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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR JA M E S J. D A V IS , Secretary CHILDREN’S BUREAU GRACE ABBOTT. Chief CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE IN GARY, IND. Pa r t I. GENERAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING CHILD WELFARE BY E L IZ A B E T H H U G H E S Part II. DIET OF THE CHILDREN BY L Y D IA R O B E R T S Bureau Publication N o. 122 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis OWING TO LIMITED APPROPRIATIONS FOR PRINTING, IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO DISTRIBUTE THIS BULLETIN IN LARGE QUANTITIES ADDfTIONAL COPIES M AY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE "WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 20 CENTS P E R COPY. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ) K i U C O N T E N T S. Page. Letter of transmittal................................................................. . ................. ................... IX Introduction................... . ............................. ........................................ .. .................. 12 Definition................................................................................................. ........ . l Reasons for s tu d y ..................................................................................................... Î Method.............................................. . . . ............ ....................................................... 2 Part I. General conditions affecting child welfare................................. ................. 3-52 Community conditions surrounding child life .......................................... ......... 3 City planning...................... 3 Sewer system and water supply........................................................... 4 Civic action and provision............................................... . ............................. 4 Home and fam ily conditions surrounding children 2 to 7 years of ag e......... 7-14 Nationality......................................................................................................... 7_10 Non-English-speaking nationalities......................'¿ i ............................. 8 A bility to speak English....... .................................................................. 9 Years in the United States....................... ............................................. 9 10 Literacy............................ Composition of fa m ily ..................................... ■ .....-............ ..................... .. n Duration and stability of family life............................................. ............... n Size of fam ily..................................................................................................... 12 Distribution in city .................................................................. 13 Housing............................................................................ ...................... ........ 15-19 Legislation........................................... .......... .......... ......................... ....... . . . 15 17 Company housing............ ................. ............................................................. Housing b y private enterprise................................... 18 The homes of the families included in this in q u iry ................................. 19-29 Type of house........................................................ . . ¡,............................. 19 21 Tenure and rental................................................... Sanitary conveniences.................. 23 Overcrowding within the home...................... 27 Economic conditions............................................. . ..................... ........ ........... . 30-39 Identity of chief breadwinner............................. ................ ........... ............. 31 Annual earnings of chief breadwinner..... .......... ........................................ 31 33 Nativity and earnings............................................................................ *JjjL. . Effect of literacy and ability to speak English upon earnings................ 33 Employment of chief breadwinner................................... 33 Nonemployment of chief breadwinner............ ......................... ................... 35 Gainful employment of mother...................................................................... 36 Mother’s earnings................. 38 Separation of mother and child on account of mother’s em ploym ent... 38 Household h e lp ................................ 39 Child care and hygiene.............................................................................................. 40-52 Baths..................................................................... ....................................... . . . 40 Time outdoors...................................................................... 41 Sleep.................. 43 Regularity of retiring and of rising................................................................ 44 Conditions of night rest........................................... .......................................46-50 Night clothing................... 46 Ventilation of bedroom.......................... 46 Number of occupants of child’s bedroom............................................ 47 Number of child’s bedfellows....................... 49 Dental care................................................................. 50 m https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis IV CONTENTS. Page. Part II. Diet of the ch ild ren ................ ........................- ........... Method of study....................................................................... Securing diet records....................................................... Limitations of material....................................... ........... Grading of diets................................................................ Precautions taken in applying the grading system .. Distribution of children in the diet grades........................ A ge........................................... .......................................... Incom e................... ........................................................... Nationality........................................................................ District of residence........................... - .........................Use of specified foods.............................................................. Milk................. ............................................. ................... Use of m ilk and age of child................................. Use of m ilk and in com e.............± - - •- ................. Use of milk and n ationality................................ Use of milk and district of residence.................. Coffee or tea..............- ............................................ ......... Relation between use of coffee and use of milk Use of coffee and age of child.............................. Use of coffee and incom e...................................... Use of coffee and nationality............................... Vegetables and fruits................................................. Use of vegetables and fruits, and nationality.. Use of vegetables and fruits, and incom e.......... Potatoes.................................................................. . Use of potatoes and nationality........................... Use of potatoes and incom e............ 1............. — Cereals.......................................................- ........... Use of cereals and nationality.......................... Use of cereals and incom e......... .......................... Eggs................................ ....................................... . . . . Use of eggs and nationality.................................. Use of eggs and incom e...... ................ - ............... Meat................................................................................. Meat and m ilk consumption........................ ....... Meat and grade of d iet.................................... * - Use of meat and nationality................................ Use of meat and in com e................................. Items of diet lacking..................................................... Income and absence of specified items . . . . . . Nationality and absence of specified items — Customs regarding certain dietary practices^............... Suitability of foods to age of children....................... Type of evening meal.......................................... Number and regularity of m e a ls................ Eating between meals........................... ........ Nationality and eating between m eals.. . . . . . Income and eating between meals . ........... - - Inadequate breakfasts............................... - - - - ......... Nationality and inadequate breakfasts. . ------Incom e and inadequate breakfasts................. Inadequate lunches..................................................... Summary of customs regarding dietary practices.. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 53-121 . 53-56 53 53 54 56 . 57-62 58 59 60 61 '. 63-88 . 63-68 65 66 . . .. .. .. .. .. 67 67 68-73 69 70 70 72 73-76 75 76 76-77 77 77 77-79 78 78 79-80 79 80 81-85 81 82 83 84 85-88 86 87 . 89-100 . . 89-96 90 91 92 94 94 . . . 96-97 96 97 98 99 CONTENTS. V Part II. D iet of the children— Continued. Page. Dietary findings considered in relation to physical condition....................101-112 State of nutrition as indicated b y weight according to height................ 101 Carious teeth.......... 104 Bony defects of rachitic origin.......... . .......................................................... 106 106 Postural defects........................... ............................ — .............. .................. Defective tonsils................................. . 1 . . . . ....................................... 107 109 Anemia.................................... Number of defects......... ........ ........ ............................................................... I ll Summary of relationship between diet and physical condition.............. 112 Summary and conclusions of dietary study.................................................... 113-121 Adequacy of diets....... ..................................................................................... 113 M ilk...................................................... 113 Coffee...................................... 114 Other foods.. . .......... ....... ......................... ............... ...................................... 114 Items lacking........... ..................... ......................................... ............. .......... 114 Technique of feeding....... , ................. ........ ............. : ................................ 115 Diet and physical condition.......................................................................... 115 Nationality.............................. 116 Incom e............ .................. 120 General summary and conclusions............ .............................................................. 123-128 Community conditions............... 123 Home conditions and the care of the children............................................... 124-128 Housing............................................ 124 Economic status....................... 125 Habits of cleanliness............... 125 125 Sleep................... D iet.......................................................... 126 Variations of care according to nativity and race..................................... 126 127 Variations of care according to incom e........................................................ Conclusions...................... 128 Appendix A. Sample diets for the various diet grades............................................................. 131 Appendix B. Schedule used in stu d y......................................................................................... 132 In d ex .................... 171 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis VI CONTENTS. GENERAL TABLES. Page. Table I . Number of years residence of foreign-bom mothers in the United States, b y nationality of mother............................................................ 139 II. Number of persons in family, b y color and nationality of mother_ 140 III. Length of residence in dwelling and color and nationality of mother, 141 b y fam ily tenure of home........................................... ............................ IV. Amount of monthly rental, b y num ber of rooms in dwelling.............. 143 V. Location of water supply, b y district of residence............................... 144 V I. Sanitary accommodations of dwelling, b y district of residence........ 145 V II. Sanitary accommodations of dwelling, b y color and nationality of mother........................................................................................................... 146 V III. Type and location of toilet, b y number of families using toilet and district of residence........................................................................... 147 IX . Type and location of toilet, b y num ber of families using and color and nativity of mother................... 149 X . Number of rooms in dwelling, b y district of residence...................... 150 X I . Aggregate annual earnings of family in 1917 and color and nativity of mother, b y annual earnings of chief breadwinner.......................... 151 X I I . Annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917, b y color and nativity of mother................................... 151 X I I I . Major cause of nonemployment of wage earners in 1917, b y duration of chief breadwinner’s nonem ployment......................................... 152 X IV . Age of mother at beginning work away from home, b y nativity of mother.................... ......................................................... ^............. .. 153 X V . Em ployment of mother in 1917, b y color and nationality of mother. 153 X V I. Annual earnings of mother in 1917 and color and n ativity of mother, b y annual earnings of chief breadwinner........................................... 154 X V II. Separation of child from mother on account of mother’s employment, b y caretaker of child during major separation......... .......................... 156 X V III. Separation of child from mother on account of mother’s employment, b y annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917.......................... 157 X I X . Type of household help in 1917, b y annual earnings of chief bread winner and color and nativity of mother............................................ 158 X X . Number of baths per week in winter and in summer, b y color and nationality of mother................................................................................. 159 X X I . Number of hours rest at night and prevalence of daytime nap, b y age of child and color and nativity of mother...................................... 160 X X I I . Hour and regularity of retiring, b y color and nationality of m other.. 162 X X I I I . Horn and regularity of retiring, b y annual earnings of chief bread winner in 1917............................................................................................. 163 X X I V . Hour and regularity of rising, b y age of child......................................... 164 X X V . Horn and regularity of rising, b y color and nationality of mother--165 X X V I. The wearing of night clothing, b y color and nationality of m other.. 166 X X V I I . Number of hours rest at night, b y number of additional occupants of child’s bedroom................................................. 167 X X V I I I . Additional occupants of child’s bed, b y color and nationality of mother............................................................................ 168 X X I X . Number and purpose of visits to dentist, b y age of child and color and nativity of mother............................................................................. 169 X X X . Number of visits to dentist, b y age of child and annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917....................................................................... 170 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis CONTENTS. VII ILLUSTRATIONS. Facing page. Map of Gary..................... Plate I. The m unicipal playground.............. ............................................................. II. Company houses of the older ty p e ........................................ ....................... I I I . Exceptionally good company houses in Ambridge^................................. IV . M odem cement houses..................................................................................... V. Badly constructed and overcrowded tenements....................................... V I. A one-story frame shack.................................................................................. V II. Passageway, 3 feet wide, between two frame shacks— six apartments in ea ch ................................................................... V III. A nine-family tenement w ith yard closet at end of row....................... IX . A home in one of the shack colonies......................................................... X . A shack of makeshift construction............................................................ X I . Side view of shack......................................................................................... X I I . A driven well in one of the shack districts................. ............................ X I I I . Playing in the sand.......................................................................................... X IV . Playing in a passageway.................................................................................. CHARTS. 14 6 6 16 16 18 18 19 19 20 20 21 21 42 42 Page. Chart I. Distribution of children 2 to 7 years of age, b y grade of d iet.................. 58 II. Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age with adequate and with inade quate diet, b y earnings of chief breadwinner....................................... 59 I I I . Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age w ith adequate and with inade quate diet, b y nationality of mother....................................................... 61 IV . Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age using tea or coffee, b y use of milk as a beverage........................................................................................ 69 V . Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age using tea or coffee, b y earnings of chief breadwinner.................................................................................... 71 V I. Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age using tea or coffee, by nation ality of mother....................................................... 73 V II. Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age lacking specified number of items in diet, b y earnings of chief breadwinner.................................... 87 V III. Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age w ith carious teeth, b y grade of diet.................................................- .....................- ........................................ 104 109 IX . Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age anemic, b y grade of diet....... X . Use of certain items of diet in relation to earnings of chief breadwinner; children 2 to 7 years of age........................................................................ 120 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis LETTER O F T R A N SM IT T A L . U. S. D epartment of L abor , Children ’ s B u reau , Washington, July IS , 1922. Si r : There is transmitted herewith a report on Children of Pre school Age in Gary, Ind., the last section of the investigation of the welfare of infants and children of preschool age made while Julia C. Lathrop was Chief of the Children’s Bureau. The investigation was directly in charge of Estelle B. Hunter; Elizabeth Hughes, who has written Part I of the report, was super visor of the local field work; Dr. Lydia Roberts supervised the grading of the diet schedules and has written Part II on diet of the children. The statistical committee of the bureau, Profs. Walter F. Willcox, Irving Fisher, Thomas S. Adams, Robert E. Chaddock, J. W. Glover, and Edith Abbott, assisted in the planning of the in quiry. Dr. Robert M. Woodbury, director of the statistical division, has been responsible for the statistical work in connection with the' report. Respectfully submitted. G race A bbott , Chief. Hon. James J. D a v is , Secretary o f Labor. IX https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis p> M tíW e 11 | 1 1 b v ) {¿rn^ihUK^,f| *v$P£ i n&&I iétyùt lüil 4if i t bttf t‘< nr(h fh í*ynhf* l«»'* |I|| |BB ¡j| W iótfv l^| •&Ì4 %i* '0 § ^ ^ i ■ . $)jíjP|Ífó y https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis p I CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE IN GARY, IND. IN T R O D U C TIO N . DEFINITION. In its entirety, the investigation made by the Children’s Bureau in Gary, Ind., in 1918 was designed to furnish a picture of the condi tions surrounding children prior to their admission to school.1 The present report will consider the conditions surrounding the children bom during the five years 1911 to 1915 who were living in Gary in March, 1918— a group composed primarily of children of preschool age. All children born in 1911 would have reached 6 years of age b y the close of 1917 and some would have entered their eighth year early in the year 1918. But by far the greater proportion of the children were under the age of 7 years. The minimum compulsory school age for children not physically or mentally disqualified was in Indiana 7 years; but in Gary, as in many other cities, children might and did enter the first grade when 6 years of age. In view of the short time that the children attending school had been under the schopl’s influence and supervision, it is reasonably accurate to describe the entire group as of preschool age. REASONS FO R STUDY. Only within comparatively recent years has any widespread interest been taken in the child 2 to 7 years of age. Even yet there persists a lack of information and accessible knowledge about the preschool child, his needs, his nurture, and his general well-being. The connection between a child’s physical condition and his ability to grasp and assimilate the knowledge which the schools have to impart has been demonstrated repeatedly by medical inspection of school children. Such medical inspection revealed the presence of defects of sight or hearing, of faulty teeth, poor nutrition, adenoids, and enlarged or diseased tonsils, among a considerable proportion of these children. Presently it was observed that a by no means negli gible proportion of entrants into the first grade were hampered b y physical defects which had fastened upon them during the preschool age. In the fight of this discovery rather than in any other way, the preschool child began to secure the attention of his community. 1 This is the third report dealing with the Gary investigation. The others are: Infant Mortality: Results of a Field Study in Gary, Ind., Based on Births in One Year,by Elizabeth Hughes, U. S. Children’s Bureau Publication No. 112; and Physical Status of Preschool Children, Gary, Ind., by Ann^ E. Rude, M. D., U. S. Children’s Bureau Publication No. 111. 1 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 2 CHILDREN OP PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND.— PART I. This study is concerned not with the physical condition of chil dren 2 to 7 years of age, which is treated of in a separate report, but with the habits of life these children were forming, the economic and social conditions surrounding them, and the environmental condi tions under which they were living in this representative industrial city. Part I deals with the general conditions affecting the children and Part II with their diet. M ETH O D. Few cities know either the exact number or the precise where abouts of their children 2 to 7 years of age. No public records com parable to birth certificates and no such compulsory records as the public schools keep for children of school age are available in most cities for the preschool child. In order to ascertain how many chil dren bom in the years 1911 to 1915 were resident in Gary in March, 1918, a house-to-house canvass of the city was necessary. This canvass was made in February, 1918. The next step was to visit the mother of each child and with her cooperation secure the information called for by a schedule designed to bring out the conditions surrounding children of the age here considered. Certain definite limitations were imposed by the use of the method of investigation based on a single interview. To have included questions on the schedule which a mother could not reason ably be expected to answer with understanding and comparative ease and accuracy would have been unwise and unprofitable. Conse quently no attempt was made to secure certain types of information though its importance was recognized. For example, a rough indica tion of the diet of children 2 to 7, its adequacy and suitability, could be secured, but to ascertain in calories the actual value of a meal eaten, its sufficiency and fitness for the needs of an individual child, was not possible. Schedules were obtained for 6,015 children— in 3,991 families— who had been bom during the years 1911 to 1915, and were living in Gary in March, 1918. The information which these schedules bore is the basis for the discussion which follows. A general idea of the specific questions asked and the character of knowledge sought may be secured by examining the schedule form used. (See p. 132.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PART I. GENERAL C O N D IT IO N S AFFECTING CH ILD W ELFA R E . COM MUNITY CONDITIONS SURROUNDING CHILD LIFE. To the north of Gary stretches Lake Michigan, an open pathway to the vast ore deposits of the northwest; to the south and east lie great coal fields. Railroads furnish means of communication and of distribution of finished products. Large markets are readily accessible. Before 1906, the year in which Gary was founded, the southern shore of the lake was bordered by softly rounded hills and knolls of sand, bare save for such sparse vegetation as could win precarious foothold and hard-fought life against the odds of such soil. Gnarled and stunted scrub oak was the most common tree growth, inter spersed with a few undersized, weather-beaten pines. The Grand Calumet River following the curve of the lake shore joined itself to Lake Michigan both east and west of what is now Gary. Pools filled some of the many hollows in the land and marshes were not wanting. In fact, a belt of land 10 or 12 miles wide around the southern shore of Lake Michigan had been discovered as early as 1834 to be “ of very poor quality and worthless except in places where well-timbered.” For a city whose basic industry was to be steel, however, it was a most strategic location and placed no insur mountable obstacles in the way of factory building and city plan ning. Moreover, it was practically unpeopled. Because of the possibilities the location offered, a steel corporation decided to erect steel mills on it and foster the growth of an industrial city for the workmen of the mills to live in. City planning. The steel company acquired a tract of 20 square miles, in order to make possible the most desirable arrangement for mills, to have space on which allied factories could be constructed, and to assure ground for the city which should house employees. The lake front age of 7 miles was reserved for the mills. The city, it was purposed, should lie for the most part south of the Grand Calumet— that is to say, about a mile inland from the lake shore. The high degree of forethought, the scientific planning, the efficient arrangement, the economy, which were evident in the industrial plants north of the Grand Calumet, had not characterized in equal degree the development of the city south of that river. Gary was not an example of excellent city planning; in some of its charac teristics it was very much akin to the older industrial cities; it had 3 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 4 C H IL D R E N OF P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T I . embryonic possibilities of difficult transportation and traffic problems; it had potential overcrowded areas, although there was sufficient land for expansion; the lake front, its greatest natural beauty, was almost completely given over to the steel mills and manufactories using steel products, and no park along the shore had been reserved for the recreation of Gary citizens.1 Streets were laid out on the rectangular or gridiron plan; no provision was made for the diagonal thoroughfares modern city planning advocates as a means of reducing crosstown travel and affording variety. Broadway, the main north and south street, began at the mill gates. Intersecting it at right angles a few blocks from its beginning was Fifth Avenue, the main east and west business street. It was reasonable to expect that the city in its growth would expand chiefly east and west, following the expansion of steel and allied industries along the lake shore. A c tually, growth had been quite as extensive along the main north and south street, which is now 6 miles in length. Sewer system and water supply. In providing a sewer system and a water system for the city to be created, greater appreciation and forecasting of future needs was shown. A land company— the subsidiary to which the steel corporation had intrusted the development of the portion of its holdings not dedicated to the industry itself— before opening a district for residence, paved streets and laid water and sewer mains in the alleys, so that when extension work was to be done or repairs made streets need not be disturbed. Both sewer and water systems have been so constructed that they can readily be extended to other subdivisions of the city not developed by the land company. Sewers become a part of the city system, and are maintained and repaired by the city. The capacity of the water system is sufficient for a city four times as large as Gary has yet become. The continued excellence of the water is carefully safeguarded and its purity watched by city and State health officials, as well as b y the heat, light, and water company to which the town and the steel corporation gave over the function of furnishing the city and mills with water. Civic action and provision. Gary was incorporated as a town in 1906; as a city in 1909. There was in 1918 no plan in operation for governing the way in which the city should grow; no attempt had been made to break the monotony of the scheme on which streets had been laid out. As was perhaps natural in so rapidly growing a community, problems came into existence 1The annexation of the town of Miller in 1919 has made possible the acquisition of a lake-front park and the preservation for pleasure purposes of one of the most interesting and typical parts of the Indiana dune country. To the present citizens, however, not to the original planners of the city, will belong the credit if this outdoor playground is provided for Gary’s people. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis C O M M U N ITY CONDITIONS. 