0 6.4 4.2 4.8 5.2 7.4 6.2 3.8 2.9 4.4 7.0 5.4 3.3 2.4 1.5 .5 .2 .2 .2 .1 100.0 and under 110.0 cents____ 110.0 and under 125.0 cents 125.0 and under 150.0 cents 150.0 cents and over . __ __ 4.4 1.8 .7 .1 2.7 1.4 1.4 .5 .8 .2 .2 .1 .1 .1 5.0 2.0 .8 .1 2.8 1.5 1.5 .6 .9 .2 .2 .1 .1 .1 100.0 100.0 100.0 Total____________________ Number of workers (weighted) 11,098 18, 227 15, 277 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 3,302 9,823 16,939 13,831 100.0 .8 .3 .1 .2 .4 .5 100.0 100.0 100.0 3, 302 1,275 1,288 1,446 Average hourly earnings______ $0,645 $0. 642 $0. 620 $0. 461 $0. 670 $0. 658 $0. 635 $0. 461 $0. 447 $0. 417 $0. 467 1 N o females were employed in plants covered in survey in Southern States. 2 Less than Ho of 1 percent. The difference between the average hourly earnings for the Middle Western States and that of 64.2 cents in the Middle Atlantic States (including Delaware) arises primarily from the fact that 10.1 percent of the workers in the Middle Atlantic area received more than 92.5 cents. These high earnings, found for the most part in New York State, raised the general average, in spite of the fact that a larger proportion of the workers earned less than 40 cents in this area than in the Middle Western States. There is a considerable contrast in the wage level of New York and New Jersey and of Pennsylvania and Delaware. The averages were 71.6 cents in New York and 68.4 cents in New Jersey, compared with 61.2 cents in Pennsylvania and 53.7 cents in Delaware. The fundamental differences in wage structure in the Northern States occur not between broad subregions within this area, but in the contrasting wage structures of small districts and of individual plants. On a regional basis, the only comparison that is warranted AVERAGE HOURLY 21 E A R R IN G S is that shown in table 10 between the Northern States as one group and the Southern States as another. The average hourly earnings of all males in the entire Northern States amounted to 65.3 cents, against 46.1 cents for the entire Southern region.13 In the Northern States, there were 1.9 percent of the total paid below 40 cents, and 15.6 percent received 82.5 cents and over. In the Southern States, by contrast, the respective figures were 27.9 and 0.7 percent. T a b l e 10.— Percentage distribution o f leather workers, by average hourly earnings, region, sex, and skilly Septem ber 1939 S o u th e r n S ta te s 1 N o r t h e r n S ta te s A v e r a g e h o u r ly ea rn in g s (in c e n ts) Males Males All work ers Total Skilled Semi U n skilled skilled Under 25.0________________ (2) (2) Exactly 25.0______________ 0.3 0.2 0.1 (2) 25.1 and under 27.5______ .1 .1 (2) .2 27.5 and under 30.0_______ .1 (2) 30.0 and under 32.5_______ .5 .2 .3 .3 32.5 and under 35.0_______ .1 (2) 1.9 35.0 and under 37.5_______ .6 .3 (2) 37.5 and under 40.0_______ .8 .5 .2 (2) 5.2 40.0 and under 42.5_______ 0.5 3.5 2.5 42.5 and under 47.5_______ 6.6 5.6 1.2 4.1 47.5 and under 52.5_______ 11.3 11.3 3.5 8.6 52.5 and under 57.5_______ 12.4 12.5 11.1 5.7 57.5 and under 62.5_______ 14.2 14.9 8.9 15.8 62.5 and under 67.5_______ 11.4 12.3 11.9 14.3 67.5 and under 72.5_______ 8.5 9.2 11.2 11.3 72.5 and under 77.5_______ 6. 6 7. 2 9. 3 8. 6 5.4 77.5 and under 82.5_______ 7.2 6.0 9.0 3.4 82.5 and under 87.5_______ 6.4 4. 2 3. 7 2.9 87.5 and under 92.5_______ 3.2 8.3 3.0 3. 3 92.5 and under 100.0______ 3.6 10.6 3.3 100.0and under 110.0_____ 2. 5 2. 7 7.8 2.6 110.0 and under 125.0_____ 1.1 2. 7 1. 2 1. 4 125.0 and under 150.0_____ .8 2.1 .9 1.0 150.0 cents and over______ .3 .3 .8 .3 Total_____________ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 N u m b er of w ork ers (weighted)_____________ 44, 602 40, 593 6,124 22, 639 Average hourly earnings. _- $0. 635 $0. 653 $0. 784 $0. 669 1T h e r e w e r e n o fe m a le w o r k e r s in 2L e s s t h a n H o o f 1 p e r c e n t. All Fe work males ers Semi U n Total Skilled skilled skilled 0.1 .4 .2 .2 .8 1.7 1.0 1.8 2.1 5.0 2.4 1.8 4.1 5.0 2.4 1.8 4.1 0.6 .6 1.0 4.1 0.2 3.2 1.8 4.0 11.9 1.9 2.0 4.2 .4 1.3 1.1 7.1 10.6 2.4 15.2 4.5 22.8 17.4 6.5 1.6 6.5 9.6 18.2 6.5 1.6 6.5 9.6 18.2 3.2 4.1 4.8 4.4 13.0 7.6 1.6 5.5 6.2 20.0 5.9 1.0 8.0 15.0 17.1 20.3 19.1 16.6 9.0 4.2 12.1 9.8 4.7 1.4 2.4 12.5 13.1 9.8 3.9 3.6 12.5 13.1 9.8 3.9 3.6 10.2 10.5 8.3 8.6 15. 0 12.8 14.2 12.5 6.0 4.1 12.7 12.6 7.0 .4 .3 3. 3 2.0 1. 5 .9 .6 (2).1 .3 .2 .5 .2 .2 .2 .1 .5 .2 .2 .2 .1 5.4 .6 2.2 1.6 .6 .2 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .6 .6 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 11,830 4, 009 3, 302 3, 302 315 1,641 (2) (2) .2 .1 $0. 552 $0. 445 $0. 461 $0. 461 $0. 555 $0. 478 100.0 1,346 $0. 417 t h e p la n t s c o v e r e d in s u r v e y in th e S o u th e r n S ta te s . As mentioned previously, the N. R. A. code minima were 35 cents for females and 40 cents for males in the Northern States. It is interesting to note that at the time of the survey (September 1939) there were 9.0 percent of the females earning under 35 cents and 1.9 percent of the males receiving less than 40 cents in this region. The southern code minimum was 32.5 cents for both sexes, although no females were employed in the plants surveyed. In this region 13.3 13 T h e r e w e r e n o fe m a le w o r k e r s in th e s o u th e r n p la n t s . a n d S o u t h e r n S ta t e s m u s t b e c o n fin e d t o m a le w o r k e r s. H e n c e , t h e c o m p a r is o n b e t w e e n t h e N o r t h e r n 22 E A R R IN G S AND HOURS, LEATHER I N D U S T R IE S percent of the males earned less than 32.5 cents. In connection with the above minima, however, it should be pointed out that the code permitted certain tolerances for learners and aged or handicapped workers, neither class to exceed 5 percent of all workers on the pay roll in a given plant. H ou rly Earnings in Relation to Fair Labor Standards A ct From the preceding tables, it is evident that in September 1939 hardly any of the wage earners in the leather industry were paid below the minimum of 25 cents an hour, which was in effect at that time in accordance with the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. Moreover, an insignificant proportion of all workers, namely 0.6 percent, received exactly 25 cents. In fact, the relative size of this group was important only for the few plants in the Southern States, where 5.0 percent of the total earned exactly that figure. The 30-cent hourly minimum, under the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act, became effective on October 24, 1939, or shortly after the survey was made. Even this minimum evidently resulted in no more than minor readjustments in the industry’s wage structure. At the time of the survey, only 1.2 percent of all wage earners em ployed in the industry earned less than 30 cents an hour. In this respect, too, the only region affected relatively to any extent is that including the Southern States, where 9.2 percent of the total workers received below 30 cents. In accordance with the Fair Labor Standards Act, it is possible for the Administrator, upon the recommendation of an industry com mittee, to set an hourly minimum in excess of 30 cents but not to exceed 40 cents. Taking the highest minimum that might be set under the act, namely 40 cents an hour, there were 5.8 percent of all workers in the industry earning below that figure. The proportion was 3.6 percent for males (1.0 percent for skilled, 2.4 percent for semi skilled, and 7.5 percent for unskilled), compared with 28.7 percent for females. On a geographical basis, the corresponding proportions for all wage earners were 4.6 percent in the New England States, 5.0 percent in the Middle Atlantic States, 2.9 percent in the Middle Western States (including California), and as much as 27.9 percent in the Southern States. The effect of the Fair Labor Standards Act upon groups of plants having approximately the same wage level may be seen from table 11. In the few lowest-paid establishments, namely those averaging under 35 cents an hour, as many as 25.4 percent of all workers earned exactly 25 cents, and 46.7 percent received less than 30 cents. All of these plants, it should be remembered, were in the lower Southern States. None of the other groups of establishments was affected to any extent P l a t e 3.—W e t - W h e e l e r , E m e r y G r i n d i n g . plate 4.—S t a k e r , M a c h i n e . AVERAGE EXOURLY 23 E A R N IN G S by the 30-cent minimum. The impact of the 30-cent minimum was therefore largely confined to plants employing less than 1% percent of the workers in the industry. On the other hand, a 40-cent minimum would affect not only the lowest-paid plants but also those in other wage classes. In the lowest-paid establishments, all but 7.9 percent of the wage earners were paid below 40 cents. For plants averaging between 35 and 45 cents the proportion was 36.2 percent, as com pared with 15.7 percent for those with averages between 45 and 50 cents, 9.0 percent for those averaging between 50 and 55 cents, and 4.5 percent for those with averages between 55 and 60 cents. All four of these groups of establishments were scattered geographically. None of the other groups of plants would be affected much by a 40-cent minimum. T a b l e 1 1 .— Percentage distribution o f leather workers, by average hourly earnings and by groups o f plants, Septem ber 1939 Plants having average hourly earnings of— Average hourly earnings 35 45 U nder and and 35 under under cents 45 50 cents cents Under 25 cents. _________ __ _ Exactly 25 cents_______ _ . 25.1 and under 27.5 cents. _ . _ 27.5 and under 30.0 cents.. . . 30.0 and under 32.5 cents. 25.4 12. 2 9.1 19.2 2. 2 .3 .1 5.2 0.3 .3 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 35.0 cents . __ 37.5 cents_____ 40.0 cents____ 42.5 cents_____ 47.5 cents_____ 19. 6 5.1 1.5 2.5 2.2 10.7 11.1 6.6 31.5 10.9 47.5 and under 52.5 cents__ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents. _ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents____ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents. . . G7.5 and under 72.5 cents____ .5 .8 .3 .2 .8 and and and and and 72.5 and 77.5 and 82.5 and 87.5 and 92.5 and under under under under under under under under under under 77.5 cents 82.5 cents. _. . 87.5 cents 92.5 cents___ 100.0 cents. _ 75 65 70 50 55 60 and and and and and and under under under under under under 75 55 65 70 80 60 cents cents cents cents cents cents 1.0 0) 0.6 .2 .5 .4 1.8 6.6 5.3 18.5 24.2 .5 3.6 1.7 13.9 14.7 .1 2.3 .4 2.4 6.5 .3 .5 .4 3.5 5.1 .6 .8 5.5 5.8 0.1 1.9 8.2 6.4 4.3 .8 .3 18.3 9.8 4.5 1.9 3.3 20.2 12.1 13. 7 7. 6 3.9 17.3 22.8 17.7 13.6 6.9 9.9 11.0 18.7 15.9 14.6 .3 1.0 .2 .3 .2 .8 .4 .5 .9 .6 3.0 .9 .4 .3 .2 3.1 2.3 1. 5 .8 .2 .4 .2 .1 0) .3 .i 100.0 and under 110.0 cents 110.0 and under 125.0 cents. 125.0 and under 150.0 cents150.0 cents and ove r___ .4 (9 (i) 0.1 .1 0.1 (9 0.1 .7 .5 .5 1.4 80 cents and over 0.1 .1 0.3 .7 5.5 .2 .4 2.4 2.1 .3 .3 .1 .4 .8 7.0 8.7 9.4 10. 5 9.4 7.4 7.4 11.6 12.0 8.2 3.4 8.3 13.1 9.3 8.7 3.5 5.0 18.3 7.3 6.7 7. 7 5.1 2.7 2.1 .6 13. 2 9.8 5. 2 3.7 6.3 7.8 9.6 6.4 4.2 9. 2 8.8 8.7 7.0 8.6 7. 7 3. 5 6. 2 2.8 4.6 4 .6 1.1 .1 .5 2.1 1. 0 .6 .2 4.9 1. 6 1. 5 6.8 2. 3 1. 5 .6 12.7 11. 5 7. 3 3.8 (9 (9 (9 (0 (9 __ _____________ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number of workers (weight ed)__________________________ 647 972 3, 538 4,188 11, 632 8, 494 6, 293 5, 057 5,504 1,579 Total. (9 i Less than Ho of 1 percent. Differences Betw een U n ion and N onunion Plants Unionism has existed in the leather industry for many years. At 14 As defined in this survey, a union establishment is one in which the majority of employees are covered by either a written or oral agreement with an affiliated union. Plants with an employee organization con fined to only one company are included with the nonunion establishments. There were relatively few such plants, although they covered a substantial number of workers in the industry. 240482°—41----- 5 24 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATHER I N D U S T R IE S the time of the survey, approximately one-fourth of the workers were employed in union 14 establishments. Several important unions are active in the industry. One is the International Fur and Leather Workers of the United States and Canada (formerly the National Leather Workers Association), which is affiliated with the Congress of Industrial Organizations. Another is the United Leather Workers International Union, an affiliate of the American Federation of Labor. In the Johnstown-Gloversville area in New York State, the dominant union is the Independent Leather Workers Union of Fulton County, N . Y ., which is not affiliated with either the C. I. O. or A. F. of L. On the Pacific Coast, moreover, several establishments have agreements with the Amalgamated M eat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North America. The union establishments were prevalent in some of the important producing centers in the industry. A substantial number of plants with union agreements was found in the Boston metropolitan area, especially in Peabody and Woburn, Mass. Union establishments were likewise concentrated in the Johnstown-Gloversville area, New ark, the Philadelphia-Camden area, and San Francisco. A few plants with union agreements were also scattered throughout other parts of the Northern States. Of the establishments covered in the survey, none in the Southern States was found to have a union agreement. T able 1 2 .