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DECASUALIZATION
OF LONGSHORE WORK
IN
SAN FRANCISCO
BUSINESS BRANCH 629 RUS^^
PUBLIC LIBRARY
SAN FRANCISCO
USA'
WORK
PROGRAM
WPA
WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION
NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
WPA NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
Reports issued to date
General
G-l
Unemployment and Increasing Productivity (out of print)
G-2
The Research Program of the National Research Project
0-3
Summary of Findings to Date, March 1938
A-3
Selected References on Practices and Use of Labor on Farms
(out of print)
Studies In Types and Rates of Technological Change
Manufacture
M-l
Industrial Instruments and Changing Technology
M-2
Mechanization in the Brick Industry -^in press)
B-2
Mechanical Changes in the Cotton-Textile Industry, 1910 to 19S6 (Summary)
B-3
Mechanical Changes In the Woolen and Worsted Industries, 1910 to 1936 (Summary)
B-5
Systems of Shop Management in the Cotton-Garment Industry (Summary)
Mining
E-l
Technology and the Mineral Industries (out of print)
E-3
Mechanization Trends in Metal and Nonmetal Mining as Indicated by Sales of
Underground Loading Equipment
E-5
Fuel Efficiency in Cement Manufacture,
E-6
Mineral Technology and Output per Man Studies:
1909-1935 (out of print)
Grade of Ore (out of print)
Agriculture
Changes in Farm Power and Equipment:
A-2
Mechanical Cotton Picker
A-9
Tractors, Trucks, and Automobiles
Studies In Production, Productivity, and Employment
Manufacture
Productivity and Employment in Selected Industries:
N-l
Beet Sugar
N-2
Brick and Tile
B-1
Labor Productivity in the Leather Industry (Summary)
B-4
Effects of Mechanization in Cigar Manufacture
(Summary)
Mining
E-2
Small-Scale Placer Mines as a Source of Gold, Employment, and Livelihood In 1935
(out of print)
E-4
Employment and Related Statistics of Mines and Quarries, 1935:
(List continued on inside hack cover)
Coal
ADMINISTRATION
WORKS PROGRESS
F. C. HARRINGTON
CORRINGTON GILL
Administrator
Assistant Administrator
NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
on
Reemployment Opportunities and Recent Changes
in Industrial Techniques
DAVID WEINTRAUB
Director
Studies of the Effects of Industrial Change on Labor Markets
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK IN SAN FRANCISCO
Methods and Results of the Control of Dispatching
and Hours Worked, 2935-37
by
Marvel Keller
WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION, NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
Report No. L-2
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
April 1939
REF 331.13 N213L no.L-2
Keller, Marvel.
Decasualization of
longshore work in San
^
/•\
THE WPA NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
ON REEMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES AND RECENT CHANGES
IN INDUSTRIAL TECHNIQUES
Under the authority granted by the President In the Executive Order which created the Works Progress Administration,
Administrator Harry L. Hopkins authorized the establishment
of a research program for the purpose of collecting and analyzing data bearing on problems of employment, unemployment,
Accordingly, the National Research Program was
and relief.
established in October l935under the supervision of Corrington
Gill, Assistant Administrator of the WPA, who appointed the
directors of the Individual studies or projects.
The Project on Reemployment Opportunities and Recent Changes
in Industrial Techniques was organized in December 1935 to
Inquire, with the cooperation of Industry, labor, and govern-
mental and private agencies. Into the extent of recent changes
In Industrial techniques and to evaluate the effects of these
David
changes on the volume of employment and unemployment.
Weintrauh and Irving Kaplan, members of the research staff
of the Division of Research, Statl sties, and Finance, were appointed, respectively. Director and Associate Director of the
The task, set for them was to assemble and organize
Project.
the existing data which bear
on
the problem and to augment
these data by field surveys and analyses.
agencies which are the collectors and repositories of pertinent Information were invited to cooperate. The cooperating agencies of the United
States Government Include the Department of Agriculture, the
Bureau of Mines of the Department of the Interior, the Bureau
of Labor Statistics of the Department of Labor, the Railroad
Retirement Board, the Social Security Board, the Bureau of
Internal Revenue of the Department of the Treasury, the Department of Commerce, the Federal Trade Commission, and the
Tariff Commission.
To this end, many governmental
agencies Joined with the National
Research Project in conducting special studies:
the Industrial Research Department o f the University of Pennsylvania,
the National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc., the Employment Stabilization Research Institute of the University of
Minnesota, and the Agricultural Economics Departments in the
Agricultural Experiment Stations of California, Illinois,
Iowa, and New York.
The following
private
3 1223 03938 5878
WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION
WALKER-JOHNSON BUILDING
1734
F. C.
NEW YORK AVENUE NW.
WASHINGTON, D. C.
HARRINGTON
ADMINISTRATOR
April
6j
1959
Colonel F. C. Harrington
Works Progress Administrator
Sir
:
Longshore work is widely regarded as an occupation in which employnient must be intermittent and in
which the tenure of a job is necessarily casual in
character.
As in other occupations in which employment and income are highly insecurej longshore work
has contributed considerably to the drain on relief
funds in port cities to cover periods of complete
unemployment and to supplement the intermittent earnings of those who are working.
Although the need for
stabilization of work or "decasual i za t i on " has long
been recognizedj past attempts have either failed or
have at best attained only partial success.
When the West Coast longshoremen's strike occurred in 1934 and the differences between the employers and the union were submitted to arbitration by a
board appointed by the President of the United StateSj
the award which was accepted by both parties furnished
a new basis for a decasual i zat i on system.
Among other
provisions the award called for the establishment of
a hiring or dispatching hall controlled and operated
The powers
by a bipartisan Labor Relations Committee.
vested in the committee included control over the size
of the labor supply and promulgation of rules for the
operation of the hiring hall.
The union received the
right to appoint the hiring-hall officers (dispatchers)
who assign the men to jobs.
This report deals with the mechanics of dispatching which have been developed since the establishment
of the hiring hall in 1935 and with the results of the
effort to assure uniform and fair distribution of
work opportunities among the registered labor force.
The study is based chiefly on the records of the
San Francisco dispatching hall which were made available to the National Research Project through the
courtesy of the Waterfront Employers' Association
and the International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union.
The report shows that the attempt to decasualize
longshore work in San Francisco seems to be meeting
In a 4-week
with a remarkable degree of success.
period of fairly high port activity in i937j for examplej the 4j 227 longshoremen who worked as a part of
the regularly registered labor force earned an average
Two-thirds of these men earned between $150
of $170.
Only 7 percent earned more than thatj and
and $220.
about iO percent earned less than $i00; moreoverj it
appears that incomes which were substantially below
the average were the results primarily of choice on
the part of the individuals concerned.
to the registered longshor emen j another important group of men is utilized to supplement
the labor supply on days of high activity in the port.
The principal source of income of such men iSj howeverj not longshore work but some other occupation;
they are chiefly members of the maritime unions and
In addition
certain other unions closely associated with the
maritime industry.
Since the policy of dispatching
is to give work as far as possible to members of the
registered forcej only a small part of the available
work is assigned to nonregistered men.
As compared
with the income of the registered forcej the average
income of the ij054 nonregistered men working during
the same 4-week period was only $26.
Although they
constituted 19.5 percent of the total number of different men who worked during the periodj the nonregistered men collected only 3.6 percent of the
total pay roll.
During a period of low port activity such as the
4 weeks ending January 2j i938j the average earnings
of the registered force amounted to about $iiO for the
4 weekSj and the distribution around the average was
even more concentrated than during the 4 weeks of high
activity.
If the ii months on which this study is
based are considered as a wholej the earnings of the
registered longshoremen averaged about $150 per 4-week
work period.
The decasual i zat i on system of San Francisco thus
seems to have almost completely done away with the
traditional feature of longshore work which kept a
large part of the labor force dependent on work which
was so intermittent and casual that it could not
possibly afford them adequate income.
It
is
reported that few longshoremen now apply
for emergency relief in San FranciscOj and the report
concludes that under the decasual i zat ion system long-
shoremen will probably represent a relatively light
burden on the California unempl oymen t -c ompens a t i on
fund.
These are important aspects of the system in
the light of the experience in European ports where
the chronic underemployment of longshoremen results in
the payment of unemployment-compensation benefits to
them far in excess of contributions made to their
account
Although the questions which confronted the
San Francisco water-front employers and longshoremen
were in many respects uniquej the underlying problem
of insecurity due to in t ermi t t ency and casualness of
work is one which is characteristic of many American
industries.
This study of one attempt at a solution
and its results is therefore of interest not only to
other ports but to other industries as well.
Respectfully yourSj
Corrington Gill
Assistant Administrator
CONTENTS
Page
Chapter
xvii
PREFACE
I.
INTRODUCTION
1
....
Decasualizat ion schemes in foreign ports
Decasualizat ion schemes in United States ports
.
.
San Francisco
10
Scope of the study
II.
14
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
16
Dispatching
17
Gang dispatching
Dispatching of extra men
Enforcement of the central control of hiring
.
.
Central pay office
18
20
23
24
The labor force
24
Registered men
The role of permit men
Visitors
Nonregistered men
Gang organization
25
29
31
32
34
The labor demand
Distribution of the labor force by workassignment status
Available registered labor force
Practices in other West Coast ports
III.
2
9
36
43
47
49
EQUALIZATION OF HOURS AND EARNINGS
51
Distribution of work
51
The total force
Distribution according to gang assignment.
.
.
Preferred-gang men
Casual-gang men
Men who shifted status
Extra men
Distribution according
Distribution according
Inter- and intraperiod
1937 compared with the
to registration
to age
equalization
2 previous years.
Earnings
51
52
53
54
57
58
status
...
60
62
63
69
75
Earnings during a 4-week period
Annual earnings.
ix
75
77
CONTENTS
X
Page
Chapter
IV.
79
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Appendix
84
A.
BASIC TABLES
B.
OVERTIME AND ACTUAL HOURS WORKED
107
C.
PENALTY AND CAR WORK
110
D.
WORK ROTATION IN OTHER UNITED STATES PORTS
Seattle
Everett
Tacoma
Portland
Los Angeles
New York and Baltimore
E.
....
114
.....
114
116
117
118
118
119
DOCUMENTARY MATERIAL
122
National Longshoremen's Board:
Arbitrators' Award
Wage scale and working rules for longshore work
San Francisco Bay district
San Francisco Longshore Dispatching Hall:
Dispatching Rules
Agreement between Pacific Coast district,
Local 38 of the International Longshoremen's
Association and Waterfront Employers' of
Seattle, Waterfront Employers of Portland,
Waterfront Employers' Association of
San Francisco, Waterfront Employers' Association of Southern California, and Shipowners' Association of the Pacific Coast.
Maximum loads for standard commodities: Pacific
Coast ports
Wage rates for longshore work:
Pacific Coast
ports
.
F.
CALENDAR OF 4-WEEK WORK PERIODS
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
.
122
127
131
136
143
146
150
151
Documentary material
151
General references
153
CHARTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
Dispatchers at work in San Francisco
Longshoremen's Dispatching Hall
Frontispiece
1.
Posting of gang hours
19
2.
Plugboard for extra men
20
CONTENTS
xi
CHARTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS-C on t inwed
Figure
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Gang requirements, by 4-week period, April
to January 2, 1938
Page
1,
1935
37
Log of a typical day, showing distribution of work
among gangs
39
Number of longshoremen employed each day in the 38th,
41st, and 42d periods, by gang status
42
Distribution of registered longshoremen, by number of
equivalent-straight-time hours worked in an average
4-week period in 1937
52
Distribution of preferred-gang members, by number of
equivalent-straight-time hours worked in an average
4-week period in 1937
53
Distribution of casual-gang members, by number of
equivalent-straight-time hours worked in an average
4-week period in 1937
55
Distribution of men who shifted between gang
member and extra list, by number of equivalentstraight-time hours worked in an average 4-week
period in 1937
57
Distribution of men on extra list, by registration
status and number of equivalent-straight-time
hours worked in an average 4-week period in 1937.
.
59
Distribution of registered longshoremen, by
registration status and number of equivalentstraight-time hours worked in an average 4-week
period in 1937
61
Distribution of longshoremen who worked in a period
of high port activity and of sample group who
worked in a period of low port activity, by registration status and number of equivalent-straighttime hours worked
65
Distribution of partial group of preferred-gang
members, by number of equivalent-straight-time
hours worked in the 12th, 25th, and 38th periods.
70
.
Distribution of partial group of casual-gang members,
by number of equivalent-straight-time hours worked
in the 12th, 25th, and 38th periods
71
Distribution of partial group of men on extra list,
by number of equivalent-straight-time hours worked
in the 12th, 25th, and 38th periods
74
Distribution of sample group of longshoremen, by
estimated annual earnings in the year ending
January 30, 1938
78
CONTENTS
xii
TEXT TABLES
Page
Table
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Number of registered longshoremen, by tenure^
February 1 to December 5, 1937
25
Comparison of estimated earnings of registered and
nonreg istered longshoremen who worked in the
4-week period ending September 12, 1937
33
Distribution of nonregistered longshoremen who
worked in the 4-week period ending September 12,
1937, by estimated earnings
33
Distribution of registered longshoremen, by gang
status, February 1 to December 5, 1937
44
Distribution of partial group of longshoremen who
worked in the 12th, 25th, and 38th periods, by
gang status
46
Registered labor force in each period, February 1
to December 5, 1937, showing registration and
work status and percentage of regular force that
was absent
47
Percentage distribution of 800 registered longshoremen who were absent a full period, February 1 to
December 5, 1937, by reason for absence and period
in which it occurred
46
Distribution of gangs that worked in each 4-week
period, by number of equivalent-straight-time hours
worked per period, February 1 to December 5, 1937
56
Distribution of registered longshoremen and est imated
total actual man-hours worked in an average 4-week
period in 1937, by registration status
62
Distribution of men and median and mean number of
actual hours worked in an average 4-week period
in 1937, by age
63
Comparison of total registered longshoremen in the
38th period with a sample in the 42d period, by
registration status and number of equivalentstraight-time hours worked
67
Distribution of sample of longshoremen by amount of
actual earnings in the 25th and 38th periods ...
76
•
9.
......
10.
11.
12.
APPENDIX TABLES
A-1.
A-2.
Number of longshoremen employed daily, January 1
to June 30, 1933
84
Number of registered longshoremen, by registration
status and number of periods inwhich they worked,
February 1 to December 5, 1937
85
CONTENTS
xiii
APPENDIX TABLES-C on tinned
Page
Table
A-3.
A-4.
A-5.
A-6.
A-7.
A-8.
A-9.
Number of nonreg istered longshoremen who worked in
each period, February 1 to December 5, 1937 ...
85
Estimated earnings of registered longshoremen who
worked in the 4-week period ending September 12,
1937, by registration status
86
Estimated earnings of nonregistered longshoremen who
worked in the 4-week period ending September 12,
1937
87
Distribution of nonregistered carmen by earnings in
the 4-week period ending September 12, 1937 ...
87
Gang requirements in each 4-week period,
April 1, 1935 to January 2, 1938
88
Number of longshoremen employed each day in the 38th,
41st, and 42d periods, by gang status
89
Number of registered longshoremen, by registration
and gang status, February 1 to December 5, 1937.
90
.
A-10. Number of registered longshoremen, by registration
status and tenure, February 1 to December 5, 1937
90
A-11. Number of registered longshoremen, by tenure and
gang status, February 1 to December 5, 1937 ...
90
A-12. Percentage distribution of registered longshoremen,
by number of equivalent-straight-time hours worked
in an average 4-week period in 1937, gang status,
and tenure
91
A-13. Percentage distribution of registered longshoremen
who were gang members all or part of time, by
number of equivalent-straight-time hours worked
in an average 4-week period in 1937, gang status,
and tenure
92
A-14. Percentage distribution of registered longshoremen
on extra list, by number of equivalent-straighttime hours worked in an average 4-week period in
1937, registration status, and tenure
93
A-15. Distribution of the 86 casual gangs that worked in
each 4-week period, by number of equivalentstraight-time hours worked per period, February
1 to December 5, 1937
94
A-16. Distribution of the 87 preferred gangs that worked
in each 4-week period, by number of equivalentstraight-time hours worked per period, February
1 to December 5, 1937
94
CONTENTS
xiv
APPENDIX TABLES -Continued
Table
Page
A-17. Distribution of registered longshoremen whose status
shifted between gang member and extra list, by
number of periods worked in each status,
February 1 to December 5, 1937
95
Percentage distribution of registered longshoremen,
by number of equivalent-straight-time hours
worked in an average 4-week period in 1937,
registration status, and tenure
96
A-18.
A-19. Man-hours of work at straight-time and overtime
rates by registered longshoremen, by periods in
the year ending January 30, 1938
97
A-20. Comparison of partial and total groups of registered
longshoremen who worked in the 4-week period
ending September 12, 1937, by gang status
....
97
A-21. Percentage distribution of partial group of registered longshoremen, by number of equivalentstraight-time hours worked in the 12th, 25th, and
38th periods and gang status
98
A-22. Percentage distribution of registered longshoremen,
by number of equivalent-straight-time hours worked
in the 4-week period ending September 12, 1937,
registration and gang status
99
A-23. Distribution of sample group of longshoremen, by
estimated annual earnings in the year ending
January 30, 1938
100
A-24. Percentage distribution of sample group of longshoremen, by total number of equivalent-straighttime hours worked and number of full periods
absent in the year ending January 30, 1938.
101
A-25. Distribution of sample group of longshoremen, by
registration status and number of periods worked
in the year ending January 30, 1938
102
.
.
.
.
A-26. Distribution of sample group of longshoremen, by
registration status and number of equivalentstraight-time hours worked in the year ending
January 30,
1938
102
A-27. Distribution of sample group of longshoremen, by
registration status and number of actual and
equivalent-straight-time hours worked in an
average 4-week period in the year ending
January 30,
1938
A-28. Percentage distribution of sample group of
longshoremen, by registration status and number
of equivalent-straight-time hours worked in the
42d and 43d periods
103
104
CONTENTS
XV
APPENDIX TABLES -Continued
Table
Page
A-29. Percentage distribution of longshoremen, by number
of actual hours worked in an average 4-week period
in 1937, by gang and registration status and tenure
105
A-30. Percentage distribution of longshoremen, by earnings
for the 3-month period July-September 1937 and
gang status
106
A-31. Distribution of men, by number of actual hours
worked in an average 4-week period in 1937 and age
106
B-1.
B— 2.
C-1.
Proportion of total man-hours worked at overtime
rates by registered longshoremen, by periods in
the year ending January 30, 1938.
108
Estimated total actual man-hours worked, and
proportion of work that was overtime, in an
average 4-week period in 1937, by gang and
registration status
108
Total number of assignments to men in extra gangs,
38th, 41st, and 42d periods, by type of gang.
.
C-2.
D-1.
D-2.
D-3.
D-4.
D-5.
D-6.
.
Number of longshoremen assigned to work each day in
the 4-week period ending January 2, 1938
112
Distribution of 505 Seattle longshoremen, by
estimated number of equivalent-straight-time
hours worked, 1927-29
115
Distribution of 291 Everett longshoremen, by
estimated number of equivalent-straight-time
hours worked, 1927-29
116
Distribution of 222 Tacoma longshoremen, by
annual earnings, 1928 and 1929
117
Distribution of Portland longshore gangs, by average
monthly number of equivalent-straight-time hours
worked, 1924-28
118
Distribution of Los Angeles longshore gangs, by
average monthly number of equivalent-straight-time
hours worked, 1929-30
119
Distribution of eight New York longshore gangs, by
average monthly number of equivalent-straight-t ime
hours worked, 1928
D-7.
Ill
120
Distribution of 10 Baltimore longshore gangs, by
average monthly number of equivalent-straight-t ime
hours worked, 1927
120
PREFACE
Sir William H. Beveridge long ago observed that each employer
"tends to collect a separate small reserve of labour in his
immediate neighbourhood.
For the most part this is done quite
Men naturally return to the place where they
unconsciously.
have once been successful in getting a job; they wait about
where they hope they may be known in preference to trying
chances far afield.
To some extent,
however, there can be
no doubt that more or less deliberate measures have to be
adopted to keep the reserve together.
Work which might be
done always by the same men is given out in rotation so as to
have men always in close attendance for emergencies."^
varying degrees, this observation is true of most industries. Certain enterprises and industries regularly rely
In
on a labor supply part of which can hope for only casual or
intermittent employment from them.
For example, in what was
formerly one of the largest textile manufacturing companies
in the world the total number of different persons employed
during the period 1928-34 compared as follows with the average
weekly number:^
Average weekly
numb er of
employees
Total number of
different persons
employed during
the year
percent total
is of average
1928
7,531
13,843
183.8
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
5,
965
13,465
10,844
7,892
11,887
10,602
225.7
Year
6,310
4, 646
6,873
8, 122
171. 9
169. 9
173.0
130. 5
Again, according to the monthly employment and wage sta-
tistics of the Interstate Commerce Commission, the average
^Unenpioynent:
p.
A
Problem of Industry (London:
Longmans, Green and Co.,
1917),
85.
Work and Wages at the Ainoskeag Manufactv/ring Company Mills, 1927-35 (WPA National
Research Project In cooperation with social security Board, Bureau of Research and
Statistics, Apr. 1937), p. 10.
XV ii
PREFACE
xviii
monthly number of workers employed by Class I steam railroads
during 1937 was 1,115,077; the number employed during the
highest month of 1937
(July) was 1,174,434.
The data of the
Railroad Retirement Board show that a total of 1,720,558
different persons received some compensation for work on
Class 1 railroads during 1937; of this total only 904,636
worked during every month of the year, while 534,934 worked
during less than
6
months and 436,637 worked during less
than 4 months.^
The type of insecurity of employment and job tenure which is
partly reflected by such figures as those cited above is, of
course, the result of a variety of causes among which the
effort of management to build up a large enough labor reserve
is only one.
Cyclical and seasonal declines in production have
always presented problems of unemployment relief and have
brought forth attempts to control the incidence of lay-offs
and unemployment.
Some of the devices evolved by labor and
management include the application of the principle of seniority on the job, the limitation of working hours, work-sharing
systems, or other measures.
in
The effects of secular declines
industry have frequently been ameliorated by the intro-
duction of controls over the number of apprentices who are
permitted to enter the affected trade or by a dismissal wage
or severance pay.
Changes in industrial techniques continually
give rise to problems of occupational adjustment,
insecurity,
and rehabilitation which challenge the ingenuity of labor
and management and have resulted in the application of such
mitigating practices as retraining, transfers between departments, plants, or even localities, limitations of the work
load, or other measures that
have contained a promise of
effectively minimizing the tendency to displace workers.
Many of the procedures devised in the course of collective
bargaining between employers and workers, though designed to
meet a specific situation, often find application in other
situations, other localities, and other industries.
Thus
the principle- of seniority has been applied in instances of
cyclical, seasonal, secular, and technological change; the
dismissal wage has been used in cases involving professional,
clerical, and mechanical workers within a range of industries
Railroad Vages and Months of Service:
Retirement Board, Oct. 1938), vol. I.
1937 (Washington,
D.
C:
Railroad
xix
PREFACE
which includes newspaper publishing, ferry transportation,
and the manufacture of clothing.
This is indeed not sur-
prising since these devices are all intended to meet the same
objectives:
either to increase security on the job or to
compensate for insecurity.
Although longshore work is necessarily subject to unpre-
dictable and wide day-to-day variations in the volume of
available work, the problems of intermitt ency of work and
casualness of job tenure differ only in degree from those
of other industries.
The development of a technique which
succeeds in decasualizing the work of longshoremen should
therefore prove of considerable interest to a wide variety
of occupations and industries.
The major elements of the San Francisco decasualizat ion
system described in this report are control over the size of
the labor supply in relation to the volume of work to be done
and control over job assignments.
The first is in the hands
of a bipartisan Labor Relations Committee and involves the
continuing determination of the number of different persons
to be regarded as regularly attached (i. e. registered) to the
industry in the light of the normal labor requirements of the
industry and the use of a very much smaller, nonregis tered
(casual)
labor force to meet the industry's peak requirements.
The second is in the hands of the union and involves equitable
work rotation.
This study is confined to a description of the decasualization system in terms of the procedures and mechanics developed
in the course of its operation and an evaluation of the results
achieved in terms of the distribution of work and earnings in
1937.
The report was prepared by Marvel Keller under the
direction of Irving Kaplan who as Associate Director of the
National Research Project also planned and organized the study.
Robert 0. Folkoff supervised the collection of the statistics
and other material in San Francisco.
The completed manuscript
was edited and prepared for publication under the supervision
of Edmund J. Stone.
Acknowledgment is gratefully made to the following:
C. Gregory of
Frank
the Waterfront Employers' Association of San
Francisco and Henry Schmidt of the International Longshoremen's
and Warehousemen's Union, Local 1-10, for their ready coopera-
PREFACE
XX
tion and placing of valuable material at the Project's disposal
and for their careful review of the manuscript; the joint Labor
Relations Committee of the Waterfront Employers' Association
and the International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union
through whose cooperation the records of the San Francisco
hiring hall were made available; and the hiring-hall staff for
patiently answering innumerable questions.
The National
Research Project is, of course, alone responsible for the use
made of the material and the conclusions reached.
David Weintraub
Philadelphia
April 3, 1939
«
CHAPTER
I
INTRODUCTION
The characteristics of the demand for labor in the stevedoring industry are too well known to justify detailed reporting
here.
It
is
sufficient to say that the demands are sporadic
and intermittent and that the industry is subject to variations
in activity which are superimposed on the seasonal and cyclical
fluctuations and long-time changes common to all industry.
The
coming and going of ships are decided not only by factors
affecting the general trend of trade and commerce but also by
climatic conditions and fortuitous circumstances whose effects
may be largely local.
The history of the labor market of the industry bears out
Stevedoring has been responsi-
these peculiarities of demand.
ble for one of the most conspicuous classes of casual workers.
Intermittency of employment, insecurity, and demoralization
have been the reward of the dock worker; for him insecurity is
frequently the only certainty.
Because of the maximum forces required to fulfill the usual
necessity of discharging and loading ships in minimum time and
because of the irregularity of sailings, labor is ordinarily
Such constant dissolution and
engaged for specific jobs only.
recons t it ution of the labor force of given employers lead
inevitably to intense competition for jobs, breed surpluses,
and allow easy access into the industry of unemployed men from
other industries.
This latter characteristic is due not so
much to the unskilled nature of the work as to the degree
to which a proportion of unskilled labor can be absorbed into
the labor force.
Kote.- The author wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to Alice Rush who prepared
the tables and assisted In the preparation of the manuscript and to Margaret
Snowden who prepared the charts for this report.
^See Boris stern, Cargo Handling and Longshore Labor Conditions, p. 68:
"There is
no apprentice system existing In longshore work. The new worker
is placed
in the gang on an equal basis with the older men and at equal pay
But when
it comes to the handling of the ship's winches or to stowing the cargo In the
ship's hold, the degree of training required, the amount of Judgment, and the sense
of responsibility Involved In so placing the cargo as to make the best possible use
of the space and to Insure that no damage will be done either to the cargo or to
the ship during the crossing - such work can be learned only after several years
of constant and persevering application."
Handling special types of cargo, such as
lumber, likewise requires a special skill.
....
This and other references In this report are cited In detail In the Selected
Bibliography.
1
2
DECASDALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
Under such circumstances, hiring has customarily been accom-
plished through the daily congregation of men at specified
places and times; from among them, foremen select individual
workers, thus assembling a labor force large enough to meet
This method
the port reguirements for the next several hours.
is the notorious "shape-up"
as "calling on").
It
is a
or "shape"
(known in Great Britain
system which has propagated favor-
itism, bribery, and demoralization.
In some ports a part of
the men have organized themselves into permanent gangs, and
thus the practice has been simplified by the hiring of an
entire gang as a unit.
Sometimes the shape-up has not been
used as a means of hiring the entire force each day.
In such
cases employers have maintained a permanent nucleus around
Like the
which the total daily labor force has been built.
casuals, however, these permanent men are paid only for time
put in and are apt not to be scheduled to work on regular
shifts to any greater extent than the casuals. Their advantage
rests in their having first preference for work.
The irregularity and unpredictability of demand have led each
employer to attempt to attach to himself a maximum reserve.
With such surpluses many men are turned down at every shape-up
and are left to await the next shape at their customary stand
or to attend other shapes, but since they have no real knowl-
edge of labor reguirements in other places, their chances of
getting work are limited.
This kind of labor immobility, which
creates shortages in the midst of surpluses, is also responsible for much idle time which is not compensated although the
worker must put it in to insure getting any work at all.
DECASUALIZATION SCHEMES IN FOBEIGN PORTS
The insecurity of the dock worker has long been recognized;
means for alleviation of his insecurity have been the subject
of much discussion,
and many attempts at reform have been made.
Even as early as 1843 there is record of a scheme which was
projected for the coal-whippers in the port of London, in
which men wishing to follow this trade paid a small fee to be
registered, but there is no further record of its development.
They were to be enrolled in gangs and gangs were to
be employed in rotation, each cargo being offered to
all gangs in succession at the price offered by the
ship's captain, until a gang was found to accept it.
INTRODUCTION
3
A hall was to be provided in which gangs could wait
for work.
In 1892,
as a result,
in part,
of the great dockers'
strike
1889 and the public concern with employment conditions
of
the London and India Dock Company, which em-
on the docks,
ployed about one-fifth of the dock labor in London, adopted
a registration system.
"A" workers
Permanent workers (at one dock) and
(those who were shifted from dock to dock as
required) were guaranteed a weekly wage, while first- and
second-preference casuals were given a standard hourly wage.
The proportion of the company's work which was performed by
men regularly employed increased from 15 percent in 1887 to
However, confined as it was to the
78 percent in 1904.^
operations of one employer, it fell far short of improving the
situation on the London docks as a whole.
Fundamentally, decasualizat ion of longshore work requires a
port-wide system of registration of the labor supply limited
to the normal needs of the port and the drawing upon this labor
supply by individual employers from a central registry.
The
first efforts to control the size of the labor supply on a
port-wide basis were made in 1906 in the ports of Hamburg,
Germany, and Marseille, France.'*
According to Lascelles and Bullock,^ the Hamburg scheme was
initiated by the employers and was designed more for strike
breaking than for decasualizat ion
The workers were, in
effect, prevented from joining a union because a breach of
contract on the part of the worker carried with it a penalty
of a deduction of 200 marks of his contribution to a savings
and benefit fund.
In the Hamburg scheme, registration was
.
accompanied by a system of labor exchanges for reserve men
from which employers drew their extra labor supply.
How far
decasualization had still to go in 1911 is best attested to by
the fact that of the 3,843 reserve workers, 13 percent worked
less than 10 days a month, and 37 percent from 10 to 19 days.
Of the casual workers,
the majority worked less than 10 days
a month.^
2
E.
C.
P.
Lascelles and
S.
S.
Bullock, Dock Labour and Decasmlisation, pp. 76-7.
3
National Adjustment Commission, B. M. Squires, exec, secy., "Longshore Labor: An
Investigation Into Hours, Earnings, Labor Cost and Output in the Longshore Industry
at the Port of New York," appendix II, pp. E40-1.
^Ibid., pp. 247-8.
^Op. cit., pp. 79-80.
Frederic Keeling,
"Towards a Solution of the Casual Labor Problem," Econonic
Journal, XXIII, No. 89 (Mar.
1913), 14.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
4
After the war, reserve workers in the Hamburg port were hired
out by the day to different employers in accordance with a plan
The method of distributing work
to equalize their employment.
was on the basis of their registration-card numbers.
Each day
the call began with the last number of the previous day.
Casual workers were recruited by the employers' association
from the unemployed dispatched to the docks by the government
labor exchanges, but the association was not allowed to employ
them more than
3
days in succession.
Individual employers
were prohibited from applying directly to the labor exchange.
Registration was controlled by the employers' association, with
provision for appeal,
dismissal, before a port
in cases of
conciliation committee which, had employee representation.*^
Liverpool established a port-wide decasualizat ion system
1912 under a joint employer-employee committee.
of
in
The secretary
the committee was a government official from the labor
exchanges.
port,
'and
By this time Liverpool was a completely unionized
only union men were eligible for employment on the
As in Hamburg, the registration system distinguished
docks.
between the "company men" and the casual clearing-house men.
The scheme provided for the dissemination of information in
regard to the availability of work and established "surplus
stands" where men who failed to obtain work at the docks of
individual employers could congregate and whence employers experiencing shortage of labor could obtain additional laborers.®
After the first year's operation of the scheme Mr. Williams,
the secretary,
admitted that
decasualizing port labor.
it
had far from succeeded in
He was inclined to lay the main
emphasis on "the impossibility of expecting the leopard to
change his spots, or in other words the Docker to change his
habits,
in a few
months."^
However, according to Lascelles
and Bullock, the main causes of failure lay in the constant
admission of new men to the register.
They state:
"The scheme
had hardly been started before employers began to complain of
a shortage of labor and to insist on the issue of new tallies,
temporary or permanent ."
Between July 1912 and March 1913
the number of registered men increased from 20,850 to 31,300.
7
International Labour Office, Employment Exchanges, 1933, pp. 103-10.
R. Williams, The First Year's Working
of the Liverpool Docks Scheme, pp.
^Ibid.,
p.
^^Op. cit.,
85.
p.
89.
13,
84.
INTRODUCTION
5
men, or 45 percent of the total number of men
registered by the end of the first year, had worked as much as
Only
ii|.,ooo
40 weeks.
After the war recruitment was restricted, and the number of
tally holders was gradually reduced to a little above 20,000,
but the extent of unemployment indicates that it was still too
high.
During the first guarter of 1930 the highest number of
registered men employed in
i
week by the firms within the
Port Registration Scheme was 15>549 and the lowest 13,335; but
The
only 6,731 got employment in each week of the quarter.
casual character of the employment of even this latter group is
shown by the fact that out of a sample of 270 of these men, 104
were unemployed to such an extent that they were able to draw
unemployment benefits for 4 weeks or more.