5 almost before their possibility had been foreseen. The unskilled immigrant laborer found practically no provision for his housing by the land company, and was dependent upon private speculative enterprise for the house in which he might dwell. Workingmen’s houses built for profit proved no better from the standpoint of good housing than is usual. Adequate building regulations were slow to appear; even in 1918 the chief dependence of the city was upon the State housing law passed in 1913, and no satisfactory ordinances covered the construction of one-family houses and enforcement of the obligation of connecting with the city sewer system. In 1910, Tolleston— a town laid out in 1863—became a part of the corporate life of Gary b y annexation. In 1918 rural conditions for the most part still prevailed in that section. In another part of the city lin gered two shack districts reminiscent of the early pioneer days when building could scarcely hope to keep abreast of the spectacular increase in population. Housing shortage severe enough to hamper the passage and enforcement of regulations governing building and sanitation has existed in Gary practically from the beginning. The community functions of garbage collection and disposal were receiving regular attention b y the end of 1918; street cleaning and inspection of alleys were also looked after. The city was .pro tecting its milk and food supply by an excellent ordinance enforced by one milk and food inspector. A sanitary inspector and his deputy were instructed to be constantly alert to discover conditions within house, yard, business premises, or public halls which might consti tute a menace to city health and well-being. Regulations governed the control of contagious disease; the health officer, however, was but a part-time official and had but one nurse to assist him. (An other trained nurse was employed by the city during the summer months of 1918 as a member of the police staff, to do infant welfare work in the South Side.) The municipal laboratory, in charge of the city chemist and bacteriologist, was equipped to render the services required of it. Provision made by Gary’s educational system for educating both the city’s youth and its foreign-born adults is pertinent to this report only in respect to kindergarten features, and playgrounds which the small child, as well as the school boy and girl, has oppor tunity to use. In 1918 the city had provided but one municipal playground aside from the playgrounds about the schoolhouses. This playground, a fully equipped plot of 5 acres, contained a pool, a diamond, and tennis courts. (Plate I.) The city hoped to provide enough play space throughout its limits so that playgrounds would be easily and safely accessible to children living in every part of the city. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 6 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART I. The land company had beautified and given to the city two parks with an aggregate of 25 acres, located in the subdivision first de veloped. Later a further gift of 12 acres was made b y the company, for the special benefit of residents of the South Side and Tolleston. Setting aside and improving land for an additional park was being considered b y the municipality at the time the investigation was made. B y annexation and addition, the area within the corporate limits of Gary had increased by 1918 to 31 square miles. In 1917 the popula tion was estimated at 56,000.2 Inasmuch as no inconsiderable por tion of the city’s area had remained rural in character, the density of population in the closely built sections was much greater than would have been the case had distribution been more even. Compara tively few large districts, however, were so crowded that children 2 to 7 years of age had altogether inadequate play space. Following the precedent set by other communities in the United States, Gary had introduced medical inspection into its public schools and had become more or less conscious of the needlessly high rate at which its babies under 1 year of age were dying, especially in the more crowded sections of the city, inhabited largely by the foreign bom . Prior to 1918 the child 2 to 7 had received little notice. When in 1918 a city-paid nurse was placed in charge of a welfare station which had been established under the auspices of a settle ment in the center of the foreign-bom community on the South Side, children of preschool age as well as infants were included among those to whom the station and the nurse ministered. One nurse and one station were altogether inadequate to meet the need, but a beginning had been made. In short, the community protected child life through safeguarding water and milk supply, regulating in some measure the housing conditions, providing sanitation and health protection, and devel oping to some extent community resources for healthful outdoor recreation for small children. What the shortcomings of commu nity control and protection were will appear as different phases of life in the homes of children are examined. * U. S. Bureau of the Census, Birth Statistics, 1917, p. 24. apopulation of 65,378. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Washington, 1919. The 1920 census showed PLATE ■ P LA TE I.— T H E II.— C O M P A N Y https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis M U N IC IP A L HOUSES OF PLAYGR OUND . TH E OLDER TYP E. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis H O M E AND FAMILY CONDITIONS SURROUNDING CHILDREN 2 T O 7 YEARS OF AGE. Nationality. Gary has had from its beginning a large proportion of citizens of foreign birth. The United States Census of 1910 showed that half the city’s population, aside from the 2 per cent which was Negro, was foreign bom , and that the largest proportions of this group were Austro-Hungarian, Russian, Italian, and German by birth.3 In 1920, according to census figures,4 the foreign bom constituted somewhat less than one-third of the population, and the foreign nationalities most largely represented were the Polish, Austrian, Yugo-Slavic, Russian, and Greek. Almost two-thirds (65 per cent) of the children here considered had mothers boni outside the United States; a little more than threetenths had native white mothers; 1 child in 25 was of colored parent age. Foreign-bom mothers were of many different nationalities. The mother of about 1 child in 7 was Polish; of 1 in 10, Serbo-Croatian; of 1 in 11, Slovak; and of 1 in 20, Magyar. Children of Italian’ German, ancl Lithuanian mothers each comprised 4 per cent of the total. One hundred and six children were of Great Russian extrac tion. The mothers of 8 per cent of the total had come from the nations of northwestern or western Europe and the British Isles; the mothers of 36 per cent came from the countries of southeastern and southern Europe; the mothers of 44 per cent were of Slavic peoples. The mothers in 34 per cent of the 3,991 families containing children of preschool age were native white; in 4 per cent, colored; and in 62 per cent, foreign bom. Families were somewhat larger among the foreign-born women than among either native white or colored mothers. Seventy per cent of the families with native white mothers had but one living child of this age, as compared with 51 per cent of those with foreign-born mothers. On the other hand, 10 per cent of the families with foreign-bom mothers had three children of preschool age, while of those with native white or with colored mothers the percentage was but 4. (Table 1.) * Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910, Voi. II, Population, p. 568. * Fourteenth Census of the U . S., Voi. i n , Population, 1920, p. 307. 14683°— 23------2 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Washington, 1913. 7 8 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.---- PART I. T able 1.— Num ber o f children in fa m ily, by color and nationality o f m other. Number of families with children 2 to 7 years of age. Color and nationality of mother. 5 4 3 2 1 To tal fami lies. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber cent. 2,322 58.2 1,336 33.5 312 7.8 20 0.5 944 Native white............................. 1,356 Foreign-bom white................... 2,457 1,248 279 567 P o lish ................................ 163 350 Serbo-Croatian.................... 174 344 S lo v a k ............................... 89 180 Magyar................................ 67 154 Italian................................. 83 150 German............................... 62 137 Lithuanian......................... 331 575 All other............................. 172 124 Negro......................................... 6 6 69.7 50.8 49.1 46.6 50.6 49.4 43.5 55.3 45.3 57.6 72.1 345 952 223 142 138 71 63 56 62 197 39 25.4 38.8 39.4 40.6 40.1 39.4 40.9 37.3 45.3 34.3 22.7 60 245 62 40 32 20 24 11 13 43 7 4.4 10.0 11.0 11.4 9.3 11.1 15.6 7.3 9.5 7.5 4.1 7 12 3 5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.4 4 1 0.7 0.6 Total................................ 3,991 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. 1 1 (*) 0.6 * Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. Non-English-speaking nationalities.— With the exception of mothers bom in the British Isles (the mothers of 137 children, or 2 per cent, were in this group) and Canada, not including French Canadians (the mothers of 26 children), foreign-bom mothers belonged to nonEnglish-speaking nationalities. The preponderance of Slavs gave the foreign-bom group a more homogeneous character than it might have had if the leading nationalities had not possessed so many common customs and ideals and shared such similar racial experiences. Comparatively close and long association of Lithuanians, Magyars, and Rumanians with some of the Slavic races, moreover, has brought about some points of resemblance in culture and habits between them and the Slavs. In a new land national antagonisms based chiefly upon political disagreements of the Old World tend to break down and different nationalities become more conscious of their likeness to one another than of their dissimilarity. A t any rate there was very little segregation of nationality groups into compact colonies wherein the order of life could be little affected by existence in a New World environment. Then, too, the very youthfulness of Gary, its visible growth, its alteration almost from day to day, must, have tended to make all its inhabitants think very largely in terms of present or future, dwell less upon the past and the old, be less static than dynamic, and consider change and the adoption of new ways and customs normal. In addition the public schools exerted a very real influence over the life of the community and its various nationality groups, not only through the children but also through adults who enrolled in night classes in English, cooking, home management, sewing, foundry work, electricity, and other interesting yet practical subjects. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 9 HOM E AND FAM ILY CONDITIONS. Ability to speak English.— Thirty-seven per cent of the 6,015 children of preschool age had mothers unable to speak English; 11 per cent had fathers who could not speak English. (Table 2.) Mothers, because of their close connection with home and children and lesser contact with outside business and industry, would be slow to acquire a language other than their native tongue. Fathers, on the contrary, would hear English spoken much more in streets, stores, and places of employment, and be forced in connection with their labor to adopt at least a small English vocabulary. Acquisi tion of English by the foreign bom is of importance in that it makes possible better and fuller utilization of community resources, medical, social, and educational. To a mother it opens means otherwise un available of obtaining information on the care of home and children. To be incapable of speaking English in an English-speaking country constitutes a social and economic handicap for mother and father alike. Inability to speak English was greatest among Polish mothers, least among German mothers. Serbo-Croatians, Lithuanians, and Italians had made less progress in acquiring English than had Slovak and Magyar mothers. T a b l e 2. A b ility o f m other to speak E nglish, by color and n ation ality o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Color and nationality of mother. Mother able to speak English. Mother not able to speak English. Total. Mother’s ability to speak English not reported. Number. Percents Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.1 Total.................................. 6,015 3,806 63.3 2,202 36.6 7 0.1 Native white.............................. Foreign-bom white................... Polish................................ Serbo-Croatian..................... Slovak................................. Magyar.................................. Italian................................... German................................ Lithuanian......................... All other*............................. Negro................... .................... Not reported............................... 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 1,838 1,735 184 172 280 190 100 203 77 529 232 1 99.7 44.1 19.9 29.3 51.3 65.3 37.7 89.0 34.2 60.9 100.0 4 2,198 738 415 266 101 165 25 148 340 0.2 55.9 80.0 70.7 48.7 34.7 62.3 11.0 65.8 39.1 1 1 1 0.1 (s) 0.1 5 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. s Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent5 Includes 106 Great Russian, 97 Rumanian, 85 Little Russian, 76 Irish, 73 Danish, Swedish, and Nor wegian, 73 Jewish (Russian), 71 Bohemian and Moravian, 61 English, Scotch, and Welsh, 58 Greek °38 ? 1£rleiiian’ o6 (other than French), 22 Jewish (other than Russian), 25 Spanish (21 European 1 Mexican, 3 other), 14 Assyrian, 14 Bulgarian, 9 Persian, 6 Dutch and Flemish Belgian, 3 French and Walloon, 3 French Canadian, 2 Albanian, 7 other foreign-bom white, nationality not specified. Years in the United States.—Mothers of but 3 per cent of the chil dren had been in the United States less than five years. Among the larger non-English-speaking groups no marked difference in length of residence in this country was observable. Mothers of at least https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 10 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART I, nine-tenths of the children in each foreign nationality group repre sented had been in the United States five years or longer. (General Table I, p. 139.) Literacy. Only 9 children had native white mothers who reported them selves unable to read and write, whereas 1,378 children had foreign-^ bom mothers who could not claim ability to read and write in any language, and 14 colored children had illiterate mothers. (Table 3.) In short, nearly one-fourth of all the children (23 per cent) had mothers whose opportunity to secure knowledge and profit by instruc tion was limited to the medium of the spoken word. Like inability to speak English, illiteracy was significant mainly because it increased a mother’s isolation and restricted her chance to leam. T a b l e 3 .— Literacy o f m other, by color and nationality o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Color and nationality of mother. Mother literate. Mother illiterate. Mother’s literacy not reported. Total. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.1 Total.................................. Slovak................................... Magyar.................................. 6,015 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 4,596 1,832 2,548 546 258 415 260 144 215 74 636 216 76.4 99.4 64.8 59.2 44.0 76.0 89.3 54.3 94.3 32.9 73.2 93.1 1,401 9 1,378 375 325 130 31 121 13 151 232 14 23.3 18 0.3 0.5 35.0 40.6 55.4 23.8 10.7 45.7 5.7 67.1 26.7 6.0 2 8 2 4 i .1 .2 .2 .7 .2 1 2 6 .1 .9 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. Literacy was greater among fathers than among mothers. But 1 child in 8 had a father who was said to be unable to read or write. Though high intelligence may sometimes be associated with illiteracy, inability to read or write is likely to be associated with ignorance and a low economic level through its untoward influence over earning capacity and the restriction it places upon choice of occupation. The proportion (67 per cent) of children with illiterate mothers was far higher among Lithuanians than in any other nationality group. Next to Lithuanians, Serbo-Croatians (55 per cent) and Italians (46 per cent) showed the greatest amount of illiteracy. Among the children of Magyar mothers, on the contrary, the pro portion (11 per cent) was much lower and among the children of German mothers (6 per cent) it was more closely analogous to the proportion among the native white. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 11 HOME AND FAM ILY CONDITIONS. Composition o f family. A father, a mother, and one or more children are the necessary elements of the family as a unit in society. In this study, a family has been considered normal only if both mother and father were present in the home. Continued absence of one or both parents, from any cause whatsoever, renders the family incomplete and some what alters conditions of life for the child. B y far the largest number of children of preschool age in Gary were growing up in normal families as here defined. (Table 4.) Six per cent, however, were living in homes broken by the death, desertion, or prolonged absence of one or both parents, or in families containing none but foster or boarding children. Of the boys and girls 2 to 7 years of age, prac tically 95 out of every 100 were being cared for by father and mother in homes maintained by both. T a b l e 4.— C om position o f fa m ily. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Composition of family Per cent Number. distribu tion. 6,015 100.0 5,628 "250 60 73 4 93.6 4.2 to 1.2 0 1 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. Duration and stability o f fam ily life. Sixty-nine per cent of the 3,991 families in which children 2 to 7 years of age were found had existed at least seven years; 18 per cent had had a life of five years but less than seven years; and only 11 per cent had a history of less than five years. Sixty-nine families (less than 2 per cent) contained only foster or boarding children. Families with children of preschool age formed a very stable part of the community; they were not of the type which changes place of residence often. In the period covered by the life of chil dren born in 1911 to 1915, that is, in a span of approximately seven years, practically four-fifths of the families had moved from one city to another but once or not at all; an additional eighth had changed their city of residence twice; only 7 per cent had moved three times or more. (Table 5.) - https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 12 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND.— PART L T ab le 5.— Num ber o f rem ovals from city to city between January 1 ,1 9 1 1 , and March 1 , 1918, by duration o f fa m ily history. Families with children 2 to 7 years of age. No removals. Duration of family history. Number of removals from city to city between January 1,1911, and March 1,1918. Total. 1 2 Not report ed whether removed 3 and over. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent.1 Total........................... 3,991 1,499 8 2 years, less than 3............... 431 3 years; less than 5........ ...... 712 5 years', less than 7............... 7 years and over................... 2,758 Not reported........................ 13 Foster"or boarding children only................................... 69 4 244 331 916 4 37.6 1,651 41.4 472 11.8 291 7.3 56.6 46.5 33.2 2 121 28.1 246 34.6 1,276 46.2 6 2 43 85 340 2 10.0 11.9 12.3 23 49 219 5.3 6.9 7.9 1 78 2.0 1 7 1 o.i 0,3 69 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. Size o f fam ily. For this study, immediate blood relationship to the child 2 to 7 years of age was made the determining factor in fixing family limits. On this basis an adopted or boarding child would ordinarily constitute the only member of his family in a household. Families made up of one or two individuals, therefore, include chiefly boarding or foster children, and children in broken homes. More children were living in families numbering five persons than in those of any other size. Families with from four to six members contained two-thirds of the 6,015 children born in the period 1911 to 1915. A tenth of the children lived in families of three; a ninth, in families of seven; a ninth in those numbering eight or more. (General Table II, p. 140.) The inclusion was limited to members of the family actually resident in the home at the time of the visit of the Children’s Bureau agent; it covered married sons and daughters living at home and working boys and girls as well as children dependent upon their parents. Nearly three-fifths (58 per cent) of the families containing chil dren of preschool age had but one such child; about one-third had two children born in the selected period, while slightly less than one-twelfth had as many as three children born in the years specified. In 20 families there were four preschool children; one family had five such children. These 21 families, however, formed less than 1 per cent of the -entire number of families. Of the babies bom in 1916, 1,040 were living in families having also children of preschool age; the average number of young children in each home was about two. (Table 6.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HOME AND FAM ILY CONDITIONS. T able 6 . — N um ber 13 o f children bom in 1916 livin g in fa m ily, by num ber o f children bom 1911-1915. Distribution in city. The First Subdivision, of which Kirk forms the northern part and which is bordered on the west by Ambridge, was the part of Gary that had been most completely developed by the land company. It was built first and was the most completely supplied with sewer and water systems. The First Subdivision lies almost entirely south of the Grand Calumet, with Fifth Avenue— the main east and west street— as its long axis and Broadway as its short one. South of the First Subdivision lie the South Side and Tolleston, the former the part of the city to which the unskilled foreign workman resorted and which he developed through private enterprise, insufficiently aided and directed by community supervision; the latter is an older town, largely rural, having many foreign-born residents. Still farther south, flanking Broadway toward its farthest extremity, lie Ridge Road and Glen Park, a district more pleasing in natural sur roundings and developing into a good residential section. To the northwest lie Clark and Pine, tiny settlements, which in 1918 had been but little affected by inclusion within the city limits of Gary. West Gary was still only sparsely settled, but the houses erected in it were for the most part of good quality. Lincoln Park, adjoining Tolleston on the south, was also sparsely settled. The South Side, the residence of 46 per cent of the 3,991 families included in the study, was the home of almost half (48 per cent) the children of preschool age in the city. (Table 7.) The First Sub division, with 28 per cent of the families, had one-fourth of the chil dren of this age, and Tolleston, with 14 per cent of the families, had a little more than one-seventh of the children. In other words, almost two-thirds of the children were living in districts more largely of foreign-born population, and less well developed as to sanitation, than other parts of the city. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 14 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART I. T a b l e 7.— N um ber o f children in fa m ily, by district o f residence. Families with children 2 to 7 years of age. Number of children. District of residence. Total. 1 2 3 4 5 Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. Total................................ 3,991 Ambridge.................................. 119 Clark.......................................... 24 First Subdivision...................... 1,099 61 Lincoln Park............................ Ridge Road and Glen Park___ 266 South Side................................. 1,835 Tolleston................................... 557 30 West Gary................................ 2,322 58.2 82 68.9 13 762 69.4 26 160 60.2 974 53.1 286 51.3 19 1Not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1,336 33.5 312 7.8 31 26.1 7 285 25.8 32 85 32.0 677 36.9 210 37.7 9 6 3 44 3 21 175 58 2 5.0 20 0.5 4.0 1 8 .7 7.9 9.5 10.4 8 3 .4 .5 * Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent 1 1 (2) o.i Cfcviseo https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis eitr IÔ.ISIÎ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HOUSING. From the standpoint of human welfare, housing has long been of interest; from the industrial side it has in recent years acquired more and more importance as a factor contributory to the content or the unrest of labor. Housing evils epitomized in brick and stone have great permanence; no inconsiderable proportion of the indus trial population of our great cities to-day is housed in accordance with the mistakes of yesterday because those errors have outlasted the generation which made them. To bring forward actual statistical proof of the interrelation between housing and well-being is not easy, because housing is but one of many factors affecting life and welfare. Bad housing can, however, be judged by the company it keeps; its common associates are poverty, ignorance, vice, and crime. A community can par tially protect its citizens from these by preventing the erection of unsuitable or unfit dwellings, through the adoption of proper legis lative measures. Legislation. Building ordinances and regulations, and provisions made for supervision and sanitation, show the minimum housing standards which a c o m m u n i t y upholds. As already stated, regulations were slow to appear in Gary. A ready-made city must in no little measure have antedated its citizenship and could have developed civic con sciousness only after it had been in existence for some time. Reali zation of problems requiring regulation would be likely to be some what tardy. While still a town, Gary created a department of buildings. In 1910, the city confirmed the establishment of such a department and designated a commissioner of buildings as its chief official. To the commissioner were to be submitted plans for all buildings pro posed for erection in the city. Building might proceed only when the commissioner had granted a permit after approval of the plan submitted. The next year saw the passage of an ordinance to regu late and govern plumbing in the city, and provision for the appoint ment of an inspector of plumbing and house drainage, and a board of examiners to pass upon the qualifications of those desiring to practice plumbing. B y 1918, in addition to the building commissioner, the plumbing inspector, and clerical assistance for both these officials, the city had made provision for a sanitary inspector and his deputy. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 16 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND.— PART I. Among the early ordinances were those fixing fire limits in the city and regulating building within them. An ordinance passed early in 1910 and amended later in the same year and in 1914 contained the chief regulations and provisions made by the city to control the construction of buildings. In addition to requirements relative to material to be used, structure of walls, excavations, floor loads, stairs, and fireproof partitions, and rules concerning the installation of electric wiring, dwellings are defined and classified by the ordi nance as follows: Residence, “ a building used by not more than two families as a dwelling” ; flat building, “ any building designed and intended for use as a residence for three or more families, and shall include lodging house and apartment building.” A basement story is defined as “ a story the floor of which is 3 feet or more below the sidewalk, and does not extend any higher than 11 feet in clear and is suitable for habitation. ” Further, “ no room in lodging or apart ment buildings shall be considered habitable unless it has at least one window of an area equal to one-tenth the superficial area of such a room, opening into the external air.” The size of light and air shafts for habitable rooms in “ flat buildings” is specified, and pro vision is made that every court or light shaft in any such building shall be opened and unobstructed from floor to outer air. Condem nation of a building as dangerous or insecure from the structural standpoint is made possible by this ordinance. Not until 1913, when the housing law of the State of Indiana became applicable to Gary, did anything more far-reaching and detailed than the above exist to govern such important matters as the percentage of a lot which might be covered, the use of one lot for more than one building, the more exact definition of what should constitute a habitable room or basement, installation of sewer connections and the use of city water supply, the regulation of size of rooms, the provision of sanitary conveniences, the formulation of a standard by which overcrowding within a room might be measured, and the condemnation of a building as unfit because insanitary and a menace to the health of its occupants. The act of 1913 applied only to a tenement house, that is, “ the home or residence of two or more families living independently of each other and having a common right in the halls, stairways, yard, cellar, water-closets or privies, or any of them. ” Much of Gary was built before 1913, in absence of regulations sufficient to guard against possible housing evils in the tenements constructed. Most of the act of 1913 was not applicable to tenements existing prior to its passage. But even more important, from the standpoint of housing in Gary, was the fact that no provision had been made either in State law or city ordinance to enforce standards for one-family houses, or to prevent continued use of one lot for more than one such house, or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PLATE IV.— M O D E R N CEM ENT HOUSES. [Note broad streets, the pavements, lawns, and sidewalks.] https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis H O U S IN G . 17 to make impossible refusal to connect a one-family house with sewer and water mains. Consciousness of the menace inherent in the lack of more careful regulation was growing. In 1919, the annual message of the mayor charged the city council that the city’s building ordi nance, in particular, needed amendment “ so that every encourage ment be made for the construction of houses, health and sanitation in all cases regarded. ” Not only was the definition of overcrowding in the State law con fined to rooms in tenement houses, but the law was further limited because enforcement of the standard as to what constituted over crowding and what rendered a tenement uninhabitable was permis sive and not mandatory, discretion resting with the board of health. Company housing. Land company housing projects had been confined chiefly to the First Subdivision, Kirk, and Ambridge; the other subdivisions of the city had been developed by private enterprise. Company housing varied. The families of the employees of the freight railroad which serves the mills lived in small frame houses, very similar in style of construction. On the whole the houses which had been erected for the men working in the steel mills were good, substantially constructed buildings, varied in plan and appearance. The “ double dry goods boxes, ” as the buildings first erected to accommodate the unskilled immigrant laborer were called, were quite uniform and stereotyped but not numerous enough to be prominent. (Plate II.) Housesin Am bridge were like those in the First Subdivision, chiefly frame or brick and frame, and of varied architecture. (Plate III.) The dwellings for the employees of one company were easily distinguishable from other company housing because of the use of plaster and cement. Among these buildings were some cement houses in terrace formation, but of several patterns. (Plate IV.) The faults of monotonous regularity and uniformity, which have so often characterized housing pro vided by employers in mill villages and towns, had been in large measure avoided by the land company. The land company desired to construct modern houses, and with this in mind opened no district for residence without first having paved the streets and laid the water and sewer mains. One-family detached or semidetached houses predominated among the buildings erected by the company, though apartment buildings also were constructed, as well as the terrace houses mentioned above. In the residence portion of the First Subdivision, a uniform building line 30 feet from the front of the lot was adopted and insisted upon by the land company for buildings erected on its lots by private enterprise. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 18 C H IL D R E N OF PR ESCH O O L AGE, G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T I . The undulations of the land were leveled before building was begun. The barren sand was especially drear when unrelievedly flat. The land company and the town and city government had beautified the residence section of the First Subdivision. The land company had fostered the growth of lawn and of shade trees; the heat, light, and water company had supplied free water for use on lawns, and the town had passed an ordinance in 1909 requiring that the residence lots of the First Subdivision should be “ improved and maintained with suitable lawns” and that shade trees should be planted in uniform position on each lot. It should not be forgotten that the formation of a lawn in Gary almost invariably entailed first over laying the sand with black dirt. Only by bearing in mind the un responsive character of the sand can one justly appreciate the city’s accomplishments in securing lawns and shade trees. Housing by private enterprise. No subdivision of Gary was without examples of housing by private speculative enterprise. Houses erected in the First Subdivision by private enterprise compared very favorably with the building done by the land company. West Gary dwellings also were of good type; a few were provided with modern sanitary conveniences even though the city sewer and water systems had not yet reached them. Ridge Road and Glen Park had some beautiful and spacious resi dences set in pleasant grounds to counterbalance occasional poorly made huts hidden in the woods, and a number of mediocre houses lacking sewer and water connections. In 1918 West Gary, Ridge Road, and Glen Park were still compara tively sparsely settled. Clark and Pine, older settlements, small and decidedly rural at the time of their inclusion in Gary, lacked sewers, water mains, and paved streets. Tolleston, too, was but partially served by the city sewer and water systems and had a few unpaved streets. The more recent housing in Tolleston tended to resemble that of the South Side, the subdivision of the city in which housing was poorest. Provision for the immigrant common laborers in the steel min« was never adequate, but even the few houses erected for them by the land company were soon given over to Americanized m m with families because of the way in which the first tenants of foreign birth crowded the houses with lodgers and failed to use properly unac customed conveniences such as bath, toilet, and sink. The South Side exemplified what the unskilled immigrant was able to secure for himself unaided by the land company and protected and helped but little by building ordinances. Examples of lot overcrowding, of rear houses, of badly constructed tenements (Plate V), of inade quate sanitary conveniences, were numerous. Perhaps the worst https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PLATE V.— B A D L Y CONSTRUCTED AND OVERCROWDED TEN EM EN TS. [T he building at left, with garage in basement, houses four families; the one at right, eight families.] PLATE https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis VI.— A O N E -S TO R Y FRAME SHACK. PLATE VII .— P A S S A G E W A Y , 3 F E E T W I D E , B E T W E E N F R A M E S H A C K S — S IX A P A R T M E N T S IN E A C H . TW O [Single water faucet and four privies for use of the 12 families.] P L A T E V II I. — A N I N E - F A M I L Y T E N E M E N T O F ROW. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis W ITH YARD CLOSET AT END H O U S IN G . 19 structures were one-story frame shacks about 100 feet long and 18 or 20 feet wide. (Plate VI.) Such shacks contained as many as eight or nine two-room apartments, each room being 9 or 10 feet square. The typical lot in Gary is 25 or 30 feet wide and 125 or 150 feet deep. If one of these shacks had been placed on an outside lot so that entrance to the apartments was directly from the sidewalk, the congestion did not seem so great. If two such buildings occupied adjoining inside lots, however, in order to enter, one had to traverse the long narrow passage between them. Plate V II depicts such a passage 3 feet wide between twin buildings which together w;ere designed to house 12 families in three-room apartments. * Plate V III shows a nine-family dwelling of two-room apartments, and makes clear how such a structure on an inside lot must depend for light and air upon uncovered space on the neighboring lot. In the early days one pump furnished the usual water supply for such shacks. At the time of the study the 12 apartments in the shacks first pictured had been provided with a single water faucet at the end of one build ing; the other shack had a water faucet in a room at the rear of the ninth apartment. One yard water-closet attached to the end of the building was the sole toilet provision for the nine-family shack. Occupying the alley end of the lots on which the two six-family shacks (Plate VII) stood were four yard privies used promiscuously by all the families. Compared to these buildings, one-family shacks of two or three rooms, thrown together from odd scraps of material after no formal plan, had at least the advantages of greater privacy; but this appar ently was their chief recommendation. Accompanying illustra tions (Plates IX , X , X I, X II) show the extremely makeshift, ram shackle construction common to these dwellings, and indicate how the keeping of domestic fowls and animals sometimes complicates the living problem. Two sections of the South Side contained colonies of families living in such one-family shacks, for which they paid a nominal sum yearly as ground rent. Insanitary, inconvenient, insecure in the protection they afforded against wind, rain, cold, and heat, they nevertheless continued to be used for dwellings; nor did it seem likely that they would be condemned or abandoned until the supply of suitable houses became more adequate. The hom es o f the fam ilies included in this inquiry. Type o f house.— Half the children in Gary 2 to 7 years of age were living in buildings housing but one family, 22 per cent were in twofamily buildings, and but slightly over a fourth (27 per cent) occupied structures accommodating three or more families. (Table 8.)* Only 60 children (1 per cent) were in apartments on the third or a higher floor; 217 (4 per cent) were in basement quarters. The one- or two- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 20 C H IL D R E N O F P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T I . family dwelling was far more common in Gary than were large tenements or apartment buildings. Compared with the rest of the city, the South Side and the First Subdivision were thickly settled in part of their areas at least. Almost two-fifths of the preschool children of the South Side, and one-fourth of those of the First Subdivision, were living in buildings holding three or more families; these two districts together comprised almost all the dwellings in which children of this age were living on the third floor or higher. The more rural sections of the city had, as was to be expected, the highest proportion of children housed in one-family dwellings. West Gary, Ridge Road, Glen Park, Clark, Lincoln Park, even Tolleston, had felt but little, if any, pressure necessitating the erection of multiple dwellings. T a b l e 8.— T yp e o f d w ellin g, by d istrict o f resid ence. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Type of dwelling. District of residence. Onefamily house. Total. First Subdivision............... Ridge Road and Glen Park. South Side........................... Tolleston.............................. House for 3 or more families. Not Third re port floor Base First Sec ed. or ond Num Per Num Per Num Per ment floor. floor. high er. ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 Total.......................... 6,015 3,008 Ambridge............................. Twofamily house. 27.3 217 746 622 39 24.1 70 43.2 1 ' 4 380 25.4 307 20.5 10 9 9.9 6 1.5 39 740 25.6 1,091 37.8 118 13.2 163 18.3 2 3 20 85 141 2 1 518 64 16 1 134 8 3 417 43 50.0 1,334 53 32.7 162 35 40 799 53.4 1,496 80 99 347 88.3 393 2,890 1,042 36.1 892 611 68.5 41 43 Total. 22.2 1,645 2 119 8 60 28 20 10 37 3 1 17 1 Not shown where baséis less than 100. Possibilities of through and of cross ventilation should be considered in judging the suitability and structural excellence of homes in which children are being reared. Almost two-thirds of the 6,015 children of preschool age in Gary were living in dwellings which on four sides had doors or windows opening to the outer air; nine-tenths were in homes ‘with open air on at least three sides; less than 1 per cent (46 children) were in dwellings which had openings to the air on but one side. (Table 9.) The superiority of the one-family residence in this respect is evident. Four-fifths of the children in buildings sheltering but one family lived in dwellings which had access to outside air on four sides; only one-fourth of those in build ings housing at least three families occupied apartments equally favored in possibilities of light and ventilation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PLATE IX.— A HOME IN ONE OF THE SHACK CO LO N IES. [Note hogs near well at left.] PLATE X.— A S H A C K https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis OF M A K E S H IF T CO N S TR U C TIO N . PLATE SID E V IE W O F S H A C K — T H E K E E P IN G O F D O M E S T IC FOWLS C O M P L IC A T E S L IV IN G P R O B LEM S . PLATE https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ELL ON OF TH SH AC STR CTS 21 H O U S IN G . T able 9.— A ccess to o u tsid e a ir, b y ty p e o f d w ellin g. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Type of dwelling. Total. One-family house. Access to outside air. Num ber. Two-family house. House for 3 or more families. Not Per Per Per Per report ed. 1 cent Num cent Num cent Num cent distri ber. distri ber. distri ber. distri bution. bution. bution. bution. Total............................. 6,015 100.0 3,008 100.0 1,334 100.0 1,645 100.0 28 Open air on 1 side................. Open air on 2 sides................ Open air on 3 sides................ Open air on 4 sides................ Not reported.......................... 46 482 1,560 3,907 20 0.8 8.0 25.9 65.0 0.3 11 80 330 2,586 1 0.4 2.7 11.0 86.0 (*) 3 72 343 916 0.2 5.4 25.7 68.7 29 328 884 404 1.8 19.9 53.7 246 3 2 3 1 19 1 Per cent distribution not shown where base is less than ioo. * Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. Tenure and rental.—According to the United States Census of 1910, made when Gary was about 4 years old and possessed a popu lation of 16,802, 68 per cent of the dwellings in the city were rented, and 28 per cent were owned by the people living in them.® This was not a high percentage of ownership, but it did not differ greatly from that obtaining in other industrial communities in Indiana. In 1918, 3,210— slightly more than one-half— of the children bom from 1911 to 1915 were living in rented homes; 30 per cent were in homes owned by their parents, and 15 per cent more in homes which their paren s had begun to purchase. (Table 10.) Eighty-one children 2 to 7 years of age (1 per cent of the total) were in families termed “ squatters,” who were occupying, for a dollar or two yearly, onefamily shacks from which they might be evicted summarily. The proportion of ownership was highest among the foreign bom . A little more than one-half of the children with mothers born outside the United States were living in owned homes, as contrasted with a little over one-third of those with native white mothers, and but slightly more than one-tenth of those with colored mothers. Possi bly the history of the building of Gary affords some explanation of the higher percentage of ownership among the foreign born. As mentioned above, company provision for them was slight, and they may therefore have found that to erect and own their homes was the best and most feasible method of securing houses. a Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910, vol. 1, Population, p. 1357, Washington, 1913. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 22 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCH OOL A G E , G A R Y , I N D .----- P A R T I . T a b l e 10.— F a m ily ten u re o f hom e, by co lo r a n d n a tiv ity o f m oth er. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Family tenure of home. Color and nativity of mother. Owners. Total. Buyers. “ Squat ters.” Renters. Not reported. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber.' Cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.1 ber. cent. Total................................ 6,015 1,799 29.9 900 15.0 81 1.3 3,210 53.4 25 0.4 Native white............................. 1,843 Foreign bom ............................. 3,934 Negro......................................... 232 N ot reported............................. 6 405 1,387 5 2 22.0 35.3 2.2 241 638 21 13.1 16.2 9.1 10 67 4 0.5 1.7 1.7 1,178 1,827 201 4 63.9 46.4 86.6 9 15 1 0.5 0.4 0.4 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. Home ownership tends to stabilize the residence of a family. Onefifth of the children whose parents owned or were purchasing homes, as compared with over one-half (53 per cent) of those whose parents were tenants, had occupied the dwellings in which they were living at the time of the study less than a year. Thirty per cent of those whose parents were owners or buyers, and 5 per cent of those whose parents rented, belonged to families which had not moved for at least five years. Considering together the children of owners and renters, 42 per cent of children with native white mothers, 35 per cent of those with moth ers of foreign birth, and 72 per cent of those whose mothers were colored, belonged to families that had changed living quarters within the year. The proportion of those in families that had been at least five years in their present place of abode was highest among children with foreign mothers (18 per cent), next highest (15 per cent) among children with native white mothers, and lowest among children with colored mothers (2 per cent). (General Table III, p. 141.) In the city as a whole, the four-room house was the type most com monly occupied by the families of children included in the study. The size of apartment most characteristic varied somewhat from district to district. For example, in Clark and in the First Sub division homes of six rooms werè the most common; in Ambridge and West Gary those with five; in Lincoln Park those with three, and in the remaining sections, homes with four rooms. Rentals for four-room dwellings varied widely. The location of the dwelling in the basement or on another floor of a building, its situation in the city, the amount of light and air it afforded, the number of im provements it possessed—water, toilet, bath, sink, heat, light— all figured, doubtless, in relation to the amount of rent charged. In Am bridge, where all dwellings in which children 2 to 7 years of age were living were modern in their sanitary conveniences, the range of monthly https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis H O U S IN G . 23 rental for four rooms was between $15 and $25; in Clark, which did not possess sewer and water systems, four-room dwellings rented for $5 to $15 a month. In the First Subdivision and the South Side, where extremes in type of accommodation available were greater, the rent of four-room dwellings was in some instances as low as $5; other dwell ings of this size rented for more than $40 a month. The median monthly rental for four rooms in Gary as a whole, in 1918, was $15 to $20; in Tolleston and Clark it was $10 to $15, and in the First Sub division, $20 to $25. Except in the last section cited, rentals did not appear to be high. (General Table IV, p. 143.) The amount of home ownership varied considerably in different sections of the city. The proportion of children 2 to 7 years of age living in rented houses was 98 per cent in Ambridge; 28 per cent in Lincoln Park, and 70 per cent in the First Subdivision; 50 per cent in Clark and the South Side; 44 per cent in Tolleston; and 22 per cent in Ridge Road and Glen Park. Sanitary conveniences.—To a very great degree equipment of houses with sanitary conveniences depends upon the extension of sewer and water systems in a city. Especially does this hold for workingmen’s dwellings, because of the greater expense attendant upon furnishing ordinary sanitary conveniences in the absence of public water and sewer systems. In 1918, it was estimated by an official of the heat, light, and water company that 80 per cent of the people in the city could be served by the city water supply with its 80 miles of mains. This meant that the more closely built and well-peopled districts had ready access to the water supply, but did not imply that the outlying sections had been reached. Estimate of the possibility of sewer con nections was even higher. The city engineer believed 95 per cent of the city’s population could secure sewer connections for property. With these estimated possibilities it is of interest to compare the con ditions existing in 1918 in the homes of children of preschool age. Of the children of preschool age, 1,496, or one-fourth of the entire number in the city, were living in homes which lacked city water sup ply and depended wholly upon a well or cistern. (Table 11.) Forty of these children (3 per cent) lived in Clark, 43 in West Gary— to which sewer and water systems had not penetrated— 110 (7 per cent) in Ridge Road and Glen Park, 617 (41 per cent) in Tolleston, and 49 (3 per cent) in Lincoln Park, districts which were but partially served; 632 (42 per cent) in the South Side and 5 (less than 1 per cent) in the First Sub division, where both water and sewer systems were more easily acces sible. In Ambridge all the children 2 to 7 years of age were living in houses provided with city water, and the First Subdivision had almost as good a record. These districts ranked as follows, in descending order, in respect to water and sewer provision: The South Side, Ridge 14683°—23-----3 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 24 C H IL D R E N OF PR ESC H O O L A G E , G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T I . Road and Glen Park, Lincoln Park, and Tolleston. West Gary and Clark were totally without city water supply. Where the city supply was lacking the source of water was ordi narily the driven well, simple and easy to construct because of the char acter of the soil. A pipe with a sieve over its lower end, driven into the sand to a depth of 10,15, or 20 feet, was reasonably likely to tap a supply of ground water. An iron pump attached to the upper end of such a pipe completed the driven well. It is probable that the sandy soil was a protection against contamination of the water yielded by these wells. T a b l e 11.— S ou rce o f w ater s u p p ly , by d istrict o f residence. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Water supply. District of residence. Total. City water only. Num ber. Total. Ambridge............................... C lark......................... . First Subdivision................. Lincoln Park......................... Ridge Road and Glen Park.. South Side............................. Tolleston.,............................. West Gary............................. City and well or cistern Per cent.1 Num ber. 12 6,015 4,486 74.6 162 40 1,496 99 393 2,890 892 43 162 100.0 1,484 50 280 2,236 274 **99.2' 71.2 77.4 30.7 Per cent. 0.2 0.5 .3 .1 Well or cistern only. Num ber. Per cent.1 1,496 24.9 40 5 49 110 632 617 43 Not reported. Num ber. Per cent. 0.3 .3 28.0 21.9 69.2 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. From the housewife’s standpoint, the desirability of water supply within the dwelling can scarcely be overemphasized. Almost fourfifths of all preschool children lived in homes which were not dependent upon water supply located outside the dwelling. (Table 12.) In Clark and West Gary, districts not reached by the city water system, the homes of practically three-fifths of the children had water supply in the dwelling. (General Table V, p. 144.) In the city as a whole, about one-eighth of the children with native white mothers, onefourth of those with mothers of foreign birth, and one-third of those with colored mothers, lived in homes with only an outdoor water supply. The following examples suggest what absence of water supply within the dwelling may involve: The difficulty which a mother of four young children, living in the nine-family shack described on p. 19 would have in sharing the single water faucet with the eight other housewives, calls for no elaboration. Certainly cleanliness of home and person were very difficult to attain in such circumstances. The mother of six children, two of preschool https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 25 H O U S IN G . age, who'was renting a small frame shack on the alley line back of a well-built tenement taking up the front of the lot, had neither water supply nor toilet in her own home or yard. The entire family of seven was dependent upon hydrant and water-closet in an apartment on the second floor of the building in front. T a b l e 12.— L o ca tio n o f w ater su p p ly , by co lo r a n d n a tiv ity o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Location of water supply. Color and nativity of mother Total. In dwelling. Outside dwelling. Not reported. Number. Per cent.1 Number Percent. Number. Per cent. Total................................. 6,015 4,757 79.1 1,239 20.6 19 0.3 Native white............................... Foreign-bom white.................... Negro........................................... Not reported.......................... . 1,843 3,934 232 6 1,621 2,981 149 6 88.0 75.8 64.2 215 942 82 11.7 23.9 35.3 7 11 1 0.4 0.3 0.4 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. The homes of 77 per cent of all the children had been equipped with sinks, and those of 37 per cent, with bath tubs. Two-thirds of the children lived in dwellings having flushing toilets, and one-third lived in dwellings having dry yard privies. (General Table VI, p. 145.) Almost two-fifths of the children lived in houses equipped with all three sanitary conveniences— sink, water-closet, and bath; 28 per cent more had homes in which were sinks and water-closets. The homes of one-fifth lacked all these sanitary conveniences. Table 13 shows how close was the correspondence between the provision of sanitary conveniences and connection with the city water supply. T a b l e 13.— S a n ita ry con v en ien ces o f d w ellin g, by sou rce o f w ater s u p p ly . Children 2 to 7 years of age. Water supply. Sanitary conveniences of dwelling. Total. City. Number. Well or cistern. Per cent Percent Per cent distri Number. distri Number. distri bution. bution. bution. Total.................................. 6,015 100.0 4,498 100.0 1,496 100.0 Sink, water-closet, and bath___ Sink and water-closet................. Sink and bath............................. Water-closet and bath............... Sink only..................................... Water-closet only....................... No conveniences......................... Not reported............................... 2,205 1,655 9 22 768 82 1,252 22 36.7 27.5 .1 .4 12.8 1.4 20.8 .4 2,195 1,644 4 22 421 72 138 2 48.8 36.5 .1 .5 9.4 1.6 3.1 (2) 10 11 5 .7 .7 .3 347 8 1,114 1 23.2 .5 74.5 .1 1 Per cent distribution not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Not re ported.1 2 Less than one-tenth of 1 pe cent. 21 2 19 26 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCHOOL AGE, G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T I . The proportion of children of native white mothers living in homes with sanitary conveniences was consistently higher than that of children of mothers born outside the United States or of colored mothers. Of children of native white mothers, 84 per cent lived in homes supplied with city water; 71 per cent of those of foreign-born mothers, and 69 per cent of those of colored mothers lived in such homes. The homes of 78 per cent of the children of native white, 61 per cent of those of foreign bom , and 55 per cent of those of colored mothers had flush toilets. Even more marked was the superiority of the homes of children of native white mothers as regards equip ment with bathtubs; 69 per cent of them were so equipped, in com parison with 23 per cent of the homes of children of foreign-bom parents and 18 per cent of the homes of children of colored parentage. {General Table VII, p. 146.) In considering toilet provision the rural, sparsely settled nature of a considerable portion of Gary needs to be borne in mind. The extreme undesirability of the dry yard privy is most evident in the more closely built districts. In the South Side 927 children of pre school age— 32 per cent of the entire number in the district— were dependent upon yard privies; all the 40 children of preschool age in Clark, 77 per cent of those in Tolleston, 67 per cent of those in Ridge Road and Glen Park, and 65 per cent of those in Lincoln Park had no better toilet accommodations than yard privies. Only in the South Side and Tolleston were yard privies found to be the sole toilet provision for a group of three or more families containing children 2 to 7 years of age. Somewhat over half the children (52 per cent) were in homes which had flush closets within the dwelling; 14 per cent had waterclosets outside the dwelling— in hall, on porch, or in cellar or yard. (General Table VIII, p. 147.) A toilet within the apartment, for use by a single family, is in creasingly recognized as a reasonable standard for city dwellers. Building codes are beginning to measure up to this. Realization of the physical discomforts and the moral danger attaching to inade quate toilet provision which tends to promiscuous use of waterclosets and privies by large numbers of people, is growing. The State law in Indiana already referred to requires within each apart ment in every tenement house erected after 1913 a separate indoor toilet, and for every tenement house existing prior to the act of 1913 at least one water-closet for every two families.5 11Under no circum stances shall the general water-closet accommodations of any tene ment house be permitted in the cellar or basement thereof.” 6 5Housing Law of the State of Indiana, Acts of 1913, secs. 34 and 62. •Ibid., sec. 61. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 27 HOUSING. T able 14.— L o ca tio n a n d ty p e o f to ile t, by n u m b er o f fa m ilie s u sin g . Children 2 to 7 years of age. Number of families using toilet. Total. 1 Location and type of toilet. 3 2 4 and over. Not re Per Per Per Per Per port cent cent cent cent cent Num dis Num dis Num dis Num dis Num dis ed.1 ber. tribu ber. tribu ber. tribu ber- tribu ber. tribu tion. tion. tion. tion. tion. 6,015 100.0 4,782 100.0 910 100.0 176 100.0 100.0 36 Water-closet....................... 3,964 In dwelling.................. 3,141 821 Outside dwelling......... 2 Location not reported.. Yard privy......................... 2,032 19 65.9 52.2 13.6 3,264 3,015 249 68.3 63.0 5.2 51.7 2.3 49.5 59.5 66 2 . 1.8 57.6 64 9 1,518 31.7 58.7 13.2 45.3 .2 41.3 91 4 87 33.8 .3 534 120 412 2 376 85 48.3 45 40.5 8 19 Total......................... I ll 9 1 Per cent distribution not shown where base is less than 100. Half the children of preschool age were living in homes which had a private water-closet within the dwelling (Table 14); the homes of 4 per cent more had a water-closet used by but one family, though located outside the dwelling; one-fourth lived in homes which had an individual yard privy. That is, four-fifths of all the children were in families which did not share a toilet with another family. The families of 9 per cent of the children shared the use of a watercloset with one other family, and 6 per cent had a yard privy in common with another family. The families of 287 children, 5 per cent of the total, shared either water-closet or yard privy with two or more families. All these children, except the 23 who lived in the First Subdivision, resided in the South Side and Tolleston. (General Table V III, pp. 147, 148.) Approximately nine-tenths of the children with native white mothers, three-fourths of those with mothers of foreign birth, and three-fifths of those with colored mothers, lived in families with one toilet per family. Children in families using a toilet with at least two other families comprised 2 per cent of all preschool children with native white mothers, 6 per cent of those with foreign-born mothers, and 14 per cent of those with colored mothers. (General Table IX , p. 149.) Overcrowding within the home.— The four-room dwelling has already been referred to as the type most commonly occupied in Gary b y the families of children of preschool age. Very few children (less than 1 per cent) were living in one-room apartments; but 8 per cent lived in two rooms; slightly less than one-fourth lived in dwellings of three rooms or less. The South Side, with almost twice as many children 2 to 7 years of age as any other district, had the smallest https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 28 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D .— PART I. proportion (18 per cent) housed in dwellings of five rooms or more; in the First Subdivision 68 per cent of the children of preschool age lived in dwellings of at least five rooms; in Ambridge, 58 per cent. (General Table X , p. 150.) T a b l e 15.— N um ber o f p erson s in household. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Number of persons in household. Number. Per cent distri bution. Total......................................................................................................................... 6,015 100.0 2.......................................................................................................................................... 3.......................................................................................................................................... 4.......................................................................................................................................... 5.......................................................................................................................................... 6.......................................................................................................................................... 7.......................................................................................................................................... 8 and over....................................................................................... .................................. 