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COMPUTER MANPOWER OUTLOOK Bulletin 1826 U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics 1974 COMPUTER MANPOWER OUTLOOK Bulletin 1826 U.S. Department of Labor Peter J. Brennan, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Julius Shiskin, Commissioner 1974 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, GPO Bookstores, or BLS Regional Offices listed on inside back cover. Price $1.20 Make checks payable to Superintendent of Documents. Preface With the increasing use of electronic computers in U.S. business and industry, the need for reliable information about the manpower required to develop, program, operate, and manage computer systems is becoming more urgent. Recognizing this need, the National Science Foundation financed a Bureau of Labor Statistics study of computer manpower which could guide organizations—public and private—in planning computer staffing and education and training. This bulletin presents the results of that study. It includes information on the current employment and education and training characteristics of computer occupations; explores the impact of advancing computer technology on computer manpower and education; and projects computer occupational requirements and their implications for training. Findings are based on field visits by BLS staff to major computer manufacturers and firms in all major industries using computers for a wide range of applications; study o f published reports and trade and technical publications; and interviews with Government and industry experts. The study was undertaken jointly by the Bureau’s Division of Manpower and Occupational Outlook and Division of Technological Studies. Neal H. Rosenthal and John J. Macut had overall direction of the study while Morton Levine and Richard W. Riche provided major supervision of it. Robert V. Critchlow, Constance B. DiCesare, Joseph J. Rooney, and James D. York prepared the report. Edgar Weinberg, formerly Deputy Assistant Commissioner for Productivity and Technology, originated the study and contributed to the planning in the early stages. The Bureau is grateful to the National Science Foundation for their financial support and to the many individuals who provided information for the study and who reviewed and commented on the draft report. hi Contents Page In tro d u c tio n .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapters: 1. Highlights ........................................................................................................................................................ 3 2. Current status of employment and of education and training .................................................................. 6 3. Technological factors affecting projected manpower requirements ............................................................15 4. Projected manpower requirem ents............................................................................................................... 22 Tables: 1. Distribution of computers and employment in computer occupations by industry, 1970 ...................... 6 2. Percent distribution of computers and employment in computer occupations by State, 1970 ............. 7 3. Employment in computer occupations, 1970 .............................................. *........................................... 8 4. Employment in computer occupations by major industry division, 1970 ..................................... 8 5. Description of duties of computer m a n p o w e r........................................................................... 9 6 . Educational characteristics of persons in computer occupations at BLS computer survey sites .................................................................................................................................................... 12 7. Computer related degrees conferred by institutions of higher education in the United States, 1970-71 13 8 . Status of major hardware technology at computer user s i t e s .........................................................................15 9. Projected growth of employment requirements for computer occupations, 1970 to 1980 .• ....................22 10. Estimated job openings in computer occupations caused by employment growth and separations from the labor force, 1970 to 1980 ...................................................................................... 23 11. Employment in computer occupations by major industry division, 1970 and projected 1980 25 Charts: 1. 2. Employment in computer occupations, 1970 and 1980 projected requirem ents.................................... 4 Relative proportions of computer occupations by size of s i t e ..................................................................... 10 Appendixes: A. Sample design ................................................................................................................................................... 29 B. Census occupational t i t l e s ................................................................................................................................32 C. Industry distribution of computer m a n p o w e r...............................................................................................33 D. Employment distribution of computer occupation, by State, 1970 ........................................................ 43 E. Methods and assumptions for BLS industry occupational matrix projections of computer manpower requirements ............................................................................................................ 44 F. Interview guide for BLS computer user su rv e y ............................................................................................... 46 G. Glossary of computer t e r m s .............................................................................................................................55 Introduction Background The sharp growth in the use of computers has had a dramatic effect on the way data processing operations are handled in organizations throughout the economy. First introduced in 1946, the number of electronic computers grew rapidly during the 1950’s and 1960’s, and today they number more than 100,000.! Accom panying the growth of computers have been continuing advances in computer technology—many resulting from new developments in electronics—which have resulted in a widening variety of contemporary computer systems that are smaller, faster, and of greater capacity than earlier models. Experts forecast continued expansion in computer use and further advances in computer technology. These developments will have a major impact on manpower with thousands of additional computer personnel—many with changing job skills—required to effectively use the capabilities of computer systems over the next several years. Despite the computer success story, however, little data are available regarding trends in employment or education characteristics of computer manpower. The major reason for this lack of information is the field’s very rapid growth in a short period of time. Only recently have computer occupations been included in the schedules of any significant data collection surveys, and in-depth studies of employment and training requirements for computer personnel are very limited. education and training programs in the computer field. It could be useful, for example, in designing programs for government support of higher education in the computer sciences. The information now available for these purposes is fragmentary and uncertain, and there has been no systematic examination of economywide needs for computer manpower. Methods The objective of this study, financed by the National Science Foundation, was to develop estimates of current employment and future requirements and training needs for major computer occupations—systems analysts, pro grammers, data processing machine repairers,, computer and peripheral equipment operators, and keypunch operators. Such information is needed to guide organiza tions, public and private, in planning staffing and The first step in the project was to consult officials of the National Science Foundation, American Federation of Information Processing Societies (AFIPS), Business Equipment Manufacturer’s Association (BEMA), Bureau of Standards, Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and others for advice in setting the course of the study, and for subject matter information. Next, a detailed search of existing literature was made to obtain all available information on the employment and training of computer manpower and any relation ships to computer use by industry, types of computer applications, and developments in computer technology. Thereafter, officials of seven leading computer manu facturers were interviewed concerning prospective devel opments in their industry and subsequent implications for computer manpower employment and training. The last step of the study’s research efforts involved the collection of information through in-depth inter views with computer users. These interviews constituted a sample drawn from a file of approximately 20,000 computer sites developed by the International Data Corporation (IDC), Newtonville, Massachusetts.2 Study conclusions were based on data obtained in the forementioned steps, supplemented by various BLS and Bureau of the Census employment data, especially the BLS national industry-occupational matrix which pro vides detailed information on the distribution of employment in computer occupations by industry. Projections of computer occupational employment developed using the industry-occupational matrix are described in appendix E. llntemational Data Corporation, FDP Industry Report: Review and Forecast Issue, March 1972. 2A detailed description of the procedure used to select computer user firms is included in appendix A. Study objective Limitations In assessing the study’s results, it is necessary to consider its limitations. First, judgments about the future direction and pace of technological change and its impact on manpower are difficult. Consequently, the realization of study conclusions regarding computer technology depend on factors that cannot be fully anticipated. Another study constraint involved resources, which limited the number of computer user interviews conducted, in-depth research on computer productivity or output measures, and information from educational institutions treating the role and direction of computers as a new discipline in our educational system. Finally, conclusions drawn in this study are limited to the national picture. Therefore, regional differences in computer staffing, training, equipment, applications, and so forth, may exist. Chapter 1. Highlights Employment in computer occupations is expected to grow more slowly over the 1970-80 period than during the past decade, and the distribution o f workers among computer jobs is expected to change. Although sub stantial computer occupational employment increases are expected during the 1970’s as computers are put to new uses, a slow-down in the rate of growth of computer occupations is expected because of advances in both hardware and soTtware. Although the number of workers in computer jobs more than quadrupled during the sixties to number 765,000 in 1970, the number is projected to increase to almost 1 million by 1980, a growth of only 30 percent during the decade. However, this rate of increase is faster than the approximately 20 percent rate projected for total employment during the same period. (See chart 1.) Data processing machine repairers are expected to have the fastest growth among the computer occupa tions analyzed in this report, expanding from 36,000 in 1970 to double that number by 1980. Systems analysts and programmers also should continue to be among the most rapidly growing professional and technical occupa tions in the economy. The strong demand for trained systems analysts that marked recent years will continue. Approximately 100,000 workers were employed as systems analysts in 1970; the occupation is expected to grow by about 60 percent to number over 160,000 by the end of the decade. Programmer employment is expected to increase by about 40 percent from 176,000 employed in 1970 to 250,000 in 1980. The impact of advancing data entry technology is expected to cause the employment of keypunch opera tors to fall from 300,000 in 1970 to 235,000 in 1980—a decline of about 20 percent. In contrast, the employ ment of computer and peripheral equipment operators is projected to increase to 275,000 by 1980 from 150,000 workers in 1970. Major industries will experience different rates o f growth in computer manpower requirements to 1980. The most rapid employment increases are expected in hospital, education, and data processing services. In contrast, relatively slow growth is projected for manu facturing, finance, and insurance, and the transportation, communications, and electric, gas, and sanitary services 1sector where computer usage already is extensive. The thrust o f future technological change will be toward supplying the user with more computer capability fo r his investment dollar. Hardware. While the costs of computer manpower are rising, hardware prices have decreased and are ex pected to continue to fall over the 1970-8Q period. Because costs of computer manpower are a major part of computer user costs, manufacturers have a strong incen tive to reduce the manpower needed to use their equipment by incorporating functions that currently are being performed by computer personnel into the hard ware. Also, technological innovations that enable workers in other occupations to interact directly with computers and thus eliminate costly data processing specialists are expected to be stressed. By 1980, data communications terminals and mini computers are expected to be extended to many more users. Although the jobs of some noncomputer person nel, such as salesclerks and airline ticket agents, will change as they use computers for tasks that once required personal attention, the impact of these tech nologies on most computer workers should be small. However, employment requirements for keypunch operators are expected to decline as data entry terminals grow in importance. Most banks and utilities now use magnetic ink (MICR) or optical character recognition (OCR) equip ment but further extension of this technology in these industries is likely to be limited. In addition, OCR is not expected to grow significantly throughout other indus try sectors by 1980 unless major changes occur in the equipment available that make it less expensive and applicable to more uses. Software. Easier-to-use programming languages are expected to be available by the end of the decade, and packaged programs are likely to be extended to a greater variety of applications. These developments should facilitate a more direct interaction between the user and his computer and, at the same time, moderate the employment demand for programmers. Chart 1. Employment in Computer Occupations, 1970 and Projected 1980 Requirements 0 50 100 Employment (in thousands) 150 200 250 300 Data processing machine repairmen Systems analysts HHH Programers Computer and peripheral equipment operators Keypunch operators Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Increasing sophistication and complexity o f computer personnel functions m il require workers with more and better training than in the past. Computer personnel vary widely in the amount and type of education and training they bring to the job. Workers in a single occupational specialty, such as programming, currently range from those having no education beyond high school to some with advanced degrees. This wide diversity in preparation for computer jobs is expected to diminish over the next decade, however, as more educational institutions offer computer related courses. Many users now furnish some type of in-house training for computer personnel, and expansion of these pro grams is expected over the 1970-80 period. In addition, computer science courses and related data processing subjects have varied greatly in quality. As a result, employers find computer science and data processing capabilities the most lacking qualifications in the back grounds of their computer personnel, regardless of their educational levels. Computer users further indicate that advances in hardware and software and the growing variety and complexity of applications will necessitate even better educated personnel. Major improvements to computer education and training needed to facilitate the availability of better qualified computer personnel include: —a larger number of qualified teachers —consistency of subject matter in similar course offerings —more rapid dissemination of information on computer technological advances by educa tional institutions —techniques for determining in advance the per formance capabilities of systems for specific applications —techniques for determining the ability of com puter products from different companies to work in the same system. Chapter 2. Current Status of Employment, Education, and Training Employment Computer occupations employed about 765,000 persons in 1970.3 The greatest concentration, about 32 percent, was in manufacturing, and the second largest concentration, about 25 percent, was in service indus tries. Sizable numbers of workers also were found in finance, insurance, and real estate (14 percent); whole sale and retail trade (12 percent); government (8 percent); and transportation, communications, electric, gas, and sanitary services (7 percent). In terms of regional concentration, the States of New York and California each employed about 12 percent of the persons in computer occupations. Sizable concentrations also were found in Illinois (7 percent), Pennsylvania (6 percent), and Ohio, Texas, and New Jersey (each with about 5 percent). The distribution of computer-related employment by major industry group is shown in table 1, and the distribution of employment by State in table 2. 3 Data for‘ computer-related employment are available for 1971 and 1972 from the Current Population Survey, and from various BLS Area Wage Surveys. Uses and limitations of these and other supplementary data used for analysis are discussed in appendix E. The distribution of computers by industry and by regional location parallels the distribution of computerrelated employment described in the preceding para graph. This shows the direct relationship of employment in computer occupations and computers in use. Occupations For this study, computer personnel are divided into five occupational categories: programmer, systems analyst, computer and peripheral equipment operator, keypunch operator, and data processing machine repairers.4 Two out of every five computer employees 4Fifty-five different occupational titles, shown in appendix B, were subsumed by the Bureau of the Census under six occupational categories: computer programmer, computer systems analyst, computer specialist n.e.c., computer and peri pheral equipment operator, keypunch operator, and data pro cessing machine repairers. The BLS Occupational Matrix cover age parallels the census classifications. This study, however, combines two of these classifications, systems analyst and computer specialist n.e.c., on the basis that the occupational titles listed under computer specialist n.e.c., would have been included in this study under the occupational category of systems analyst. Table 1. Distribution of computers and employment in computer occupations by industry, 1970 Employment Computers Industry T o t a l .......................................................... Agriculture, forestry, and fish e rie s .............. Mining ................................................................ Number Percent Number Percent 765,200 100.0 33,985 100.0 710 0.1 66 0.2 6,400 .8 616 1.8 C o n s tru ctio n ..................................................... 7,335 1.0 236 .7 M an u fa c tu rin g .................................................. 245,550 32.1 11,662 34.3 6.1 Transportation, communications, electric, gas and sanitary services............................ 51,645 6.8 2,090 Wholesale and retail tra d e ............................... 94,970 12.4 2,388 7.0 Finance, insurance, and real e s ta te .............. 107,460 14.0 5,073 14.9 Services................................................................ 188,500 24.6 7,448 21.9 G overnm ent....................................................... 62,630 8.2 4,401 12.9 Not classified..................................................... SOURCE: Employment: Bureau of Labor Statistics; Computers: International Data Corporation. 5 State T o t a l ............................................... Northeast ............................................... New England .................................... Maine ............................................ New H am pshire............................ Vermont ....................................... Massachusetts................... . . . . Rhode Island ........... ..................... Connecticut .............................. . Middle A tla n tic ................................. New Y o r k ....................................... New J e rs e y .................................... Pennsylvania................................. North C e n tral.......................................... East North C e n tral............................ O h i o ............................................... Indiana .......................................... Illin o is ............................................ Michigan ....................................... W isconsin....................................... West North Central ......................... M innesota....................................... Iowa ............................................ M isso uri.......................................... North D a k o t a ............................„ South D a k o t a ............................... Nebraska ....................................... Kansas ............................................. South ....................................... ................ South Atlantic ................................. Delaware ....................................... M a r y la n d ....................................... District of C o lu m b ia .................... Computers 100 Employment State 100 South Atlantic—Continued Virginia West V irg in ia ................................. North Carolina ............................ South Carolina ............................ Georgia .......................................... F lo rid a ................... ........................ East South C e n tral............................ Kentucky . . . ............................... Tennessee....................................... A labam a.......................................... Mississippi .................................... West South Central ......................... Arkansas ....................................... L o u isian a....................................... O klaho m a....................................... T exas............................................... W e s t.......................................................... M o u n ta in ............................................ M on tan a.......................................... Idaho ............................................... W y o m in g ....................................... Colorado ....................................... New Mexico .................................. A r iz o n a .......................................... U t a h ............................................... Nevada............................................ P a c ific .................................................. W ashington.................................... O regon............................................ C a lifo rn ia ....................................... A la s k a ............................................ H a w a ii....................................... .. . 0.3 .4 .2 4.4 .5 2.2 0.2 .3 .2 3.9 .4 1.9 10.5 4.5 6.1 12.1 4.9 6.0 5.6 2.4 6.6 3.6 2.1 5.2 2.0 6.9 4.0 1.8 1.8 1.1 2.5 .2 .1 .8 .8 2.2 .9 2.4 .1 .1 .5 .8 .4 2.5 1.2 .3 3.5 .7 Computers Employment 1.9 0.4 1.8 .8 2.2 2.5 2.6 0.4 1.6 .6 1.8 2.3 .8 1.4 1.2 .5 .9 1.3 1.1 .3 .5 1.1 1.2 5.5 .3 .9 1.1 5.3 .2 .3 .1 1.2 .5 .9 .5 .2 .1 .1 .1 1.2 .4 .8 .7 .2 1.5 .8 10.8 .1 .4 1.4 .7 11.9 .1 .4 SOURCE: 1971 International Data Corporation file; 1970 Census of Population. are keypunch operators, while more than one out of five are programmers and one out of five are computer and peripheral equipment operators. Systems analysts and repairers make up the balance. (See table 3.) Not included among computer occupations were thousands of workers in a variety of computer-related jobs, such as salesworkers and production workers employed by computer manufacturers, as well as engi neers, sales clerks, and many other people who use computers as a tool in their work. The principal criterion for including workers in computer occupations was whether their jobs resulted from the presence of the computer itself. Table 4 provides a breakdown of total employment and employment in each occupation by major industry group in 1970. The largest number of keypunch operators—the occupation that currently employs the most workers—is found in manufacturing with 28 percent of the total, followed by services with 21 percent of the total, and the industry group of finance, insurance, and real estate with about 17 percent of the total. Computer programmers, the second largest occu pational category, are also concentrated in these three industries—manufacturing with 36 percent, services with 29 percent, and finance, insurance, and real estate with 12 percent. The industry employment distribution of computer and peripheral equipment operators like the keypunch operators to whom they are occupationally related, was concentrated in manufacturing (30 percent), services (21 percent) and finance, insurance, and real estate (18 percent). Almost 90 percent of all systems analysts were employed in four industries. Manufactur ing included 40 percent of their total employment; services 28 percent; wholesale and retail trade 11 percent; and finance, insurance and real estate 9 percent. The smallest computer occupation in this study, data processing machine repairers were almost totally em ployed in three industries—36 percent in services, 30 per cent in manufacturing, and 29 percent in wholesale and retail trade. Table 5, provides a brief description of the major job duties for each of the computer occupations. Employment Occupational group T o t a l .................................................. Number Percent 765,200 100.0 Systems analy s ts ....................................... 102,700 13.4 Programmers ............................................ 176,500 23.1 Data processing machine repairers . . . . 36,000 4.7 Computer and peripheral equipment o p e ra to rs ............................................... 150,000 19.6 Keypunch operators................................. 