— Average hourly earnings o f leather workers in the northern region, by size o f com m unity, unionization , sex, and skill, Septem ber 1939 Number of workers (weighted) Population of com munity and un ionization 20,000 and 100,000: Average hourly earnings Males All work ers Total Skilled Males Semi U n skilled skilled All Fe work males ers Total Skilled Fe Semi U n males skilled skilled under Union plants___ N o n u n i o n p la n t s _____ _ ,000,000 and over: Union plants___ N o n u n i o n plants - ______ 1,252 111 309 2, 860 1,025 242 .632 .640 .694 9,099 8,019 1,345 4, 545 2,129 1,080 .691 .722 .872 .746 .572 .462 10,554 9,734 1,915 5,169 2, 650 820 .667 .683 .853 .684 .558 .463 1 36 $0. 774 $0. 785 $0.818 $0. 862 $0. 590 0) 796 571 1,216 4,698 4,456 .658 .560 $0. 471 1 N ot a sufficient coverage to permit the presentation of an average. For the most part, the union establishments in the Northern States were in communities with a population between 20,000 and 100,000 and in metropolitan areas with 1,000,000 and over, so that any com parison between union and nonunion plants must be confined to these two classes of communities. As may be seen from table 12, the average hourly earnings of all workers were higher in union than nonunion AVERAGE HOURLY E A R N IN G S 25 establishments in communities of both size groups, the difference amounting to 14.2 cents in communities between 20,000 and 100,000, but only 2.4 cents in metropolitan areas with 1,000,000 and over. Differences also appear for each skill group among the males. The only comparison for females is in metropolitan areas of 1,000,000 and over, where the hourly earnings in both union and nonunion plants averaged approximately the same. Variations by Sise o f Com m unity 15 The leather industry is concentrated to a marked extent in the large industrial communities. In terms of employment, 41.0 percent of the total workers were located in metropolitan areas with a population of 1,000,000 and over. One fourth (25.3 percent) were found in medium sized communities, namely those between 100,000 and 1,000,000, and one-third (33.7 percent) were in places under 100,000. There was no consistent relationship between hourly earnings and size of community. Average hourly earnings for nonunion plants in the North were 55.7 cents in places under 10,000, 60.8 cents in com munities between 10,000 and 20,000, and 63.2 cents in communities of 20.000 to 100,000. This seems to indicate a progression of hourly earnings with size of community. On the other hand, in communities of 100,000 to 250,000, the average was 60.9 cents, while in those with a population of 250,000 to 1,000,000 the average was 56.6 cents, or no higher than the figure in the smallest communities studied. In the metropolitan centers of more than 1,000,000, the average for nonunion plants was 66.7 cents. Among union plants, as has already been pointed out, higher aver ages prevailed in communities with a population between 20,000 and 100.000 than in metropolitan areas of 1,000,000 and over, the respec tive figures amounting to 77.4 and 69.1 cents. It should be pointed out, however, that nearly all of the union establishments in places be tween 20,000 and 100,000 were located in the Johnstown-Gloversville area, which reported an exceptionally high wage level. Owing to the fact that only a small part of the industry was located in the Southern States, the coverage here was not sufficiently large to permit an analysis of the data by size of community. is B y size of community is meant here the size of metropolitan area within which the plant is located. For places with a population of 100,000 or more, the Bureau utilized the metropolitan districts as defined by the U . S. Bureau of the Census. On the other hand, for communities with less than 100,000, similar metro politan centers were set up, including not only the population within a particular political subdivision but also that of the nearby areas. Roughly speaking, the metropolitan districts correspond to labor-market areas, within which there is competition among workers for jobs as well as among employers for workers. 26 E A R N IN G S AND H OURS, LEATHER IN D U S T R IE S Product Differences Thus far, the analysis has been on the basis of leather manufacturing as a whole, in order to determine the part played in shaping the indus try’s wage structure by various factors, such as the composition of the labor force as to sex and skill, geographical location, unionization, and size of community. From the competitive standpoint, however, it is important to view differences in wages on the basis of either individual products or groups of products that are manufactured by the various plants in the industry. As already indicated, a wide variety of separate products is manu factured in the leather industry. Any classification of the wage data on a product basis, however, must be more or less arbitrary. This is due to the fact that numerous establishments are engaged in making more than one product. Such plants were here classified on the basis of the value of the predominating product. On the other hand, there are many establishments that specialize in the manufacture of a single product. In terms of employment, the most important product in the indus try is side upper leather, with approximately one-third (32.7 percent) of the total wage earners working primarily on this product. Ex actly one-fifth of the employees worked largely on sole and belting leather, while kid upper and calf upper leather accounted respectively for 12.9 and 7.9 percent. Only 2.5 percent of the wage earners worked primarily on glove leather, but as many as 11.6 percent were mainly engaged in the making of other sheepskin leather. The miscellaneous group of leather includes a variety of products, each of which ac counted for a small number of employees, with the total group in cluding 12.4 percent of all workers in the industry. The lowest hourly earnings in the industry generally prevailed among plants making primarily sole and belting leather. Several factors are responsible for this situation. First, although hardly any females (0.1 percent) were found in these establishments, these plants showed relatively few (9.7 percent) skilled males, with substantial proportions of semiskilled (47.0 percent) and unskilled (43.2 percent) males (see table 13); second, although the plants are widely scattered geographically, a significant number is located in the Southern States; third, very few of the establishments were unionized; lastly, many of the plants are in the smaller communities, especially in western Pennsylvania and the Southern States. AVERAGE T able HOURLY 27 E A R N IN G S 13. — Average hourly earnings o f leather workers, by product, sex, and skill, Septem ber 1939 Product All workers Males Fe Semi Un males Total Skilled skilled skilled Number of workers (weighted) All products ___________ _____ ___ _ Side upper leather __ _ _ Sole, including belting, leather______ _ __ _ _ __ __ Kid upper leather. __ __________ ____ ___________ Calf upper leather________________________________ Glove leather 2___ _ ____ ___________ _ Other sheepskin leather_________ __ ___________ Miscellaneous leather. ... . . . _____ . ____ 1 47,904 43, 895 15, 611 14, 376 9, 579 9, 573 6,170 5, 041 3, 774 3,133 , , 5, 568 4, 5, 982 5, 684 1 220 1 220 868 , 439 24, 280 13,176 1, 768 , 842 3, 766 933 4, 503 4,137 1,448 2, 335 1,258 699 1,756 678 126 789 305 579 2,977 1,312 3,078 1,720 6 8 886 4,009 1,235 1,129 641 700 298 6 Percent of workers All products_____________________ ... ... . . . ____ Side upper leather _______________________________ Sole, including belting, leather___ . ___ Kid upper leather ___ _ ____ ... .... Calf upper leather___ ________________ ... Glove leather ___ _ Other sheepskin leather__ _ _ .... . . . _ Miscellaneous leather____________________________ 1 2 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 91.6 92.1 99.9 81.7 83.0 87.4 95.0 1 0 0 .0 13.4 11.3 9.7 23.5 18.5 10.3 10.4 14.8 50.7 56.7 47.0 37.8 46.5 64. 7 53.4 51.4 27.5 24.1 43.2 20.4 18.0 25. 0 23.6 28.8 8.4 7.9 18.3 17.0 .1 1 2 .6 5.0 Average hourly earnings All products___________ ___________ _____ _______ $0.623 $0. 638 $0. 773 $0. 656 $0.538 .632 .647 .744 .662 .566 Side upper leather1... ______________ _______ ... Sole, including belting, leather_______ __ ______ _ .567 .567 .649 .584 .528 Kid upper leather__________________________ ____ .632 .680 .865 .649 .523 Calf upper leather___________ ________ _.. _____ .723 .766 .884 .766 .638 Glove leather2_ . __ _____ .827 .827 .831 4.927 .598 Other sheepskin leather______________ ... ______ .596 .615 .702 .642 .512 Miscellaneous leather_____________________________ .608 .616 .780 .640 .489 $0.445 .442 (3).411 .507 .453 .432 1Includes integrated plants engaged in both tanning and finishing of patent leather. 2Includes sheep, kid, “cabretta,” and cape glove leather. 3N ot a sufficient number of workers to permit the presentation of an average. 4For an explanation regarding this figure, see p. 29. Hourly earnings of all workers in establishments manufacturing primarily side upper leather averaged 63.2 cents. With a few excep tions, the averages of the plants covered in the survey ranged between 55 and 80 cents. The highest wage level was found in the PeabodyWoburn area, which is an important district for this product. This area is highly unionized and all but one of its establishments averaged above 75 cents or considerably higher than other New England plants. Another important district includes the Middle Western States, where establishments engaged mainly in the making of side upper leather have grown up as a result of proximity to the meat-packing industry. Compared to the Peabody-Woburn area, however, hourly earnings in this district were substantially lower, with all but one plant averag ing below 65 cents. In the Middle Atlantic States, where this product is also of importance, the averages of all but one of the establishments ranged between 65 and 75 cents. 28 E A R N IN G S AND H O U R S ', LEATHER IN D U S T R IE S As regards composition of labor force, there were only 11.3 per cent skilled males, as compared with 56.7 percent semiskilled and 24.1 percent unskilled males and 7.9 percent females. As with side upper leather, the average hourly earnings of all workers in plants making kid upper leather amounted to 63.2 cents. The composition of the labor force, however, in these plants was considerably different from that in the side upper plants. Thus, in establishments producing kid upper leather, there were 23.5 percent skilled, 37.8 percent semiskilled, and 20.4 percent unskilled males, and 18.3 percent females. Moreover, skilled males in kid upper leather averaged more than those working primarily on side upper leather, but the opposite was true of semiskilled and unskilled males and all females. The two most important producing centers in kid upper leather are Philadelphia and Wilmington, with the former having a much higher wage level than the latter. For plants covered in the survey, the averages ranged from 59 to 73 cents in Phila delphia and from 49 to 58 cents in Wilmington. Very few establish ments making kid upper leather were unionized at time of survey. For all workers in establishments producing primarily sole and belting leather, the average hourly earnings amounted to 56.7 cents. Taking the plants covered in the survey, the averages ranged from 31 to 79 cents. In spite of this wide dispersion, there were several fairly homogeneous wage areas in connection with this product. One of these comprises the Lower Southern States, in which all but one establishment averaged below 35 cents. Another includes the border States, where the plant averages covered a range between 45 and 55 cents. A third consists of the small towns in western Pennsylvania, with most establishments averaging between 55 and 60 cents. This district is especially important in the manufacture of sole and belting leather. Plants making sole and belting leather are also located in the New England States, the Middle Atlantic States outside of western Pennsylvania, and the Middle Western States, including California. In each district, the Hourly earnings varied considerably, with most plant averages being above 60 cents, especially in the metropolitan areas of Boston and San Francisco. For all workers in plants engaged mainly in the production