6 339 926 1,319 1,193 906 1,303 23 0.1 5.6 15.4 21.9 19.8 15.1 21.7 0.4 Two-thirds of all the families containing children included in the study numbered four to six members.7 It was not unusual for a household to contain other persons in addition to the immediate family. Table 15 includes under persons in the household not only the parents and brothers and sisters of preschool children but other people who were living in the home. But a trifle more than one-twentieth of all the children were in households of less than four; somewhat over seven-tenths were in those totaling four to seven mem bers; and slightly more than one-fifth in households of eight or more persons. The South Side and Tolleston led other districts® in the percentage of children living in households of eight or more members. A crude measure of overcrowding within a dwelling is ( afforded b y the average number of persons per room. This measure ignores the variability in size of rooms, but is not without value. Almost three-fourths of the 6,015 children were living in households where the number of persons was less than double the number of rooms in the dwelling. One-fourth were in households overcrowded on the standard of two or more persons per room; one-twentieth were in homes which had an average of three or more persons per room. (Table 16.) See p. 12. aClark and Lincoln Park not included on account of small numbers. 1 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 29 HOUSING. T able 16.— A vera g e nu m ber o f p erson s in h ou seh old p er room , by co lo r a n d n a tiv ity o f m oth er. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Color and nativity of mother. Average number of persons In household per room. Total. Native white. Num ber. Per Num cent ber. distri bution. Foreign-born white. Per Num cent ber. distri bution. Negro. Not Per Per report ed.1 cent Num cent distri ber. distri bution. bution. Total............................ 6,015 100.0 1,843 100.0 3,934 100.0 232 100.0 6 Less than 1............................ 1, less than 1£......................... 894 2,103 1,465 1,250 278 25 14.9 35.0 24.4 20.8 4.6 0.4 636 834 229 103 30 11 34.5 45.3 12.4 5.6 1.6 0.6 233 1,178 1,174 1,100 236 13 5.9 29.9 29.8 28.0 6.0 0.3 20 90 62 47 12 1 8.6 38.8 26.7 20.3 5.2 0.4 5 1 Not reported.......................... 1 Per cent distribution not shown where base is less than 100. The homes of children of mothers of foreign birth were more crowded than those of children of colored or of native white mothers, the difference being most marked between children of foreign-bom mothers and those of native white mothers. Of all the children with mothers bom outside the United States, 34 per cent lived in house holds which had two or more persons for every room, as compared with 26 per cent of the children of colored mothers and 7 per cent of the children whose mothers were native white. Conversely, the proportion of children of native white mothers in homes with fewer persons than rooms in the household was more than five times as large as the corresponding proportion among children with mothers of foreign birth. Besides the somewhat larger size of families among the foreign bom (Table 1, p. 8.) there was an increased tendency on their part to keep lodgers. The proportion of colored families keeping lodgers was also high. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis E C O N O M IC C O N D IT IO N S . The standard of living attainable by a family depends first of all upon the amount and adequacy of family income. Some incomes must be considered inadequate to supply family needs, no matter what intelligence, skill, and appreciation of values be presupposed in their expenditure. In the normal family the chief financial responsibility ordinarily falls upon the father; in families in which the father is dead, has deserted, or is absent for other cause, another member usually assumes the main burden of supporting the children. In this study, the person with the heaviest financial responsibility for the family group, whether the father or some other member of the household,8 has been designated chief breadwinner, and the chief breadwinner’s annual earnings have been considered the best obtainable gauge of the family’s economic status. Other income would be likely to be a less significant indication because often made up of contributions less regular and more temporary in nature than the chief bread winner’s earnings. Supplementary income from investments would commonly be found to accompany the chief breadwinner’s earnings which were in themselves equal to family needs and therefore a satisfactory index to the family’s standard of living. Mothers in Gary who were employed, for the most part kept lodgers, and their earnings could not be itemized with accuracy but merely represented gross receipts. The employment of the mother outside the home involved lessening the time and service which she could give to home and children, and might on this account be expected to yield less real benefit to the family than the sum total of her monetary addition to the family income would suggest. In the homes of 57 per cent of the 6,015 children of preschool age in Gary, the chief breadwinner’s earnings were the only income. The larger the chief breadwinners’ earnings, the smaller the pro portion of cases in which they were supplemented by income from other sources. Although the lowest earnings group based on aggregate earnings was smaller and the highest earnings group some what larger than the corresponding group based on the chief bread winner’s earnings alone, the differences were not excessive and were due chiefly to inclusion of the mother’s earnings from lodgers; hence, they were not especially significant of improved economic status. (General Table X I, p. 151.) 8 In the tabulations the mother was never classified as chief breadwinner, and if no person other than the mother assumed financial responsibility for the family it was considered as having no chief breadwinner. General Table X V I, p. 154. shows the proportion o f mothers in each group who were gainfully employed and the amount they contributed to the support of the family. 30 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis E C O N O M IC 31 C O N D IT IO N S . The chief breadwinner’s earnings were ascertained for the last calendar year (1917) completed prior to the time this study was made. This period was chosen instead of the exact 12 months immediately antedating the visit of the Children’s Bureau agent to the family because it was believed mothers and lathers would be better able to recall the amount of earnings from January to December than for any other 12-month interval. The figures which they had worked out, or which had been furnished them by their employers, for their income-tax statements for the calendar year 1917, were fresh in the minds of many of the parents. The statements which the employers had prepared for this purpose, in fact, were in many cases shown to the Children’s Bureau agents by the parents. Identity o f chief breadwinner. Of all the children of preschool age, 94 per cent were living in normal families— that is, families lacking neither father nor mother. In the f amilies of 95 per cent of the children the father was the chief breadwinner. The fathers of 279 children (5 per cent) had died or had deserted their families, in 230 cases prior to 1917 and in 49 cases during that year. (Table 17.) T a b le 17.— Id en tity o f ch ief breadw inner, by h is a n n u a l earn in gs in 1917. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Identity o f chief breadwinner. Other. Annual earnings of chief breadwinner m 1917. Total. Father. Father died 1917. Father deserted 1917. Father died or deserted before 1917. Not reported. Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. 6,015 5,734 95.3 27 0.4 22 0.4 230 3.8 2 Under $1,050............................... 1,774 $1,050 to $1,849........................... 2,949 819 $1,850 and over........................... No chief breadwinner and no 129 earnings................................... 344 Not reported............................... 1,708 2,872 794 96.3 97.4 96.9 11 4 2 .6 .1 .2 6 3 1 .3 .1 .1 49 68 22 2.8 2.3 2.7 2 56 304 43.4 88.4 10 2.9 12 3.5 73 18 56.6 5.2 Total. 0) 0.1 i Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. Annual earnings o f chief breadwinner. Chief breadwinners in 14 per cent of the families earned less than $850 a year; the chief breadwinners of 28 per cent of the families, less than $1,050 per annum. Almost three-fifths of the chief bread winners (59 per cent) made less than $1,450 in a twelvemonth. Eighteen per cent had earnings reaching $1,450 but falling below $1,850 a year, while 15 per cent reached or exceeded $1,850. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 32 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCH O O L AGE, GARY, I N D .— P A R T I . T a b l e 18— A n n u a l earnings o f ch ief breadwinner in 1917. F a m ilie s w ith children 2 to 7 years of age. Annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917. Per cent Number. distribu tion. Total........................................................ Under $850............................................... $850 to $1,049.................................................... $1,050 to $1,249.......................................... $1,250 to $1,449................................................. $1,450 to $1,849............................... $1,850 to $2,249............................................... $2,250 and over.................................................. No chief breadwinner and no earnings.................... Not reported................................................... 3,991 100.0 544 577 696 540 723 269 317* 93 232 13.6 14.5 17.4 13.5 18.1 6.7 7.9 2.3 5.8 Table 19 shows the size' of the families of chief breadwinners earning specified amounts in 1917. The family with four members was the most frequent. Eleven per cent of these families of four had breadwinners earning less than $850 a year; 17 per cent had chief breadwinners receiving at least $1,850. Annual earnings less than $850 were in 1917 unquestionably insufficient for the physical needs of families with as many as four members. In 1,148 families, 29 per cent of the total, the earnings of the chief breadwinner averaged less than $200 per person per year; and in 145 families (4 per cent) the average per person was less than $100 a year. It must be borne in mind that most of the families were of normal composition, and therefore included at least two adults, the father and the mother. Thus in one-third of the families the chief breadwinners’ earnings were seriously beneath the amount necessary for the maintenance of even the simplest, plainest family life con sistent with health and decency. T a b l e 19.— N um ber o f p erson s in fa m ily , by a n n u a l earn in gs o f c h ief breadw inner in 1917. Families with children 2 to 7 years of age. Annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917. Number of persons in family. Total.............. 1................................ 2................................ 3................................ 4................................ 6................................ 9................................ 10.............................. 11.............................. 12 and over.............. Not reported............ Total. 3,991 36] 55 575 1,049 954 627 351 193 89 26 15 6 15 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $850 Under to $850. $1,049. $1,050 to $1,249. $1.250 $1,450 to to $1,449. $1,849. $1,850 to $2,249. No chief $2,250 ' bread and winner Not re over. and no ported. earn ings. 544 577 696 540 723 269 317 93 232 7 8 48 114 148 110 53 27 21 2 6 4 4 54 135 146 114 66 35 11 4 1 2 1 4 6 81 182 165 100 80 41 21 g 3 3 2 1 2 82 159 125 86 47 27 4 4 2 1 1 8 140 215 167 100 41 24 13 4 3 2 3 59 78 64 30 16 8 7 3 2 58 96 85 32 17 17 4 2 15 19 18 18 9 8 2 2 12 7 34 7 1 52 36 46 23 12 6 E C O N O M IC C O N D IT IO N S . 33 Nativity and earnings. While but 7 per cent of the children whose mothers were native white had chief breadwinners whose annual earnings failed to reach $850, 17 per cent of the children whose mothers were of foreign birth, and 24 per cent of those with colored mothers, were in families in which the chief breadwinner’s earnings fell below $850. In the homes of one-half of the colored children the chief breadwinners did not make $1,050 a year. Somewhat more than one-fourth of the children of native white mothers, less than one-twelfth of those whose mothers were bom outside the United States, and barely 2 per cent of the children with colored parents, belonged in homes in which the chief breadwinner’s earnings equaled or exceeded $1,850 per annum. (General Table X II, p. 151.) Because of the greater earnings of the chief breadwinners in the native white families, their earnings were least often supplemented by earnings of other mem bers of the family; conversely, earnings of chief breadwinners for colored children were most frequently added to by the efforts of other members of the f amily. (General Table X I, p . 151.) Judged on the bases of chief breadwinners’ annual earnings and their adequacy, economic conditions were better in the homes of children whose mothers were native white than in the homes of those whose mothers were foreign bom or colored. Effect o f literacy and ability to speak English upon earnings. Illiteracy and, in an English-speaking country, inability to speak English, may affect earning capacity as well as limit the kind of occupation which may be undertaken. Both these factors would have less potency in a year like 1917 when the demand for labor was great. Nevertheless, illiteracy and inability to speak English were apparently more largely associated with lower annual earnings than with higher in the homes containing children 2 to 7 years of age. In the earnings group below $1,050 per annum, close to onefourth of the children had fathers incapable of reading or writing in any language; one-fifth had fathers unable to speak English. Among the families with chief breadwinners earning $1,850 or more per year, the fathers of only 2 per cent of the children were illiterate, and of only 1 per cent, unable to speak English.9 Employment o f chief breadwinner. In a city which had its inception as a place to house employees of the steel industry, wage earners employed in this industry would be expected to bulk large in the working population. No other in dustry at all comparable to steel in size and importance had risen in Gary. Yet because the municipality had been healthy in deFathers and chief breadwinners, it must be remembered, were identical in 95 per cent of all cases. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 34 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCH O O L A G E , G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T I . velopment, there existed within it no inconsiderable number of wage earners not directly concerned with the manufacture of steel or steel products, and a class made up of professional men and women, employers, and people working for their own profit at their own risk. No distinction has been made here between wages and salaries, but classification has been purely with reference to whether the bread winner was employer, employee, or working independently on his own account; i. e., briefly, into wage earners and nonwage earners. Of the 6,015 children of preschool age, 86 per cent were in families whose chief breadwinners worked for wages; in the families of 61 per cent the chief breadwinners were employees in the steel industry, and in 25 per cent, in other industries. One-eighth of the children had breadwinners who were nonwage earning workers. (Table 20.) T a b l e 20.— T yp e o f em p loym en t o f c h ie f breadw inner, by a n n u a l earn in gs in 1917. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917. Total. Under $1,050. Type o f employment of chief breadwinner. Per Num cent Num dis ber. tribu bertion. Total..................... 6,015 100.0 Wage earners.................. 5,141 Steel industry.......... 3,654 Other industry......... 1,478 Not reported............ 9 Nonwage earners............ 756 Employers............... 512 Not employers......... 244 Not reported................... 118 85.5 60.7 24.6 .1 12.6 8.5 4.1 2.0 $1,050 to $1,849 $1,850 and over. No chief breadwin ner and no earnings. Not reported. Per Per Per Per Per cent cent cent cent cent dis Num dis Num dis Num dis Num dis ber. ber. tribu tribu tribu ber. tribu ber. tribu tion. tion. tion. tion. tion. 1,774 100.0 2,949 100.0 819 100.0 1,651 1,107 539 5 121 58 63 2 2,727 1,982 743 2 222 142 80 580 462 118 70.8 56.4 14.4 239 194 45 29.2 23.7 5.5 93.1 62.4 30.4 .3 6.8 3.3 3.6 .1 92.5 67.2 25.2 .1 7.5 4.8 2.7 129 100.0 1 .8 1 .8 29 22.5 •23 17.8 6 4.7 99 76.7 344 100.0 182 103 ' 77 2 145 95 50 17 52.9 29.9 22.4 .6 42.2 27.6 14.5 4.9 In each earnings group wage earners formed the largest proportion of chief breadwinners. As incomes from the chief breadwinners ’ efforts increased, however, the proportion of nonwage earners became greater. Sixteen per cent of the children with nonwage earning breadwinners and 32 per cent of those whose breadwinners worked for wages were in homes in which the chief breadwinners’ earnings failed to reach $1,050; 32 per cent of those in nonwage earners’ families, and 11 per cent in wage earners’ families, were in homes in which the chief breadwinner earned at least $1,850 in a twelvemonth. Among wage earners, earnings tended to average slightly higher for employees in steel than for employees in other industries. Little https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis E C O N O M IC C O N D IT IO N S . 35 significance can be attached to this tendency, however, because information as to such conditioning factors as hours and wages is wanting. Nonemployment o f chief breadwinner.10 The bearing which nonemployment of the chief breadwinner of a If this important source of income were cut off for a long period, most families would be forced speedily to extreme expedients to maintain that standard of home life to which they were accustomed. In work for social better ment and economic improvement, reduction of nonemployment is admittedly important. In 1917, because of war and the consequent diversion of a portion of the labor supply to the Army and Navy, nonemployment from certain causes usually operative might be expected to be small, and total nonemployment, therefore, less than in normal times of peace. Chief breadwinners for 38 per cent of all the children 2 to 7 years of age were reported to have experienced no nonemployment in the year in question; breadwinners for an additional 24 per cent were nonemployed less than 1 month. Forty-two per cent of all the chil dren had breadwinners nonemployed less than 3 months; 7 per cent, 3 but under 6 months; about 3 per cent, 6 to 12 months. The extent of nonemployment was greater among wage earners than among those not working for wages. Two-thirds of the children of wage earners, but somewhat less than one-fourth of those of nonwage earners, had chief breadwinners who were nonemployed for some period during the year. W hy wage earners were nonemployed at any time during 1917 was variously explained b y mothers and fathers. Where several causes contributed to the total time lost from work, that cause has been considered major and representative which accounted for the greatest fraction of the time lost. Illness of self or of some member of the family was the major cause of nonemployment most often reported. Well over one-fourth (28 per cent) of the children of wage earners had breadwinners whose chief cause of loss of time from work was illness. Almost one-tenth (9 per cent) had chief breadwinners whose major cause of absence from work lay not in themselves but in the industry which employed them. Six per cent had chief breadwinners whose leading cause of unemployment was lack of a job. Two per cent had breadwmners whose main reason for absence from work was an injury or accident. Only two-tenths of 1 per cent had breadwinners who lost more time family has upon family welfare is obvious. 10 Since the purpose o f this classification is to show the length of time during which the family received no income from the chief breadwinner, nonemployment includes cases in which the income failed because of the death or desertion of the chief breadwinner during the year, as well as those in which the chief bread winner was unemployed or sick. See General Table X III, p. 152. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 36 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCH OOL A G E , G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T I. because of strike or lockout than from any other cause. Shutdown, no job, and strike or lockout each probably played in 1917 a less important role among the reasons for nonemployment than they would have played customarily in times of peace. Major causes of absence from work had practically the same order of precedence among wage earners in steel and wage earners in other industries. Shutdown, however, was a relatively much more important cause in the steel industry than in other industries. Sickness, too, seemed to bulk somewhat larger among steel employees. (General Table X III, p. 152.) The chief breadwinners of the families of 2,283 children of pre school age lost no pay through nonemployment. The effect of non employment upon earnings may be gauged in a measure by the distribution in earnings groups when nonemployment was nil and when it was present. In homes with less than $1,050 as the chief breadwinner’s annual earnings were 16 per cent of the children whose breadwinners suffered no period of nonemployment, and 40 per cent of the children whose chief breadwinners were nonemployed at some time during the year. In the group earning $1,050 to $1,849 a year, the respective percentages were 53 and 49; in the highest earnings class ($1,850 or over per annum), they were 23 and 8. Even in an exceptional industrial year like 1917, nonemployment was an impor tant factor in the economic well-being of wage earning men and their families. (Table 21.) T a b l e 21 .— A n n u a l earnings o f chief breadwinner, by nonem ploym ent o f chiefbreadwinner in 1917. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Nonemployment of chief breadwinner. Annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917. Num ber. Total............................. TTnHnrfl (ISO ... fl flRnt.n'$1,849............... N o chief breadwinner and no earnings............................... Not reported.......................... Not reported. No chief Some. None. Per Per Per Per Num cent Num cent Num cent cent distri ber. distri distri ber. ber. distri bution. bution. bution. bution. 6,015 100.0 2,283 100.0 3,105 100.0 555 100.0 1,774 2,949 '819 29.5 49.0 13.6 364 1,213 531 15.9 53.1 23.3 1,235 1,511 243 39.8 48.7 7.8 175 225 45 31.5 40.5 8.1 129 344 2.1 5.7 20 155 0.9 6.8 33 83 1.1 2.7 4 106 0.7 19.1 winner. 72 72 Gainful employment o f mother. Slightly over three-tenths of all the mothers had never been em ployed away from home either before or after marriage. Among Italian mothers the proportion (seven-tenths) who had never done outside work was much higher; among German mothers (one-eighth) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis E C O N O M IC 37 C O N D IT IO N S . much lower. Less than one-fifth of all the mothers had ever been engaged in factory work. Native white mothers had begun work away from home at a later age than foreign-bom or colored mothers. Of the native white mothers, only about 1 in 13 had started work away from home before attaining the age of 14 years; among foreign-bom women, on the contrary, 1 in 7, and among colored mothers 1 in 6, began work before reaching the age of 14. (General Table X IV , p. 153.) In 1917, mothers in somewhat over three-fifths of the families containing children 2 to 7 years of age were not gainfully employed either within their homes or outside. The proportion was more nearly seven-tenths among native white mothers, while it was a little under one-half among colored mothers, and three-fifths among the foreign bom . (General Table X V , p. 153.) Table 22 shows whether the occupations of gainfully employed mothers took them outside the home or not. Mothers of 29 per cent of all the children kept lodgers; mothers of 4 per cent did some other type of gainful work at home; mothers of 5 per cent did work which took them outside the home. Thus neither outside work nor gainful work at home other than keeping lodgers was of great importance in its effect on the home life of the 6,015 children of preschool age. The chief industry of Gary was not one which offered many married women opportunities for work. Keeping lodgers, however, was an occupation of fairly common occurrence. This sometimes meant merely taking a roomer for part or all of the year. More often it entailed, especially among the foreign bom , furnishing both room and board, or at least room and the mother’s services as cook or laundress. When visited in 1918, 30 per cent of the children with foreign-born mothers, 25 per cent of those with colored mothers, and 18 per cent of those whose mothers were native white were living in homes where lodgers were kept. Keeping lodgers was most prevalent among Lithuanian and Italian mothers. T a b l e 2 2 . — M oth er's g a in fu l o ccu p a tio n in 1917. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Mother’s gainful occupation in 1917. Number. Per cent distri bution. Total.......................................................................................................................... 6,015 100.0 No employment................................................................................................................. No lodgers.......................................................................................................................... Other gainful home work............................................................................................ Outside work............................................................................................................... Lodgers............................................................................................................................... No other gainful work................................................................................................. 3,757 513 218 295 1,730 1,705 25 15 62.5 8.5 3.6 4.9 28.8 28.4 .4 .2 N ot reported...................... ................................................................................................ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 38 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, I N D .— P A R T I. M other’s earnings. Mothers’ earnings were not very large; more often than not they totaled less than $200 for the entire year. And inasmuch as these earnings were more often from keeping lodgers than from other occu pations, it was impossible to state them except in the form of gross receipts. Earnings above expenditures incidental to furnishing room and board could not be ascertained. With increase in the amount which chief breadwinners earned went a slight decrease in the number of mothers working for gain. The proportion of mothers gainfully employed was highest when there was no chief breadwinner in the family and consequently no income from his earnings. (General Table X V I, p. 154.) Separation o f mother and child on account o f mother’s employment. One child in 13 had at some time during his life been separated from his mother because of her employment.® Of the 471 children whose mothers at some time had had to leave them to go to work, 55 per cent were cared for at home, sometimes by an older child but more often by an adult in the household. A few children (13 per cent) were cared for in institutions, mainly day nurseries; approxi mately three-tenths were left in charge of an adult caretaker outside their own home. (General Table X V II, p. 156.) If the annual earnings of the chief breadwinner for 1917 be con sidered as representative of the relative economic status of the families, not only in 1917 but for the longer period covered by the lives of the children born during the period from 1911 to 1915, fur ther evidence may be shown that lower earnings of the chief bread winner were accompanied by increased likelihood of the gainful employment of the mother. Of the children whose breadwinners earned less than $1,050, 89 per cent had never been apart from their mothers because employment took the mother away from home; when chief breadwinner’s earnings were as much as $1,850 per annum, 98 per cent of the children had never been separated from their mothers. Separation of mother and child was most prevalent in those families in which there were no earnings and no chief breadwinner. (General Table X V III, p. 157.) Colored mothers more often than native white or foreign born had to leave their children to go to work. It will be recalled that earnings of chief breadwinners were lower among the colored families than among others, and that colored mothers were more likely to be gainfully employed than native white or foreign-born mothers. a This classification includes those separated only dining the mothers’ working hours and those away from their mothers both day and night. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis E C O N O M IC C O N D IT IO N S . 39 Household help. Other conditions being similar, it ordinarily holds that the more ample the family income the greater the chance that some part of it may be apportioned to providing the mother with assistance in some of her household tasks. When the household contains many members, the older children or some adult who is not employed outside the home may help the mother. Three-fifths of the children of preschool age were living in homes where the mother had no help in the per formance of daily household tasks. The proportion of mothers who received no help was largest among the foreign born and smallest among the native white. Only 2 per cent of the children whose mothers were foreign born lived in homes where the mothers had full-time hired help with housework, as compared with 7 per cent among the children of native white mothers. Of all the children included in the study, one-fifth were in homes in which the mother had some paid assistance. The more frequent utilization of paid help among native white mothers than among foreign-born or colored mothers is partly explained by difference in racial custom, but it is also partly due to the difference in the earnings of the chief bread winner. When these earnings were less than $1,050, the mothers of only 8 per cent of the children had any hired help; when they were at least $1,850, the mothers of 51 per cent of the children had hired assistance. The proportion of children whose mothers had no help, either hired or free, was practically twice as large when the chief breadwinners earned less than $1,050 per annum as it was when the chief breadwinners’ earnings were $1,850 or more. (General Table X IX , p. 158.) 