Wide differences
in earnings existed, as shown by the following tabulation of a
sample of the total number of registered
mem
Number of men^
Amount earned
Quarter ended
June 29, 1929
Quarter ended
March 28, 1930
116
152
176
172
133
77
105
164
173
172
138
74
Nil
Up to £12
Over
Over
Over
Over
£12 to £24
£24 to £36
£36 to £48
£48
^sample of
h
of the registered men.
Not surprisingly, dock laborers constituted a heavy drain on
the unemployment-insurance fund.
Of the registered dockers in
Liverpool, three-quarters lodged claims for benefits in 1929;
withdrawals for this group were £352,898 in that year as
compared with combined contributions of employers and employees
of £45,083.^^
The main reason for this continued instability, according to
Hanham, was the lack of a central dispatching office to coor-
dinate the daily demand for labor and the lack of regulation
^^Wllllams,
12
F.
pp.
op. cit.,
p.
G. Hanham, Report
21, 54, 56, 91.
98.
of Enquiry Into Casual Labour in the Merseyside Area,
Unemployment-Insurance withdrawals for all covered Liverpool Industries were
£44,358,935, and combined contributions were £30,225,000 In that year.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
6
of
the supply of labor in accordance with the needs of the
Private stands survived (156 were located in 1930),
and little resort was had to the surplus stands provided
Earlier, Lascelles and Bullock had
by the clearing houses.
port.
evaluated the surplus stands as follows:
The elaborate system of surplus stands and telephone boxes at Liverpool was an expensive failure.
Nothing would induce the men to go to the surplus
stands or the foremen to use the telephone boxes.
The London docks, because of the magnitude of the casual-
labor problem,
have been the object of periodic waves of
reform for many years, but little was accomplished until 1920.
At that time,
registration was thrown open to all who could
produce evidence of any claim to be considered as port work-
According to The Sew Survey of London Life and Laboury
ers.
"As a result, whereas the maximum [labor]
the port were probably well below 40,000,
requirements of
61,000 names were
enrolled, many being those of men who, having perhaps occa-
sionally put in a day at the docks, registered as a sort of
"^^
insurance
By 1931 the register had been reduced
to about 36,000, probably about adequate for requirements.
There were at that time about 200 "calliHg on" places in
the port.
except for limited schemes for distributing
labour adopted by the Port of London Authority and a
few employers, there is no general system of directing the supply of labour in the port to the places
where it is wanted.
It is mainly for this reason
that employers sometimes experience shortages of
registered men, and should the register be further
reduced these shortages would become more frequent.
In existing circumstances the Joint Committee is
faced with the alternatives of registering more men,
which would be a retrograde step towards casualisation, or of allowing a new fringe of unregistered
casual labour to establish itself as part of the
labour supply of the port.
The second alternative
would restore on a more limited scale but in a more
acute form the conditions which existed before registration.
The registered men would be a privileged
class with the right to priority of employment, while
the evils of casualisation would be borne mainly by
the unregistered.^^
.
'Ihid.,
.
pp.
Op. ext.,
'vol.
II,
^Ibid.,
p.
.
.
71-85.
9,
p.
134.
"London Industries," pp. 394-5.
398.
INTRODUCTION
7
Meanwhile, the evils of inequality and irregularity of earnings
still persist.
The system of decasualizat ion in the coal ports of South
Wales is essentially a wage-pooling scheme operated by the
union.
Every worker is a member and the labor supply is
regulated carefully. Gangs are rotated and over a period of
time work is evenly distributed.
Bulk payment of wages
is
made by the employers to the union, and all wages received
are pooled and divided equally among the men.
is
This scheme
feasible mainly because there is no diversity of cargo.
Average employment obtained by each worker in 1930 was 272
Earnings provided a final share-out averaging
hours per week.
89s.
lod
.'^'^
The extension of the unemployment-insurance system to dock
workers in 1920 had resulted in the adoption of decasualization schemes in the majority of British ports.
In most
spects they were modeled on the Liverpool system.
re-
The Port
Labour Inquiry Report of the Ministry of Labour reported in
1931 that 31 ports were operating under similar schemes,
covering over two-thirds of the transport workers in these
In 25 ports the schemes
classes in the country.
were jointly
administered by committees representative of both the employers
and the workers, while in the remaining ports they were oper-
ated by the employers.
Like Liverpool, approximately half of
the schemes did not utilize the system of centralized call
stands.
Less than one-third, of which Liverpool was one,
covered both company men and the reserve supply.
Most of them
revised their registration lists periodically, using varying
degrees of "poor work" records as a standard for elimination.
Little information is available on the use of nonreg istered
men, but the Ministry of Labour report states that the evidence
submitted indicated that the majority of schemes include more
workers than required, a fact which would probably eliminate
the use of any appreciable number of nonregistered men.-^^
The only major ports in Great Britain which have not adopted
decasualizat ion schemes are Aberdeen, Glasgow, and the Tyne
and Wear ports.
This situation was the subject of a special
inquiry in 1937.
It was
17
found that while the employers were
Great Britain, Ministry of Labour, Committee of Inquiry on Port Labour, Port
Labour Inquiry Report, 1931, p. 42.
1 ft
""Ibid.,
pp.
^^Ibid.
p.
,
16,
16.
27-8.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
8
willing to agree to a jointly operated scheme, the traditional
The unions voiced fear of the use
union opposition prevailed.
the registration list in discrimination against their
membership and claimed that they were best situated to regulate
of
effectively the labor market since by restricting entries into
the union they could control the supply of labor.
Interesting examples of the regulation of the supply of
labor by unions before the war are provided by the ports of
Stavanger and Bergen, Norway.
In
Stavanger the union ran a
hiring hall on the quay; as far as possible work was equalized
and the wage bills were paid by the employers directly to the
union.
In
Bergen the employers notified the union foremen of
the time of arrival of vessels, and the foremen provided the
In both cases
necessary labor.
labor was open to union men
only, except in cases of emergency, and the unions regulated
the supply of labor by adapting their membership to the amount
of work regularly available.
In Australia,
too, the union controlled the supply of labor
In most Australian ports
through restriction of membership.
the more skilled workmen are hired at the union clubroom.^^
Unfortunately, recent and comprehensive information on these
ports is not available.
Other major European ports which have introduced decasualiza-
tion schemes are Rotterdam, Amsterdam, and Antwerp.
The
Rotterdam system, established in 1919, began operation under
joint control, but in 1921 an employers' scheme took over.
Company men work on contract, and, in addition, three types of
preference workers are designated.
periodically revised.
Registration rosters are
The port of Amsterdam operates under a
similar system.
The Antwerp system, adopted in 1928,
with participation of the government.
are distinguished:
is
jointly operated
Three types of workers
Those who report daily, those who apply
for work from time to time and have no immediate chance of
regular employment, and unregistered men. Central call stands
are maintained.
20
Great Britain, Ministry of Labour, Board of Inquiry, Port Labour in Aberdeen and
G lasgou).
21
National Adjustment Commission, ot. cit., p. 236.
22
international Labour Office, op. cit., pp. 104-5.
INTRODUCTION
A number of
9
additional European countries have attempted to
solve the dock workers* problem by governmental action.
An
Italian decree issued in 1925 provided for registration; a
Greek act of 1928 set up harbor committees to determine the
size of the labor supply and to register this number; in 1932
an amendment to a previous act on dock workers was passed in
Rumania, stating that "work shall be allocated in rotation
exclusively among employees in the locality in question who
have been registered at the census office for not less than
established employment exchanges
exclusively for men who were identified as dockers; and in
6
months";
Estonia in
in 1933 Poland
193^.
an act was passed providing that those dockers
not registered would not be given employment.
In 1934 also, Chile issued a decree providing for employment
exchanges to register dockers (and seamen)
,
to allot registered
men to employers for their permanent labor force, and, in
addition,
[sic]
to.
establish for the reserve force "a temporary
work rotation scheme for the equitable distribution of
work among the registered employees in every occupation
in such a
....
manner as to allow them to share in the work during
the month. "^^
DECASUALIZATION SCHEMES IN UNITED STATES PORTS
In the United States prior to 1934,
the ports of Seattle,
Portland, and Los Angeles and some of the lesser ports in the
State of Washington had been decasualized.
adopted in 1921.
It was
Seattle's plan was
operated by the employers' associa-
tion, and although employee representation was provided for,
was nominal.
In fact,
this plan and those in Portland and
Los Angeles were adopted, according to Stern,
a long
it
"only after
period of serious and violent labor clashes which
resulted in the defeat of the local unions
tration covered the reserve supply of labor.
"^^
Regis-
A central dis-
patching hall was provided with some mechanics for equalizing
the distribution of work,
23
and distribution of work among
International Labour Office, Legislative Series, 1925, "Italy 1 - Decree:
Dock
903-5; same for 1928, "Greece 2 - Act:
Dock Labour,"
Dock Labour (Amendment)," pp. 886-7;
pp. 837-43; same for 1932, "Rumania 5 - Act:
same for 1933, "Poland 8 - Order:
Dockers," pp. 1157-63; same for 1934, "Estonia 4
- Act:
Commercial Code (Dockers)," p. 608, and "Chile 3 - Decree:
Seamen,
Dockers," pp. 359-66.
Labour Offices," pp.
^^Op. cit.,
p.
102.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
10
company gangs was to be guided in part by the amount of work
In addition, a roster of casuals
falling to reserve gangs.
inaugurated in 1923, was
similar, although the casual group of workers was larger than
In neither case did the scheme cover all the men
in Seattle.
The Portland plan,
was maintained.
in the port.^^
In Los Angeles,
on the other hand, decasualizat ion applied
to all longshoremen in the port.
The majority of the men were
assigned to individual companies, and distribution of work was
equalized among the gangs on each individual roster.
Although
rotation resulted in a fairly high degree of equalization
within each group of gangs, for the port as a whole, wide
differences existed between gangs.
The central dispatching
hall provided no mechanics for equalizing the distribution
work as between various company forces and the reserve
gangs.
A roster of casuals was also kept at the hall.
The
Los Angeles scheme was adopted in 1922.^^
(See appendix D
of
for more detailed comparison.
Three union work-rotation schemes were or still are in
existence in the United States - in Galveston, in Tacoma, and
among the grain shovelers in Buffalo.
1927,
According to a report in
the grain shovelers had had considerable success.
scheme dates from 1899.^*^
Their
The Galveston scheme was also
relatively successful, but in Tacoma little or no stabilization
was accomplished.
San Franciico
The port of San Francisco was decasualized in 1934, following the award of the U.
S.
National Longshoremen's Board, ^®
appointed by President Roosevelt to arbitrate the issues of the
1934 longshore strike on the West Coast.
For an understanding of the developments which led to this
point, it is necessary to review the history of events cul-
minating in the arbitration proceeding's in the summer and
fall of 1934.
Prior to the summer of 1933, since the loss
of the strike of
1919,
the International Longshoremen's Associ-
^^Ibid., pp. 92, 95.
^^Ibid., pp. 98-101.
27
Simon P. O'Brien, "Longshoremen Stabilize Their Jobs," American federationist,
May 1927, pp. 573-4.
28
Arbitrators' Award, October 12,
1934.
(Reprinted In appendix E.)
INTRODUCTION
11
ation had not been a factor on the West Coast, except in
Tacoma.
Throughout the intervening period the Longshoremen's
Association of San Francisco was in existence, and membership
in
this organization was necessary in order to get work on
the docks.
It was
considered by the longshoremen merely as a
dues-collecting organization rather than a bona fide union.
Its repudiation and the reest ablishment of the ILA on the
West Coast were a part of the upsurge of unionization in
many industries after the passage of the National Industrial
Recovery Act.
Through a ruling of the NRA Regional Labor
Board in the fall of 1933, the ILA was successful in setting aside membership in the Longshoremen's Association of
San Francisco as a prerequisite for getting work.
However, it
was not until February 1934 that negotiations for an agreement
between the ILA and the employers in San Francisco began.
By
that time ILA locals in other West Coast ports had been estab-
lished, and one of the demands presented was a coastwise
agreement.
Negotiations broke down, and a strike was called
for March 23, which was called off through the intervention of
President Roosevelt.
At that time he appointed a mediation
Tentative agreement on joint
board, and hearings were held.
control of the hiring hall in San Francisco was reached early
in
the course of negotiations following the hearings, but
negotiations on wages continued.
Meanwhile, among the union
membership, there had developed a growing resentment of the
agreement on control of the hiring halls which was looked
upon as a system of employer-operated halls with an ILA obDuring the month or more of negotiations concerned
server.
with wages, the membership again put forward the demands
for a coastwise agreement and for an ILA hiring hall.
May
On
1934, the longshoremen in all the ports of the West
9,
This strike was followed within a
short time by a strike of other maritime unions.
Two agree-
Coast went on strike.
ments negotiated by representatives of the. union during the
course of the strike were turned down by the membership.
Neither met the above demands nor the demand that the agreement provide for settlement for the other maritime unions on
strike.
29
U.
S.
On June 26,
193^1,
President Roosevelt appointed the
National Longshoremen's Board,
September 25,
30
1934,
U. S. National
pp. 87-9.
pp.
"Arbitration Proceedings," August 8-
76-84, 267-8, 339.
Longshoremen's Board,
"Mediation Proceedings," July 1934,
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
12
Rational Longshoremen's Board, and by the latter part of July
a settlement was arrived at providing that issues involving
the longshoremen be submitted to arbitration and that the
other crafts enter into collective-bargaining negotiations
after elections had been held to determine representatives.
The striking crafts returned to work on July 31.
Three major questions were arbitrated by the National Long-
Wages, hours, and control of the hiring
shoremen's Board:
There is little doubt that the latter question was
halls.
considered by both parties as the fundamental issue.
The union
clung tenaciously to one principle, namely, that without union
control of the hiring halls the right to organize was meaningless, and numerous witnesses were produced to testify before
the board to various practices in the decasualized ports which
were claimed to have limited the right of organization.^^
To
the union men on the West Coast the acceptance of this prin-
ciple was basic to any attempt at limitation and control of the
labor supply and equalization of earnings.
There was no
mention in the arbitration agreement of these aims nor of
decasualizat ion
.
In fact,
the word "decasualizat ion
"
was
and still is distasteful to union men on the West Coast because
in
their minds
it
describes the employer-controlled halls
previously in effect.
The employers accepted in large part the desirability of
centralized dispatching and the control of the size of the
labor supply, but they clung just as tenaciously to their
position that their labor requirements could only be met by
halls controlled by their associations.^^
the reasonable distribution of work,
a
It was stated that
sound economic and
personnel policy for the employer, was an administrative
problem to be handled by the employers.
Hearings were concluded late in September, and on October 12,
1934,
an award was handed down.
It provided that
"the hir-
ing of all longshoremen shall be through halls maintained
and operated jointly by the International Longshoremen's
Association, Pacific Coast District, and the respective employers' associations", with the additional provision that
31
Ibid.,
1061-9,
32
pp.
81-98;
1089-1101,
"Arbitration Proceedings," pp. 972-7, 997-1002,
1129-47,
1161-1210,
"Arbitration Proceedings,
1892-1949,
^Ibid.,
2142-67, 2199-2271.
pp.
800-1.
pp.
1594-1774,
1005-50,
1992-2092.
789-837, 877-959,
1395-1470,
1545-72,
1823-90,
INTRODUCTION
13
those responsible for dispatching the men to work be selected
A Labor
by the union.
eq^ual
Relations Committee made up of an
number of representatives of each party was to be estab-
The duties of the Labor Relations Com-
lished in each port.
mittee were defined as the maintenance and operation of the
the preparation and maintenance of a list of
hiring hall,
registered longshoremen, the setting up and administration
of
regulations regarding the organization of the labor force
to
handle the work of the port, and the adjudication of all
grievances and disputes relating to working conditions.
The award established $0.95 an hour as the basic wage rate
with a rate of $1.40 an hour for overtime work.
It made no
provision for rates for those types of work then commanding
more than the basic rate other than that the differentials
The basic
above the established basic rate be maintained.
rates were to be paid for longshore work, defined as "all
handling of cargo,
of
its transfer from vessel to first place
in
rest including sorting and piling of cargo on the dock, and
transfer of cargo from vessel to railroad car or
the direct
barge or vice versa. "^^
Thus warehousemen and carmen, that is,
those men who transfer cargo between first place of rest on the
dock and railroad cars or barges, were not covered by this
The union's demand with regard to wages and cover-
provision.
age had included these groups of workers.
The 6-hour day was established; that is, all work in excess
of
6
hours, as well as any work between
and all work on Sundays and holidays,
5 p.
m.
and
8 a.
m.
was to be designated
as overtime.
This award initiated the present system of regulation of
longshore employment not only in San Francisco but in all the
34
Arbitrators' Avurd,
Ihid., Sec.
1,
p.
Sees.
4 and 5,
pp.
4-5.
2.
These demands applied to all such workers In all ports on the West Coast,
Including the grain handlers In Seattle.
While no action was taken by the board
on warehousemen and carmen In San Francisco, In Portland these crafts were covered
by a separate award, and In Seattle a separate award was made covering the grain
handlers.
See U. S. National Longshoremen's Board, Award:
In the Matter of
Arbitration Between Pacific Coast Local ho. 38 of the International Longshoremen'
Association Acting on Behalf of Its Portland, Oregon Local Whose Members Perform
Labor on Docks or Terminals and Interstate Terminals Ltd., Christ ens on-Hammond
Lines, Oceanic Terminals , International Stevedoring Company, McCormick Steamship
Company, and Supples Dock, Inc. (San Francisco, Calif.:
mlmeo., Oct. 17), 1934
and U. S. National Longshoremen's Board, Award: In the Matter of Arbitration
Between Pacific Coast Local Ho. 38 of the International Longshoremen' s Association,
Acting on Behalf of Various Locals Whose Members Perform Labor as Grain Handlers,
and Kerr Gifford & Co., Inc., northern Wharf and Warehouse Company, Port of Seattle
Elevator Company, and Port of Vancouver Elevator Com.pany, Employing Grain Handlers
at Portland, Oregon, Vancouver , Washington and/or Seattle, Washington (San
,
Francisco, Calif.:
mlmeo., Oct.
,
17),
1934.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
14
ports on the West Coast and thus set aside the system of
employer-operated halls previously in effect in the ports of
Seattle, Portland, and Los Angeles and in some minor ports in
the State of Washington.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This report is concerned, first, with a description of the
system designed to promote stabilization of the labor market
industry in San Francisco and, second,
with a statistical summary^''' of the results so far as job
Practisecurity and equalization of earnings are concerned.
in
the stevedoring
cally complete coverage of the longshoremen in the port of
San Francisco,
at least for
1937,
Although some
is assured.
employers were not and still are not members of the Waterfront
Employers'
Association, by 1937 the dispatching hall was
handling the labor requirements of nonmembers as well as member
employers.
In
1935 and perhaps even in 1936 this undoubtedly
was not the case; consequently, coverage of longshoremen
working in the port for these years is deficient to the extent
that nonmember employers drew their labor force from other
sources;
thus probably from
not covered
in
5
to 10 percent of
Figures derived
1935.
from_
the men were
records of the
Waterfront Employers' Association are incomplete to the extent
that they cover only the members of the association.
In .1937
this meant that data on three employers, namely, two private
companies and the
U.
S.
Army Transport dock, were not included.
In earlier years a few additional companies were not
The extent of this exclusion for the
3
included.
years after the de-
casualizat ion system began to operate is not known, but in
1934, when a number of companies which later became members
were still outside the association, it was reported that 85 to
90 percent of the longshore labor was employed by members of
the Waterfront Employers' Association.^^
No attempt has been made in this report to discuss the
history of labor relations during the
37
3
years following the
All data In tables, unless otherwise stated, were prepared from records of the
dispatching hall made available through the cooperation of the Joint Labor
Relations Committee of the Waterfront Employers' Association of San Francisco and
the International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union (Pacific Coast District,
It should be noted that "dispatching hall" and "hiring hall" are
Local No. 1-10).
practically synonymous terms and have been used Interchangeably in this report.
^^Arbitration Proceedings,"
pp.
789-91, 796-7.
INTRODUCTION
15
award except insofar as incidents or controversies arising had
a direct bearing on the forn) and operation of the mechanics
set up for employment stabilization and on the flow of work.
While it may be assumed that both employers and employees are
interested in the attempt to stabilize conditions of employment, fundamental disagreement on the place of collective
bargaining in industrial relations has given rise to an atmosphere of conflict which has interfered with the smooth evolution of the system.
These disagreements have often taken the
form of jockeying for position by raising issues in terms of
the mechanics of the system;
their resolution has therefore
materially influenced its operation.
Only where they are ger-
mane to an understanding of the practices adopted, will such
controversial issues be indicated.
CHAPTER II
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
Although the award was made on October 12, 1934, the dispatching hall in San Francisco did not begin to operate until
In the interim, the Longshore Labor Relations
March 4, 1935.
Committee of San Francisco was occupied with registration of
the men, negotiations on working rules,
and the numerous
grievances and disputes which arose in the first application of
meantime the bulk
of the work of the port was done by permanent gangs employed
the award and the working rules.
In the
directly by the various companies.
However, the union under-
took to furnish the necessary reserve labor supply, that is,
permanent extra gangs and extra men for replacements and
additions to regular gangs.
To a large extent the union
was able to control both the selection of individuals to be
employed and the size of this extra labor supply, and mechanics
were set up for the equitable distribution of work among this
reserve force.
At the same time the Labor Relations Committee
made itself responsible for the equalization of the hours of
regular gangs, and equalization between the regular gangs and
the extra gangs was also attempted.'^
From the beginning the membership of the union as a whole
became closely associated with the system of controls set up to
accomplish the aims of the award.
A number of practices helped
to stimulate rank-and-file participation.
For example, attend-
ance is compulsory at one weekly membership meeting out of
four.^
Both the dispatcher and the representatives on the
Labor Relations Committee make weekly reports to the membership.
In fact,
the Labor Relations Committee representatives
function for the most part as instructed delegates to the
committee.
As shown by the Statute Book of the union
(a
com-
pilation of all actions taken by the various committees and the
membership meetings), most actions by representatives with
^Minutes of the meetings of the Longshore Labor Relations Committee of San
Francisco, November 1, 2, 27, and 30 and December 3, 6, 7, and 14, 1934; January
3,
10,
and 29 and February 7 and 25, 1935.
2
The only acceptable excuses are Illness proved by a doctor's certificate and work
shown by the hlrlng-hall records.
16
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
17
regard to the operation of the system represent membership
decisions, and only minor actions are carried out without the
concurrence of the membership.
DISPATCHING
The dispatching hall is the essential feature in the decasualizat ion plan.
Vital as
mechanics are relatively simple.
it
is to the whole scheme,
its
The broad objective of equal-
ization of earnings in practical application is attained by
equalization of gang hours.
The emphasis for individual work-
ers is not on equalization of earnings but on the limitation of
maximum hours and equalization of employment opportunity.
The maintenance and operation of the dispatching hall is the
responsibility of the Labor Relations Committee; the award
provides that expenses be shared equally by the employers and
the union.
Registered longshoremen who are not members of the
union pay to the committee a sum equal to the pro-rata share of
the expense of the hall paid by each member of the union.
The
personnel, with the exception of the dispatchers, is selected
by the committee.
The dispatchers
(the chief dispatcher and
five assistants) are elected by the union membership for a
term of
i
year, and a provision in the union's constitution
prohibits any individual from serving more than 2 consecutive
years on the dispatching staff.
According to the award, time is to be averaged over a i^-week
period (the basis of dispatching-hall operations), but, as a
matter of fact, equalization is a continuous process going on
from day to day, from week to week, and from period to period.
Originally, total accumulated actual hours were used, but more
recently equivalent-straight-time hours'^ have been used for
equalization purposes.
The beginning of the first period was
the Monday following the day (October 12,
award was made.
The time chosen for intensive study in this
report is covered by the 31st through the
ning February
1
1934) on which the
/4.1st
and ending December 5, 1937.
periods, begin(For a complete
calendar of work periods, see appendix F.
Equlvalent-stralght-tlme hours are the hours worked at the straight -time rate,
plus hours worked at the overtime rate multiplied by the percentage the overtime
rate Is of straight-time rate.
18
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
GangDiipatching
Dispatching practices differ for the two types of permanent
Casual gangs, that is, those not attached to any
specific employer, are dispatched according to accumulated
gangs.
hours of work.
Time sheets are turned in to the hall by the
foremen, and eguivalent-straight-t ime hours for the week are
computed and, together with total hours to date, are furnished
For 1937, hours were accumulated from the
beginning of the 31st period.
to the dispatcher.
On the other hand,
preferred gangs (those assigned to work
for one employer only) are dispatched to a large extent without
strict regard for accumulated hours; equalization for them
rests largely on a weekly basis.
The hours of these gangs are
controlled primarily by the maximum hours established for the
coming week by the Labor Relations Committee at its meeting
each Friday.
Staying within the maximum limit and assigning
jobs to the preferred gangs attached to one employer are
matters left largely to the foremen and the walking boss
(stevedore superintendent).
The dispatcher is expected to
order out the specific preferred gang called for, and only
when the hours of the gang are out of line with reference to
those of the preferred gangs of other employers and the casual
gangs, can he substitute a casual gang.
Employers are expected
to cooperate by not ordering gangs which they know have worked
up to or near the maximum hours for the week and to put gangs
with high hours on short hatches (in which there will be little
work) and gangs with low hours on long hatches.
Each employer
now receives once a month a list of all gangs with their accumulated equivalent-straight-time hours.
There is an emphasis
on the need for flexibility in placing requests for specific
gangs, whether preferred or casual.
(Walking bosses usually
have gang preferences for certain jobs, among both preferred
and casual gangs.)
Although responsibility for the operation
of the dispatching hall rests with the Labor Relations Com-
mittee, the dispatchers' vigilance in the observation of the
regulations governing dispatching is an important factor in the
achievement of the aims of employment stabilization.
Unless otherwise specified, gangs are ordered for the duration of the job, which may last several days.
The dispatcher
takes no initiative in determining when gangs will be available
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
for the next job.
It
is the foreman's
19
responsibility to notify
the dispatcher when his gang is ready for another assignment.
Nor does the dispatching hall take the initiative in notifying
gang members of new assignments.
The foreman either notifies
his men or they inquire at the hall to get the orders for their
Beginning in the fall of 1937 this practice
was modified by the use of the radio to broadcast gang orders.
particular gang.
The San Francisco local has a quarter hour on one of the
stations every evening from Monday through Friday, and gang
orders for the preferred and casual gangs for the next day
are broadcast
Orders for individual replacements and additional men are
placed with the dispatcher by the foreman and are filled,
immediately before the time to report for work, from among the
extra men available for work at that time.
One other fact should be mentioned in connection with gang
dispatching.
Maximum hours set for the week and the accumu-
lated hours for both casual gangs and preferred gangs are
posted weekly (figure 1).
This serves as a guide for the extra
men as well as for the gang men.
It
likewise checks any
tendency toward discrimination in the assignment of gangs.
FIGURE 1.- POSTING OF GANG HOURS
Gangs are identified by number and by name of foreman.
Hours posted are
equivalent-straight-time hours accumulated for the current period.
Casual
gangs are on the left and preferred gangs on the right side of the board.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
20
Dispatching of Extra Men
large proportion of the labor force are extra men not
attached permanently to any gang. The dispatching of extra men
A
is
handled by means of a device called the plugboard, shown in
Each extra man is given a small metal plug stamped
figure 2.
with his registration or permit number and when ready for work
he
"plugs
rotation in the section of the board cor-
in
in'
responding to his occupational preference and registration
status
mm msr mnn m nvsn
Man who leaves iif>roje€t, so ke mn iaie ih
e
PERMIT MEH
I
He
is
TO
10
angliftg
has i v^sons.
He's
——
a
chisele
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DOCK •MEN
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V^mm
FIGURE 2.- PLUGBOARD FOR EXTRA MEN
Plugs are placed in the lowest numbered hole available in the block
corresponding to the individual's registration status and occuoational
preference.
Union members plug in on the right-hand section of the board.
The intervals shown on the permit-men's section of the board, which have
since been abandoned, were used to classify permit men by the number of
hours they had already worked in the current week.
During most of 1937 selection of men for assignment to work
was made in the following order:
Union members out first, men
whose initiation into the union was pending second, and non-
members (permit men) last; that is, none of the second group
were dispatched until all the first group available at a given
time or all the first group in a given occupational category
(if an
occupational group was specified) had been sent out;
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
21
similarly, the third group waited until all men in the second
group had been sent out.'*
Union members have the privilege of designating the type of
work they prefer, and, in addition, in the case of jobs requiring special skills such as winch drivers, certain minimum
qualifications must be met.
As a rule men stick to their own
trades, although there is some interchange between dockmen and
Winch drivers and tractor drivers seldom shift to
holdsmen.
other types of work.
Lumbermen and shovelers may work on
general cargo when there is little work in their own lines, and
general-cargo workers may sometimes handle specialty cargoes
when necessary.
Because of special skill requirements, permit
men who qualify have the privilege of stating preference for
winch driving and lumber handling.
Men are called in rotation as requests come in for extra men.
The plug is placed in the lowest available numbered hole, and
the man is called when all those whose plugs preceded his have
gone out.
Should a man wish to leave before his number is
called, he may get his plug from the dispatcher.
Plugs are
always returned to the men as they are sent out on a job.
Gang
stewards are instructed to ask extra men to show their plugs
when going on the job.^
This is to prevent men from plugging
in for a second job while they are working.
This method, whereby the first to plug in in the morning was
the first out, was considered adequate when work was plentiful,
and even permit men, with third preference, got plenty of work.
With the falling off of work in the fall of 1937, however,
a latecomer among the permit men had very little chance of
Nonmembers are known as "permit men"; at the time It was first used, this term
applied only to men who had been granted temporary registration by the Labor
Relations Committee.
Later, however, the term "permit" was applied to all nonunion men regardless of the registration status granted them by the Labor Relations
Committee.
See pp. 27-8 for further discussion.
^Gang stewards are union officials provided for in article X of the constitution
of Local 1-10 of the International Longshoremen's and warehousemen's Union, as
follows:
"Section l. (a) Each longshore gang shall elect from its ranks a gang
steward and the stewards working on any one dock shall elect a dock steward.
The
duties of such stewards shall be to determine that none but I.L.W. U. members are
working; that all members are paid up in their dues.
They shall co-ordinate their
efforts at all times towards creating better working conditions, and shall see to
The
it that no one works over the amount of hours as agreed with the employers.
Dock and Gang stewards shall hold a meeting once each week at the I.L.W.U. Hall to
discuss such business as will improve working conditions. Motions or resolutions
acted upon and passed by the Dock and Gang stewards Committee shall not become
effective until submitted to and approved by the membership. All gang bosses shall
be responsible that a steward is elected by the gang.
(b) The Dock and Gang
Stewards Committee shall have the power to call a special meeting of its own
members, or to call a meeting of all gang and walking bosses who are members
of the I.L.W.U.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
22
getting work.
The men who lived some distance from the water
This resulted in the hours
front complained particularly.
intervals, shown in the illustration, being painted on the
permit side of the board, with the hope that it would do away
with the queue forming sometimes as early as
before the hall opened.
5a.
m.
,
an hour
Men were expected to plug in in the
section corresponding to the hours of work they had had that
week.
At the same time the distinction between "initiation-
pending" men and the permit men was abolished.
Later, this practice was abandoned partly because of lack of
control over the permit men who were said to have "chiseled" by
putting their plugs in a lower hours interval than they were
entitled to.
The practice was then established of leaving
plugs in until the men were dispatched instead of removing them
when the men left the hall and plugging in again the next
morning.
In other words, permit men were called
in which they plugged
in at the beginning of
in the
order
the week.
This
practice was adopted for the union men as well in May 1938.
When men have finished their first assignment for the week,
they are, of course, entitled to plug in again in rotation.
The control of the maximum number of hours for extra men
rests, not in the mechanics of dispatching, but with the union.
The membership is responsible for a provision in the union
rules which states, "No plugboard man should be permitted to
work more than the eguivalent-straight-t ime gang hours in any
period" and "All members of the local shall work at least 50
percent straight-time covering a 6 months period." Violations
are subject to penalty.
This provision implies a periodic
checkup of hours which to date has not been established as a
routine.
Nevertheless, as will be shown in the next chapter,
violations of these provisions are not a problem. The explanation for this undoubtedly lies in the fact that the
members, for the most part, accept the discipline of the rules
which they had a part in forming.
The plugboard as a device for rotating work is intended to
equalize employment opportunities rather than earnings.
The
number of union men who were on the extra list during most of
1937,
in spite of
numerous vacancies on gangs, indicates that a
large number of men prefer this status notwithstanding the lack
of provision for equalization.^
^Cf.
table 4.
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
23
Extra men are dispatched for the duration of the job of the
gang to which they are assigned and are then returned to the
plugboard unless otherwise specified.'''
Except for this pro-
vision, extra men have no obligation to report for work.
Enforcement of the Central Control of Hiring
Section 4 of the award provided that "the hiring of all long-
shoremen shall be through halls maintained and operated jointly
by the International Longshoremen's Association, Pacific
Coast District, and the respective employers' associations."®
Few decasualizat ion schemes so specifically provide for cen-
tralization of hiring of the entire labor force (including
both registered and nonregistered casuals), which, although
recognized as desirable, has nevertheless been difficult of
administration.
Various provisions have been incorporated into the union's
working rules to penalize union members for soliciting jobs on
the docks.
^
The steward of each gang is expected to assure
himself of the credentials of the men in his gang who are
not regular gang members, and men without dispatching-hall
assignment slips are not to be permitted to work.
Because men
may sometimes be needed for replacements after the hall has
been closed, some flexibility in this rule has been allowed.
For example, a motion passed by the union membership states
that foremen be held responsible for noting on time sheets any
man picked up on the docks and the name of his organization
(the time of such men is not kept at the hall).
While
it
is
recognized that emergencies may arise in which the foreman
may need to hire a nonregistered man without recourse to the
dispatching hall, he is expected to confine his selection to
members of locals covering other water-front crafts or the
maritime unions.
(See pages 32-4 for further discussion of
nonregistered men.)