300,000 39.2 SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Staffing patterns The survey of 136 5 computer users provided infor mation on the staffing patterns that exist at computer sites. The occupational mix, as well as the absolute number of workers on the computer staff, appears to depend more on the size of the site than on the type of industry or the computer application. For purposes of the computer manpower study a small site was defined as having a monthly rental value of 0-$5,000; a medium site, $5,001-$40,000 and a large site, over $40,000. Monthly rental values were selected as the proxy for measuring size of site against which staffing patterns would be evaluated. An effort was made to determine the extent to which staffing patterns varied according to size of site. Generally, small sites have a greater overlap in job duties than large ones and each job position is con sequently more multi-functional. As a result, job titles are generally less definitive at small sites than at large ones. At a number of relatively small sites visited in the BLS survey, for example, the EDP manager performed both the programming and the systems analysis func tions. Such a site would have one EDP manager and no programmers or systems analysts. Programming and systems analysis were being carried out, but one would not know this by analyzing the list of the computer occupations at the site because this work is being done by the manager. Larger sites have more functional specialization and an employee is less likely to be doing more than his job title would indicate. A specialized, technical job such as systems analyst tends to increase as a relative percentage of all staff positions as the size of the site increases. This may well be the result of the fact that persons such as EDP managers and programmers are able to be multi functional at many small sites and handle any systems analysis, unlike at larger sites where greater specilization is necessary. At the small sites visited, systems ^Information from 4 of the 136 user sites visited was too incomplete to warrant inclusion in this chapter. Table 4. Employment in computer occupations by major industry division, 1970 Total Systems analysts programmers Industry Data processing machine repairers Computer and peripheral equipment operators Keypunch operators Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Total, all industries1 . . . . 765,200 100.0 102,700 100.0 176,500 100.0 36,000 100.0 150,000 100.0 300,000 100.0 Agriculture, forestry and fish e rie s .................................... 713 M in in g ............................................ 6,403 0.8 1,081 1.1 1,854 1.1 41 0.1 1,642 1.1 1,785 .6 Contract construction................. 7,335 1.0 921 0.9 1,969 1.1 95 .3 1,432 1.0 2,918 1.0 Manufacturing.............................. 245,550 32.1 41,472 40.4 63,131 35.8 10,736 29.8 45,455 30.3 84,756 28.3 (2) 20 (2 ) 157 (2 ) 5 (2 ) (2 ) 123 408 0.1 Transportation, communication, electric gas, and sanitary services...................................... 51,648 6.8 5,383 5.2 10,015 5.7 535 1.5 11,072 7.4 24,643 8.2 Wholesale and retail trade . . . . 94,970 12.4 10,812 10.5 4,080 8.0 10,464 29.1 16,345 10.9 43,269 14.4 Finance, insurance, and real e s ta te ................................. 107,464 14.0 9,275 9.0 21,557 12.2 291 .8 26,284 17.5 50,057 16.7 Services......................................... 188,502 24.6 28,384 27.6 51,819 29.4 12,808 35.6 31,709 21.1 63,782 21.3 8.2 5,356 5.2 11,924 6.8 1,026 2.9 15,943 10.6 28,388 9.5 G overnm en t................................. 62,637 -i Totals may not add due to rounding. n Less than . 1 percent. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Job title Description of major duties Systems analysts...................................................................... Analyze business, scientific, and engineering problems for application to electronic data processing system. Systems Analysts are classified according to their specialty. In business (nonmanagerial) analyzes business problems; such as development of integrated production, inventory control and cost analysis system, to refine its formulation and convert it to programmable form for application to electronic data processing system. In scientific and technical areas (nonmanagerial) performs logical analyses of scientific, engineering, and other technical problems and formulates mathematical models of problems for solution by digital computer. Those employed as systems engineers analyze electronic data processing projects to determine equipment requirements. Analyze capabilities and limitation of computers and peripheral equipment and plan layout of computer and peripheral equipment to achieve efficient operation. Usually employed by consulting firm or equipment manufacturer. Computer programmers .......................................................... Convert business, scientific, engineering problems to detailed logical flow charts. Computer programmers are classified according to their specialty. In business applications (nonmanagerial) converts symbolic statement of business problems to detailed logical flow charts for coding into computer language and solution by means of automatic data processing equipment. May convert detailed flow chart to language processable by computer. In scientific and technical applications (nonmanagerial) converts scientific, engineering, and other technical problem formulation to format processable by computer. Data processing machine repairers............................................ Install and periodically service computer systems. Experience or technical training in electronics often is necessary. Computer and peripheral equipment operators........................ Computer (console) Operators-Monitor and operate the control console of a computer to process data according to operating instructions. Study instructions to determine equipment setup and operation; switch necessary auxiliary equipment into circuit and start and operate computer; make adjustments to computer to correct operating problems; review errors made during operation to determine cause; and maintain operating records. Peripheral Equipment Operators-Operate on-line or off-line peripheral machines, according to instructions, to transfer data from one form to another, print output and read data into and out of electronic computer. Keypunch operator.................................................................. Operates alphabetic and numeric keypunch machine, similar in operation to electric typewriter, to transcribe data from source material onto punchcards and produce prepunched data: Attaches skip bar to machine and previously punched program card around machine drum to control duplication and spacing of constant data. Loads machine with decks of punchcards. Moves switches and depresses keys to select automatic or manual duplication and spacing, select alphabetic or numeric punching, and transfer cards through machine stations. Depresses keys to transcribe new data in prescribed sequence from source material into perforations on card. Inserts previously punched card into card gage to verify registration of punches. analysts made up only 2.4 percent of the total for all EDP staff; at medium sites they were 5.7 percent of the total, and at large sites they jumped to 12.9 percent of all EDP staff. (See chart 2.) Keypunchers showed the opposite trend. They made up 37.1 percent of the EDP staff at small sites, 31.1 percent at medium sites, and only 23.0 percent at large sites. There are several possible reasons for the reversal in trends. There is more overlap between programming and systems analysis work than between keypunch work and other EDP functions. Thus, at small sites a programmer might perform any necessary systems analysis work in the course of carrying out his job, but it would be less likely that anyone other than a keypuncher would do Chart 2. Relative Proportions of Computer Occupations by Size of Site Occupations: " : EDP Managers ■ Systems analysts Program ers Computer and peripheral equipment operators : Keypunch operators Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Percent o f all computer occupations ;■ :::: : 10 punch work. Another possible explanation is that larger sites can afford more sophisticated data input equip ment, which is more productive and thus requires fewer keypunchers. Also, the nature of work at many large sites is more complex and sophisticated. Consequently as the size of the computer site increases, the need for systems analysts increases more rapidly than the need for less technical people, such as keypunchers. Programmers represented 17.6 percent of the total EDP staff at the small sites, 19.1 percent at the medium size sites, and 21.2 percent at the large sites. For computer and peripheral equipment operators, the figures were 18.4 percent at the small sites, 22.2 percent at the medium ones, and 23.2 percent at the large ones. The EDP managers were 17.6 percent of the total EDP personnel at small sites, to 10.7 percent at medium size sites, and 7.2 percent at large sites. The occupational title, “programmer-analyst” was used at 14 of the sites included in the survey. Pro grammer-analysts perform both programming operation's and systems analysis work, and consisted of approxi mately 10 percent of all the people at survey sites who were performing such operations. They were found in small, medium, and large sites in five of the major industry divisions. This may indicate a trend in the merging of two closely related occupations. Education and training Computer education and training is evolving, but beset with problems of quality, professionalism, and leadership, the study found. Much of this is the result of the computer field’s very rapid growth. A brief look at this growth from an education viewpoint provides a good background to the current situation. The very rapid growth of computer use during the 1950’s far outstripped the availability of personnel with data processing skills. Computer jobs were growing rapidly and many people sought training in the field, but schools were not yet offering data processing subjects. The generally slow reaction of the educational system to occupational needs was compounded in this instance because expensive computer equipment was needed for student interaction in the instructional process, and because the relatively few people who were qualified to teach attracted higher salaries in the business world. The major source of developmental stage computer education and training was the computer manufacturers who, in addition to producing new computers and illustrating new uses for computers, provided instruction to employees of their customers. Many persons trained in this way, however, acquired only limited skills since their training usually concentrated on the operating procedures for their company’s computer system. This procedure, therefore, restricted transfers or advances to jobs requiring knowledge of different types of com puters and related equipment. During the 1960’s more post high school educational institutions, both public and private, included data processing in their curriculums, but the number of graduates with specific training for computer jobs fell further^behind the burgeoning growth of computer jobs. To fill the widening gap between the demand for and the availability of computer personnel, a large number of private computer schools were established. Some of these schools, however, have been criticized for exploit ing the computer manpower situation for financial gain, providing substandard teachers, limited subject matter, and obsolete computing equipment .6 In the late 1960’s, computer manufacturers added a new dimension to the education issue by declaring that educational services would no longer be included in the pricing of computer systems and constituted a separate charge.7 Subsequent awareness of computer education costs led many computer users to evaluate and seek alternative ways to train workers (private EDP school or private and public educational institutions) in order to get the most for their computer education dollar. The economic downturn, coupled with rising com puter education costs at the beginning of the 1970’s, led computer users to consider another possibility—training their own computer personnel. These “in-house” train ing programs, usually administered at the user’s site by company personnel or an education services company, sometimes include videotape education packages and are tailored to the needs of the company’s computer operations. As a result of these EDP educational developments over the past two decades, various types and levels of computer training are currently offered by several different sources, most of which are growing in number. Nevertheless, the discipline still lacks: —A sufficient number of qualified teachers. —Consistency of subject matter in similar course offerings. —Rapid dissemination of data on computer tech nological advances through educational institu tions. —Techniques for determining in advance the per formance capabilities of systems set up for specific applications. 6Tirney, Thomas R. “Education for Data Processing: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow” Computers and Automation, July 1972. Vogeding, Lorin C. ‘Training For Computer Pro grammers” Computers and Automation, July 1970. 7“The Company Classroom Comes of Age,” Business Auto mation, July 1970. Techniques for determining the ability of computer products from different companies to work in the same system. Despite the shortcomings of computer education and training in its current state, training and education are generally thought to be necessary for optimum utiliza tion of computer systems. It is noteworthy, however, that some employers consider on-the-job training sufficient except for the top jobs (systems and manage ment work) in a computer operation. They argue that the greater availability of college graduates in recent years enables them to hire persons with higher educa tional levels than is really required for the work. They further maintain that most formal course work goes unused in computer operation functions, and that the only really necessary qualifications for success in com puter work are intelligence and the ability to think logically. This de-emphasis on computer education and training may pertain for some systems performing basic, repetitive and unchanging tasks, but the study’s findings indicate that an increasingly large number of computer users either anticipate changes in their computer func tions or plan improvements in the efficiency of their computer operations. For these users, experienced per sonnel trained in computer and information science are needed to facilitate such changes or improvements. In addition, many of the new uses to which computer systems are being adapted are more complex and sophisticated, which in turn requires more educated and experienced computer manpower. Education characteristics of computer occupations This study found the educational characteristics of computer workers ranged from high school to college degree and beyond. (See table 6 .) The most professional computer work, which involves EDP management, systems design and analysis, and systems programming, is performed by persons typically having 4 years or more of college training. The middle range of computer work, involving scientific applications and complex business applications programming, and equipment maintenance, is typically done by persons having college, junior college, or computer manufacturer school backgrounds. The work requiring the least formal education involves basic applications programming, equipment operation, and keying functions. This work is usually carried out by high school graduates, many of whom have some computer manufacturer or private computer school training. Regardless of education level, however, the desired ingredients most lacking in computer staff backgrounds are computer science and data processing related subjects and a knowledge of the business their computer operation is serving. The data in table 7 indicates the relatively small number of persons receiving degrees in computer subject fields in 1970. No significant differences in computer education characteristics were found by industry, although larger numbers of more educated workers were employed by the industries with the greatest computer penetration. Computer education characteristics by occupation among the respondents interviewed during the survey phase of this study are as follows: EDP managers. Most EDP managers had taken some college courses. About half held bachelor’s degrees, nearly a third also had an advanced degree. A small number were junior college graduates. Few attended private computer schools or manufacturer schools. Table 6. Educational characteristics of persons in computer occupations at BLS computer survey sites Education level (percent) Computer occupation EDP m anager.................................... Systems analyst Some college High school 100.0 Junior college graduate 5.0 1 College graduate Other Bachelor's degree Graduate degree 16.8 44.1 15.9 Private computer school graduate 5.0 Other^ 6.0 .............................. 100.0 3.9 19.7 57.8 11.8 4.3 4.6 Program m er....................................... 100.0 10.4 24.1 36.6 5.8 8.2 2.5 ............................ 99.4 5.9 18.9 2.9 .2 12.7 4.9 Peripheral equipment operator^....................................... 98.6 1.7 5.0 1.1 ... 8.9 8.9 Console operator ^ O c c u p a tio n a l p e rce n t to ta ls are n o t a d d itiv e because o f th e p o ss ib ility of m u ltip le e d u c a tio n entries. For e xa m p le, program ers w h o are high school graduates, c o m p le te d som e college, and are graduates o f a p riv a te c o m p u te r school are in clu d e d in those c olu m n s. ^ In c lu d e s courses, etc. 3 m ilita r y , c o rrespo ndence, Includes k e y p u n c h o p erators. S O U R C E : B ureau o f L abo r S tatistics. m a n u fa c tu re r school Table 7. Computer related degrees conferred by institu tions of higher education in the United States, 1970-71. Field of study Bachelor's degrees Master's Doctor's Total (requiring degrees degrees 40 or 5 years) Total computer and information sciences...................... 4,104 2,388 1,588 128 Computer and informa tion sciences, general . . 2,865 1,624 1,131 110 11 Information sciences and systems ......................... 331 177 143 Data processing................. 580 409 171 Computer programming . 37 32 5 Systems a n a ly s is .............. 182 88 88 6 Computer and informa tion sciences, other . . . 109 58 50 1 SOURCE: U .S . D e p a rtm e n t W e lfa re , O ffic e o f E d u c a tio n . of H e a lth , — E d u c a tio n and The major field of study found among EDP managers was business administration. Mathematics and account ing made up the next largest area of concentration. Some EDP managers majored in engineering specialties and data processing or computer science. A few majored in economics, physics, English, or law. Systems analysts. Among the computer occupations, systems analysts had the highest reported education level. Practically all had completed some college training. About two-thirds held bachelor’s degrees, one-fifth of whom had advanced degrees. Small numbers of systems analysts attended private computer schools or manufac turer’s schools, and very few were junior college graduates. The field most studied by systems analysts was business administration. Mathematics, accounting, engi neering, and computer sciences were the next most commonly studied disciplines. A few majored in economics or statistics. Programmers. Programmers had a somewhat lower edu cation level and more varied educational backgrounds than systems analysts or EDP managers. Most program mers pursued some type of post high school education. However, only slightly more than a third were bachelor’s degree holders, about one-eighth of whom received advanced degrees. More programmers graduated from junior colleges and private computer schools than EDP managers or systems analysts. The major, fields of study for programmers were business administration, mathematics, and data process ing. Large numbers of programmers also majored in accounting; some studied engineering, economics, or English. Computer operators. Practically all computer console operators were high school graduates. Nearly half had some post high school education or training. The dominant post high school pursuit was college, but few received degrees. Many console operators graduated from junior colleges and an even larger number from private computer schools. Substantial numbers of con sole operators also attended computer manufacturer schools. Aside from on-the-job computer training, console operators most frequently took high school commercial courses, general business courses or computer operation and related data processing courses. Some also had computer science, accounting, or mathematics courses in their backgrounds. Peripheral equipment operators. Although most peripheral equipment operators were high school graduates, nearly three-fourths of them had no schooling beyond that level. Of those who did, most attended computer manufacturer schools or graduated from private computer schools. Some took college courses, and a few were junior college or college graduates. The studies of peripheral equipment operators who had some training besides on-the-job, included high school commercial courses, keypunch and related data processing courses, and general business courses. Supplementary post employment training The extent of job related supplementary training varies widely, with few employers having formal indepth programs. Some companies have no supple mentary training provisions for their computer employees; others provide this type of training only when changes in computer procedures or equipment are made; and still others have regular supplementary training programs of varying type and degree. Some companies also maintain a tuition refund plan or pay for their computer employees attendance at professional seminars. The frequency and variety of supplementary training is much greater among computer jobs involving manage ment, systems analysis, and programming than for computer operating personnel. There appears to be no significant variation in the extent of training by indus try, and regardless of the type or length of training, it is usually paid for by the employer. The most commonly mentioned type of supple mentary training includes manufacturer’s schools, inhouse training programs, and on-the-job training; college, correspondence, and vocational school courses and professional seminars are used less frequently. The length of supplementary training ranges from less than a day to a year or more; but the bulk of this training usually is completed in 1 to 12 weeks with the higher level computer jobs usually requiring the more lengthy training. Among computer occupations, EDP manager supple mentary training most frequently involves computer operations and programming, accounting, and general business management. Systems analysts most frequently take computer science courses; and systems, program ming, and management training. Programmers most frequently train in programming languages and tech niques; and to a lesser extent, systems analysis and design training. Console, peripheral equipment and keypunch operators usually train in data preparation, production control, and computer equipment operation techniques, and occasionally programming. Data process ing machine repairer training usually involves computer electronics related courses. Chapter 3. Technological Factors Affecting Projected Manpower Requirements officials interviewed at seven computer manufacturers and 132 of the 136 computer users who were contacted for information during the survey phase of this study .8 The four major technologies examined in this section are optical character recognition equipment, computer terminals, minicomputers, and d a ta ' communication systems. As indicated in table 8 , user sites surveyed were using these technologies on a limited basis with the rate of diffusion highest for computer terminals (installed at 16 percent of total sites), and lowest for data communi cations (installed at 6 percent of total sites). A sub stantial number of survey sites, however, report plans to install these hardware devices in the future, so further manpower impact can be anticipated. Optical character recognition equipment (OCR) pro vides a form of computer data entry. OCR machines “read” printed information in various forms and trans late the information into computer input form. Where these machines can be used, they can enter data into a computer system at a very high speed. Their usefulness, however, is limited by two factors: currently most OCR readers are designed to read only one or, at most, a small number of type fonts; and, OCR readers are expensive. OCR equipment is now widely used only by firms that use “turnaround” documents (printed forms that a firm can send out and receive back), such as the Technology is advancing at a rapid pace in the computer field. This will affect the types of computers being manufactured, the uses to which computers are applied, and thd size and composition of computer occupations. New technologies that have manpower implications can be divided into three areas: hardware (computer mainframe and peripheral equipment), soft-, ware (computer programs and languages), and applica tions. Impact of hardware technology on computer manpower Technological developments in computer hardware range from improvements in existing equipment to predictions of a new “fourth generation” of computers. However, not all hardware related technological develop ments have an equal impact on computer manpower. This report discusses only those innovations judged to have significant implications for computer-oriented occupations. The judgment as to whether or not a new technology will have a major impact on manpower was based largely on the opinions and expectations of ^Information from 4 of the 136 user-sites visited was too incomplete to warrant inclusion in this chapter. Table 8. Status of major hardware technology at computer user sites Number of sites where computer hardware was— Technology Character recognition equipment1 Planned for future installation Installed at time of visit Not installed or planned at time of visit Percent total Number Percent of total Number Percent of total Number 11 8.3 16 12.1 105 79.5 63.6 Computer te rm in a ls ............................ 21 15.9 27 20.5 84 .................................... 17 12.9 30 22.7 85 64.4 Data com munications......................... 