of calf upper leather, the average hourly earnings were 72.3 cents. In these establishments, the composition of the labor force was very similar to that found in plants manufacturing kid upper leather. On the other hand, the hourly earnings in establishments working primarily on calf upper leather averaged higher than those in kid upper leather for each skill-sex group. Some of the plants making largely calf upper leather are found in Peabody, while others are scattered through out the Middle Atlantic and Middle Western States. In the Pea body establishments, moreover, the hourly earnings averaged con- AVERAGE HOURLY E A R N IN G S 29 siderably more than those in other parts of the country. Some of the plants were unionized, and most of them are located in the larger communities. Establishments making fine glove leather are for the most part in the Johnstown-Gloversville area of New York. Furthermore, by far the great majority of these plants were unionized. With few exceptions, the various establishments covered in the survey showed average hourly earnings of over 80 cents. For all workers, the average amounted to 82.7 cents. It will be observed, however, that this average is largely influenced by the high hourly earnings of semiskilled males, who constituted 64.7 percent of the total labor force.16 These semiskilled males averaged 92.7 cents, which is even higher than the average of skilled males. In this connection, it is to be noted that almost three-fourths of the semiskilled males were on piece work, as against only about one-eighth of the skilled males. The hourly earnings of semiskilled males on glove leather averaged higher than those on any product for which separate figures are shown, although this was not true of the skilled and unskilled males. The “ other sheepskin leather” group includes not only sheep and kid garment leather, but also such other sheepskin leather products as are used for hat sweatbands, textile rollers, shoe linings, etc. Although the average hourly earnings of the plants covered by the survey in this group ranged from 44 to 77 cents, most of the estab lishments averaged between 60 and 72 cents. A considerable number of the plants had union agreements. Geographically, most of the establishments were located along the Atlantic coast, due to the fact that sheep and kid skins are largely imported from abroad. In the miscellaneous leather group, there is included an even greater variety of products than is found in “ other sheepskin leather.” The miscellaneous group covers plants engaged in patent finishing or embossed finishing, as well as those working on harness, upholstery, fancy, luggage (bag, case, and strap), lacing, glove leathers other than sheepskin (cowhide, horsehide, and pigskin), packing, textile machin ery, horsehide upper, and other leather. Some of these products deserve special attention. Harness leather (including saddle, collar, and skirting), for example, is unique in that it covers two competitive areas, one embracing for the most part the Middle Western States, including California, and the other the Lower Southern States. The wage level was not very high in either of these areas, although the establishments in the Northern States averaged considerably more than those in the Lower Southern States.17 Aside from harness There were only 10.3 percent skilled and 25.0 percent unskilled males. No females were reported in any Of the establishments covered by the survey. Of the total number of workers in harness leather, 25.0 percent earned under 30 cents, 39.0 percent less than 35 cents, and 47.6 percent below 40 cents. 18 17 30 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATHER I N D U S T R IE S leather, nearly all of the plants in the miscellaneous group were located in the Northern States. Establishments manufacturing up holstery or fancy leather (found, for the most part, in the New York City metropolitan area) had fairly high average hourly earnings. Plants engaged in patent finishing, most of which are in the PeabodyWoburn area, also showed high hourly earnings. By contrast, es tablishments engaged in embossed finishing, which are scattered throughout the Northern States, had a lower wage level. Many of the above plants, especially patent finishing and fancy leather, had union agreements. Table 14 presents the distribution, in terms of simple percentages, of individual earnings for each of the various product groups. T able 14. — Percentage distribution o f leather w orkers, by average hourly earnings and by product, September 1939 Average hourly earnings Side Total upper leather 1 Sole, in Kid Calf Other Miscel cluding upper upper Glove sheep laneous belting, leather leather skin leather leather leather leather 2 Under 25.0 cents._ __ _ _ _ . (3) (3)0. 4 (3). Exactly 25.0 cents . . 25.1 and under 27.5 cents .3 .3 .3 27.5 and under 30.0 cents.. .4 .7 .3 30.0 and under 32.5 cents__________ .7 .4 32.5 and under 35.0 cents__________ 35.0 and under 37.5 cents__________ 1.9 .7 37.5 and under 40.0 cents . . . 40.0 and under 42.5 cents___ ____ _ 5. 5 5.7 42.5 and under 47.5 cents. _ _ 7.4 5. 1 9.9 47.5 and under 52.5 cents. . 11.5 11. 5 16.9 52.5 and under 57.5 cents__________ 12. 5 . 19. 5 57.5 and under 62.5 cents__ _____ 13.9 15.7 13. 5 62.5 and under 67.5 cents___ _____ 13. 7 10.9 67.5 and under 72.5 cents___ ... ... . 6.5 72.5 and under 77.5 cents__________ . . 4.0 77.5 and under 82.5 cents__ _ _____ 5. 1 2. 5 5.3 3.2 82.5 and under 87.5 cents____ ._ ... 3. 2 1. 3 87.5 and under 92.5 cents_______ _. 2. 7 92.5 and under 100.0 cents_________ 3. 1 1.9 and under cents_________ 2. 3 1.4 .6 110.0 and under 125.0 cents_______ . 125.0 and under 150.0 cents ___ .7 .2 (3) 150.0 cents and over____________ __ .2 (3) Total______________________ Number of workers (weighted)_____ 47, 904 15, 611 9, 579 0 .1 0 2 0 6 0 .2 (3). l .4 .9 7.0 1. 4 8.9 8.5 . 7.0 . 7.4 5.9 5.2 5.0 2.3 1 .8 .8 .2 1 2 1 6 2 .8 1 .2 .6 6 10 6 12 6 1 0 .8 8 .2 11 1 6 1 8 1 2 .6 1 0 0 .0 10 0 6 .8 1 .2 2 .0 6 .8 3.6 1 1 0 .0 1 .0 1 0 0 .0 .8 1 0 0 .0 1 1 0 0 .0 1 .1 .8 1 . 1 0 0 .0 6 , 170 0 .2 .5 . .4 4 0 .1 .7 .1 .4 .3 3.5 4.0 10. 4 6 .0 .3 . 8 .8 1 1 .1 20 1 8 .1 1 .1 .2 7.8 7.6 10.4 5. 5.9 5.8 1.7 .9 .4 8 8 .8 1 .8 2 .1 4. 5 . 6.9 3.4 .7 2.7 4. 5 4.6 12.3 8.9 3.9 6 8 .1 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 3, 774 1 220 , 0 .1 . .9 .l 2 8 .8 !6 .2 1 .8 2 .0 13 9.8 11.3 12.9 12.3 9.4 . 5. 3 4. 5 3.9 2. 5 2.7 1.7 .4 . 1 0 .8 6 1 .8 1 3.0 . 5. 1 8 8 8 .6 8 .2 1 0 .6 16.8 8 .8 8 .2 5.9 3.7 1 .8 2 .0 2.3 2.4 1.3 .7 1 .6 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 5, 568 5, 982 1Includes integrated plants engaged in both tanning and finishing of patent leather. 2Includes sheep, kid, cabretta, and cape glove leather. 3Less than a tenth of 1 percent. Occupational Differences Within each of the broad skill-sex groups, hourly earnings varied conspicuously by occupation. Among the skilled males, average hourly earnings by occupation ranged from 86.2 cents for daubers (final coat, patent leather) to 65.8 cents for miscellaneous maintenance workers. Next to daubers, the highest occupational averages were reported for the various kinds of working foremen over productive AVERAGE HOURLY E A R N IN G S 31 departments, such as beam house, tanning, finishing, and sorting and shipping, each of which groups averaged considerably over 80 cents. Several groups of machine operators, namely those working on glazing, splitting, and shaving machines, also averaged over 80 cents. A few other productive occupations, such as inspectors and sorters of finished leather, on the other hand, averaged between 70 and 75 cents. Most of the occupational groups with averages under 80 cents, however, were composed of nonproductive workers. The highest hourly earnings for any occupation regarded by employ ees as semiskilled are shown for wet wheelers (emery grinding), whose average amounted to 90.9 cents. In fact, this figure is higher than the national average of any of the skilled occupations. At the other extreme among the semiskilled male occupations are the stretchingmachine operators, oiling-off machine operators, and hand leather stuffers, spongers, and oilers, whose averages were respectively 52.3, 49.5, and 48.9 cents. Omitting these extremes, the occupational averages for semiskilled males ranged from 77.5 cents for machine stakers to 55.9 cents for miscellaneous maintenance workers. In other words, even with the extremes omitted, the range of occupational averages among semiskilled males is fairly wide, but it must be remem bered that the leather industry is for the most part one with a large number of semiskilled workers, who differ widely as to degree of skill. It should be noted that in the semiskilled male occupations for which separate figures are shown for hand and machine workers, with two exceptions, there is very little difference between the respective aver ages. In the important occupation of stakers, for example, the average hourly earnings amounted to 77.5 cents for machine workers and 77.4 cents for hand workers. The highest paid unskilled males are the beam house haulers, clean ers of equipment, and stampers of hides and leather, who averaged 61-62 cents an hour. For the remaining occupations, the averages ranged from 57.6 cents for tan house haulers to 45.6 cents for watch men. The small group of learners averaged 48.8 cents, which was higher than the averages shown for miscellaneous laborers, strippers of leather (other than patent), janitors, and watchmen. 32 T able E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATH ER IN D U S T R IE S 15 .— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings o f leather w o r k e r s h y sex, skilly and occupation^ September 1989 Sex, skill, and occupation Number of Average Average Average workers hourly weekly weekly (weighted) earnings hours earnings 47,672 43,663 6,419 283 206 243 166 656 109 184 331 977 215 574 113 1,015 591 319 280 56 24,235 762 168 123 160 195 275 1,498 113 505 722 227 1,354 480 544 838 155 193 330 303 74 76 313 939 142 1,094 $0. 625 .640 .774 Skilled_____________________________________________ .662 Carpenters______________ _________ ___________ .862 Daubers, final coat, patent leather-------------------- ----Electricians______ . _____ - - .. ---------------- .769 .757 Engineers, power plant----------------------------------------Foremen, working, beam house___________________ .847 Foremen, working, finishing__ _____ _ .. _____ .833 Foremen, working, sorting, and shipping... . ___ .836 Foremen, working, tanning_________ _. . ------.846 .752 Foremen, working, miscellaneous__________ _______ Glazing machine operators____________________ ___ .839 Inspectors________________________ ____________ .725 Machine repairmen________ _________________ ___ .668 Millwrights__________________________ __________ .747 Shaving machine operators_______________________ .820 Sorters, finished leather________ _____ ________ . . _ .699 Splitting machine operators. ... __ ______________ .821 Miscellaneous workers, maintenance, skilled_______ .658 Miscellaneous workers, other, skilled---------------------.659 Semiskilled--------------------------------------------------------------.656 Beamsters, or scudders, hand___________________ _ .659 Beamsters or scudders, machine________________ . .659 Bleaching machine operators________________ ___ .565 Boarders or grainers, h a n d ........................................... .756 Boarders or grainers, machine_________________ ___ .662 Brushing machine operators________ _________ _ .573 Buffers_____________________ __________________ .722 Buffers and polishers, hand______________ ________ .649 Clerks, plant_______________________________ ____ .596 Color wheel operators.............. ..... . ._ . _______ .599 Croppers or cutters, hides and skins, hand_________ .621 Finishers or seasoners, hand____ _______ . _____ .646 Finishing or seasoning machine operators_______ ... .636 Firemen, power p la n t________ ... _ __________ .617 Fleshing machine operators___________ _____ ______ .671 Ironers, leather, machine----------- -------------------- .. .613 Liquor men, tanning_____________ _________ .584 Measuring machine operators___... ... ... ... .. .591 Mixers, finishing solutions.. ____ _______________ .648 Mixers, solutions, beam house................ ........... . . .687 Oiling-off machine operators.______________________ .495 Pasters, leather drying... ______ _______________ .697 Plating and embossing press operators_____________ .660 Press operators, miscellaneous_____________________ .610 Rolling machine operators______________ ______ ___ .620 Setters-out, hand________________________________ .622 Setters-out, machine____ __________ _____________ 1,626 .624 Sorters, hides and skins____________ __________ . 318 .663 Sorters, leather in process_________________ ______ 494 .602 Splitting machine helpers........................................ ......... 