At the union-membership meeting each week the chief dis-
patcher submits a report on the number of men hired outside
7
Union rules provide a fine of $5.00 for any man, extra- or regular-gang member,
who leaves a Job before it Is finished without legitimate reason.
In addition, an
extra man may be fined $5.00 for the first offense, $25.00 for the second, and
30 days "on the beach" for the third If, after accepting and being dispatched to a
Job, he falls to report for work without legitimate excuse.
®U.
S.
National Longshoremen's Board, Arbitrators' Award., October 12,
1934, P. 4.
®For example, union rules provide that a man soliciting Jobs on the docks will be
fined $5.00 for the first offense, $25.00 for the second, and 30 days* suspension
for the third.
24
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
the hall during the previous week and the unions to which
they belong.
The dispatcher's responsibility to the union
membership as a whole undoubtedly reduces to a minimum the
chances of abuses arising out of the dispatching of nonregistered men.^^
Central Pay Office.- In spite of the high degree of develop-
ment of work rotation in San Francisco, the Labor Relations
Committee has not yet been able to establish a central pay
office.
It has been projected for some time, and with the
advent of the Federal social security program it was hoped
that a collective reporting system might be set up which would
form the basis for centralizing payment of wages.
Numerous
technical difficulties in this connection have been encountered, and until these are solved or the idea of combining the
functions definitely abandoned, the plan is at a standstill.
Meanwhile, the men must continue to visit the office of each
company for whom they have worked in the previous pay period to
collect their wages.
THE LABOR FORCE
When the stevedoring industry functions on the basis of a
controlled labor supply, the total number of men needed depends
upon the total amount of work to be distributed among them.
The problem is one of balancing an adequate labor supply and
adequate employment for all.
The only real measure of the
adequacy of the registered force is whether peak demands can be
filled by a force which can still be given enough work in
depressed periods to earn a livelihood.
The reasonableness of
peak demands and the reasonableness of "enough" work are
matters which must be resolved in the course of the operation
of the decasualizat ion and work-rotation scheme.
During the years since March 1935 in which the work-rotation
plan has been in operation in the port of San Francisco, a
number of practices have been initiated to meet the fluctuating
labor requirements of the port without endangering the equali-
zation of the earnings of the regular longshoremen and creating
^The Arbitrator 's Award by Wayne L. Morse, September 17, 1938, stating that the
dispatcher had no right, under the agreement, to dispatch nonreglstered men without
the approval of the Labor Relations Committee, may modify the practice somewhat.
The decision was based on Section 10 of the 1937 agreement.
^^Decasuallzatlon systems frequently provide central pay offices even when not so
successful In their major objective of work; rotation, e. g.
In Liverpool.
,
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
underemployment for all.
25
Thus, the labor force is made up of
two main classes of workers, registered and nonreg istered
with the first group including union members, permit men, and
"visitors
.
Registered Me
The roster of registered men constitutes the basic labor
supply and the group for whom equalization is attempted;
consequently, the regulation of the number of men maintained
From February i to
on the roster is of utmost importance.
December 5, 1937, a total of 4,582 longshoremen (excluding
visitors) were on the registration roster in the port of
were
At the beginning of this time 4,529
San Francisco.
on the register, and this number was gradually reduced to 4,476
at the end of the period.
of the total,
The turn-over amounted to
as shown in table 1.
3
percent
The number of men on the
Table 1.- NUMBER OF REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN, BY TENURE.
FEBRUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 5. 193 7
Number
Tenure
4,582
Total
Regular (registered throughout period)
Entrant
Exit
Temporary (entrant-exit)^
4,444
32
85
21
^Excludes 349 visitors.
roster during 1937 represents an increase of several hundred
men over the registered force with whom the system began operation in the spring of 1935.
It
is of
interest to review the development and history 01
the registration list in San Francisco, since the lack of
controls over augmenting or decreasing the registration list
has frequently been the cause of the gradual disintegration of
various decasualizat ion plans.
of
The establishment of the roster
registered longshoremen was the first duty of the joint
^^As will be shown In appendix C, a small number of carmen, whose hours of work,
were recorded at the dispatching hall, were not engaged in longshore work, as
defined by the award and were thus excluded from this count.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
26
Labor Relations Committee set up by the award in 1934.
Accord-
ing to its provisions, any man who had worked as a longshoreman
at least
1
year in the
3
years immediately preceding the strike
registration; provision was also made for
departure from this rule to meet the needs of the situation.
was eligible
for'
There was no definite knowledge of the number of men who would
qualify under this provision nor of the labor requirements
of the port as operated under the new system.
It
has been
estimated that during 1933 there had been approximately 3,000
regulars and 4,800 casuals.^^
In
testifying before the Mediation Board, Mr. T. G. Plant,
then president of the Waterfront Employers' Association of
San Francisco,
had stated that 2,500 men were the maximum
number needed by the port.^^
This was based on the maximum
requirements, 2,463 men, in any one day during the first 6
His estimate of needs, howmonths of 1933 (see table A-i
)
.
ever, failed to allow for absences and for the clustering of
daily peaks, both of which factors necessitate a larger force
than that which is working at any given time.
The union argued for a larger force than the employers held
was necessary and proposed modification of the eligibility rule
as set forth by the award.
A compromise was reached, extending
eligibility to all men who had worked at any time between
January 1, 1933 to the beginning of the strike in May 1934.
out of a total of 4,373 applicants, 3,877 men
were approved for registration by both parties.
In March 1935,
Additional men were accepted at the rate of
for the next
6
months.
5
to 10 a month
The number of withdrawals during this
time is not recorded, so that it is not known to what extent
these new registrants augmented the labor force or served
merely as replacements.
A count was made for the 4-week period
from September 16 to October 13, 1935, revealing that 3,862
registered men worked during this period, which may be compared
with the 3,877 men who represented the initial registered
However, allowance must be made for registered men who
force.
^"^Estlmate of Mr. F. C. Gregory, Waterfront Employers' Association of San Francisco,
presented in a letter to the author, August 1938.
^"^U. S. National Longshoremen's Board, "Mediation Proceedings," July 1934, p. 106.
According to Mr. Plant's testimony this estimate covered the requirements of
employers of approximately 95 percent of the longshore labor, and Included the
labor requirements of some employers who were not members of the Association.
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
27
were absent during this period and hence were not included
in the count
Some men were employed in addition to the registered force
during this time.
It
had been agreed previously by the Labor
Relations Committee that after the establishment of the dis-
patching hall, temporary working cards would be issued to
those men who had been working during the months prior to the
establishment of the hall but who had not been able to prove
eligibility for registration.
These working cards were issued
was stated that out of 450
such permits which had been issued 350 were still active. •'•^
by the union.
In October 1935
it
This device gave some degree of flexibility to the labor force
during the months when the number of men needed was not fully
established, and, at the same time, although the men who had
been working were given priority over outsiders, no obligations
were incurred with respect to equalization of earnings for
this group.
In the fall of 1935 a labor shortage developed,
mately 500 men were added to the registered force.
and approxi^'^
Half were
granted permanent registration and half were given permits,
renewable every 30 days.
The number of men working in the
q.-week period immediately following this registration increased
by only 245,
however, indicating the importance of absences as
a factor in total registration.
From this time on, permit men were recognized as part of
the regular labor force, and approval of individuals for
permit status was taken over by the Labor Relations Committee.
Those with permanent registration were known as "brass men"
because of the brass checks they carried stamped with their
registration numbers.
Permit men, although they were given
registration numbers which did not change if and when their
status was changed to permanent registration, were identified
for registration purposes by means of a permit card.
Dispatching rules were amended to provide second preference
in employment for permit men.
However, union officials de-
veloped a divergent interpretation in the practical application
^^In 1937 absentees ranged from 3.8 to 6.6 percent of the registered force In a 4week. period (see table 6).
While It Is likely that absences may not have been so
high In the period under consideration, the number working In this period Indicates
a larger total registered force than that Initially set up.
^^Mlnutes of the meetings of the Labor Relations Committee, January 11 and
October
8,
1935.
^'''Minutes of the
meeting of the Labor Relations committee, November
7,
1935.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
28
While employers held for first preference
in dispatching on the basis of permanent registration, the
of
the rules.
union succeeded very largely in giving first preference to its
members, thus relegating permanently registered nonmembers to
Subsequently, the agreement of
February 4, 1937 gave formal recognition to this employment
the status of permit men.
preference for union members.^®
In the 6 months that followed the registration in October
and November 1935, 200 brass and permit men had been added
to the registration list.
These appear to have been largely
replacements.
This is indicated by a count of the number of
men working in the 4 weeks from April 27 to May 24, 1936, which
revealed that only about 50 more men worked in that period
than in the 4 weeks immediately subsequent to the extensive
registration in November 1935.'^^
Again, in the spring of 1936 the employers reported a labor
shortage.
The union resisted the large number of new regis-
trants that the employers insisted was necessary, and the issue
was finally settled by adding approximately 400 men to the
list, a large majority on permits.
This brought the total
number working in the following period up to 4,376.
Since the spring of 1936 the roster of registered men has
remained fairly stable and, in fact, has declined slightly, re-
placements not being so large as withdrawals in 1937 (table 1).
The selection of men for the registration roster is deter-
mined by the joint Labor Relations Committee.
In practice,
except in periods of extensive registration when applications
are open to everyone, names of men to be considered for regis-
tration are selected by the union and submitted for approval
representatives on the Labor Relations
Committee; the employers' representatives seldom initiate
of
the employers'
the action.
"Section 6 of the agreement (see appendix E).
The employers contested this
Interpretation of the clause, holding that It referred only to preference for
registration.
In the summer of 1938 this question was arbitrated, and the union's
Interpretation was upheld In the award of the Federal Arbitrator, Wayne L. Morse,
on September 17, 1938.
1
However, a large number of the men were changed from permit to brass men, but
since they were already a part of the registered force, this had no effect on
the total number.
^During
this controversy, the employers refused to place orders through the
dispatching hall and announced that all hiring would be done at the docks.
To a
large extent the union was able to prevent this and after a few days the employers
agreed to reopen negotatlons and to order gangs through the hall.
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
29
Employers claim decreased productivity responsible for the
increase in the labor force, but since adequate tonnage figures
are not available, this cannot be verified.
The union, on
the other hand, claims to have reduced speed-up, a major source
of complaint according to union witnesses during the 1934
arbitration proceedings.^^
It
is
likely that with the general
business recovery from 1934 to the summer of 1937 there was
an increase in tonnage which would of itself necessitate an
increase in the registered labor force.
Moreover, the size of
the labor force no doubt had to be increased over the original
force to meet the needs of those employers who were not or are
still not members of the Waterfront Employers' Association and
who, until the hall was well established, did not use it as
a source of labor.
Seen in retrospect, it is noteworthy that in the course
years there has been a shift in interest in the
determination of the size of the registered labor force.
Previous to the inception of the system the employers wanted
of
the
3
a smaller labor force than the union felt was required.
After
the establishment of the system, as has been demonstrated, a
reversal of these positions took place.
The Role of Permit Men
Of the total registered labor supply for the 10 months from
February
1
to December 5, 1937, slightly over 800 or 17.5 per-
cent of the 4,582 men (excluding visitors) were permit men.
Their role should be evaluated both in terms of their part in
the maintenance of an adequate labor supply and in terms of the
benefits they receive.
The main function of a permit labor
force in the maintenance of an adequate labor supply lies in
^^No tonnage figures Including Intercoastal, foreign, and coastwise trade showing
break-downs by commodities are available for the port of San Francisco.
Amy Engineers Reports (U. S. War Department) give figures for the total of Intercoastal,
foreign, and coastwise trade without commodity break-downs, thus Including, for
example, bulk oil, which makes up a large proportion of the total and which Is not
The Board of State Harbor Commissioners of California
handled by longshoremen.
publishes figures with commodity break-downs for Intercoastal and foreign trade
only, but since coastwise trade for many commodities Is large, this Is not useful
for computing productivity figures or even for showing the trend in the tonnage
for the port.
Aside from the elimination of commodities not handled by longshoremen, to obtain significant tonnage figures for the computation of longshore
productivity ratios, commodity break-downs are necessary to Investigate shifts In
the Importance of various commodities, because of the varying number of man-hours
per ton according to commodity.
The Waterfront Employers' Association reported
that It had no adequate tonnage figures for the port as a whole.
22
U. S. National Longshoremen's Board, "Arbitration Proceedings," August 8September 25, 1934, pp. 174-218, 296-7, 319-21, 324-7, 333-5, 343, 354, 356-61,
362-4.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
30
the flexibility which is thus introduced.
When the practice of
issuing permits was begun in the fall of 1935, the union was
not ready to accept the responsibility for an equitable dis-
tribution of work among the total number of men needed at that
time.
If
the need proved to be only temporary, the register
would have been saddled with a surplus of men.
faced with a twofold problem
a
-
The union was
limitation of its membership to
point where they could be certain of adequate earnings and
provision for the control of the dispatching of any additional
The answer was a secondary labor force directly
men needed.
tied to the union but not enjoying its full privileges, to be
used when, as,
ajid
if
needed.
Such a force has been maintained
since the fall of 1935; the amount of work to be done has
justified and necessitated its constant use. Meanwhile, dispatching mechanics provide for the equalization of employment
opportunities within the ranks of these permit men, and in
addition it is from their ranks that future union members are
drawn.
As will be shown in chapter III,
the earnings of
permit men, while not on so high a level as the earnings of
union members, were fairly high and well sustained during
until the slump of business at the end of the year.
193'/
Although
permits must be renewed every 30 days, the practice of refusing
to renew permits because of shortage of work has not been
resorted to.
It
is
undoubtedly expected that permit men will
eliminate themselves from the roster
if
they are able to do
better elswhere.
In the election conducted by the National Labor
Relations
Board in February 1938 to determine the bargaining representative for longshoremen on the West Coast, permit men in
San Francisco (but not in all the ports) were given voting
rights.
The board's criterion for inclusion was degree of
Some Indication of the responsibility adopted for permit men by the union Is to
be found In the action taken by the Seattle Local of the ILWU In December 1937.
(See "Seattle Permit Men Given Xmas Present," I.L.V.U. Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 11
[official organ, District 1; Dec. 23, 1937], p. 8.) At that time they voted to
give the permit men the privilege of talcing Jobs off the plugboard In rotation
with regular members for 3 days preceding Christmas, so that their somewhat reduced
earnings might be bolstered up.
Meetings are held for permit men, and attendance at least once a month Is strongly
urged.
The business agent of the union conducts these meetings.
24
This election was held as a result of the employers' position that formal
recognition could not be granted to the ILWU because at the date of the contract of
February 4, 1937, the union signed It as the Pacific Coast District of the ILA.
Subsequent to this. In July 1937, following a large majority vote of the membership
of the Pacific Coast District, this district affiliated with the Committee for
Industrial Organization (now Congress of Industrial Organizations) and adopted the
name International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union.
The Pacific Coast
District was designated as District 1, covering. In addition to the Pacific Coast
ports of the United States, the ports of British Columbia, Alaska, and Hawaii.
However, the agreement covered and still covers only the U. S. Pacific ports. All
[Continued]
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
dependence on longshoring for a livelihood.
31
Thus, even then,
when work was slow, permit men were accepted as a legitimate
part of the port's labor supply.
Visitors
When news of the comparatively high earnings and security
longshoremen on the San Francisco docks spread to other
ports, longshoremen began coming to San Francisco for work and
of
wanting to stay.
Although realizing the value of acquainting
longshoremen throughout the country with a successful decasualization system, the union nevertheless recognized the necessity
of taking measures to protect
its own members.
The situation
was handled by granting visitors' permits, good for 30 days,
to members of other longshore locals.
As a matter of fact,
the union began to encourage this practice because it saw in
the development of decasualizat ion schemes in other ports a
further protection of its own plan.
It
is evident that some attempt
has been made to control the
influx of visitors and to time it with the fluctuations in
For example, in 1937 during the summer months when the
number of registered men on leave of absence increased by about
demand.
125,
the number of visitors doubled to 125-130.
After Sep-
tember the number of visitors fell again to 75.
In all, 349
different men worked as visitors in the San Francisco port from
February to December of 1937.
About 60 percent did not receive
extensions of their 30-day permits, having worked in two
periods or less, and only
4-week periods
stay.^^
(table A-2).
9
percent worked in six or more
A few were granted permits to
For the purposes of this study visitors have been
included as a part of the total registered force.
[continued]
the locals of this district, with the exception of those In Tacoma, Olympla,
Port Angeles, and Anacortes (all In the Puget Sound area), applied for charters
from the new International.
The NLRB election resulted In a large majority declaring for the ILWU.
tional labor Relations Board, Case No. R-638 and Case No. R-572, June 21,
Ibid., p. 29.
The NLRB recognized the two types of permit
Included the permit brass men with the union members.
(U.
S.
Na-
1938.)
(nonunion) men but
pa
Article XVIII of the constitution of the ILWU states the present regulations of
visitors' permits:
"Section 1. Any member of District 1 so desiring may procure from his local
secretary a visiting card showing that he Is paid up to date and In good standing,
which will entitle him to ...
[certain work] privileges In any local of the
District of a similar craft.
.
"Section 2. Work: privileges accorded to a local member shall be for a period not to
exceed thirty days unless agreeable to the local being visited.
"Section 3. All locals of the District shall be required to accept a minimum of
visitors of one percent of their membership, but no local should be visited more
than once a year by any one member unless agreeable to local so visited."
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
32
Nonref i I te r ed Men
Experience with decasualization has shown that even decasualized ports usually require a labor reserve which has little
opportunity for longshore work except on peak days.
A very
busy day or an unanticipated increase in requirements at odd
hours may exhaust the supply of available registered workers.
The importance of no delay in the departure of ships -makes it
necessary to insure a reserve supply that can always be tapped.
In San Francisco, as
indicated previously, such emergency
demands are met by nonregistered men who are members of what
the longshoremen call their "sister" locals and the maritime
unions.
^'^
This solution of the problem of emergency demand
provides an adequate supply of labor without at the same time
creating a group which continues to suffer the insecurity of
casual work, and
reduces to a minimum the threat to the
it
security of registered longshoremen.
Their affiliation with
other locals indicates that for them longshoring is only a
supplementary source of income and aids in the discipline
invoked by the longshoremen's union to prevent registered men
from suffering their competition.
From February to December 1937, 3,853 different nonregistered
men appeared on the employers' pay rolls as longshoremen.
The
number in each 4-week period varied from 469 to 788 except in
the 38th period (August 16 to September 12, 1937) when it rose
to 1,054
(table A-3
)
.
But, whereas in the 38th period they
constituted almost 20 percent of the total number of men who
worked, they received a considerably smaller proportion of the
total man-days of work, as is demonstrated in the fact that
they earned only 4 percent of the total estimated pay roll for
the period, as shown in table 2.
Actually, while average
earnings of the registered longshoremen who worked in the
period were $168.81, the average for nonregistered men was
only $25.69.
Of
the nonregistered men working
in
the 4-week period 64
percent received less than $20, and 86 percent less than $50,
27
The longshoremen's union on the west Coast has organized separate locals among
number of shore trades related to the shipping Industry.
In San Francisco
there are locals for the warehousemen; bargemen; gate tenders, watchmen, and
miscellaneous water-front workers; ship clerks and checkers; ship scalers; and maritime office employees.
Close relations are maintained with the seafaring crafts,
such as the sailors Union of the Pacific; Pacific Coast locals of the Masters,
Mates, and Pilots of America; American Radio Telegraphists Association; Marine
Engineers Beneficial Association; Pacific coast Marine Firemen, Oilers, watertenders and wipers Association; Marine Cooks and stewards Association of the
Pacific Coast; Inland Boatmen's Union of the Pacific; and Alaska Fishermen's Union
a
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
33
Table 2.- COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED EARNINGS OF REGISTERED
AND NONREGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN WHO WORKED IN THE
4 -WEEK PERIOD ENDING SEPTEMBER 12,
198 7
Total estimated
earnings^
Total men
Ave rage
Status
Percent
Number
Total
(
earnings
dollars
393
100. 0
759,553
100. 0
140.84
4,339
1,054
80.5
732,473
27, 080
96. 4
168.81
25. 69
5,
Registered
Nonregistered
Percent
Dollars
19. 5
3. 6
"Derived from tables A-4 and A-5.
Only 14 percent (152 men) earned more
than this, and their average earnings were only $92; that is,
as shown in table 3.
not even they approached the earnings of the registered force.
The presence of the nonregistered men has sometimes been
interpreted as likely to cause the break-down of the equalization system since thousands of nonregistered men were given
an opportunity to work on the docks.
However, an analysis of
Table 3.- DISTRIBUTION OF NONREGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN WHO
WORKED IN THE 4-WEEK PERIOD ENDING SEPTEMBER 12. 1937,
BY ESTIMATED EARNINGS^
Earnings
dollars
Number
Percent
(
(
Total
1,054
100. 0
9.99
19.99
29.99
39.99
49.99
59.99
427
249
40.5
119
59
48
35
11.3
5.6
4.6
3. 3
60- 69.99
70- 79.99
80- 89.99
90- 99.99
100-109. 99
110-119. 99
120-129. 99
130-139.99
28
01020304050-
'Based on table A-5.
Earni ngs
dollars
13
15
12
16
23. 6
140-149.
150-159.
160-169.
170-179.
180-189.
190-199.
Number
Percent
99
99
99
99
99
99
2
2
0.2
0.2
1
0.
)
3
0.3
0
0
3
0.3
200-279. 99
0
0
2.7
1.2
1.4
280-289. 99
1
0.1
290-309. 99
0
0
1. 1
310-319.99
2
0.2
1.
5
5
6
0.5
8
0.7
0. 6
Estimated
average
earnings
$25.69
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
34
the available data shows this interpretation to be incorrect.
An actual count from February to December 1937 showed that only
116 nonregistered men worked reasonably steadily (that is,
8 or more of the 11 possible 4-week periods).
for these men were not determined.
in
Total earnings
However, 75 of these 116
men were identified as among the 152 nonregistered men who
earned more than $50 in the 38th period, and as has been
demonstrated, their earnings did not approach those of registered longshoremen.
Although it is possible that this method of recruiting and
maintaining
a
casual reserve may lead to some favoritism,
by and large it is vastly superior to the usual means of
maintaining the necessary reserve.
The few cases of possible
favoritism are far outweighed by the elimination of an underemployed group that is chiefly dependent on longshoring.
Since
the nonregistered workers are drawn from the membership of
labor unions, they are very likely casuals only so far as their
longshore work is concerned.
Gang Organisatioa
Although the precise organization of the working force
differs from port to port and for operations on different types
of cargo,
longshoremen are always organized into a gang which
works as a unit handling the cargo through one hatch of a ship.
The usual practice is for some of the gangs to be made up more
or less permanently, others being assembled for the specific
job only.
In a decasualized port the regular gangs are supple-
mented by the remainder of the registered longshoremen on the
extra list from which gang replacements and additions are made
and from which special or make-up gangs are selected.
In San
Francisco permanent-gang organization for part of the
labor force has been in effect many years and was carried over
into the central-dispatching system.
There were between 180
and 200 permanent gangs during 1937.
Slightly less than half
these were preferred gangs, and the rest were casual gangs.
By
agreement, the number of men in a preferred gang is determined
by the employer's requirements, but the minimum size of the
casual gang is standardized, consisting of 16 men
6
-
6
dockmen,
holdmen, 2 winch drivers who take turns serving as hatch
tenders, a tractor driver, and a gang boss.
If a
casual gang
of larger than the standard size is needed, additions are made
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
35
from the extra list; if smaller, a gang made up entirely from
the extra list is dispatched.
Many employers use 18 men in
casual gangs, 8 men in the hold when loading, and 8 men on the
dock when discharging. When winches are arranged to allow it,
one man drives two winches - one to raise and lower from the
hold and one to swing over the side.
This is the case on most
American ships, but on foreign ships two winch drivers are
usually necessary because the winches are too far apart to be
driven by one man.
For working such ships an additional winch
driver is drawn from the extra list.
Only the largest employers maintain a list of preferred
gangs.
Each employing company is limited to the number of
preferred gangs for which
it
can furnish work up to the average
for all gangs each week.
It
is
the usual custom in the stevedoring industry to use
"specialty" gangs for certain types of cargo, for example,
lumber or bulk products.
Since San Francisco is for the most
part a general-cargo port, few specialty gangs, whether pre-
ferred or casual, are made up permanently.
Additional gangs
for this type of work are made up from the extra list with men
who have indicated their desire for the specified type of work.
The Labor Relations Committee is responsible for the organi-
zation of the registered force into gangs.
The personnel of
many gangs is no doubt the result of long association; some
men,
having been foremen for many years,
nucleus of permanent men about them.
have retained a
In the case of preferred
gangs, employers submit to the Labor Relations Committee the
names of gang bosses and gang members whom they want, and as
provided in the agreement, individuals or gangs may accept or
reject this status.
On the basis of the agreement of February
q.,
1937, which gave
employment preference to union members, the union reserves
permanent attachment to gangs for its members.
not been rigidly enforced until recently,
While this has
throughout most of
Shoveling gangs are used for discharging bulk cargo; their work Involves principally work. In the hold and shoveling cargo into tubs lifted by the ship's gear or
by crane and dumped directly Into cars or barges. Bulk cargo Is usually loaded
mechanically, Involving little or no longshore work,
shoveling Is paid for at a
higher rate than general-cargo work.
(See appendix c.
Lumber gangs on the west Coast are smaller than the general-cargo gangs.
The
agreement of February 4, 1937 with the Shipowners' Association of the Pacific Coast
(operators of the "steam schooners", 1. e., lumber carriers) provides that the
crews of these vessels may perform cargo work.
(See appendix E for the agreement.)
This refers to the work on board ship when discharging lumber, longshoremen
performing the dock work In this process.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
36
1937 there were only 2 permit men among all the men attached
permanently to gangs and an additional 26 permit men who were
for part of the time permanent members of the gang.
Even among
visitors, who enjoy the same privileges and preferences as
union members, only five were permanently attached to gangs.
Since all the foremen are union members, the union maintains
a list of eligibles for this job
(foremen get 10 cents an hour
above the basic rate), from which list they are chosen by the
Labor Relations Committee.
The union gives preference to men
over 45 years of age and to those who have suffered accidents
In addition, all foremen
incapacitating them for other work.
must have been on the water front at least 5 years,
THE LABOR DEMAND
Fluctuations in day-to-day demand not only for individual
employers but for the port as a whole constitute a major prob-
lem in a work-rotation scheme for longshore labor.
These
day-to-day fluctuations, largely unpredictable, are superimposed upon seasonal and long-time fluctuations in demand.
Since work is assigned on^the basis of gang operations, the
effectiveness of the organization of the labor supply to meet
the daily demand is best determined by an analysis of daily
gang requirements and the total number of gangs available.
Figure
3
gives the maximum and minimum number of permanent
gangs working daily in each 4-week period from April
1,
1935 to
January 2, 1938, together with the average daily number working
in each period.
(Make-up gangs, a small proportion of the
total, are not given here.)
The greatest difference between
the number of gangs working on the lowest day and the highest
one of a normal 4-week period was 126 gangs.
This wide fluctu-
ation occurred during a period when labor requirements were
above average.
However, the smallest differences, 45 and 46
gangs, also occurred during very busy periods.
More typically,
the differences ranged from 60 to 80 gangs, with the average
daily number of gangs working fluctuating from 120 to 160.
There appears to be little relation between the extremes in
daily fluctuations in demand and the average daily requirements
in a period;
busy periods may experience a day of low demands,
and, conversely, there may be a busy day in slack periods.
However, the average for a period is usually above the midpoint
Figure 3.- GANG REQUIREMENTS. BY 4-WEEK PERIOD.
APRIL 1. 1935 TO JANUARY 2, 1938
NUMBER or GANGS
200
I
70
150
130
120
I
I
0
100
40
7
8
9
10
II
12 13 14 15
16 17
18 19
20 2122 23 2 4 25 2 6 27 28 29 30 3132 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
PERIOD NUMBER
BASED ON TABLE A -7
WPA - NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
L-l
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
38
indicating that minimum or near-minimum requirements were less frequent than maximum or near-maximum
of the range,
requirements for each period.
The average shows the seasonal
and cyclical fluctuations as well as the irregularity in the
flow of work occurring as a result of industrial conflict.
Without total gang hours of work, which were not available,
a
complete picture of labor requirements cannot be given.
Lengthening and shortening of shifts in response to the amount
of work available are a means of distributing the
work which
results in smoothing out daily gang requirements.
stevedoring the extent to which this
But
in
feasible is not so
is
great as in many other industries.
The length of shifts and the distribution of the work among
various employers throughout the 24 hours in a typical day are
shown in figure 4.^^
It will be noted that while much of the
work falls within the hours of
work
is
8 a.
m.
to
5
p.
m.
,
the flow of
nevertheless very irregular, and the requirements of
one employer on a given day are markedly different from those
of another.
It
Ten employers and 125 gangs are represented here.
is known that 28 additional gangs worked on that day for the
employers who did not report to the Waterfront Employers'
Association.
There are between 35 and 40 employers in the
port of San Francisco, some with large and some with small
requirements, and similar information for several successive
days would show the shift of the labor force from employer
to employer.
The question of whether labor requirements ever exceeded the
number of gangs and men available is one difficult to answer
quantitatively.
Some indication is given by an analysis of the
relative frequency with which the maximum or near-maximum daily
number of gangs working occurred
(see table A-?)-
For the
periods from the 23d to the 42d, in which time the labor force
reached the maximum and remained approximately at the same
level, the highest number of gangs working in a day was 187;
and on only 16 days out of the 380 regular working days did the
number of gangs exceed 180.
?Q
^The
It
seems reasonable to assume that
number of hours per shift Is regulated by the working rules established by
the Labor Relations Coininlttee.
Rules provide that no gang will be allowed to work
in excess of 10 hours In one shift, except that 12-hour shifts are permitted when a
ship Is to sail.
An 8-hour rest period between Jobs Is required for gangs which
have worked 6 hours or more.
In addition, the agreement of February 4, 1937
provides that when more than one shift Is used on a ship, relief gangs are not to
report to work until 5 p. m. to relieve gangs which began work at 8 a. m. or
thereafter.
(See appendix e.)
Figure 4.- LOG OF A TYPICAL DAY, SHOWING DISTRIBUTION
OF WORK AMONG GANGS
TIME
TIME
A.M.
CO. A
A.M.
A.M.
P.M.
789I0II12I23456789I0I1I2I234567
CO. F
789I0IM2I23456789I0III2I234567
7
A.M.
789
A.M.
10
II
12
123456789
10
II
12
1234 567
A.M.
P.M.
89
10
II
12
123456789
P.M.
10
1112
A.M.
I
234567
"gang CALLED BACK TO WORK NEXT DAY
A.M.
P.M.
EACH BAB REPRESENTS ONE GANG
STRAIGHT
TIME
DATA FROM THE WATERFRONT EMPLOYERS'
ASSOCIATION OF SAN FRANCISCO
OVERTIME
DURATION OF TIME OFF
WPA
-
FOR
MEALS
NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
L-2
Only 125 of the 153 gangs known to have worked in the Port of San
Francisco on this day, July 16, 1936, are shown here.
Gangs working for
the coastwise "steam schooner" group, the U. S. Army Transport Service,
and three contracting stevedore companies are not included.
40
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
only on these days and especially when the peaks occurred on
successive days could a situation approaching shortage have
occurred.
In
two instances the number of gangs working ex-
ceeded 180 on 2 successive days, and in one instance on 4
successive days.^^ Using the same approach for the 15th to
22d periods, when the size of the labor force was lower than in
subsequent periods, the highest number of gangs working in a
day was 183; and on 4 out of 185 regular working days, 2 of
which were consecutive, the number of gangs exceeded 175.
These maximum demands occurred in the 21st and 22d periods,
that is, in May 1936, during the latter part of which month
about 400 registrants were added to the roster.
During the 7th
to the 14th periods, when the labor force was still smaller
than in the periods immediately following, the maximum number
working was 170 and on only 4 days out of 185, none
of which were consecutive, did the number of gangs working
of gangs
daily exceed 165.
Shortages may take the form of delays within the 24 hours of
a
single day, a type of shortage not revealed by the above
analysis, but on this subject no information is available.
However, it will be recognized that the port is not limited
to the total number of organized gangs available; additional
gangs can be and are made up from the extra list to meet
requirements
The number of permanent gangs has fluctuated from about
165 to almost 200.
To a large extent this represents an effort
to adjust the number of gangs to port activity.
in the number of
Increases
gangs have most frequently been made at the
initiative of the employer members of the Labor Relations
Committee, and until recently the initiative for reducing the
number of permanent gangs came usually from the union.
Since
the latter part of 1937, the men and the union members in the
Labor Relations Committee have altered their position on this
latter case occurred In the period from September 14 to October 11, 1936,
when labor demand was high In anticipation of the threatened strike In connection
with the expiration of the agreement on September 30. The strike, which Involved
all the maritime unions, as well as the longshore and related unions, actually
For the longshoremen
began on October 31, 1936 and was settled February 4, 1937.
the settlement resulted In a contract In most respects Identical with the 1934
award, although there were certain amended provisions to meet the longshoremen's
demands.
(See appendix E for the 1934 award and the 1937 agreement.)
For example, during the 13th period
Other factors may sometimes be Involved.
(September 16 to October 13, 1935), normally a peak season, the number of regular
gangs was reduced because of the "hot-cargo" Issue.
In connection with the refusal
to handle cargo on ships from other ports where there were labor troubles, many
gangs were refused work by the employers.
These gangs were broken up and the men
dispersed to other gangs and to the plugboard to evade discrimination.
"^^Thls
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
41
subject and have not attempted reduction in the number of gangs
to accompany the reduction in work.
This decision seems to reflect the position that, with equal-
ization based on gang operations, the varying amount of work
should not be a factor in determining the number of permanent
gangs.
When the number of gangs is reduced during periods of
low activity, the hours of gang men are equalized at a higher
level than if gangs had not been reduced, but at the expense of
the men on the extra list.
Not only is the number of men in
the latter group increased under such circumstances, but less
work
is
available to the group as a whole.