14683°—23-----4 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis CHILD CARE AND HYGIENE. Within the past few years guiding principles in child care and hygiene have been given much clearer formulation and received much wider dissemination than even a decade ago. Knowledge and recognition of the essential requirements of a young child with reference to nutrition, protection from heat or cold, sleep and rest, exercise and fresh air, have increased. Moreover, expression has recently been given to minimum standards below which a community should not fall if it is to give proper care to its children.11 Certain items present themselves as essential in considering what favors the healthy growth of the child of preschool age and what a program of care for such a child should embody. If his needs as a growing organism are to be met satisfactorily it is perhaps of fore most importance that he be provided with suitable meals at regular hours daily. It is well, too, that milk have a place in his diet and that his evening meal be not so heavy as to tax his digestive powers unduly and interfere with his sleep. He needs plenty of rest at night. Regular hours for retiring and rising, and the use of a separate bed in a room with an open window, and of night clothes other than the garments he wears by day, tend to insure sleep of the proper amount and quality. At least a weekly bath the year round seems necessary to maintain healthful cleanliness. These items of care— suitable meals, milk as part of the diet, a light evening meal, regular hours for eating, for retiring, for rising, 12 hours rest at night, a separate bed, a bedroom with window open winter and summer, night clothes not worn by day, and a weekly bath— are not all of equal importance to the well-being of a child 2 to 7 years of age. Together, it is likely that they present a program too exacting to be practical. It may be conceded that children undoubtedly do thrive in the absence of some of them. Considered from the standpoint of the ideal, however, it is questionable whether any one of the items enumerated should be completely ignored or even modified seriously; and yet only 17 of the 6,015 children of preschool age studied received all of these items of care. Baths. Only 21 children, all of them with foreign-born mothers, failed to receive at least one bath a week in the summer time. In winter 361 children (6 per cent of the total) were not bathed as often as once a week. A third of the children with Italian mothers had no weekly 11 Standards of Child Welfare, U. S. Children’s Bureau Publication No. 60. Washington, 1919. 40 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis CHILD CARE AND HYGIENE. 41 bath in winter, a proportion markedly above that in any other nationality group. Need for more frequent bathing in summer was very generally recognized in practice. In winter, 61 per cent of all the children were bathed not more frequently than once a week; only 18 per cent were bathed but once a week in summer. The proportion with seven or more baths per week in winter was only 3 per cent; in summer it was 37 per cent. Children of foreign-bom mothers were bathed less often than children of native white or of colored mothers whatever the season of the year. In this connection should be mentioned again the better facilities for cleanliness which the homes of the children of native white mothers possessed. These homes were superior to the homes of children with mothers born outside the United States in provision of all modern conveniences but especially in provision of bathtubs. Sixty-nine per cent of the children of native white mothers, as compared with 23 per cent of those of foreign-bom mothers, lived in homes equipped with bathtubs. (General Tables X X , p. 159, and VII, p. 146.) All mothers tended to bathe children 2, 3, and 4 years old more frequently than children who were 5, 6, and 7. Tim e outdoors. The infant is dependent upon his elders to a very much greater degree than is the child 2 to 7 years of age. Freedom which comes with ability to walk, to run, to act independently, makes it of prime importance that children of preschool age should be so housed that they can enjoy light, air, sunshine, and outdoor play. Comment has already been made on Gary’s regulation of building, its provision of parks, its municipal playground, its playgrounds in connection with the schools. The character of the housing in the city has also been discussed. (See pp. 16.) Much of the city was still rural in character in 1918, but congested sections were not altogether lacking. The acquisition of space for playgrounds had not yet become a problem of clearing areas preempted by buildings; the city’s ambition to continue its program for small parks and play grounds “ until a playground or small park could be reached by practically every child in Gary* without crossing the right of way of a railroad” 12 was not yet so difficult of accomplishment as it would have been in an older, more rigid community; it was neither so difficult nor so costly to attain as it would be later on when the city was more thickly settled. With reference to the need for playgrounds and to the shortcomings of many industrial cities as environments for the rearing of children, in the United States as in Scotland “ one argument is beyond con18 Annual message of the m ayor to the city council, 1919. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 42 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND.---- PART I. troversy; the streets are too dangerous for young children. It follows that special play places, indoor and outdoor, are primary factors in the promotion of child nurture. The play center * * * is an essential counteractive to the debased housing that has come to us through the too rapid concentration of people in ill-planned cities.” 13 Efforts were made to ascertain how many hours the children of preschool age were getting out of doors and where they played at the time this study was being carried on— the summer of 1918.14 Yards, courts, passageways between houses, porches, streets, alleys, vacant lots, and open dunes as well as school and city playgrounds and parks were utilized for play purposes, as the accompanying illus trations show. An abundance of sand was available for sand piles. T a b l e 23 .— T im e sp en t o u t o f doors day preced in g a gen t's v isit, by co lo r and n a tiv ity o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Time out of doors on preceding day. Color and nativity of mother. Total. Total........................................... None. Less than 1 hour. 1 hour, less than. 2. 2 hours, less than. 3. 3 hours, less than. 5. 5 hours Not re and ported. over. 6,015 35 15 60 136 679 4,944 146 1,843 3,934 232 6 21 14 8 6 1 32 25 3 60 71 4 1 301 358 19 1 1,366 3,376 198 4 55 84 7 Thirty-five children had not had any time outdoors the day before the Children’s Bureau agent visited them. Slightly over four-fifths of all the children, however, had spent at least five hours outside the house, and only about 1 child in 25 had had less than three hours outdoors the previous day. When the mother had no one to whose care the child could be intrusted while outdoors and was herself unable to leave her household tasks to watch over the child’s play and unwilling to permit him to play unguarded, the time outdoors was necessarily limited. (Table 23.) The advantage which the one-family house with yard holds over the multiple tenement or apartment building of many floors is per haps most important in housing children 2 to 7 years of age. The preschool children in Gary were fortunate in that almost three times as many of them lived in one- or two-family houses, as in buildings sheltering three or more families. u Carnegie United Kingdom Trust Report on the Physical Welfare of Mothers and Children, Scotland, Vol. IIJ, p. 343. Edinburgh, 1917. 1* The time spent outdoors b y the child the day preceding the visit of the Children’s Bureau agent was ascertained. lit h e child’s Illness or some other special cause had affected his manner o f spending the preceding day the child was not included among those for whom time outdoors was reported. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PLATE PLATE https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis XIII.— P L A Y I N G X IV .— P L A Y I N G IN IN T H E A SAND. PASSAGEW AY. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis CHILD CABE AND HYGIENE. 43 Sleep. Estimates of the amount of sleep requisite for children 2 to 7 years of age vary. The child 2 or 3 years old probably should have more sleep than the boy or girl at the other extreme of this preschool age group. The child 2 to 7 years of age requires less sleep than does an infant, but a greater amount than that which suffices for an older child or an adult. Twelve hours’ sleep out of the 24 is probably not too great an amount for children 2 to 7 years of age; 10 hours’ night rest would assuredly not be excessive.15 In this study the time at which the child of preschool age went to bed the night before and the hour at which he arose upon the day when the Children’s Bureau agent visited him were ascertained. If any unusual circumstance had affected the amount of time a child slept during the 24 hours preceding the agent’s visit, so that it was not typical of his customary rest, the child was not included among those whose hours of night rest were reported. For all other children the hours between retiring and rising have been estimated ancj it has been assumed that they indicate the extent of night rest or sleep. The hours of actual sleep were probably somewhat less than the total so calculated, since no allowance is made in it for delay in f alling asleep at night, for lying awake before rising in the morning, or for disturbed rest during the night. Practically four-fifths of the children were not taking a daytime nap in March, 1918— 62 per cent of those 2 or 3 years of age, 88 per cent of those 4 or 5 years of age, and 98 per cent of those 6 or 7 no longer .slept during the daytime. For the greater proportion of the 6,015 children, then, night sleep was the only kind obtained. Discussion of the amount of night rest has perhaps greatest signi ficance with reference to the 4,767 children who were not accustomed to having a daytime nap. Of the 2- or 3-year-old children in this group 42 per cent slept less than 12 hours each night; two-thirds of those 4 or 5, and four-fifths of those 6 or 7 years old had less than 12 hours rest out of 24. About 1 child in 17 among those 2 and 3 years of age, 1 in 12 among those 4 or 5 years of age, and 1 in 7 among those 6 or 7 years of age, slept less than 10 hours a night and had no other sleep in a 24-hour period. In view of these figures it is a conserva tive estimate that at l east 1 out of every 12 children of preschool age in Gary was not habitually securing the amount of sleep required for his best development. (General Table X X I, p. 160.) Differences in habit between children with mothers of different races or nativity were not marked. Children of native white mothers is Holt, L. Emmett, M. D.: Diseases of Infancy and Childhood, p. 6. New York, 1914. Doctor Holt advocates for a child 2 years of age 13 or 14 hours sleep to he taken 11 or 12 hours at night, and 1 or 2 hours in daytime nap. He believes a child 4 years of age requires 11 or 12 hours’ sleep and holds it desirable that the daily nap be maintained until the child is 5 years of age. For a child 6 to 10 years of age he designates 10 or 11 hours of sleep as a fitting amount. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 44 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCH OOL AGE, G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T I . and of colored mothers were more likely to take a nap daily than were children of mothers bom outside the United States. The pro portion of children whose mothers were native white taking less than 10 hours’ rest at night (10 per cent) was slightly less than the proportion among children with foreign-bom mothers (12 per cent), and was considerably smaller than that among colored children (14 per cent). The proportion of children sleeping less than 12 hours at night varied very slightly according to race and nativity of the mothers. (General Table X X I, p. 160.) Regularity o f retiring and o f rising. Of all children of preschool age 62 per cent observed a regular hour for going to bed; 59 per cent had a regular time for rising.16 From the standpoint of the child’s welfare a regular hour for retiring was probably of greater importance than a set hour for getting up, since time and regularity of retiring in a measure condition the hour at which a child will awake naturally in the morning. More over, the commencing of household tasks is likely to affect the length of time which a child may be allowed to sleep in the morning, hence the need for him to go to bed early enough at night to admit of 10 or 12 hours’ rest before the convenient time for him to arise. Having a regular hour for retiring and for rising was slightly more common among the older children than among those 2, 3, or 4 years old. T a b l e 2 4 — H ou r and reg u la rity o f retirin g , by age o f child. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Age o f child. Number. Total...................... 6,015 100.0 1,079 100.0 1,437 100.0 1,233 100.0 1,100 100.0 1,008 100.0 156 100.0 No regular hour........... .. Regular hour................... Before 7..................... Between 7 and 8....... Between 8 and 9....... Between 9 and 10___ 10 and later............... Not reported............. Not reported whether regular hour................. 2.162 8,704 61 517 1,521 1,319 283 3 35.9 61.6 l.C 8.6 25.3 21. S 4.7 (2) 414 635 17 123 249 193 53 38.4 58.9 1.6 11.4 23.1 17.9 4.9 534 869 24 143 343 293 66 37.2 60.5 1.7 10.0 23.9 20.4 4.6 436 764 10 98 323 268 62 3 35.4 62. Ü 0.8 7.9 26.2 21.7 5.0 0.2 374 696 5 96 278 271 46 34.0 63.3 0.5 8.7 25.3 24.6 4.2 354 635 4 47 279 256 49 149 2.5 30 2.8 34 2.4 33 2.7 30 2.7 19 1Per cent distribution not shown where base is less than 100. 1 35.1 50 32.1 63.0 103 66.0 0.4 1 0.6 4.7 10 6.4 27.7 47 30.1 25.4 38 24.4 4.9 7 4.5 1.9 3 Not reported.1 7 years, unde r 8. Per cent dis tribution. Per cent dis tribution. 6 years, under 7. Number. Number. 5 years, under 6. Per cent dis tribution. Number. 4 years, under 5. Per cent dis tribution. 3 years, under 4. Per cent dis tribution. Per cent dis tribution. Number. Per cent dis tribution. Number. 2 years, under 3. Hour and regularity of retiring. ✓ Number. Total. 2 2 2 1.9 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. Thirty-five per cent of the 6,015 children included in this study retired regularly before 9 o’clock each evening. About 1 child in 10 16 In interpreting reports as to a child’s habits, a variation in mealtime or in time of rising or retiring greater than one-half hour was considered as destroying regularity. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis C H IL D CARE AUD H Y G IE N E . 45 went to bed each night before 8 o’clock. Somewhat over one-fifth of the children stayed up until 9, and one-twentieth Were in the habit of not going to bed until 10 or later. The age of the child affected scarcely at all the hour at which he was put to bed. Twenty-four per cent of the children 2 and 3 years of age, 28 per cent of those 4 and 5, and 30 per cent of those 6 or 7 years of âgé did not retire before the clock struck 9. (Table 24.) Observing a regular hour for going to bed was most common among children of native white mothers. Of these children 80 per cent retired at a regular hour while but 63 per cent of the negro children and 53 per cent of those with foreign-bom mothers went to bed at a stipulated time night after night. Among those with regularity of habit in this respect, 12 per cent of those with foreign-born mothers and 20 per cent of those with colored or with native white mothers were going to bed before 8 o’clock; 49 per cent of the children with mothers of foreign birth, 38 per cent of the colored children, and 36 per cent of the children whose mothers were native white were retiring at 9 or later. (General Table X X II, p. 162.) Homes in which the chief breadwinner’s annual earnings were most ample were most likely to observe regular hours for putting children of preschool age to bed. In families in which the annual earnings of the chief breadwinner fell below $1,050, 46 per cent of the children had no regular hour for going to bed; in homes in which the bread winner earned at least $1,850 in a year, only 18 per cent of the children failed to observe set hours for retiring. Of the children whose chief breadwinners earned less than $1,050 a year, 69 per cent either had no regular hour for going to bed or else habitually retired at 9 or later; in families in which the breadwinner’s earnings reached or exceeded $1,850 a year, only 47 per cent of the preschool children either had irregular hours or customarily retired after 9 o’clock. (General Table X X III, p. 163.) The regular time for going to bed that was most often reported was between 8 and 9 o’clock; the most usual regular time for rising was between 7 and 8 o’clock. (General Table X X IV , p. 164.) Only 1 child in 9 was in the habit of getting up before 7; 1 in 5 slept until 8 or later. Regularity of life in respect to hour of rising was greatest in homes with native white mothers. Three-fourths of the children with native white mothers and one-half of those with colored or for eign-born mothers had a regular hour for getting up. (General Table X X V , p. 165.) ( Life was more systematized, too, in regularity of rising for those children who belonged in homes wherein the chief bread winner’s earnings were greatest. Only 22 per cent of the children whose breadwinners earned at least $1,850 did not observe a regular hour for rising; 47 per cent of those whose breadwinners earned less than $1,050 had no regular hour. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 46 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND.— PART I. Conditions o f night rest. The quality* of sleep which a child gets will be affected not only by his physical condition and individual idiosyncrasies bui also by his surroundings while asleep. The same number of hours in bed will yield greater rest and be of more value if the bed is clean, comfortable, and uncrowded; the bed and night clothing suitable and sufficient; the bedroom quiet, adequately ventilated, and not made the common sleeping place of too many persons diverse in their habits and sleep requirements. Night clothing.— The use of suitable night clothing other than gar ments worn during the day is considered desirable hygienically. A little more than one-third of the children 2 to 7 years of age were, at the time of the study, sleeping in some of the clothes they wore by day; approximately two-thirds were using night clothes which formed no part of their daytime attire. Among children of Italian mothers these proportions were reversed. Children of Lithuanian mothers were also more likely to sleep in some part of their day clothing. Of the children of native white mothers 20 per cent, and of the colored children 13 per cent, used as night clothing part of their daytime apparel; 42 per cent of the children whose mothers were of foreign birth did so. (General Table X X V I, p. 166.) Ventilation o f bedroom.— The only means of judging whether a child was receiving fresh air at night was to ascertain the mother’s custom as to keeping the windows of the child’s bedroom open or shut. Children sleeping in rooms the windows of which were kept closed both winter and summer numbered 156 (3 per cent); 46 per cent occupied bedrooms the windows of which were opened only in summer; somewhat more than one-half (52 per cent) of the children had sleeping rooms with windows open the year round. Seventyseven per cent of the children of native white mothers, 53 per cent of those of colored mothers, and 40 per cent of those with mothers born outside the United States occupied sleeping rooms in which the windows were opened ,every night whatever the season. Twentytwo per cent of the children with native white mothers, 41 per cent of the colored children, and 57 per cent of those whose mothers were foreign bom slept in rooms with windows open in summer only. (Table 25.) Bedroom windows were much more likely to be opened only in summer in homes where the breadwinner’s annual earnings did not reach $1,050. Desire to conserve heat and warmth may partially explain this. When the breadwinner’s earnings amounted to $1,850 or more, 77 per cent of the children slept in rooms with windows open both summer and winter, as contrasted with 38 per cent of the children whose breadwinners earned under $1,050 a year. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 47 CHILD CABE AND HYGIENE, T a b l e 25.— V entilation o f bedroom, by color and nationality o f mother. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Sleeping with bedroom windows open. Color and nationality of mother. Total. Summer and winter. Num ber. One season only. Neither season. Num Per cent.1 ber. Not reported. Per cent. Num ber. Per cent. Num ber. Per cent. Total....... ..................... 6,015 3,099 51.5 2,752 45.8 156 2.6 8 0.1 Native white.......................... Foreign-bom white............... 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 1,416 1,555 278 225 173 117 103 131 68 460 122 6 76.8 39.5 30.1 38.3 31.7 40.2 38.9 57.5 30.2 52.9 52.6 408 2,248 618 337 346 161 156 92 147 391 96 22.2 57.2 66.9 57.5 63.4 55.3 58.9 40.4 65.3 45.0 41.4 18 124 27 22 27 13 6 4 10 15 14 1.0 3.2 2.9 3.7 4.9 4.5 2.3 1.8 4.4 1.7 6.0 1 7 .1 .2 3 .5 Serbo-Croatian................ German........................... All other.......................... 1 .4 3 .3 i Not shown where base is less than 100. Number o f occupants o f child’s bedroom.— Four per cent of the 6,015 children of preschool age in Gary occupied bedrooms alone; 24 per cent slept two in a room; 30 per cent had bedrooms accommodating three persons; 20 per cent slept four in a room; 13 per cent, five in a room, and 8 per cent, six or more in a room. (Table 26.) Seven per cent of the children sharing a bedroom with four or more other persons were accustomed to having the bedroom windows open summer and winter; 13 per cent sleeping five or more in a room were used to having windows open in summer but closed in winter. T a b l e 26.— Num ber o f additional occupants o f ch ild ’s bedroom, by color and n ativity o f mother. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Color and nativity of mother. Total. Number of additional occu pants of child’s bedroom. Native white. Foreign-bom white. Negro. Not re Per ported.1 Per Per Per Num cent Num cent Num cent Num cent ber. distri distri distri ber. ber. ber. distri bution. bution. bution. bution. Total............................ 6,015 100.0 1,843 100.0 3,934 100.0 232 100.0 6 None....................................... 1.............................................. 2 .............................................. 3 .............................................. 4 ............................................ 261 1,415 1,800 1,232 808 469 30 4.3 23.5 29.9 20.5 13.4 7.8 0.5 151 617 617 295 97 53 13 8.2 33.5 33.5 16.0 5.3 2.9 0.7 91 728 1,096 903 695 409 12 2.3 18.5 27.9 23.0 17.7 10.4 0.3 15 69 86 34 16 7 5 6.5 29.7 37.1 14.7 6.9 3.0 2.2 4 1 1 Not reported.......................... i Per cent distribution not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 48 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND. PART I. The households in which mothers were foreign bom, it will be recalled, were larger and more crowded than households with native white mothers. (See p. 29.) The bedrooms in which 28 per cent of the children with mothers of foreign birth slept were each occupied by five or more persons nightly; only 8 per cent of the children of native white mothers, and 10 per cent of the colored children, used bedrooms in common with so many occupants. Bedrooms for children were more crowded in families where chief breadwinner’s earnings were low. Practically half the children whose breadwinners earned less than $1,050 a year were sharing bedrooms with three or more other persons; 3 out of 10 were sleeping in the same room with four or more other people. In the homes where the chief breadwinner’s earnings were $1,850 or more, 1 child in 5 had a room with three or more other persons, and 1 in 12 slept in a bed room with four or more additional occupants. (Table 27.) T able 27.— Num ber o f additional occupants o f child’s bedroom , by annual earnings o f ch ief breadwinner in 1917. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917. Total. Number of additional occupants of child’ s bedroom. Under $1,050. $1,050 to $1,849. No chief bread $1,850 and winner and over. no earn ings. Not re ported. Per Per Per Per Per Per cent Num cent cent cent Num cent cent Num distri Num distri Num distri Num distri distri distri ber. ber. ber. bu bu bu ber. bu ber. bu ber. bu tion. tion. tion. tion. tion. tion. Total..................... 6,015 100.0 None................................ 261 1....................................... 1,415 2....................................... 1,800 3...................................... 1,232 4....................................... 808 5 and over....................... 469 Not reported................... 30 4.3 23.5 29.9 20.5 13.4 7.8 0.5 1,774 100.0 30 313 464 412 318 228 9 1.7 17.6 26.2 23.2 17.9 12.9 0.5 2,949 100.0 118 688 904 632 399 197 11 4. 0 23.3 30.7 21.4 13.5 6.7 0.4 819 100.0 83 298 262 103 45 22 6 10.1 36.4 32.0 12.6 5.5 2.7 0.7 129 100.0 344 100.0 7 5.4 35 27.1 43 33.3 28 21.7 11 8.5 4 3.1 1 0.8 23 81 127 57 35 18 3 6.7 23.5 36.9 16.6 10.2 5.2 0.9 It was unusual for the children of preschool age to sleep in rooms with persons not members of the family. Thirty-five children, how ever (less than 1 per cent) were sharing bedrooms with such persons. One child in 20 was getting less than 10 hours’ rest at night in a bedroom with four or more occupants; three-tenths of all the children were sleeping less than 12 hours, in bedrooms accommodating four or more persons. That the child sleeping in a room with several other individuals tends not only to secure sleep less undisturbed in nature but also less sleep is indicated by the fact that but 8 per cent of the children occupying rooms alone slept less than 10 hours nightly, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis C H IL D CARE AND H Y G IE N E . 49 whereas 15 per cent of those sharing sleeping quarters with five or more additional occupants had less than 10 hours’ rest at night. (General Table X X V II, p. 167.) The following examples are extreme, but they suggest how crowd ing the bedroom may affect the opportunity for a preschool child to obtain restful and sufficient sleep. A family of 10 lived in a threeroom house. The father was dead. The oldest child was a girl 14, the youngest a 6-months-old baby. All 10 in the family slept in one bedroom. In one bed slept 4 brothers (2 of preschool age); in another 3 sisters (one 5 years old); a 20-months-old child had a bed to himself. The preschool children went to bed at irregular hours and usually had not more than 9 hours’ sleep. Another family of 10 lived in one room which had to serve all pur poses. It was very large and was apparently intended as the base ment and foundation for a house which when completed would afford plenty of space. Three sisters 14 years of age and over occupied a bed with one preschool girl; 2 brothers slept in another bed with a 4-year-old boy. The sleeping needs and requirements of the individuals in these two family groups necessarily varied because of the range in age. In the second home the necessity of using the single room for every purpose of daily family life must have further imperiled the chance of the preschool child to sleep in surroundings restful and quiet. Number o f child’s bedfellows.— As a rule, merely sharing a room with others offers less likelihood of disturbed sleep for the 2- to 7-year old child than sharing a bed. Twenty-three per cent of the children had separate beds; 45 per cent had one bedfellow; 27 per cent shared beds with two other persons; one child in 22 was sleeping with at least three additional individuals. Among children with native white mothers, the proportion sleeping alone (38 per cent) was double or more than double the corresponding proportions among colored chil dren (19 per cent) and those with mothers of foreign birth (16 per cent). Among Slovaks and Poles only 1 child in 10 was sleeping alone. The bedfellows of the preschool children were most likely to be other children in the family, their brothers or sisters under 14 years of age. One child in 8, however, was sleeping with adults and children.17 One in 5 was sleeping with adults only. Among children with native white mothers the proportion having both adult and child bedfellows was 5 per cent; among colored children it was 10 per cent; among children of foreign-born mothers, 16 per cent. (General Table X X V III, p. 168.) 17 The term “ adult” has here been used to indicate a person 14 years of age or older. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 50 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCHOOL AGE, G A R Y , I N D .----- P A R T I . T a b l e 28.— Num ber o f hours’ rest at night, by num ber o f additional occupants o f child’s bed. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Number of additional occupants of child’s bed. Number of hours’ rest at night. Total. Total. Less than 8___ 8, less than 9 ... 9, less than 10.. 10 ,lessth an ll. 11,less than 12. 12,1 ess than 13. 13, less than 14. 14 and ov er.. . . Not reported... 6,015 1,360 16 93 589 1,669 2,119 1,103 264 60 102 3 23 98 353 480 286 84 18 15 Not reported. 3 and over. None. 2,706 1,640 278 38 254 807 958 484 103 26 28 5 30 192 449 574 277 70 15 28 2 45 59 106 55 4 1 6 31 25 Crowding the bed may reasonably be supposed to affect adversely both the quality and the amount of sleep which the occupants are likely to obtain. Nine per cent of the children of preschool age sleeping alone got less than 10 hours’ night rest; 14 per cent of those with two, and 17 per cent of those with three or more bedfellows spent less than 10 hours in bed at night. Of the total number of children, 227 (4 per cent) slept less than 10 hours three in a bed, and 1,250 (21 per cent) slept less than 12 hours. Forty-seven children had beds with four or more occupants and slept less than 10 hours; 212 children had less than 12 hours’ rest nightly in beds each con taining four or more persons. (Table 28.) Dental care. “ Two decades ago,” wrote Terman in 1914, “ the mouth of the school child was to the average educated person an unknown quan tity. Even the dentist and physician were not aware of the actual conditions except by inference for the simple reason that only 5 or 10 per cent of the children ever came to them for examinations. It remained for the school doctor and school dentist to ascertain the real facts.” 18 When once instituted, examinations of school children demonstrated that dental caries were very common among them* Investigation also revealed a great lack of care of children’s teeth and showed that it was unusual for children to visit dentists. Dental defects and lack of care in children of preschool age received even tardier recognition. Need for paying any attention to temporary teeth and their condition is still far from being widely realized, though activities of the past few years, such as the modern health crusade, have helped greatly. Inaugurating toothbrush drills has not 18 Terman, Lewis M.: The Hygiene of the School Child, p. 169. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston, 1914. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis CHILD CABE AND HYGIENE. 51 only benefited school children but also reacted favorably upon the dental care of preschool children. Eighty-eight per cent of the children of preschool age in Gary had never visited a dentist. Children of native white mothers were more likely to have been taken to dentists than children of foreign-born mothers or colored children. Of the children of native white mothers, about 1 in 5 had been to the dentist at least once; of those whose mothers were born outside the United States, about 1 in 11; of the children of colored mothers, about 1 in 21. The 1,164 children 6 or 7 years of age had had more opportunity than the others for being taken to a dentist; only 76 per cent of the children of these ages, as against 96 per cent of those 2 and 3 years of age and 85 per cent of those 4 and 5 years of age, had never been to a dentist. Of the 6and 7-year-old children of native white mothers, only 62 per cent had had no dental attention. Children who had visited a dentist only to have teeth extracted numbered 246 (4 per cent); 475 children (8 per cent) had gone to the dentist for other reasons. Seven per cent of all the children had made but one visit to a dentist; 120 children (approximately 2 per cent) had visited a dentist three times or more. (General Table X X I X , p. 169.) In the families containing children of preschool age, more adequate chief breadwinner’s earnings and an increased likelihood that the children would have received dental attention were coincident. When the chief breadwinner earned less than $1,050, 92 per cent, and when his earnings were $1,850 or more per annum, 78 per cent, of the chil dren had never been taken to a dentist. Of the boys and girls 6 and 7 years of age whose breadwinner’s earnings were most ample ($1,850 or over per year) only 58 per cent had not made at least jone visit to a dentist. (General Table X X X , p. 170.