349 .605 Sprayers, leather_________________________________ 410 .575 Stakers, hand___________________________________ 348 .774 Stakers, machine. _____ _________ ... . _ 1,805 .775 Stretching machine operators_______ _________ 72 .523 Stuffers, spongers, and oilers, leather, hand................. 350 .489 Stuffing and oiling wheel operators________________ 283 .574 Tackers, leather drying_________ ____ _________ __ 1,399 .728 Togglers, leather drying__________________________ 1,323 .752 Trimmers, hides and skins, hand________ ________ 717 .659 Trimmers, leather, hand.______ _____________ _____ 385 .627 1 Exclusive of those in 1 plant for whom data by occupation are not available. All workers--------------------------------------------------------------------- 101 201 39.1 39. 2 40. 5 42.5 37.8 40.5 45.4 41.6 42.1 42.4 42.3 41.7 37.8 39.8 42.0 42.6 38. 1 41.3 39.2 42. 5 40.8 39.0 38.2 36.9 39.6 37.4 39.3 39.4 37.2 42.2 41. 9 39.4 38.4 39.9 38.7 43.0 39.1 41.0 39.9 40.7 42.6 39.2 40.8 41. 5 39. 7 38.6 39.5 37.3 38.8 40.7 41. 5 39. 7 43.2 37.4 38.4 43.8 40.3 39.5 37.4 34.7 38.7 38.4 $24. 42 25.14 31.33 28.14 32. 58 31.12 34. 38 35. 27 35.06 35.40 35. 76 31. 34 31. 73 28. 85 28. 07 31.80 31. 22 28. 89 32.20 27. 96 26.87 25. 62 25.20 24. 35 22. 37 28.23 26.00 22.60 26.89 27. 40 24. 98 23. 57 23.84 25.78 24. 65 26. 53 26. 26 25.10 23. 27 24. 06 27. 55 26.90 . 18 28. 94 26.19 23. 56 24. 51 23.17 24. 21 26. 97 24. 96 24. 02 24.85 28.98 29. 78 22.90 19.70 22. 71 27. 23 26. 07 25. 50 24.09 20 AVERAGE HOURLY 33 E A R N IN G S T a b l e 15.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and w eekly earnings o f leather workers, hy sex, skill, and occupation, Septem ber 1989— Continued Sex, skill, and occupation Males—Continued. Semiskilled—Continued. Truck and tractor drivers________________________ Unhairing-machine operators___ . ___ __ _______ Weighers and counters__________ ________ ____ Wet wheelers, emery grinding,.. __ _ . __ ______ Wheel operators, miscellaneous______ ____ ________ Wringing-machine operators______________________ Miscellaneous workers, maintenance, semiskilled.-. Miscellaneous workers, other, semiskilled_______ _ Unskilled__________________________________________ Cleaners, equipment___ _____ ________ Dippers, dampening_____________________________ Dippers, finishing solutions______________ _______ Driers, leather____ ______________________ ____ ___ Elevator operators_______ ___________ _________ Hair-room workers, unskilled. . . _ . . ______ .. Haulers, beam house. ________ . ______ .. Haulers, tan house________ _____ ... ____ Janitors________ ________________________________ Laborers, beam house________________ _________ Laborers, finishing______________________________ Laborers, hide house... _______ . . _____... Laborers, shipping and stock______________________ Laborers, tan house_________________ _____ _______ Laborers, miscellaneous______________________ ... Learners_____ . _____________ . _____________ Measuring-machine helpers----------------------------------Packers, leather_________________________________ Plating and embossing press helpers_______________ Set-out machine helpers____ ... . ________ Stampers, hides and leather_____ __________ _ Strippers, leather, other than patent_______________ Watchmen... .. .. ______ ____________ ________ Miscellaneous workers, beam house, unskilled______ Miscellaneous workers, finishing, unskilled__ ____ _ Miscellaneous workers, tan house, unskilled________ Miscellaneous workers, other, unskilled--------- .. . . Females__ ____ ________________________________________ Skilled_____________________________________________ Glazing-machine operators________________________ Miscellaneous workers, skilled________________ ... Semiskilled_________________________________________ Clerks, plant_______ .. _____ ________ _ .. Finishers or seasoners, hand____ .. ________ _ Finishing- or seasoning-machine operators______ .. Ironers, leather, machine________________ ________ Measuring-machine operators_____________________ Sprayers, leather__________________ _____ _ ______ Trimmers, leather, hand_________________________ Miscellaneous hand workers, semiskilled____ _ ... Miscellaneous machine operators, semiskilled______ Unskilled___________________________________________ Driers, leather________________________ ... ____ Learners________________________________________ Measuring-machine helpers____ ... _________ ... Miscellaneous workers, unskilled............................... . Number of Average Average Average workers hourly weekly weekly (weighted) earnings hours earnings 214 453 147 133 336 319 337 633 13,009 96 276 216 1, 327 158 202 1,583 1,800 237 721 1,467 472 266 364 531 63 119 616 304 106 89 268 515 213 519 245 236 4, 009 335 260 75 3,036 97 1, 277 318 118 78 153 439 248 308 638 150 80 298 110 .605 .643 .582 .909 .605 .617 .559 .619 .542 .612 .547 .549 .536 .496 .528 .618 .576 .463 .566 .529 .533 .524 .518 .484 .488 .489 .512 .564 .506 .613 .467 .456 .573 .547 .525 .495 .445 .495 .504 .465 .449 .423 .449 .497 .434 .444 .423 .452 .405 .457 .395 .419 .355 .395 .389 41.6 38.7 38.2 36.7 38.3 38.1 43.0 38.9 39.1 38.5 40.2 39.5 39.4 41.2 4L4 38.7 39.0 39.6 39.1 38.3 37.3 39.8 38.7 36.7 35.6 41.0 40.0 37.1 36.9 36.8 36.5 46.8 36.5 38.8 38.2 39.0 37.4 37.7 37.0 40.0 38.0 39.3 37.3 37.7 38.1 37.8 37.6 38.2 38.8 40.0 34.5 35.7 40.8 35.2 2 1 .1 25.16 24.87 22.23 33. 35 23.18 23.47 24.04 24.09 21.18 23. 55 21.97 2 1 .6 6 2 1 .1 0 20. 43 21.89 23.90 22.48 18.36 22.15 20.24 19.90 20.09 17.74 17. 34 20.46 20.95 18.68 22. 55 17.06 . 38 20.92 2 0 .8 6 2 0 .0 2 21 2 1 .2 0 20.04 19.28 16.64 18.65 18. 67 18.60 17.05 16.61 16.74 18.74 16. 53 16. 79 15. 91 17. 27 15. 72 18.28 13. 63 14.96 7. 48 16.12 13.70 Generally speaking, employees in the beam house averaged some what more than those performing similar work in the tan house. This was particularly true of some of the unskilled occupations for males. Haulers in the beam house, for example, averaged 61.8 cents an hour, 34 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATHER IN D U S T R IE S as against 57.6 cents for haulers in the tan house. Similarly, com mon laborers in the beam house showed an average of 56.6 cents, as compared with 51.8 cents for common laborers in the tan house. In contrast with the wide range of hourly earnings among the male occupations, those of female workers were confined to rather restricted limits. The range of occupational averages among female employees was less than 15 cents, the highest average (50.4 cents) being shown for glazing-machine operators, a skilled occupation, and the lowest average (35.5 cents) for learners. Among the semiskilled female occupations, average hourly earnings ranged from 40.5 cents for the miscellaneous hand workers to 49.7 cents for finishing- or seasoningmachine operators. Of the few occupations in which both males and females were employed, the average hourly earnings of males were without exception considerably higher than those of females, but the differences declined as the skill of the occupation decreased. Variations by Race o f Workers Of the total wage earners in the leather industry, 4.1 percent were Negroes. The proportion of colored workers, however, varied from one region to another. There were hardly any Negroes employed in leather in the New England States, but the proportion amounted to 4.5 percent in the Middle Atlantic and 4.2 percent in the Middle Western States. In these States, moreover, the colored workers showed a tendency to concentrate in the larger metropolitan areas. In the Southern States, on the other hand, 17.0 percent of all employees were Negroes. Since the plants in the Southern States specialize primarily on sole and belting, as well as harness, leather, the proportion of Negroes working on those products was considerably greater than on other products. Moreover, the proportion of colored workers was substan tially higher in the beam and tan houses than in other departments, the respective figures amounting to 9.7, 8.1, and 2.0 percent.18 The most unpleasant jobs in the industry are located in the beam and tan houses. The great majority of the Negroes were in semiskilled and unskilled occupations. Thus, the colored workers constituted 4.1 percent of the semiskilled and 7.0 percent of the unskilled males, as against less than 1 percent of the skilled males. Virtually all of the Negroes employed in the industry were males, the number of females amounting to only 2.3 percent. A careful check of the basic data indicates that, in all plants where whites and Negroes were employed side by side on the same work, there was no difference in their rates of pay. In some establishments, especially in the Southern States, Negro workers were employed 18 These percentages are exclusive of workers in occupations that could not be classified by department. AVERAGE HOURLY E A R N IN G S 35 exclusively in certain occupations. Owing to the other factors that play a part in the wage structure, however, it is impossible to deter mine whether or not the Negroes received lower rates of pay than white employees in the same occupations in other plants. On the other hand, there is no doubt that the colored employees occupied the lower rungs in the wage ladder of the leather industry. One principal reason for this is the fact that the Negroes were for the most part found in the semiskilled and unskilled occupations. An other important reason is the concentration of colored workers in the Southern States, which showed a considerably lower wage level than the Northern States. As a result, the average hourly earnings of Negroes were lower than those of other workers in the industry. For all colored employees, the average amounted to 52.4 cents, which may be compared with 62.9 cents for all other workers. Taking the two groups in which most of the Negroes were found, the respective averages were 55.7 and 66.1 cents for semiskilled males and 49.5 and 54.6 cents for unskilled males. Similarly, the proportion of colored workers earning under 40 cents an hour exceeded that for other employees. For all wage earners, the respective figures were 13.7 and 5.1 percent. There were 9.7 percent of Negro semiskilled workers receiving less than 40 cents, which may be compared with only 1.9 percent of other employees. For unskilled workers, the figures were 13.8 percent for colored and 5.8 percent for other employees. Extra Rates for Overtime W ork Extra rates were provided for overtime work in virtually all estab lishments covered in the survey. The practices followed by the different plants, however, varied considerably. In the majority of establishments, the practice conformed with the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act, and time and one-half was provided for all work in excess of 44 hours a week. In a substantial number of plants, the extra rates, which were either time and one-half or time and one-third, applied for all work in excess of 40 hours. Thus far, the figures presented for the leather industry have been based on regular rates only. A substantial number of employees in the industry, however, worked overtime during the pay-roll period covered by the survey, for which they were paid extra rates. The latter no doubt increased considerably the hourly earnings of some individual employees. On the other hand, if the earnings due to the extra rates paid for overtime work are distributed among all workers in the industry, the average is raised by orJy one-half of a cent. 36 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATHER IN D U S T R IE S Comparisons W ith 1932 Survey Prior to September 1939, the last survey of the leather industry made by the Bureau was in the spring of 1932. With respect to product and geographical distribution, the 1932 survey is fairly similar to that in 1939, which makes it possible to compare the hourly earnings between the 2 years. It should be remembered, however, that in the leather industry the low point of the depression was reached in 1932.19 As against 62.3 cents in 1939, the average hourly earnings of all workers in 1932 amounted to 47.0 cents, representing a gain of 32.6 per cent. (See table 16.) In 1932, 3.4 percent of the workers received less than 25 cents, but hardly any of the wage earners were found below this level in 1939. Taking 40 cents as the upper limit, 35.6 percent were paid under that amount in 1932, compared with only 5.8 percent in 1939. On the other hand, only 0.5 percent earned $1 and over in 1932, as against 4.2 percent in 1939. In 1932, the average hourly earnings amounted to 49.3 cents for males and 30.3 cents for females. The respective figures in 1939 were 63.8 and 44.5 cents. T able 16. — Percentage distribution o f leather workers by average hourly earnings, 1932 and 1939 Average hourly earnings 1932 survey Under 20.0 cents. 20.0 and under 25.0 cents. ______________________________ _____ ____ 25.0 and under 27.5 cents. ._ ________ ... ______________________ ___ 27.5 and under 30.0 cents. ___ ______________ __________________ ... 