82 6.1 42 31.8 82 62.1 Minicomputers ^In clu d e s o p tic a l c h a ra c te r re c o g n itio n chara c te r re c o g n itio n e q u ip m e n t. and m ag netic ink 2 T h e n u m b er o f sites sresently u tiliz in g data c o m m u n ic a tio n s e q u ip m e n t m ay be u n d e rs ta ted as in d ic a ted in th e te x t, page 4 6 . S O U R C E : B ureau o f L a b o r S tatistics, customer billing forms used by electric power, tele phone, and credit card companies. The form includes the customer’s name, address, account number, and balance due. When the form is returned with the customer’s remittance, it is “read” by the OCR equipment. Banks use a similar technology-magnetic ink character recogni tion (MICR) on bank checks. In applications where “turnaround” documents cannot be used, OCR is not expected to grow rapidly between now and 1980. Views o f computer manufacturers. Among the seven computer mainframe manufacturers surveyed, there was divergence of opinion over the importance of OCR as an emerging technology, and over its effect on the employ ment of keypunch operators. Several officials interviewed forecast a relatively minor impact: — OCR is growing slowly and will not have much effect for some years. High cost limits its introduc tion, and there is no breakthrough in sight that will substantially reduce OCR cost. However, within 20 years, OCR may be used extensively enough to eliminate some keypunch operators, but operators will be needed for the OCR equipment. — OCR will have a slightly negative effect on keypunch operators; but the equipment is expen sive, and at present, customers are not demanding control processors that will interface with OCR machines. — OCR is not expected to significantly decrease keypunch operator employment. It is already in limited use in banks and other firms where highly repetitive operations are involved. — OCR is not expected to have a significant impact on keypunch operator employment. Only a few thousand OCR machines are currently in use, and their introduction has not affected keypunch operator employment. Other officials interviewed anticipated a more exten sive impact. — OCR will decrease keypunch operator employ ment. A sophisticated OCR unit could replace approximately 10 keypunch operators; and by 1980, OCR equipment may cause total keypunch employment to decline by up to 10 percent. — OCR will cause a decline in keypunch operators. — OCR will greatly reduce keypunch operators. Experiences at computer user sites surveyed. Character recognition equipment was being used in 11 survey sites, or 9 percent of the total 132 contacted for information. Five of these survey sites were using OCR readers and six survey sites were using magnetic ink character recogni tion (MICR) systems, an older, but similar technology. Based on experiences at firms surveyed, further diffusion of OCR equipment will likely bring about displacement of keypunch staff. The impact of MICR on employment, however, is uncertain. Three of the five sites using OCR reported a decrease in keypunch operators (one of the sites had converted 90 percent of its data entry operations from cardpunch and key/tape to OCR, and decreased its keypunch staff by 20 percent). One site reported that the size of its keypunch staff remained unchanged, but it was handling a larger flow of data. The fifth site was experimenting with OCR, ahd had not changed its data entry staff. All five sites were in the “large” monthly rental category. None of the six sites using MICR systems reported a change in data entry staff-possibly because all of the MICR systems had been installed more than 5 years ago, and thus were excluded in the survey questions relating to staff changes. Four of these sites were in the medium-size class, and two were larger sites. Fifteen sites reported that they either would or might install OCR readers in the future and one site stated that it would possibly install a MICR system. Small, medium, and large sites are all represented in this group. Only four of the sites made any prediction about the effect of OCR on their staff, and in all four instances, the number of keypunch operators was expected to decline. Only two of the 44 industries covered in the survey showed a consistent pattern in the use of character recognition equipment. Four of six banks surveyed were using MICR systems, a technology quite common in the industry. All three public utility companies surveyed either have installed (one firm) or plan to install (two firms) OCR equipment for use in customer billings. The remaining character recognition systems-both installed and planned-are so widely dispersed among industries that there is no apparent industry pattern. Computer terminals are probably the fastest growing technology in the area of computer hardware and their use is expected to increase significantly. Terminals can be applied to many present computer systems, improv ing present applications or making possible new applica tions involving transfer of data from one location to another for processing. Computer terminals are expected to bring about some decline in the need for data entry people. On-line terminals at locations remote from central computer sites can handle—via data communications systems—data entry operations heretofore performed by keypunch operations at the central site. For example, airline reservation systems use terminals at their ticket sales offices-terminals that are linked by data communications systems to a central computer. Data entry for ticket sales is performed by the people who work in the sales offices, not by keypunch operators who work at the computer site. The example of airline reservation systems illustrates another important factor about computer terminal usage: terminals will probably have a greater impact on non-computer occupations than on computer-related occupations. Airline ticket agents, for example, have had to learn how to use terminals once the terminals were applied to ticket sales operations. As terminals are applied to new non-computerized operations, the people involved in carrying out those operations will likewise have to adapt to using terminals. Views o f computer manufacturers showed general agreement that computer terminals and on-line data entry will be used more extensively over the next decade. However, forecasts of the future extent of terminal use by the experts interviewed varied consider ably. Significant changes in the number and content of keypunch operator positions are expected. Some specific comments by officials of computer manufacturers are presented below. — The growth rate for terminals is greater (18 percent annually) than for CPU mainframe instal lations (10-12 percent annually). On-line terminals will have a large negative impact on keypunch operators with the number of programmers rela tively unchanged—increasing in some applications decreasing in others. — By 1980, there may be 2l/ i million computer terminal facilities, of which two-thirds will likely *use keying for input. The use of terminal key boards requires persons who have other skills in addition to key entry. Keypunch/tape operators will need retraining to qualify for terminaloriented jobs that encompass more than cardpunch operations. — Data preparation may change dramatically in the near future, especially in switching from keypunch to on-line data entry. Large establishments are the most susceptible to this trend. There may be a 20 percent reduction in requirements for computer data entry employees. — On-line data entry will become increasingly important, but this will not mean the demise of keying. Keying operators will still be needed to use some type of device, although not cards or tape, in order to key data into a computer. — Computer market growth lies mainly with terminal growth. But much of the employment effect will be on non-computer personnel. Computer terminals at point-of-sale checkout facilities in retail supermarkets, for example, may improve cashier item handling by 50 percent, decrease employment of stock clerks by the same percent and create more jobs for applications programmers and computer maintenance technicians. Bank tellers increasingly will operate terminals on-line to the bank’s central data base and newspaper reporters and editors will increasingly use CRT terminals. All of these applications are expected to occur in the next 5-6 years. Ninety percent of all terminal operations will be performed by non computer people. — By 1980, the present number of terminals (185,000) may grow to 800,000; and the existing number of CRT terminals (65,000) may total 325,000. Experiences at computer user sites surveyed. Computer terminals were being used at 21 sites, or 16 percent of total sites surveyed. All of these sites were in the medium or large categories. Seven sites reported a decrease in card punchers resulting from terminal use, five sites reported no change in staff, and eight sites did not provide information about their staffs. One site was using a CRT terminal and reported an increase in its data entry staff as the terminal operated at a slower speed than the keypunch equipment that it replaced. Twenty-seven sites plan to install terminals over the next 10 years. These sites were fairly evenly divided among the small, medium, and large size Categories. Ten sites expected terminals to cause a decrease in keypunch staff, three sites predicted little or no change in keypunch staff, one site expected an increase in its staff, and twelve sites offered no opinion on the future impact. The 48 survey sites that use or plan to use terminals constitute slightly over one-third of all survey sites. Six of the 44 industries covered by the survey show a possible industry trend in terminal usage. In each of the six industries, at least one-half of the sites visited use or plan to use terminals. The industries are: rubber prod ucts (SIC 30), instruments (SIC 38), retail trade (SIC 53), educational services (SIC 82), and Federal and State governments (SIC 91-97). Minicomputers are defined in this study as computers (logic system and memory cores) that cost less than $25,000. Defining minicomputers in monetary terms was judged to be the most useful method for the study. Minicomputers (mini’s) generally are applied to one or a very restricted number of operations at a time. As “dedicated” single purpose computers, mini’s can be used as independent computer systems programmed to perform single, specific jobs (“stand-alone” operations). Minicomputers also are used as integrated parts of larger computer systems-though still applied to single, specific operations within the larger system. Programming requirements for mini’s are minimal and operations are fairly simple. Because of this, mini’s used in “stand-alone” operations frequently can be operated by non-computer specialists such as engineers, accountants and production workers. For this group, the computer is only one of a number of tools used in their work. This is a trait that minicomputers share with terminals. When used as a part of a larger computer system operated by computer specialists, mini’s require only a relatively small amount of attention from the staff. Views o f computer manufacturers. Officials of computer manufacturers forecast a sharp growth in minicomputer use which is expected to complement rather than supplant larger computer systems. The greatest impact may be on non-computer clerical occupations as indicated in the specific comments provided below. — Estimated growth in minicomputer systems is projected to be at least 20 percent annually. Minicomputers used as free-standing units frequently use “canned” programs which will cut into clerical rather than computer jobs, since they will be applied to work which is not done by large computers. — Minicomputers are the fastest growing segment of the computer industry. They are expected to complement large computers rather than replace them, since mini’s are usually programmed to perform one function indefinitely. The implication is for a depressing effect on computer occupations. However, even though only one-tenth as many workers in computer occupations will be needed per minicomputer as per large computers, the tremendous growth in mini’s will more than offset any adverse employment impact. — Minicomputers should increase greatly in usage, but should not interfere with the growth in larger computers. The two types sell to different markets, and thus are non-competing. Mini’s do not generally require a special computer staff. — As the applications for minicomputers grow, much of their employment impact will be on non computer occupations. Mini’s will not replace larger computers; rather, a mini would be used in a factory floor and be tied into a large central computer. Mini’s therefore will create some addi tional employment for programmers and analysts. — The outlook for mini’s is very bright. There will be an increasing number of applications for mini’s, and to some extent they will replace large com puters. Experiences at computer user sites surveyed. Seventeen sites in the survey—13 percent of the total—have installed minicomputers: two small sites, nine medium sites, and six large sites. Thirteen of the sites reported no change in their computer staffs resulting from installing mini’s, with two sites specifying that their mini’s were being operated by people who were not part of the regular computer staff. The remaining four sites stated that their computer staffs had increased in size. Thirty sites stated that they planned to install minicomputers in the future; 7 small sites, 16 medium sites and 7 large sites. The expected manpower impact of this change is mixed. Seven sites stated that their computer staff would not be affected because the mini’s would be used in other parts of the company by non-computer specialists. Six sites simply reported no expected change in their staffs. Four sites expected an increase in the size of their computer staff. Six sites expected an increase in specific occupations: programmer (two sites), systems analyst (one site), programmer and systems analyst (one site), operator (one site), and maintenance technician (one site). Four sites expected a decrease in staff, with one specifying a reduction in keypunch operators. Three sites did not provide information on staff changes. In each of eight industries, at least half of the firms surveyed were using, or planned to use, minicomputers. These industries are: Transportation equipment (SIC 37), instruments (SIC 38), utilities (SIC 49), retail trade (SIC 53), insurance carriers (SIC 63), miscellaneous business services (SIC 73), medical services (SIC 80), and educational services (SIC 82). Data communications, which involves the trans mission of information from one location to another for computer input, is a growing technology. Communica tions networks often will involve the use of on-line terminals and/or minicomputers. Through use of this technology, computers can be put to new applications, and people who previously had little or no access to computers will use them as a valuable aid. Several occupations will be affected by data com munications. Keypunch operators may decline in num ber while more peripheral equipment operators may be needed. More programmers may also be required, although the increase should be smaller than that for peripheral equipment operators. Whether or not the number of peripheral equipment operators and program mers increase, there will be a demand for people in these two occupations who can handle data communications equipment. At a conference on computer usage, some enlighten ing forecasts on the future of data communications were provided.9 The growth trend in data communications was estimated by one conference participant to be 50 percent annually ;!0 and by 1975, 60 percent of all minicomputers may be used in communications func tions. Nearly all computers installed in 1972 reportedly had data communication capabilities. A number of factors were cited as contributing to the growth of data communications: greater information requirements by users; reduced costs of communications equipment; improved data communications services; and 9Systems of Computers: The Dispersal of Computing Power. Conference sponsored by the American Management Association, New York City, March 1972. lOlbid. growing user confidence. Also of importance is the trend, mentioned in the above paragraph, of using minicomputers for communications functions, thus free ing a general-purpose computer for other tasks. When a computer user does install a mini for communication purposes, he may hire an additional programmer with communications experience. This type of specialist might be employed for several months when the user first installs his communications network, then might move on to another job once the network is operational. Views o f computer manufacturers. Computer manufac turers generally expect that data communications will continue to gain importance and will create some new peripheral equipment operator positions. However, several officials interviewed suggested that the greatest impact would be on non-computer personnel. Some specific comments are provided below. — Data communications are not expected to have any significant manpower effects. Where a central computer with terminals is used, there may be an increase in console operating personnel at the central site. — Data communications allows a decrease in tape and card handling, thus decreasing manpower requirements. However, the present limiting factor for data communications use is cost, which is not decreasing. Therefore, not much impact is expected before 1980. — New data transmission devices will significantly, though perhaps indirectly increase employment for peripheral equipment operators. This increase will be closely tied to an expected increase in the use of remote terminals connected to a central computer by data communications networks. — Data communications should lead to an increase in the overall employment of peripheral equipment operators, and in the replacement of accounting machine operators. — Data communications will increase decentraliza tion of computer operations; this will stimulate employment growth to the extent that a decen tralized operation derives less benefit from economies of scale. The greatest employment impact will be on occupations outisde the com puter industry. — Development in data communications will be very gradual. New engineering positions involving a specialization in data communications equipment are evolving. — Data communications will create many new jobs for peripheral equipment operators, as there will be a large increase in computer operations per formed on a remote on-line basis. But much of the employment impact will be on non-computer personnel. Experiences at computer user sites surveyed. Among the computer sites surveyed only eight sites—6 percent of total—specifically reported using data communications, the lowest rate of diffusion of the four technologies shown in table 8 . This may understate considerably the extent to which data communications is currently being used, however. Any computer installation using remote terminals tied into a central computer system is using data communications (an example of this is the com puterized reservations systems used by airlines and hotels). Therefore some survey sites using terminals probably also utilize data communications equipment. Four sites reported that introducing data communica tions equipment had an impact on their data entry staffs. At three sites, the number of employees in data entry tasks declined in number, and at the fourth site, where staff size remained unchanged, productivity increased. Forty-two sites reported plans to install data com munications facilities in the future. These sites were distributed among 27 of the 44 industries included in the survey. Possible industry trends (at least one-half of the sites in an industry) occurred in food products (SIC 34), instruments (SIC 38), communications services (SIC 48), banks (SIC 60), stock brokers (SIC 62), and insurance (SIC 63). The 42 sites include 4 small sites, 22 medium sites, and 16 large sites. Twenty-seven sites gave information about manpower expectations. Six sites expected no change in their computer staff, 11 sites expected a decline only in data entry employees, eight sites expected an increase in programmers or data communication specialists or com puter staffs at remote locations, and two sites expected a decline in data entry people and no increase in other occupations. Impact of software technology on computer manpower Major improvements are underway in computer languages and programs—the software component of the computer industry. These major developments likely will lessen the growth in demand for programmers since they all make possible fewer programmer man-hours per computer application. Highly sophisticated languages will increase the degree of training and specialization required of pro grammers and others who use them. Where these languages are used, and their uses may be somewhat limited, they may reduce the number of programmers. At the opposite extreme, languages simple enough to be used by noncomputer persons also are being devel oped. Research on such languages is still in its early stages; but if successful, these less complex languages would allow non-computer people to by-pass program mers and have direct access to computers. Packaged programs are another development available to computer users. Although presently limited to rela tively routine operations, packaged programs simplify programming operations, reduce programmer skill requirements, and probably make possible fewer pro grammers at a computer site. In the future, some programming operations may be simplified to the point they could be performed by console operators. Although user-oriented languages and packaged pro grams will have no adverse impact on employment of programmers, this trend may be partially offset by an increase in demand for a small specialized group of high level programmers employed by companies that supply software to computer users and for in-house systems programmers employed at sites characterized by complex computer use. Views o f computer manufacturers. Computer manufac turers generally forecast that advances in software technology will bring about a reduction in the demand for programmers and a simplification of the program ming function. Generally, computer manufacturers agree that some degree of standardization in program packages is possible and already exists. But most manufacturers stated that presently there is only a limited demand for standard program packages as many computer-using companies believe that their programming requirements are so specialized that standardized programs are not suitable. Some specific comments are provided below. — Management-oriented languages may have a nega tive impact on high level programmers, as non computer people will be doing more of this work. Otherwise no major manpower effect is antici pated. — Programming can be simplified by using more complex hardware to perform some programming operations. There is a trade-off between using hardware and software to do this job. Software has been stressed in the past, but the rapid increase in software costs will cause more emphasis to be placed on hardware. This will lower programmer skill requirements and the number of programmers needed. - High level programs that can write more simple programs (software that can write software) are being developed. This will stabilize the number of programmers and will lower programmer skill requirements to some extent. - Computer growth will be in applications and their attendant software. Hardware could be built for specific applications, but if the application changed, the hardware would have to be replaced and this is much more expensive than replacing a particular software package. As software tech nology gains, “systems” oriented occupations (designers, engineers, and analysts) will increase in number, while fewer programmers will likely be needed. — Management-oriented languages should slow the rate of growth in programmer occupations. — The incorporation of common programming functions into the hardware should have no major impact over the next 5 years, but by 1985 the effect could be dramatic. Computers are con stantly being made simpler to operate, however, so that the programming job is becoming easier. — User-oriented languages will not displace program mers, who still will be needed to design the overall system. Similarly, programmers still will be needed to develop the hardware that can generate its own programs—a capability presently useful only in a few specialized fields. Hence, programmer dis placement at firms manufacturing computers is not expected to be significant. — Some programming functions already are being built into computer hardware thereby slowing growth in computer manpower. The decline in demand for computer manpower resulting from the innovation will continue throughout this decade. Experiences at survey sites. Among the computer-user sites surveyed, only a few changes based strictly on software technology were reported. A software concept known as management information systems was most frequently mentioned as coming into wider usage. Five survey sites reported that they would be introducing or expanding their use of management information systems. Other comments are as follows: — Software changes are going to be significant in affecting the functions of computer personnel. The new software de-emphasizes coding opera tions, thus reducing the time spent on routine work and increasing the proportion of time spent on the more complex analysis tasks. — The emergence of an abundance of one-time programs has had the effect of reducing the amount of specialization of computer personnel. With so many one-time programs, it has proven cost effective for all personnel to have program ming knowledge. — Higher level languages will have an important two-fold effect on computer personnel. The first effect will be to improve the productivity of programmer-analysts. The second effect will be on the vertical mobility of employees. With the greater complexity of the higher level languages, even fewer operators will be able to advance to programmer-analyst positions. Impact of applications technology on computer manpower The BLS computer users survey also attempted to ascertain the impact of computer applications changes on staffing patterns. Computer users were asked what changes they anticipated in applications and what effects those changes would have on manpower. Any antici pated relative increase in a present application or introduction of a new application was recorded to determine if any relationship exists between computer applications and staffing patterns. The application which was most frequently men tioned was business forecasting. Out of 132 sites queried, 12 expected to add or increase the business forecasting application. Of these, eight anticipated no impact on their staffs. The four sites which anticipated staff changes felt that these changes would involve more programmers and systems analysts. The only other application which was mentioned with any frequency was inventory control. Of the three sites that mentioned inventory control, two anticipated a need for more systems analysts and programmers and the third forecast a need for more operators. Four additional sites expect to introduce or increase both business forecasting and inventory control applica tions. Two sites indicated no effect on staff was expected, one predicted more keypunch and data control personnel would be needed, and the fourth expected to add systems analysts. Some new applications are made possible by the development of new hardware. For instance, computers can be applied to point-of-sale operations in super markets or department stores through the use of computer terminals. Such applications may create jobs for applications programmers, and perhaps also for peripheral equipment operators and maintenance tech nicians. Chapter 4. Projected Manpower Requirements Employment growth Continued employment growth characterizes the out look for computer jobs through 1980. The major factors contributing to this growth include: — growth in the number and types of computers and peripheral equipment manufactured. — growth in the number and types of organizations using computers or computer services. — continuing development of new computer uses. — increasing dependence on computers to increase efficiency and productivity. — increasing emphasis on computers as a manage ment information tool. The rate of computer employment growth however, will be slower than during the past two decades. Also within the framework of this projected growth, an interplay of several factors will result in different rates of employment increase among specific computer occu pations. (See table 9 for 1970 employment and projected 1980 requirements for computer occupations.) The expectation of slower growth was hinted at in 1970, when the computer field was found to be susceptible to the economic slowdown, and extensive computer penetrations up to this point had greatly reduced the untapped new customer base. The economic Table 9. Projected growth of employment requirements for computer occupations, 1970 to 1980 1970 employment Projected 1980 requirements T o t a l......................... 765,200 997,600 30.4 Data processing machine re p a ire rs ...................... 36,000 72,600 101.7 Occupation Percent change ........... 102,700 165,000 60.7 Programmers................... 176,500 250,000 41.6 Computer and peripheral equipment operators . 