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis PART H . D IE T O F T H E CH ILD R EN . M E TH O D OF STU D Y. Securing diet records. \ Owing to the extent and nature of the whole investigation, an exact quantitative study of the diet of each child for even a short period of time was entirely impracticable. However, because of the prime importance of diet in the normal growth and development of children, an effort was made to learn all that was possible by the schedule method concerning the feeding of these children of pre school age. The 6,015 diet records upon which -this section of the report is based were secured, along with other information relating to the children, by experienced field agents in their visits to all the homes in Gary where a child born within the period 1911 to 1915, inclusive, was living. The mother was asked by the agent to state in detail the diet which the child had had on the day preceding the agent’s visit. If the preceding day was Sunday, or if the diet for any reason was not the usual one, the record for another day was taken instead and a note to this effect entered on the schedule. In formation was obtained concerning all food eaten by the children both at meals and between meals; the number, hours, and regularity of meals; and the total amount of milk used as a beverage. Agents were directed also to secure, when possible, estimates of the amounts of foods other than milk taken. Limitations o f material. The material thus obtained has certain definite limitations incident to the method of securing the data. Chief among these are: (1) The diet is for a single day; (2) it is not quantitative to any great extent; and (3) its accuracy depends on the mother’s memory. In respect to these obvious weaknesses the following points should be con sidered: 1. Although the diet was for but a single day and may have been either better or worse than the usual one, it was doubtless fairly typical for the majority of the children, since most families have moderately regular dietary habits. Further, every effort was made to exclude nontypical days. Feast days and fast days, and days when the children were sick or on special diets, were omitted. And even if certain of the diets are in some degree exceptional, when large numbers of one-day diets are considered—such as the 6,015 diets available for this report— the picture of the conditions found is https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 54 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCH OOL A G E , G A R Y , IN D — P A R T II. doubtless true in its main outlines. It is believed, therefore, that these diets are sufficiently representative of the customary ones of the children studied to yield valuable conclusions. 2. Without knowing the exact amounts of food eaten it is impossible to say whether the energy value of a diet is sufficient to cover a child’s needs, and the value of the data here given is limited by this fact. But it is possible to determine much concerning the qualita tive adequacy of a diet when, as in the present instance, information is available not only as to the kinds of foods eaten, but also covering the approximate amounts of milk and a rough indication of the amounts of other foods. In this study, diets qualitatively adequate were adjudged satisfactory on the assumption that normal amounts of food were eaten. The diets were thus rated too favorably rather than too unfavorably— a failing in the right direction in a study revealing uniformly poor conditions. 3. Although the mother’s memory was trusted for the data, it was necessary for her to recall the diet of the preceding day only— not a difficult matter. Moreover, every effort was made by the agent to assist her to make the record complete and accurate^ Special inquiries were made regarding certain foods, as, for instance, whether the bread had butter on it; what, if anything, was eaten on the potatoes; whether the child really had no milk or fruit; and what was eaten between meals. It is believed that by questioning the mother in regard to certain important foods, fairly complete state ments as to the foods eaten by the children were obtained; and any slight omissions or inaccuracies in a few cases would not materially affect the findings of so large a number of cases. These limitations should be borne in mind in considering the pic ture, drawn from the material contained in the 6,015 diet records, of how these preschool children of Gary were being fed. Grading o f diets. Certain items of diet stood out prominently as deserving individual tabulation— as, the amount of milk used; the presence or absence of vegetables,1 fruits, cereals, potatoes, and coffee or tea; the regularity and number of meals; the suitability of foods; the custom regarding Pitting between meals; the adequacy of breakfasts and lunches, and the prevalence of “ heavy” night meals. In order to facilitate the comparison of the diets with one another as well as with a fixed standard of adequacy and in order to relate diet to other factors in this study, it was necessary to formulate a system for classifying the diets into well-defined groups according i According to the classification used in this stu dy, “ vegetables ’ ’ indicates vegetables other than potatoes. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis M ETHOD O F D IE T STUDY. 55 to degree of adequacy or inadequacy. A general survey of the diet material was made, and after consultations with pediatrists and specialists in nutrition a system of five grades was established. The specifications for the different grades and the relations of these grades to each other were as follows: I. Adequate (A and B). This group includes all diets which would appear to cover amply all the child’s bodily re quirements— protein, mineral, vitamine, energy—regard less of the character of the diet. The. subdivision into A and B diets was made largely on the basis of the suitability of the diet in respect to regularity of meals, type of foods, distribution of meals, and similar items. A. The standard for grade A represents the consensus of opinion among nutrition experts and physicians as to the diet to be recommended for children of preschool age. In such an ideal diet not only must all the elements required to nourish the body be present, but the food must be of such nature and given under such conditions as to be suited to the child’s delicate and incompletely developed digestive tract. It will therefore consist largely of mild, bland foods simply cooked, and will contain no tea, coffee, rich pastries, or other unsuitable articles. The meals, furthermore, will be at moderately regular hours; there will be no promiscuous eating between meals, and the dinner or “ heaviest” meal will be at noon. The milk standard for Grade A was set at 1^ pints. B. The diets classed as B appeared to contain all the elements required to nourish the child’s body, but failed to measure up to the A standard in one or more particulars, usually in respect to items of suitability listed above. It was the general opinion of specialists that a diet with these flaws should be ruled out of the ideal group, but should not be barred from the adequate group. It is to be borne in mind, however, that if these faults are sufficiently serious the child may fail to be well nourished even though his diet includes the essential elements. The milk standard for grade B was 1 pint. II. Questionable (C). Any diet was classed as C which fell short of the requirements of an A or B diet in enough respects to make its safety extremely doubtful, but which had sufficient good points— usually 1 cup of milk— to make it superior to the definitely inadequate D diets. 14683°—23----- 5 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 56 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART H . III. Inadequate (D and E). All diets included in the inadequate group were unquestionably low in one or more of the food requirements. D . A D diet was plainly lacking in essential elements, but had some redeeming features. It usually included less than one-half pint of milk or no milk. E. The E diet represented an extreme degree of inade quacy, being so low in all food essentials as to be practically a deficiency diet. E diets were usually entirely lacking in milk, in all class A proteins, and in fruits, vegetables, butter, potatoes, and whole cereals. Precautions taken in applying the grading system . The chief difficulty in applying any system of classification lies in holding to the same standard throughout, and in having two or more persons use it with the same results. Every precaution was there fore taken to secure uniformity of classification. In the first place the specifications for each grade were defined as clearly as possible. The work of grading the diets was done by clerks with special training in dietetics. These clerks were given preliminary practice in applying the standards before beginning the actual grading of the schedules. In order that nothing might be overlooked in judging a diet, a grading sheet was prepared and every diet was analyzed by this sheet. This was found to be of great assistance in clarifying judgment. In the preliminary practice period each clerk plotted a practice series of 100 diets on this sheet and assigned grades. They then compared the grades they had given. This practice was continued until their grading was so uniform as scarcely to differ one grade in several hundred records. After all diets had been tentatively graded, the two clerks went through the schedules together, made a second estimate of each diet grade, noted the one given previously, and agreed upon a final decision and recorded it. The uniformity of the two graders ’ work and the agreement in most instances of their final judgment with the first grades are considered evidence that the classification was done as consistently as could well be expected. Since the diets were always given the benefit of any doubt, the grades assigned tend to be higher rather than lower than they should be. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis D IS T R IB U T IO N O F C H IL D R E N IN T H E D IE T G R A D E S . In analyzing the findings reported in Table 1 it should be kept in mind that the A diet is not one difficult of attainment. It is merely any diet capable of meeting the body’s needs and administered with some consideration for the child’s age and development. Moreover, such a diet need not be an expensive one— milk, whole cereal, and fruit or vegetable daily being sufficient to allow a diet to qualify in this group— and it is the easiest possible kind of diet to prepare. This being the case it might be expected that the large majority of the children would fall into the A diet group. These facts notwithstanding, only 25 of the 6,015 children— less than half of 1 per cent of the total number— were thus fortunate. (Table 1.) Furthermore, the number classed as having B diets (probably adequate in food requirements though unsuitable in char acter and including but a pint of milk) was likewise small, amounting to 8.5 per cent of the whole group. Less than 10 per cent of the chil dren studied, in other words, were receiving diets which appeared adequate to their needs. Almost three times this number (29.2 per cent) had diets (0) whose adequacy was highly questionable; and nearly two-thirds of the entire group (60.5 per cent) were found to have diets plainly incapable of covering all their bodily requirements, 58.4 per cent being in the D group and 2.1 per cent (5 times the per centage of A ’s) in the extremely inadequate E group. Chart I strikingly portrays this surprising distribution. T a b l e 1.— G rade o f d iet. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Grade of diet. B ......................................................................................................... ....................... E .................................................................................................................................. Per cent Num ber. distribu tion. 6,015 100.0 534 25 509 1,757 3,639 3,514 125 85 8.9 .4 8.5 29.2 60.5 58.4 2.1 1.4 Since some authorities consider that a diet satisfactory in other respects may qualify for class A if it includes one pint instead of one and one-half pints of milk, a count was made of all diets which were kept from this grade solely on account of lacking the extra half-pint of milk. It was found that they numbered only 23; in other words, 57 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 58 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCHOOL AGE, G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T II. only 48 children, 0.8 per cent of the total number, would have been classed as having diets both adequate and suitable had the milk standard for this grade been 1 pint. Ch art I.—Distribution of children 2 to 7 years of age, b y grade of diet. Percent. Grade A of diet. B C D E Age. A slight tendency toward better diets in the earlier years is indicated by Table 2, which shows a drop from 11 per cent of the 2-year-old children in A or B groups to 7.7 per cent of those 7 years of age in the same groups, and a corresponding increase in the percentage having D or E diets. These differences are not sufficient, however, to war rant the assumption that the younger children were given any special consideration in the matter of feeding. T a b l e 2.— G rade o f d iet, by age o f child. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Grade of diet. Age of child. Total. v A and B. Num ber. c. Per cent. Num ber. D and E. Per cent. Not reported. Num ber. Per cent.1 Num ber. Per cent. Total............................. 6,015 334 8.9 1,757 29.2 3,639 60.5 85 1.4 2 years, under 3...................... 3 years, under 4...................... 4 years, under 5...................... 5 years, under 6...... : ............. 6 years, under 7...............— 7 years, under 8..................... 1,079 1,437 1,233 1,100 1,008 156 2 119 126 104 98 75 12 11.0 8.7 8.4 8.9 7.4 ■' ; 7.7 350 450 348 290 282 37 32.4 31.3 28.2 26.4 28.0 23.7 601 844 760 695 637 100 2 55.7 58.7 61.6 63.2 63.2 64.1 9 17 21 17 14 7 0.8 1.2 1.7 1.5 1.4 4.5 i Not shown where base is less than Ì00. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis DISTRIBUTION OP CHILDREN IN TH E DIET GRADES. 59 Income. That income is a contributing factor in the inadequate feeding of children is evident from Chart II. The proportion of adequate diets (A and B) increases gradually from the lowest income level to the highest, and the proportion of inadequate diets (D and E) like wise decreases progressively with the rise in earnings, a sudden drop occurring at the $1,850 income level. But the actual proportions of Chart II.—Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age with adequate and with inadequate diet, by earnings of chief breadwinner. Per cent. A and B (adequate) — D and E (inadequate) adequate and inadequate diets in the highest income group show clearly that poverty is not the sole cause of faulty feeding. In the most prosperous group only 24.5 per cent of the children appeared to have adequate diets, and 38.8 per cent of them had definitely unsatis factory ones.» (Table 3.) The conclusion to which these data lead— that the need for education regarding the food needs of growing chil dren is not restricted to low income groups— is borne out by other sections of the report which follow. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 60 C H IL D R E N OF P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T II. T a b l e 3.— Grade o f diet, by earnings o f ch ief breadwinner. Children. 2 to 7 years of age. Earnings of chief breadwin ner. Grade of diet. C. A and B. Total. Num ber. Per cent. Num ber. D and E. Per cent. Num ber. Per cent. Num ber. Per cent. Total............................. 6,015 534 8.9 1,757 29.2 3,639 60.5 85 1.4 Under $850............................. $850 to $1,049.......................... $1,050 to $1,249........................ $1,250 to $1,449........................ $1,450 to $1,849........................ $1,850 to $2,249....................... $2,250 and over...................... No chief breadwinner and no earnings.............................. Not reported.......................... 851 923 1,065 843 1,041 378 441 12 40 59 71 133 67 108 1.4 4.3 5.5 8.4 12.8 17.7 24.5 215 235 270 239 361 158 153 25.3 25.5 25.4 28.4 34.7 41.8 34.7 610 640 721 522 532 151 171 71.7 69.3 67.7 61.9 51.1 39.9 38.8 14 8 15 11 15 . 2 9 1.6 .9 1.4 1.3 1.4 .5 2.0 129 344 7 37 5.4 10.8 31 95 24.0 27.6 89 203 69.0 59.0 2 9 . 1.6 2.6 Nationality. The children of colored and of foreign-bom mothers had on the whole less satisfactory diets than the children of native white mothers. Of the 25 diets classed as A, 24 were in the last-mentioned group, the one exception being a child of German parentage. Even when factors of suitability which distinguish the À from the B diet are dis regarded, the native white group makes the best showing, for 19.2 per cent of the children in this group had adequate diets (A and B ), while but 4.3 per cent of the children of foreign-born and, of colored mothers were classed as being adequately fed. The children of German mothers were the best fed among the children of foreign-bom mothers, 11.4 per cent of them having A or B diets. The proportion of children having adequate diets in other foreign nationality groups ranged from 2.4 per cent to less than 1 per cent. (Table 4.) T a b l e 4.— Grade o f diet, by color and nationality o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Grade of diet. Color and nationality of mother. A andB . Total. Num ber. C. Per Num cent.1 ber. D and E. Per Num cent.1 ber. Not reported. Per Num cent.1 ber. ' Per cent. Total............................. 6,015 534 8.9 1,757 29.2 3,639 60.5 85 1.4 W hite..................................... Native........... ................. Foreign-bom................... Polish........................ Serbo-Croatian......... Slovak....................... Magyar...................... Italian....................... German..................... Lithuanian............... All other................... Negro...................................... 5,777 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 522 354 168 10 14 12 6 4 26 2 94 10 2 9.0 19.2 4.3 1.1 2.4 2.2 2.1 1.5 11.4 .9 10.8 4.3 1,706 667 1,039 205 143 114 62 51 69 76 319 49 2 29.5 36.2 26.4 22.2 24.4 20.9 21.3 19.2 30.3 33.8 36.7 21.1 3,469 783 2,686 698 425 419 221 204 130 141 448 168 2 60.0 42.5 68.3 75.6 72.4 76.7 75.9 77.0 57.0 62.7 51.6 72.4 80 39 41 10 5 1 2 6 3 6 8 5 1.4 2.1 1.0 1.1 <9 .2 .7 2.3 1.3 2.7 .9 2.2 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis DISTRIBUTION OF CHILDREN IN TH E DIET GRADES. 61 The poor diets of the children of the foreign bom are even more apparent when the proportion of inadequate diets is considered. Barring the German and the Lithuanian groups, whose records were slightly better (57 and 62.7 per cent, respectively, inadequate), seventenths of the children of foreign-born and colored mothers had diets classified as inadequate (D or E ), and most of the remainder, as Chart III illustrates, had diets graded as questionable (C). The record of the native whites, though noticeably better than the others, is far from being a matter of pride, since not far from half of these children (42.5 per cent) were in the groups D and E. Ch ar t III.—Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age with adequate and with inadequate diet, by nationality of mother. I00°/oTotal..................... . m Native white.___ - m m W M 7A German................... m Lithuanian_______ All other foreign* bom white........Negro....... ......... .... m m m m m 42 W //////1 v ///////////m 3 m m JT M i ______ □ w m am m m B— | rn m W L'//////////////////l ^ V /////////////M □ _____ Diet A and B (adequate) Diet DandE (inadequate) District o f residence. In Ambridge and in the First Subdivision, the two most favored dis tricts of the city, the diets were somewhat better than in other sec tions, those of 30.2 per cent of the children in the former and 19.5 per cent in the latter section being adequate and those of 30.9 per cent and 40.9 per cent, respectively, being inadequate. This record is far from good, and deserves commendation only in comparison with the poorer records of Tolleston and the South Side. In each of these districts only 4.6 and 2.7 per cent of the children were adequately fed ; about 70 per cent were receiving distinctly inadequate diets, and the remainder questionable ones. (Table 5.) This indicates that nearly the entire preschool population of these sections—which contained about two-thirds of all the children in the city—were being inad equately fed. (See p. 14.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 62 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART II, T able 5.— Grade o f diet, by district o f residence. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Grade of diet. Not reported. District of residence. C. A and B. Total. Numher. NumPer cent.1 her. D and E. Per Number. 3,639 60.5 85 i.4 50 31 38.1 612 72 36. 1 179 24.7 2,064 24.9 616 15 30.9 2 1.2 40.9 23 2 11 34 13 2.8 1.2 1.5 Total............................. 6,015 534 8.9 1,757 29.2 Ambridge.............................. 162 40 1,496 99 393 2,890 892 43 49 1 291 4 61 77 41 10 30.2 61 8 570 21 142 715 222 18 37.7 First Subdivision.................. Lincoln Park......................... Ridge Road and Glen Park.. South Side............................. Tolleston................................ West G a ry ........................... 1 Notshown where baseisless than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 19.5 15.5 2.7 4.6 NumPer cent.1 ber. cent.1 45.5 71.4 69.1 Per cent.1 1.5 U S E O F S P E C IF IE D F O O D S . The particular dietary limitations and other factors responsible for the large proportions of deficient diets which have been described, will be disclosed in the following detailed study of the diets in respect to the use of specific foods and the customs regarding certain dietary practices. Food combinations which are capable of furnishing a diet satis factory in every way for the normal nutrition of a growing child exist in wide variety. It is possible indeed to choose two or three foods which, if eaten in sufficient amounts, may meet all the body’s requirements for growth and maintenance. Obviously, however, these foods must be so chosen that their dietary properties supplement one another in such a way as to form a complete diet. Fresh whole milk and a whole cereal are one such combination. It is highly doubtful, however, whether the average human being would day in and day out eat enough of so monotonous a diet as cereal and milk to cover his energy and other requirements. In order to avoid this monotony and to insure a sufficient amount of the various food ele ments, it is obvious that in the absence of knowledge of food values safety lies in using a variety of foods. In outlining diets for young children it is customary to include daily the following foods: Milk, potato and other vegetables, fruit, cereal, and either egg, fish, or meat. SuGh a general plan allows much freedom of choice in the way of vegetables, fruits, cereals, breads, and simple sweets, but supplies all the needed food constituents. Even though a satisfactory diet can be provided without some of these foods, the safer course is to include them all in the regular daily menus. The extent to which these foods, individually and in combination, are present or lacking in the diets studied may therefore be considered with profit. M ilk. It is no mere bit of sentimentality that causes milk to be termed the “ indispensable food ” of childhood. The term is literally de served, for though an expert might devise a diet for early childhood which did not include milk, the task would not be easy; and it may be taken for granted that the diet which does not include milk is inadequate. With this one food lacking a diet is almost certain to be deficient in the calcium so necessary for the growth of bones and teeth; and it is almost equally sure to be low in the best growth pro teins, in phosphorus and other essential minerals, and in one or 63 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 64 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.---- PART H . more of the vitamines. On the other hand, milk alone, in plenty, goes a long way toward making a satisfactory diet for a growing child and toward covering the deficiencies of an otherwise hopeless diet. Hence it is spoken of with equal correctness as a “ protective food.” The amount of milk actually required by a young child daily is not easily determined. “ A quart of milk a day for every child” is the slogan adopted by many nutrition specialists. Some who believe the quart a wise allowance accept 1^ pints as possibly sufficient and as a more practical amount. According to almost universal agreement, a pint of milk at the very least should be provided for every child daily. In the light of such standards the children of this survey made a poor showing indeed. Only 8.4 per cent of the total group were drinking l\ pints or more of milk a day, and but 10.5 per cent were drinking a pint. (Table 6.) In other words, only 18.9 per cent of all these preschool children were receiving daily at least a pint of milk, the amount universally agreed upon as the minimum they should be given. Some of the remainder were receiving smaller amounts— 18.1 per cent had about half a pint, and 3.4 per cent less than half a pint. More than hah of all the children (57.2 per cent) had no milk at all to drink on the day for which diet was reported. T a b l e 6.— A m o u n t o f m ilk u sed as beverage. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Amount of milk used as beverage. Number. Per cent distri bution. 6,015 100.0 3,443 1,294 206 1,088 1,139 633 506 139 57.2 21.5 3.4 18.1 18.9 10.5 8.4 2.3 When it is borne in mind that these children were all in the early years of childhood— the time, outside of infancy, when milk is most needed— the significance of such deprivation becomes forcefully apparent. The amounts of milk just considered refer only to milk used as a beverage. Milk taken in food is likely to be a variable and uncertain supply. Nevertheless, in order to give due credit for all milk used whether as a beverage or in food, the schedules were gone over and checked as having “ milk in fo o d ” if custards, milk gravies, milk https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis U SE OF S P E C IF IE D 65 FOODS. soups, or other foods containing milk were present. Even after credit was given for milk in food, 970 children, or 16.1 per cent of the total number, remained whose diet contained no milk whatever. (Table 7.) A total of 21.8 per cent had no milk in food and less than a pint to drink. Furthermore, 38.5 per cent had no milk except the amounts they might get in foods— and it is extremely unlikely that this amount ever reached a pint. (Table 8.) Three-fifths of the group studied (60.3 per cent), therefore, were probably receiving less than a pint of milk daily either in food, as a beverage, or in combination. T a b l e 7. — A m ou nt o f m ilk used as beverage in absence o f m ilk in food . Children 2 to 7 years of age. Amount of milk used as beverage in absence of milk in food. Number. Total having no milk in food............................................................ - ..................... ........ Per cent distri bution. 6,015 100.0 i,' 714 28.5 970 343 372 29 16.1 5.7 6.2 0.5 T a b l e 8.— A m ou nt o f m ilk used as beverage in addition to m ilk used in food . Children 2 to 7 years of age. Amount of milk used as beverage in addition to milk Used in food. Number. 6,015 Per cent distri bution. 100.0 3,916 65.1 2,314 860 687 38.5 14.3 11.4 .9 55 Use o f milk and age o f child.— It might be thought that the younger children— those 2 and 3 years old at least— would still be regarded by their mothers as infants and provided with a more generous amount of milk than older children,, But although a slightly greater proportion of those 2 years than of those 7 years of age were receiving a pint or more to drink— 22.8 per cent as compared with 14.1 per cent— the difference is not very great. (Table 9.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 66 C H IL D R E N OP PRESCH OOL AGE, G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T H. T a b l e 9.— A m ou n t o f m ilk used as beverage, by age o f child. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Using specified amount of mifir as beverage. Age o f child Not reported. None and less than 1 pint. Total. 1 pint and over. Number. Percent.1 Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Total.................................. 6,015 4,737 78.8 1,139 18.9 139 2.3 2 years, under 3........................... 3 years, under 4........................... 4 years, under 5........................... 5 years, under 6........................... 6 years, under 7........................... 7 years, under 8........................... Not reported............................... 1,079 1,437 1,233 1,100 1,008 156 2 812 1,120 977 889 810 127 2 75.3 77.9 79.2 80.8 80.4 81.4 246 288 224 191 168 22 22.8 20.0 18.2 17.4 16.7 14.1 21 29 32 20 30 7 1.9 2.0 2.6 1.8 3.0 4.5 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. Use o f milk and income.—A partial explanation of the fact that these children were not better provided with milk is found by studying the milk consumption in relation to the father’s earnings. Table 10 shows a decided improvement in the milk record after the income reaches $1,250. When the father’s earnings were less than this amount more than 60 per cent of the children had no milk at all to drink and less than 15 per cent had at least a pint. After the income reached $1,250, howeYer, the proportion having no milk to drink declined progressively from 58.6 per cent in the $1,250 to $1,449 group to 38.5 per cent in the $2,250 and over group, while the proportion having a pint or more increased from 18.5 per cent to 31.5 per cent. The higher the income, in other words, the greater was the use of milk as a beverage. T a b l e 10.— A m ou n t o f m ilk used as beverage, by earnings o f ch ief breadw inner. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Using no m i l l r as beverage. Earnings of chief bread winner. Using specified amount of as beverage. inut reported. Less than 1 pint. Total. Num ber. Per cent. m illr Num ber. Per cent. 1 pint and over. > Num ber. Per cent. Num ber. Per cent. Total............................. 6,015 3,443 57.2 1,294 21.5 1,139 18.9 139 2.3 Under $850............................. $850 to $1,049.......................... $1,050 to $1,249....................... $1,250 to $1,449....................... $1,450 to $1,849........ •............. $1,850 to $2,249................ $2,250 and over..................... No chief breadwinner and no earnings......................... Not reported.......................... 