30.0 and under 32.5 cents. ___________________________________________ 32.5 and under 35.0 cents. -------------------------------------------------------------------35.0 and under 37.5 cents. . _____ _____ _____________ .. ... _______ 37.5 and under 40.0 cents. ______ ______________________ __________ 40.0and under 42.5 cents. ... ____ . ____ ______________________ .. 42.5 and under 47.5 cents.. . ._ . ______________________________________ 47.5 and under 100.0 cents. _ ----------------------------- --------------------------------100.0 cents and over. ____ . ----------------------------------- ------------------------Total . . _____ _ _ -- - - - - _________ Average hourly earnings_______________________________________________ 1 Less 0. 7 2.7 3.6 4. 2 6.5 4.4 7.7 5.8 8.8 13. 6 41.5 .5 100.0 $0. 470 1939 survey 0) 0.9 .3 .7 .8 1.9 1.2 5.5 7.4 77.1 4.2 100. 0 $0. 623 than Ho of 1 percent. W eekly Hours and Earnings Full-Tim e W eekly Hours About two-thirds of the establishments in the leather industry were operating on an 8-hour day and 40-hour week schedule in September 1939. A substantial number of plants, however, had a full-time work week of 44 hours. Very few establishments deviated from either the 40- or 44-hour week. 19 The 1932 hourly earnings include earnings due to extra rates paid for overtime work, although extra overtime rates were not so prevalent at that time. Moreover, due to the depression, there was actually very little overtime worked in 1932. P l a t e 5 .—S e t t e r s - O u t , m a c h i n e . P l a t e 6.—E m b o s s i n g - P r e s s O p e r a t o r s . W EEKLY HOURS AND EARNINGS 37 It should be noted that the full-time hours indicated above are those that applied to the majority of employees in a given plant. Mainte nance, powerhouse, and service workers frequently had different scheduled hours from those of the main body of wage earners. Actual Weekly Hours For all wage earners, the actual weekly hours worked in the leather industry averaged 39.1 in September 1939. According to the dis tribution in table 17, three-tenths (30.2 percent) of the total labor force worked less than 40 hours during the week scheduled, most of these employees being on short time due to absence from work, labor turnover, and other causes. There were 36.1 percent working exactly 40 hours, 11.9 percent over 40 and under 44 hours, and 11.6 percent exactly 44 hours. One-tenth (10.2 percent) worked in excess of 44 hours. Weekly hours were longer for males than females, the respective averages being 39.2 and 37.4. Skilled males worked longer than semi skilled and unskilled males, the skilled group averaging 40.5 and the unskilled approximately 39 hours. The average weekly hours varied little geographically, the averages for all workers amounting to 39.1 in the Northern and 39.5 in the Southern States. In the Northern States, the averages were 38.7 in the New England and Middle Atlantic States, as compared with 39.8 in Middle Western States, including California. T able 17 . — P ercentage d istribu tion o f leather w ork ersy 1 b y actual w eek ly h ou rs , sex , and sk ill , S ep tem ber 1 9 8 9 Weekly hours Under 24 hours. __________ 24 and under 32 hours_______ 32 and under 36 hours_______ 36 and under 40 hours_______ Exactly 40 hours.. ______ Over 40 and under 44 hours... Exactly 44 hours___ Over 44 and under 48 hours ... 48 and under 52 hours_______ 52 and under 56 hours ____ 56 hours and over________ Total________________ Average weekly hours --------- All workers 4.4 6.1 10.1 9.6 36.1 11.9 11.6 4.0 2.7 1.4 2.1 100.0 39.1 Males Total 4.3 5.9 10.2 9.3 35.5 12.3 12.0 3.9 2.8 1. 5 2.3 100.0 39.2 Skilled 1.9 4.0 7.4 7.3 40.5 8.7 17.9 4.6 3.9 1.8 2.0 100.0 40.5 Semiskilled Unskilled 4.3 6.4 11.4 10.5 33.4 12.5 11.2 3.9 2.5 1.5 2.4 100.0 39.0 5.3 5.8 9.2 8. 2 36.7 13.5 10.8 3.7 2.8 1.5 2.5 100.0 39.1 Females 5.9 8.1 9.1 12.0 43.6 8.5 6.3 4.8 1.6 .1 100.0 37.4 1 Exclusive of 232 workers for whom hours were not reported. Weekly Earnings Average weekly earnings of all workers in the leather industry, ex clusive of earnings due to the extra rates for overtime work,20amounted 20 If the earnings due to the extra rates for overtime work were included, it would increase the average weekly earnings of all workers in the industry by only 20 cents. EARNINGS AND HOURS, LEATHER INDUSTRIES 38 to $24.42 in September 1939. Like hourly earnings, however, weekly earnings varied conspicuously among the different skill-sex groups. For male employees, the averages were $31.33 for skilled, $25.62 for semiskilled, and $21.18 for unskilled workers. The weekly earnings of all male workers averaged $25.14, compared with only $16.64 for female employees. Looking at the distribution of individual weekly earnings for all workers, which is shown in table 18, over one-half (51.5 percent) re ceived $20 and under $30 and over four-fifths (81.6 percent) earned $15 and under $35. Approximately one-tenth (9.7 percent) re ceived under $15, but less than one-tenth (8.7 percent) were paid $35 and over. The same table also shows the distributions for the various skill-sex groups. In the Northern States the average weekly earnings of all workers were $24.82. The averages varied little among the several districts in the Northern States, being, respectively, $25 for the New England, $24.84 for the Middle Atlantic, and $24.67 for the Middle Western States, including California. The weekly earnings in the Southern States averaged only $18.20. T able 18 . — Percentage distribution o f leather w ork ers , 1 by average w eek ly ea rn in g s, s e x , and skill, S ep tem ber 1 9 3 9 Weekly earnings 2 Under $5__________ ______ $5 and under $10____ __ $10 and under $15_________ _ $15 and under $20_____ _____ $20 and under $25___________ $25 and under $30__________ $30 and under $35_______ ___ $35 and under $40___________ $40 and under $45___________ $45 and under $50___________ $50 and over___ . _ _____ Total_______ _______ Average weekly earnings____ 1 2 3 All work ers 1.1 2.3 6.3 17.6 27.7 23.8 12.5 5.7 1.7 .7 .6 100.0 $24. 42 Males Total 0.9 1.8 4.8 15.0 28.6 25.7 13. 7 6.2 1.8 .7 .8 100.0 $25.14 Skilled Semiskilled Unskilled 0. 2 .9 1.4 5.2 10.7 26.9 23.3 18.0 7.3 2.6 3. 5 100.0 $31. 33 Exclusive of 232 workers for whom weekly earnings were not reported. Excludes earnings at extra rates for overtime. Less than Ho of 1 percent. 0.8 1.3 4.3 12.3 27.4 29.9 15.9 5.6 1.4 .6 .5 100.0 $25. 62 1.7 3.0 7.6 25.0 39.5 17.0 4.9 1.3 (3) (3) Females 2.2 7.6 21.6 44.3 20.2 3.6 .3 .1 .1 ( 3) 100.0 $21.18 100.0 $16.64 Part II Earnings and Hours in the Leather Belting and Packing Industry 39 Description o f the Industry and Scope o f Survey D efinition o f the Industry The leather belting and packing industry, as defined by the Census of Manufactures, embraces establishments engaged primarily in the making of the following: Leather belting, chiefly for use in the trans mission of power; leather packing, such as cup, U-valve, oil-retainerseal, etc.; and “ textile leathers,” such as aprons, picker leathers, mill strapping, etc.1 Taken as a whole, the industry is not large. In 1937, the latest year for which figures are available, the number of belting and packing establishments totaled 182.2 During the year, these plants employed an average of 2,829 wage earners, and their total wage bill amounted to $3,354,946. Characteristics o f the Industry Not only is the leather belting and packing industry comparatively small, but, as a rule, its operations are carried on in very small estab lishments. Only about 15 to 16 wage earners were employed by the average leather belting and packing plant, according to the Census of Manufactures in 1937. Of the total number of establishments, 4 reported no wage earners, 110 between 1 and 5, 41 between 6 and 20, 17 between 21 and 50, 5 between 51 and 100, and only 5 over 100 wage earners. Owing largely to the small size of the plants, owner-manage ment generally prevails in the industry. Geographically, the industry is widely scattered. In 1937, approxi mately two-fifths of its plants with over one-third of the wage earners were found in three important industrial States, namely Massa chusetts, Pennsylvania, and New York. The remainder of the indus try, however, was broadly distributed over the country. In fact, establishments were located in virtually all important geographical areas. Operations in the leather belting and packing industry are largely free from seasonal fluctuations. In 1935, for example, employment remained fairly steady throughout the year, according to the figures of the Census of Manufactures. The same was true throughout the greater part of 1937, although there was a decline in the fall of that year as a result of the business depression. 1 The Census of Manufactures excludes from this industry leather belts for wear on the person and rubber belting. 2Exclusive of plants w ith an annual production valued below $5,000. 41 42 E A R N IN G S AND HOURS, LEATH ER IN D U S T R IE S Since leather belting and packing is primarily for industrial uses, employment in the industry is affected considerably by changes in business conditions. This is shown by the radical decline in number of wage earners and total wages in the industry during the depression years of 1931 and 1933. (See table 19.) T able 19.— N u m b e r o f establishm ents , n u m ber o f wage ea rn ers , a nd w ages p a id in the leather belting and packing in d u s tr y , 1 9 2 1 - 3 7 1 [Based on data from Census of Manufactures] Number of establish ments Year Number of wage earners (average for the year) Wages paid (thousands of dollars) 1921______________________________________________________________ 1923_______________________________________________________________ 1925______________________________________________________________ 1927 _____ 1929. . _______________ _______________________ 164 169 168 173 207 2,268 3,160 2, 644 2,164 2,602 $2,842 3,895 3,505 2,925 3, 550 1931_______________________________________________________________ 1933 _ __________ 1935 . _____________________________________________ 1937_______________________________________________________________ 178 152 187 182 1,640 1, 684 2,362 2,829 1,968 1, 733 2, 520 3, 355 1 Includes only plants having an annual production valued at $5,000 or more. In 1937, as reported by the Census of Manufacturers, the total value of leather belting and packing amounted to $27,047,693. Flat belting was valued at 50.2 percent of the total, with the value of other leather belting (solid, twist, and built-up) amounting to 4.3 percent. Leather packings (cup, U-valve, etc.), excluding washers, constituted 16.4 percent of the total value, while textile leathers amounted to 7.6 percent, thus leaving 21.5 percent to cover the value of other products. Among other items were included belt lacings, oil seals, and grease containers. Scope o f the Survey In general, the present survey conformed to the definition of the leather belting and packing industry as stated by the Census of Manu factures.3 The survey covered all establishments in the industry ex cept those with less than 3 employees. Thus defined, the survey in cluded 108 plants with 1,956 wage earners. The distribution of the coverage in the leather belting and packing industry by States is shown in table 20. Average H ourly Earnings Methods o f Wage Payments A large majority of the wage earners employed in the leather belt ing and packing industry are paid on a straight time-rate basis. Indeed, this method of renumeration was followed exclusively in 89 3 Establishments that are primarily belt-repair shops were excluded from the survey. A V E R AG E HOURLY 43 E A R N IN G S of the 108 establishments for which information was obtained. More over, even among the plants that paid straight piece/ rates, the ma jority of the wage earners were on a time-rate basis. Only 3 of the establishments reported production-bonus systems of wage payment. Of the total workers covered in the survey, 9.8 percent were paid on a straight piece-work basis and 6.1 percent worked under productionbonus plans, thus leaving 84.1 percent paid on a straight time-rate basis. Extra rates for overtime work were general throughout the industry. By far the great majority of the plants conformed strictly to the Fair Labor Standards Act, thus paying time and one-half after 44 hours of work per week, but a substantial number of establishments had a more liberal provision for overtime. Most of these plants allowed time and one-half after 40 hours of work. About one-fifth of the plants also paid double time for work on Sundays and holidays. T able 2 0 .— Coverage o f su rvey in the leather belting and p a ckin g in d u s tr y , b y S ta tes , Sep tem ber 1 9 3 9 Number of establish ments State United States__________________ ____________ ___ _ __ _ California _ ______________________ _ . Connecticut ____________ _____ ______ ________________ ____ _ Illinois . _ _ ________ _ _ . _________ ________ Massachusetts._ _ ______________ __ . __ _ _______ . . M ic h ig a n .