150,000 275,000 83.3 Keypunch operators . . . 300,000 235,000 - 2 1 .7 Systems analysts S O U R C E : B ureau o f L a b o r S tatistics. slowdown also prompted computer users to begin or intensify efforts to increase their own computer capabili ties, rather than to rely almost totally on computer manufacturers for equipment configurations and tech nical advice. Users increasingly choose computer systems that perform the functions they want computerized, instead of installing a computer system and then trying to tailor their needs to accommodate the capabilities of that system. This user sophistication is expected to continue in the years ahead, and temper rising computer manpower expenditures. A slowing of overall computer employment growth also can be foreseen in the widening range of user oriented hardware and software refinements whose greater simplification and cost reduction is expected to continue through the 1970’s. Although products of advancing technology are especially evident in the data entry and software areas, options featuring increased speed, capacity, simplicity, and compatability are also available for the memory, processing, and output com ponents of computer systems. Closely related to the increased use of these system refinements, is the expectation that an increasing number of new and existing computer systems will use minicomputers, have on line applications, or include terminals or some similar form of data communications. However, none of these increasingly attractive computer devices create employment opportunities for large num bers of computer workers. The most significant man power impact of their increased acceptance is for non-computer personnel who will use computer equip ment and therefore perform added job functions, or for existing computer personnel who will face some job redesign. Finally, a slowing of computer employment growth also should be occasioned as the use of timesharing and other computer services becomes more widespread among orgamzations whose computer functions do not justify establishing or continuing their own systems. Economies of scale indicate that fewer computer workers will be needed by computer service companies to do the work of many prospective computer users than if those prospective users maintained their own com puter systems. Job separations In addition to employment growth, many job open ings will become available each year as workers leave existing jobs because of death, retirement, other labor force separations, or to work in other occupations. Table 10 summarizes openings expected from employment growth and separations from the labor force between 1970 and 1980. Sufficient data are not available to develop estimates of employment openings resulting from workers who transfer to other occupations. How ever, data available in Occupation and Residence in 1965, —C(2)7E, U.S. Bureau of the Census, sheds some light on this subject. Although keypunch operator employment is expected to decline, large numbers of job openings for these workers will nonetheless occur because they are currently the largest computer occupation and the one with the greatest proportion of women, many of whom leave the labor force each year for family responsibili ties. Expected employment growth in computer occupations Many of the factors that affect the overall direction of computer growth also are expected to influence employment among occupations in the computer field. In general, continually advancing hardware and software technology is expected to result in a greater demand for computer and peripheral equipment operators and data processing machine repairmen. To a lesser extent com puter technology coupled with user maturity, will increase the demand for the more sophisticated com puter occupations such as systems analysts and systems programmers. At the same time continuing data entry advances will decrease the use of punch cards resulting in an employment decline for keypunch operators. Keypunch operators. Employment of keypunch opera tors is expected to decline to 235,000 in 1980 from 300,000 in 1970. This decrease (22 percent) represents a reversal of the employment trend that prevailed for these workers during the past two decades. Despite expected large increases in the volume of data to be entered in computer systems in the years ahead, the extensive penetration of the computer market by card punch oriented systems in the past coupled with their exhibited slow, error prone, and increasingly costly performance in many computer operations, will decrease the use of the card punch form of data entry. The smaller untapped computer user market in the years ahead will be characterized by more new users who choose alternatives to card punch because of advances in Table 10. Estimated job openings in computer occupations caused by employemnt growth and separations from the labor force, 1970 to 1980 Occupation T otal ...................... Total openings Employment growth Separations from the labor force 520,630 232,400 288,230 Data processing machine repairers * ................... 39,800 36,000 3,200 Systems a n a ly s ts ........... 80,500 62,300 18,200 Programmers................... 116,360 73,500 42,860 Computer and peripheral equipment operators . 174,300 125,000 49,300 Keypunch operators . . . 109,670 - 6 5 ,0 0 0 174,670 SOURCE: B ureau o f L a b o r S tatistics. other data entry techniques and equipment, especially terminals or other forms of direct keying, or other data communications related input systems. Further, advances in computer technology have greatly increased the internal data processing capabilities of computers with a resultant widening of the speed differential between manual card input and computer processing. Since the use of cards permits the computer to work only as fast as the people who code the data, this restriction in the throughput of high speed systems can increasingly be expected to cause attrition in card punch among some large users. Computer and peripheral equipment operators. Employ ment of computer and peripheral equipment operators is expected to increase very rapidly, to 275,000 in 1980 from 150,000 in 1970. This employment growth (83 percent) is a faster increase than in previous years. The major cause of the expected employment growth is the widening use of more computer hardware products, especially terminals and data entry keying other than punch cards, which will require increasingly large num bers of computer operating personnel. Similarly, new models of existing computers and peripheral equipment having greater speeds, memories, and capacities will occasion more computer throughput and require increases in operating personnel. Furthermore, advancing technology is continually making computers more sophisticated. As a result, an increasing number of people presently classified as operating personnel will be required to perform tech nical or coding and control functions. Programmers. Computer programmer employment is expected to increase to 250,000 in 1980 from 176,500 in 1970. This growth rate (42 percent) reflects the emergence of counter trends within the occupation as technological advances alter programming skill require ments. The demand for some programmers will increase as more sophisticated computer hardware and software attracts new computer users and increases the number and type of computer applications among existing users. However, this same sophistication is resulting in the development of standardized software packages and enabling programming capabilities to be built into the computer equipment itself, decreasing the demand for other programmers. The net effects of these trends are expected to be slower programmer employment growth than in the past, and changes in the distribution of programmers by type, and the functions they perform. Larger numbers of systems programmers will be needed to develop the complex operating programs made necessary by more high powered language and complicated computer con figurations and to link or coordinate the output of different programs from different systems. On the other hand, continuing development of software to write new software, computers operating in the language of the user, terminal programming by non EDP persons and more standardized software packages are expected to simplify or eliminate some functions of applications programmers and lessen the growth in demand for this type of programming in the years ahead. In some computer systems, applications programmer functions such as coding, may eventually accrue to other computer jobs. Systems analysts. Employment of systems analysts is expected to increase to 165,000 in 1980 from 105,700 in 1970. This projected increase (61 percent) through the 1970’s continues the rapid rate of employment growth these workers experienced during previous years. The history of computer usage has been marked by many unsuccessful attempts at problem solving, cost reduction, and productivity increase. A major ingredient of such failures has been the lack of adequate systems analysis and design in taking advantage of computer capabilities. As computer users continue to mature, they will expect greater efficiency and increased performance from their computer systems. Similarly, computer hard ware and software advances will increase computer application possibilities, the compatability of equipment from different sources, and computer networking or other equipment interrelationships in new and existing computer systems. As a result, systems analysts, who have always been in great demand, will be even more intensely sought to reduce computer system problems and develop more sophisticated and complex computer operations. Data processing machine repairers. Employment of data processing machine repairers is expected to increase dramatically to 72,600 in 1980 from 36,000 in 1970. This very rapid increase (102 percent) accelerates the employment growth that prevailed for these workers in previous years. The burgeoning number and types of computers and computer related equipment in use since the mid-1950’s, has created a tremendous demand for data processing service technicians to install, maintain, and repair com puter and peripheral equipment. This demand is expected to further intensify during the 1970’s not only because of continuing high levels of computer equipment production and proliflration, but also because of more complex computer equipment configurations and greater geographic dispersion. Expected employment growth by major industry division Manufacturing. Computer manpower requirements in manufacturing are expected to grow moderately be tween 1970 and 1980. Growth will occur, to varying degrees, in most occupations. The number of computer and peripheral equipment operators and data processing machine repairers will grow very rapidly while growth will be moderate for programmers, and system analysts. Keypunch operator employment is expected to decline moderately. (See table 11.) The growth in manpower obviously reflects a growth in computer usage among manufacturers. More specifi cally, the manufacturing sector of the economy is expected increasingly to apply computers to process control, quality control, business forecasting, and man agement information functions. This will be accom plished through more intensive use of existing computer systems, frequently in the form of additional shifts at sites where only one or two shifts are currently in operation. Further, new minicomputer systems are expected to be adopted to specific manufacturing functions, and many existing computer systems will be upgraded, with a resulting expansion in computing capacity and an increase in computer staffs. Finally, computer terminals, often coupled to data transmission equipment, will be used more extensively but will have a mixed impact on computer-related employment. Terminals can be used, for instance, in warehouse inventory control and in research and devel opment. Data input will be handled by warehouse personnel and research scientists or engineers, account ing for the decline in keypunch operators. However, Table 11. Employment in computer occupations by major industry division, 1970 and projected 1980 Total all occu nations Industry division Total all industry1 divisions...................... Computer programmers Systems analysts 1970 1980 Percent change 1970 1980 Percent change 765,200 997,600 30.4 102,700 165,000 60.7 Percent change 1970 1980 176,500 250,000 41.6 Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries......................... 713 656 -8 .0 20 15 - 2 5 .0 157 114 - 2 7 .4 M in in g ....................................... 6,403 6,290 -1 .8 1,081 1,151 6.5 1,854 1,876 1.2 Contract construction . . . . . 7,335 9,674 31.9 921 1,337 45.2 1,969 2,823 43.4 M anufacturing......................... 245,550 308,513 25.6 41,472 64,386 55.3 63,131 85,141 34.9 -5 .2 5,383 6,634 23.2 10,015 11,700 16.8 12.9 10,812 12,960 19.9 14,080 16,843 19.6 Transportation, communication, electric, gas, and sanitary services................................. 51,648 48,951 Wholesale and retail trade 94,970 107,213 . . Finance, insurance, and real estate ................... 107,464 138,915 29.3 9,275 14,524 56.6 21,557 28,243 31.0 Services .................................... 188,502 313,858 66.5 28,384 56,388 98.7 51,819 87,880 69.6 62,637 63,470 1.3 5,356 7,599 41.9 11,924 15,376 29.0 Government ...................... .. . Data processing machine repairers Computer and peripheral equipment operators 1970 1980 Percent change 1970 1980 Total all industry 1 d iv is io n s ...................... 36,000 72,600 101.7 150,000 275,000 Agriculture, forestry, forestry, and fisheries . . . . 5 0 123 76 ....................................... 41 59 ........... 95 0 ......................... 10,736 22,175 Mining Contract construction Manufacturing T ransportation, communication, electric, gas, and sanitary s e rvices................................. Wholesale and retail trade . . . Percent change Keypunch operators 1970 1980 Percent change 83.3 300,000 235,000 - 2 1 .7 - 3 8 .2 408 451 10.5 - 3 7 .8 1,642 2,094 27.5 1,785 1,110 1,432 2,779 94.1 2,918 2,735 -6 .3 106.5 45,455 76,109 67.4 84,756 60,702 - 2 8 .4 43.9 535 762 42.4 11,072 16,477 48.8 24,643 13,378 - 4 5 .7 10,464 16,888 61.4 16,345 27,927 70.9 43,269 32,595 - 2 4 .7 - 1 9 .0 Finance, insurance, and real e s ta te ...................... 291 685 235.4 26,284 54,932 109.0 50,057 40,531 Services....................................... 12,808 30,083 134.4 31,709 70,772 123.2 63,782 68,735 7.2 G overnm ent.............................. 1,026 1,946 89.7 15,943 23,732 48.9 28,388 14,817 - 4 7 .8 1 T o ta ls m ay n o t add du e to ro u n d in g . increased terminal use should increase the demand for systems analysts and programmers. Transportation, communications, electric, gas, and sani tary services. This industry division was intensively computerized by 1970. Consequently, no overall growth SOURCE: B ureau o f L a b o r S tatistics. in computer-related employment is expected during the 1970’s. (See table 11.) A small growth in computer installations and possible upgrading of present com puter systems may result in a small increase in the number of systems analysts and programmers. Some growth in the number of computer and peripheral equipment operators also is expected to occur as the use of computer terminals, data communications, and optical character recognition equipment increases. Terminal and data communications operators, however, frequently allow data input operations to be performed by people who are not specifically in computer-related occupations. This, combined with OCR equipment, will cause a decline in the number of keypunch operators large enough to offset the growth in all other computer occupations. Finance, insurance, and real estate. Employment of computer manpower in this major industry sector will grow moderately during the 1970’s (see table 11) as more small and medium sized companies adopt com puter techniques widely used by larger firms in the industry. More banks are expected to automate their teller operations, and a growing number of small insurers will computerize policy writing and billing functions. Occupational employment growth in this industry divi sion should parallel the basic trends noted earlier for computer personnel throughout the economy. Key punch operator employment decline may be more prominent in this sector as more insurance data entry is done directly by policy clerks or agents. Employment requirements for data processing machine repairmen will continue to grow very rapidly as their skills are needed to service and repair extensive data processing equip ment. For example, more banks will participate in automated central check clearing facilities and offer 24-hour banking services through the use of on-line terminals. Increasing use of terminal networks also will characterize the insurance sector of the industry with agents having access to telecommunications equipment linking field locations to the home office. Growing use of data communications equipment will contribute to the demand for computer personnel in securities firms; many sources predict fully automated stock quotation facilities and a national system for clearing securities transactions by 1980. Services. An expanding market for data processing services in hospitals, educational institutions, and com puter service bureaus will result in very rapid employ ment growth of computer manpower in this industry sector. (See table 11.) Programmers and systems analysts will be in particularly strong demand as an increasing number of hospitals automate their food service and computerize patient records. Although medical informa tion and communications systems currently are^in the early development stages, they are expected to grow substantially by 1980. The manpower requirements of these systems and of those for medical diagnosis and instruction will assure the need for computer specialists in hospitals. Similarly, the expected increase in the volume of data processing contracted to computer service firms should add greatly to the demand for computer and peripheral equipment operators in this sector. Similar growth is expected in educational services as more computer-assisted instructional systems are devel oped, library operations such as acquisitions and catalog ing are automated, and administrative tasks including class scheduling, student record maintenance, and enroll ment forecasting are handled by computers. Educational institutions will stress on-line, time shared computing; substantial growth of terminal networks connecting different administrative units also is expected. Because many medical and educational applications will feature direct keying of data by users such as hospital records clerks or students, employment requirements for key punch operators will slow drastically; nevertheless, some growth in their number is predicted in the services sector. Manpower requirements in computer service bureaus and computer maintenance firms also will contribute heavily to the overall growth of computer occupations in this industry division. Service bureaus will continue to demand large numbers of computer and peripheral equipment operators and a growing number of systems analysts and programmers to design and implement systems for data acquisition and control. At the same time, computer maintenance companies will need a growing number of data processing machine repairers to service the increasing stock of computer equipment. Several factors will contribute to an expanded need for contract data processing services and the resulting demand by service bureaus and computer maintenance firms for trained computer personnel. These include growth in applications featuring computer-to-terminal interfacing or minicomputers, and the growing popu larity of franchised data processing services that are expected to enlarge the scope of the market. Several other sectors within this broad industry division should experience somewhat lesser growth in computer manpower requirements. They include limited expansion of computer usage in legal services, notably legal research applications; continued growth of com puter installations dedicated to hotel reservation systems; and business services such as credit reporting. Wholesale and retail trade. Growth of computer manpower requirements in wholesale and retail trade will be closely tied to the spread of automated point-of-sale equipment in retailing and the use of computerized ordering and inventory systems by wholesalers. Currently only the largest department and food retailers have adopted integrated point-of-sale and credit authorization systems, but these technologies should spread to variety stores and smaller retail establishments by the end of the 1970’s. Two factors likely to increase the market penetration of these retailing systems are expected improvements in software and the industry's development of a standardized code for retail groceries. Although overall computer manpower employment will grow slowly in this industry, growth among the different computer occupations in the industry should closely parallel national trends discussed earlier (see table 11). The largest increases in employment are projected for data processing machine repairers and computer and peripheral equipment operators due to expected growth in the number of data processing terminals and associated communications devices. Demand for systems analysts and programmers also will show some growth, especially for applications pr og ra mme r s nee ded by retailers automating point-of-sale or inventory operations. Keypunch operator employment is expected to decline moderately as more data is captured at the source by noncomputer personnel or keyed in via terminals connecting branch outlets to a retailer’s main data base. Although existing business application systems for accounting and payroll will continue to process large volumes of work, demand for keypunch operators is not expected to keep pace. Many firms have or plan to improve keying efficiency by switching from keypunch data entry to key-to-tape or key-to-disc, thus achieving some savings in manpower costs. Automated ordering and inventory systems will extend gradually to more establishments in the wholesale sector of the industry but resulting effects on computer manpower will not be significant. Smaller wholesalers are likely to contract out these services to data processing service bureaus rather than install their own systems. Government. Computer manpower requirements in government will increase over the decade as new information systems are installed and existing ones expand their capabilities (see table 11). State and local governmental agencies will experience the greatest growth in computer manpower as their untapped potential for new applications of hardware is realized. Growth in Federal computer manpower needs will be slower but nevertheless steady as government programs and resulting data processing requirements continue to expand. Currently most State and local computer systems have been developed around a single functional area such as revenue collection and disbursement, payroll, or medical and insurance information processing. However, the future should see the development of consolidated systems serving a greater variety of information process ing needs and using terminal networks and other data communications technology in their operation. Within government, growth of the various computer occupations is not expected to deviate from the overall national pattern described earlier. Data processing machine repairer and computer and peripheral equip ment operator employment will expand at a very rapid rate, keeping pace with hardware sales and installations. Requirements for programmers and systems analysts, especially at the State and local level, also will rise rapidly as law enforcement, voter registration, and traffic oriented applications are introduced to their computer systems. Keypunch operators, however, will decline substantially, in part due to the effects of direct data entry. Agriculture, 'forestry, and fisheries; mining; and con tract construction. The number of people employed in computer occupations in these industry divisions is so small that reasonably accurate employment projections cannot be made. Implications for training The implications that projected manpower require ments have for computer related training programs is not clear. Information on the type of training received by computer personnel presented earlier in the report indicates that there is no one source or type of training for any of the computer occupations. Furthermore, data has only recently become available on the number of individuals completing training directly related to a few computer occupations. Thus, it is impossible to deter mine any numerical increases in training that will be required to meet manpower needs as projected in this study. Nevertheless, it appears likely that computer occupa tions will continue to grow, and the increasing sophisti cation and complexity of computer personnel functions will require workers with greater amounts of specific computer related training than in the past. This is especially true of the occupations that are high on the computer education spectrum, programmers and systems analysts. At the same time, expected increases in simplified computer functions performed by non computer personnel will erode the need for some types of specific lower level computer training. The field, however, must be watched very closely to assure that supply and demand do not get out of balance. With the economic slowdown in the 1970’s, employment growth slowed, and concern about com puter personnel shortages dissipated. Also, our educa tional system is likely to turn out larger numbers of persons trained in computer occupations. Young persons are very aware of this field through improved vocational guidance literature and an increased number of schools offering data processing courses. Possible surpluses in some non-computer jobs requiring college training also may result in many young persons seeking college training in the computer field, which is currently advertised as one with good job prospects. Appendix A. Sample Design This a'ppendix presents the procedures used in select ing the sample for the computer user survey part of this study. Appendix F contains a copy of the Computer Manpower Interview Guide used in the survey visits. Selection of respondents A sample of interview respondents was selected from a detailed list of computer users compiled by the International Data Corporation, Newtonville, Massa chusetts, in June 1971. This “IDC Data File” listed approximately 20,000 computer user locations, or sites, having about 35,000 installed computer systems.l In addition to the name and address of the firm using the computer, each user entry contained detailed informa tion on the central processing units, peripheral equip ment, and software at that site. Two information elements from the available data on each site were used to group entries for purposes of a sample design: average monthly rental value and 2-digit Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) designation.2 The National Bureau of Standards Office of Com puter Information prepared a computer printout that listed the IDC File’s computer site entries by the 77 active 2-digit industries of the economy and, within each 2-digit industry, allocated all sites to 1 of 3 monthly rental categories: small, medium, or large.3 The small rental class was comprised of sites that paid less than $5,001 in average monthly rental for all equipment components of their systems; the medium rental class consisted of sites that paid from $5,001 to $40,000 in iThe International Data Corporation conducts a continuing series of checks on the percentage of total existing U.S. computer installations covered by the IDC Data File. These checks include an evaluation of the percentage coverage of the File by geographic area, user industry, computer price class, and manufacturer. IDC judged the June 1971 File to have no significant geographic bias or basic deviation in completeness of coverage by industry. According to IDC, this edition of the File contained about three-fourths of all U.S. general purpose digital computer sites, and approximately 65 percent of all U.S. general purpose digital computer systems. average monthly rental; and the large class included sites that averaged $40,001 or more in monthly rental payments. The following general methodology for selecting a sample from the computer listing was used: 1. A median rental value was computed for each user rental size class (small, medium, and large) and multi plied by the number of sites within that class to yield total rental costs for the class by industry. Each rental class then was summed across all industries and the percent it comprised of total rental for all three classes was computed. These percents were multiplied by visits of 1404 to derive a first approximation of the number of interviews that should be allocated to each of three sizes of users throughout the economy. 