It
is
believed by
the union that the necessary flexibility is best accomplished,
not by varying the number of permanent gangs but by varying the
number of gangs working on given days and, where possible, by
lengthening and shortening shifts.
The number of men required to staff the organized gangs and
the additional make-up gangs for the 38th, q-ist, and 42d
periods by type of gang to which they were assigned is shown in
figure
5.
The largest number needed in any one day in these
three periods was 3,703, occurring in the 38th period, probably a near maximum for the year. The lowest number employed
on a regular working day
(excluding Sundays and holidays) in
these three periods was 1,363 in the
1^26.
period and is doubt-
less representative of the minimum daily demand for the year.
This minimum demand occurred in a slack period and is much
lower than the typical daily requirements even in this period.
The maximum number is to be compared with 4,339 registered
men and visitors who worked in the 38th period.
The daily
working force, as shown by tne chart, includes the nonregistered men, of whom there were 1,054
the 38th period.
This
latter group earned an average of approximately $26, and on
this basis it is estimated that an average of about 100 worked
every day, although there doubtless was some variation from day
to day.
The differences between the total number who worked in
this period and the maximum number working in
1
day demonstrate
the importance of the margin of safety needed in the size of
the labor supply to allow for short-time aosences and the
clustering of daily peaks.
Nevertheless, it is equally impor-
tant to keep this margin at the lowest possible minimum to
avoid underemployment for the entire force.
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
43
During the three periods mentioned above, there were fewer
preferred gangs than casual gangs, and this is reflected in the
number of men who worked daily in each type of gang, as shown
in figure 5.
The relationship between the number of men
working in preferred and casual gangs appears to have been
relatively constant for the periods as a whole, although day-
to-day fluctuations are marked in some cases.
This is a
graphic illustration of the success of the dispatching system
in distributing the work between the two types of gangs.
As
shown by the chart, day-to-day fluctuations usually took the
form of more work for preferred gangs at the beginning of the
week, tapering off near the end as these gangs reached maximum
hours, with casual gangs carrying a relatively larger proportion of the work toward the end of the week.
The dispatcher
and the Labor Relations Committee have constantly attempted to
smooth out this type of day-to-day fluctuation, because with
fewer gangs on hand for work at the end of the week temporary
shortages might and have developed.
It
will be observed that some men were assigned to make-up
gangs on every day in these three periods, even on days when
a relatively small number of regular gangs were employed and
other regular gangs were presumably available for work.
Al-
though make-up gangs are used for general-cargo work in rush
periods, they are employed principally for such jobs as piling
and sorting freight on the docks, discharging and loading
lumber ships, unloading bananas, etc.
Because demand for such
specific types of work is irregular, permanent gangs have not
as a rule been organized for these various types of assign-
ments.
To that extent, there is a daily demand for extra
gangs, regardless of port activity, but in periods of low
activity their use for regular longshore work is undoubtedly
greatly reduced.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE LABOR FORCE BY WORK- ASS IGNMENT STATUS
The distribution of the registered men and visitors who
worked during the
11
by work-assignment
It
periods from February itoDecember 5, 1937,
(that is, gang) status,
is shown in table 4.
will be observed that more men were attached to preferred
gangs than to casual ones, notwithstanding the fact that during
these 11 periods there were more casual gangs than preferred
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
44
Table 4.- DISTRIBUTION OF REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN.
BY GANG STATUS. FEBRUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 6, 193 7
NnmVi
Total
Gang members throughout
period
4,931
100.0
697
34. 4
821
580
16. 6
296
6.0
1,367
27. 7
1,867
37. 9
1,
Pre f erred
Casual
Shifted between preferred
and casual
Shifted between gang membership and extra list^
On extra list throughout
period
r
11. 8
67.9 percent of this group spent a predominate amount of their time as gang
members.
(See table A-17.
gangs.
This discrepancy is accounted for by the greater number
of vacancies which occur in casual gangs.
The distribution of
the men in the 38th period bears out these relationships.
During this period there were 83 preferred gangs and 98 casual
gangs, but the distribution of the men was as follows:
Gang status
Total
Number
339
100. 0
2,266
52. 2
242
024
28. 6
23. 6
2,073
47. 8
4,
Gang members
Preferred
Casual
1
,
1,
On extra list
Percent
The average number of men attached to each casual gang was
therefore about 10 men, with an average of 6 vacancies. The
average number of men attached to each preferred gang was
15 men.
Since these gangs do not have a standard number of men
in them,
it
is not
is known that
possible to estimate the vacancies, but
it
some vacancies did exist in preferred gangs.
Some of the casual gangs apparently were little more than
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
45
nuclei around which full gangs were built from the extra list
by the dispatching hall for each job.
Undoubtedly, in busy
periods this must have placed an excessive burden on the
dispatching hall, and it is reported that from time to time
drives were made to fill up the ranks of gangs.
The union has
a rule that all gangs with seven or fewer regular members are
to be disbanded, and it is said that in one or two instances
gang jobs were opened to permit men in order to fill vacancies.
The presence of large numbers of men on the extra list
and their lack of obligation to report for work have raised
questions concerning the adequacy of the supply of men at any
given time.
Although
it
is
reported by both the employers'
representatives and the dispatchers that most of the extra men
are steady and that irregularity of attendance is concentrated
among approximately 15 percent of the extra men, there have
been times when the extra men have taken advantage of the
freedom this attachment allows.
It
is said that at one time
attendance of extra men at the end of each week droT)ped to a
point where the port was short-handed and that it was necessary
for the union to popularize the idea of individual responsibility for the success of the decasualizat ion scheme to counteract
this tendency.
Although lack of obligation to report for work
is a factor which
makes the extra list attractive, in actual
practice irregularity is kept at a minimum because adequate
earnings depend on relatively steady attendance.
Also, there have been changes in the distribution of the
labor force since the beginning of the work-rotation plan.
Table
5
gives the distribution of a sample of the men ac-
cording to gang status for one period in each of the
3
years.
The initial preponderance of preferred gangs was in reality
a continuation of the former practice under which each employer
maintained a group of gangs as nearly adequate as possible for
his total requirements.^^
The reduction in the number
of
preferred gangs occurred to a large extent in the 13th period
and was associated with the hot -cargo controversy.
Not only
because of blacklisting of gangs which refused to handle hot
cargo but because of generally strained relations, many gangs
This difference, however, should be noted:
within the framework of the decasualIzatlon system the men no longer regarded these preferred gangs In the same light
In addition to attachment to one employer, the
as the former type of gangs.
former type of gang received the greatest amount of employment and. In the opinion
of the other longshoremen, was expected to be the pace setter for the other gangs.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
46
Table 6.- DISTRIBUTION OP PARTIAL GROUP OP LONGSHOREMEN
WHO WORKED IN THE 12th, 26th. AND 38th PERIODS,
BY GANG STATUS
Men who worked in 4-week period ending -
Gang status
Total
Preferred
Casual
On extra list
September 15, September 13, September 12,
1935
1936
1937
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
946
100.0
1,180
100.0
1,211
100.0
420
145
381
44.4
16.3^
40.3
311
332
537
26.4
28.1^
45.5
343
270
598
28.3
22.3^
49.4
The proportion of total gangs which were casual Is larger than Is Indicated by the
proportion of the total force which Is attached to casual gangs because of the
larger number of vacancies In casual gangs.
shifted from preferred to casual status, and others were
broken up and re-formed into casual gangs.
page 40.
(See footnote 31,
)
Throughout the next 2 years or more the proportion of preferred to casual gangs remained very nearly constant. The
employers opposed this preponderance of casual gangs and laid
the blame on the union.
The union disclaimed it with the
explanation that the situation was the result of the preferences of the men in each gang, determined by secret ballot.
According to the award,
it
was stated, the men were free to
select their jobs, and under this provision the determination
of gang type was up to gang members.
It
is likely that union policy
was reflected in the indicated
preference of so large a proportion of the gangs for casual
status.
Purely from the point of view of the distribution of
work, it is undoubtedly simpler mechanically to rotate all
gangs entirely on the basis of accumulated hours without
consideration of employer preference.
On the other hand, from
the point of view of the employers, the use of preferred gangs
is preferable,
both with regard to the performance of work and
the control of gang operations.
Minutes of the Labor Relations Committee, April 24, 1936.
'^'^Sectlon 11 of the agreement of February 4, 1937 stated, "The employers shall
be free to select their men within those eligible under the policies Jointly
determined, and the men likewise shall be free to select their Jobs."
append Ix E.
(See
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
47
During 1938 a number of casual gangs shifted to preferredgang status, although on the basis of experience in 1937 the
advantage to the preferred-gang men so far as earnings are
concerned would seem to be almost nonexistent, for, as will be
shown in chapter III, there was very little difference in the
amount of work received by each type of gang.
It
is
further-
more unlikely that in periods of less work preferred gangs are
favored, since findings indicate that in such periods the
entire working force, regardless of assignment preference,
(See
tends to be grouped around a narrow range of earnings.
pages 5i|--6 and 64-6.) However, no data are available on the
distribution of preferred-gang hours as compared with casualAlthough no explanation of this
gang hours for such periods.
tendency to shift from casual to preferred gangs is readily
available, it appears to have been due neither to a change in
union policy nor to employer pressure.
AVAILABLE REGISTERED LABOR FORCE
Table
6
shows for February
1
to December 5, 1937 the number
of men on the roster during each ^-week period,
the number
working, and the extent to which the number working is augIt will be noted that the number of
mented by the visitors.
visitors increased with the increase in absences in the suinmer
periods, and dropped, although to a slightly lesser degree.
Table 6.- REGISTERED LABOR FORCE IN EACH PERIOD,
FEBRUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 6, 19 37,
SHOWING REGISTRATION AND WORK STATUS AND
PERCENTAGE OF REGULAR FORCE THAT WAS ABSENT
4 -week
period
ending -
Registered force
Working force
Absentees
Total Permanent ly Vis itor
reg istered^
Total Permanently Vis itor
reg istered^
Percent of
permanently
Total
registered
force
February 28
March 28
April 25
4
575
4.584
4,576
4.
May 23
June 20
July 18
August 15
4.595
4.614
4,623
4.631
4.
September 12
October 10
November 7
December 5
4,607
4,495
4.495
4,491
4,489
,
4.
572
4.565
4.566
^Includes permit men.
4.
530
526
4.516
510
4,499
502
4,502
4.
45
58
60
4,403
4,416
4,397
4.358
4.358
4,337
45
58
60
172
3. 8
168
179
3. 7
85
115
121
129
4,395
4.319
4.328
4.332
4,
310
4,204
4,207
4.203
85
200
295
295
299
4. 4
115
121
129
112
77
4,339
4.296
4.309
4.307
268
276
256
259
6. 0
74
77
4.227
4 ,219
112
77
4.235
4.230
74
77
4. 0
6. 6
6. 6
6. 6
6. 1
5. 7
5
.
8
48
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
with the slump in work in the latter part of the year.
The
proportion of the registered force absent in each period ranged
from 3.8 to 6.6 percent of the total.
From 62 to 76 percent of the absences in each period have
Injuries and illness
been accounted for, as shown in table 7.
account for from 30 to 44 percent of the absences in each
period, and absence on leave, except during the summer months,
accounts for a much smaller proportion of the total.
Table 7.- PERCENTAGE
LONGSHOREMEN WHO
FEBRUARY 1
BY REASON FOR ABSENCE
DISTRIBUTION OF 800 REGISTERED
WERE ABSENT A FULL PERIOD,
TO DECEMBER 5, 1937.
AND PERIOD IN WHICH IT OCCURRED^
Percentage distribution of absences
for specified reasons
4-week period
in which
absence occurred
Total
Number
Percent
February 28
March 28
April 25
168
165
178
100.0
100.0
100.0
May 23
June 20
July 18
August 15
198
292
293
297
September 12
October 10
November 7
December 5
267
275
252
257
Injured Absent
by
or sick
leave
Reason
reasons'^ unknown
Other
Period ending-
6.7
38.1
37.6
37.1
37.0
39.2
38.7
5.5
5.1
4.8
5.4
36.9
24.3
25.6
24.6
28.8
17.1
16.7
14.4
4.9
5.1
6.3
6.2
27.7
34.2
34.9
35.8
39. 9
14
38.2
35.4
16.9
20.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
35. 9
21. 7
33.6
30.4
31.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
38.6
43. 6
42.
43.6
.
9
7.1
7.3
This table Includes only the 800 absentees who were registered prior to the 31st
It excludes
period and were not withdrawn from the register before the 42d period.
absences of entrants, exits, and temporary men who entered and left within the year.
who "changed from longshoremen to walking bosses" and those reported as
"Injured, sick, and on leave", with specific reason not determinable.
'^Covers men
It
has been assumed that absences due to unknown reasons
represent unavailability of individuals for work rather than
unemployment because of unavailability of work.
dispatching techniques,
assumption since
it
is
it
In view of the
appears that this is a reasonable
extremely unlikely that even extra men
would fail to get any work
at
all in the course of 4 weeks
DISPATCHING SYSTEM IN SAN FRANCISCO
49
under the system of work rotation based on the location of
the plug on each day - the system which prevailed during
most of 1937.
It should be noted that the count of absences shown in table
7
is an
understatement since
less than a
ij.-week
period.
it
does not include absences of
Since hours for each 4-week period
were already totaled on the posting card, no further analysis
was made of absences because of the prohibitive amount of time
involved in the job.
According to the following tabulation, of the 800 absentees
shown in table
7,
3
percent were absent as many as 10 out of
the 11 periods, but the bulk were absent from
1
to
3
periods,
with one-third absent for only one period.
Number of full
4-week periods
absent
Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Number
Percent
800
100.0
264
134
127
81
45
33.0
16.8
15.9
10.1
5.6
35
26
31
30
27
4.4
3.2
3.9
3.7
3.4
PRACTICES IN OTHBB WEST COAST PORTS
The agreement between the union and the employers' associa-
tions in the various ports provides that the details with
regard to the organization of gangs, the methods of dispatching, and the maintenance of the roster of registered men shall
be the responsibility of the Labor Relations Committee in each
port.
Consequently, such practices differ from port to port.
For example, San Francisco is the only port on the West Coast
in which preferred gangs are used;
in all other ports all gangs
Likewise, while the agreement provides that
employment preference be given union members, the method by
are casual.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
50
which this is carried out differs.
In all the larger ports
permit men are used, although in some cases the permit force
does not appear to be so closely associated with the union
force as in San Francisco, nor does it seem to get so large a
share of the work.
In San Pedro
(the port of Los Angeles),
for
example, permit men, at least in 1938, were not exclusively
engaged in longshore work, according to the National Labor
Relations Board.
Casuals are used in many ports and, accord-
ing to union officials, are usually members of "sister" locals.
statement of the National Labor Relations Board aptly
expresses the essential similarities and differences between
A
the practices in the West Coast ports:
wages, hours, methods of hiring, methods of
settling grievances, payment for penalty cargoes, and
maximum sling loads are uniform on the Pacific Coast.
There are divergences in working rules only in minor
matters
Even in these minor matters, the
drive is for uniformity among ports.
.
.
.
.
Although in the practical application of the agreement in the
ports covered there have emerged variations in detail, the
principles of decasualizat ion and equalization inherent in
the agreement have not been modified.
The work experience of
longshoremen in San Francisco, as described in the following
chapter,
is
therefore considered to be representative of the
coordinated systems of employment in effect in all ports on
the West Coast
Case No. R-638 and Case No. R-572, p. 22.
'I6td.,
p.
17.
CHAPTER III
EQUALIZATION OF HOURS AND EARNINGS
Although earnings of longshoremen in casual ports is a
subject about which there is more conjecture than fact, it is
known that great differences exist and that, except for those
fortunate enough to be attached to permanent gangs, there
is little security.
The intensity of the daily competition for
work, the uncertainty of tenure, and the uneven distribution
of work are chiefly responsible.
Set up a stable labor force
large enough to meet the needs of the port, restrict the
"work hogs", and the longshoremen will all earn enough; that
was the claim before 1934.
This chapter deals with the extent
to which this objective has been achieved in the most elaborate
decasualizat ion plan yet attempted in the United States.
DISTRIBUTION OF WORK
The Total Force
Measuring the security of the San Francisco longshoremen
not only by the average level of earnings but also by the
distribution of earnings around the average indicates that the
registered men in the port earned an average of $150 per
period for all periods from February to December 1937
Eighty-five percent averaged from $105
in which they worked.^
i|.-week
to $200, with about 60 percent falling within the range from
$150 to $200.
Only one-half of
1
percent of the men averaged
The most striking
above $200 a period (see table A-12).
characteristics of this distribution, as shown in figure 6,
are the small number of men who averaged more than $200 and
the number concentrated in the interval of $180 50-$i90. 00
(190-199.9 hours). ^ The success of the primary objective of
.
^Throughout this discussion, unless otherwise Indicated, the arithmetic mean has
been used to define the average.
The character of the distributions resulted In
the mean being consistently lower than the median; thus the mean represents a
minimum measure of the level of hours and earnings.
In the text tables In some
instances both means and medians have been Included so that the reader may evaluate the discussion In terms of the higher level, and for purposes of comparison.
Distributions are of average periods for each Individual based on the number of
periods in the 11 periods from February 1 to December 5, 1937 In which any time was
recorded for him In the dlspatchlng-hall records.
^Hours, unless otherwise Indicated, refer to equlvalent-stral ght-tlme hours.
Earnings, therefore, are determined by multiplying hours by the $0-95 basic rate.
For a discussion of actual hours worlced and the proportion of overtime to total
hours, see appendix B.
51
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
52
the dispatching procedure, that of limiting maximum hours,
is
clearly demonstrated by the character of the distribution.
Although the dispatching hall provides no direct means other
than the limitation of maximum hours according to gang operations to assure equalization of individual earnings,
appears from the distribution of the total force that
a large extent this has been effective.
The relatively
earnings of the 40 percent who earned less than $150 is
it
to
low
ac-
counted for by a variety of factors which are revealed in an
examination of the break-downs of the total force according to
registration status and gang status.
Figure 6.. DISTRIBUTION OF REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN. BY NUMBER
OF EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME HOURS WORKED IN AN
AVERAGE 4-WEEK PERIOD IN 1937
PERCENT
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L-4
to Gang Assignment
Maximum hours for individuals are determined by gang operations, the maximum hours a gang member receives being
determined by the number of hours worked by his gang. The
equalization of hours of work between gangs and, secondarily,
the individual's inclination to work as much as his gang,
determine the equalization of work among gang members.
The
distribution of work among extra men is, within the limits set
by gang hours, determined by the individual's availability
for work and by the flow of work.
EQUALIZATION OF HOURS AND EARNINGS
53
Preferred-Gang Men.- The men attached to preferred gangs
average 183 hours per period, with 56 percent receiving between
Elimi190 and 210 hours, and 89 percent 160 hours or more.
nating the men who did not work in all 11 periods {14 percent
the average is raised to 189 hours, with 63
of the total)
,
percent in the interval of 190 to 210 hours, and 94 percent
receiving 160 hours or more (see figure 7 and table A-13). The
latter distribution is undoubtedly a more accurate description
of the work experience of preferred-gang men since the average
hours of the men who did not work in every period are underFignre 7.- DISTRIBUTION OF PREFERRED-GANG MEMBERS, BY NUMBER
OF EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME HOURS WORKED IN AN
AVERAGE 4-WEEK PERIOD IN 1937
PERCENT
PERCENT
55
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L-5
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
54
stated because of the method of calculation of the average
This interpretation is based on the assumption that
the absenteeism of men who worked in every period is similar
period.^
to the intraperiod absenteeism of those who were absent a
period or more.
No information is available on this point,
but it is likely that the short-time absences of nonregulars
within the periods in which they worked vary little from the
intraperiod absences of regulars.
On the other hand, the average number of hours worked by
each preferred gang fall within the range of 190-210 hours,
and it is evident (see table 8) that a sizable proportion
of the preferred-gang members did not work as many hours as
were available to them through their gang attachment.
Thus,
37 percent of preferred-gang men who worked in all periods av-
eraged less than 190 hours; in addition, some men who averaged
190 hours or more fell below their gang averages, as may be
seen from the fact that, while 71 percent of the gangs averaged
between 190 and 200 hours, 82 percent of the gang members who
fell within the gang range of 190-210 hours averaged from 190
to 200 hours.
Casual-Gang Men.- Casual-gang men averaged 179 hours; though
only 36 percent of them were concentrated in the interval
from 190 to 210 hours, as contrasted with 56 percent for
preferred-gang men, exactly the same proportion, 89 percent,
received 160 hours or more (see figure 8 and table A-13).
Thus, while relatively high hours are characteristic of an
overwhelming proportion of members of both types of gangs,
the majority of the casual-gang members worked fewer hours
than preferred-gang men, and there was also a lower degree
Elimination of the
nonregular men (those who did not work in all 11 periods),
who make up approximately 15 percent of the total, raises
the average to 184 hours, the proportion in the 190-210 hour
interval to 41 percent, and the number of men working more
of equalization among casual-gang men.
than 160 hours to 93 percent of the total.
The range for the average hours for casual gangs was 180-220
hours as coinpared with 190-210 for preferred gangs (see table
8).
Thirty-three percent of the casual-gang men who worked
state an extreme case, If a man worked
and was absent for the balance of that and
all periods has been computed on the basis
period and is consequently understated in
*^To
per period.
only the first day of a 4-week, period
the following period, his average for
of his having been absent In only one
terms of the time he actually worked
EQUALIZATION OF HOURS AND EARNINGS
55
Figure 8.- DISTRIBUTION OF CASUAL-GANG MEMBERS, BY NUMBER OF
EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME HOURS WORKED IN AN
AVERAGE 4-WEEK PERIOD IN 1937
PERCENT
40
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NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
L-6
in all periods averaged less than 180 hours, the minimum gang
average, as compared with the 37 percent of the preferred-gang
members who fell below the minimum preferred-gang average.
However, the proportion of casual-gang members within the
gang range who worked fewer hours than their gangs is larger
than among preferred gangs.
Of the casual-gang men who fell
within the gang range, 38 percent averaged 180-190 hours while
only 5 percent of the gangs fell in this interval, and of
these all are known to have been above 185 hours. Thus it
appears that a larger proportion of casual-gang members than
preferred-gang members did not work so many hours as were
available to them.
A factor which offsets this in part is
the smaller amount of work available to casual-gang men as
indicated by the lower average number of hours worked by
casual gangs, 197 as compared with 198 for preferred gangs
(see tables A-15 and A-16).
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
56
Table 8.> DISTRIBUTION OP GANGS THAT WORKED IN EACH 4-WEEK
PERIOD, BY NUMBER OF EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME HOURS
WORKED PER PERIOD. FEBRUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 6, 19 87^
Number oi
eq.ui valentstraighttime hours
worked
Total
180-189.9
190-199.9
200-209.9
210-219.
Preferred
Total
Casual
Percent
Number
Per-
ber
cent
Number
Percent
173
100.0
87
100.0
86
100.0
4
2. 3
0
4
133
35
76.9
20.2
0.6
62
25
4.6
82.6
Num-
1
0
0
71
10
71.3
28.7
0
11. 6
1.2
1
^Based on data In tables A- 15 and A-16, using, hours per gang computed to the
nearest tenth of an hour.
The more significant fact, however, is the high degree of
equalization achieved for all gangs, as shown in table
8.
All
preferred gangs fell within a range of 20 hours from 190-210;
only five casual gangs fell outside of this range. This
close agreement both among the gangs within each group and
between the two groups speaks well for the extent to which
the dispatching of the two types of gangs has been integrated.
This is the case in spite of the fact that different methods
are used to equalize the hours of the two types of gangs
and indicates that the Labor Relations Committee and the
dispatcher maintain a high degree of centralized control not
only for casual gangs but also for preferred gangs.
This is an
improvement over the usual practice in work-rotation schemes
which ordinarily attempt extensive control only over the
central reserve (casual gangs and extra men)
fact,
it
.
As a matter of
is reported that in San Francisco more difficulty was
experienced in the beginning in the equalization of preferred
gangs because some companies had too many gangs, and it is
said that difficulty still occurs with companies whose work is
more seasonal than that of the port as a whole.
that
in such a situation
It
is evident
centralized control and periodic
checkups offer the simplest solution to the problem.
The slightly wider dispersion and lower average among casual
gangs, which occur in spite of the above, may be due in part
to the casual gangs'
greater freedom of choice in reporting
EQUALIZATION OF HOURS AND EARNINGS
57
This is also a possible explanation of the larger
for work.
proportion of casual-gang members who did not do so much work
The men for whom this freedom of
as was available to them.
choice is an important factor are apt to be concentrated in
casual gangs to a greater extent than in preferred gangs.
Men
Shifted Status.- The men who were attached to gangs
}lho
only part of the time and worked off the extra list the remainder of the time averaged 173 hours per period, and 77
percent received 160 hours or more. The less favorable work
experience of this group, as shown in figure 9, reflects the
influence of the work received while on the extra list, where
one-third of these men spent more of their time than on gangs
The average for the men who worked in 11
periods, a slightly smaller proportion than among gang men,
(see table A-17),
was 178 hours, and 84 percent averaged 160 hours or more.
The distribution of hours for the group that shifted between
preferred- and casual-gang status (representing in some cases
shifts of individuals and in other cases gang shifts) falls
between the distributions of preferred-gang members and casualgang members (see table A-13).
Figure 9.- DISTRIBUTION OP MEN WHO SHIFTED BETWEEN GANG MEMBER
AND EXTRA LIST, BY NUMBER OP EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME
HOURS WORKED IN AN AVERAGE 4-WEEK PERIOD IN 1937
PERCENT
PERCENT
30
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NATrONAL
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L-7
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
58
Extra Men.- The 1,867 men who worked off the plugboard during
the entire period, unlike the gang men, are by no means a homo-
geneous group.
Gang men, as previously mentioned, are almost
exclusively union members, while the extra list accommodates
almost all the permit men and visitors in addition to the
union men who prefer this status.
The lack of homogeneity
of experience lies principally in the difference in work
preference of union and permit men, permit men being dispatched
only when there are no union men available in the hall.
The average hours of work received by union men on the
plugboard were only 137-9. Sixty percent received from 130 to
210 hours, with no marked concentration within this range
When only the regulars are
(see figure 10 and table A-14).
considered, the average for union extra men
is
raised to
154 hours, and 71 percent fall in the range from 130 to 210
hours, with 52 percent receiving 160 hours or more.
The extra man's lack of obligation to report for work tends
to concentrate the nonregulars on the extra list, and, compared
with gang men, about twice as many of them were absent at least
one period.
Thus a larger statistical error is introduced
in the distribution of the total membership of this group, with
the result that the average is understated more than the
averages for the gang totals.
In spite of
the fact that the average hours worked by the
union extra men are considerably lower than those of gang men,
3
out of 10 of the union extra men who worked every period
equaled or exceeded the average hours of the gang men, who
worked in every period (mean hours of regular men who were gang
members all or part of the time being 182.6).
It thus
appears
that for union men the extra list makes possible high earnings
for those who want it and also provides assurance of work
to the men who for one reason or another are not available
for the maximum or even the average amount of work.
Permit men on the extra list averaged 121 hours, with about
two-thirds falling in the range from 110 to 180 hours.
Elimi-
nating the nonregulars, the average is raised to 130 hours,
the proportion in the lower intervals under 110 is reduced,
and the proportion from 110 to 180 hours is increased; but
permit men have little chance of going above this latter
figure.
While 67 percent of the regular men who were gang
Figure 10.- DISTRIBUTION OF MEN ON EXTRA LIST, BY REGISTRATION
STATUS AND NUMBER OF EQU I VALENT- STRA IGHT - T IME HOURS
WORKED IN AN AVERAGE 4-WEEK PERIOD IN 193 7
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WPA-
NATIONAL RESEARCH
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L-8
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
60
members all or part of the time and 31 percent of the union
regulars on the extra list averaged 180 hours or more, only
percent of the regular permit men averaged 180 hours or
As compared with union men, there are fewer permit
more.
men in the lowest intervals, greater concentration at the
I
midpoint, and almost none in the higher intervals.
While
to the union man the extra board is a device which gives him
assurance of work even
permit man
it
if
is a means of
he wants
only a minimum, to the
getting as much as he can of the
work not taken by the union man.
It
is necessary to bear in mind,
however, that because of
the irregular flow of work characteristic of the industry it
cannot be said that permit men received only that work which
was not taken by union men.
On some days, during periods of
normal port activity at least, a maximum number of both union
and permit men was needed.
Visitors averaged 103 hours, but since all worked less than
II
periods, the understatement resulting from the computation
of an average period is undoubtedly larger than that for
the other groups.
Nonetheless, it is likely that they did
work fewer hours than the other extra men since some of these
visitors, though they receive first preference for work along
with union men, regard their stay in San Francisco in the
nature of a vacation and may not be so consistent about reporting for work as the registered force.
Dittribvtion According to Eeg i
t r
a
t i
on Statvt
Figure 11 shows the distribution of average hours according
to registration status.
With the dispatching mechanics
directed toward the equalization of the hours of union men,
it
is not surprising to find that union members enjoy a higher
degree of equalization than other men.
Seventy-five percent of
the union men averaged from 160 to 210 hours
(see table A-18).
When the nonregulars are eliminated, 8 out of 10 fall within
On the other hand, only 13 percent of the permit
this range.
men fall within the above range, and 57 percent were concentrated within the range from 110 to 160 hours.
It should be
^The work, experience of the 137 permit men who were Initiated Into the union some
The distribution of permit
time during the 11 periods Is not shown In the chart.
men In figure 10 showing
permit
of
distribution
the
differs
from
men In this chart
permit men on the extra list only In that It Includes the 28 permit men who were
Likewise, 14 visitors who were gang men at
gang men all or part of the 11 periods.
least part of the time are Included here and were not Included In the distribution
figure 10.
of visitors
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DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
62
noted that permit men are outnumbered by union men by about
4^ to 1, and that the number of union men in the range below
i6o hours exceeds the number of permit men in the same group by.
about 200.
Under the dispatching system, permit men cannot
avail themselves of the maximum, but for every permit man with
low earnings there is a union man with similar earnings.
Table
9
shows the distribution of the estimated total amount
of work in an average 4-week period aimong the four registration
groups.
It will be noted that union
members made up 74 percent
of the force employed during the 11 periods and received
80 percent of the work on the average, while 13 percent of the
work went to the permit men who represented 16 percent of the
force.
Visitors comprised
percent of the total force working
7
during the year and performed less than 5 percent of the work,
and the men who changed from permit to union status during the
11 periods made up 3 percent of the force and got 3 percent
of the work.
Table 9.- DISTRIBUTION OF REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN
AND ESTIMATED TOTAL ACTUAL MAN-HOURS WORKED IN
AN AVERAGE 4 -WEEK PERIOD IN 19 87,
BY REGISTRATION STATUS^
Estimated total
actual man-hours
Total
men
Registration
status
Number
Total
Union
Permit
Changed from permit
to union status
Visitor
Percent
Number
Pe rcent
4,
931
100.0
640, 245
100. 0
3,
643
802
73. 9
511, 135
16.2
81,510
79.9
12.7
137
349
2.8
18,055
29,545
2.8
4.6
7.
'Based on table B-E.
Distribution According to Age
The distribution of the work among the men seems to have some
relationship to their ages. The youngest men, those 21 to 25
years, worked a mean of 103 actual hours in an average 4-week
period. Those 61 years or over worked a mean of 116 hours.
Between these two groups, hours increased age group by age
group to the men 36 to 40 years of age (who worked a mean of
EQUALIZATION OF HOURS AND EARNINGS
63
140 actual hours) and then decreased age group by age group to
the men 56 to 60
It
(who worked a mean of 129 actual hours).
will be noted in table 10 that the largest number of men
(853)
fall in the 41- to 45-year age group.
The median age of
the registered force is 43.7 years.
Table 10.- DISTRIBUTION OF MEN AND MEDIAN AND MEAN
NUMBER OF ACTUAL HOURS WORKED IN AN AVERAGE
4 -WEEK PERIOD IN 1937,
BY AGE^
Age
in years
Actual hours worked
Men
Number
Percent
Medi an
Mean
4,542
100. 0
143. 7
133. 7
21-25
26-30
31-35
36-40
41-45
154
349
546
768
853
3.4
7.7
12.0
16.9
18.8
105. 6
102. 7
140.4
148.4
130.2
136.5
139.7
138.7
46-50
51-55
56-60
812
644
289
127
17. 9
144.7
135. 3
14.2
6.3
2.8
140. 9
140. 7
130.6
128.5
132.6
116. 3
Total
61 or over
145. 3
147. 6
Based on table A-31.
Registration is limited to men at least 21 years old, with no
formal restriction at the upper limit.
The fact that many of
the group from 21 to 25 are undoubtedly permit men would
account for their low average as compared with the older men.
The gradual increase to 45 years of age is probably accounted
for by a variety of reasons, among them union membership and
increasing family responsibilities.
The gradual decrease from
46 years and older is probably due to declining ability to
handle longshore work, along with, perhaps, decreasing family
responsibilities
later- and latraperiod Eqaaliiation
A comparison of the distribution of work as between periods
is
useful in evaluating the day-to-day application of the
mechanics of dispatching.
When port activity is high, the
equal distribution of work is actually of secondary importance.
There is work enough for everyone, and the emphasis is on meet-
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
64
When work is not so plentiful, the emphasis
shifts to allotment of work so that the total amount of work
ing the demand.
available in a 4-week period
is
equitably distributed among
the men.
There is, however, another problem in dispatching mechanics,
namely that of period-to-period equalization, with inequalities
of any one period averaging out over several periods.
Gangs
experienced in special types of cargo handling are sometimes
required to put in more hours than the average in some periods
or seasons than in others, or employers with seasonal cargo may
keep their preferred gangs busier in some periods than in
others.^
At any rate, whatever the cause,
it
is
clear that
certain gangs may be below or above the average in any given
Similarly, individuals may attempt to recoup losses
period.
experienced in previous periods or refrain from the maximum
amount of work after
Thus,
a
few weeks or months of high hours.
in spite of the fact that the 1934 award contemplated
equalization over a single period,
it
has,
in practice, been
found desirable to regard equalization as a continuous process.