____ _____________________ . ______________________ _. Missouri. _ . _____________ . . . New Jersey ______ . . . ._ _ __ New Y o r k __ ._ _ . _ North Carolina . . . . ... _ Ohio . Workers Number Percentage 108 1,956 100.0 3 4 28 50 383 388 1.4 2. 6 19.6 19.8 100 6.1 2.3 1. 7 6.3 1. 6 2. 2 13.4 16.9 7.1 8 15 4 _ _____ __ __ . . . __ _______ __ __ ________ __ __ 4 5 15 3 6 45 33 124 32 44 Pennsylvania _______ .. ______ __ _______ __ _ _ __ ____ __ ____ Virginia Other States L _ _______ _________________ . . . ___ ___________ 15 3 23 262 135 332 1 Includes 2 plants in Delaware, 2 in Georgia, 2 in Indiana, 2 in Louisiana, 2 in Maryland, 2 in Minnesota, 2in New Hampshire, 2 in Rhode Island, 2 in South Carolina, 2 in Tennessee. 2 in Texas, and 1 in Wisconsin. During the pay-roll period scheduled, a- number of employees worked overtime. If the earnings due to the extra rates allowed for this overtime are considered, the average hourly earnings for all workers in the industry are increased from 56.5 to 57.8 cents, a gain of 1.3 cents. The subsequent analysis of both hourly and weekly earnings is on the basis of regular rates only. H ourly Earnings o f A ll W orkers In September 1939, earnings of all workers in the belting and pack ing industry averaged 56.5 cents an hour. Individual hourly earn ings, however, varied widely, ranging from about 25 cents to above $1, according to the distribution in table 21. 44 E A R N IN G S AND H OURS, LEATH ER IN D U S T R IE S Although the spread of individual earnings was wide, the hourly earnings of a fairly large proportion of the labor force were restricted to comparatively narrow limits. Almost one-third (31.8 percent) of the wage earners were concentrated within the 15-cent range of 42.5 and under 57.5 cents. Moreover, the range for more than threefifths (63.4 percent) was between 40 and 72.5 cents. Despite the concentration in the intermediate intervals, a relatively substantial proportion of the leather belting and packing employees were found in the lower-wage classes. Roughly, one out of every six wage earners (17.3 percent) earned under 40 cents an hour, and 5.6 percent received less than 35 cents. A substantial scattering of employees was also found in the higher wage classes, with almost one-fifth (19.3 percent) of the total paid 72.5 cents an hour and over. There were 7.8 percent receiving 82.5 cents and over. The distribution, however, cuts off abruptly at about 92.5 cents, and no more than 3.1 percent were at or above this level. Variations by Sex and Skill 4 As in the leather industry, women are a minor proportion of the total labor force in leather belting and packing, amounting to 14.6 percent. The dominant groups are the skilled and semiskilled males; each of these groups accounted for 38 percent of the total. Only one-tenth (9.9 percent) of all workers were unskilled males. Sharply contrasting levels of hourly earnings are shown for each of these groups of employees in the industry. Compared with an average of 68.2 cents an hour for skilled males, semiskilled males averaged 54.4 cents, and unskilled males had an average of 42.2 cents. The female employees, most of whom are semiskilled workers, averaged 40.5 cents. Hence, the extreme spread of hourly earnings among the several groups amounted to 27.7 cents. The differences in these averages are re flected in the distributions of individual hourly earnings among the various groups of workers. Earnings of less than 40 cents are shown for only 2.8 percent of the skilled males, but 12.7 percent of the semiskilled males, and 34.9 per cent of the unskilled were found below this level. Of the females, 55.1 percent received less than 40 cents. A substantial proportion of the unskilled males (11.3 percent) and more than one-third of all females received between 35.0 and 37.5 cents. On the other hand, 64.4 percent of the skilled males were paid 62.5 cents an hour and over, which may be compared with 30.2 percent of the semiskilled males. Only 1.5 percent of the unskilled males and none of the females earned 67.5 cents and over. 4 The number of colored workers (1.5 percent) in the establishments covered was not sufficiently large to justify separate treatment. A V E R AG E T able 21. — HOURLY 45 E A R N IN G S w ork ers , by P ercen tage d istribu tion o f leather belting and p a ck in g average h o u rly ea rn in g s , sex , and s&z'ZZ, S ep tem b er 1 9 3 9 Males Average hourly earnings All workers Females Total Skilled Under 25.0 cents______________ Exactly 25.0 c e n ts____________ 25.1 and under 27.5 c e n ts ____ 27.5 and under 30.0 cents_____ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents.......... 0.1 2.2 0.1 1. 2 .2 .1 1.6 32.5 and under 35.0 and under 37.5 and under 40.0 and under 42.5 and under 1.6 8. 5 35.0 cents_____ 37.5 cents_____ 40.0 cents_____ 42.5 cents___ __ 47.5 cents_____ 1.3 .2 .2 3. 2 7.0 Semi skilled 0. 5 .3 .4 .1 2.2 1.9 3.8 .8 2.0 .7 2.1 6.1 .8 4.9 2.7 8.7 0.1 10.0 9.4 2.3 4. 2 12.1 47.5 and under 52.5 cents___ __ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents.. . . . 57.5 and under 62.5 cents______ 62.5 and under 67.5 c e n ts ____ 67.5 and under 72.5 c e n ts _____ 10.6 11. 2 10.7 12. 2 8.4 9.8 9.8 5.4 11.7 9. 2 11.9 13.9 12.9 14.3 9. 1 10.3 7.7 72.5 and under 77.5 cents_____ 77.5 and under 82.5 cents ___ 82.5 and under 87.5 cents._ . . . 87.5 and under 92.5 c e n t s .___ 92.5 and under 100.0 cents____ 6.4 5. 1 7. 5 5.9 3.1 2. 5 11.8 .7 .8 1.8 5.3 3. 5 2.7 .5 . 1 100.0 and under 110.0 cents___ 1. 5 .7 .5 .1 3.2 1. 5 .1 .1 .1 110.0 and under 125.0 cents___ 125.0 and under 150.0 cents___ 150.0 cents and o v e r............... _ 1.3 .6 .4 .1 7.8 8. 5 8.3 2.6 2.1 9.9 4. 2 5.0 U n skilled 1. 0 8.2 2.1 .5 4.1 .7 5.6 19.2 .4 36.5 9.8 12.3 13.3 23.3 7. 2 3.1 9.8 4. 2 4 .2 5.2 11.3 4.6 10.8 1.1 1.5 1 Total_____________ _____ _ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100. 0 100.0 Number of workers. _________ 1,956 1,671 739 738 194 285 Average hourly earnings______ $0. 565 $0. 592 $0,682 $0. 544 $0,422 $0.405 100.0 Geographical Differences In analyzing the data on a geographical basis, the same break-down was used in leather belting and packing as in the leather industry, which consisted of the New England, Middle Atlantic, Middle Western (including California), and Southern States. The Southern States covered by the survey in this industry included Maryland, Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. Altogether, these States employed only about one-eighth of the total workers in the industry. Generally speaking, hourly earnings were lower here than in other parts of the country. According to table 22, all but one of the southern establish ments averaged below 60 cents, while two-thirds of the northern plants showed averages above that figure. This does not mean, however, that the low-wage establishments were all located in the South. As a matter of fact, there were as many establishments averaging less than 45 cents in the North as in the South. Since there were no female workers found in the southern establish ments, any comparison between the northern and southern regions should be confined to male employees. For all males, the average 46 E A R N IN G S AND H OURS, LEATH ER IN D U S T R IE S hourly earnings were 62.1 cents in the Northern and 43.9 cents in the Southern States, a difference of 18.2 cents. Comparing the distribu tions, which are shown in table 23, there were only 5.1 percent paid under 40 cents an hour in the North, as against 44.6 percent in the South. On the other hand, the number receiving 72.5 cents and over amounted, respectively, to 26.0 and 3.2 percent. T able 2 2 . — D istr ib u tio n o f leather belting and 'packing p la n ts, b y average h o u rly ea rn in gs and b y districts, S ep tem ber 1 9 3 9 Northern States Average hourly earnings United States New England States Total 1 Middle Western States, in cluding California Middle Atlantic States 2 1 1 1 2 7 5 4 10 13 13 7 9 9 3 4 cents_________ cents__ __ . c e n t s __ cents. _ cents............ 20 12 8 19 5 7 12 8 2 2 6 7 4 9 7 9 7 3 5 3 4 3 3 85 and under 90 cents . _ _____ 90 and under 95 cents 2 2 2 2 1 1 Total____________________ 108 90 23 37 35 and 40 and 45 and 50 and 55 and under 40 cents_________ under 45 cents _ under 50 cents. _ ______ under 55 cents. . . under 60 cents_________ 60 and 65 and 70 and 75 and 80 and under under under under under 65 70 75 80 85 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 Southern States 3 3 3 4 4 1 1 2 30 18 The New England States covered in the survey included New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. The Middle Atlantic States comprised New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl vania, and Delaware. The Middle Western States included Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Missouri. In tabulations, it has been necessary to include California with this group. A substantial portion of the industry was found in each of these groups of States. Of the total employees, there were 30.3 percent in the New England, 24.5 percent in the Middle Atlantic, and 32.6 percent in the Middle Western States, including California. AV E R AG E T able 23.— HOURLY 47 E A R N IN G S P ercentage d istribution o f leather belting and p a ckin g w orkers, b y average h ou rly ea rn in gs, region , sex, and skill, S ep tem ber 1 9 3 9 Northern States Average hourly earnings Under 25.0 cents Exactly 25.0 cents 25.1 and under 27.5 cents 27.5 and under 30.0 cents 30.0 and under 32.5 cents_____ 32.5 and 35.0 and 37.5 and 40.0 and 42.5 and under under under under under 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 47.5 cents cents cents cents_____ cents_____ 47.5 and 52.5 and 57.5 and 62.5 and 67.5 and under under under under under 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 cents_____ cents_____ cents,. __ cents cents_____ 72.5 and 77.5 and 82.5 and 87.5 and 92.5 and under under under under under 77.5 cents 82.5 cents 87.5 cents , 92.5 cents,. . . . 100.0 cents 100.0 and under 110.0 cents 110.0 and under 125.0 cents. . _ 125.0 and under 150.0 cents . 150.0 cents and over___________ T o ta l................... . . . Num ber of workers. ___ . . . Average hourly earnings_____ Males All workers 0.1 1.1 .2 .1 1.8 .2 7. 6 2. 5 6.5 9.6 10.6 11.2 8.4 9. 2 9.3 7.3 5. 5 3.0 2.4 .7 Total Semi skilled Skilled Females Unskilled 0.6 0.1 .8 .2 1.0 .1 1.8 1.1 5.4 0.3 .8 4.2 1.6 1.1 1. 3 8. 1 11.3 9.6 4. 2 11.4 22.4 .4 36.5 9.8 12.3 13.3 9.8 4.2 4.2 .6 1.2 5.3 8.8 10.8 12.6 3.0 10.8 13.1 16.0 9.2 12.4 15.4 10.8 27.2 7.8 3.6 12. 3 9.2 1.8 4.4 9.3 10. 9 11.2 8.8 6.6 13.4 .7 5.6 1.1 6.3 4.2 3.2 10.6 4.9 5.8 1.7 3.6 2.9 2.1 0. 5 .3 .6 .2 .2 100.0 .8 1.8 .8 .6 .1 100.0 .2 100.0 100.0 100.0 1,709 1,424 639 619 166 285 $0. 585 $0. 621 $0. 712 $0. 575 $0. 438 $0. 405 1.5 .6 .5 .1 3.8 1.7 1.3 100.0 Southern States Males Average hourly earnings All workers Females Total Under 25.0 cents_____ ________ Exactly 25.0 cents 25.1 and under 27.5 cents.. _ 27.5 and under 30.0 cents___ __ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents . . . Skilled 0. 4 3.2 0.4 3.2 .8 .8 5.3 5.3 Semi skilled 0.8 1.0 1.0 .8 9.2 32.5 and 35.0 and 37.5 and 40.0 and 42.5 and under under under under under 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 47.5 cents cents,. . cents. _ c e n ts___ cents___ __ 11.7 15.1 11.7 15.1 6.0 12.6 5.0 21.9 8.1 8.1 10. 5 12. 7 10. 5 12. 7 6.0 10.0 12.0 10.1 11.8 16.0 47.5 and 52.5 and 57.5 and 62.5 and 67.5 and under under under under under 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 cents_____ cents_____ cents cents. cents........... 10.5 9.7 3.6 3. 6 10.5 9.7 3. 6 3.6 12.0 11.8 17. 0 9. 0 9.0 4.0 5.0 72.5 and 77.5 and 82.5 and 87.5 and 92.5 and under 77.5 cents_____ under 82.5 c e n ts ____ under 87.5 cents under 92.5 cents_____ under 100.0 cents 1.6 Unskilled i 1.6 1.0 .4 .4 2.0 2.0 5.0 .8 .8 2.0 100.0 and under 110.0 cents,, 110.0 and under 125.0 cents___ 125.0 and under 150.0 cents 150.0 cents and over_____ _____ 100.0 Total____________________ 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number of workers___________ 247 247 100 119 28 Average hourly earnings______ $0. 439 $0. 439 $0. 511 $0. 399 $0. 324 i N ot a sufficient number of workers to show a distribution. 