851 923 1,065 843 1,041 378 441 529 584 676 494 538 168 170 62.2 63.3 63.5 58.6 51.7 44.4 38.5 199 200 216 176 234 87 112 23.4 21.7 20.3 20.9 22.5 23.0 25.4 100 127 148 156 248 117 139 11.8 13.8 13.9 18.5 23.8 31.0 31.5 23 12 25 17 21 6 20 2.7 1.3 2.3 2.0 2.0 1.6 129 344 76 208 58.9 60.5 23 47 17.8 13.7 25 79 19.4 23.0 5 3.9 2.9 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 10 4 .5 U SE OF S P E C IF IE D 67 FOODS. That low income is not solely responsible for the absence of milk from the diets is equally evident from Table 10; for in spite of the more extensive use of milk in the highest earnings group, there still remain 38.5 per cent of this group who were drinking no milk, and only 31.5 per cent of them were receiving a pint or more daily. Use o f milk and nationality.—A comparison b y nationalities (Table 11) shows that the children of Italian mothers received by far the least amount of milk, only 6.8 per cent having so much as a pint daily, and 75.1 per cent having none. The children of Magyar and Slovak mothers fared little better, however, for only about 8 per cent of these were in the group receiving at least a pint a day and more than 70 per cent were in the group receiving no milk at all. Children of Polish, Lithuanian, Negro, and Serbo-Croatian mothers had a slightly better record, ranging from 12.4 to 16.7 per cent with a pint or more, and from 57.3 to 65.5 per cent with none. Children of native white and those of German parentage were above the average, 27.9 per cent of the former having a pint or more and 46.9 per cent having none, while of the latter 26.3 per cent had a pint or more and 51.8 per cent had none. T ab le 11.— A m ou nt o f m ilk used os beverage, by color and n ation ality o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Using specified amount of milk as beverage. Color and nationality of mother. Using no milk as beverage. Total. Num ber. T o t a l..............— Less than 1 pint. Per cent.1 Num ber. 1 pint and over. Num Per cent.1 ber. Per cent.1 Num ber. Per cent. 6,015 3,443 57.2 1,294 21.5 1,139 18.9 139 2.3 5,777 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 3,289 865 2,424 595 351 402 206 199 118 129 424 152 2 56.9 46:9 61.6 64.5 59.8 73.6 70.8 75.1 51.8 57.3 48.8 65.5 1,257 410 847 202 120 93 54 37 47 56 238 36 1 21.8 22.2 21.5 21.9 20.4 17.0 18.6 14.0 20.6 24.9 27.4 15.5 1,099 515 584 114 98 49 24 18 60 30 191 37 3 19.0 27.9 14.8 12.4 16.7 9.0 8.2 6.8 26.3 13.3 22.0 15.9 132 53 79 12 18 2 7 11 3 10 16 7 2.3 2.9 2.0 1.3 3.1 0.4 2.4 4.2 1.3 4.4 1.8 3.0 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. Use o f milk ajid district o f residence.— An examination of the milk record of the two sections of the city where the large majority of the children lived— the First Subdivision, and the South Side including Tolleston— does not show so great a difference in favor of the former as its larger percentage of native whites, its greater prosperity, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 6 8 C H IL D R E N OF P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T II. its generally higher standard of living would lead one to expect. Of the children in this more favored residence district 44.7 per cent had no milk to drink and only 30.1 per cent had so much as the pint minimum. In the South Side and Tolleston, with their larger percent age of foreign born and lesser advantages, approximately two-thirds (64.6 per cent) of the children were in the “ no milk” class and only 13.2 per cent received a pint or more a day. (Table 12.) T able 1 2 . — A m ou nt o f m ilk used as beverage, by district o f residence. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Using specified amount of milk asbe\rerage. Using no milk as beverage. District of residence. Not reported. Less than 1 pint. Total. Num ber. Per cent.1 Num ber. 1 pint and over. Per cent.1 Num ber. Per cent.1 Num ber. Pot cent.1 Total............................. 6,015 3,443 57.2 1,294 21.5 1,139 18.9 139 Ambridge.............................. Clark....................................... First Subdivision.................. Lincoln Park......................... Ridge Road and Glen Park.. South Side............................. Tolleston................................ West Gary............................. 162 40 1,496 99 393 2,890 892 43 51 28 669 57 179 1,882 560 17 31.5 54 9 342 23 95 582 174 15 33.3 55 3 450 16 107 362 136 10 34.0 2 1.2 30.1 35 3 12 64 22 1 2.3 44.7 45.5 65.1 62.8 22.9 24.2 20.1 19.5 27.2 12.5 15.2 2.3 3.1 2.2 2.5 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. Coffee, or tea. In marked contrast with the scanty use of milk stands the liberal use of coffee and tea as beverages among the children studied, of whom more than two-thirds (66.8 per cent) had coffee or tea on the day of the study, 26.8 per cent having it once, 23.5 per cent twice, and 16.4 per cent three times or more. (Table 13.) T able 13.— Num ber o f tim es tea or coffee used d a ily.1 Children 2 to 7 years of age. Number of times tea or coffee used daily.1 Per cent Number. distribu tion. Total........................................................................ Using neither tea nor coffee................................................................... Using tea or coffee................................................................... Once..................................................... .................................................... Twice....... i .............................................................................................. Three times and over....................................................................... Not reported....................................................................................................... 1 Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 6,015 100.0 1,928 4,017 1,615 1,413 989 70 32.1 66.8 26.8 23.5 16.4 1.2 U SE OF S P E C IF IE D FOODS. 69 Relation between use o f coffee2 and use o f milk.—An inverse rela tion between the coffee and milk consumption such as is commonly ob served by social dietitians appears in the cases under study, as is strikingly shown in Table 14 and Chart IV. Whether the use of coffee tends to decrease the amount of milk consumed, or whether the use of coffee is occasioned by decreased milk supply, is hard to say. It is probable, in fact, that the rule works in both directions. Certain it is that in many cases when a child is allowed to have coffee he consequently refuses milk, which is bland and tasteless in com- | | No tea or coffee (includes"Not reported”) parison, and coffee eventually displaces milk in his diet. On the other hand it is reported to be a common procedure in poorer homes— particularly among the foreign born— deliberately to introduce coffee as a substitute for milk. Both are regarded as mere beverages and coffee is chosen because it seems to be much the cheaper. Pro hibiting the use of coffee in the former instance would probably increase the milk used, while increasing the milk purchased in the latter type of case— if this were possible— would doubtless do much to lessen the Amount of coffee consumed. J Throughout the remainder o f this discussion, "co ffe e ” will be used to indicate both coffee and tea. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 70 ^ C H IL D R E N OF P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , I N T ).— P A R T II. T a b le 14.— Use o f tea and coffee, by am ount o f m ilk used as a beverage. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Using tea or coffee. Amount of milk used as a beverage. Total. Number. Per cent. 6,015 3,443 206 1,088 633 506 139 4,010 66.7 2,758 138 706 263 88 57 80.1 67.0 64.9 41.5 17.4 41.0 Use o f coffee and age o f child.—A slightly higher percentage of the children 2 years of age were without coffee than of those of any other age, and the proportion having none diminished from 35.8 per cent in the 2-year age group to 27.6 per cent in the 7-year age group. A higher percentage of 3-year-old children, on the other hand, had coffee three or more times a day than of those of any other age. (Table 15.) Age, therefore, does not appear to be an important factor in determining the use of coffee. T a b l e 15.— Num ber o f tim es tea or coffee used d aily,1 by age o f child. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Using neither tea nor coffee. Age of child. Using tea or coffee specified number of times daily.1 Not reported. Once. Total. Twice. Three times and over. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.2 ber. cent. Total.............................. 2 years, under 3....................... 3 years, under 4....................... 4 years, under 5....................... 5 years, under 6....................... 6 years, under 7....................... 7 years, under 8....................... 6,015 1,079 1,437 1,233 1,100 1,008 156 2 1,928 32.1 386 35.8 443 30.8 380 30.8 351 31.9 325 32.2 43 27.6 1,615 26.8 261 24.2 391 27.2 326 26.4 307 27.9 282 28.0 48 30.8 i Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit. 23.5 989 16.4 70 1.2 262 24.3 319 22.2 315 25.5 245 22.3 236 23.4 36 23.1 164 268 199 182 151 23 2 15.2 18.6 16.1 16.5 15.0 14.7 6 16 13 15 14 6 0.6 1.1 1.1 1.4 1.4 3.8 1,413 »N ot shown where base is less than 100. Use o f coffee and income.— It has been suggested that the use of coffee by young children is one of the accompaniments of poverty. The truth of this assumption appears in Chart V, which shows a gradually decreasing use of coffee after the $1,250 income level is reached, the greatest drop being in the group whose fathers’ earn ings are $2,250 or over. Furthermore, the percentage of children drinking coffee twice a day or oftener declines from 49 per cent and 50.9 per cent, respectively, in the two lowest income groups to 24.4 per cent and 12.2 per cent in the two highest. (Table 16.) This increased consumption of coffee with lessened earnings is easily https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis U SE OF S P E C IF IE D 71 FOODS, understood. Not only is the coffee cheaper than milk, but as a hot, palatable drink it lends flavor to the monotonous bread diet so common in low income groups. Ch ar t V.—Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age using tea or coflee, by earnings of chief breadwinner. Annual earnings o f chief breadwinner. ^ IQ Q o / --------------------------------- ----------—— i ' Under $850, $850 to $1,049.. ....... m m M $1,050 to $1,249...- $1,250 to $1,449....... Ill I I I M TO: ■ $1,450t o $1,849....... 5 7 .3 $1,850 to $2,249... - $2,250and over... ____________________________________ | | Tea or coffee | | No tea or coffee (in d u d es “Not reported) T a b l e 16.— Number o f tim es tea or coffee used d aily,1 by earnings o f ch ief breadwinner. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Using tea or coflee specified number of times daily.1 Using nei ther tea nor coflee. Earnings of chief breadwinner. Total. More than once. Not re ported. Once. Total. Twice. Three times and over. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. Total............... 6,015 1,928 Under $850................ 851 $850 to $1,049............ 923 $1,050 to $1,249......... 1,065 $l,250to$l,449......... 843 $l,450to$l, 849......... 1,041 $1,850 to $2,249......... 378 $2,250 and over......... 441 No chief breadwinner and no earnings. 129 Not reported............. 344 32.1 1,615 26.8 2,402 39.9 1,413 162 179 264 245 432 185 288 19.0 19. 4 24. 8 29.1 41.5 48.9 65.3 257 267 298 221 259 99 94 30.2 28.9 28.0 26. 2 24.9 26.2 21.3 417 470 491 370 338 92 54 49.0 50. 9 46.1 43.9 32.5 24.3 12.2 42 131 32.6 38.1 34 86 26.4 25.0 52 118 40.3 34.3 1Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit. 14683°— 23------ 6 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 23.5 989 16.4 70 1.2 245 2a 8 269 29.1 265 25.3 226 26.8 195 18.7 60 15.9 8.6 38 172 201 222 144 143 32 . 16 20.2 21.8 20. 8 17.1 13.7 8.5 3.6 15 7 12 7 12 2 5 1.8 .8 1.1 .8 1.2 .5 1.1 20 39 15.5 11.3 1 9 .8 2.6 32 79 24.8 23.0 72 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCHOOL AGE, G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T II. The families with low incomes, then, do have the excuse of poverty for allowing children 2 to 7 years of age to drink coffee. But this explanation will not hold for the highest income group; fully onethird of the children in this group (33.6 per cent) drank coffee, and 12.2 per cent were having it two or three times a day. Ignorance would appear to be the only excuse parents with incomes sufficient to pur chase the necessities of life could offer for allowing young children to form such habits. Use o f coffee and nationality.— The coffee habit was found to be more prevalent among the children of the foreign bom than among those of native white and of colored mothers. The colored mothers had the best record in this respect, with 66.8 per cent of their children in the noncoffee-drinking group. Of the children of native whites, 63.2 per cent had no coffee; while the children of foreign-born mothers showed an average of only 15.4 per cent without coffee. In certain of the groups of children of foreign-born parentage the coffee custom was nearly universal; among the Slovaks, the Magyars, and the Polish, only 5.5 per cent, 7.2 per cent, and 7.8 per cent, respectively, of the children were in the noncoffee-drinking group. Best among the groups of foreign-bom parentage in this respect were the children of Germans, of whom practically one-third (30.7 per cent) did not drink coffee. (Table 17.) T a b l e 17.— Num ber o f tim es tea or coffee used d aily,1 by color and n ationality o f mother. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Using tea or coffee specified number of times daily.1 . Using nei ther tea nor coffee. Color and nationality of mother. Total. More than once. Not repçrted. Once. Total. Twice. Three times and over. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent.2 ber. cent.2 ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. 26.8 2,402 39.9 1,413 23.5 989 16.4 70 1.2 5,777 1,768 30.6 1,558 27.0 2,386 1,843 1,164 63.2 280 368 20.0 3,934 604 15.4 1,190 30.2 2,106 923 72 7.8 139 15.1 703 41.3 1,406 15.2 194 53.5 1,212 7& 2 349 24.3 10.5 30.8 37.8 980 86 894 354 17.0 4.7 22.7 38.4 65 31 34 9 1.1 1.7 .9 1.0 29.1 39.6 37.8 13.2 16.7 37.3 24.1 3.0 144 168 50 13 17 46 102 9 24.5 30.8 17.2 4.9 7.5 20.4 11.7 3.9 4 1 1 6 2 4 7 5 .7 .2 .3 2.3 .9 1.8 .8 2.2 Total............... 6,015 1,928 White........................ Native................ Foreign-bom___ Polish.......... Serbo-Croa tian............ Slovak.......... Magyar......... Italian.......... German....... Lithuanian.. All other___ Negro........................ Not reported............. 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 32.1 1,615 70 11.9 30 5.5 21 7.2 33 12.5 70 30.7 30 13.3 278 32.0 155 66.8 5 198 131 109 178 101 61 273 56 1 33.7 24.0 37.5 67.2 44.3 27.1 31.4 24.1 1Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit. * Not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 315 53.7 384 70.3 160 55.0 48 18.1 55 24.1 130 57. 8 311 35.8 16 6.9 171 216 110 35 38 84 209 7 U SE OF S P E C IF IE D 73 FOODS. Chart VI.—Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age using tea or coffee, by nationality of mother. *------------ ---------------- 1 0 0 * ----------------- -------Total. .1 Polish. Slovak. Lithuanian. Magyar. Serbo-Croatian. Total foreign-born white................... ■ German. 3Ö7 Italian. Native white. 12.5 = Æ ' à m m 03.2 66.8 Negro. Tea or coffee two or more times dai ly Tea or coffee once a day No tea or coffee Not reported https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 74 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART II. Not only is coffee drinking more common among tlie children of the foreign born than among those of the native bom , but it appears to be carried to greater excess. Whereas only 15.2 per cent of the children of native white and 6.9 per cent of the children of colored mothers bad coffee twice or more often daily, 53.5 per cent of the children of foreign-bom mothers had it thus frequently. (Chart VI.) The children of Polish and Slovak mothers appear to have fared worst in regard to the use of coffee. Not only did more than 90 per cent of the children of each of these groups drink coffee, but prac tically three-fourths of them drank it two or more times a day. Coffee as a substitute for milk seems likewise especially common among the foreign nationality groups, as is shown by the records of the 970 children who had no milk, even in food. (Table 18.) Even among the cases in which no milk was received, but 54.8 per cent of the children of native white mothers and 28.6 per cent of the children of colored mothers had coffee to drink, while 100 per cent of the children of Polish, Magyar, and Slovak mothers, and 94.8 per cent of all other children in this no-milk group, drank coffee. T a b l e 18.— Use o f tea and coffee by children who had n o m ilk, by color and n ationality o f mother. Children 2 to 7 years of age who had no milk either in food or as a beverage. Using neither tea nor coffee. Color and nationality of mother. Using tea or coffee. Total. Number. Per cent.1 Number. Per cent.1 970 192 19.8 778 80.2 879 241 638 128 131 113 53 35 36 57 85 91 127 109 18 14.4 45.2 2.8 2 1.5 752 132 620 128 129 113 53 34 34 56 73 26 85.6 54.8 97.2 100.0 98.5 100.0 1 2 1 12 65 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. Vegetables and fruits. Vegetables and fruits are depended on to a considerable extent to supply the body with its needed mineral salts as well as to furnish indigestible residue and organic acids which are important in pre venting constipation. They are, moreover, valuable sources of the vitamines. In view of these important functions it is significant that more than half (50.4 per cent) of the children studied had no https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 75 USE OF SPECIFIED FOODS. vegetables other than potatoes and that nearly two-thirds (60.1 per cent) had no fruit of any kind. (Table 19.) These figures, moreover, are conservative, for every vegetable mentioned in the schedules— even those of such doubtful value and used, probably, in such negligible amount as cucumbers, radishes, and green peppers— was given full credit as one vegetable, and jelly and preserves were counted as fruits. Vegetables and fruits evidently occupied but a minor place in the dietaries of this group of children. Use o f vegetables and fru its, and nationality.— The children of foreign-born mothers fared less well on the average in this respect than the children of native white mothers, 53.7 per cent of the former group being without vegetables and 67.6 per cent without fruits, in contrast with 44.2 per cent of the latter group having no vegetables and 43.5 per cent having no fruits. Certain of the foreign nationality groups stand conspicuously below the average in the use of these foods, as is shown in Table 19. The children of Lithuanian and Serbo-Croatian mothers were the least well provided for, not far from two-thirds being without vegetables and about three-fourths having no fruits in each of these nationality groups. The Italians are usually credited with generous use of green vegetables and fruits, and in this study they have indeed a more favorable showing in this respect than any other nationality group except the Magyars, not even excepting the native whites. In this instance they can scarcely be regarded as using these foods liberally, however, since 41.5 per cent of the children of Italian parentage had no vegetables and 60 per cent were without fruits. T a b l e 19.— A bsence o ffr u its and vegetables frd m d iet, by color and n ation a lity o f mother. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Having no vegeta bles in diet. Color and nationality of mother. Having no fruits in diet Total. Number. Per cent.1 Number. Per cent.1 Total..................................................................... 6,015 3,032 50.4 3,615 60.1 W hite............................................................................. Native...................................................................... Foreign-bom........................................................... Polish................................................................ Serbo-Croatian................................. ................ Slovak............................................................... Magyar.............................................................. Italian............................................................... German............................................................ Lithuanian....................................................... All other........................................................... Negro............................................................................. 5,777 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 2,928 815 2,113 546 363 282 113 110 96 144 459 101 3 50.7 44.2 53.7 59.2 61.8 51.6 38.8 41.5 42.1 64.0 52.8 43.5 3,459 301 2,658 647 468 414 196 159 119 167 488 154 2 59.9 43.5 67.6 70.1 79.7 75.8 67.4 60.0 52.2 74.2 56.2 66.4 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 76 C H IL D R E N OF P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T I I . Use o f vegetables and fruits, and income.—According to Table 20, the income of the family appears to be an important factor in deter mining whether or not children shall have fruits, but it would seem to affect scarcely at all the likelihood of their having vegetables. This is in accord with experience of social dietitians who find that fruit is well liked by children and is eaten whenever it can be had, but that it is regarded by their parents as a luxury and purchased for the most part only after what they consider essential has been provided. Vegetables, on the other hand, are not only little appre ciated by parents save as flavoring for soup, but— with the exception of lettuce, radishes, cucumbers, and perhaps tomatoes— are usually disliked by children and therefore little eaten even when at hand. This explanation may account for the slight variation in the use of vegetables in the different income groups, a less variation than with any other items of food. T a b l e 2 0 .— A bsence o f fru its and vegetables from d iet, by earnings o f ch ief breadwinner. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Having no vegeta bles in diet. Earnings of chief breadwinner. Having no fruits in diet. Total. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Total............................................- .............. ----Under spttfi ............................................................ 6,015 3,032 50.4 3,615 60.1 S51 923 1,065 813 1,041 378 441 129 344 462 508 567 417 485 149 196 76 172 54.3 55.0 55.2 49.5 46.6 39.4 44.4 58.9 50.0 614 624 674 503 581 169 134 98 218 72.2 67.6 63.3 59.7 55.8 44.7 30.4 76.0 63.4 Potatoes. Potatoes were found in many cases to be the one redeeming feature of an otherwise totally deficient diet. Taking the place, as they usually do, of other starchy foods— bread, macaroni, rice— they im prove the diet in several respects. The starchy foods named are valuable for little more than the energy which they yield, while potatoes furnish the same energy and valuable minerals in addition, especially if cooked in their skins. Potatoes, moreover, leave an alkaline residue on oxidation in the body, in contrast with the acid residue left by bread or rice. In view of these dietary properties of the potato as well as of the extremely limited use of other vegeta bles and of fruits, it is gratifying to find that nearly two-thirds (62.7 per cent) of the children whose diets were studied had potatoes https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis U SE OP S P E C IF IE D 77 FOODS. once a day or oftener— 48.7 per cent having them once, and 14 per cent two or even three times. (Table 21.) T a b l e 21 .— Num ber o f tim es potatoes used daily,1 by earnings o f ch ief breadwinner. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Having pot itoes spécifié«i number of imes daily.1 Earnings of chief breadwinner. Total. Having no potatoes in diet. Total. Once. Twice. Three times and over. Not reported. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. Total............... 6,015 2,169 Under $850................ 851 $850 to $1,049............ 923 $1,050 to $1,249.......... 1,065 $1,250 to $1,449.......... 843 $1,450 to $1,849.......... 1,041 $1,850 to $2,249.......... 378 $2,250 and over......... 441 No chief breadwinner and no earnings 129 Not reported............ 344 36.1 3,774 62.7 2,932 382 428 434 276 280 100 101 44.9 46.4 40.8 32.7 26.9 26.5 22.9 454 488 619 560 748 276 335 53.3 52.9 58.1 66.4 71.9 73.0 76.0 48 120 37.2 34.9 79 61.2 215 62.5 48.7 352 41.4 396 42.9 503 47.2 446 52.9 556 53.4 214 56.6 227 51.5 65 173 50.4 50.3 781 13.0 61 1.0 72 1.2 84 9.9 91 9.9 105 9.9 102 12.1 182 17.5 59 15.6 103 23.4 18 1 11 12 10 3 5 2.1 .1 1.0 1.4 1.0 .8 1.1 15 7 12 7 13 2 5 1.8 .8 1.1 .8 1.2 .5 1.1 1 .3 2 9 1.6 2.6 14 41 10.9 11.9 1 Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit. Use o f 'potatoes and Tiationality.—As might be expected, the native whites and the Germans were responsible for the high average use of potatoes, 82.4 per cent of the children of the former and 69.7 per cent of those of the latter having had potatoes. Of the children of Slovak mothers 60.4 per cent, and of those of Polish, Lithuanian, and Magyar mothers 56, 52, and 46.4 per cent, respectively, had potatoes. Only 43.1 per cent of the children of Serbo-Croatian mothers had potatoes, while at the bottom of the list were the Italians with only 37.4 per cent having this article of diet, or, to put the matter conversely, with 60.4 per cent— three-fifths:— having none at all. Considering the general use of spaghetti and macaroni in this group this small use of potatoes is not surprising. Use o f potatoes and income.— Though potatoes were used more generally than any other of the special items discussed except meat, the consumption of this food increased somewhat in the higher income groups. This is shown by the fact that 44.9 per cent of the children in the group with earnings under $850 were without potatoes, while but 22.9 per cent of the children in the highest earnings group lacked them. (Table 21.) Cereals. Although cereals— in the sense of breakfast foods— can not be con sidered absolutely essential in a child’s dietary, it is the judgment of specialists that a well-cooked cereal can wisely be made a regular https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis C H IL D R E N 7 8 OR P R E S C H O O L AGE, G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T II. part of a young child’s breakfast. It provides a warm, bland, easily digested food for the morning meal and makes an excellent carrier for milk. Moreover, if whole cereals are used for at least a part of the time, the iron, phosphorus, and vitamine contributions are quite considerable. The custom of the children studied in respect to the use of this article of diet, therefore, was noted with interest. A glance at Table 22 shows that cereals played but a small part in the dietaries of these children, only 20.8 per cent of the total number of children being reported as having a cereal on the day of the study. Use o f cereals and nationality.— The children of native white mothers, even though less than one-third (32.1 per cent) of them had a cereal, appear to have been the greatest users of cereals. Next in order are the children of German and Polish mothers, with 21.1 and 16.3 per cent, respectively, having a cereal. The children of the Serbo-Croatian, the Italian, and the Lithuanian mothers may be considered as not using cereals, since but 8.5, 8.3, and 6.2 per cent, respectively, of the children in these groups had cereal the day the record was taken. T a b l e 22.— Use o f cereal in diet, by color and nationality o f mother. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Having no cereal in diet. Color and nationality of mother. Having cereal in diet. Not reported. Total. Number. Per cent.1 Number. Per cent.1 Number. Per cent.1 WhitfT ................................. Negro................. .......... Not reported............................... 6,015 5,777 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 4,606 4,408 1,142 3,266 764 533 431 251 237 175 207 668 196 2 76.6 76.3 62.0 83.0 82. 8 90.8 78.9 86.3 89.4 76.8 92.0 76.9 84.5 1,249 1,215 591 624 150 50 114 38 22 48 14 188 31 3 20.8 21.0 32.1 15.9 16.3 8. 5 20.9 13.1 8.3 21.1 6.2 21.6 13.4 160 154 110 44 9 4 1 2 6 5 4 13 5 1 2.7 2.7 6.0 1.1 1.0 .7 .2 .7 2.3 2.2 1.8 1.5 2.2 i Not shown where base is less than 100. Use o f cereals and income.— Since cereals are among the cheapest foods available, they should show little variation in use with income. Nevertheless the difference between the lowest and. highest earnings groups in the use of cereals is not inconsiderable, 12.6 per cent of the children in the former and 29.9 per cent of those in the latter group having them. (Table 23.) Neither group, however, as these percentages show, used them to any great extent. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis U SE OF S P E C IF IE D 79 FOODS. T a b l e 23.— Use o f cereal in diet, by earnings o f ch ief breadwinner. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Earnings of chief breadwinner. Having no cereal in diet. Having cereal in met. Not reported. Total. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Total.................................. 6,015 4,606 76.6 1,249 20.8 160 2.7 t o *1 049............................... ¿1,050 to ¿1,249............................ $1 ,250 to ¿1,449............................ $1 4fi0 t o $1,849... $1 *850 t.o #2'249............................ 851 923 1,065 843 1,041 378 441 728 752 831 644 760 262 274 85.5 81.5 78.0 76.4 73.0 69.3 62.1 107 164 218 177 249 101 132 12.6 17.8 20.5 21.0 23.9 26.7 29.9 16 7 16 22 32 15 35 1.9 0.8 1.5 2.6 3.1 4.0 7.9 129 344 100 255 77.5 74.1 28 73 21.7 21.2 i 16 .8 4.7 No earnipgs and no chief breads Eggs. An egg— or at least the yolk of it— is usually included in the daily diet of young children who are being fed with due considera tion for their bodily needs. The white is not regarded as essential if milk, which also provides good growth proteins, is liberally used, hut the yolk is desirable in any case because of its valuable iron and phosphorus. If for any reason the milk supply is low, the need of eggs in the diet becomes more urgent. The records on which this study is based were obtained during the spring and summer months, when eggs are cheapest and can be ex pected to be more commonly used. This record, therefore, doubt less does full justice to the use of eggs on the part of these children. Use o f eggs and nationality.— An examination of Table 24 shows that the diets of more than half (59.5 per cent) the children were without eggs and that a still larger percentage in most of the race and nationality groups lacked them. Classified according to the absence of eggs from the diets of the children, the Negroes and the Polish come first, the Slovaks, Italians, Lithuanians, Serbo-Croatians, and Magyars second, and the Germans and the native whites third. About three-fourths of the children in Group 1, two-thirds of those in Group 2, and one-half of those in Group 3 had diets including no eggs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 80 C H IL D R E N " OF PRESCH OOL AGE, G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T H. T a b l e 24,— N um ber o f tim es eggs used d aily,1 by color and n ationality o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Having eggs specified number of times d aily.1 Not reported. Having no eggs in diet. Color and nationality of mother. Once. Total. Twice. Three times and over. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent.2 ber. cent.2 ber. cent.2 ber. cent. ber. cent. 3,577 59.5 1,927 32.0 394 6.6 45 0.7 72 1.2 W hite....................................... 5,777 3,394 Native............................... 1,843 886 Foreign-born..................... 3,934 2,508 Polish......................... 923 696 Serbo-Croatian........... 375 587 373 Slovak........................ 