Figure 12 illustrates the distribution of work among the
total force in the 38th period (August 16 to September 12,
This period may be taken as representative of high port
1937).
activity for 1937 previous to the onset of the depression in
the last quarter of the year.^
It will be observed that the
range of this distribution is greater, the concentration at the
mode lower, and the drop at the upper end of the range not so
abrupt as the distribution in an average period (see table
While only 0.7 percent of the total force who worked
A-12).'''
in every period averaged 210 hours or more
in 1937,
more.
in an average period
in the 38th period 33 percent worked 210 hours or
Likewise, only
1
percent averaged less than 70 hours in
an average period, while 6 percent worked less than 70 hours in
the 38th period.
^For example, In the rush of work after the 1936-37 strike, one shoveling gang put
almost all Its time as overtime and worked regularly 10 hours every night for 4
weeks, resulting in an accumulation of over 300 equlvalent-stralght-tlme hours
above the average, which had to be gradually offset.
^According to the total man-hours worked In each of the periods In 1937, this
(See
period was the third highest and IE percent above the average for the year.
The last week or so of the period was affected by the "teamsters'
table A-19. )
embargo." Although the longshoremen's union did not support this strike because
of a Jurisdictional dispute, work was curtailed because of It.
m
"^The experience of men In a given period Is comparable not with that of the total
sample In an average period but rather with the experience of those men who worked
In all periods; that Is, both distributions are free of the calculation error
Introduced by interperlod Intermlttency.
Figure 12.- DISTRIBUTION OF LONGSHOREMEN WHO WORKED IN A PERIOD
OP HIGH PORT ACTIVITY AND OF SAMPLE GROUP WHO WORKED
IN A PERIOD OF LOW PORT ACTIVITY, BY REGISTRATION
STATUS AND NUMBER OF EQUIVALENT- STRAIGHT-TIME
HOURS WORKED
PERIOD OF LOW PORT ACTIVITY
(ENDING JAN. 2, 1938)
PERIOD OF HIGH PORT ACTIVITY
(ENDING SEPT.
1937)
12,
PERCENT
PERCENT
PERCENT
PERCENT
15
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-
NATIONAL
RESEARCH PROJECT
L-IO
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
66
In the 42d period
(December
1937 to January 2, 1938)
man-hours were 33 percent less than in the 38th period (see
table A-19). With the emphasis in a period of reduced port
6,
activity on the equitable distribution of work within the
period, we may be prepared to find a quite different distribution than was true in the 38th period.
The reduction in
the average for the 42d period was accompanied by a higher
concentration near the maximum than in the 38th period.
figure 12 and table 11.)®
Only
1
(See
percent of the men worked
160 hours or more, and 76 percent worked from loo to 160
hours, representing earnings of approximately $95 to $150
for the 4 weeks.
When the union men and the permit men are
separated, the explanation for the 23 percent who worked less
than 100 hours is immediately apparent.
Among union men, the
proportion falling below 100 hours increased only slightly
from the 38th to the 42d period - 8 percent as compared with
11 percent - while 4 and 5 percent respectively worked less
than 60 hours. The proportion of permit men who worked less
than 100 hours increased from 17 percent in the 38th period to
76 percent in the 42d period, and 40 percent worked less than
60 hours as compared with 6 percent in the 38th.
During the slack period the work was rotated among union
men so that practically the same proportion as in the busy
period received less than 100 hours, and within this group the
distributions for the two periods were very similar.
It
may be
safely assumed that for the most part the same men fell in
these intervals in both periods; that is, they are those union
men not able or willing to work more than a minimum.
On this
assumption the shortage of work affected principally those men
who had worked more than 100 hours in the 38th period, but the
rotation of work resulted in all of these working more than
60 hours,
that is, in having earnings well above the maximum
unemployment-compensation benefits of $15 a week, and thus no
partial benefits were even remotely necessary.®
This Is a comparison of the distribution of the total working force for the
sath period with a sample of the working force of the 42d period. The sample of
the 42d period Is made up of those men working In the 42d period who were Included
In the sample for 13 periods.
Q
See ftn.
13,
p.
77.
California's unemployment-compensation law provides that the benefits for partial
unemployment shall be limited to an amount which, when added to earnings, shall
Total-unemployment benefits are limited to a
equal total-unemployment benefits.
maximum of $15 per week or 50 percent of average full-time earnings, whichever
Although the
No waiting period Is required for partial benefits.
Is lower.
California Unemployment Reserves Commission did not begin to pay benefits until
January 1, 1938, the problem is formulated here because the amount of work and Its
distribution In the 42d period were very similar to the 43d, for which period
benefits were being paid.
EQUALIZATION OF HOURS AND EARNINGS
67
Table 11.- COMPARISON OF TOTAL REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN IN
THE 38th PERIOD WITH A SAMPLE IN THE 42d PERIOD, BY
REGISTRATION STATUS AND NUMBER OF EQUIVALENTSTRAIGHT- T IME HOURS WORKED
Number of
equivalentstraight-time
hours worked
Registration status
Total
Permit
Union^
38th
38th
42d
38th
42d
Visitor
42d
38th
42d
Number of men
Total
934
4,339 1,157 3.454
773
214
112
9
Percent
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Total
Less
10203040-
5060708090-
than 10
19.9
29.9
39.9
49.9
59.9
69.9
79.9
89.9
99.9
100-109.9
110-119.
120-129.9
130-139.
140-149.9
150-159.9
160-169.
170-179.
180-189.
190-199.
200-209.
210-219.
220-229.9
230-239.
240-249.
250-259.
260-269.
270-279.
280-289.
0 4
0 6
0. 2
0. 3
0. 9
1. 9
2.6
0.6
0.5
0.8
1.0
1.6
3.0
2.2
0.5
0.4
0.7
0. 2
3. 6
5.1
4.5
1.2
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.9
4. 7
0.9
0.9
1.1
c
1 • o
X
u
jL .
Q
O
/O.J.
1.1
1.4
1.5
1.5
2.9
3.7
2.7
2.8
0.8
1.0
2.1
2.7
3.1
2.6
11.7
11.7
7.5
2.6
3.6
1.8
1.2
0.9
1.9
1.6
2.2
5.
2. 7
2.2
2.3
4.6
1.7
1.3
4.2
7.6
4.0
6.9
5.6
4.7
7. 1
33.4
1.
o
c,
»
f
1
1.
12. 1
7.0
0
0
0
11.1
0
3.6
0
D
o
u
C5 .
11.
0
0
0
7.1
-to ry
V
12
1.8
11.
o
1. 8
14. 9
o. o
3. 7
7. 1
3.3
3.7
24.9
21.9
2.2
2.4
29. 6
8.3
9.8
5.6
3.3
2.7
0
0
0
4.0
4.9
5.7
6.7
9.9
4.4
0.8
3.2
5.0
0.7
7.4
8.7
9.2
7.6
7.2
1.4
6. 2
0
0
0
0
2.7
6.2
6.2
8.9
2.8
3.2
1.4
0.8
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
5.4
3.6
5.4
2.7
1.8
0
0
0
0
0
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
/i .
.
0. 2
0
0.
12.
0.
15.9
9.4
4.0
2.3
0
0
0
0
0.4
0.4
0
0
0
0
0.
*
26.3
4.
5.0
6.4
10.5
14. 3
19.
11.2
4.8
2.8
0.4
0.6
0.
0. 2
0
0.1
0.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Average number of
hours worked 177.4 116.7 186.3 126.8 144.3
Includes men who clianged from permit to union status.
*Less than 0.05 percent.
^Base too small for calculation.
3. 6
72.4 136.9
11.
22. 2
0
0
0
0
0
4
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
68
On the other hand, 40 percent of the permit men earned less
than $15 a week, that is, worked fewer than 60 hours in the
4 weeks of the 42d period/ Assuming that these 40 percent had
averaged at least $30 a week in the periods upon which amount
of benefits would have been computed, they would have been
entitled to partial benefits.
However, it is unlikely that
even as much as half of this 40 percent were actually compensable for maximum benefits since the mean earnings for the
entire permit group during the average period were only $30 a
week; furthermore, it is very probable that many of those who
fell in the low-earnings group in the average period were
likewise in the low-earnings group in the 42d period.
The fact
that few permit men were eligible for compensation appears to
be borne out by reports that in the 43d period, with port
activity at about the same level as in the 42d period, very few
men applied for benefits.
Of course, a contributory factor may
have been other employment obtained by the permit men who
worked only a small number of hours as longshoremen.
will be recalled that beginning in the fall of 1937 a
succession of revisions and modifications was made in the
dispatching mechanics, some in direct response to the falling
off of work (see pages 21-2).
One additional change was the
It
cancellation of differences in gang hours accumulated during
1937.
Beginning with the 42d period, all gangs were again made
to start at zero.
In the course of the year the difference
between the accumulated hours worked by the highest and the
lowest gangs had become 266 hours.
This difference was partly
the result of members of some gangs agreeing among themselves
to take a vacation by knocking off from the gang with the
expectation of making up the time later.
Thus, when work
slackened, equalization of these gangs would have meant penalizing the steady gangs.
Objections raised by the members of
the steady gangs who represented the bulk of the gang men
resulted in the agreement to cancel the hours accumulated
previous to the 42d period. This had its effect in lowering
the maximum of the range and in raising the concentration near
the maximum in the 42d period.
Just prior to the 42d period the permit men's section of the
plugboard had been divided into hours intervals in an attempt
to equalize their opportunity for work.
That this was not
effective to any marked degree has been indicated and had
EQUALIZATION OF HOURS AND EARNINGS
69
practical acknowledgment in the fact that the system was
No information is available on the distribution of
work among this group after this system was abandoned, and the
dropped.
practice was adopted of allowing permit men to leave their
plugs in the board until they were called for work instead of
removing them every evening and plugging in again the next
morning.
It must have proved more effective because this prac-
tice was adopted for union men on the plugboard in May 1938.
There appears to have been a general tightening up of the
application of the various mechanics of dispatching.
It was in
the 39th period that the union made its first checkup of the
hours of individuals, covering the intervals from the 31st
period.
Both total eguivalent-straight~t ime hours and the
ratio of overtime to straight time were scrutinized.
Only
an insignificant number of men warranted penalizing, but
this investigation no doubt had a deterrent effect on the
"work hogs."
Until then the restrictions on maximum hours had
been a threat rather than a reality.
1987 Compared With the
2
PreTioti Years
In view of the changes in dispatching techniques and other
factors which have entered the picture since the inception of
the decasualizat ion system, there is special interest in a
year-to-year comparison of the
been in operation.
3
years in which the system has
The character of the records previous to
1937 made a detailed comparison prohibitive; consequently, only
one period in each of the 3 years was selected. '•^ The three
periods cover the latter half of August and the first half of
September of each year.
This season of the year is usually a
peak or near-peak period and, as has been previously indicated,
as such is not the most desirable selection for a study of
equalization of work.
However, since the dispatching hall did
^^Al though Individual records were available, postings consisted of differences In
the hours worked by the Individual and his gang, 1. e., they showed absences.
Therefore, before 1937, hours of Individuals were compiled from gang time sheets.
The comparisons of these three periods are based on samples of the total registered
force for each period surveyed.
Different serial numbers were used for each period
so that the samples are mutually exclusive.
Every fifth registration number of all
numbers used to the date of the period under consideration was selected, active
numbers being substituted for any Inactive cards thus selected. The result was a
20-percent sample of all registration numbers used to date, limited to men working
In the given period; It Is therefore a somewhat larger sample of the working force
of the period.
In the 38th period the sample amounted to about 27 percent, but tlie
number working In the 25th and l2th periods was not determined, and the proportion
cannot be ascertained. However, the sample for the 38th period tested against the
total appears adequate, and there Is no reason to suppose that the samples of the
other periods are any less adequate. See table A-20 for comparison of sample and
total distributions for the 38th period.
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(VI
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
72
not begin to operate until April 1935 and as it was thought
that a fairer picture of 193S would be obtained if the first
few periods were eliminated, the selection of sample periods
was narrowed to practically the last
6
months of the year.
Within this 6-month period, the selection was dictated by the
absence of disputes between the employers and the union severe
enough to interfere with the flow of work.
Even in this regard
the selection was not entirely satisfactory.
During the last
few days of the 12th period, work was affected by the hot -cargo
issue;
in the 25th period work was at an extreme peak, abnormal
even for that season of the year, in anticipation of the strike
in connection with the expiration of the agreement; and in the
latter part of the 38th period work was curtailed to some
extent because of the teamsters' embargo.
Aside from the above-mentioned reasons, there are a number of
variable factors which make year-to-year comparisons difficult.
The amount of work varied from year to year, as is reflected in
the average hours of work per man, the averages being 209.0
hours in the 25th period as compared with 180.4 in the 12th
and 176.4 in the 38th period (see table A-21
)
.
However, the
labor force was increased by several hundred men between the
12th and 2Sth periods and has remained fairly stable since
that time.
Assuming a constant level of productivity, this
indicates that the greatest amount of work was available in the
25th period and the least in the 12th period.
Another variable, discussed previously, is the changing
proportions of the force in the various categories - preferred
gangs, casual gangs, and the extra list - in the three periods
(see pages 45-6).
It
will be recalled that the number of men
attached to the extra list and casual gangs together increased
in the two later periods at the expense of the men attached to
preferred gangs.
With these factors in mind, attention is directed to the
distributions for the various periods.
(See table A-21 and
figures 13, 14, and 15.) Comparing the distributions for the
total force, improved equalization of work is reflected in the
greater concentration in the modal group in the 38th period.
When the total force
is
broken down by gang status, additional
significant differences between the three periods can be noted.
The most striking contrast is the reduced differential between
casual-gang members and preferred-gang members.
In the 12th
EQUALIZATION OF HOURS AND EARNINGS
73
period the average for casual-gang men was 193.7 hours compared
vrith
209.0 for preferred.
In the 25th period the averages were
235.4 and 238.6 hours respectively, and in the 38th period
This was accompanied by an increasing
194.3 and 198.4 hours.
concentration at the mode for preferred-gang men.
Although no
distinct modal group had emerged for casual-gang members, even
in the 38th period,
there was an increasing tendency toward
concentration near the maximum.
Improvement in the distribution of work in each successive
year is evident, but caution must be exercised in drawing
conclusions based on isolated periods, since one period may not
be representative of an average period based on a year's
experience.
Aside from the disputes which had their effect to
a greater or lesser degree in these periods,
there remains the
element of peak or near-peak activity in each of these periods,
at which times, as previously indicated,
the emphasis on
equalization is usually less than in other periods.
The men on the extra list appear to have had a slightly
better chance of working near the maximum hours in the 38th
period than in the other two periods (see figure 15).
Their
average hours improved at the expense of the average for the
gang men in the 38th period, it being 8 percent higher than in
the 1935 period, while the averages for gang men in the 38th
period were in one case below and in the other about the same
as they had been in 1935
(see table A-21
of the hours of extra men was
)
.
The distribution
less erratic in the last period,
with more concentration in the upper section of the range.
This is indicated in part by the varying proportion of the
extra men who worked more hours than the average for the gang
men (the proportion who fell above the class interval or
intervals in which the gang men's averages fell):
in the 12th period,
11.5 percent
15.6 percent in the 25th period, and 23.8
percent in the 38th period (see table A-21).
During the
3
years under consideration, preferences in dis-
patching the men on the extra list had changed.
In the 12th
period no distinction was made between union members and
nonmembers on the extra list with regard to work preference.
By the 25th period, first preference for union members, which
also obtained in the 38th period, had been established.
Thus
the experience of the total extra men in the 12th period
cannot, strictly speaking, be compared with the total extra
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EQUALIZATION OF HOURS AND EARNINGS
75
Since the dispatching system is
list in the other two periods.
directed toward the distribution of work among union men, the
more valid comparison is that of the experience of union extra
men in the latter periods with the total extra list in the
12th period, as presumably this is representative of the
experience of the union men.
For the 25th period no break-down
of the extra men on this basis
is
available, while for the
38th period it is available for the total working force instead
of
Of the total union extra men for the 38th
the sample.
period, 25.6 percent received as much or more than the modal
group among preferred-gang men, while only 4 percent of the
permit extra men fell in this range (see table A-22
In the
)
.
12th period 4,7 percent of the men on the extra list received
as much or more than the modal group among preferred-gang men,
and 24.6 percent as much or more than the modal group among
casual-gang men (there being more preferred gangs in that
period, the former is more significant)
(see table A-21
)
Both
.
because of an improved distribution for the extra men as a
whole and because of the first preference for union men on the
extra list in 1937, the union men had a noticeably better
chance of getting maximum hours then than in 1935.
•
EARNINGS
The discussion up to this point has been confined largely
to a consideration of the distribution of hours worked as
a
demonstration of the mechanics of dispatching.
Earnings
rather than hours, however, present a more realistic picture
of what
the work-rotation scheme has accomplished for the
longshoremen themselves.
Earnings During
a
4-Week Period
Figures were secured for one period each in i937 and 1936
from the pay-roll records of the Waterfront Employers' Association.-^^
These figures differ from earnings as computed from
hours worked (equivalent-straight-t ime hours multiplied by the
'"^For the 38tli period a 20-percent sample of registration numbers was selected,
using the same method but not the same cards as the sample for the comparison of
For the 25th period the same
the hours worked In the 38th, 25th, and 12th periods.
However, the
cards were used.
These cards were matched to pay-roll records.
employers who were not members did not report time to the Waterfront Employers'
Association, but time worked for all employers was included In the dispatching
It was necessary to match hours in order to eliminate from the
hall records.
earnings sample the men who worked for these companies during the given period.
This reduced the sample by several hundred.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
76
basic rate of $0.95) in that work performed at penalty rates
and at the car rate is not accounted for according to these
rates in earnings computed from hours.
(See appendix C for a
discussion of the extent to which the adequacy of estimated
earnings as a measure is affected by these factors.)
Table 12.- DISTRIBUTION OP SAMPLE OF LONGSHOREMEN BY AMOUNT
OF ACTUAL EARNINGS IN THE 26th AND 88th PERIODS^
Actual earnings
dollars
4-week period ending 4— week period ending
September 12, 1937
September 13, 1936
(
Total
Less than 47.50
47.50- 56.99
57.00- 66.49
66.50- 75.99
76.00- 85.49
Number
of men
Percent
of men
Number
of men
Percent
of men
543
100.0
564
100.0
22
4.0
5
0. 9
9
4
5
1.7
0.7
17
11
4
8
0. 9
5
3.0
2.0
0.7
1.4
0.9
9
7
6
1.7
1.3
1.1
2.8
1.5
12
14
17
17
2. 4
21
21
23
26
34
3.7
3.7
53
40
85
82
39
9.4
85.50- 94.99
95.00-104.49
104.50-113.99
114.00-123.49
123.50-132.99
15
8
133.00-142.49
142.50-151.99
152.00-161.49
161.50-170.99
171.00-180.49
13
11
12
22
19
180.50-189.99
190.00-199.49
199.50-208.99
209.00-218.49
218.50-227.99
21
28
22
21
3. 9
44
8.
228. 00-237.49
71
84
50
16
13.
237.50-246.99
247.00-256.49
256.50-265.99
266.00-275.49
275.50 or over
2.0
2. 2
4,0
3.5
5.2
4.0
3.9
15.5
9.2
2.9
2.2
1.3
12
7
2. 1
2.5
3.0
3.0
2.8
16
4.
4. 6
6.0
7.
15.
14.6
6.9
9
3
1.6
1
0.2
0
0
1.1
0. 5
0
0
6
Median earnings
$221. 19
$186. 95
Mean earnings
$195. 75
$171. 02
Based on pay-roll records of the Waterfront Employers' Association of San
Francisco (see ftn. 11, p. 75). Foremen (gang bosses) receive $0.10 per hour
They have been excluded from the distribution above
more than the basic rate.
but are Included In the distribution by hours (table A-21)
EQUALIZATION OF HOURS AND EARNINGS
77
average earnings for longshoremen
in the ^-vveek period August 16 to September 12, 1937 amounted
As shown in table 12,
to $171.02.
Forty percent of the men earned $200 or more,
Conversely, less than
and 67 percent earned more than $160.
Earnings for the 25th period
13 percent earned under $105.
differ from the 38th~period earnings, not so much in the
pattern of distribution, but in that they are on a higher
level.
than
3
Average earnings for the period were $195.75; better
out of 4 men earned over $160 in 4 weeks, and 6 out
of 10 men earned $200 or more.
About one out of every nine
men earned less than $105 for the period.
Annaal Earningg
Annual income is, however, the most realistic measure of
security and the level of earnings.
For this measure, computed
earnings based on total hours worked in the 13 periods from
February 1, 1937 to January 31, 1938 have been used. This
distribution
is
of
interest also because it takes into con-
sideration the effect of the slump beginning in the winter
of 1937-38.^^
The distribution of annual earnings is shown in figure 16 and
table A-23.
Over half
(54 percent)
of the men,
including
those who did not work in every period, earned between $1,995
and $2,470, and less than
1
percent earned more than that
Computed earnings based on equivalent-stralght-tlme hours averaged $167.54 for
the 38th period and $198.53 for the E5th period, while actual earnings averaged
$171.02 and $195-75 respectively.
Inability to reconcile completely the two
records precludes any conclusions with regard to the influence of car work and
penalty work, on actual earnings as compared with computed earnings.
13
The sample used for consideration of annual earnings was a £0-percent sample
of registration numbers.
To be Included, the numbers had to have been active
at some time between February 1 and December 5, 1937, that Is, between the 31st
and 4lst periods Inclusive, and also active In either the 42d or 43d period.
To be completely suitable for a study of annual earnings, all cases included should
have been on the registration roster throughout the year under consideration,
whether or not they worked In each period. Entrants, exits, visitors, and temporary men should have been completely excluded.
To a certain extent this was
achieved through the sampling process by excluding men who did not work in either
the 42d or 43d period.
The entire "temporary" group, including all visitors and
temporary men entrants and exits prior to the 42d period, made up approximately
10 percent of the total of 4,931 men and only 2.3 percent of the annual-earnings
sample.
The large bulk of these in each case were the visitors who constituted
7 percent of the original but only 1.5 percent of the annual-earnings sample.
On the other hand, men working In every period are overrepresented In the sample.
Of the total number of men who were on the roster during the entire 11 periods,
18 percent were absent a period or more, while In the sample 14.6 percent of those
on the roster throughout the 13 periods were absent a period or more.
Thus shortcomings of two types exist in the sample:
(1) Men on the registration
roster throughout the 13 periods but who did not work in the 42d and 43d periods
were excluded.
These should have been Included.
(2) Men who were not on the
registration roster throughout the first 11 periods but who did work In the 42d
and 43d periods have been Included but should have been excluded.
As indicated
above, however, these groups are small and to a large extent compensate each other.
The sample thus secured for the study of annual earnings more nearly meets the
requirements Indicated above than did the total group of 4,931 men.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
78
Eighty-eight percent of the men earned more than
Of the 12 percent who earned less than this, over
amount.
$1,235.
two-thirds were absent a period or more.
64 percent are concentrated in the range from
in every period,
Ninety-six percent of them earned $1,235 or
$1,995 to $2,470.
more (table A-23
Of the men who worked
)
Figure 16.- DISTRIBUTION OP SAMPLE GBOUP OP LONGSHOREMEN,
BY ESTIMATED ANNUAL EARNINGS IN THE YEAR ENDING
JANUARY 80, 19 88
(EarningR in dollari)
PERCENT
PERCENT
25
25
20
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L-14
The men among the regulars who had low earnings demonstrate
a point which has been
implied previously.
They are the gang
men who did not work the full amount of time worked by their
gangs, the union extra men who were content to stay on the
plugboard even though gang vacancies and chances for higher
earnings existed, and the permit men who were unable to get
more work or who were unavailable for more work.
That is
to say, in large part the relatively low earnings, for the
first two of these groups at least, are not attributable to
shortcomings of the decasualizat ion scheme.
CHAPTER IV
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Decasualizat ion of longshore labor as practiced on the
West Coast is the outgrowth of an award made by a board of
arbitration appointed by President Roosevelt to settle the
maritime strike in that region in the summer of 1934. The
longshore award settled issues of wages and hours of work and
also provided for the establishment of a bipartisan labor-
relations committee in each port.
This joint committee,
composed of equal numbers of representatives of the employers
and the union, is responsible for the operation of a hiring
hall, the preparation of a list of registered longshoremen,
the formulation and enforcement of regulations governing the
labor force thus selected, and the settlement of grievances
relating to working conditions.
The union and the employers
share the costs of maintaining the hiring hall.
The union
alone, however, controls the actual dispatching of men to work,
through dispatchers selected by the union membership; these
dispatchers operate under the general rules and limitations
established by the joint Labor Relations Committee.
To meet the problem of maintaining a labor supply adequate
to handle peak labor requirements while at the same time
providing enough employment to assure an adequate annual wage
for all workers, the employers and labor in the longshoring
industry in the port of San Francisco agreed to recognize three
classes of workers.
The first is the regular force, considered
as the group requiring assurance of regular and adequate
earnings through rotation of work, who receive preference
for work assignment.
The men in this group, comprising approx-
imately four-fifths of the registered force, are now all union
members.
The second group - the "permit men" - constitutes the
remaining one-fifth of the registered force and provides a
basis for replacement and expansion in the regular force as
required.
They have second priority for assignment to work.
The dispatching procedures are designed to offer uniform
opportunities within each of these two groups and provide a
firm control over the maximum number of hours of work allowed.
79
80
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
Finally, to meet peak requirements on given days, provision is
made for the assignment of "nonregistered men."
Nonregistered
men, constituting the third part of the total labor force, are
recruited as needed from among the membership of other shore
unions in the maritime industry and of the maritime unions.
Control over the personnel of the labor force and over the
rotation of assignments to work is effectively exercised by
the joint Labor Relations Committee through the regulation,
stipulated by the award, that all longshoremen in the port be
hired through the dispatching hall.
Taking as a basis the eleven 4-week periods between February 1 and December 5, 1937 for which data were secured
from the dispatching hall in San Francisco, it is found that
longshoremen of the registered labor force worked an average of
almost 160 eguivalent-straight-t ime hours (hours worked at the
straight-time rate, plus hours at the overtime rate multiplied
by the percentage the overtime rate is of the straight-time
wages) per 4-week period.
Two-thirds of the force averaged
between 140 and 200 hours, and of these about one-third aver-
aged between 190 and 200 hours.
5
Only a little more than
percent worked an average of 200 hours or more.
Of the union
men, 78 percent worked between 140 and 200 hours in an average
4-week period, while less than a third of the permit men were
in this range of hours.
However, 37 percent of the permit men
averaged between 110 and 140 hours of work.
Translated into terms of earnings on the basis of the straight-
time rate of $0.95 per hour, these figures on hours worked
represent an average of slightly more than $150 per 4-week
period for all registered longshoremen. Average earnings per
period for about two-thirds of the group fall between $130 and
$190.
These figures take into account all variations in labor
requirements during the better part of a year - periods of low
as well as high activity - and also absences from work of less
than an entire period in duration.
In a period of high port activity, such as the 4 weeks ending
September 12, 1937, the emphasis is less on equalization of
In that
earnings than on filling the labor requirements.
period, for example, while the average for the entire registered force - both union and permit men - was almost $170 for
the 4 weeks, the spread around the average was greater than
in the average period discussed above.
The nonregistered
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
81
(casual) workers who worked as longshoremen during the 4 weeks
ending September 12, 1937 averaged $26 for the period, but
their total earnings represented less than q. percent of the
total estimated pay roll for the period.
When port activities decline substantially, as was the case
in the winter of 1937-38, maximum hours of work are reduced to
a level calculated to equalize effectively the work of
the
first preference group and to provide as much of a work residue
as is possible for the permit men.
In the 4-week period
ending January 2, 1938 scarcely any one in a sample group of
almost 1,200 registered longshoremen for whom data were secured
worked more than 160 hours and the average was 117 hours,
representing earnings of approximately $111. Among union
members, however, the proportion working less than 100 hours
increased only slightly as compared with the average period.
Among permit men about 60 percent worked 60 hours or more
in this period.
The San Francisco work-rotation scheme thus is a share-the-
work plan without the usual implications of underemployment a plan operating within the framework of controls which,
in
fact, tend to insure adequate employment to the registered
labor force.
in size,
work.
It
provides for a labor force which is flexible
yet it effectively avoids the usual problem of casual
Equalization of earnings of registered nonunion or
permit men, although on a lower level than that of the regis-
tered union men,
is provided on a relatively high
least during periods of normal port activity.
casual (nonregistered
)
level, at
The purely
workers represent individuals for whom
longshore work is merely supplementary to another primary
occupation rather than persons dependent on such odd jobs.
Such differences as prevail among union men, beyond the rela-
tively narrow limits within which gang hours are equalized,
are accounted for largely by the preferences of the individual workers.
Although no data are available on earnings of longshoremen
in San Francisco before the inauguration of
work rotation, the
relative degree of security before and after its initiation
is indicated by the fact that
in 1933 there were about 3,000
regular workers and 4,800 casuals as compared with 4,600
regulars and 3,800 casuals in 1937. Moreover, although the
longshore work of the casuals (nonregistered men) is probably
4
'
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
82
even more casual in San Francisco under the work-rotation
system than before, it is less of a competitive threat to the
regular longshoremen because the San Francisco casual workers
are not primarily dependent on longshore work for a living.
The results of previous attempts at decasualizat ion in the
United States, at least as indicated by the limited data
available,^ differ considerably from those of the San Francisco
system during the period of the survey.
More complete equali-
zation of earnings - and at a generally higher level - was
realized in San Francisco during 1937 than had been achieved in
other ports even during the predepression years for which data
are available.
This is true notwithstanding the fact that
the data available on other ports usually cover only preferred
groups of longshoremen, that is, those with relatively steady
and wide opportunities for work.
No information is as yet available regarding the burden of
longshoremen on unemployment-compensation funds in States where
ports operate under casual conditions of employment.
British
experience indicates, however, that longshoremen receive
benefits far in excess of contributions made to their account,
even when some degree of decasualizat ion exists.
The dis-
tribution of earnings and the high degree of stabilization
in the longshore labor market of San Francisco may be expected
to result in longshoremen representing a relatively light
burden to the unemployment-compensation fund of the State of
California.
^These data have been summarized in appendix D.
APPENDIXES
Appendix
Page
A.
BASIC TABLES
B.
OVERTIME AND ACTUAL HOURS WORKED
107
C.
PENALTY AND CAR WORK
110
D.
WORK ROTATION IN OTHER UNITED STATES PORTS
E.
DOCUMENTARY MATERIAL
122
P.
CALENDAR OP 4-WEEK WORK PERIODS
150
84
....
114
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
DOCUMENTARY MATERIAL
151
GENERAL REFERENCES
153
Note.- All data, unless otherwise specified, are based on
records of the dispatching hall.
Carmen (men doing car work exclusively, at the 85~cent
car-work hourly rate) are excluded from all tables unless
designated specifically as included.
For purposes of showing averages of frequency distributions of hours and estimated earnings, the means rather than
the medians were used, since they represent more moderate
magnitudes.
APPENDIX A
BASIC TABLES
Table A-1.- NUMBEB OF LONGSHOREMEN EMPLOYED DAILY.
JANUARY 1 TO JUNE 80, 1988^
Number working on a single day during the week
Week ending -
January
February
Max i mum
Minimum
28
2 ,022
888
1,366
1,169
1,186
1,
14
21
1,440
1,884
1,709
4
1,681
1.994
1 ,628
2,166
1,027
1,465
1, 107
1,581
1,464
1,720
1.411
1,872
1,681
2,149
1,943
2,077
1,071
1,163
879
1,412
1,304
1, 766
1,429
1,674
1,786
1,994
1,573
1.923
2,005
1,290
1,496
1,524
1, 717
1 ,408
1 602
1 592
1,898
2,048
2,441
1,866
1,652
1,332
1,375
1,355
1 748
2,001
2,014
2,125
2,185
2,463
1,864
1,111
1,386
1,380
1,795
1,942
1,715
1,838
1,833
2,121
7
11
18
25
March
4
11
18
25
April
1
8
15
22
29
May
6
13
20
27
June
3
10
17
24
30
132
1 351
1,
-
1,199
Avera^e^
188
1,596
1,324
1,597
,
,
,
1,759
1, 968
1,580
United States Mtional Longshoremen's Board,
^Sundays and holidays are excluded.
"Arbitration Proceedings," Aug. -Sept. 1934, Employers Exhibit J.
^Average per day for entire period Is 1,719.
84
APPENDIX
85
A
Table A-2.- NUMBER OF REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN, BY REGISTRATION
STATUS AND NUMBER OF PERIODS IN WHICH THEY WORKED,
FEBRUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 6, 1937
Registration status
Number
oi 4— wee It
periods
Union
Total
Total
4
,
931
1
126
2
3
4
5
181
6
7
8
9
10
11
70
101
141
147
274
3, 644
3,
110
64
73
Permit
Changed^ Vis itor
643
802
137
349
35
34
14
14
1
29
27
29
18
11
17
2
76
132
61
25
25
41
75
116
115
199
14
14
2
20
29
1
13
11
4
1
2
65
10
115
0
0
2,943
1
1
2
1
586
^Ctianged from pennlt to union status.
Table A>3.- NUMBER OF NONREGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN WHO WORKED
IN EACH PERIOD, FEBRUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 6, 1987^
Number of nonregis tered men who worked
Total
Men earning
longshore rate
"all or part
of the time"
5,249
3,853
February 28
March 28
April 25
May 23
June 20
675
1,020
882
975
1,003
469
723
634
694
674
206
297
248
281
329
July 18
August 15
September 12
October 10
November 9
December 5
967
1,007
1,436
1,170
1,061
868
690
689
1,054
788
729
655
277
318
382
382
332
213
4-week period ending -
Number of different men
employed all periods
(
)
Men
earning
car rate
only
1,
396
Data are from pay-roll records of the waterfront Employers' Association of San
Francisco.
The figures do not, therefore, Include the nonreglstered men who worfced
exclusively for the three companies which were not members of the association.