48 E A R N IN G S AND H OURS, LEATH ER IN D U S T R IE S Although a majority of the establishments in the New England, Middle Atlantic, and Middle Western States (including California) averaged above 60 cents an hour, there were a substantial number of plants in each of these districts with averages between 35 and 60 cents, which is the range covered by virtually all of the southern establish ments. For all workers, the average hourly earnings amounted to 62.5 cents for the Middle Atlantic, 60.0 cents for the New England, and 54.3 cents for the Middle Western States, including California. Taking 40 cents as the limit, the number of employees earning under that figure was 7.7 percent in the Middle Atlantic and 10.9 percent in the New England States, which may be compared with 20.3 percent in the Middle Western States, including California. For the most part, the lower-paid workers in the Middle Western district were found in Illinois and Missouri. Each district showed a substantial number of employees in the higher-wage classes, namely, above 72.5 cents, the figures being 28.2 percent in the Middle Atlantic, 21.5 per cent in the New England, and 16.2 percent in the Middle Western States, including California. (See table 24.) T a b l e 2 4 . — P ercentage d istribu tion o f leather belting a nd p a ckin g w ork ers , b y average h o u rly ea rn in g s, sex , and district, Sep tem ber 1 9 3 9 0.2 Under 2/5.0 cents Exactly 25.0 cents 25.1 and under 27.5 cents 27.5 and under 30.0 cents,_ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents.. 1. 9 1. 3 .2 2.2 .6 .2 .8 32.5 and 35.0 and 37.5 and 40.0 and 42.5 and .3 3.9 2.4 5.1 5.2 under under under under under 35.0 cents.. 37.5 cents.. 40.0 cents. . 42.5 cents.. 47.5 cents.. 0. 2 .8 5.3 2.7 1.7 6. 1 9.2 14.8 3.3 8. 2 13.9 11. 7 15. 1 8. 1 10. 5 12.7 10. 5 13.7 10.2 9. 6 9.9 7.8 7.8 6. 3 47.5 and 52.5 and 57.5 and 62.5 and 67.5 and under under under under under cents.. cents.. cents.. cents.. cents. _ 72.5 and 77.5 and 82.5 and 87.5 and 92.5 and under 77.5 cents.. under 82.5 cents.. under 87.5 cents.. under 92.5 cents.. under 100.0 cents. 8.4 4.6 3. 5 2. 5 .5 9. 8 7. 9 3. 5 2. 7 1. 0 4. 4 4. 5 2. 0 2. 0 100.0 and under 110.0 cents. 1. 0 .7 1. 9 .6 .6 .2 1. 6 .6 110.0 and under 125.0 cents. 125.0 and under 150.0 cents. 150 0 cents and over T o ta l_______________ Number of workers_______ 10.0 11. 0 10. 6 .3 7.3 9.0 11. 8 .6 1.1 0. 2 1.1 0. 2 0.4 3. 2 .5 5.3 479 .7 .4 1.1 1.1 3.7 3.4 5.4 8.3 10. 5 9. 7 3.6 3.6 1. 6 12. 0 9. 5 12. 0 11.0 12. 1 11. 8 10. 7 10. 7 7.6 9.6 12. 4 10. 7 9.1 10. 5 9.7 3.6 3.6 1. 6 .4 9. 3 5. 0 3. 9 2. 8 10. 5 8. 5 3. 8 2. 9 6. 3 6. 6 2. 0 .6 1.1 2. 9 2. 9 .9 .8 1.1 .7 2. 0 2. 0 .8 15. 1 .4 .7 .7 1.4 .9 7.3 16.1 8.8 5.6 — — 11.7 15.1 2.8 1.1 .5 638 — 44.7 8.1 10.5 12. 7 8.6 10.2 — 9.1 — — 9.6 5.1 5.6 ________ 1.5 ______ .4 2. 3 .9 .7 .2 247 535 448 441 247 ________ ________ 57 31 100.0 1 N ot a sufficient number of workers to show a distribution. — 197 Average hourly earnings.. $0. 600 $0. 625 $0. 543 $0. 439 $0. 621 $0. 639 $0. 603 $0.439 $0. 395 $0. 397 $0. 409 Southern States Middle Western States, includ ing California .8 1.7 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 592 Middle Atlantic States 1 New England States 1 j 2.0 12. 0 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 0.4 3. 2 .7 .2 Southern States Middle Western States, includ ing California New England States Females 1 Middle Atlantic States Males | Southern States Middle Western States, includ ing California Middle Atlantic States Average hourly earnings New England States A ll workers — AV E R AG E HOURLY E A R N IN G S 49 The N. R. A. code for the leather industry also included leather belting and packing, with the same minimum wages per hour applying to both industries, which were 32.5 cents for all workers in the Southern States and 35.0 cents for females and 40 cents for males in the Northern States. At the time of the survey (September 1939), there were 5.1 percent of the males earning under 40 cents an hour and 8.8 percent of the females paid below 35 cents in the Northern States. Moreover, as many as 36.5 percent of the females received between 35.0 and 37.5 cents, about one-third being paid exactly 35 cents, which is probably traceable to the influence of the code minimum. In the Southern States, 9.7 percent of the workers were paid less than 32.5 cents. H ou rly Earnings in R elation to Fair Labor Standards A ct As pointed out previously, the 25-cent hourly minimum was in effect during the period covered by the survey. Very few workers in the leather belting and packing industry were being paid below this minimum. Also, there were few wdio were paid exactly 25 cents, the figure amounting to only 1.1 percent in the Northern and 3.2 percent in the Southern States. Only 1.8 percent of all employees in the industry received less than 30 cents an hour, or the minimum under the Fair Labor Standards Act shortly after the survey was made. The figure was 1.5 percent in the Northern States, as compared with 4.4 percent in the Southern States. In other words, the wage structure of the industry as a whole evidently did not have to be readjusted radically to conform to the new minimum. Neither was the proportion of workers in the industry paid under 35 cents an hour very large. For the country as a whole, the figure amounted to 5.6 percent. It was only 3.5 percent in the Northern States, and 21.4 percent in the Southern States. On the other hand, a substantial number of employees in the industry received less than 40 cents an hour. For the industry as a whole, 17.3 percent of the wage earners were found below this level. Below the 40 cent level were found 2.8 percent of the skilled males, 12.7 percent of the semiskilled, and 34.9 percent of the unskilled. By contrast 55.1 percent of the females received less than 40 cents. On a geographical basis, the proportions were 7.7 percent in the Middle Atlantic, 10.9 percent in the New England, 20.3 percent in the Middle Western (including California), and 44.6 percent in the Southern States. Table 25 presents the distribution of workers by groups of plants classified according to average hourly earnings. It shows that the only establishments in which a substantial proportion (11.9 percent) of employees earned under 30 cents were those that averaged between 35 and 40 cents. Likewise, they were the only plants that had a 50 E A R N IN G S AND H OU RS, LE ATH E R IN D U S T R IE S considerable proportion of workers paid below 35 cents, the figure amounting to 39.3 percent. These establishments were scattered widely geographically. In the plants averaging between 35 and 40 cents an hour, 67.1 per cent of the employees were paid under 40 cents, compared with 40.0 percent in those with averages between 40 and 45 cents, 29.2 percent in those averaging between 45 and 50 cents, and 13.5 percent in those with averages between 50 and 55 cents. The other groups of plants, containing about two-thirds of all establishments, had few workers earning less than 40 cents. T a b l e 2 5 . — S im p le percentage distribu tion o f leather belting a nd p a ckin g w ork ers, b y average h o u rly earnings and by gro u p s o f p la n ts , S ep tem ber 1 9 3 9 Plants having average hourly earnings of— Average hourly earnings Total Under 25.0 c e n ts __ Exactly 25. 0 cents 25.1 and under 27.5 cents___ 27. 5 and under 30.0 cents___ 30.0 and under 32.5 cents___ 0.1 .2 .2 2.2 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 and and and and and under under under under under 1.6 8. 5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 and and and and and under 52.5 cents.___ under 57.5 centS-_ _. under 62.5 cents___ under 67.5 cents___ under 72.5 cents----- 10.6 11.2 72.5 and under 77.5 cents___ 77 5 and under 82.5 cents 82.5 and under 87.5 cents.___ 87.5 and under 92.5 c e n ts__ 92. 5 and under 100.0 cents. _ 6.4 5. 1 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 47.5 cents___ cents___ cents___ cents___ cents___ 1.3 3.2 7.0 10.0 7.8 8. 5 8.3 35 and 40 and 45 and 50 and 55 and 60 and 65 and 70 cents under under under under under under under and 40 cents 45 cents 50 cents 55 cents 60 cents 65 cents 70 cents over 1.0 2.0 1.2 0. 5 .5 0.9 11.9 3.0 .6 5.3 .4 0.4 15.5 19.6 2.0 27.0 5.0 19.0 19.0 22.4 5.0 9.4 25.9 4.3 2.9 1. 7 2.2 10.6 8.2 5. 7 9.1 2.3 2. 5 5.3 4. 1 3.6 2.4 8.0 2.0 11.2 6. 5 4.0 4.0 5.3 3.5 2.7 15. 5 22.7 8.7 8.7 2.4 15.8 24.9 10. 4 5.2 10.4 12. 3 11.4 12. 1 15. 8 13. 5 9. 5 7. 7 10. 7 15.5 12.5 4.3 4.3 1.4 6.3 15.1 2.9 3.9 2.4 8.2 9. 5 14. 3 6. 5 2. 4 20.9 13. 0 7.7 7. 2 1.9 8.8 1.0 2.1 8.2 10.3 9.3 3.1 4. 6 3. 1 1.0 1.0 0.6 2.0 2.4 075 .5 .6 1.2 1.0 .7 .9 .3 4.3 3.9 1.3 3.0 .4 1.0 1.8 100.0 and under 110.0 cents.. 1.3 .9 .4 110.0 and under 125.0 cents. _ 125.0 and under 150.0 cents. _ 150.0 cents and over . .4 .4 .4 .1 .6 2.4 1. 2 7. 2 2. 9 2.9 .5 .5 1.0 1.0 2.6 2.1 .6 .6 .6 .5 5. 5 2.5 2. 3 Total___________ _ . . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number of workers. Number of plants----------------- 1, 956 108 194 7 100 339 168 10 230 13 511 5 207 13 20 12 207 28 Variations by Size o f C om m u nity5 and Unionization As in the leather industry, plants making leather belting and packing are, for the most part, located in large industrial centers. Of the total employees in the industry, as many as 44.4 percent were found in metropolitan areas with a population of 1,000,000 and over, and one-fourth (24.4 percent) were located in communities between 250,000 and 1,000,000. There were 13.6 percent in places between 50,000 5 See page 25. W EEKLY HOURS AND E A R N IN G S 51 and 250,000, and 17.6 percent were found in towns between 5,000 and 50.000. Due to the fact that the coverage in the Southern States is relatively small, any analysis of hourly earnings by size of community in this industry must be confined to the northern region. For all workers, average hourly earnings in this area amounted to 51.7 cents in towns with a population between 5,000 and 50,000, 55.8 cents in places between 50,000 and 250,000, 63.9 cents in communities between 250,000 and 1,000,000, and 58.1 cents in metropolitan areas with 1.000. 000 and over. Unionization6 has not made much headway in the leather belting and packing industry. Of the 108 establishments covered in the sur vey, only 4 were operating under union agreements. These plants were all located in metropolitan areas with a population of 1,000,000 and over in the Northern States. With one exception, they averaged over 65 cents, which places them in the upper half of the distribution of establishments by average hourly earnings. Despite the fact that all of the union plants were located in metro politan areas with a population of 1,000,000 and over, the average hourly earnings here were lower than those found in communities between 250,000 and 1,000,000. This is due to the fact that the pro portion of employees working in leather-packing establishments, which generally had a lower wage level than plants making other products, was higher in metropolitan areas of 1,000,000 and over as compared with other classes of communities. Product Differences For all wage earners, the average hourly earnings amounted to 58.1 cents in plants making primarily leather belting, 52.6 cents in those engaged principally in making leather packing, and 58.2 cents in establishments producing other products that come within the defini tion of the industry. The chief reason for the higher wage level in leather belting is the fact that the plants engaged chiefly in making this product employed relatively few women, namely, 2.3 percent of the total labor force. On the other hand, a number of establishments manufacturing leather belting are located in the Southern States where the wage level in this branch of the industry is lower. In fact, the Southern States accounted for 20.9 percent of the total workers in leather-belting plants. There were no females employed in the Southern States, so that the wage comparison must be confined to male employees. For all males, the average hourly earnings amounted to 63.2 cents in the Northern States 7 as against 43.0 cents in the Southern States. 6 See page 24. 7 The few females in the Northern States averaged 36.4 cents. 52 E A R R IN G S AND H OURS, LEATH ER IN D U S T R IE S Virtually all establishments (with 98.6 percent of the total workers) engaged largely in the production of leather packing are located in the Northern States. On the other hand, a substantial proportion of the labor force, namely, 37.3 percent, consisted of women, which is responsible for the lower wage level found in this branch of the industry. The average hourly earnings of males in leather-packing plants in the Northern States amounted to 59.4 cents, as compared with 41.0 cents for females. Of the total wage earners employed in establishments engaged principally in making products other than leather belting and packing, only 8.2 percent were found in the Southern States. Moreover, only 12.8 percent of the labor force in these plants consisted of women. In the Northern States, the average hourly earnings were 62.5 cents for males and 39.8 cents for females. The small number of males found in the Southern States averaged 46.8 cents. T a b l e 26.— S im p le percentage distribu tion o f leather belting' a nd p a ck in g w o rk ers , b y average h o u rly earnings a nd b y prod u ct , S ep tem ber 1 9 3 9 Belting 1 Average hourly earnings All workers United States Under 25.0 cents___ __ _______ Exactly 25.0 cents____________ 25.1 and under 27.5 cents. 