2. In an effort to consider number as well as rental paid by sites in a given rental size class, a similar distribution was computed using the number of sites in each rental class, i.e., the number of user sites in each of the three size classes was summed across all industries and the percent each group of sites comprised of all industry sites was computed. These percents also were multiplied by total visits (140) to yield a second approximation of the number of interviews that should be allocated to each size class of user throughout the economy. 3. Both approximations were weighted equally in the final selection of the number of visits to be made in each size category (i.e., the number of visits computed by each method was averaged). Allocation of visits within each of the three size categories of users by industry was made according to the value of the respective industry rental class as a percent of total rental value for that class summed across all industries. 2S tan dard In du strial C lassification M anual , Executive Office of the President, Bureau of the Budget, 1967. 3The rental value of equipment owned by users was estimated by International Data Corporation in the development of the IDC Data File. 4 Funds available to conduct the study limited the visits to 140. Appendix table A-1. Distribution of scheduled computer user interviews by industry User visits by monthly rental SIC Code 1 10 13 15 19 20 22 23 26 27 28 30 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 40 42 45 46 48 49 50 53 54 60 61 62 63 66 70 73 80 81 82 86 89 91 92 93 SIC Title Total Metal m in in g ............................................................................................................ Crude petroleum and natural g a s ........................................................................ Building construction-general c o n tra c to rs ....................................................... Ordance and accessories........................................................................................ Food and kindred products ................................................................................ Textile mill p roducts.............................................................................................. Apparel and other finished products.................................................................. Paper and allied p ro d u cts ..................................................................................... Printing, publishing, and allied industries.......................................................... Chemicals and allied p ro du cts............................................................................. Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products.................................................... Stone, clay, glass, and concrete p ro ducts.......................................................... Primary metal industries ...................................................................................... Fabricated metal products, except ordance, machinery, and transportation e q u ip m e n t........................................................................ Machinery, except e le c tric a l................................................................................ Electrical machinery, equipment, and sup plies............................................... Transportation e q u ip m e n t................................................................................... Professional, scientific, and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods; watches and clocks .............................. Railroad tran sp o rtatio n ........................................................................................ Motor freight transportation and w arehousing............................................... Transportation by air ........................................................................................... Pipe line tr a nsp ortation ........................................................................................ C o m m unication...................................................................................................... Electric, gas, and sanitary serv ic e s ..................................................................... Wholesale trade ...................................................................................................... Retail trade-general m erchandise........................................................................ Food sto re s .............................................................................................................. Banking .................................................................................................................... Credit agencies other than b a n k s ........................................................................ Security and commodity brokers, dealers, exchanges, and services........... Insurance c a rrie rs ................................................................................................... Combinations of real estate, insurance, loans, law o ffic e s ............................ Hotels, rooming houses, camps, and other lodging p la c e s ............................ Miscellaneous business services .......................................................................... Medical and other health services........................................................................ Legal services............................................................................................................ Educational services .............................................................................................. Nonprofit membership o rganizations............................................................... Mescellaneous services........................................................................................... Federal government ............................................................... .............................. State govern m en t................................................................................................... Local governm ent................................................................................................... Small Medium Large 1 1 2 2 2 1 4 2 2 2 3 4 4 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 10 3 5 1 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 5 3 1 1 2 1 3 3 5 2 4 6 1 2 6 2 3 3 6 2 9 1 11 6 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 3 2 4 1 5 2 2 1 3 1 1 4 3 1 1 1Standard Industrial Classification Manual, E x e cu tiv e O ffic e o f th e P resident, B ureau o f th e B udg et, 1 9 6 7 . After selection of the user sample as described above, . 12 industries5 had situations believed to be unfavorable to the study. These situations characterized industries of two types: Some that had an unusually high concentra tion of users, but a great amount of available secondary source data, drew many visits. On the other hand, some that were characterized by few computer sites and little secondary source data, but which showed indications of rapid growth in the near future, drew too few interviews to develop sufficient information for the study. To develop a better sample for analytical purposes for these 12 industries, the total number of visits allocated to them in the sample selection as described above was reallocated judgementally by the staff working on the study. After reallocation, total visits to each of the 12 industries were distributed among the size classes in each industry according to the same procedures used in the overall sample selection. The final step was to choose the names of 5These industries were metal mining (SIC 10), building construction (SIC 15), air transportation (SIC 45); pipeline transportation (SIC 46), retail trade-food (SIC 5 4 ),banking (SIC 60); insurance carriers (SIC 63), real estate (SIC 65); hotels, rooming houses, and other lodging places (SIC 70), medical and other health services (SIC 80); legal services (SIC 81); and Federal Government (SIC 91). respondents through random selection in each size class in each industry where interviews were to be conducted. Of the original 140 allocated interviews, 133 were conducted. Uncooperative respondents and scheduling problems resulted in the inability to conduct seven interviews. An additional three user interviews were conducted with computer manufacturers during the course of the study. In total 136 computer users were interviewed. A distribution of scheduled visits bv industry and size class if provided in appendix table A-l. Approximately 7,700 people were employed at the computer sites visited by BLS staff. The occupational distribution of these people differs somewhat from the national distribution. (See appendix tables A-2 and 3.) At least part of the difference between the two distribution figures is due to a combination of several factors. The BLS computer user survey consisted of visits to an equal number of small, medium, and large computer sites. The variation in staffing patterns due to the size of computer sites affects the occupational distribution. For instance, the percent of the total in the “programmer and programmer analyst” and “systems analysts” categories are approximately the same as in the national categories, although slightly lower in both instances, and survey results show that at small sites, the data process ing manager frequently performs some or all of the programming and systems analysis work, which under states the proportion of programmers and analysts in the survey. The same situation exists in regard to repairers since few, if any, small and medium-sized sites employ their own repairers. As small and medium sites con stitute two-thirds of the sites in the survey, there would be a considerable understatement of employment in this occupation. There are some differences between the occupational categories used for the national figures and those used in the BLS survey of computer sites. The occupational category of “EDP Manager” was not included in the national category, although it was found in the com puter user visits that these people are involved in computer operations in many small sites. However, one Appendix table A-2. Distribution of employment in computer occupational at BLS computer user survey sites Number Percent distribution T o t a l ............................................... 7,722 100.0 Occupation EDP managers.......................................... 633 8.2 Systems a n a ly s ts .................................... 873 11.3 Programmers and programmer analyst1 ............................................... 1,606 20.9 Data processing machine repairers ................................................ 21 0.3 Computer and peripheral equipment o p e ra to rs ............................................ 1,718 22.3 Keypunch operators............................... 1,932 25.1 939 11.9 Other ............................................... .. 1 T h e o c c u p a tio n of p ro g ra m m e r an a ly s t has been d e fin e d on page 14. S O U R C E : B ureau o f L a b o r S tatistics. of the job titles in the national category included under “Computer System Analysts” is “Manager, Computer Programming” -b u t since there is no description of this job category nor an employment figure, there is no way of determining to what extent it corresponds (or does not correspond) to the computer survey category of “EDP Manager.” The greatest disparity in the distribution of employ ment is found in the category of “keypunch operator,” the proportion being considerably smaller in the BLS computer survey than in the national data. One reason for this disparity may have been the rapid adoption of new data entry technology (described earlier in the section on technological developments), which reduced requirements for keypunch operators between 1970 (when the national figures were collected) and 1972 (when the visits to computer sites were conducted). Another possible reason is that in the national figures, “IBM Operators” are included in the category of “keypunch operators” rather than in the category of “computer and peripheral equipment operators.” Appendix B. Census Occupational Titles The 1970 Census of Population lists national totals for computer occupations in six categories. The six categories are designated as follows: Computer Program mers, Computer Systems Analysts, Computer Specialists, n.e.c,, Computer and Peripheral Equipment Operators, Keypunch Operators, and Data Processing Machine Repairers. The BLS industry-occupational matrix has adopted exactly these census computer occupational categories. However, for purposes of this BLS computer study, two of these common census and matrix occupa tional categories have been combined. Data for com p u ter specialists n.e.c. are combined with “systems analysts” because the occupational titles that comprise the “computer specialist n.e.c.” category seem over whelmingly to involve systems analysis functions. The job titles included in each of these six categories are as follows: Computer Programmers computer programmer digital-computer programmer electronic data programmer programmer, computer univac-programmer Computer Systems Analysts computer analyst computer-systems planning computing-systems analyst digital-computer systems analyst engineer, systems health-systems analyst, computer manager, computer programming Computer Specialist, n.e.c. computer scientist data-processing systems-project planner engineer, computer application methods analyst, computer software specialist Computer and Peripheral Equipment Operators card-tape-converter operator computer-console operator computer operator computing-machine operator console operator, clerical digital-computer operator high-speed-printer operator K.S.T. operator key station terminal operator peripheral-equipment operator tape-to-card-converter operator Keypunch Operators card puncher card-punching-machine operator encoder encoding clerk encoding machine operator I.B.M. machine operator I.B.M. operator I.B.M. puncher I.B.M. supervisor I.B.M. verifier key puncher keypunch operator punch-card operator punch operator, office machine verifying machine operator Data Processing Machine Repairers Computing-systems maintenance workers Customer’s service man-data processing machine rental Data-processing-machine servicers Engineer customer’s IBM installer Mechanic Computing systems Data processing Electronics computer IBM machine Appendix C. Industry Distribution of Computer Manpower Information concerning employment of computer personnel by industry was obtained for 1970 and 1980 (projected) from the BLS industry occupational matrix. Employment totals are presented, according to Matrix detailed industry levels, in the following table. Industry Total all industries Agriculture, forestry, fisheries ......................................... A g ric u ltu re ........................................................................ Agriculture production ............................................ Services, except h o rtic u ltu re ................ ................... Horticultural services......................... ........................ F o re s try ............................................................................. Fisheries............................................................................. M in in g ...................................................................................... Metal m in in g ................................................... ................ Coal m in ing ............................................ .. ........................ Crude petroleum and natural g a s ........... ..................... Nonmetallic mining, q u a rry in g .................................... Construction........................................................................... General building contractors......................................... General contractors, except building ......................... Special trade con tracto rs............................................... Manufacturing........................................................................ Durable g o o d s .............................. ............... ; ................ Ordnance ..................................................................... Lumber and wood products .................................... logging ..................................................................... Sawmill planning, mill w orkers............................ Miscellaneous wood products.............................. Furniture and fix tu re s ......................... ..................... Stone, clay, glass p ro d u c ts ....................................... Glass and glass p ro d u c ts ....................................... Cement, concrete, p la s t e r .................................... Structural clay p ro d u c ts ....................................... Pottery and related p ro d u c ts .............................. Miscellaneous nometallic, s t o n e ......................... Primary metal industries ................................. Blast furnaces, steel w o rk s .................................... Other primary steel ............................................... Primary aluminum ind ustry................................ Other primary nonferrous .................................... Fabricated metal products ....................................... Cutlery, other hardware ....................................... Fabricated metal products.................................... Screw machine products ....................................... Metal s ta m p in g ................... ................................... Miscellaneous metal products.............................. Machinery, except electrical .................................... Engines and turbines ............................................. Farm machinery, e q u ip m e n t.............................. Construction m achines........................................ Metalworking m achinery...................................... Office, accounting machines .............................. Electronic computing e q u ip m e n t...................... Machinery n.e.c. .................................................... Electrical m a c h in e ry .................................................. Household appliances............................................ Radio, T V , communication equipment . . . . . Electrical machinery, n.e.c..................................... Transportation e q u ip m e n t........... .......................... Motor vehicle equipment .................................... Aircraft and parts .................................................. Ship, boat building, re p a ir.................................... Railroad e q u ip m e n t............................................... Mobile dw elling............................................... .. Cycles, miscellaneous transportation equipment Professional, scientific instrument ......................... Scientific instruments Total all occupations Computer programmers Computer systems analysts 1970 1980 1970 765,222 997,641 176,506 249,996 102,704 164,994 713 431 157 233 41 263 19 6,403 527 185 5,273 418 7,335 878 5,509 948 245,550 175v405 8,982 1,487 73 994 426 2,292 3,872 1,252 1,316 200 192 902 11,478 5,649 2,057 1,574 2,203 10,404 1,863 2,861 896 1,477 3,307 58,204 1,607 2,066 3,987 3,139 5,093 34,108 8,204 36,939 2,011 16,392 18,536 29,709 9,429 17,263 2,282 460 107 168 8,424 3,269 656 447 328 103 15 194 *1 6 6,290 591 199 5,064 431 9,674 1,057 7,360 1,258 308,513 234,783 8,408 1,533 78 971 483 2,755 4,438 1,388 1,568 157 175 1,150 11,415 5,292 2,072 1,733 2,319 13,179 1,869 3,347 984 2,275 4,704 106,216 2,414 2,127 4,977 4,064 5,732 76,183 10,721 43,387 2,286 16,149 25,027 28,210 11,909 11,885 3,525 460 172 258 11,667 4,676 157 49 ' 114 28 20 9 15 20 8 78 8 1,876 169 45 1,560 101 2,823 314 2,172 337 85,141 67,248 3,153 390 33 256 101 631 1,024 372 433 39 24 156 2,848 1,363 523 410 552 3,057 405 892 184 549 1,027 31,673 666 570 1,217 1,121 1,492 24,082 2,525 11,725 552 4,817 6,356 8,752 3,087 4,423 1,027 123 18 74 3,286 1,266 9 41 8 96 12 1,854 140 32 1,581 101 1,969 211 1,586 172 63,131 49,485* 3,370 301 26 205 76 405 757 264 328 39 22 104 2,325 1,115 426 338 446 2,069 302 632 127 335 673 17,739 412 449 890 798 1,358 12,005 1,827 11,208 423 5,278 5,507 8,531 2,096 5,673 617 98 8 39 2,177 849 1980 1970 1980 11 15 1,081 90 15 935 41 921 88 714 119 41,472 33,941 2,340 200 1,151 125 25 949 52 1,337 183 1,154 64,386 53,489 2,242 258 145 55 158 488 175 169 11 12 111 1,340 655 152 303 230 1,004 213 294 85 96 316 14,275 269 236 740 328 1,188 10,680 834 6,522 300 2,931 3,291 5,765 1,333 3,982 361 69 14 6 1,535 679 187 71 260 690 248 240 14 16 172 1,654 752 226 394 282 1,590 293 456 132 185 524 29,299 455 318 1,036 438 1,385 24,451 1,216 9,047 399 3,510 5,138 5,755 2,023 2,953 637 92 39 11 2,343 1,033 Industry Computer and peripheral equipment operators Data processing machine repairers Keypunch operators 1970 1980 1970 1980 1970 1980 .............................................................................. 150,005 274,998 300,006 235,000 36,001 72,598 Agriculture, forestry, fisheries .................................................................. A g ric u ltu re ................................................................................................. Agricultural p ro d u c tio n ..................................................................... Services, except h o rtic u ltu re ............................................................. Horticultural services........................................................................... F o re s try ...................................................................................................... Fisheries...................................................................................................... M in in g .............................................................................................................. Metal m in in g .............................................................................................. Coal m in ing ................... ............................................................................. Crude petroleum and natural g a s .......................................................... Nonmetallic mining, q u a rry in g ............................................................. Construction................................................................................................... General building contractors.................................................................. General contractors, except building .................................................. Special trade con tracto rs........................................................................ Manufacturing................................................................................................. Durable g o 6 d s ........................................................................................... Ordance ................................................................................................. Lumber and wood products ............................................................. Logging.............................................................................................. Sawmill, planning, mill workers .................................................. Miscellaneous wood products....................................................... Furniture and fix tu re s ........................................................................ Stone, clay, glass p ro d u c ts ............................................................... Glass and glass p ro d u c ts ................................................................ Cement, concrete,, pi a s t e r ............................................................. Structural clay p ro d u cts ................................................................ Pottery and related p ro d u c ts ....................................................... Miscellaneous nometal lie, s t o n e .................................................. Primary metal industries..................................................................... Blast furnaces, steel w o r k e r s ....................................................... Other primary s t e e l ........................................................................ Primary aluminum ind ustry.......................................................... Other primary nonferrous............................................................. Fabricated metal p ro d u c ts ................................................................ Cutlery, other h a rd w a re ............................................................... Fabricated metal products............................................................. Screw machine p ro du cts................................................................ Metal s ta m p in g ................................................................................ Miscellaneous fabricated metal products ................................. Machinery, except e le c tric a l............................................................. Engines and turbines ..................................................................... Farm machinery, e q u ip m e n t....................................................... Construction m achines.................................................................. Metalworking m achinery................................................................ Office, accounting machines ....................................................... Electronic computing e q u ip m e n t............................................... Machinery, n.e.c................................................................................ Electrical m a c h in e ry ........................................................................... Household appliances..................................................................... Radio, T V , communication equipment .................................... Electrical machinery, n.e.c.............................................................. Transportation equipment ................................................................ Motor vehicle equipment ............................................................. Aircraft and parts ........................................................................... Ship, boat building, re p a ir............................................................. Railroad e q u ip m e n t........................................................................ Mobile d w elling ................................................................................ Cycles, miscellaneous transportation e q u ip m e n t................... Professional, scientific instrument .................................................. Scientific instruments.........................' .......................................... 123 89 35 47 7 27 7 1,642 84 60 1,367 131 1,432 153 1,124 155 45,455 30,002 1,617 284 14 136 134 495 960 229 342 37 60 292 2,421 1,172 485 304 460 2,262 295 583 175 422 787 7,580 277 391 672 711 613 3,131 1,785 6,569 386 2,940 3,243 5,617 1,926 3,076 483 75 25 32 1,498 529 76 30 408 279 122 136 21 129 451 389 328 54 7 63 5 5 1,785 207 78 1,355 145 2,918 409 2,062 447 84,756 51,665 1,525 697 33 503 161 1,207 1,661 578 477 113 98 395 5,288 2,632 972 623 1,061 5,048 1,053 1,331 509 624 1,531 10,588 637 971 1,656 1,254 810 1,653 3,607 11,335 892 4,627 5,816 9,405 4,028 4,258 750 218 60 91 2,945 1,019 1,110 157 52 805 96 2,735 325 1,991 419 60,702 40,906 974 410 20 289 100 933 1,078 369 310 58 53 288 3,268 1,452 553 465 798 4,276 697 911 351 692 1,625 10,601 708 589 1,543 1,186 519 2,569 3,488 9,871 674 3,290 5,983 5,608 3,136 1,519 657 133 65 97 2,716 1,035 41 6 59 11 35 48 Total all industries 30 38 8 2,094 131 79 1,702 182 2,779 235 2,043 502 76,109 51,605 1,888 475 25 239 211 869 1,646 399 585 46 82 534 3,501 1,620 731 464 687 4,256 474 1,088 317 849 1,528 16,806 554 622 1,113 1,207 944 9,182 3,185 10,470 639 3,582 6,248 7,567 3,558 2,724 1,047 112 50 76 2,828 980 5 95 17 23 55 10,736" 10,312 130 5 22,175 21,535 151 5 27 6 6 62 104 75 22 6 6 21 144 105 39 21 8,022 12 19 29 48 1,124 6,639 151 1,305 10 616 679 391 46 274 71 17,837 31 28 68 112 1,392 15,899 307 2,274 22 950 1,302 528 105 266 157 269 193 494 362 Industry Manufacturing—Continued Durable goods—Continued Professional, scientific instrument—Continued Optical, health service supplies.................................................... Photo equipment and sup plies..................................................... Watches and clock devices............................................................. Miscellaneous m anufacturing....................................................... Nondurable goods ................................................................................... Food and kindred products................................................................ Meat products................................................................................... Dairy p ro d u c ts ................................................................................ Canning and preserving.................................................................. Grain-mill p ro d u c ts ........................................................................ Bakery p ro d u c ts ............................................................................. Confectionery p ro d u c ts ................................................................ Beverage industries ........................................................................ Miscellaneous p reparatio n ............................................................. Tobacco m anufacturing..................................................................... Textile mill p ro d u c ts ..................................................................... Knitting m i l l s ................................................................................... Dyeing, finishing tex tile s ............................................................... Floor coverings................................................................................ Yarn, fabric m ills ............................................................................. Miscellaneous textile mill p ro d u c ts ............................................ Apparel, textile p ro d u c ts .................................................................. Apparel and accessories ................................................................ Miscellaneous fabricated products............................................... Paper and allied p ro d u c ts .................................................................. Pulp, paper, paperboard m ills ....................................................... Paperboard containers, boxes....................................................... Miscellaneous paper and pulp products .................................... Printing and publishing ..................................................................... Newspaper publishing p rin tin g .................................................... Printing, publishing except new s.................................................. Chemical and allied p r o d u c t ............................................................. Industrial chem icals........................................................................ Plastics, synthetics.......................................................................... Synthetic fib e rs ................................................................................ Drugs and medicines ..................................................................... Soaps and cosmetics........................................................................ Paints, varnishes ............................................................................. Agricultural c h e m ic a ls .................................................................. Miscellaneous c h em icals.......................................................... . Petroleum and coal products............................................................. Petroleum re fin in g .......................................................................... Miscellaneous petroleum, coal product .................................... Rubber, miscellaneous plastic p ro du cts......................................... Rubber p ro du cts............................................................................. Miscellaneous plastic p ro d u c ts .................................................... Leather products ................................................................................ Leather tanning, fin is h in g ............................................................. Footwear, except ru b ber................................................................ All other leather p ro d u cts ............................................................. Transportation, other public u tilitie s ....................................................... Transportation, t o t a l................................................................................ Railroads railway express.................................................................. Local, intern rban tra n s it..................................................................... Street railways, bus l i n e ................................................................ Taxicab s e rv ic e ..................................................................... .. Trucking and warehousing ................................................................ Trucking services............................................................................. Warehousing and storage................................................................ Water tran sp o rtatio n ........................................................................... A ir transportation................................................................................ Total all occupations Computer programmers Computer systems analysts 1970 1980 1970 1980 1970 1980 1,920 2,922 313 3,618 70,045 11,149 1,859 1,554 1,772 928 982 653 1,569 1,826 801 6,606 1,506 667 886 3,056 491 6,310 5,577 733 6,039 3,036 1,055 1,948 12,399 2,317 10,082 14,148 4,544 1,067 1,162 2,875 2,078 1,040 575 807 5,350 5,005 345 5,418 3,768 1,650 1,925 110 1,339 476 51,648 21,800 8,717 562 533 29 5,262 4,727 535 1,150 4,627 2,630 4,071 291 3,577 73,730 10,430 7,627 1,024 1,949 877 1,007 573 1,558 1,655 619 6,753 1,441 715 985 3,198 415 5,952 5,298 653 6,726 2,920 1,164 2,438 14,451 2,401 12,050 16,474 4,968 1,663 1,265 3,625 2,436 1,070 508 839 4,161 3,907 254 5,738 3,547 2,191 2,630 79 1,287 1,264 49,051 18,500 4,808 543 538 5 4,785 4,352 433 983 5,925 468 788 72 597 13,646 1,940 273 231 398 163 153 115 275 332 210 1,193 215 123 158 588 109 927 835 92 1,082 610 190 282 2,277 459 1,818 3,333 1,379 283 236 639 358 133 130 175 1,345 1,314 31 1,043 794 249 296 7 228 61 10,015 3,363 832 62 58 4 684 616 68 271 1,201 719 1,207 94 709 17,893 2,282 323 192 551 182 198 138 323 375 179 1,547 272 157 213 771 134 1,144 1,028 116 1,434 690 292 452 4,135 558 3,577 4,319 1,625 444 311 918 508 170 153 190 1,042 1,011 31 1,241 227 606 23 324 7,431 938 79 157 156 80 29 49 128 254 74 565 76 51 76 316 46 419 374 45 703 396 74 233 998 118 880 2,244 767 150 179 670 231 92 54 101 1,018 980 38 439 308 131 133 332 949 29 351 10,897 1,110 94 141 175 91 100 59 146 304 68 784 98 69 108 455 54 528 458 70 997 467 132 398 2,132 115 2,017 3,051 932 248 242 990 337 127 65 110 821 783 38 655 374 281 751 65 68 5,383 1,824 524 39 34 5 271 244 27 133 661 59 692 6,634 2,246 435 33 33 111 464 570 6 275 289 11,700 3,733 621 85 85 - 901 824 77 307 1,476 387 358 29 161 990 Industry Manuf actu ring—Continued Durable goods—Continued Professional, scientific instrument—Continued Optical, health service supplies..................................................... Photo equipment and sup plies..................................................... Watches and clock devices............................................................. Miscellaneous m anufacturing....................................................... Nondurable goods ................................................................................... Food and kindred products................................................................ Meat products................................................................................... Dairy p ro d u c ts ................................................................................ Canning and preserving.................................................................. Grain-mill p ro d u c ts ........................................................................ Bakery p ro d u c ts ............................................................................. Confectionery products . . ........................................................... Beverage industries ........................................................................ Miscellaneous food preparation .................................................. Tobacco m anufacturing..................................................................... Textile mill p ro d u cts ........................................................................... Knitting m i l l s ................................................................................... Dyeing, finishing tex tile s ................................................................ Floor coverings . .............................................................................. Yarn, fabric m ills ............................................................................. Miscellaneous textile mill p ro d u c ts ............................................ Apparel, textile p ro d u c ts .................................................................. Apparel and accessories ................................................................ Miscellaneous fabricated products............................................... Paper and allied p ro d u c ts .................................................................. Pulp, paper, paperboard m ills ....................................................... Paperboard containers, boxes....................................................... Miscellaneous paper and pulp p ro d u c t....................................... Printing and publishing ..................................................................... Newspaper publishing p rin tin g ..................................................... Printing, publishing except new s.................................................. Chemical and allied p r o d u c t ............................................................. Industrial chem icals........................................................................ Plastics, synthetics........................................................................... Synthetic fib e rs ................................................................................ Drugs and medicines ..................................................................... Soaps and cosmetics........................................................................ Paints, varnishes .............................................................................. Agriculture chemicals............................................... : ................... miscellaneous c h e m ica ls ................................................................ Petroleum and coal p roducts............................................................. Petroleum re fin in g ........................................................................... Miscellaneous petroleum, coal product .............................. Rubber, miscellaneous plastic p ro d u cts ......................................... Rubber p ro d u cts ............................................................................. Miscellaneous plastic p ro d u c ts ..................................................... Leather products ................................................................................ Leather tanning, fin is h in g ............................................................. Footwear, except ru b b e r................................................................ A ll other leather p ro d u cts ............................................................. Transportation, other public u tilitie s ....................................................... Transportation, t o t a l................................................................................ Railroads railway express.................................................................. Local, interurban transit . ................................................................... Street railways, bus line ................................................................ Taxicab s e rv ic e ................................................................................ Trucking and warehousing ................................................................ Trucking service ............................................................................ Warehousing and storage................................................................ Water transp ortation ........................................................................... Air transportation........... ..................................................................... Computer and peripheral equipment operators Keypunch operators 1970 1980 1970 1980 330 607 32 699 15,453 2,752 438 350 447 277 264 134 450 392 205 1,278 223 181 236 607 31 1,127 1,000 127 1,322 762 197 363 2,976 768 2,208 3,045 936 309 208 540 442 243 156 211 1,143 1,088 55 1,235 862 373 370 27 252 91 11,072 4,397 1,676 129 129 611 1,184 54 1,300 24,504 4,134 720 376 742 403 427 213 694 559 250 2,081 375 295 403 964 44 1,877 1,681 195 2,223 1,120 369 734 4,843 1,168 3,675 5,142 1,468 514 352 1,010 771 404 229 294 1,384 1,310 74 2,008 1,155 853 562 38 384 140 16,577 6,230 1,632 254 254 938 823 115 143 1,210 1,538 1,377 161 216 2,200 857 883 186 1,966 33,091 5,441 1,062 808 741 408 536 355 699 832 312 3,549 992 305 416 1,531 305 3,829 3,368 461 2,771 1,263 594 914 6,072 948 5,124 5,483 1,440 318 539 1,026 1,039 572 229 320 1,829 1,608 221 2,686 1,799 887 1,119 76 794 249 24,643 12,114 5,651 327 307 20 3,364 3,044 320 603 1,504 896 671 114 1,172 19,796 2,796 6,490 315 414 201 282 163 372 399 122 2,323 696 176 261 1,008 183 2,403 2,131 272 1,807 643 371 589 3,208 515 2,693 3,885 907 343 360 707 805 369 149 245 889 778 111 1,834 1,241 593 733 35 569 129 13,378 6,148 2,080 171 166 5 1,950 1,793 157 299 1,172 Data processing machine repairers 1970 1980 38 38 72 60 32 424 78 7 8 30 45 640 108 17 16 23 18 21 18 7 18 67 14 8 8 161 6 265 156 76 24 52 43 22 7 265 133 45 88 77 36 14 8 15 6 12 15 15 25 25 15 5 10 7 14 7 535 102 34 5 5 14 762 143 40 5 9 5 9 51 87 Industry Total all occupations 1970 Transportation, other public utilities—Continued Transportation, total—Continued P ipelines................................................................................................. Transportation services ..................................................................... Communications, utilities, sanitary .................................................... Communications................................................................................... Telephone (wire and r a d io ) .......................................................... Telegraph, miscellaneous communication service................... Radio broadcasting, T V Utilities, sanitary services.................................................................. Electric light and p o w e r ................................................................ Electric-gas u tilit ie s ........................................................................ Gas, steam supply systems............................................................. Water supply ................................................................................... Sanitary services.............................................................................. Other utilities, n.e.c.......................................................................... Wholesale and retail t r a d e ........................................................................... Wholesale t r a d e ......................................................................................... Wholesale except miscellaneous w ho le s ale .................................... Motor vehicles and e q u ip m e n t..................................................... Drugs, chemicals, allied p ro d u c ts ............................................... Dry goods and apparel .................................................................. Food and related p ro d u c ts ................................................................ Farm products raw m aterial.......................................................... Electrical goods................................................................................ Hardware, plum bing........................................................................ Machinery equipment supplies..................................................... Miscellaneous wholesale t r a d e .......................................................... Metals and minerals, n.e.c................................................................ Petroleum p ro d u c ts ........................................................................ Scrap and waste m aterial................................................................ Alcoholic beverages.......................................................... .. Paper and its products .................................................................. Lumber, construction m a te ria ls .................................................. Wholesale, n.e.c.................................................................................. Retail Trade .............................................................................................. Building m aterials................................................................................ Lumber, building m a te ria ls .......................................................... Hardware and farm equ ipm ent.................................................... General merchandise, t o t a l ................................................................ Department, mail order ................................................................ Limited price s to res........................................................................ Vending machine o perators.......................................................... Direct selling ................................................................................... Miscellaneous merchandise s to re s ............................................... Food and dairy stores ........................................................................ Grocery stores ................................................................................ Dairy product stores ..................................................................... Retail bakeries ................................................................................ Food stores, n.e.c.............................................................................. Auto dealers, gas s ta tio n s .................................................................. Motor vehicle d e a le rs ..................................................................... Tire, battery accessory.................................................................. Gasoline service s ta tio n s ................................................................ miscellaneous vehicle d e a le rs ....................................................... Apparel and accessories..................................................................... Apparel, accessories stores............................................................. Shoe stores......................................................................................: Furniture and a p p lia n c e s .................................................................. Home furnishing stores.................................................................. Appliance, T V , radio s to res.......................................................... Eating and drinking places ................................................................ Miscellaneous retail trade sto res....................................................... Drug stores......................................................................................... 371 1,111 29,415 17,228 15,606 1,188 746 12,629 4,526 4,196 2,963 936 167 89 94,970 63,927 51,239 4,380 5,095 2,078 5,847 652 4,885 1,804 26,497 12,688 1,410 2,404 85 1,302 1,372 726 5,389 31,043 960 563 397 16,041 12,244 1,020 251 788 1,738 4,038 3,720 124 112 82 1,389 769 523 5 35 2,260 1,673 587 1,432 656 776 1,106 3,874 999 Computer programmers Computer systems analysts 1980 1970 1980 1970 1980 325 1,231 29,832 17,959 16,137 1,555 804 12,405 4,711 3,748 2,814 948 226 113 107,213 71,470 58,628 5,284 4,673 1,915 5,091 472 7,344 1,378 32,481 12,633 1,752 1,977 104 1,352 1,494 799 5,571 35,742 714 453 261 18,601 14,451 688 302 831 2,329 5,368 4,963 152 148 106 1,909 996 722 0 35 1,889 1,391 498 1,343 607 736 1,677 4,396 1,031 116 197 6,652 3,538 3,103 291 144 3,114 1,127 879 905 149 30 24 14,080 10,059 8,257 565 695 310 ' 873 123 691 278 4,722 1,802 179 473 16 115 151 96 772 4,021 156 91 65 2,064 1,579 99 23 185 178 493 468 13 8 4 107 75 32 91 252 7,967 4,479 3,949 363 167 3,488 1,305 942 943 215 50 33 16,843 11,432 9,265 831 811 366 1,011 117 1,152 334 4,643 2,167 218 564 23 141 184 118 919 5,411 156 96 60 2,914 2,276 101 40 215 282 786 746 19 21 42 154 3,559 2,219 1,948 205 66 1,340 425 522 304 42 39 8 10,812 8,548 7,438 205 261 165 290 49 620 54 5,793 1,110 185 358 33 207 4,388 2,877 2,519 258 100 1,411 519 545 316 60 59 12 12,960 9,660 8,297 274 352 192 393 52 1,038 74 5,932 1,353 250 440 35 186 45 301 2,264 53 39 14 1,278 897 105 21 43 212 202 186 5 46 230 46 341 3,300 46 27 19 1,928 1,435 110 37 34 312 376 345 7 11 107 20 30 24 199 216 140 76 261 88 173 105 619 172 227 136 91 309 100 209 70 44 26 92 24 68 108 411 61 134 107 27 129 60 69 199 144 55 820 243 43 644 93 i ndustry Transportation, other public utilities—Continued Transportation, total—Continued P ip elin es................... .. ............. ............................................................ Transportation services ........... .. ....................................................... Communications, utilities, sanitary ...................... ............................. Communications................................................................................... Telephone (wire and r a d io ) .............., ........................... ............. Telegraph, miscellaneous communication service................... Radio broadcasting, T V ................................................................ Utilities, sanitary services.................................................................. Electric light and p o w e r ................... ........................................... Electric-gas u t ilit ie s ........................................................................ Gas, steam supply systems............................................................. Water supply ................................................................................... Sanitary services............................................................................. Other utilities, n.e.c................ . . .................................................... Wholesale and retail t r a d e ........................................................................... Wholesale t r a d e ......................................................................................... Wholesale except miscellaneous w ho le s ale .................................... Motor vehicles and equipment . ................. ................................ Drugs, chemicals, allied products ............................................... Dry goods and a p p a re l.................................................................. Food and related products ............................ ............................. .. . Farm product raw m a te r ia l.......................................................... Electrical goods................................................................................ Hardware, plum bing........................................................................ Machinery equipment supplies ..................................................... Miscellaneous wholesale t r a d e ......................................................... Metals and minerals, n.e.c. ............................................................. Petroleum p ro d u c ts ........................................................................ Scrap and waste m aterial................................................................ Alcoholic beverages.................................................................. Paper and its products ................................................................. Lumber, construction m a te ria ls .................................................. Wholesale, n.e.c. .............................................................................. Retail Trade .............................................................................................. Building m aterials.................................................................. .. Lumber, building m a te ria ls ......................................................... Hardware and farm equ ipm ent...................... ............................. General merchandise, t o t a l ................................................................ Department, mail order ................................................................ Limited price stores ........................................................................ Vending machine o perators.............................. .......................... Direct selling ................................................................ .. Miscellaneous merchandise stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Food and dairy stores ................................ ..................................... Grocery stores ....................................................... ........................ Dairy product stores .............................. ..................................... Retail bakeries ............................................ ............... .................. Food stores, n.e.c...................................................................... .. Auto dealers, gas stations ............................................................. .. . Motor vehicle d e a le rs ...................................................... .. Tire, battery accessory................... .............................................. Gasoline service s ta tio n s ...................... ........................................ Miscellaneous vehicle dealers ............................................... Apparel and accessories.................................... .. .............................. Apparel, accessories stores...................... ..................................... Shoe stores ................................................................................. .. . Furniture and appliances .............................................................. . Home furnishing stores ....................................... .. ....................... Appliances, T V , radio s to r e s ................... ................................... E a tin g an d d rin k in g p l a c e s ...................... ........................................ Miscellaneous retail trade sto res....................................................... Drug stores........................................................................................ Computer and peripheral equipment operators Keypunch operators 1970 1980 1970 1980 91 210 6,675 4,028 3,628 260 140 2,647 939 785 667 193 39 24 16,345 9,490 7,389 1,054 1,073 389 1,322 134 880 278 2,259 2,101 230 8 30 252 247 183 1,151 6,855 202 161 41 3,538 2,664 202 ' 30 210 432 1,078 989 25 48 16 292 175 117 139 351 10,247 6,502 5,871 412 219 3,745 1,367 1,041 882 338 75 41 27,927 15,394 12,576 1,910 1,747 602 1,899 173 1,812 417 4,017 2,818 342 45 386 386 290 1,368 12,533 256 211 45 6,464 5,078 210 59 275 842 1,923 1,772 45 76 31 536 319 217 115 550 12,529 7,010 6,550 177 283 5,519 1,979 1,965 1,082 401 59 33 43,269 25,774 18,518 2,556 3,058 1,214 3,347 346 2,416 1,194 4,387 7,256 794 1,553 39 893 769 402 2,806 17,495 549 272 277 9,161 7,104 614 177 350 916 2,265 2,077 81 56 51 850 476 339 55 421 7,230 3,482 3,214 113 156 3,748 1,485 1,185 673 335 42 27. 32,595 18,736 12,940 2,269 1,763 755 1,788 130 2,751 553 2,930 5,797 680 951 36 768 665 345 2,351 13,858 256 119 137 7,295 5,662 267 166 307 893 2,283 2,100 81 51 51 975 533 407 506 393 113 270 146 124 279 690 196 714 543 171 399 220 179 1,077 1,164 361 35 1,468 1,096 372 744 398 346 614 1,844 570 35 814 605 209 426 227 199 600 1,208 334 Data processing machine repairers 1970 1980 7 7 433 377 255 113 9 56 45 5 6 619 584 409 162 13 35 35 10,464 10,056 9,637 16,888 16,248 15,550 8 15 0 278 591 9,336 419 22 12 14,959 498 44 22 7 19 11 29 359 408 592 640 33 23 5 5 65 80 65 80 310 560 Industry Total all occupations 1970 Wholesale and retail trade—Continued Retail Trade—Continued Miscellaneous retail trade stores—Continued Liquor stores ................................................................................... Farm, garden supply s to re s ............................................... * . . . Jewelry stores................................................................................... Fuel and ice d e a le rs ........................................................................ Retail f lo r is ts ................................................................................... Miscellaneous retail trade stores . . ............................................ Finance, insurance, real estate .................................................................. Finance, total ........................................................................................... Banking ................................................................................................. Credit agenctes...................................................................................... Stock brokers, investment ................................................................ In s u ra n c e .................................................................................................... Real E s ta te ................................................................................................. Services, t o t a l ....................................................................................... Hotels and lodging places........................................................................ Hotels and m o te ls ................................................................................ Lodging places, except h o t e ls .......................................................... Other personal services ........................................................................... Laundry, cleaning...................................................................................... Beauty s h o p s ........................................................................................ Barber s h o p s ......................................................................................... Shoe repair s h o p s ................................................................................ Dressmaking s h o p s ............................................................................. Other personal services........................................................................ Miscellaneous business services............................................................. Advertising .......................................................................................... Business management services.......................................................... Commercial R and D ........................................................................... Computer program m ing..................................................................... Detective and protective..................................................................... Employment, temporary h e l p .......................................................... Services b uild in g ................................................................................... Other miscellaneous services................... .. ...................................... Automobile repair services..................................................................... Auto r e p a ir ........................................................................................... Auto services, except repair ............................................................. Other repair services................................................................................ Electrical repair s h o p ........................................................................... Other repair serv ic e s ........... .............................................................. Motion pictures, theaters . . ................................................................... Miscellaneous entertainm ent.................................................................. Bowling alleys, b illia rd s ..................................................................... Miscellaneous entertainm ent............................................................. Medical, other health ............................................................................ Offices of physicians........................................................................... Offices of dentists...................... ...................................... ................... Offices of chiropractors.................................... ............................ Hospitals................................................................................................. Convalescent in s titu tio n s .................................................................. Health practitioners, n.e.c.................................................................... Health services n.e.c .................................................................. Legal services.............................................................................................. Educational services................................................................................ Elementary, secondary........................................................................ Colleges and universities..................................................................... L ib ra rie s ................................................................................................. Educational services, n.e.c ................................................................ Museums, art galleries, z o o s ................... ............................................... Nonprofit organizations........................................................................... Religious organizations ..................................................................... 1980 Computer systems analysts Computer programmers 1970 1980 103 308 193 399 13 51 28 50 21 70 33 45 2,359 138,916 86,052 66,808 7,923 9,171 50,734 2,129 313,858 781 781 305 21,557 9,601 7,088 1,218 1,295 11,627 329 51,819 101 101 408 28,243 15,544 11,387 2,051 2,106 12,235 464 87,880 136 136 580 580 51 51 92,487 873 7,244 4,188 59,669 415 6,838 49 13,211 812 39 773 2,280 1,012 1,268 888 298 169,143 851 12,412 7,986 114,470 744 9,850 106 22,724 1,247 56 1,191 3,671 1,631 2,040 1,151 446 298 14,007 105 239 255 563 11 1,702 107,464 54,816 41,479 6,517 6,820 50,750 1,898 188,501 594 592 2 802 794 8 1970 1980 6 19 36 20 29 41 461 14,525 8,662 6,749 882 1,031 5,594 268 56,388 79 79 289 9,275 4,409 3,283 504 622 4,696 170 28,383 47 46 1 52 52 26,953 221 2,059 1,872 19,890 86 320 48,548 264 3,576 3,546 36,168 169 659 16,017 85 1,580 1,043 11,710 8 61 34,614 101 3,071 2,009 26,655 24 139 2,505 109 4,166 196 1,530 120 2,615 220 109 196 120 220 198 46 290 78 99 6 156 446 17,139 46 2,623 78 4,265 6 1,480 3,120 11,917 155 16,846 583 2,122 27 3,589 74 1,118 40 2,070 170 1,935 212 32,797 4,514 25,357 163 2,754 49 6,515 591 2,241 121 48,048 6,776 36,611 289 4,372 78 8,744 633 474 31 11,518 1,081 9,750 55 623 17 988 602 36 17,242 1,635 14,447 83 1,077 27 1,663 322 5 3,695 521 2,769 25 380 6 603 411 91 91 5,948 948 4,312 39 649 11 940 Industry Computer and peripheral equipment operators 1970 Wholesale and retail trade—Continued Retail Trade—Continued Miscellaneous retail trade stores—Continued Liquor stores ................................................................................... Farm, garden supply s to re s .......................................................... Jewelry stores .......................................................... ........................ Fuel and ice dealers ........................................................................ Retail f lo r is ts ...................................................... .......................... Miscellaneous retail trade s to re s .................................................. Finance, insurance, real estate .......................................................... .. Finance, total ........................................................................................... Banking ............................................ ................................................... Credit agencies...................................................................................... Stock brokers, investment ................................................................ In s u ra n c e ................................................................................................... Real E s ta te ................................................................................................. Services, t o t a l ................................................................................................. Hotels and lodging places............................................................... Hotels and m o te ls ................................................................................ Lodging places, except h o t e ls .......................................................... Other personal services ............................................................... Laundry, cleaning.......................................................................... Beauty s h o p s ................................................................. ..................... Barber s h o p s ......................................................................................... Shoe repair s h o p s ................................................................................ Dressmaking shops ............................................................................. Other personal services...................... ............................. .. ................ Miscellaneous business services................................................. Advertising ........................................................................................... Business management services.......................................................... Commercial R and D ........................................................................... Computer program m ing............................................................... Detective and protective..................................................................... Employment, temporary h e l p ......................................................... Services buildings ................................................................................. Other miscellaneous services............................................................. Automobile repair services........... ......................................................... Auto repair ........................................................................................... Auto services except re p a ir................................................................ Other repair services................................................................................ Electrical repair s h o p ........... ........................................ ..................... Other repair services ........................................................................... Motion pictures, th e a te rs ........................................................................ Miscellaneous entertainm ent......................... ........................................ Bowling allevs, b illia rd s ..................................................................... Miscellaneous e n tertainm ent............................................................. Medical, other health ............................................................................. Offices of physicians ........................................................................... Offices of dentists................................................................................ Offices of chiropractors..................................................................... Hospitals................................................................................................. Convalescent in s titu tio n s ................... .............................................. Health practitioners, n.e.c.................................................................... Health services n.e.c............................................................................... Legal services.............................. .............................................................. Educational services.................................... ........................................... Elementary, secondary...................... ................................................ Colleges and universities..................................................................... Libraries ................................................................................................. Educational services, n.e.c................................................................... Museums, art galleries, z o o s .................................................................. Nonprofit organizations.......................................................................... Religious organizations . ................................................................... 8 58 44 170 1980 31 * 104 71 ' 210 214 26,284 16,151 12,564 1,824 1,763 9,698 t 435 31,709 127 127 386 54,932 38,236 30,296 4,315 3,625 16,005 690 70,772 306 306 104 104 117 117 12,962 166 1,030 674 8,651 110 31,451 258 2,460 1,582 21,225 281 2,331 156 35 121 5,645 317 56 261 Data processing machine repairers Keypunch operators 1970 84 124 164 301 11 590 50,057 24,470 18,378 2,971 3,121 24,623 96*4 63,782 316 315 1 590 582 8 * 1980 51 114 60 93 1970 1980 6 10 304 291 185 166 550 685 523 483 554 40,531 23,087 17,893 2,726 2,469 16,738 707 68,735 339 339 19 106 40 162 12,808 3 3 30,083 293 293 5 5 28,112 397 2,235 519 12,974 196 6,457 32,727 228 2,467 665 13,470 243 9,052 8,443 4 340 80 6,444 15 21,803 5,334 427 4 423 6,602 514 49 1,511 106 3,969 2,280 1,012 1,268 8 3,671 1,631 2,040 838 184 16,952 27 514 161 69 384 174 422 177 371 194 69 3,170 174 6,927 177 6,706 194 5,827 2,865 32 6,313 217 5,784 56 4,874 122 273 26 7,149 944 5,702 34 469 18 1,148 125 397 54 13,548 1,820 10,615 98 1,015 35 2,350 221 866 150 10,183 1,946 6,959 49 1,229 8 3,723 466 831 31 10,950 2,373 7,019 69 1,489 5 3,682 412 28 28 252 22 177 360 53 142 53 109 218 Computer programmers Total all occupations Computer systems analysts Industry 1970 Services, total—Continued Nonprofit organizations—Continued Welfare services .................................................................................. Residential w e lfa r e ........................................................................ .. . Nonprofit membership........................................................................ Private households................................................................................... Other professional related services....................................................... Engines and architectural services ..................................................... Accounting, a u d itin g ........................................................................... Miscellaneous professional services................... ............................. Government, t o t a l ........................................................................................ Federal public administration ......................... .. ................................... Postal services ...................................................................................... Federal public a d m in is tra tio n .......................................................... State public administration .................................................................. Local public ad m in is tra tio n .................................................................. 1980 SOURCE: B ureau o f L a b o r S tatistics 1980 1970 1980 2,924 23 2,977 4,060 20 4,031 442 753 396 574 546 910 207 366 36,761 3,458 28,125 5,178 62,637 31,636 427 31,209 19,195 11,806 59,710 4,557 48,365 6,786 63,470 31,273 912 30,361 20,432 11,765 9,184 1,322 5,814 2,048 11,924 6,133 81 6,052 3,355 2,436 15,320 1,354 11,221 2,745 15,376 7,091 164 6,927 5,101 3,184 6,254 790 4,342 1,122 5,356 1,914 60 1,854 2,201 1,241 11,288 1,195 8,556 1,537 7,599 2,465 191 2,274 3,407 1,727 Computer and peripheral equipment operators Services, total—Continued Nonprofit organizations—Continued Welfare services ...................... .......................... ................................ Residential w e lfa r e .................................... ......................................... Nonprofit membership......................... .............................................. Private households . ................................................................................. Other professional related services....................................................... Engines and architectural services.................................................... Accounting, a u d itin g .......................................................................... Miscellaneous professional services........... .. ................................... Government, total ................................................................ .. ...................... Federal public adm inistration........... .................................................. Postal services ..................................................................................... Federal public administration . ........................................................ State public administration ................................. ................................ Local public a d m in is tra tio n .................................................................. 1970 Keypunch operators 1,234 1,630 23 1,604 1,838 20 1,412 15,159 1,098 12,672 1,388 23,732 13,778 490 13,288 6,164 3,790 12,968 656 11,217 1,095 28,388 11,946 125 11,821 10,470 5,972 13,803 664 12,153 985 14,817 5,993 67 5,926 5,760 3,064 450 895 573 6,619 573 5,218 828 15,943 10,673 161 10,512 3,157 2,113 Data processing machine repairers 6 47 109 1,736 117 1,534 85 1,026 970 4,140 246 3,763 131 1,946 1,946 970 12 44 1,946 Appendix D. Employment distribution of computer occupations, by state, 1970 Region and State Total Programers Systems analyst Peripheral equip. operators Keypunch operators Data processing machine repairers T O T A L 50 STATES A ND D.C. . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.00 100.0 New England M a in e ..................................................... New H am p shire................................. V e rm o n t............................................... Massachusetts .................................... Rhode Is la n d ....................................... Connecticut ....................................... 0.2 0.3 0.1 3.9 0.4 2.0 0.1 0.3 0.1 4.3 0.3 1.8 0.1 0.2 0.2 3.8 0.3 2.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 3.6 0.4 1.7 0.3 0.3 0.1 4.0 0.4 2.0 0.2 0.6 0.1 3.4 0.3 1.5 Middle Atlantic New Y o r k ............................................ New J e rs e y .......................................... Pennsylvania....................................... 12.1 4.9 6.0 13.4 5.3 5.5 11.3 5.3 5.5 12.5 4.7 6.1 11.6 4.7 6.4 11.5 4.9 5.7 East North Central Ohio ..................................................... In d ia n a .................................................. lllinois2d M ichigan............................................... W isconsin............................................ 5.2 2.2 6.9 4.0 1.9 4.8 1.5 6.0 3.7 1.5 5.1 1.6 6.3 3.7 1.5 5.2 1.9 6.9 4.0 2.2 5.5 2.5 7.8 4.2 2.2 4.7 4.6 6.2 3.9 1.4 West North Central M innesota............................................ I owa ..................................................... M is s o u ri............................................... North Dakota .................................... South Dakota .................................... Nebraska ............................................ K ansas.................................................. 2.2 0.9 2.4 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.8 2.7 0.7 2.1 0.1 <1 > 0.5 0.6 2.5 0.8 1.9 (1) (1) 0.5 0.6 1.9 1.0 2.2 (1) 0.1 0.5 0.8 1.8 1.0 2.8 0.1 0.1 0.6 1.1 2.6 0.8 2.0 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.8 South Atlantic Delaware ............................................ Maryland ............................................ District of C o lu m b ia ......................... Virginia ............................................... West V irg in ia ....................................... North C arolina.................................... South Carolina.................................... Georgia ............................................... F lo rid a .................................................. 0.3 3.6 0.7 2.6 0.4 1.6 0.6 1.8 2.4 0.3 4.2 0.7 3.0 0.3 1.5 0.5 1.5 2.3 0.3 5.7 0.9 4.2 0.2 1.3 0.4 1.2 2.2 0.3 3.4 0.7 2.2 0.4 1.7 0.6 1.7 2.7 0.3 2.4 0.6 2.0 0.4 1.8 0.8 2.1 2.3 0.3 3.1 0.3 2.5 0.2 1.3 0.6 1.8 2.7 East South Central K e n tu c k y ...................... , ................... Tennessee............................................ A la b a m a ............................................... Mississippi............................................ 0.9 1.3 1.0 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.2 0.3 0.6 1.1 1.0 0.2 0.9 1.2 0.8 0.3 1.2 1.5 1.1 0.4 0.6 1.1 1.1 0.3 West South Central Arkansas............................................... L o u is ia n a ............................................ O k la h o m a ............................................ T e x a s ..................................................... 0.3 0.9 1.1 5.3 0.3 0.7 1.0 5.2 0.2 0.6 1.1 5.1 0.3 1.1 1.2 5.7 0.4 1.0 1.1 5.2 0.2 1.0 1.4 5.8 Mountain M o n ta n a ............................................... Idaho ..................................................... Wyoming ............................................ Colorado ............................................ New Mexico ....................................... Arizona ............................................... Utah ..................................................... N ev a d a .................................................. 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.2 0.4 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.2 (1) 1.4 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.2 P) 0.1 (1 ) 1.4 0.4 1.0 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 1.3 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 1.1 0.3 0.7 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.1 0.4 0.9 1.2 0.1 Pacific W ashington.......................................... O re g o n .................................................. C a lifo rn ia ............................................ A la s k a .................................................. H a w a ii.................................................. 1.4 0.7 11.8 0.1 0.4 1.4 0.9 9.9 0.1 0.3 1.6 0.5 13.1 0.1 0.4 1.4 0.6 13.8 0.1 0.4 1 Less th a n .0 5 p e rce n t 1.7 0.6 13.6 0.1 0.4 SOURCE: 43 1.4 0.6 12.0 0.1 0.3 1 9 7 0 Census o f P o p u la tio n . Appendix E. Methods and Assumptions for BLS Industry Occupational Matrix Projections of Computer Manpower Requirements The method for projecting computer manpower requirements to 1980 used in this study is the same as that used by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in other studies of future occupational manpower needs. This procedure is summarized briefly in the section that follows.' Additional detail may be found in BLS Bulletin 1737, Tomorrow’s Manpower Needs, Appendix A. Framework for developing projections The Bureau of Labor Statistics has prepared national industry and occupational manpower projections since the mid-1950’s. The most current set of projections is for 1980 and 1985. The projections of manpower requirements for five computer occupations developed in this study—programmers, systems analysts, computer and peripheral equipment operators, keypunch operators, and data processing machine repairers—have recently been included in the Bureau’s systematic approach to developing projections. Underlying the Bureau’s projections, and therefore, the projections of computer manpower presented in this report, are assumptions concerning the economy in 1980. Among these are: Fiscal, monetary, and manpower training and educa tional programs will achieve a satisfactory balance between relatively low unemployment and relative price stability, permitting achievement of the long term economic growth rate. The projections assume a 4-percent unemployment rate (of the civilian labor force) and a 3-percent annual increase in the implicit price deflator for gross national product. The institutional framework of economy will not change radically. the American Economic, social, technological, and scientific trends will continue, including values placed on work, education, income, and leisure. Efforts to solve major domestic problems such as those of air and water pollution, solid waste disposal, urban congestion, inadequate industrial safety, and energy shortages may consume ^ more productive resources but will not have more than a marginal effect on long-term growth. Projection methods Briefly, ratios indicating the proportion of employ ment represented by each of the five computer occupa tions were developed for the base year, 1970, for each of the 200 industries included in the latest BLS industryoccupational matrix. Estimates of these ratios were then projected to 1980 and applied to the projected total 1980 employment requirements for each industry to yield estimates of employment for each of the computer occupations. Total national requirements for each com puter occupation were obtained by summing across all industries. Prior to this study, data on computer occupations were not covered in the BLS industry-occupational matrix. The reason for this obvious data gap was that the then existing matrix was based on the 1960 Census occupational information system,1 in which computer occupations were not listed separately. However, the 1970 Census greatly expanded its industry and occupa tional coverage, including the major computer occupa tions. The latest BLS matrix is based on the 1970 Census industry-occupational employment estimates refined and adjusted by BLS staff to reflect unallocated workers, seasonal employment factors, BLS industry employment estimates, and occupational estimates derived from other in-depth studies. The Census Bureau further provided BLS with the total occupational employment estimates of 1960 for all new occupations added to the 1970 Census. BLS distributed these occupational employment estimates by industry, creating comparable and refined 1960-70 trend data. These trend data provided the basis for preliminary 1980 matrix occupation-industry employment ratio projections, which were subsequently applied to BLS iSee T o m o r ro w ’s M a n pow er N eeds, Volume IV revised (BLS Bulletin 1737, 1971). projections of 1980 industry employment. The resulting numbers were summed across all industries to obtain preliminary 1980 matrix total occupational employment projections. Thereafter, the preliminary ratios were evaluated and, when deemed necessary, adjusted. Several sources provided supplementary data that were used to evaluate the preliminary 1980 ratios for computer occupations. The most significant o f these sources included the following: • The computer user survey conducted as part of this Computer Manpower Study, provided informa tion on current and future computer employment, education and training, applications and equipment, and technological developments by industry. Similar information resulting from the computer manufac turer interview and library research segments of this study also influenced the judgment of the analysts who evaluated the preliminary 1980 ratios. • National employment estimates for some com puter occupations in selected industries from the BLS Area Wage Surveys were analyzed and weighed in appraising the preliminary ratios. These data, how ever, exclude certain major industries such as govern ment and do not reflect employment in non-metro politan areas or smaller sized establishments. • Employment information for some computer workers employed by the Federal Government was available from an annual report published by the General Services Administration.2 Although these data are not strictly comparable to data collected in the Decennial Census or monthly Current Population Surveys because they are measured in manhours, they were useful in evaluating the preliminary 1980 computer employment ratios. Some useful computer staffing pattern information also was available from annual salary surveys published by Business Automa tion magazine and unpublished information from the International Data Corp. • In addition, data from the Current Population Survey for 1971 and 1972, which include computer occupations^, and several prior Bureau of Labor Statistics studies of computer manpower and tech nology were helpful. The BLS studies include Out look for Computer Process Control, Bulletin 1658, and Outlook for Technology and Manpower in Printing and Publishing, Bulletin 1774. • Information concerning growth of the market for computer hardware and services also was considered in evaluating and adjusting the preliminary ratios. Projected values for computer shipments (on annual and cumulative bases) and computer installa tions (number of systems or CPU’s) from several sources were evaluated. These included published information from the International Data Corp.’s EDP Industry Report, the U.S. Department of Commerce, the Diebold Research Program, and Quantum Sciences Corp. Regression analysis techniques were employed using some of these data as well as those from unpublished sources to further check the reliability of employment estimates projected using the preliminary 1980 Matrix. After reevaluation of preliminary 1980 Matrix ratios based on the foregoing steps, new ratios were applied to 1980 BLS industry projections to obtain final 1980 BLS Matrix employment projections. ^Inventory and Summary of Federal ADP Activities for Fiscal Year 1972, General Services Administration, February 1973. ^The Current Population Survey in 1971 and 1972 used the 1970 census occupational classification which included the 5 computer occupations projected in this study. Appendix F. Interview Guide for BLS Computer User Survey A comprehensive interview guide was developed and used by BLS staff to insure that computer user information was obtained and recorded in any orderly manner. At each of the survey firms, interviews were conducted with company data processing managers, personnel staff, and others concerning the firm’s experi ences and plans relating to computer hardware and software, size and composition of the computer staff, and skill requirements and training programs for com puter occupations. A copy of the interview guide follows. BLS-3016 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS WASHINGTON, D.C. 20212 Office of Management and Budget No. 44-S71044 Approval expires 12/30/72 Interview Guide Manpower Study of Computer Personnel This interview was conducted at the (company) (address) (city) (state) with . Date (official’s name & title) Phone: _ A. Introduction This interview is being conducted by the BLS in connection with its current manpower study of com puter personnel. The study, which is being made for the National Science Foundation, will yield estimates of current employment and will serve as a base from which to estimate future employment requirements for com puter personnel and provide information on their train ing needs. The study is designed to assist the NSF and other agencies, public and private, in planning educa tional and training programs in this field. It also will contribute valuable information to the BLS occupational outlook program. All sources of data and information obtained in the interview will be held strictly con fidential, and the published information will not permit identification of these sources. B. Site Information 1. B. Verify or obtain the following information (some entries are already known from the International Data Corporation Data File): a. Industry and SIC code(s) b. Number of central processing units (CPU’s).* If any CPU’s are less than fully operational (in process of conversion to 1. a. b. *A central processing unit is a general purpose digital computer forming the core of a computer system; it excludes minicomputers and peripheral equipment that may be used to feed information to the primary or central processing unit. Where several general purpose computers are combined into a system, each should be listed and counted as an individual CPU at a given site to assure compatibility with our information file. another application or being installed), please indicate since staffing may be affected. If you have any CPU’s located elsewhere that are part of this system, indicate. c. Average monthly site rental (or purchase value). Include rental or purchase value of peripheral equipment at the site. d. Minicomputers (1) How many minicomputers ($5,000 to $25,000 purchase price) now are in use at the site? d. (2) Are these minicomputers staffed by any computer specialists (full or parttime)? 2. C. (1) (2) Data entry a. What are the primary methods of data entry at the site? (For example, card punch equipment key-to-tape, OCR [optical char acter recognition].) b. What changes in data entry methods have occurred during the past 5 years? How have these changes altered staffing require ments for any computer occupations? c. What changes in data entry methods do you anticipate over the next decade (e.g., Telecommunications)? How will these changes alter staffing requirements for any computer occupations? Applications 2. a. b. C. 1 0 0 P ercen t 1. What are the primary applications at this site? 1. 2. Is this pattern of computer applications typical of most users in your industry? 2. 3. What changes do you anticipate in the applications at this site during the next 10 years (either changes in the percentage distribution of question C. 1. or new applications)? How will these affect employment requirements for com puter personnel? 3. Scientific and engineering . . Accounting........................... Inventory c o n tr o l................ Process c o n tr o l..................... Production, planning, and control........................... Business forecasting ........... Transportation (logistics) . . Other (specify and describe)............................... D. D. Staffing 1. a. How many EDP personnel are employed at this site (specify occupational function and title)? N um ber o f e m p lo y ee s 1. a. All EDP Personnel..............Total EDP Managers. . . .Sub Total Department manager....................... Manager of computer (equipment operations.................. Manager of systems analysis/ programing ................ Other............................ Programmers (nonmanagerial) . Sub Total Business applications................ Scientific and technical applications systems (software) .................. Systems analysts (nonmanagerial) . Sub Total Business....................... Scientific and te ch n ica l..................... Systems engineers . . . Sub Total Computer (console) operators . . . Sub Total Peripheral equipment operators . . . Sub Total Keypunch/Tape operators..................... Tape librarians............ O th e r ........................... Data processing machine repairers (in house) . . Sub Total Other (specify occupational function and title) ............Sub Total b. Discuss any problems in occupational classifica tion among computer jobs because of work similarities or overlaps. For example, program mers and systems analysts frequently perform the same job functions. (Obtain user job descriptions if available.) c. How has this staffing pattern (distribution of employment by job titles) changed in the last 5 years and what changes do you anticipate over the next 10 years? b. d. Please describe any new or emerging occupa tions not included in (a). 2. How many shifts are you operating at this site? Is your pattern of shift operation typical of other sites in this industry? 3. How do staffing requirements vary by shift? (Interviewer note: this question is to ascertain whether certain computer personnel are not required on second or third shifts, such as systems analysts, or if fewer personnel are needed than on he first shift.) 4. Do you anticipate any changes in your pattern of shift operation over the next 10 years? If so, how will this affect staffing requirements? 5. Does your staff prepare work, such as program ming or data input, for use by other sites? If so, estimate the number of personnel required by this extra work, by occupation. 6. Do you contract-out any functions, such as pro gramming, systems analysis, or data preparation? If possible, estimate by occupation the personnel that would be necessary were all work to be performed by your on-site staff. 7. Do you have other computer personnel in the company who contribute to the data processing functions of this site? If so, estimate the number by occupation. 8. Do you have any non-computer personnel in the company who contribute to the data processing functions of this site (for example, economists who program)? If so, estimate the number, by occupation, and indicate the data processing tasks that they perform. E. Outlook 1. What additional computer installations are planned at this site? 2. Discuss any expected changes in job duties within computer occupations during the next 10 years. (For example, programmers may increasingly per form systems analysis duties and do less routine work such as coding.) 3. What impact do you expect minicomputers to have on future staffing requirements? 3. 4. Computer Personnel Supply 4. a. In what occupations do you currently experience difficulty obtaining qualified personnel? a. b. In what occupations do you currently experience no difficulty obtaining qualified per sonnel? b. c. How has this situation changed over the past 5 years? F. Education and Training of Your Computer Staff, by Occupation 1. Enter on table the educational levels attained by your present staff. (Enter number of employees by occupation and levels of education attained.)* 1. Educational levels attained* Some college Job title Less than High school Total number high school graduate graduate Junior college graduate Other College graduate Bachelor’s degree (4 yrs.) Graduate degree (5 or more yrs.) Graduate of private Other computer (specify) school EDP Manager Programmer Systems analyst Systems engineer Computer (console) operator Peripheral equipment operator Computer maintenance technician Other *Example: A programmer who is a high school graduate, completed some college, and is a graduate of a private computer school should be included in three columns. Thus, column totals will likely exceed the total number of computer staff in each occupation. F. 2. For the most prevalent educational attainment level shown for each occupation in the preceding table, indicate the major fields of study, curriculum titles, etc., commonly found. F. 2. Fields of study EDP Manager_________________ Programmer Systems analyst Systefiis engineer Computer (console) operator______ Peripheral equipment operator______ Data processing machine repairer Other 3. Regarding the educational backgrounds of your employees, are there any subject areas: 3. a. in which they lack necessary preparation for the work they do? a. 3. b. in which their preparation is not necessary for the work they do? 3. b. 4. 4. How have educational requirements for computer personnel changed during the past 5 years? 5. Do you expect to continue hiring computer personnel having approximately the same level of education as those currently employed? If not, what future changes in educational preparation of your staff do you anticipate? (Specify by occupa tion.) 5. EDP Manager Programmer Systems analyst Systems engineer Computer (console) operator Peripheral equipment operator Computer maintenance technician Other 6. Where do you obtain your computer personnel? (Specify by occupation.) 6. Sys EDP Pro tems Man gram ana ager mer lyst 7. a. other industries (specify!...................... a b. other companies in your industry b. 0. s c h o o ls ( in d ic a t e t y p e ) ........................ c, d. o th e r........................................................... d. ... Have any of your staff transferred from noncomputer occupations? (If yes, specify occupation.) 7. Sys tems engi neer Com puter (con sole) oper ator Data Peri pheral process ing equip ment machine re oper pairers ator Other 8. Supplementary Training: Describe the type of supplementary, job-related training given your staff in addition to formal educational preparation. When possible, include the length of this training and its funding source. 8. Supplementary training (post employment) Job title Type of train ing* De Number scrip Length or % of tion of emor train ploycourse ing ees title Who admin istered the training? Who paid for the training? EDP Mana ger Pro gram mer Sys tems Ana lyst Sys tems Engi neer Com puter (con sole) Opera tor Peri pheral Equip ment Opera tor Data process ing machine re pairer Other *In-house—classroom or on-the-job; vocational school; manu facturer’s school; college. Appendix G. Glossary of Computer Terms ADP (Automatic Data Processing)—Data processing largely performed by automatic means. ALGOL—A programming language used for scientific computer applicants. Alphanumeric—A term used to indicate a combination of letters, numbers and special symbols such as punctuation or mathematical notations. Analog Computer—A computer which operates on data represented by measurable physical quantities (speed, temperature, voltage, etc.). Analysis, Systems—Examination of an activity, procedure, or method to determine what objective is desired, and how operations must be carried out to reach the objective. Assembler—A computer program that performs the assemble function. Automation—The development, application, and methods of making a process self-moving or self-controlling. Auxiliary Storage—Any storage device that supplements the main storage area of a computer. Batch Processing—A method which utilizes one program to process accumulations (batches) of similar data. Binary—A numbering system based on 2s rather than 10s. Only the digits 0 and 1 are used when written. Byte—A sequence of binary digits usually operated upon as a unit. Card Punch-A machine which encodes data into tabulating cards in patterns of round or rectangular holes. Card punches may be activated by computer or from a keyboard. Card Reader—A machine which transcribes data from punched cards to main computer storage or auxiliary storage devices. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)—A device similar to a television screen upon which data can be stored or displayed. Central Processing Unit (CPU)—That portion of a computer containing the arithmetic, logic, control, and in some cases, main storage devices. Character—One of a set of elements which may be arranged in ordered groups to express information. Each character has two forms: 1. A man-intelligible form, the graphic, including the decimal digits 0-9, the letters A-Z, punctuation marks, and other formatting and control symbols. 2. A computer-intelligible form, the code, consisting of a group of binary bits. COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)-A programming language designed for business applications. Coding—To prepare a set of computer instructions required to perform a given action or solve a given problem. COM (Computer Output on Microfilm)—An auxiliary computer device which produces microfilm records from computer generated data. Compiler—A computer program that performs the “compile” function. Computer—A device capable of accepting information, applying prescribed processes to the information, and supply the results of these processes. Computer, Off-Line—A computer not actively monitoring or controlling a process. Computer, On-Line—A computer actively monitoring or controlling a process. Console—The part of a computer used for manual control and observation of the computer system. Core Storage—The main storage area of a computer containing arrays of magnetic cores, which hold instructions and/or data to be processed. Data—Basic elements of information—facts, numbers, letters, symbols—that can be processed by a computer. Data Collection—The act of bringing data from one or more locations to a central location. Data Communications—Transmission of data from one point to another. Data Processing—A series of planned actions and operations upon data to achieve a desired result. Debugging—The process of determining the correctness of a computer routine, locating any errors, and correcting them. Also, the detection and correction of malfunctions in the computer itself. Digital Computer—A computer that solves problems by using numbers to express all quantities and variables. Downtime—The time interval during which a device is malfunctioning. EDP—Electronic Data Processing; referring to equipment that processes data by electronic means; e.g., analog or digital computers. External Memory—A storage facility or device, such as magnetic tape; which is not an integral part of a computer. File—A collection of related records; e.g., a complete set of invoices is an invoice file. Firmware—A hardware set of functions which would otherwise be handled by software or special purpose logic. Fortran—Formula translation; a programming language designed for mathematical applications. General Purpose Computer—A computer designed to solve a wide range of problems. Hard Copy—Printed copy of machine output, e.g., reports, listings, documents and other business forms. Hardware—The mechanical, magnetic, electrical, and electronic devices of which a computer is built. High Speed Printer—Computer output printer, generally one that prints out in excess of 300 fines per minute. Input—Intelligence representing data to be processed and instructions to control processing, which is moved into the internal storage of a data processing system. Instruction—A coded statement or command that causes a data processing system to carry out an operation. Internal Storage—Memory devices, such as magnetic cores, forming an integral physical part of a computer and directly controlled by the computer. Interface—A concept involving the specification of the interconnection between two equipments having different functions. Keypunch—A keyboard operated device that punches holes in a card to represent data. Key Verifier—A device, similar to the keypunch, used to make sure that data have been correctly punched into cards. Language—A system for representing and communicating information between people and/or machines. Line Printer—A printing device that can print an entire line of characters at one time. Machine Language—A language designed for use by a machine, without translation. Magnetic Disk—A flat, circular plate with a surface that can be magnetized to store data. Magnetic Ink—Ink containing particles of iron oxide, which can be detected (read) by machine sensors. Magnetic Tape—Tape with a magnetic surface upon which data can be stored. Main Storage—The general-purpose storage area of a computer. Memory—A device or media used to store information in a form that can be understood by the computer hardware. MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition)—Machine recognition of characters printed on document with magnetic ink. Microfilm—Photographic film used for retaining records of printed document while utilizing a small amount of storage space. Multiprocessor—A computer system incorporating multiple arithmetic and logic units for simultaneous use. Multiprogramming—A technique for handling numerous routines or programs seemingly simultaneously by overlapping or interleaving their execution; that is, by permitting more than one program to time-share machine components. Numeric—A machine vocabulary which includes only primary numbers, as contrasted to alphanumeric which has both letters and numerals. OCR (Optical Character Recognition)—A general term referring to the technique to using machines to read characters, symbols, or marks from documents, optically. Offline—Pertains to equipment or devices not in direct communication with the Central Processing Unit of a computer. Operating System—Programming that controls execution of computer programs. Operations Research—Application of scientific principles to business management. This may involve setting up mathematical equations to depict business problems. Optical Character Reader-An information processing device which accepts prepared forms and converts data from them to computer output media via optical character recognition. Output—Relates to devices or programs which record processed information on some type of media such as a business form or magnetic tape. Peripheral Equipment—Any equipment other than the central processing unit of a computer, which provide outside communication to the system. Printer—An output device for writing out computer results as numbers, words or symbols. Processor—The hardware or software capable of performing or directing the performance of many functions. Program—A plan for the solution of a problem. A complete program includes plans for the transcription of data, coding for the computer, and plans for the absorption of the results into the system. The list of coded instructions is called a routine. To plan a computation or process from the asking of a question to the delivery of the results, including the integration of the operation into an existing system. Thus, programming consists of planning and coding including numerical analysis, systems analysis, specification of printing formats, and any other functions necessary to the integration of a computer in a system. Punched Card—A piece of lightweight cardboard on which information is represented by holes punched in specific positions. Real Time—Pertains to the actual time during which a physical process transpires. Pertaining to the performance of a computation during the actual time that the related physical process transpires, in order that results of the computation can be used in guiding the physical process. Record—A group of related facts or fields of information treated as a unit. For example, one invoice is a record in a file containing many invoices. Scanner—That portion of a reading machine having functions of locating materials to be read and converting the optical signal to an electrical signal. Source Document—A business form from which data is taken. Telecommunications—Transmission of signals over long distances via telegraph, radio, etc. Throughput—Productivity based on all facets of an operation, e.g. a computer that can read, write, and compute simultaneously would have a high throughput rating. Time-Sharing—Using a computer to process multiple requests by independent users. Updating—Bringing data or information up to the correct time or value. Verify—To determine whether a data processing operation has been completed accurately. ☆ U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1974 O - 583-667 (26) BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS REGIONAL OFFICES Region V Region I 1603 J F K Federal Bu ildin g G overnm ent Center Boston, M a ss. 02203 Phone: 223-6762 (Area C o d e 617) Region II 8th Floor, 300 Sou th W a ck e r Drive C h ic a go , III. 60606 Phone: 353-1880 (A rea C o d e 312) Region VI Suite 3400 1515 B ro adw ay New York, N.Y. 10036 Phone: 971-5405 (Area C o d e 212) 1100 Co m m e rce St., Rm. 6B7 Dallas, Tex. 75202 Phone: 749-3516 (Area C o d e 214) Regions VII and VIII * Region III P.O. Bo x 13309 Philadelphia, Pa. 19101 Phone: 597-1154 (Area C o d e 215) Regions IX and X ** Region IV Suite 540 1371 Peachtree St., NE. Atlanta, Ga. 30309 Phone: 526-5418 (Area C o d e 404) Federal Office B u ildin g 911 W alnut St., 15th Floor K a n s a s City, Mo. 64106 Phone: 374-2481 (A rea C o d e 816) 450 G old e n G ate Ave. B o x 36017 S a n Francisco, Calif. 94102 Phone: 556-4678 (Area C o d e 415) * R e g io n s V II and V III are serviced by K a n s a s City ** R e g io n s IX and X are serviced by S a n F ra n cisco
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