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87
APPENDIX A
Table A-6.- ESTIMATED EARNINGS OF NONREGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN
WHO WORKED IN THE 4-WEEK PERIOD ENDING
SEPTEMBER 12, 19 87
—
Estimated
Estimated
Numb e r earnings
of
of men
men
dollars
Earnings
(
doll ars
)
(
Earnings
dollars
)
(
(
Total
1,054
27, 080
130-139.
140— 14Q
150-15Q
160-169.
170— 17Q.
180— IRQ.
190-199.
8
0
0
3
585
200-2 79. 99
0
0
280-289. 99
1
285
290-309. 99
0
0
310-319. 99
2
630
.
1
QD
QQ QQ
249
1
-JL
Q
1 i7
-L
^Q
49.99
59.99
69.99
79.99
48
35
28
80- 89.99
90- 99.99
100-109. 99
110-119. 99
120-129. 99
15
12
16
40506070-
13
5
6
735
Q75
? 065
3
?
,
160
925
1,820
975
080
290
310
99
QQ
QQ
99
99
9Q
99
.
10-
Numb e r earnings
of
of men
men a
dollars
1,
2
2
165
525
1
3
2,
1,
1,275
1, 140
1,680
575
750
Estimated average earnings
$25 .69
Based on actual (not estimated) earnings from pay-roll records of the Waterfront Employers'
Association of San Francisco.
They Include penalty and car-rate earnings which are known to
represent a small but undetermined part of total earnings.
Both the number of men and the
total earnings are underestimated because of the exclusion of the records of the three
employers who were not members of the association.
Midpoint of each earnings Interval multiplied by number of men In that interval.
Table A-6.- DISTRIBUTION OF NONREGISTERED CARMEN BY EARNINGS
IN THE 4-WEEK PERIOD ENDING SEPTEMBER 12, 1987^
Earnings
dollars
(
Total
Number
Earnings
dollars
Number
(
)
0- 9.99
10-19. 99
20-29. 99
170
86
34
90- 99.99
100-109. 99
110-119,99
120-129. 99
130-139. 99
30-39.99
32
140-149.99
40-49. 99
50-59. 99
11
11
150-159. 99
160-169. 99
60-69.99
70-79.99
5
170-179.99
180-189.99
80-89. 99
5
382
6
5
0
2
2
5
2
3
2
0
1
Consists of nonreglstered men who did car work, exclusively.
Data are based on pay-roll
records of the Waterfront Employers' Association of San Francisco.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
88
Table A*7.- GANG REQUIREMENTS IN EACH 4-WEEK PERIOD,
APRIL 1» 1986 TO JANUARY 2, 1988^
Gang requirements
Num—
be r
Ox
Period
number^ work-
Number used
on any
one day
Average number used daily
Gang days
of employment
ing
days
Minimum
Total
Maximum
Total
Pre- Casual
ferred
Percent
Pre- Casual preferred
ferred
is of
total
166
2,974
2,459
515
J.04
o UO'^
O
QQO
A AO
97
90
98
151
148
156
2,
923
2, 643
3, 145
170
1, 916
2, 196
753
727
949
127.
12U. 1
X
33. 0
131.0
91.5
39.5
74 2
72 O
69. 8
160
IDD
170
165
170
129
1 4D
3, 332
3,009
2,220
909
41.3
71.0
QO O
83. 7
35. 7
1.542
1,597
1,632
77.8
67.0
2,980
1,790
1,412
1, 348
142.2
119.4
144.8
100.9
QO ^
2<::
113
Do
110
95
110
70. 1
53. 7
46. 9
AC . 2
O
45
17
18
24
22
90
QQ
WO
164
3,237
1,
552
Q
<J4
67
12
112
158
170
183
179
173
183
184
187
o
oy2
3,264
3,811
3,694
3,631
1
1
7
8
24
24
94
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o "a
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24
12
13
14A
lo
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23
23
•1
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O1
22
23
23
23
,
3,
£,
2,
1
«
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Q1 Q
3,
108
2,802
3,589
123.9
127.2
102.4
99.6
94.3
O
/ .
72. D
61.3
74.2
134. 9
64.7
63.1
60.9
70.2
69.6
68.6
48. 0
1,461
1,403
1,661
1,685
UoX
1,647
1,399
1, 928
oo o
sn
149.5
69.2
80.3
^A A
044
1,457
1, 797
1.658
1,598
d4o
1,807
2.014
2,036
2.033
147.4
141.9
lOo O
67.
63. 3
80.3
78.6
167. 9
151.3
75.4
66.6
84.7
AA y
Q
44
A
A
44 rs
U
125.7
54.3
71.4
43.2
160. 2
70. 0
62. 5
90. 2
88.
67.0
72.0
77.6
85.9
4o. 7
41. 5
46. 3
62.4
78.9
78.3
X.
,
132.7
129.5
1 XD
1 A
X
.
A
O
.
24
27°
31°
32
33
34
15
18
24
24
24
73
70
104
72
111
175
181
181
183
183
1,885
2,884
3,614
3,470
3, 790
815
1.260
1.501
1.607
1,727
1,070
1,624
2, 113
1,863
2,063
35
36
37
38
23
23
24
22
110
105
106
135
176
175
172
180
3,250
3, 385
3.508
3,482
1,435
1,585
1, 662
1,677
1,815
1,800
1,846
1,805
141.3
147.2
146.2
69.3
158. 3
76. 2
39
24
22
22
22
94
111
92
69
174
171
168
139
3,215
3,201
2, 944
2, 629
1,457
1,443
1, 336
1,297
1,758
1,758
1,608
1, 332
134.0
145.5
133.8
119.5
60. 7
40
41
42
.
135.5
.
,
1
,
.
150.6
144.6
157.9
74 y
68. 9
65.6
60. 7
59.0
47.6
H
92. 5
76. 9
82. 1
73.3
79.9
73.1
60.5
f ,
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1
45. 5
44.6
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2d
<i4
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78.3
1 OA
Q
IdD.
O
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80
94
138
61
,
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27.6
32.8
/
.
.
.
45.6
44.2
46.8
47.4
48.
45.3
45.1
45.4
49.4
^Sundays and holidays are excluded.
^For dates see appendix
F.
°A strike began In the middle of the 27th period and ended In the beginning of the 3lst.
In the 27th and 3lst periods during which the strike was In progress are excluded.
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DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
90
Table A-9.- NUMBER OP REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN. BY REGISTRATION
AND GANG STATUS, FEBRUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 6, 198 7
Registration status
Gang status
Total
Preferred
Casual
Shifted between preferred
and casual
Shifted between gang
and extra list
On extra list
Total
Union
Pe rmit
4,931
3,643
802
137
349
821
580
796
567
0
23
8
2
2
296
295
0
1
0
1,367
1,867
1,281
704
26
774
51
54
335
Changed* Visitor
3
9
'Changed from permit to union status.
Table A-10.> NUMBER OF REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN, BY REGISTRATION
STATUS AND TENURE, FEBRUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 5, 198 7
Registration status
Tenure
Total
Regular
Worked 11 periods
Absent 1 or more
periods
Total
Union
Permit
4,931
3,643
802
137
349
3,644
2,943
586
115
0
800
622
170
8
0
32
85
370
1
18
8
13
76
1
0
0
1
20
0
349
Entrant
Exit
Temporary
Changed* Visitor
Changed from permit to union status.
Table A~ll.- NUMBER OF REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN. BY TENURE
AND GANG STATUS, FEBRUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 5, 1937
Tenure
Regular
Gang status
Entrant
Exit
Temporary
periods
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94
Table A-16.- DISTEIBUTION OP THE 86 CASUAL GANGS THAT WORKED IN
EACH 4-WEEK PERIOD. BY NUMBER OP EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIliffi
HOURS WORKED PER PERIOD, FEBRUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 6, 1987
Average number of
hours worked per
4-week period^
Number
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Total^
86
1*^
187
188
189
190
0
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191
192
193
194
195
1
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5
7
8^
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197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205-210
211
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10^
11
13^
7
3^
4
5^
1
1^
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1
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number of periods (11).
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"^Worked part of time as preferred gang.
*^Two
gangs worked part of time as preferred gangs,
^One gang worked part of time as a preferred gang.
Table A- 16.- DISTRIBUTION OF THE 87 PREFERRED GANGS THAT WORKED
IN EACH 4-WEEK PERIOD, BY NUMBER OF EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME
HOURS WORKED PER PERIOD, FEBRUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 6, 1987
Average number of
hours worked per
4-week period^
Total^
193
194
195
196
197
Number
of gangs
87
4^
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9^
8
11^
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hours worked per
4-week period^
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
Number
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11
14^
5^
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9^
3
4^
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number of periods (11).
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^Slx gangs worked part of time as casual gangs.
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97
A
Table A-19.- MAN-HOUBS OF WORK AT STRAIGHT-TIME AND
OVERTIME RATES BY REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN,
BY PERIODS IN THE YEAR ENDING
JANUARY 30, 1938^
4—weeic period
Total
i
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Oua 1
At straighttime rate
At overtime
rate
110,884
3,248, 198
293.840
327,412
349, 912
330, 051
360, 550
303, 715
35
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653,627
611, 310
653, 936
551,186
36
37
38
39
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603, 948
633,824
553, 780
306, 924
40
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511,109
421,799
439,443
320, 921
277, 726
254,052
283, 560
254,
233,
167,
155,
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316,222
249,861
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31
32
33
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41
42
43
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period
4,
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358,280
345,445
310,738
281,259
293, 386
232, 301
221,861
245,668
288, 379
243, 042
162
383
747
883
Data from d Is patching-hall records showing period totals of hours worked.
For dates see appendix F.
Table A-20.- COMPARISON OP PARTIAL AND TOTAL GROUPS
OF REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN WHO WORKED IN THE
4 -WEEK PERIOD ENDING SEPTEMBER 12,
1937,
BY GANG STATUS^
Men in partial group
Men in total group
Gang status
Total
Preferred
Casual
On extra list
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p.
69,
ftn.
10,
Numb e r
Percent
Number
Percent
1,211
100.0
4,339
100. 0
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270
598
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Table A- 28.- DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE GROUP OP LONGSHOREMEN,
BY ESTIMATED ANNUAL EARNINGS IN THE YEAR ENDING
JANUARY 80. 1988^
Total men
Men who worked
in each of the
13 periods
1,172
971
7
7
1,045-1,139.99
1,140-1,234.99
61
19
19
15
25
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1,425-1, 519.99
1,520-1, 614.99
1,615-1,709.99
37
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1,805-1,899.99
1,900-1, 994.99
1,995-2,089.99
2,090-2,184.99
38
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117
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40
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93
116
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2,280-2,374.99
2,375-2,469.99
2,470 or over
162
219
33
10
162
219
33
10
Annual earnings
dollars
(
Total
Less than 855
855- 949.99
950-1, 044.99
,
,
.
1,
6
9
12
31
43
30
Estimated by multiplying the total equlvalent-stralght-tlme hours worked during
Overtime earnings have therefore
the year by the basic 95-cent hourly wage rate.
No adjustment was made for foremen and for penalty work, paid
been accounted for.
at rates higher than the basic one, or for car work., paid at a rate lower than the
basic one.
The respective effects, however, tend to offset each other.
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Table A-26.- DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE GROUP OF LONGSHOREMEN, BY
REGISTRATION STATUS AND NUMBER OF PERIODS WORKED
IN THE YEAR ENDING JANUARY 80. 19S8
Number of
4 -week
Registration status
pe T i ods
Tota 1
worked
Total
OA m
OA
1
^
VIS
IXf
1.172
899
218
38
17
1
0
2
1
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1
1
8
2
4
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2
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3
5
7
7
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5
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3
3
11
4
e
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5
6
7
B
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9
13
10
34
36
67
971
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11
12
13
29
26
48
765
1
1
1
0
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16
174
OF
0
0
0
0
3
32
Changed from permit to union status.
Table A-26.- DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE GROUP OF LONGSHOREMEN, BY
REGISTRATION STATUS AND NUMBER OF EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME
HOURS WORKED IN THE YEAR ENDING JANUARY 80, 198 8
Number of
equiva lentstra ight-t ime
hours worked
Total
Less than 900
900- 999.9
1 ,000-1 ,099.
1,100-1.199.9
1.200-1.299.9
1.300-1,399.9
1,400-1,499.
1,500-1,599.9
1,600-1,699.9
1.700-1.799.9
1.800-1.399.9
1,900-1, 999.9
2,000-2,099.9
2,100-2,199.9
2.200-2.299.9
2.300-2,399.9
2.400-2,499.9
2,500-2,599.9
2 600-2 699
2,700-2,799.9
2.800 or over
.
,
.
Average number of
hours worked''
Registration status
Total
Union
Permit
1.172
899
218
61
27
19
19
15
25
37
9
8
4
15
19
53
20
46
22
21
28
52
43
38
47
77
99
117
162
219
33
8
1
1
1.960.2
25
29
60
84
111
162
212
33
8
1
1
2.104.8
Changed^
Visitor
38
17
19
1
14
7
2
1
11
10
8
16
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
32
24
1
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1
16
12
8
2
5
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0
2
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0
0
0
0
0
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0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
1
.
934
.
i
Changed from permit to union status.
81 cases In the interval "less than 900" had a total of 30,099 hours, or an average of 493.4 hours per case.
The one case of "2,800 or over" worked 3,081 hours.
In computing the mean, these Intervals were given the value of the
of the 100-hour interval In which the average would fall.
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APPENDIX B
OVERTIME AND ACTUAL HOURS
common practice in ports on all coasts of the United
States to pay higher rates for night work and Sunday and
It
is
holiday work, as well as for work in excess of a standard
number of hours during the day. The West Coast agreement of
February 4, 1937 provides that the rate of pay shall be $1.40
an hour for work in excess of 6 hours between 8a.m. and
5 p.
and for all work performed between
m.
5p.m.
and 8 a. m.
and on holidays and Sundays; the straight-time rate is $0.95.
Ship schedules, as well as the total volume of work to be
done, determine the proportion of total time which is put in at
overtime rates.
Although freighters do not usually operate on
as rigid time schedules as do passenger ships,
it
is
seldom
profitable even for them to lay-over to avoid overtime work
entirely.
In reality, work at the overtime rate is more
largely the result of night shifts than of extended hours of
work.
This is shown by the fact that while it is theoretically
possible to put in 144 hours at the straight-time rate in a
4-week period (6 hours between 8 a. m. and 5 p. m., 6 days a
week, not taking holidays into account), actually the men
averaged 129.8 hours, of which 43 percent on the average was
overt ime
There is, however, some relation between proportion of
overtime and the degree of port activity as shown in table B-i.
In the periods
in which port activity was lowest
in 1937 as
shown by total hours, the proportion of total time which was
overtime fell to 39.8 and 35.5 percent as compared with 46.5
and 44.9 percent in the two periods when man-hours were at a
maximum.
The unusually large proportion of overtime in the
31st period is undoubtedly due to the accumulation of work
during the strike and to the occurrence of two holidays in
that period.
Overtime is almost evenly distributed among the various
groups.
Among work-assignment groups, preferred-gang men had
the largest proportion of overtime, 43.9 percent, as compared
with the lowest group, the extra men, who got 42.4 percent
107
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
108
PROPORT ION OF TOTAL MAN-HOURS WORKED AT OVERTIME
RATES BY REGISTERED LONGSHOREMEN, BY PERIODS
IN THE YEAR ENDING JANUARY SO, 1988
Table B-
1
.
-
Total
Percent overtime rate
is of total^
7,359,082
44. 14
31
32
33
34
621,252
653,627
611.310
653, 936
46.47
46.01
44.86
35
36
37
38
551,186
42.15
39
40
41
4-week period
Total
52. 70
528, 785
41. 96
603 948
633,824
40.68
45.50
553,780
575,083
511,109
421, 799
439,443
43.89
44.20
45.66
,
42
43
39. 77
35.47
Based on table A-19; see appendix F for calendar of periods.
Table B-2.- ESTIMATED TOTAL ACTUAL MAN-HOURS WORKED,
AND PROPORTION OF WORK THAT WAS OVERTIME,
IN AN AVERAGE 4-WEEK PERIOD IN 1987,
BY GANG AND REGISTRATION STATUS^
Estimated total man-hours*'
Number
Status
of
men
Equivalentstraight-
Actual
time
Total
Gang status
Preferred
Casual
Shifted between preferred
and casual
Shifted between gang
and extra list
On extra list
Registration status
Union
Permit
Changed from permit
to union status
Vis itor
See table A-12,
ftn.
Percent
overtime
is of total
actual
man-hours
4,931
777,395
640,245
42.8
821
580
150,495
104,040
123.405
85.960
43.9
42.1
296
52,940
43.660
42.5
1,367
1,867
236,825
233.095
194,915
192, 305
43.0
42.4
3,643
802
620,325
98.230
511, 135
81.510
42.7
41.0
137
349
22,165
36,675
18.055
29.545
45.5
48.3
a.
Estimated from the hours distributions (see tables A-12, A-13, A-18, and A-29)For men having
specified status, the frequencies In each 10-hour Interval were multiplied by the midpoint of that
interval and the products were aggregated.
The percent of total hours worked that was overtime was computed as follows:
Estimated total actual
hours were subtracted from estimated total equlvalent-s tralght-tlme hours and the remainder divided by
0.5, the differential allowed for overtime woric.
The result was the number of hours spent In overtime
woric, which was divided by total actual hours to give the percent of all time worked that was overtime.
APPENDIX B
(table B-2).
If
109
the force is divided by registration status,
the lowest group was the permit men with 41.0 percent and the
visitors the highest with 48.3 percent. The distribution of
the proportion of overtime to total time for individuals
within groups was not ascertained.
Since hours of gang men
are controlled on an eguivalent-straight-t ime basis and since
there is a union rule providing severe penalty for anyone
working more than so-percent overtime during a 6 month period,
it
is
likely that among individuals the variation from this
average is not great
The agreement provides that "Six hours shall constitute a
Thirty hours shall constitute a week's work,
(See appendix E.)
averaged over a period of four weeks*"
day's work.
Aside from stating the principle on the basis of which overtime
rates are paid for work in excess of
6
hours in the 8-hour
this provision, which was
period from 8 a. m. to 5 p. m.
taken from the award of October 12, 1934, is significant
only historically. The 30-hour week was a primary objective
,
of the union during the 1934 strike, undoubtedly to insure the
absorption of its entire membership into the registered labor
force.
However, not only have hours averaged above 120 for a
4-week period during most of the time since the strike, but
also several hundred men have been added to the labor force.
In the latter part of
i937 and early in 1938, on the other
hand, hours dropped markedly.
APPENDIX
C
PENALTY AND CAR WORK
In estimating the extent to which equivalent-straight-time
hours are an adequate measure of earnings for registered
longshoremen, two counteracting factors must be considered penalty work and car work.
For certain types of cargo, rates higher than the basic
rates of $0.95 and $1.40 an hour are paid. ^ Most of the
penalty work in the port of San Francisco takes place on cargo
which requires shoveling and is paid at the rates of $1.15 per
hour for straight time and $1.70 per hour for overtime, with
certain commodities, such as bulk grain, bulk sulphur, untreated bones in bulk, and phosphate rock in bulk, carrying
higher rates.
A few other commodities which are difficult or
disagreeable to handle, for example, untreated bones in sacks,
caustic soda in drums, cement (discharging), green hides, fish
meal in bags, and refrigerated cargo, when handled in lots of
25 tons or more are paid at rates of $1.05 and $1.50 an hour.
Damaged cargo, explosives, and burning or smoldering cargo
carry various penalty rates, ranging from $i.ifO to $2.10 for
both straight-time and overtime work.
San Francisco is to a large extent a general-cargo port.
Penalty work, except for shoveling,
is
incidental and is
probably distributed fairly evenly among the regular gangs.
Shoveling, on the other hand, is handled largely by a small
number of preferred and casual gangs (about 10 during 1937)
who do this type of work exclusively and by men taken off the
plugboard who signify their preference for shoveling.
The
extra men may concentrate on this type of work when it is
available, but since it is not steady, they probably work part
of
their time at the regular long-shore rate.
Thus, while
shoveling makes up a small proportion of the total work, for
the few men among whom it is concentrated it represents a large
share of their work.
For them (and they are not segregated in
our tabulations) equivalent-straight-time hours represent an
understatement of earnings by probably as much as
^Vage Rates for Longshore Work:
20.
percent.
Pacific Coast Ports, effective July 26,
See appendix E.
110
1937.
111
APPENDIX C
Car work is defined as the transfer of cargo from the dock
to railroad cars or barges or from cars and barges to the dock.
The wage scale is $0.85 an hour for straight time and $1.25 an
hour for overtime.^
Although not covered by the agreement of
February 4, 1937, its close association with longshore work
has led to dispatching through the hall of at least some of
the men who do car work and, to a limited extent, the use of
some of the same personnel for both this type of car work and
that paid at longshore rates.
While it was possible to exclude
from the tabulation men who did car work exclusively, the car
work done by men who also worked at the longshore rate could
not be excluded or identified.
Although there are no restric-
tions on longshoremen doing car work, because of the lower wage
scale it is not often resorted to by the men who have first
preference on longshore work.
Since no regular longshore gangs
worked at the car rate and since regular car gangs were readily
identified and excluded, any car work included is in the hours
of the extra men.
Car work at the $0.95 longshore rate has not
been and need not be excluded.
Because of the relative avail-
ability of work at the longshore rate during the 11 periods in
Table C-1.- TOTAL NUMBER OP ASSIGNMENTS TO MEN IN EXTRA GANGS.
8 8 th,
4lBt, AND 4 2d PERIODS, BY TYPE OP GANG^
4-week period ending Type of extra gang
Total
General swamping and pick-up^
Lumber and lumber-cargo^
Car exclusively^
Banana boat^
Shoveling and fish-meal^
Sept. 12,
1937
Dec.
9,296
6,
4, 120
3,231
574
804
567
5,
Jan.
2,
1937
1938
721
5,320
2,323
2,430
709
1,116
143
2,083
1,957
701
426
153
Based on number of assignments to each man.
^Longshore rates largely, but Includes some car work at 85-cent rate.
*^Car work,
exclusively, but not all at 85-cent rate.
"^Longshore rate.
^Penalty rate largely;
Includes some car work at both longshore and car-work rates.
Throughout this report the term "car work" refers to this type to which rates
lower than standard longshore rates apply.
Another type of car work, Involving
direct transfer of cargo from boat to car and vice versa without intermediary
handling was recognized by the award to be essentially longshore work and, as such,
to be paid at longshore rates and covered by the longshore award; In this report It
is not distinguished from other longshore. work.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
112
Table C-2.- NUMBER OF LONGSHOREMEN ASSIGNED TO WORK EACH DAY
IN THE 4-WEEK PERIOD ENDING JANUARY 2. 1988
Nonregistered
In extra gangs
in
Total
Longshore
gangs
56, 706
5,320
4,619
701
763
482
281
226
275
216
203
204
145
27
30
26
25
35
46
13
3
7
13
185
235
190
162
155
99
13
41
40
26
41
10
11
12^
1,363
2, 100
2,680
2 731
2,328
2 ,289
1,078
24
23
15
16
19
30
0
13
14
15
16
17
18
2,455
2,536
2,906
2,464
2,321
2,291
202
221
417
205
163
220
27
165
197
382
180
120
196
27
37
24
35
25
43
24
0
35
18
68
18
40
34
11
2,101
2,101
2,534
2, 572
2,192
119
840
224
236
416
259
209
209
221
384
214
181
15
15
32
45
28
18
19
67
15
19
7
7
0
22
22
0
2,637
2,470
2,653
2,342
2,310
206
201
170
363
146
162
5
21
22
43
38
60
16
49
41
11
8
348
0
993
39
0
33
0
6
11
11
11
11
0
0
Total work
ass ignments
Dec.
6
7
8
9
19*^
20
21
22
23
24
25^
_
^d
26
27
28
29
30
31
Jan.
LongCar
gangs^ Total shore
gangs
all
gangs
Date
1^
2^
,
952
191
385
189
200
49
46
0
Car
gangs^
11
9
16
16
13
16
11
54
19
7
14
12
21
23
11
19
11
8
10
7
6
0
4
12
11
11
10
9
3
0
18
18
0
17
14
15
12
58
2
56
5
2
2
Includes general swamping and pick-up gangs, lumber and lumber-cargo gangs,
banana-boat gangs, and shoveling and fish-meal gangs.
The latter earn penalty
rates; the others, longshore rates.
A small amount of car-rate work may be
Inc luded.
^Includes gangs that did car work exclusively, but not all at 85-cent rate.
^Extra longshore gangs as defined In ftn. a plus
^Sunday or holiday.
sam
regular gangs.
APPENDIX C
113
1937, work at the car rate included in the tabulations is
probably confined almost entirely to the hours of permit men.
Some notion of the amount of car work included can be gained
from the following:
6.2,
in the 38th,
i|.ist
,
and
1^26.
periods only
10.5, and 13.2 percent respectively of the total work
assignments of men in extra gangs (that is, make-up gangs)
involved car work exclusively, and some of these were at the
Furthermore, extra gangs
are used for only a small proportion of the work of the port,
Thus, for an undetermined number of
as is shown in figure 5.
extra men, largely permit men, eguivalent-straight-time hours
longshore rate (see table C-i).^
represent a slight overstatement of earnings.
It
is
known that nonregistered men (whose hours are not
included in the tabulations) are frequently assigned to these
extra-list car gangs.
As is shown in table C-2,
in the 42d
period the work assignments of nonregistered men in car gangs
account for 40 percent of all the work assignments of men in
extra gangs to car work.
The distortion of the estimated
earnings of the registered force caused by the failure to
identify car work is thereby reduced still further.'*
2
The Increasing proportion Is imdoubtedly an Illustration of the Impact of reduced
port activity on the longshoremen, more of whom were willing to accept work at the
car rate In the latter part of the year.
4
The practice of meeting the demand for car loaders with nonregistered men probably
represents a twofold policy.
It gives the union an opportunity to provide work for
members of the "sister locals", and It develops and maintains the dispatching hall
as a source of labor for car work.
Car work Is looked upon as something to fall
back upon If nothing else Is available.
APPENDIX D
WORK ROTATION IN OTHER UNITED STATES PORTS
Decasualization ot port labor in the United States has been
confined largely, it will be recalled, to the West Coast
where all the major ports except San Francisco had operated on
a decasualized basis for some years previous to 1934, when the
present West Coast plan went into effect.
Only limited data on
earnings are available, and these cover selected groups of
workers; but they are at least indicative of the operation of
the decasualization schemes.
Available data are in the form of
actual annual earnings or average monthly earnings estimated
These were converted into eguivalentstraight-t ime hours in order to eliminate the factor of dif-
from gang earnings.
ferences in wage rates.
SEATTLE
Before the 1934 award only reserve gangs and extra-board
men were registered at the central dispatching hall in Seattle.
However, the earnings of company men (that is, preferred gangs)
were regulated to some extent according to the earnings of
hall gangs, some differential being allowed.^
In addition,
casuals were employed, in most cases available on a casual
register, but these men were given no assurance of employment.
Earnings are available for 505 registered longshoremen
in the port of Seattle for the years 1927-29 (table D-i
These are the men in the central reserve group who worked
reasonably steadily throughout the 3 years. ^ The number of
)
registered longshoremen averaged 663 in these
76 percent,
3
years, and thus
on the average, of the longshoremen registered at
the dispatching hall were included in the compilation of
earnings.^
Company men, whose earnings were undoubtedly
higher, were not included in this distribution.'*
^Borls Stern, Cargo Handling and Longshore Labor Conditions
Labor statistics. Bull. No. 550, Feb. 1932), p. 92.
(U.
S.
Dept. Labor,
Bur.
P. Folsle, A Study of Longshore Earnings in Washington Ports in Relation to
Determining Compensation Under the Longshoremen's and Harbor Workers' Compensation
^F.
Act, pp. 29-39.
•^F.
P.
Folsle, Decasualizing Longshore Labor and the Seattle Experience,
'^Stern, op. cit., p. 93.
back, to the reserve gangs.
p.
12.
Company men had the right at any time to be transferred
114
APPENDIX D
115
Table D-1.- DISTRIBUTION OF 606 SEATTLE LONGSHOREMEN
BY ESTIMATED NUMBER OF EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME
HOURS WORKED, 19 27-29^
Number of
straight-time
hours worked^
Number
Total
1,100-1,199.9
5
4
7
12
15
1,200-1,299.9
1,300-1,399. 9
1,400-1,499. 9
1,500-1,599. 9
25
18
1,600-1,699.9
1,700-1,799.9
1,800-1,899. 9
1,900-1,999.9
43
45
55
52
2,100-2, 199.
2,200-2,299.
2,300-2,399. 9
2,400-2,499. 9
2,500-2,599. 9
2,600-2,699.9
1.0
0.8
1.4
1
14
4
12
3 0
1
8
5
3
4
26
20
O
7
Ow
10.9
10.3
50
75
70
63
56
50
26
12.5
11.1
70
18
9.9
5.1
5
4
0.8
0.4
0.4
0
0.2
no n
2.4
0.8
1.6
4.1
4.7
4.9
8. 9
1
2.8
0.8
2.0
21
24
25
56
2 800 or ove r
1
3.0
4.9
3.6
8. 5
2, 700-2, 799.
on n
2 4
f
Percent
Number
10
15
9
2
2
0
,
on n
1929
Percent
Number
Percent
1
Less than 900
900 999.9
1,000-1,099.
1928
1927
13
0
2.6
5.1
3.9
11.1
9.9
14.8
13.9
38
58
11. 5
64
12.7
60
11. 9
13. 9
63
12. 5
40
26
4
3.6
1.0
0.8
7.9
5.1
1.8
5
1.0
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
6
2
0
0.4
3
9
7.5
0.6
1.2
0.4
0
0.6
m
Estimated from table of annual earnings
F. P. Folsle, A Study of Longshore
Earnings in Washington Ports in Relation to Determining Compensation Under the
Longshoremen's and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act (Seattle, Wash.: mlmeo.,
Sept. 10, 1930), pp. 30-9.
These distributions do not Include truckers (men who
trucked cargo to and from the ship's side).
They received a lower rate of pay than
longshoremen (those who worked on board ship and those who handled the "hook" on
the dock).
Under the present agreement truckers are defined as longshoremen.
^computed by dividing earnings by $0.90 for regular longshoremen and $1.00 for
foremen, hatch foremen, double-winch drivers, riggers, boom men, side runners,
grain-chute riggers, and ore handlers.
will be observed from table D-i that the character of the
distributions in these 3 years is somewhat different from that
It
of the distributions for San Francisco during the period of
the survey.
The principal difference was apparently the result
of the lack of control over maximum hours in Seattle, a control
which in San Francisco led to a higher concentration at or near
the maximum than was the case in Seattle.
Also it is evident
that the level of earnings in terms of eguivalent-straight-t ime
hours was higher in San Francisco during 1937 for the labor
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
116
force as a whole than in Seattle for the years 1927-28 for this
selected group of steady reserve workers.
EVERETT
A dispatching hall was maintained in the port of Everett,
Washington, and data on the earnings of 291 men who worked in
each of the
3
years 1927, 1928, and 1929 are available.
These
include men who did not work steadily^ but do not include the
registered men who did not work in each of the
3
years or the
nonregistered casuals.
will be noted in table D-2, which presents the distribu-
It
tion of the men according to e(juivalent-straight-t ime hours
Table D-2.- DISTBIBUTION OF 291 EVEBETT LONGSHOREMEN
BT ESTIMATED NUMBER OF EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME
HOURS WORKED, 192 7-29^
Number of
equivalentstraight-time
hours worked^
Total
Less than 900
900- 999.
1,000-1,099.
1,100-1,199. 9
1,200-1,299. 9
1,300-1,399.9
1,400-1,4 99. 9
1,500-1,599.9
1,600-1,699.
1, 700-1,799. 9
1,800-1,899. 9
1,
900-1, 999.
2,000-2,099.
2,100-2,199.
2,200-2,299. 9
2,300-2,399. 9
2,400-2,499. 9
2,500 or over
1927
1929
1928
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
291
100.0
291
100.0
291
100.0
57
19
18
17
15
19
19.6
6.5
6.2
5.9
5.2
6.5
56
8
10
14
19
20
19.2
2.7
3.4
4.8
6.5
78
12
16
19
20
14
26.8
4.1
19
24
21
20
19
17
6.5
8.3
7.2
6.9
6.5
5.9
17
18
14
29
27
17
6.9
6.2
4.8
10.0
9.3
25
16
17
17
5. 9
12
8.6
5.5
5.9
5.9
3.1
4.1
8
13
18
12
1
6.2
4.1
3.1
0.7
0.3
14
1
2.7
4.5
1.0
0.3
0.3
0
0
0
0
3
1
9
2
6. 9
5.5
6.5
6. 9
4.8
9
4.8
3.1
2.4
9
7
1.4
0.3
0.3
4
1
1
Estimated from table of annual earnings In F. P. Folsle, k Study of Longshore
Earnings in Washington Ports in Relation to Determining Compensation Under the
Longshoremen's and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act (Seattle, Wash.: mlmeo.,
Sept. 10, 1930), pp. 48-53.
^Computed by dividing earnings by $0.90 for regular longshoremen and $1.00 for
foremen, hatch foremen, double-winch drivers, boom men, and side runners.
Folsle,
A
Study of Longshore Earnings in Washington Ports, op. cit.,
p.
47.
APPENDIX D
117
worked, that there is practically no evidence of equalization.
Particularly noticeable is the large proportion of men who
worked less than 900 hours in each of the
3
years.
TACOMA
So far as the distribution of work is concerned, Tacoma
presents a picture similar to that of Everett.
Table D-3 shows
the distribution of earnings for a selected group of 222 Tacoma
longshoremen (including dockers) who worked reasonably steadily
throughout 1928 and 1929.®
It
is evident that
the work was not
evenly divided among the men and that, as pointed out by
Dr. Stern, the men not included in this distribution earned
considerably less than these averages.
During the period, two
locals of the ILA were in existence in the port, and there was
an understanding that the employers were to select their
longshore labor from the ranks of the organized workers exclu-
sively.