27.5 and under 30.0 cents. 30.0 and under 32.5 cents. _ . . 0.1 0.1 1.3 1.4 .3 .3 2.3 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 and and and and and under 35.0 under 37.5 under 40.0 under 42.5 under 47.5 cents. cents_____ cents cents_____ cents. .. 1.6 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 and and and and and under under under under under cents. cents_____ cents_____ cents. cents. 10.6 11.2 72.5 and under 77.5 cents _ 77.5 and under 82.5 cents. _ . 82.5 and under 87.5 cents. 87.5 and under 92.5 cents. 92.5 and under 100.0 cents____ 6.4 5.1 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 .2 .2 2.2 8.5 3.2 7.0 10.0 7.8 8.5 8.3 3.0 4.9 3.6 6.9 7.4 10.8 12.9 7.1 8.1 South ern States 0.1 .8 3.9 1.4 0.6 2.9 0.2 1.0 .2 1.6 1.1 .5 2.4 2.7 .1 1.0 1.5 5.4 2.1 2.3 14.1 15.6 8.3 6.0 10.2 6.3 11.7 10.9 14.0 10.2 8.8 8.2 2.6 2.1 7.2 5.7 3.1 3.0 9.0 6.7 3.9 3.7 .7 .6 .6 100.0 and under 110.0 cents___ 1.3 .6 2.6 110.0 and under 125.0 cents___ 125.0 and under 150.0 cents___ 150.0 cents and over..... ........... .. 2.0 1.0 .4 .5 .1 .1 .6 .1 100.0 100.0 100.0 1,956 $0.565 983 $0. 581 778 $0. 625 1 Includes 2 Includes 3 Includes 2.9 2.9 Males Females .5 16.5 3.0 7.0 16.1 .6 2.0 .5 40.6 4.6 18.0 12.9 6.5 2. 7 7.3 7.7 11.2 12.5 8.9 7.3 11.1 9.1 5.3 5.3 1.4 10.2 12.1 6.6 8.5 9.7 8.5 8.1 11.0 9.4 9.9 2.0 5.4 .5 4.3 3.9 2.7 6.8 1.2 .7 .9 2.0 1.1 .2 1.4 .3 .4 .6 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 205 $0.430 560 $0. 526 351 $0.593 209 $0. 410 413 $0.582 2.0 .5 1.3 both male and female workers. both the Northern and Southern States. both males and females in the country as a whole. Total .4 9.5 9.3 Total___________________ Other 3 North ern States 7.7 N um ber of workers.. ______ Average hourly earnings-------- Packing 2 13.8 7.5 5.1 1.5 1. 2 6.3 4.3 1.0 .2 W EEKLY HOURS AND E A R N IN G S ' 53 For male workers in the Northern States, the highest hourly earn ings are shown for leather belting and other products, with the lowest for leather packing, the respective averages being 63.2, 62.5, and 59.4 cents. For females, the order was different, the average hourly earn ings amounting to 41.0 cents for leather packing, 39.8 cents for other products, and 36.4 cents for leather belting. It must be remembered, however, that the last two averages are based on relatively few em ployees. In the Southern States, where the comparison is confined to males only, the averages were 57.1 cents for leather packing, 46.8 cents for other products, and 43.0 cents for belting.8 The distributions of individual hourly earnings by product are presented in table 26. Occupational Differences The average hourly earnings for the various occupations in the leather belting and packing industry for the country as a whole ap pear in table 27. By far the highest average, 82.6 cents, is shown for working foremen. For the remaining occupational groups among skilled males, the averages covered a narrow range— from 59.8 cents to 67.3 cents. The lowest average was for pressmen. The important occupation of all-around belt makers averaged 65.1 cents. With two exceptions, the occupational averages among semiskilled males covered a spread from 50 to 60 cents. These two exceptions were shipping packers and picker-making workers, who averaged 47.8 and 45.7 cents, respectively. The occupations with averages of approximately 59 to 60 cents were plant clerks, lathe cup-edge trimmers, packing punch-press cutters, and scarfing-machine operators of belts and aprons. Among the unskilled males, the highest average hourly earnings (47.1 cents) are shown for the few apprentices. The relatively few learners had the lowest average, which was 37.0 cents. Practically all of the other occupational groups averaged 41 cents. The occupational averages of females ranged from 36.2 cents for packers to 44.4 cents for cup-forming press operators. In four occupations, figures are shown for both males and females, and in each the females averaged considerably less than the males. 8 D ue to the sm all number of male em ployees, it is not possible to compare average hourly earnings in each region among the various products on a skill basis. 54 EARNINGS AND HOURS, LEATHER INDUSTRIES W eekly Hours and Earnings Full-Tim e W eekly Hours With very few exceptions, the full-time weekly hours in the leather belting and packing industry amounted to 44 or less in September 1939. Moreover, about one-half of the plants had a full-time workweek of 44 hours, with the great majority of the remainder operating under a 40-hour week. As in the leather industry, employees in the maintenance, power house, and service departments in many of the leather belting and packing plants had scheduled hours that were different from those of the majority of the wage earners. Actual W eekly Hours The average actual weekly hours worked by all wage earners in the leather belting and packing industry amounted to 43.4 in September 1939. The male workers averaged 43.5 hours, as against 42.9 for female employees. Among the males, the averages were 44.0 for skilled, 43.1 for semiskilled, and 42.5 for unskilled workers, the aver ages thus declining with the degree of skill. According to the distribution in table 28, one-fifth (20.3 percent) of all wage earners worked exactly 40 hours during the pay-roll period scheduled. Three-tenths (30.2 percent) worked exactly 44 hours, which was the maximum under the Fair Labor Standards Act at the time of the survey. There were 7.5 percent working over 40 and under 44 hours. One-eighth (12.3 percent) worked less than 40 hours, most of these employees being on short time during the pay-roll period scheduled, due to various causes. On the other hand, as many as threetenths (29.7 percent) worked over 44 hours, for which overtime work at time and one-half was responsible in a number of cases. The average weekly hours were considerably longer in the Southern than in the Northern States, the respective figures amounting to 46.6 and 42.9 hours. In the northern region, the highest average, 44.3 hours, was found in the Middle Western States, including California, which may be compared with 42.5 hours in the New England and 41.6 hours in the Middle Atlantic States. 55 W E EK LY HOURS AND EARNINGS T able 27.— Average hourly earnings, w eekly hours, and w eekly earnings o f leather belting and packing workers, by sex, skill, and occupation, Septem ber 1989 Sex, skill, and occupation Number Average Average Average of work hourly weekly weekly ers earnings hours earnings All workers___________________________ __________________ M ales___________________________________ _______________ Skilled________________________ _____________________ Belt makers, all around_________________ _________ Cutters, belting strips______________________________ Foremen, working_________________________________ Pressmen, belts_______________________________ . . Shaving machine operators, belting and packing. ____ Sorters and matchers, belting------ ------------------------Miscellaneous workers, maintenance, skilled_________ Miscellaneous workers, other, skilled_______ ______ Semiskilled _________________________________________ Clerks, plant____________________________________ Cup-edge trimmers, lathe___________________________ Cup-forming press operators. _____________________ Cutters, packing, punch press___________________ ... Inspectors and testers, belts and packing_____________ Packers, shipping______ ____________________ ______ Picker-making workers, semiskilled____________ _____ Round-belt-making workers, semiskilled________ _ Scarfing machine operators, belts and aprons_________ Trimmers and polishers, belt edges_______________ Miscellaneous workers, maintenance, semiskilled_____ Miscellaneous workers, leather finishing, mach ine Miscellaneous workers, other, semiskilled____________ Unskilled_______________________________ __________ _ Apprentices_______________________________________ Learners___________________________ _____ ________ Material handlers and general helpers_______ Watchmen._______________________ .. _____ .. ... Miscellaneous workers, maintenance, unskilled----------Miscellaneous workers, other, unskilled______________ Females__________________________ ____ _______________ Cup-edge trimmers, lathe------------------------- ------- .. Cup-forming press operators____ __________________ _ Cutters, packing, punch press--------------- ----------------Packers,shipping_________ __________________ ... Sorters ... _________________ ______________ .. Miscellaneous workers_________ _______ .. . _____ 1, 956 1. 671 739 197 28 170 137 26 32 82 67 738 71 56 82 37 20 39 71 40 32 30 45 18 197 194 14 12 86 27 35 20 285 32 44 54 34 35 86 $0. 565 . 592 .682 .651 .652 .826 .598 .639 .616 .648 .673 .544 .600 .604 .565 .593 .563 .478 .457 .524 .595 .555 .504 .534 .536 .422 .471 .370 .412 .410 .461 .413 .405 .399 .444 .420 .362 .380 .407 43.4 43.5 44.0 44.9 44.3 44.3 42.9 41.6 45.2 45.7 41.5 43.1 43.3 42.7 41.5 46.3 43.6 43.4 41.8 43.8 43.7 44.6 45.2 38.3 43.2 42.5 42.9 36.8 40.9 50.4 43.2 40.6 42.9 46.4 42.9 42.4 44.0 45.4 40.4 $24. 51 25. 73 30.02 29. 22 28. 87 36. 59 25. 69 26. 60 27. 83 29. 59 27.94 23. 48 25.95 25. 78 23. 43 27.46 24.54 20. 73 19. 08 22. 93 26. 01 24. 76 22. 80 20. 46 23.15 17.96 20. 21 13. 59 16. 85 20. 65 19. 88 16. 76 17. 37 18. 50 19. 05 17.80 15. 92 17. 27 16. 42 W eekly Earnings For all wage earners in the leather belting and packing industry, the average weekly earnings in September 1939 amounted to $24.51.9 As may be seen from table 29, 65.4 percent of the total earned between $15 and $30 during the week scheduled. One-tenth (10.1 percent) received less than $15. The remaining one-fourth (24.5 percent) earned $30 and over, but only 4.7 percent were paid as much as $40. As with hourly earnings, weekly earnings varied considerably among the several skill-sex groups. Male employees averaged $25.73, as compared with $17.37 for female workers. Among the males, the averages amounted to $30.02 for skilled, $23.48 for semiskilled, and $17.96 for unskilled employees. 0 If the earnings due to the extra rates for overtime work were included, it would increase the average weekly earnings of all workers in the industry by 56 cents. 56 EARRINGS AND HOURS, LEATHER INDUSTRIES The average weekly earnings amounted to $20.46 in the Southern States. In the northern region, the average was $25.10, with rela tively little difference among the several districts. Thus, the weekly earnings averaged $25.98 in the Middle Atlantic, $25.53 in the New England, and $24.03 in the Middle Western States, including Cali fornia. T a b l e 28. — Percentage distribution o f leather belting and packin g w orkers, by actual w eekly hours, sex, and skill, Septem ber 1989 Weekly hours Tinder 24 hours 24 and under 32 hours__________________ 32 and under 36 hours . _ ___________ 36 and under 40 hours. . _____________ Exactly 40 hours . . ______ Over 40 and under 44 hours. _____ .. Exactly 44 hours _. ... Over 44 and under 48 hours. . _________ 48 and under 52 hours .. _ _____________ ____ 52 and under 56 hours . 56 and under 60 hours . 60 hours and over______ _____________ Total__________________________ . Average weekly hours___ ________ _. All work ers 2. 5 3.7 2.7 3.4 20.3 7.5 30.2 11.6 7.4 6.2 1.5 3.0 100.0 43.4 Males Total 2.4 4.0 2.6 2.5 20.2 8.6 33.2 6.8 7.1 7.3 1.8 3.5 100.0 43.5 Skilled Semi skilled Unskilled 2.3 3.3 2.2 2.6 21.4 10.2 33.5 7.0 8.0 6.1 1.5 1. 5 4.5 2.7 2.3 18. 7 6.9 35.1 6.5 6.6 8.8 1.8 4.6 100.0 44.0 6.2 5.2 3.6 2.6 21.0 8.8 25.2 6.7 5.7 6.2 3.1 5.7 100.0 42.5 1.9 100.0 43.1 Females 2.9 1.8 1.8 3.2 9.1 21.0 1.4 12.3 39.5 8.8 100.0 42.9 T a b l e 29.— Percentage distribution o f leather belting and packing workers, by average w eekly earnings, sex, and skill, Septem ber 1939 Weekly earnings 1 Under $5__________ ... _ ._ __________ $5 and under $10_______________________ $10 and under $15______________________ $15 and under $20.. ___________________ $20 and under $25______________________ $25 and under $30______________________ $30 and under $35______________________ $35 and under $40.._ __________________ $40 and under $45_____ _______________ $45 and under $50___________ ____ ______ $50 and under $55______________________ $55 and under $60.. ___________________ $60 and over__________________________ Total__________ _____ _ _________ Average weekly earnings................. ............ All workers 0.6 1.7 7.8 22.8 22.5 20.1 14.2 5.6 2.3 1.2 .6 .3 .3 Total 0.6 1.4 6.2 16.8 22.9 23.4 16.7 6.6 2.7 1.4 Skilled 0.8 2.2 6.5 15.2 28.7 23.5 11. 5 5.4 3.2 .7 1.6 .3 .7 .3 Semi skilled 0.9 1.2 5.7 24.3 27.4 22.3 14.0 3.5 .7 Un skilled 2.1 4.6 23.7 27.9 34.0 6.7 1.0 Females 0.4 3.6 16.9 57.7 19.9 1.5 .7 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 $24. 51 $25. 73 $30.02 $23.48 $17.96 $17. 37 1 Excludes earnings at extra rates for overtime. Males O
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