However, selection was the prerogative of the fore-
men, and no attempt at rotation of work was made.
In fact,
Dr. Stern stated that "although the two locals restrict their
membership to a definite number of men, the port of Tacoma
can not be classified among the decasualized ports.
""^
Table D-8.- DISTRIBUTION OP 222 TACOMA LONGSHOREMEN,
BY ANNUAL EARNINGS, 1928 AND 1929^
(dollars
Total
Under 1,000
1.000-1,199.99
1,200-1,399. 99
1,400-1,599. 99
1.600-1,799.99
1,800-1, 999. 99
2.000-2.199. 99
2.200-2.399.99
2.400 or over
1929
1928
Annual earnings
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
222
100.0
222
100.0
19
23
37
33
8.5
10.4
12
12
16. 7
28
5.4
5.4
12.6
14.0
34
14.9
14.0
15.3
20
9.0
13
12
5.8
5.4
31*
31
22
46
29
23
19
9. 9
20. 7
13.1
10.4
8.5
Adapted from Boris Stern, Cargo Handling and Longshore Labor Conditions
Dept. Labor, Bur. Labor Statistics, Bull. No. 550, Feb.
193£),
Stern {op. cit., p. 94) estimated that there was a total of
In the port at that time.
^16 id.
table 44,
p.
(U.
S.
95.
approximately 800 men
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
118
PORTLAND
In Portland a work-rotation scheme was maintained for the
permanent force of about 300 men, divided into gangs of 12 men
No gangs were assigned exclusively to any one company,
each.
and no distinction was made between longshoremen and truckers,
all men receiving the same rates of pay.
Table D-4 shows the
distribution of average monthly eguivalent-straight-t ime hours
per gang for the years 1924-28.
This distribution is to be
compared with the distribution of gangs in San Francisco where,
in an average i|.-week period
in 1937,
97 percent of the gangs
fell in the interval of 190-210 hours (cf. table 8).
Table D-4.- DISTBIBUTION OF PORTLAND LONGSHORE GANGS.
BY AVERAGE MONTHLY NUMBER OP EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME
HOURS WORKED, 19 24-28^
Average monthly number of
eq.uivalent-straight~t ime
hours worked^
Total
120-129.9
130-139.
140-149.
150-159.9
160-169.9
170 or over
Number of gangs*
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
25
25
23
22
23
0
0
0
6
16
0
0
0
2
7
0
0
3
1
5
1
13
7
16
13
15
3
7
2
0
0
0
0
^Based on Boris Stern, Cargo Handling and Longshore Labor Conditions
Labor, Bur. Labor Statistics, Bull. No. 550, Feb. 1932), pp. 95-6.
1
0
(U.
S.
Dept.
^Estlirated by dividing average monthly earnings per man by $0.90.
^Each gang Includes 1£ men.
In addition to the men in these permanent gangs,
there were
at that time about 400 men on the extra board and some 400 cas-
uals who received last preference for work.
It
can be assumed
that their earnings were much lower and more widely varied.
LOS ANGELES
For the port of Los Angeles data
arfe
available for the 61
gangs of regular registered longshoremen (excluding truckers)
months from October 1929 through April 1930. These
gangs included about 550 men. The earnings of these men were
for the
7
undoubtedly higher than those of most of the remaining 1,000
men registered for work in the port.
APPENDIX D
119
As is indicated in table D-5, practically no equalization of
work between
least.
gang^s
was accomplished, for these
7
months at
The variation in hours appears to be partly the result
of lack of coordination between the gangs assigned to various
companies and the reserve gangs.
Three of the six companies
rotated their gangs so that the spread between high and low
gangs attached to one company was less than 30 hours for an
average month; for the other three the range was between 40 and
60 hours.
The range for the reserve gangs was 30 hours.
This
contrasts markedly with the spread shown in table D-5.
Table D-6.. DISTBIBUTION OF LOS ANGELES LONGSHORE GANGS.
BY AVERAGE MONTHLY NUMBER OF EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME
HOURS WORKED, 1929-80^
Average monthly number of
equivalent-straight -time
hours worked^
Number of gangs^
Total
61
140-149.
150-159.9
160-169. 9
10
170-179.9
7
180-189. 9
12
190-199.9
200-209.
210-219.9
220 or over
6
12
2
2
6
4
Based on Boris stern, Cargo Handling and Longshore Labor Conditions
Labor, Bur. labor statistics. Bull. No. 550, Feb. 1932), pp. 99-101.
(U.
S.
Dept.
^Estimated by dividing average monthly earnings per man by $0.90.
^Each gang Includes nine men; October 1929-Aprll 1930.
NEW YORK AND BALTIMORE
By way of comparison with the West Coast ports where some
decasualization was effected, some limited data for New York
and Baltimore may be considered.®
In New York permanent attachment to a company is a favored
status enjoyed by only a small proportion of the total number
of men who work in the port, and this situation has not changed
^Ibid., pp. 74-81,
85-7.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
120
materially for many years.
Data are available for eight gangs
more or less permanently employed by one shipping company
during 1928.
As indicated in table D-6, even these favored
gangs averaged no more work per month in 1928 than did most of
the gangs in San Francisco in 1937, a year when presumably less
work was available.
In
Baltimore all foreign and intercoastal cargoes were
handled by union workers, and the size of the labor force was
Table D-6.. DISTRIBUTION OP EIGHT NEW TOEK LONGSHORE GANGS,
BY AVERAGE MONTHLY NUMBER OF EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME
HOURS WORKED, 1928^
Average monthly number of
eguivalent-straight-t ime
hours worked^
Number of gangs^
170-179.
180-189.
190-199.
200-209. 9
210 or over
1
2
3
1
1
^Based on Boris Stern, Cargo Handling and Longshore Labor Conditions
Labor, Bur. Labor statistics. Bull. No. 550, Feb.
1932),
table 31,
p.
(U.
S.
Dept.
78.
^Estimated by dividing average monthly earnings per man by $0.85.
^Each gang Includes 18 men.
Table D-7.* DISTRIBUTION OF 10 BALTIMORE LONGSHORE GANGS,
BY AVERAGE MONTHLY NUMBER OF EQUIVALENT-STRAIGHT-TIME
HOURS WORKED, 1927^
Average monthly number of
equivalent-straight-time
hours worked^
Number of gangs'^
130-139.
140-149.
1
150-159.9
4
160-169. 9
2
2
1
170-179.9
180 or over
Based on Boris stern. Cargo Handling and Longshore Labor Conditions (U.
Labor, Bur. Labor Statistics, Bull. No. 550, Feb. 1932), table 37, p. 87.
^Estimated by dividing average monthly earnings per man by $0.85.
^Each gang includes 18 men.
S.
Dept.
APPENDIX D
121
controlled to some degree through high initiation fees and
strict regulations.
The men were organized in gangs whose
foremen were approved by the employers and the union, and the
majority of the gangs were assigned to individual companies.
The distribution of the average monthly equivalent-straighttime hours of 10 gangs employed by a large stevedore company in
1927 (see table D-7) indicates as wide a dispersion in Baltimore
as in New York, and a much lower level of monthly hours.
APPENDIX E
DOCUMENTARY MATERIAL
NATIONAL LONGSHOREMEN'S BOAED:
ARBITRATORS' AWARD^
the Arbitration Bet'veen Pacific Coast District
Local 88 of the International Longshoremen's Association,
Acting on Behalf of the Various Locals Whose Members
Perform Longshore Labor and Waterfront Employers of Seattle,
In
the Matter
of
Waterfront Employers of Portland, Waterfront Employers' Union
of San Francisco and Marine Service Bureau of Los Angeles
This award is made pursuant to agreement dated the 7th day of
August, 1934, between the above named parties, which agreement
is hereby referred to and made a part hereof
Said agreement provides that the decision of the arbitrators
(which shall be in writing and must be by a majority) shall
constitute a series of agreements between the International
Longshoremen's Association, acting on behalf of various Locals
whose members perform longshore labor, first party, on the
one hand, and Waterfront Employers of Seattle, a list of the
members of which is attached to said agreement, marked Exhibit
"A", second party. Waterfront Employers of Portland, a list of
the members of which is attached to said agreement, marked
Exhibit "B", third party. Waterfront Employers' Union of
San Francisco, a list of the members of which is attached to
said agreement, marked Exhibit "C", fourth party, and Marine
Service Bureau of Los Angeles, a list of the members of which
is
attached to said agreement, marked Exhibit "D", fifth party,
separately, on the other hand, which shall be binding upon each
of said parties as aforesaid for the period to and including
September 30, 1935, and which shall be considered as renewed
from year to year thereafter between the respective parties
unless either party to the respective agreements shall give
written notice to the other of its desire to modify or terminate the same, said notice to be given at least forty (40)
days prior to the expiration date.
If
such notice shall be
given by any party other than the International Longshoremen's
Association, first party, then the International Longshoremen's
Association shall have fifteen (15) days thereafter within
^Transcript of the award as Issued In mimeographed form.
122
APPENDIX
123
E
which it may give written notice of termination of all of said
agreements whereon on the succeeding September 30th, all of
said agreements shall terminate.
If
such notice or notices are
not so given the agreement shall be deemed to be renewed for
the succeeding year.
The arbitrators decide and award as follows:
Section 1.- Longshore work is all handling of cargo in its
transfer from vessel to first place of rest including sorting
and piling of cargo on the dock, and the direct transfer of
cargo from vessel to railroad car or barge and vice versa.
The following occupations are included in longshore work:
Longshoremen, gang bosses, hatch tenders, winch drivers, donkey
drivers, boom men, burton men, sack-turners, side runners,
front men, jitney drivers, and any other person doing longshore
work as defined in this section.
Section 2.- Six hours shall constitute a day's work.
Thirty
hours shall constitute a week's work, averaged over a period of
four weeks.
8 A.
and 5
M.
The first six hours worked between the hours of
P.
M.
shall be designated as straight time.
work in excess of six hours between the hours of
and all work during meal time and between
5 P. M.
,
8 A.
8 A.
M.
and
5 P.
M.
and
on week days and from 5 P. M. on Saturday to 8 A. M.
M.
All
on
Monday, and all work on legal holidays, shall be designated as
overtime.
1
P.
Meal time shall be any one hour between 11 A. M. and
When men are required to work more than five consecu-
M.
tive hours without an opportunity to eat, they shall be paid
time and one-half of the straight or overtime rate, as the case
may be, for all the time worked in excess of five hours without
a meal hour.
Section
The basic rate of pay for longshore work shall not be
(a)
less than $0.95
(ninety-five cents) per hour for straight time,
nor less than $1.40 (one dollar and forty cents) per hour for
overtime, provided, however, that for work which is now paid
higher than the present basic rates, the differentials above
the present basic rates shall be added to the basic rates
established in this paragraph (a).
ib
}
For those classifications of penalty cargo for which
differentials are now paid above the present basic rates, the
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
124
same differentials above the basic rates established by this
award shall be maintained and paid;
For shoveling, shoveling bones in bulk, both nonoffensive and offensive, ten cents above the basic rate shall
(c)
be paid in Los Angeles;
For handling creosote and creosote wood products,
green hides, and fertilizer, for which a differential of ten
(d)
cents above the present basic rates is now allowed in Los
Angeles to foremen, the same differential of ten cents shall
also be paid in Los Angeles to men handling these commodities;
(e)
For handling logs, piles and lumber which have been
submerged, when loaded from water, ten cents above the basic
rates established by this award shall be paid for thirty tons
or over in Portland;
(f)
The increases in the rates of pay established by this
award shall be paid as of July 31, 1934.
Section 4.- The hiring of all longshoremen shall be through
halls maintained and operated jointly by the International
Longshoremen's Association, Pacific Coast District, and the
respective employers' associations.
The hiring and dispatching
of all longshoremen shall be done through one central hiring
hall in each of the ports of Seattle, Portland, San Francisco
and Los Angeles, with such branch halls as the Labor Relations
Committee, provided for in Section 9, shall decide. All
expense of the hiring halls shall be borne one-half by the
International Longshoremen's Association and one-half by the
employers.
is not a
Each longshoreman registered at any hiring hall who
member of the International Longshoremen's Association
shall pay to the Labor Relations Committee toward the support of the hall a sum egual to the pro rata share of the
expense of the support of the hall paid by each member of the
International Longshoremen's Association.
Section 5.- The personnel for each hiring hall shall be
determined and appointed by the Labor Relations Committee for
the port, except that the dispatcher shall be selected by the
International Longshoremen's Association.
Section 6.- All longshoremen shall be dispatched without
favoritism or discrimination, regardless of union or nonunion membership.
APPENDIX
125
E
Section 7.- The Labor Relations Committee in Seattle, Port-
land and Los Angeles, where hiring halls now exist, shall
decide within twenty days from the date of this award whether
a hiring hall now in use shall be utilized.
If
in any of said
ports no decision is made within such twenty days, a new hall
shall be established in such port within thirty days from the
date of this award.
Section 8.- The hiring and dispatching of longshoremen in all
the ports covered by this award other than those mentioned in
Section 4, and excepting Tacoma, shall be done as provided for
the ports mentioned in Section 4; unless the Labor Relations
Committee in any of such ports establishes other methods of
hiring or dispatching.
Section g.- The parties shall immediately establish for each
port affected by this award, a Labor Relations Committee to be
composed of three representatives designated by the employers'
association of that port and three representatives designated
by the International Longshoremen's Association.
By mutual
consent the Labor Relations Committee in each port may change
the number of representatives from the International Longshore-
men's Association and the employers' association.
In the event
that such committee fails to agree on any matter, they may
refer such matter for decision to any person or persons mutually acceptable to them, or they shall refer such matter, on
request of either party, for decision to an arbitrator, who
shall be designated by the Secretary of Labor of the United
States or by any person authorized by the Secretary to designate such arbitrator.
Such arbitrator shall be paid by the
International Longshoremen's Association and by the employers'
Nothing in this section shall
association in each port.
be construed to prevent the Labor Relations Committee from
agreeing upon other means of deciding matters upon which there
has been disagreement.
Section 10.- The duties of the Labor Relations Committee
shall be:
(a)
To maintain and operate the hiring hall;
Within thirty days from the date
prepare a list of the regular longshoremen
(b)
of
of
this award to
the port, and
after such thirty days no longshoreman not on such list shall
be dispatched from the hiring hall or employed by any employer
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
126
while there is any man on the registered list q.ualified, ready
and willing to do the work.
No one shall be registered as
longshoreman who did not, during a period of three years
immediately preceding May 9, 1934, derive his livelihood from
a
the industry during not less than any twelve months.
Pending
the preparation of these lists, no longshoreman who was a
member of a gang or who was on any registered list or extra
list between January 1,
1934^ and May 9,
1934, shall be denied
the opportunity of employment in the industry.
The Labor
Relations Committee, in registering longshoremen, may depart
from this particular rule;
To decide questions regarding rotation of gangs and
extra men; revision of existing lists of extra men and of
(c)
casuals; and the addition of new men to the industry when
needed;
(d)
To investigate and adjudicate all grievances and
disputes relating to working conditions;
(e
)
To decide all grievances relating to discharges.
The
hearing and investigation of grievances relating to discharges
shall be given preference over all other business before the
committee.
In case of discharge without sufficient cause, the
committee may order payment for lost time or reinstatement with
or without payment for lost time;
(f
)
To decide any other question of mutual concern relating
to the industry and not covered by this award.
The committee shall meet at any time within twenty-four
hours, upon a written notice from either party stating the
purpose of the meeting.
Section 11 .(a)
The Labor Relations Committee for each port shall
determine the organization of gangs and methods of dispatching.
Subject to this provision and to the limitations of hours
fixed in this award, the employers shall have the right to
have dispatched to them, when available, the gangs in their
opinion best qualified to do their work.
Subject to the fore-
going provisions gangs and men not assigned to gangs shall
be so dispatched as to equalize their earnings as nearly as
practicable, having regard to their qualifications for the work
they are required to do.
The employers shall be free to select
their men within those eligible under the policies jointly
127
APPENDIX E
determined, and the men likewise shall be free to select
their jobs
(b)
The employees must perform all work as ordered by the
employer.
work
is
Any grievance resulting from the manner in which the
ordered to be performed shall be dealt with as provided
in Section lo;
(c)
The employer shall have the right to discharge any man
for incompetence,
insubordination or failure to perform the
work as required.
If
any man feels that he has been unjustly
discharged, his grievance shall be dealt with as provided
in Section lo;
(d)
The employer shall be free, without interference or
restraint from the International Longshoremen's Association, to
introduce labor saving devices and to institute such methods of
discharging and loading cargo as he considers best suited to
the conduct of his business, provided such methods of dis-
charging and loading are not inimical to the safety or health
of the employees.
(Signed) Edward J. Hanna, Chairman
Edward F. McGrady
I
concur except as to the provisions of Section
0.
K.
3.
Gushing
Dated this 12th day of October, 1934
At San Francisco, California.
WAGE SCALE AND WORKING RULES FOR LONGSHORE WORK^
SAN FRANCISCO BAY DISTRICT
(EffectiTe Jaavftry
12,
1986)
hours shall constitute a day's work.
1.
Six (6)
2.
Thirty (30) hours shall constitute a week's work - aver-
aged over a period of four
(4)
weeks.
Limit of work shall be:
hours in any one week,
12 hours in any one day with
a two (2)
hour leeway
to finish job or ship.
On completion of a job of six
(6)
or more consecutive hours
in any one period, men shall have a rest period of not less
2
The working rules only are presented here.
Transcript of the published agreement as adopted pursuant to the award of the
U. S. National Longshoremen's Board.
Copies may be obtained from the Joint
Dispatching Hall.
128
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
than eight
(8)
hours before resuming work or being dispatched
to another job, provided that other eligible men are available.
3. (a)
When men are dispatched from the Hiring Hall, and/or
ordered to report to a certain dock at a specified time during
straight time hours, their pay is to start after the expiration
two hours if no work is provided, and to continue until
dismissed.
Not less than two hours pay will be allowed whether
of
or not work starts or lasts two hours.
This section does not
apply to car work.
(b)
When men are ordered to report for work, or are ordered
back to work, during overtime hours, they shall be paid from
the hour so ordered and at which time they report, and their
pay to continue until dismissed.
the work does not last two
hours pay.
(2)
(2)
In case there
is
no work or
hours, they shall receive two
When men resume, continue or start a new job
between the hours of one (1) A. M. and five (5) A. M.
they
shall receive not less than four (4.) hours pay at the over,
time rate.
(c)
When vessels are to work approximately the full twenty-
four hour day, the relief gangs are to start at six
whenever
(d)
it
is
(6)
P.
M.,
practical to do so.
In case of a suspension of work for one hour or less,
while the vessel
is
working, during straight time hours, no
deduction shall be made for time lost; but men shall receive
full pay for the first hour, and half pay thereafter until
such time as work is resumed or men dismissed for the day.
During overtime hours no deduction shall be made for such
loss of time.
(e)
When hatches are to be covered by the men they shall be
allowed ten minutes before quitting time.
4
.
HoL idays
:
New Year's Day
Admission Day
Lincoln's Birthday
Columbus Day
Washington's Birthday
Armistice Day
Decoration Day
Thanksgiving Day
Independence Day
Christmas Day
Labor Day
Election Day
and any other legal holidays that may be proclaimed by State or
National authorities.
APPENDIX
129
E
Meals:
5.
(a)
Meal hours shall be one hour between eleven (11)
and one (1)
P.
M.
,
and five
(5)
P.
A.
M.
and seven (7) P. M., and
M.
eleven (11) P. M. and one (1) A. M.
and six (6) A. M. and
Men may be required to work through a meal
eight (8) A. M.
hour other than the noon meal hour to finish a job or ship
without a penalty applying, provided such time worked does not
,
exceed five (5) consecutive hours without a meal.
required to work more than five
an opportunity to eat,
(5)
When men are
consecutive hours without
they shall be paid penalty time of
$1.40 per hour straight time and $2.10 per hour overtime for
all the time worked in excess of five (5) hours without a meal.
(b)
employees are not allowed a full hour for meals at
If
the designated meal hours, employers agree to pay one hour at
one and one-half the straight or overtime rate, as the case may
be, for that portion of the meal hour worked.
When men are required to travel during meal hours,
due to shifting of vessel at points other than along the
(c)
San Francisco Waterfront, and the terminals are not in the
immediate vicinity of each other, they shall be allowed onehalf an hour straight time over the meal hour to reach the job,
except when transportation is provided,
in which event
men
shall start work on arrival at the job.
(d)
At all points where employers are required to furnish
meals and such meals are not furnished the men, the sum of 6ot
will be allowed for each meal.
6
Trave
.
(a)
L
Ltng Time
:
Employees shall be paid travelling time when ordered
to points outside the city and county of San Francisco and to
vessels in the stream.
On their arrival at the place where
ordered their pay to continue during the regular working hours
(first six hours worked between eight
P.
M.
)
(8)
A.
M.
and five
(5)
until job is completed, except Oakland and/or Oakland
Inner Harbor and Alameda, which shall be covered by rule
6 (b); they shall then be furnished with the quickest means
of transportation back to San Francisco.
Employers to furnish
transportation both ways.
(b)
One-half
(2)
hour travelling time allowed longshoremen
going to Oakland and/or Oakland Inner Harbor and Alameda.
(c)
One-half
(z)
hour travelling time allowed longshoremen
returning from Oakland and/or Oakland Inner Harbor and Alameda,
130
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
only when ordered to report in San Francisco to same company
same day.
Longshoremen will be allowed one
(d)
(i)
hour travelling
time returning from Richmond, Richmond Inner Harbor, Point
Richmond and Redwood City; and one and one-half (li) hours
travelling time returning from Point Orient, or Point San
Pablo, and two (2) hours travelling time from all points above
San Pablo, only when ordered to report in San Francisco to
same company same day.
(e)
The day shall be considered to commence at twelve (12)
midnight and to end at midnight.
All travelling time between eight
(f)
(5)
A.
M.
and five
shall be counted against the six hour day if such
M.
P.
(8)
time is incurred during the six hour straight time period.
All travelling time shall be included in the 120 hour limit.
All travelling time shall be straight time at the basic rate.
(g)
When employees are ordered to points outside the City
and County of San Francisco and to vessels in the stream
employers shall pay for transportation both ways.
Employers shall furnish men with suitable board and
7. (a)
lodging when men are taken from San Francisco to Richmond
and points above.
men are worked to six
If
(b)
(6)
P.
M.
or later at Richmond
or points above they shall be provided with a meal or paid
meal money.
(c)
When men are taken to Richmond Inner or Outer Harbor,
they shall furnish their own midday meal.
All other meals at
these points shall be furnished by the employer.
When employees are transported to work outside the City
8.
and County of San Francisco, employees are to remain with job
until
it
is
finished or men are discharged.
If
an employee
quits the job before he is dismissed or the job is finished,
except in case of sickness or injury, the cost of transportation back to San Francisco shall be deducted from such
employee's earnings.
9.
Crew may rig ship for handling cargo.
10. The
Walking Boss shall not be subject to the working hour
limitation of the award.
11.
The employees must perform all work as ordered by the
employer.
Any grievance resulting from the manner in which the
APPENDIX
work
is
131
E
ordered to be performed shall be dealt with by the
Labor Relations Committee.
The employer shall have the right to discharge any man
12.
for incompetence, insubordination or failure to perform the
If any man feels that he has been unjustly
work as required.
discharged, his grievance shall be dealt with by the Labor
Relations Committee.
In case of discharge without sufficient
cause, the committee may order payment for lost time, or
reinstatement with or without payment for lost time.
13.
The employer shall be free, without interference or
restraint from the International Longshoremen's Association, to
introduce labor saving devices and to institute such methods of
discharging and loading cargo as he considers best suited to
the conduct of his business, provided such methods of dis-
charging and loading are not inimical to the safety or health
of the employees.
14.
For all purposes of safeguarding the safety and health of
employees the provisions of the Pacific Coast Marine Safety
Code shall apply.
15.
The employers and employees shall each appoint a Labor
Relations Committee of three members, which upon complaint
lodged by either party with the other, shall immediately
investigate the incident or condition complained of, and
adjust same, but there shall be no stoppage of work.
Signed,
Labor Relations Committee,
International Longshoremen's,
Association, Local 38-79
By F. Knopf f, Chairman.
^
Waterfront Employers Association
of San Francisco, California
By F. C. Gregory, Chairman.
SAN FRANCISCO LONGSHORE DISPATCHING HALL:
DISPATCHING RULES^
Dispatching and Dispatching Hours
1.
Men shall be ordered so they will be able to be dispatched
during regular dispatching hours.
3
Transcript of mimeographed statement of agreement Issued by the Longshore Labor
Relations Committee on February 18, 1935 In San Francisco, California. Copies may
be obtained from the Joint Dispatching Hall.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
132
2.
Dispatching Hours:
7:00 A. M.
to
11:00 A. M.
to
12:30
P.
M.
to
5:00
P.
M.
4:00
P.
M.
8:30 A. M.
Hall open from:
3.
6:00 A. M.
until
6:00 P. M. Week Days
7:00 A. M.
until
9:00 A. M. Sundays & Holidays
All gangs going to work before 8:00 A. M.
travel before 7«i5 A.
5:00
4.
P.
M.
M.
,
,
or ordered to
must receive their orders before
the preceding day,
including Sundays and Holidays.
Orders for gangs to turn to at 8:00 A. M. must be in with
the dispatcher by 7:00 A. M.
arrival is assured by 8:00
at 8:00 A.
M.
A.
When a ship is in port, or its
M.
,
orders for gangs to turn to
should be received at the Dispatching Hall the
preceding evening.
5.
Gangs or men to go to work between 8:30 A. M. and noon,
must be ordered between 7:00 A. M. and 8:30 A. M.
6.
5:00
Orders for gangs or men to turn to between 1:00
M.
P.
P.
M.
and
must be in with the dispatcher between 11:00 A. M.
and 12:30 P. M.
7.
Orders for gangs to turn to at 6:00
be in by 5-00 P. M.
8.
Or gan
1.
P.
M.,
or later, must
(3:00 P. M.
Gangs and men must be ordered for a specific time and job.
i I
a
t i
on
of
Gangs and Extra Men's Lists
The registered men of the port will be divided into gangs
and extra men.
2.
Gangs will be divided into preferred gangs which will be
assigned to companies, and extra gangs which will be available
for dispatching to any company as needed.
3.
Extra men will be listed according to their special
qualifications, such as winch drivers, jitney drivers, etc.,
to assist in dispatching.
4.
Extra gangs and extra men will be dispatched in rotation.
5.
The work will be divided as evenly as practicable among
all registered men.
6.
Preferred Gangs',
(a)
Each employer will furnish the committee with the
number of gangs and the names of gang bosses which he wishes to
APPENDIX
have permanently assigned to him.
133
E
This number will be limited
to his ability to provide the average work over the four weeks
period.
If such gangs prefer to
of working as extra gangs, they
work for the employer instead
will be so assigned and will be
available for extra work only after all extra gangs are working
or have
received more than the average work of the port at
that date.
Such preferred gangs may consist of any number of
men which is most desirable for the regular operations, but
all members of such gang must be employed while the gang is
(b)
working.
Members of a gang may be assigned to do other work,
providing that two or more gangs shall not
be
split to form
an extra gang.
(c)
The employer will select his preferred gangs and
furnish the committee with the names and permanent numbers of
The names of such gang members will not be
such members.
listed on the extra board.
When an employer no longer wishes to employ a preferred
(d)
gang, he shall notify the gang boss and the dispatcher and at
the end of the job the gang will be returned to the extra
gang list.
(e)
When a preferred gang wishes to return to the extra
gang list, it shall inform the employer and the dispatcher and
at the end of the job the gang will be returned to the extra
gang list.
(f
)
If
a member of a preferred gang wishes
to leave that
gang, he will notify his gang boss and the Dispatcher and will
be relieved as the job is completed and a replacement can be
secured from the list of extra men.
(g)
Any temporary replacements in a preferred gang, or
any temporary additions thereto, shall be assigned by the
Dispatcher from the extra men's list, and upon completion of
If such vacancy
the job shall be returned to the extra list.
is to be of a
considerable length of time, due to injury, ill-
ness or other causes, the employer may request the Dispatcher
to assign an extra man to this vacancy pending the return of
the regular member.
7.
Extra Gangs
(a)
I
Extra gangs will be formed under the direction of the
committee and will consist of a standard number of 16
men*.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
134
1
- Gang Boss
2 - Deck Men
6 -
Hold Men
6 -
Dock Men
1
-
Jitney Driver
Extra gangs will be listed upon the rotation board by
their number, and shall be dispatched in rotation, excepting
(b)
that if an extra gang shall have worked substantially more
than the average gang list, the dispatcher may place it at the
bottom of the list until such time as work is equalized.
(c)
employer desires larger than a standard gang, he
If an
will so inform the dispatcher and the additional men shall be
taken from the list of extra men.
(d)
If an employer desires
less than a standard extra gang
he will order the desired number of men and the Dispatcher will
dispatch men from the extra men's list.
If
(e)
rotation,
it
an extra gang shall refuse a job when called in
shall be placed at the bottom of the list, unless
the gang gives the Dispatcher a valid reason for such refusal.
8.
Extra Men
(a)
I
The extra men shall be placed on lists according to
their special qualifications if they so desire:
1
-
Winchdrivers and Hatchtenders
2 - Jitney Drivers
3
- Hold and Dock Men
4 - Lumbermen
5
(b)
- Car Men
The men on these lists will be dispatched in rotation,
excepting that if individuals have received more than the
average amount of work of the extra men's list, they may be
placed at the bottom of the list until such time as work has
been equalized.
(c)
job,
If
an individual called in turn refuses to accept a
he shall automatically go to the bottom of
the list,
unless the man gives the Dispatcher a valid reason for such
refusal.
9.
In attempting to equalize the work of the port
individuals
or gangs that refuse work when called will not be entitled to
have their hours equalized during that period at the expense of
the gangs or individuals who have accepted such jobs.
APPENDIX
10.
135
E
Any employer may retain a "specialty gang"
if
sufficient
"specialty" work can be supplied to enable such gang to work
the average hours of the port.
General Dispatching Rules
1.
No gang shall be preferred by more than one company.
2.
Upon completion of a job or a ship, all gang bosses shall
turn in their gang reports to the Dispatcher gang reports to
the Dispatcher [sic]
3.
(printed report cards).
Upon the completion of a job or ship, all gangs and/or men
shall receive their their [sic]
orders for the next job from
the Joint Dispatching Hall.
4.
is
All gangs may call the Hall for orders by telephone
if
it
practicable to do so.
5.
All replacements called to fill temporary vacancies in all
gangs must finish the job or ship for which they are called,
unless otherwise provided for.
6.
When an extra gang is hired
it
shall not be replaced by
any other gang, until the gang has had at least six hours work.
t
1.
Hi
*
:f
* * *
Registered longshoremen are required to report at the Dis-
patching Hall upon notice from the Labor Relations Committee.
2.
First Brass Check (permanent registered number) will be
issued free.
If
lost, a charge of
so<t:
will be made for
a
duplicate check.
3.
Carry Brass Check at all times.
4.
Report loss of Brass Check to the Dispatcher at once.
5.
No interchange of Brass Checks allowed.
Any infringement
of this rule may mean temporary suspension from the registered list.
6.
Men who do not report for work for a period of thirty days
will have their names removed, temporarily from the dispatching
list.
Men desiring a leave of absence must leave their Brass
Checks with the Dispatcher.
Men on sick or injured list must
report to Dispatcher before they will be replaced on the
dispatching list.
Approved by the
Longshore Labor Relations Committee
February 18, 1935.
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
136
AGREEMENT BETWEEN PACIFIC COAST DISTRICT, LOCAL 38 OP THE
INTERNATIONAL LONGSHOREMEN S ASSOCIATION AND
WATERFRONT EMPLOYERS OF SEATTLE
WATERFRONT EMPLOYERS OF PORTLAND
WATERFRONT EMPLOYERS' ASSOCIATION OF SAN FRANCISCO
WATERFRONT EMPLOYERS' ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA AND
SHIPOWNERS' ASSOCIATION OF THE PACIFIC COAST^
'
(Dated:
February
4,
1937)
Agreement
THIS AGREEMENT by and between PACIFIC COAST DISTRICT, LOCAL
38 of the INTERNATIONAL LONGSHOREMEN'S ASSOCIATION,
hereinafter
designated as the Union, and the Coast Committee for the
shipowners on behalf of the WATERFRONT EMPLOYERS OF SEATTLE,
WATERFRONT EMPLOYERS OF PORTLAND, WATERFRONT EMPLOYERS ASSOCI-
ATION OF SAN FRANCISCO and WATERFRONT EMPLOYERS' ASSOCIATION
OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA (formerly Marine Service Bureau of
Los Angeles), hereinafter designated as the Employers:
Witnesseth:
It
is
agreed that the Award of the National Longshoremen's
Board of October 12, 1934, by and between the parties hereto
shall be amended in the respects hereinafter specified: This
agreement shall go into effect as of February 5, 1937, and
shall remain in effect to and including September 30, 1937,
and shall be considered as renewed from year to year thereafter
between the respective parties unless either party shall give
written notice to the other of its desire to modify or terminate the same, said notice to be given at least sixty (60) days
Negotiations shall commence
prior to the expiration date.
within ten (10) days from the date of receipt of such notice.
If such
notice or notices are not so given the agreement shall
be deemed to be renewed for the succeeding year.
Section
1
The provisions of this agreement shall apply to
all handling of cargo in its transfer from vessel to first
place of rest, and vice versa, including sorting and piling
of cargo on the dock;
and the direct transfer of cargo from
vessel to railroad car or barge, and vice versa, when such work
is
performed by employees of the companies parties to this
agreement
"^Transcript of published agreement Issued on February 4, 1937 In San Francisco,
California.
Copies may be obtained from the Joint Dispatching Hall.
APPENDIX
is
It
agreed and understood that
if
137
E
the employers, parties to
this agreement shall sub-contract work as defined herein,
provision shall be made for the observance of this agreement.
The following occupations shall be included under the scope
of this agreement:
Longshoremen, gang bosses, hatch tenders,
winch drivers, donkey drivers, boom men, burton men, sackturners, side runners, front men, jitney drivers, lift jitney
drivers, and any other person doing longshore work as defined
in this section.
Section 2.- Six hours shall constitute a day's work.
Thirty
hours shall constitute a week's work, averaged over a period of
four weeks.
M.
8 A.
and
The first six hours worked between the hours of
5
P.
M.
shall be designated as straight time, but
there shall be no relief of gangs before
P.
5
M.
All work in
excess of six hours between the hours of 8 A. M. and
and all work during meal time and between
5
P.
M.
5
P.
M.
and 8 A. M.
on week days and from 5 P. M. on Saturday to 8 A. M. on Monday,
and all work on legal holidays, shall be designated as over-
Meal time shall be any one hour between 11 A. M. and
time.
1
P.
M.
When men are required to work more than five consecu-
tive hours without an opportunity to eat, they shall be paid
time and one-half of the straight or overtime rate, as the case
may be, for all time worked in excess of five hours without
a meal hour.
Secti on 2
(a)
The basic rate of pay for longshore work shall not be
less than ninety-five cents
(9S<t)
per hour for straight time,
nor less than one dollar and forty cents
($1.40) per hour for
overtime, provided however, that for work which is now paid
higher than the present basic rates, the differentials above
the present basic rates shall be added to the basic rates
established in this paragraph.
(b)
For those classifications of penalty cargo for which
differentials are now paid above the present basic rates, the
same differentials above the basic rates established by this
agreement shall be maintained and paid; provided that it is
agreed in principle that penalty cargoes should be at a uniform
rate for the entire Pacific Coast, and that immediately after
the execution of this agreement a Joint Committee be appointed
for the purpose of working out as quickly as possible such
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
138
uniform rates for any of the cargoes mentioned in the proposals
of the International Longshoremen's Association heretofore
submitted as to which penalties are applicable.
Section 4.- The hiring of all longshoremen shall be through
halls maintained and operated jointly by the International
Longshoremen's Association, Pacific Coast District, and the
respective employers' associations.
The hiring and dispatching
of all longshoremen shall be done through one central hiring
hall in each of the ports of Seattle, Portland, San Francisco
and Los Angeles, with such branch halls as the Labor Relations
Committee, provided for in Section 9, shall decide.
All
expense of the hiring halls shall be borne one-half by the
International Longshoremen's Association and one-half by the
employers.
Each longshoreman registered at any hiring hall who
is not a member of the International Longshoremen's Association
shall pay to the Labor Relations Committee toward the support
of the hall a sum equal to the pro rata share of the expense
of the support of the hall paid by each member of the Inter-
national Longshoremen's Association.
Section 5.- The personnel for each hiring hall shall be
determined and appointed by the Labor Relations Committee for
the port, except that the dispatcher shall be selected by the
International Longshoremen's Association.
Section 6.- Preference of employment shall be given to
members of Pacific Coast District International Longshoremen's
Association whenever available.
This section shall not deprive
the employers, members of the Labor Relations Committee of the
right to object to unsatisfactory men (giving reasons therefor)
in making additions to the registration list,
and shall not
interfere with the making of appropriate dispatching rules.
Section 7.(a)
The following holidays shall be recognized:
New Year's
Day, Lincoln's Birthday, Washington's Birthday, Memorial Day,
Independence Day, Labor Day, Columbus Day, Armistice Day,
Thanksgiving Day, General Election Day, Christmas Day, or any
other legal holiday that may be proclaimed by state or national
authority.
When a holiday falls on Sunday the following Monday
shall be observed as a holiday.
APPENDIX
(b)
Election Day.
139
E
On election day the work shall be so
arranged as to enable the men to vote.
Section 8.- The hiring and dispatching of longshoremen in all
ports covered by this award other than those mentioned in
Section 4, and excepting Tacoma, shall be done as provided for
the ports mentioned in Section 4; unless the Labor Relations
Committee in any of such ports established other methods of
hiring or dispatching.
Section 9.- The parties shall immediately establish for each
port affected by this agreement, a Labor Relations Committee
to be composed of three representatives designated by the
Employers' Association of that port and three representatives
designated by the International Longshoremen's Association.
By mutual consent the Labor Relations Committee in each port
may change the number of representatives from the International
Longshoremen's Association and the Employers' Association.
In the event that such committee fails to agree on any matter,
they may refer such matter for decision to any person or
persons mutually acceptable to them, or they shall refer such
matter, on request of either party, for decision to an arbitrator, who shall be designated by the Secretary of Labor of
the United States or by any person authorized by the Secretary
to designate such an arbitrator.
Such arbitrator shall be paid
by the International Longshoremen's Association and by the
Employers' Association in each port.
Nothing in this section
shall be construed to prevent the Labor Relations Committee
from agreeing upon other means of deciding matters upon which
there has been disagreement.
Section 10.- The duties of the Labor Relations Committee
shall be:
(a)
To maintain and operate the hiring hall;
(b)
To take charge of the registration list of the regular
longshoremen of the port and to make such additional registration of longshoremen as may be necessary; no longshoremen not
on such list shall be dispatched from the hiring hall or
employed by any employer while there are any men on the reg-
istered list qualified, ready and willing to do the work;
(c)
To decide questions regarding rotation of gangs and
extra men; revision of existing lists of extra men and of casuals; and the addition of new men to the industry when needed;
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
140
To investigate and adjudicate all grievances and
(d)
disputes relating to working agreements;
(e)
To decide all grievances relating to discharges.
The
hearing and investigation of grievances relating to discharges
shall be given preference over all other business before the
Comirtittee
.
In case of discharge without sufficient cause,
the
Committee may order payment for lost time or reinstatement with
or without payment for lost time;
(f
)
To decide any other guestion of mutual concern relating
to the industry and not covered by this agreement.
The Committee shall meet at any time within twenty-four
(24) hours, upon a written notice from either party stating the
purpose of the meeting.
Section 11
(a)
The Labor Relations Committee for each port shall
determine the organization of gangs and methods of dispatching.
Subject to this provision and to the limitations of hours
fixed in this agreement, the employers shall have the right
to have dispatched to them, when available, the gangs in their
opinion best qualified to do their work.
Subject to the
foregoing provisions gangs and men not assigned to gangs shall
be so dispatched as to equalize their earnings as nearly as
practicable, having regard to their qualifications for the
work they are required to do. The employers shall be free
to select their men within those eligible under the policies
jointly determined, and the men likewise shall be free to
select their jobs.
(b)
The employees shall perform work as ordered by the
employer in accordance with the provisions of this agreement.
In case a dispute arises, work shall be continued pending
the settlement of same in accordance with the provisions of
the Agreement and under the conditions that prevailed prior
to the time the dispute arose, and the matter shall be adjusted, if possible by the representatives of the International
Longshoremen's Association and the Employers, who shall adjust
the dispute as quickly as possible;
in case they are unable to
settle the matter involved within twenty-four (24) hours, then,
upon request of either party, the matter shall be referred to
the Labor Relations Committee.
APPENDIX
141
E
The Employers shall have the right to discharge any
man for incompetence, insubordination or failure to perform
(c)
the work as required in conformance with the provisions of
this Agreement.
If
any man feels that he has been unjustly
discharged or dealt with, his grievance shall be taken up as
provided in Section lo (b).
(d)
The Employer shall be free, without interference or
restraint from the International Longshoremen's Association
to introduce labor saving devices and to institute such methods
of discharging and loading cargo as he considers best suited
to the conduct of his business, provided such methods of dis-
charging and loading are not inimical to the safety or health
of the employees.
All members of the International Longshoremen's Asso-
(e)
ciation shall perform their work conscientiously and with
sobriety and with due regard to their own interests shall not
disregard the interests of their employers.
Any International
Longshoremen's Association member who is guilty of deliberate
bad conduct in connection with his work as a longshoreman or
through illegal stoppage of work shall cause the delay of any
vessel, shall, upon trial and conviction by the International
Longshoremen's Association be fined, suspended, or for deliberate repeated offenses be expelled from the Union.
Any
Employer may file with the Union a complaint against any member of the International Longshoremen's Association and the
International Longshoremen's Association shall act thereon and
notify the Employer of its decision.
Any failure on the part
of any local of the International Longshoremen's Association
to comply with this provision in good faith may be taken up
by the Employers before the Labor Relations Committee under
Section lo.
(f
)
Rules covering longshore work when shifting ship and
dispatching rules shall be adopted by the local Labor Relations
Committee.
(g)
The Employers shall provide safe gear and safe working
conditions.
For purpose of safeguarding the safety and health of employees, a joint committee representing Pacific Coast District
of the International Longshoremen's Association and the various
Waterfront Employers' Associations shall negotiate and adopt
a safety code for longshore work, the provisions of which
142
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
shall apply to and become a part of this agreement.
in addition to all other provisions,
code shall,
The safety
cover the
subject of:
Stretchers on ships and docks to be used in case
1.
of accident.
2.
Sanitary facilities for water supply.
3-
Minimum requirements for space from hatch combing.
4.
Sufficient space for clearance of cargo.
5.
Mimimum clearance between decks.
6.
Extension levers.
7.
Elimination of work on deck when hatches are
not covered.
Counter-weights on winch handles.
8.
If
it
is
a
question of convenience vs. safety
-
"Safety
First!"
If
comfort vs. safety, then again - "Safety First!"
If tonnage vs.
(h)
It
is
safety, then again - "Safety First!"
agreed that immediately upon the execution of
this agreement, a Joint Committee consisting of representatives
of the International Longshoremen's Association and repre-
sentatives of the Waterfront Employers* Association shall be
appointed for the purpose of investigating, negotiating, and
adopting maximum loads for standard commodities.
Agreement
This agreement by and between International Longshoremen's
Association, Pacific Coast District No. 38 and the Shipowners
Association of the Pacific Coast:
Witnesseth:
The 1934 Arbitration Award as amended in the foregoing agreement shall govern longshore work on steam schooners operated by
members of the Shipowners Association of the Pacific Coast,
provided, however, that members of crews of steam schooners may
perform cargo work properly within the scope of their duties,
but neither the International Longshoremen's Association nor
the Shipowners' Association shall be permitted with reference
to the scope or nature of the duties of longshoremen or members
of
the crews of steam schooners, but any dispute relating
thereto, and any other dispute that may arise between the un-
dersigned shall be determined by the Labor Relations Committee
APPENDIX E
143
created under said agreement, in accordance with the procedure
set forth in Section lo thereof, and any decision of the Joint
Labor Relations Committee, or
if
they cannot agree, of the
Arbitrator, shall be final and binding.
The provisions of said agreement do not apply to wages or
working conditions of crews on steam schooners during such time
as they are working cargo.
When the work in a hatch is not entirely controlled by
longshoremen Section ii
(e)
shall not apply.
MAXIMUM LOADS FOR STANDARD COMMODITIES:
(Effectire J«ly 26,
PACIFIC COAST PORTS^
1937)
On and after July 26, 1937, at 8 o'clock in the morning, the
maximum loads hereinafter specified shall be adopted for the
commodities hereinafter referred to in all ports coming under
the provisions of said agreement of February 4,
1937.
After
the effective date of this agreement all loads for commodities
covered herein handled by longshoremen shall be of such size as
the employer shall direct, within the maximum limits herein-
after specified, and no employer after such date shall direct
and no longshoremen shall be required to handle loads in excess
of those hereinafter stated.
The following standard maximum
sling loads are hereby adopted:
1
.
Canned Good s
24-2i talis, 6-12S tall
and 48-1 tails (including salmon)
35 cases to sling load
or
when loads are built of
3 tiers
of 12
24-1 tails
24-2 's talis
6-lOs tails
.
.
36
60
50
40
cases
cases
cases
cases
to
to
to
to
sling
sling
sling
sling
load
load
load
load
Miscellaneous cans and
jars
2.
Dried Fruits and Raisins
22 to 31 lbs
32 to 39 lbs
40 to 50 lbs
Transcript of printed booklet.
patching Hall.
Maximum 2100 lbs.
(Gross Weight)
72 cases to sling load
60 cases to sling load
40 cases to sling load
Copies may be obtained from the Joint Dis-
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
144
24-2 lbs
8.
35 cases to
40 cases to
ling load
s ling load
s
Fregh Fruits - Standard Boxei
27 boxes to sling load
26 boxes to sling load
40 boxes to s ling load
4.
Miscellaneous Products
•
Case oil - 2 5-gal. cans
(Hand hauled to or from
18 cases to sling load
(Power hauled to or from
24 cases
12 cases
12 cases
16 cases
5 s labs
6 s labs
9 bars
to s ling load
to sling load
to s ling load
to s ling load
to s ling load
to s ling load
bo sling Load
3 bales
to sling load
10 bales
2 ba les
3 bales
4 bales
2 bales
3 ba les
4 bales
3 ba les
5 ba les
5 bales
to s ling load
to sling load
to sling load
to s ling load
to s ling load
to s ling load
to s ling load
to s ling load
to s ling load
to s ling load
:
Cotton, under standard
Rubber
(1
tier on sling)
Rags, large (Above 700#
Rags, medium (500 to 700#
)
Hemp, ordinary
)
.
.
.
Pulp, bales weighing 350#
6 ba les to s ling
load
Pulp, bales weighing 349*
8 bales to s ling load
(Note
:
With respect to loading where the loads have been built
by other than longshoremen, the employers will make arrangements for the application of this rule as soon as possible and
in any event within 6o days from the date of this agreement).
Steel drums, containing
Asphalt, Oil, etc.,
weighing 500* or less
Steel drums, containing
Asphalt, Oil, etc.,
weighing 500* or less
on board (capacity of
board - 1 tier)
maximum of
4 to the sling
load
(When using Chine Hooks)
5 drums to sling load
APPENDIX
145
E
Barrels, wood, heavy,
containing wine, lard, etc.,
maximum of
4 bbls. to sling load
(When using Chine Hooks)
Barrels, wood, heavy,
containing wine, lard, etc.
(capacity of board - 1 tier)
4 bbls. to sling load
on board - maximum of
Barrels, wood, containing
6 bbls. to sling load
Dry Milk, Sugar, etc
(Present port practice or gear in handling drums of asphalt or
barrels shall not be changed in order to increase the load).
,
.
.
.
.
.
to sling load
1 when wgt. 1800» or
2 rolls
over
Flour -
15 sacks to s ling load
20 sacks to sling load
40 sacks to sling load
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
,
.
.
,
.
.
,
.
.
50 sacks to sling
22 s acks to sling
15 sacks to sling
15 sacks to s ling
.
.
.
12 sacks to
s
sacks to
2100# to
s
,
49 lbs
load
load
load
load
Coffee - Power haul from
ling load
Coffee - Hand haul from
6.
ling load
s ling load
When flat trucks are pulled by hand between ship's tackle
and place of rest on dock, load not to exceed i400#.
7.
Number of loaded trailers
jitney as follows:
wheelers) - to be hauled by
Within the limits of the ordinary berthing
space of the vessel - 2 trailers.
-
Long hauls to bulkhead warehouse or to adjoining docks or
berths -
3
trailers.
Extra long haul to separate docks or across streets
- 4
trailers, providing that four (4) trailers shall be used only
where it is now the port practice.
8
.
When cargo is transported to or from the point of stowage by
power equipment, the following loads shall apply:
48-1
24-1
tails
talis
24
2's tails
40
60
48
146
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
24 - 2i's tails
6 - lO's tails
6 - 12's tails
9.
This agreement
is
40
50
50
supplemental to said agreement of Feb-
ruary 4, 1937, and is hereby made a part thereof.
The purpose of the parties in negotiating this scale of
maximum loads for standard commodities, is to establish a
reasonable loading and discharging rate under the working
conditions applicable to the operation, including the number of
men used.
It
agreed that the employers will not use the
is
maximum loads herein set forth as a subterfuge to establish
unreasonable speed-ups; nor will the I. L. A. resort to subterfuges to curtail production.
WAGE RATES FOR LONGSHORE WORK:
(EffectiTe July 26,
PACIFIC COAST PORTS^
1987)
Basic Wages
Straight time, per hour
$
Overtime
-95
1.40
Penalty Cargo Rates
1.
On and after July 26, 1937, at 8 o'clock in the morning,
the penalty rates hereinafter specified shall apply to the
handling of cargoes hereinafter mentioned to the extent herein
stated.
Said penalty rates shall supersede and apply in lieu
of all penalty cargo rates now being paid in any port coming
under the provisions of said agreement of February 4, 1937, and
shall be the only penalty cargo rates payable for the handling
of any such cargo in any such port, and none of such penalty
cargo rates shall hereafter be subject to alteration or amendment except by agreement of all of the parties hereto.
2.
In addition to the basic wages for longshore work as pro-
vided in Section
3
(a)
additional wages to be called penalties
shall be paid for the types of cargoes, condition of cargoes or
working conditions specified below.
Penalty cargo rates shall
apply to all members of the longshore gang, including dockmen,
except where herein otherwise specified.
Transcript of printed booklet.
patching Hall.
Where differentials
Copies may be obtained from the Joint Dis-
APPENDIX
147
E
are now paid for skill, penalty cargo rates shall not be
pyramided thereon.
Where the cargo penalty rate herein is
higher than the skilled rate paid to any member of the gang,
such member shall receive the cargo penalty rate less the
allowance which he is receiving for skill.
Present port practices shall be continued in the payment
of penalties to gang bosses.
Where two penalties might apply the higher penalty shall
apply and in no case shall penalties be pyramided.
3.
For shovelling all commodities except on commodities
earning higher rate.
straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
$1.15
1.70
To Boardmen stowing bulk grain:
straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
$1.25
1.70
For handling bulk sulphur, soda ash and crude untreated
potash:
straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
$1.40
1.85
Untreated or offensive bones in bulk:
straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
$1.70
1.70
For handling phosphate rock in bulk:
straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
4.
$1.25
1.70
When handling the following commodities in lots of 25 tons
or more a penalty for both straight and overtime work in
addition to the basic rate shall be
iO(t
per hour; the total
rates for such work shall be:
Straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
$1.05
1.50
Alfalfa Meal
Untreated or offensive Bones in sacks
Caustic Soda in drums
Celite and decolite in sacks
Coal in sacks
Cement
(a) All discharging from ships.
(b) Loading only when in bags with no inner containers, unless the cargo falls within the
provision relating to damaged cargo.
148
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
Creosote, when not crated
Creosoted Wood Products unless boxed or crated
Following fertilizers in bags:
Tankage, animal, fish, fishmeal, guano, blood meal
and bone meal
Glass, broken, in sacks
Green hides
Herring, in boxes and barrels
Lime, in barrels and loose mesh sacks
Lumber projducts loaded out of water, including that
part of cribs only which has been submerged.
Meat scraps, 'in sacksNitrates, crude, untreated, in sacks
Phosphates, crude, untreated, in sacks
Plaster, in sacks without inner containers
Refrigerated Cargo:
Handling and stowing refrigerator
space meats, fowl and other similar cargoes to be transported at temperatures of freezing or below in the
boxes.
Loading only and to apply to the entire loading
Sacks:
operation where table or chutes are used and the men are
handling sacks weighing 120# or over on the basis of one
man per sack.
Salt Blocks in sacks.
Scrap metal in bulk and bales, excluding rails,
plates, drums, car wheels and axles.
Soda ash in bags.
When the following cargoes are leaking or sifting because
of damage or faulty containers, a penalty of io<t per hour shall
"be
paid; and total rate shall
be*.
$1.05
1.50
straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
Analine Dyes
Pish Oil, whale oil and oriental oils, in drums,
barrels or cases
Lamp black.
5.
Penalties to Certain Gang Members'.
To winchdrivers
,
hatchtenders
,
siderunners, burton men,
donkey drivers, stowing machine drivers and boom men only:
Handling lumber and logs out of water
straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
To Boom men
$1.15
1.60
only*.
Handling creosoted products out of water
straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
$1.25
1.70
149
APPENDIX E
All paper and pulp in packages weighing
To Hold men only:
300 lbs. or over per package, only when winging up, and when
stowing in fore peaks, after peaks and special compartments
other than regular cargo spaces.
(This does not apply to rolls)
Straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
$1.05
1.50
To Hold men only:
Head room:
When there is less than
6 ft.
head room -
(a)
Loading cargo in hold on top of bulk grain.
(b)
Covering logs or piling with lumber products.
Straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
6.
of
$1.05
1.50
Penalties for Special Conditions
Damaged Cargo:
Cargo badly damaged by fire, collision,
springing a leak or stranding, for that part of cargo only
which is in a badly damaged or offensive condition.
straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
$1.50
1.50
Cargo damaged from causes other than those enumerated
above, shall,
if
inspection warrants, pay the damaged cargo
rate or such other rate as determined by the Labor Relations
Committee for handling that part of the cargo only which is in
a badly damaged or offensive condition.
Explosives:
When working explosives, as defined by
current Western Classification Rules, all men working ship and
barge to receive:
Straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
Fire:
When fire
is
$1.40
1.40
burning or cargo smouldering in a
hatch, the gang working the hatch to receive:
Straight time, per hour
Overtime, per hour
$2.10
2.10
APPENDIX F
CALENDAR OF 4-WEEK WORK PERIODS*
re r X oa dates
Prom
X
O
A
H.
R
\J
A
\j
17
Q
9
1 n
xu
xo
X4
1 ^
xo
1
xo
X
.'
xo
1 Q
X
0
0X
1
00
<co
AO
OA
orrt)
<oo
<i
y
ou
oX
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
October
November
December
J anuary
February
March
Apr i 1
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
J anuary
February
March
March
Apri 1
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
Through
7,
1 QQ
xyo4
iyo4
1 QO/t
iyo4
xydo
4,
X 000
4,
X WOU
15,
12,
10,
November
December
January
February
March
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
January
February
March
Apri 1
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
January
/I
xyoo
lyoo
xyoo
xyjo
ly oo
xy oo
xy oo
14, xyoo
11, xyoo
9, xy oo
1,
29,
27,
24,
22,
19,
16,
6,
lyots
XooD
2, 1 QQA
30, 1 QQA
27, xyoo
25, 1 QQA
3,
22,
20,
17,
14,
12,
9,
7,
4,
xyoo
1 QQA
xy
oD
1 QQA
xyoo
1 QQA
X
yoD
1 QQA
xyoo
1 QQA
xyoo
1 QQA
lyoD
xyov
QQIT/
xyo
1,
1
1,
1937
1937
1937
1937
1937
1937
1937
1937
1937
1937
1937
1938
29,
26,
25,
21,
19,
16,
13,
11,
8,
6,
3,
11,
iyo4
1935
3, 1935
1 QQ
3, xyoo
1 QQ
31, xyoo
9,
6,
28,
26,
23,
21,
18,
15,
13,
10,
8,
5,
2,
1,
29,
26,
24,
21,
19,
16,
13,
11,
8,
6,
3,
31,
28,
28,
25,
24,
20,
18,
15,
12,
10,
1 Q0
xyoo
i QO K
xyjo
1 QQ R
xyoo
i QO K
xyjo
QQ K
QQ
1 QQ
lyoO
1 QQ
xyoo
i
i
1 QQA
xyoo
i Q QA
xyoo
1 QQA
1
QQA
xyoo
1 QQA
xyoo
1 QQA
xyoo
1 QQA
xyoo
1 QQA
xyo
D
1 QQA
xy oD
1 QQA
xyoo
1 QQA
xyoo
1 QQA
xyoo
1 QQA
xyoo
1 QQC
xyo
I
QQi?/
xyo
1
1 QQ"?
xyo
/
1937
1937
1937
1937
1937
1937
1937
1937
7, 1937
5, 1937
2, 1938
30, 1938
^According to Vage Scale and Working Rules for Longshore Vork: San Francisco Bay
District, ettectlve January 12, 1935 (see appendix E), the following holidays were
Admission Day (September 9), Armistice Day, Columbus Day, Christmas
recognized:
Day, Decoration Day, Election Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Lincoln's Birthday,
New Year's Day, Thanksgiving Day, and Washington's Birthday, as well as any other
legal holidays that might be proclaimed by State or National authorities.
^Longshoremen's strike, October 31, 1936 to February
150
4,
1937.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
This bibliography covers two types of material:
primary and
secondary sources of information on decasualizat ion schemes
The primary sources, some of which are
and their operation.
reprinted in whole or in part in appendix E, are documents used
by the author in her discussion of the establishment and operation of the work-rotation system in the port of San Francisco
in
particular and of decasualization in other West Coast ports
in general.
The secondary sources represent some of the literature avail-
able in English on port decasualization schemes in Europe
and in America.
Selected items have also been included on
conditions of employment of longshoremen in casual ports, with
emphasis on the United States.
DOCUMENTARY MATERIAL
U. S.
National Longshoremen's Board,
July 1934.
i.
"Proceedings:
2.
"Mediation Proceedings.
"
Sitting as a Board of
Arbitration to Arbitrate Controversies Between Waterfront
Employers and International Longshoremen's Association,
Local 38 of the Pacific Coast District."
1934.
Typewritten.
Copies at University of California
Library and in files of the
.
Aug. 8-Sept. 25,
Arbitrators' Award:
U.
S.
Department of Labor.
In the Matter of the Arbitration
Between Pacific Coast District Local 38 of the International Longshoremen's Association, Acting on Behalf of
the
Various Locals Vhose Members Perform Longshore Labor,
and Waterfront Employers of Seattle,
of Portland,
Waterfront Employe rs
Waterfront Employers' Union of San Francisco,
and Marine Service Bureau of Los Angeles,
San Francisco,
Calif.:
(Reprinted in
appendix
.
mimeo.
,
Oct.
12,
1934.
9
pp.
E.)
Award:
In the Matter of Arbitration Between Pacific
Coast Local Mo. ^8 of the International Longshoremen's
Assoc iat ion Acting on Behalf of Its Port land Oregon Local
,
Whose Members Perform Labor on Docks or Terminals,
and
Interstate Terminals, Ltd., Chr istens on-Hammond Lines,
Oceanic Terminals
,
International Stevedoring Company,
151
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
152
McCormick Steamship Company
San Francisco, Calif.:
.
Award:
mimeo.
,
,
and Supples Dock,
Oct.
Inc.
1934.
17,
In the Matter of Arbitration Between Pacific
38 of the International Longshoremen's
Coast Local No.
Ass oc iat 1 on
,
Acting on Behalf of Various Locals Whose
Members Perform Labor as Grain Handlers
and Kerr Gifford
,
S Co., Inc., Northern Wharf and Warehouse Company, Port of
Seattle Elevator Company, and Port of Vancouver Elevator
Company, Employing Grain Handlers at Port land
Vancouver,
Washington and/or Seattle,
Francisco, Calif.:
mimeo., Oct. 17,
Longshore Labor Relations Committee.
for Longshore Work:
Francisco, Calif.
Oregon,
,
Washington,
San
1934.
Wage Scale and Working Rules
San Francisco Bay District
Effective Jan. 12, 1935.
San
,
(The working
rules only are reprinted in appendix E.
This agreement, signed by the Labor Relations Committee;
International Longshoremen's Association, Local 38-79; and
Waterfront Employers' Association of San Francisco, Cali-
fornia, was adopted pursuant to the award of the U.
S.
National Longshoremen's Board.
.
Dispatching
San Francisco Longshore Dispatching Hall:
Rules,
San Francisco, Calif.:
mimeo., Feb.
1935.
18,
(Reprinted in appendix E.)
of the Inter-
Agreement Between Pacific Coast District, Local
national Longshoremen's Association,
Employ ers
'
of Seattle,
and Waterfront
Waterfront Employers of Portland,
Waterfront Employers' Association of San Francisco,
Waterfront Employers' Association of Southern California,
and Shipowners' Association of the Pacific Coast,
Francisco, Calif.
Feb. 4,
(Reprinted in
24 pp.
1937-
San
appendix E.
Maximum Loads
for Standard Commodities
Effective July 26, 1937.
:
Pacific
Coast
Ports.
(Reprinted in appendix E.)
This agreement was supplemental to the agreement of
February
4,
1937 and was made a part thereof.
Wage Rates for Longshore
July 26, 1937.
Work:
Pacific Coast Ports,
Effective
(Reprinted in appendix E.)
The penalty cargo rates stated in this document supersede
those of the agreement of February 4, 1937.
153
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Morse, Wayne L.
Federal Arbitrator by appointment of the U.
,
Arhitrat or
Secretary of Labor,
'
In the Matter of
Award:
s
S.
an Arbitration Between Vaterfront Employers
'
Association,
Complainants, and International Longshoremen's and Ware-
housemen's Union, No. i-io
mimeo.
U. S.
,
Sept.
193S.
17,
Respondents,
,
Eugene, Oreg.
I
20 pp.
In the Matter of Shipowner s
Nat ional Labor Relations Board.
'
Waterfront Employers
Association of the Pacific Coast,
Association of the Pacific Coast, The Waterfront Employers
Waterfront Employers of Portland,
The
Waterfront Employers' Association of San Francisco,
The
of Seattle,
The
Waterfront Employers Association of Southern California
and International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union,
District No.
(Case No. R-638); In the Matter of Water-
1
front EmP loyers Association of Southern California and
International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union,
Local 1-12 (Case No. R-572)
June 21, 1938.
J.
L.
W.
U.
.
Washington, D.
C:
Official organ of the International Long-
Bulletin,
ated to the C.
W.
U.
Bulletin.
1,
affili-
Published every Wednesday in San
0.
I.
Francisco, California, by District
L.
,
31 pp.
shoremen's and Warehousemen's Union, District
/.
mimeo.
1.
Mimeographed sheet issued weekly by Local
1-10 (San Francisco, California)
of
the International
Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union.
Labor Relations Committee of the Waterfront Employers' Association
of
San Francisco and Local 1-10 of the International
Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union.
meetings.
Oct.
16,
Minutes of
1934 et seq,
GENERAL REFERENCES
"Rationalisation and the Decasualisation of
Bruyns, C. Morzer.
Dock Labour in the Port of Rotterdam."
Labour Review
XXXVII, No. 2 (Feb. 1938), 226-30.
.
Employment Exchanges
ities.
:
An International Study of Placing Activ-
"Studies and Reports:
Unemployment)
,
International
No. 18.
Labour Office, 1933.
"
Series C (Employment and
Geneva, Switzerland:
iv + 231 pp.
International
DECASUALIZATION OF LONGSHORE WORK
154
A Study of Longshore Earnings in Vashingt on Ports
Foisie, F. P.
Relation to Determining Compensation Under the Longshoremen's and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act.
Seattle,
in
Wash.:
mimeo.
The Waterfront Employers of Washington Ports,
,
Sept.
lo,
82 pp.
1930.
Submitted in hearings before Deputy Commissioner Wm. A.
Marshall, 14th District, United States Employees' Compensation Commission.
.
Decasualizing Longs hore Lab or and the Seatt
Waterfront Employers of Seattle, Feb.
Gottschalk,
European Ports."
(Apr.
1930)
,
An inquiry
1934.
1,
23 pp.
and Unemployment in
Some Great
International Labour Review,
XXI, No. 4
"Employment
Max.
Experience.
le
519-39.
into the systems in force in the ports of
Hamburg, Liverpool, Rotterdam, and Antwerp.
Great Britain, Ministry of Labour
in
Aberdeen and Glasgow,
London:
Oct.
1937.
18,
stracted in The Ministry of Labour Gazette,
(Jan.
Port Labour
Board of Inquiry.
,
XLVI
,
AbNo.
1
1938), 7.
Great Britain, Ministry of Labour, Committee of Inquiry on Port
Port Labour Inquiry Report,
Labour.
esty's Stationery Office, 1931.
Ministry
Britain,
Great
....
of Dock Labour,
of Employment
Stationery Office,
Minutes of Evidence."
498 pp.
Documents, and Indexes."
194 pp.
side Area,
Report
Wages and Conditions
His Majesty's
Vol.
Vol.
1,
2,
"Report and
"Appendices,
Liverpool:
Henry Young & Sons, Ltd.,
1930.
Abstracted in "Labor Conditions of Dock Workers
190 pp.
in the Port of Liverpool."
Hours,
Inquiry.
Report of Enquiry Into Casual Labour intheMersey-
Hanham, F. G.
31, No.
of
London:
2 vols.
1920.
His Maj-
92 pp.
of Labour, Court
Concerning Transport Workers
London:
(Dec.
6
Wages, and
portat ion
,
Monthly Labor Review,
Vol.
1930), pp. 43-9.
Working Conditions in Domestic
Washington, D.
C:
Water
Trans--
Federal Coordinator of
Transportation, Section of Research and Section of Labor
Relations, mimeo., Sept.
vol.
I,
pp.
144-53.
1936.
2 vols.
See particularly
(Published after expiration of
Emergency Railroad Transportation Act, 1933.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
a Solution
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WPA NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
Reports issued to date
(Continued from, inside front cover)
Studies in Production, Productivity, and Employment -Con tinned
Mining -Con* inued
1880-1937
E-7
Technology, Employment, and Output per Man In Phosphate-Rock Mining,
E-8
Changes in Technology and Labor Requirements In the Crushed-Stone Industry
Agriculture
Changes In Technology and Labor Requirements in Crop Production:
A-1
Sugar Beets
A-4
Potatoes
A-5
Corn
A-7
Cotton
A-10 Wheat and Oats (in press J
A-6
Trends in Size and Production of the Aggregate Farm Enterprise,
A-8
Trends In Employment in Agriculture,
1909-36
1909-36
Studies of Effects of Industrial Change on Labor Markets
P-l
Recent Trends In Employment and Unemployment in Philadelphia
P-2
The Labor Force of the Philadelphia Radio Industry in 1936
P-3
Employment and Unemployment in Philadelphia in 1936 and 1937 (in two parts)
P-4
Ten Years of Work Experience of Philadelphia Weavers and Loom Fixers
P-5
Ten Years of Work Experience of Philadelphia Machinists
P-6
Reemplojrment of Philadelphia Hosiery Workers After Shut-downs In 1933-34
L-i
Cigar Makers
L-2
Decasuallzatlon of Longshore work In San Francisco
L-3
Employment Experience of Paterson Broad-Sllk Workers,
After the Lay-Off
1986-36 (in press)
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