546 184 291 Magyar........................ 180 Italian........................ 265 111 German...................... 228 150 225 Lithuanian................. 439 869 All other..................... 232 179 4 6 58.8 48.1 63.8 75.4 63.9 68.3 63.2 67.9 48.7 66.7 50.5 77.2 1,889 787 1,102 175 168 144 80 63 92 58 322 37 1 32.7 42.7 28.0 19.0 28.6 26.4 27.5 23.8 40.4 25.8 37.1 15.9 383 121 262 40 37 27 24 13 22 12 87 10 1 6.6 6.6 6.6 4.3 6.3 4.9 8.2 4.9 9.6 5.3 10.0 4.3 45 18 27 3 3 1 1 3 1 1 14 0.8 1.0 .7 .3 .5 .2 .3 LI .4 .4 1.6 66 31 35 9 4 1 2 6 2 4 7 6 1.1 1.7 .9 .9 .7 .2 .7 2.3 .9 1.8 .8 2.6 Total.............................. 6,015 1Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit. 2 Not shown where base is less than 100. Use o f eggs and income.— The presence or absence of eggs in the dietary appears to bear some relation likewise to income, since the proportion of diets containing eggs increases from 30.6 per cent in the group with incomes under $850 to 56.7 per cent in that with earnings of $2,250 or over. (Table 25.) T a b l e 25.— Use o f eggs in diet, by earnings o f ch ief breadwinner. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Having no eggs in diet. Earnings of chief breadwinner. Having eggs in diet. Not reported. Total. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Under $850.................................. $850 to $1,049................................ $1,050 to $1,249............................ $1 250 to $1,449............................ $L450 to $l)849............................ $li850to$2'249............................ No chief breadwinner and no 6,015 3,577 59.5 2,366 39.3 72 1.2 851 923 1,065 843 1,041 378 441 576 591 701 493 555 178 186 67.7 64.0 65. S 58.5 53.5 47.1 42.2 260 325 351 343 473 198 250 30.6 35.2 33.0 40.7 45.4 52.4 66.7 15 7 13 7 13 2 5 1.8 .8 1.2 .8 1.2 .5 1.1 129 344 85 212 65.9 61.6 43 123 33.3 35.8 1 9 .8 2.6 This conspicuous lack of eggs is significant in connection with the shortage of milk— the other principal source of phosphorus and adequate proteins— and the limited use of vegetables, fruits, and whole cereals which would be expected to furnish iron in the absence of eggs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 81 USE OP SPECIFIED FOODS. M eat. A striking feature of the diet schedules was the frequency with which meat appeared even in the poorest kind of diets. (Table 26.) Two-thirds (65.7 per cent) of the entire group of children had meat during the day studied, and 18.7 per cent had it two or three times. This use of meat, in view of the fact that amounts are not known, can not be regarded as excessive save in connection with the omission of other more essential items of the diet—milk in particular. When it is recalled that only 18.9 per cent of the children had the minimum a m o u n t of milk daily, that 57.2 per cent had none to drink, and that 16.1 per cent had none at all, even in food, it will be readily agreed that the meat might well have been reduced or omitted entirely and the money spent for it put into milk. T a b l e 26.— Num ber o f tim es meat used daily.1 Children 2 to 7 years of age. Number of times meat used daily.1 Per cent Number. distribu tion. 6,015 1,993 3,951 2,829 1,037 85 71 100.0 33.1 65.7 47.0 17.2 1.4 1.2 i Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit. Meat, and milTc consumption.—-That meat was deemed a more essen tial or at least a more desirable item of diet than milk is evident from the fact that two-thirds (66.6 per cent) of the children who received less than a pint of milk had meat, and 17.7 per cent of them had it twice or oftener. (Table 27.) Indeed, slightly over two-thirds (67.4 per cent) of the children with no milk at all to drink had meat, and 21.4 per cent of them ate it twice or more times daily. The contrast between meat and milk consumption is even more striking in the group of 970 children which had no milk either as beverage or in food. Even though milk was totally absent from these 970 diets 678, or 69.9 per cent, of them included meat and one-fourth (24.8 per cent) included meat more than once a day. These facts would seem to emphasize the observation made in previous discussions that the failure to use milk is not solely a question of expense— though this is a determining factor—but also one of ignorance of its value in the diet. The amount of money required to purchase meat for one or two servings, even though they were small, would suffice to buy at least a small amount of milk. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 82 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND.— P ART II. T able 27.— Num ber o f times meat used daily,1 by am ount o f m ilk used as a beverage. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Having meat in diet specified number of times daily.1 Having no meat in diet. Amount of milk used as a beverage. Total. Total. Once. More than once. Not re ported. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. Total.............................. 6,015 No milk used as beverage....... No milk in food................ Milk in food...................... Less than 1 pint...................... One pint and over................... Not reported............................ 3,443 970 22,473 1,294 1,139 139 1,993 33.1 3,951 65.7 2,829 47.0 1,122 1,106 292 S14 431 427 29 32.1 30.1 32.9 33.3 37.5 20.9 2,322 678 1,644 862 711 56 67.4 69.9 66.5 66.6 62.4 40.3 1,584 437 1,147 633 568 44 46.0 45.1 46.4 48.9 49.9 31.7 18.7 71 1.2 738 21.4 241 24. 8 497 20.1 229 17.7 143 12.6 12 8.6 15 .4 15 1 1 54 .6 .1 .1 38.8 1 Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit. * Includes 159 children for whom item was not reported. Meat is doubtless chosen instead of milk because it is regarded as a food and milk merely as a beverage, and likewise because of its palatability. Children, moreover, who are allowed what meat they want are likely to refuse milk as less attractive food. Meat and grade o f diet.— It is significant that meat appears to have made little difference in the diet grade. Except for the class E diets, which were almost entirely carbohydrate, and only 4.8 per cent of which contained meat, the use of meat was approximately the same, not far from two-thirds of the children in each of the other four groups having had meat on the day studied. (Table 28.) However, it is interesting to note, while no children with A diets had meat twice a day, 20.5 per cent of all diets classed as D contained meat two or more times a day, and it is further worthy of comment that two-thirds of all the children who had meat more than once daily were in the D or inadequate diet group not because of the presence of the meat, to be sure, but in spite of it. This bears evidence to the fact that meat alone can not save a diet from inadequacy no matter how much nor how frequently it is used. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis U SE OF S P E C IF IE D 83 FOODS. T a b l e 28.— Num ber o f tim es meat used daily,1 by grade o f diet. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Having meat specified number of times daily.1 Having no meat in diet. Grade of diet. Total. Total. Once. More than once. Notreported. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent.2 ber. cent.2 ber. cent.2 ber. cent.2 ber. cent.2 Total............................. 6,015 A .............. 25 B ............................. .............. 509 C............................................. 1,757 D ............................................ 3,514 E ....... ' 125 85 1,993 33.1 8 111 21.8 563 32.0 1,185 33. 7 119 95.2 7 2,829 47.0 1,122 18.7 71 1.2 17 17 313 398 78.2. 1,192 67.8 881 66.2 1,605 2 ,3 2 7 6 4.8 6 11 7 61.5 50.1 45.7 4.8 85 311 722 16.7 17.7 20.5 2 2 .1 .1 3,951 65.7 4 67 1 Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit. 2 Not shown where base is less than 100. Use o f meat and nationality.— It has been shown that an average of two-thirds of the diets studied contained meat. The prevalence of meat eating among the different nationality groups may be observed in Table 29. A glance at the two columns “ per cent having no meat,” and “ per cent having meat,” gives no impression of any striking national differences in the use of meat such as are commonly assumed to exist. Nevertheless if these nationality groups are arranged in order of decreasing use of meat, as shown in Table 30, fairly wide differences between the highest and the lowest in the list are apparent. T a b l e 29.— Num ber o f tim es meat used d aily,1 by color and nationality o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Color and nationality of mother. Having meat specified number of times daily.1 Having no meat in diet. Total. Total. Once. More than once. Not reported. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent.2 ber. cent.! ber. cent.2 ber. cent.5 ber. cent. T o ta l................ 6,015 1,993 33.1 65.7 2,829 47.0 1,122 White........................... Native.................... Foreign-bom......... Polish.............. Serbo-Croatian Slovak............. Magyar............ 5,777 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 1,910 527 1,383 368 256 183 71 108 67 48 282 82 33.1 3,801 65.8 28.6 1,285 69.7 35.2 2,516 64.0 546 59.2 39.9 43.6 327 55.7 362 66.3 33.5 24.4 218 74.9 40.8 151 57.0 29.4 159 69.7 21.3 173 76.9 32.5 580 66.7 35.3 145 62.5 5 2,736 981 1,755 420 235 250 140 1Ó7 110 108 385 89 4 47.4 53.2 44.6 45.5 40.0 45.8 48.1 40.4 48.2 48‘.0 44.3 38.4 1,065 18.4 304 16.5 761 19.3 126 13.7 92 15.7 112 20.5 78 26.8 44 16.6 49 21.5 65 28.9 195 22.4 56 24.1 Italian.............. German.......... Lithuanian__ All other......... Negro-......................... Not reported................ 1 3,951 1Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit, * Not shown where base is less than 100, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 18.7 71 1.2 1.1 1.7 .9 1.0 .7 .2 .7 2.3 .9 1.8 .8 2.2 84 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART II. T a b l e 30.— Use o f meat by nationality o f mother. Nationality of mother. Above average: Average: Below average: Per cent of chil Per cent Per cent dren hav of chil of chil ing meat dren hav dren hav two or ing no ing meat. more meat. times. 76.9 74.9 28.9 26.8 21.3 24.4 69.7 69.7 66.3 62.5 21.5 16.5 20.5 24.1 29.4 28.6 33.5 35-3 59.2 57.0 55.7 13.7 16.6 15.7 39.9 40.8 43.6 About three-fourths of the children of Lithuanian and Magyar parentage, two-thirds of those of German, native white, Slovak, and Negro parentage, and more than half of those of Polish, Italian and Serbo-Croatian parentage had meat during the day. The variation in the proportion having meat twice or oftener daily cor responds roughly with that in the proportion having meat at least once— the group containing the most meat users having also the highest percentage with meat more than once; and the group having the least containing similarly the smallest number using it two or more times. It is interesting to note that the Italians and the Poles, the former frequently credited with being light and the latter with being heavy users of meat, are in the same group. This report, it must be borne in mind, deals only with meat eating among the young children and does not give any record of amounts eaten. Conclusions con trary to the general belief concerning quantities of; meat eaten or its consumption by adults of these nationalities can not, therefore, be assumed from these findings. Use o f meat and income.—That the use of meat is determined to only an inconsiderable extent b y economic status is apparent from Table 31. It may be remarked that not only did two-thirds of all the children have meat on the day of the study but the average for the several earnings groups varied but slightly. With an income under $850 a family would unquestionably be better nourished if meat were foregone entirely and the money put into more essential foods. Yet 61.1 per cent of the children in this earnings group had meat, and 17.2 per cent had it two or more times— a record but little under that of the children in the highest income group, of whom 68.5 per cent had meat and 16.3 per cent had it twice or oftener. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis U SE T able OF S P E C IF IE D 85 FOODS. 31.— Number o f times m eat used daily,1 by earnings o f ch ief breadwinner. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Having meat specified number of times daily.1 Having no meat in diet. Earnings of chief bread winner. Total. Total. Once. More than once. Not reported. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. Total............................. 6,015 Under *850............................. 851 #850 to $1.049.......................... 923 *1,050 to *1,249....................... 1,065 *1,250 to $1,449....................... 843 *1,450 to $1,849....................... 1,041 378 $1,850 to $2,249....................... 441 *2,250 and over...................... No chief breadwinner and no 129 earnings.................... ......... 344 Not reported.......................... 65.7 2,829 47.0 1,122 18.6 71 1.2 316 37.1 334 36.2 357 33.5 264 31.3 304 29.2 105 27.8 134 30.4 520 61.1 582 63.1 696 65.4 572 67.9 724 69.5 271 71.7 302 68.5 374 401 496 389 531 196 230 43.9 43.4 46.6 46.1 51.0 51.9 52.2 146 181 200 183 193 75 72 17.2 19.6 18.8 21.7 18.5 19.8 16.3 15 7 12 7 13 2 5 1.8 .8 1.1 .8 1.2 .5 1.1 60 46.5 119 34.6 68 216 52.7 62.8 52 160 40.3 46.5 16 56 12.4 16.3 1 9 .8 2.6 1,993 33.1 3,951 1 Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit. The most outstanding feature of the meat situation as revealed by the foregoing discussion is the uniformly large proportion of the children studied who were receiving meat. Regardless of financial status, of the nationality of the mother, of the presence or absence of milk, or of the adequacy or inadequacy of the diet as a whole, about two-thirds of all the children were receiving meat once or oftener daily. Meat was evidently the one food which was deemed most essential or most desirable by a considerable majority of the families in the group studied, and was purchased and eaten whatever else had to be foregone. Item s of diet lacking. The use of each of the seven foods which are the foundation of a child’s diet— milk, eggs, cereal, vegetables, fruits, potatoes, and meat— has been considered separately. In most instances large percentages of children have been without the particular item of diet in question. The query naturally arises: To what extent are these seven foods, considered together, absent from the individual dietaries ? Table 32 gives the number of children lacking one, two, three, or more of these items of diet, up to and including the entire seven. The table does not, however, show what particular combina tions of foods are missing. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 86 CHILDREN- OE PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D .— PART II. T a b l e 32.— N um ber o f item s lackin g in d iet. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Number of items lacking in diet. 1 2 ..... ................................................................. ................................................ ........................................... < ................................................................. 6 .............................. ................................................................................................... 7 ......................1......................................................................................... Per cent Number. distribu tion. 6,015 100.0 97 3,113 475 1,071 1,567 2,735 1,460 889 338 48 70 1.6 51.8 7.9 17.8 26.1 45.5 24.3 14.8 5.6 .8 1.2 According to this table 97 children, or 1.6 per cent of the total number, lacked none of these seven articles of diet; 7.9 per cent lacked but one; 17.8 per cent, two; and 26.1 per cent, three. Up to this number the omissions may conceivably have been such as not seriously to affect the diet— as, for example, meat, eggs, and cereal, the absence of which would still leave an adequate diet if sufficient milk were used. But if milk, vegetables, and fruits were the three left out, or if milk alone were missing, it would be a serious matter. It is highly improbable that any diet lacking four or more of these foods would be satisfactory. Nevertheless, nearly half (45.5 per cent) of the children lacked four of the specified items, 5.6 per cent lacked as many as six items, and 48 children did not have a single one of the seven. With all seven items missing little remains but bread, coffee, spa ghetti, and sweets; and any diet composed of these foods alone would, of course, be hopelessly inadequate. Income and absence o f specified items.— One naturally turns to the income for an explanation of these omissions, and Chart Y II shows that this expectation is at least partially warranted. The propor tion of children who lacked less than four items was low in the lowest income group and increased to a maximum in the highest earnings group; while the proportion of children who lacked four or more items was high in the lower income groups and decreased materially in the higher ones. Since nearly one-fourth (27 per cent and 22.2 per cent, respec tively) of the children in the two highest earnings groups lacked as many as four of these articles of diet, poverty can not justly be made to bear the whole burden of responsibility for such omissions https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis USE OF S P E C IF IE D 87 FOODS. Ch art V II.—Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age lacking specified num ber of item s in d iet, b y earnings of ch ief breadw inner. Under $850. $850 ■ $1,049. $1,050 to $1,249. $1,250 to $1,449. $1,450 to $1,849. $1,850 to $2,249. $2,250 and over. Lacking no items or one on ly — --------------------------------- — -______ Lacking tw o item s o n l y --------------------------------------------------------------Lacking three item s o n l y ......... ............................................................ Lacking four item s and over — |---- 1------ 1----- 1----- 1----- 1----- 1----- 1----- f. Nationality and absence, o f specified item s— On the basis of the percentage of children reported as lacking four or more of the specified items of diet the Serbo-Croatians, with 71.4 per cent of their children lacking four or more items, had the poorest record. (Table 33.) The Negroes, with 69 per cent, were not far behind. The Lithuanian, Italian, and Polish groups followed, with 65.8, 63.4, and 60.5 per cent, respectively; and the diets of 53.8 per cent of the children of Slovak mothers and of 47.8 per cent of the children of Magyar mothers were likewise lacking. The children of German mothers (with 31.6 per cent) and those of native white mothers (with 22.7 per cent), as might be expected from their having the best ratings relative to the individual-foods, had the best records in this respect. 14683°—23----- 7 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 00 00 T a b l e 33.— Num ber o f item s lacking in diet, by color and nationality o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. None. Total. 3 2 1 Total. 7 6 5 4 OF Total. Not reported. 4 and over. Less than 4. Color and nationality of mother. 3,113 51.8 3,043 1,322 1,721 356 163 .2 251 148 1.0 91 147 3.1 73 492 1.4 65 .8 5 52.7 71.7 43.7 38.6 27.8 46.0 50.9 34.3 64.5 32.4 56.6 28.0 97 1.6 W hite............................. 5,777 Native..................... 1,843 Foreign-bom........... 3,934 923 Polish............... 587 Serbo-Croatian.. 546 Slovak............... 291 Magyar.............. 265 Italian............... 228 German............ 225 Lithuanian....... 869 All other........... 232 6 Not reported.................. 95 72 23 1.6 3.9 .6 1 3 7 12 2 i Not shown where base is less than 100. 475 7.9 1,071 8.2 1,050 471 509 305 16.5 541 166 4.2 91 1.8 17 42 1.0 6 73 21 3.8 47 7 2.4 35 3 1.1 54 24 10.5 18 7 3.1 181 81 9.3 17 1.3 3 4 1 17.8 18.2 27.6 13.8 9.9 7.2 13.4 16.2 13.2 23.7 8.0 20.8 7.3 1,567 1,522 508 1,014 248 115 157 94 53 69 48 230 45 26.1 2,735 26.3 2,574 27.6 •418 25.8 2,156 558 26.9 419 19.6 294 28.8 139 32.3 168 20.0 72 30.3 148 21.3 358 26.5 160 19.4 1 45.5 1,460 44.6 1,386 267 22.7 54. 8 1,119 284. 60.5 176 71.4 158 53.8 77 47.8 97 63.4 41 31.6 70 65.8 216 41.2 73 69.0 1 24.3 24 0 14 5 28.4 30.8 30.0 28.9 26.5 36.6 18.0 31.1 249 31.5 889 833 114 719 190 153 90 42 59 18 57 110 56 14 8 14 4 6.2 18.3 20.6 26.1 16.5 14 4 22.3 7.9 25.3 12.7 24.1 338 5.6 5.4 310 1.8 34 7.0 276 7.8 72 78 13.3 33 6.0 19 6.5 10 3.8 11 4 8 21 9.3 32 3.7 28 12.1 48 0.8 70 1.2 45 3 42 12 12 13 1 2 2 .8 .2 1.1 1.3 2.0 2.4 .3 .8 .9 3 1.3 65 31 34 9 4 1 1 6 2 4 7 5 1.1 1.7 .9 1.0 .7 .2 .3 2.3 .9 1.8 .8 2.2 P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T Per Num Per Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num ber. cent. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cenx. Total.................... 6,015 C H IL D R E N Lacking specified number of items in diet. II. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis C U S T O M S R E G A R D IN G C E R T A IN D IE T A R Y P R A C T IC E S . Although the chief concern in feeding children should be the provision of such foods as will supply all the needed nutritive materials, the technique of feeding is important if full success— or often any success at all—in feeding children is to be attained. Not only the foods given, therefore, but the suitability of those foods to the digestive tract of the child, the number of meals a day in which they are eaten, the regularity of hours, whether or not foods are allowed between meals, and the character of each meal must also be considered. A diet may contain everything necessary for good nutrition and yet fail to produce a well-nourished child, because of unfavorable practices in respect to one or more of the conditions mentioned. The significance of each of these conditions to the well-being of the child, and the custom of the children studied in respect to each, therefore form an important part of this dietarystudy. Suitability o f foods to age o f children. It is usually assumed that a healthy adult can eat and digest practically any food, raw or cooked, and his dietary, therefore, is allowed to include a great variety of food prepared in many different ways. Whether or not this is a wise practice may well be questioned; such a procedure can not be followed in feeding young children without unfavorable results. The digestive tract of the child is not fully developed and is not equal to the task of digesting many foods which would be entirely wholesome for an adult. In feeding children, therefore, only simple, easily digested foods should be given in the earlier years; other foods may be very gradually introduced as the digestive tract becomes more able to care for them. For this reason pies, rich pastries, fried foods, and other foods difficult of digestion are excluded from dietaries planned for children of preschool age. That little or no consideration was given to the suitability of food to the digestive tract of the child was one of the facts most apparent in the present study of Gary children. (Table 34.) Only 3.4 per cent of all the children’s diets, in fact, bore evidence that they were planned with the age of the child in mind. These consisted of milk, cereals, and simply cooked foods— potatoes, meat, vegetables, and fruits and instead of pie they included fruits or simple puddings. It was plainly evident from most of the schedules that the meals were prepared for the father and that all the family from the 2-year89 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 90 C H IL D R E N - O F PRESCHOOL AGE, G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T II. old up ate the same meal. It was not uncommon to find the day’s diet for a 2- or 3-year-old child similar to the following: Breakfast: Ham and eggs, fried potatoes, coffee. Dinner: Baked beans, catsup, bread, coffee. Supper: Roast pork, potatoes browned in pork fat, gravy, fried onions, apple pie, cheese and coffee. The diets of more than 18 per cent of the children were of this general type, though not always so extreme as this one. Such a diet might perhaps be suited to the digestive capacity of a miner or lumberman but is utterly unsuited to the delicate digestive organs of a 6-year-old child, much less those of a 2-year-old. There was distinctly more favorable feeding in respect to suitability of foods among the native groups than among the colored and the foreign bom . Of the children of native mothers 8.8 per cent had diets which appeared to be planned for children (the average for all nationality groups was 3.4 per cent) while only 1.1 per cent of the children of the foreign bom and but 0.4 per cent of the colored children had such diets. Among the Lithuanians, Magyars, and Italians not a single child had a diet suited to his age, and but 1 child of a Polish mother, 2 of German mothers, and 5 of Serbo-Croatian mothers were thus favored. T a b l e 34.— Type o f m eals, by color and n ation ality o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Type of meals. Color and nationality mother. Unsuitable. Suitable. Indeterminate. Not reported. Total. Numher. Per cent.1 Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.1 Number. Per cent. Total................... 6,015 207 3.4 1,101 18.3 4,641 77.2 66 1.1 W h it e .....:....;...... Native.................... Foreign-bom......... Polish............. Serbo-Croatian. Slovak............. Magyar___. . . . Italian............. German........... Lithuanian___ All other......... Negro........................... Not reported................ 5,777 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 205 163 42 1 5 1 3.5 8.8 1.1 .1 .9 .2 1,038 371 667 136 79 92 72 64 50 31* 143 63 18.0 20.1 17.0 14.7 13.5 16.8 24.7 24.2 21.9 13.8 16.5 27.2 4,473 1,280 3,193 778 500 452 217 195 173 190 688 163 5 77.4 69.5 81.2 84.3 85.2 82.8 74.6 73.6 75.9 84.4 79.2 70.3 61 29 32 8 3 1 2 6 3 4 5 5 1.1 1.6 .8 .9 .5 .2 .7 . 2.3 1.3 1.8 .6 2.2 2 .9 33 1 1 3.8 .4 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. Type o f evening meal.— It is usually considered wise to have the young child’s evening meal, especially, an easily digested one, for his bedtime should come shortly thereafter and such a meal is more conducive to a comfortable night’s rest. Hence the custom of hav ing the dinner at noon and having a supper of cereal, milk, bread, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis C U S T O M S R E G A R D IN G C E R T A IN 91 D IE T A R Y P R A C T IC E S . and fruit; baked potato, soft egg, bread, and milk; or some other equally simple-combination. As a fact, more than 60 per cent of the children studied had eve ning meals which— to use the popular terminology—were distinctly “ heavy,” i. e., were of a type similiar to the one already referred to and not conducive to either ease or quickness of digestion. (Table 35.) Only 9.1 per cent of the children, on the other hand, had evening meals which were suitably simple, though 13.7 percent more, who had their dinners at night, might be classed in this group since their evening meals could not be called “ heavy. ” Even if these are included, a total of less than one-fourth of the children (22.8 per cent) had simple evening meals of the desired type. T a b l e 35.— T ype o f evening m eal. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Type of evening meal. Per cent Number. distribu tion. 6,015 100.0 3,655 826 545 989 60.8 13.7 9.1 16.4 Number and regularity o f meals.—Most of the children studied (95.9 per cent) had three meals a day. (Table 36.) Some children however, 126, had but two meals a day, 67 had four meals or more, and 7 children had but one. The number of meals bears little relation to the age of the child, though a slightly higher proportion of 2 - and 3-year-old children than of the older groups had four meals. T a b l e 36.— Num ber o f m eals daily,1 by age o f child. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Number of meals daily.1 Age of child. Num ber. Per Num cent. ber. 4 and over. 3 2" 1 Total. Per Num Per Num cent. ber. cent.2 ber. Not reported. Per Num cent. ber. Per cent. Total................... 6,015 7 0.1 126 2.1 5,770 95.9 67 1.1 45 0.7 1, 079 1, 437 1,233 1,100 1,008 156 2 2 2 .2 .1 1 2 .1 .2 26 36 23 19 19 3 2.4 2.5 1.9 1.7 1.9 1.9 1,031 1, 367 1,192 1,055 973 150 2 95.6 95.1 96.7 95.9 96. 5 96.2 17 24 8 11 7 1.6 1.7 .6 1.0 .7 3 8 10 7 7 3 .3 .6 .8 .7 7 1.9 2 years, under 3.......... i 3 years, under 4............ 4 years, under 5............ 5 years, under 6............ 6 years, under 7............ 7 years, under 8............ 1Information relates to day preceding agent’s visit. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 2Not shown where base is less than 100. 92 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART n . Whether a child has three or four meals is a matter of less concern than is the regularity of his meals. All pediatrists emphasize the importance of having the meals of young children at unfailingly regular hours. Less than half (47 per cent) of the group studied, however, had regular hours for all three meals, though 43 per cent more had two of their meals at practically the same hours daily. There remain 9.1 per cent of the entire group, who had no regular hours for any of their meals. (Table 37.) T a b l e 37.— R egularity o f m eals, by color and nationality o f mother. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Color and nationality of mother. Regular hours Regular hours for all meals. for 1 or 2 meals. Not reported. Total. Num ber. 6,015 White..................................... No regular hours. 5,777 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 Num Per cent.1 ber. Num Per cent.1 ber. Per cent.1 Num ber. Per cent. 2,830 47.0 2,587 43.0 545 9.1 53 0.9 2,737 1,214 1,523 304 171 186 125 104 127 76 430 92 1 47.4 65.9 38.7 32.9 29.1 34.1 43.0 39.2 55.7 33.8 49.5 39.7 2,476 566 1,910 485 334 273 140 114 96 104 364 107 4 42.9 30.7 48.6 52.5 56.9 50.0 48.1 43.0 42.1 46.2 41.9 46.1 516 35 481 130 78 87 26 42 3 42 73 28 1 8.9 1.9 12.2 14.1 13.3 15.9 8.9 15.8 1.3 18.7 8.4 12.1 48 28 20 4 4 .8 1.5 .5 .4 .7 5 2 3 2 5 1.9 .9 1.3 .2 2.2 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. Irregularity was more common among the foreign-born and the colored than among the native white group, approximately 39 per cent of the children having three meals at regular hours and 12.2 per cent having no regular hours for meals in the two former groups» in contrast to 65.9 per cent of the children who had three meals at regular hours and 1.9 per cent who had no regular hours for meals in the native white group. No striking differences were found among the children of the foreign-born groups. The record of the Lithu anians, with but one-third of their children having three meals at regular hours and nearly one-fifth (18.7 per cent) having no regular hours for meals, was one of the poorest. The children of German mothers, in this as in many other items, most closely approached the record of the children of native white mothers. Eating between meals.— Eating between meals, or “ piecing, ” in this study includes all eating at times other than mealtimes, whether the number of meals is three or four. (A lunch such as bread and milk, taken daily at approximately the same hour, has been considered a meal rather than as eating between meals.) Even with this allow- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis T a b l e 38 .— A m ou nt and type o f fo o d eaten between m eals, by color and nationality o f mother. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Color and nationality of mother. Total. Total. Amount limited. No eating between meals. Unsuitable food. Suitable food. Amount excessive. Amount limited. Not reported. Amount excessive. Percent. Number. Percent. Number. Percent.1 Number. Percent. Number. Percent.1 Number. Percent.1 Number. Percent.1 Number. White............................. Native...................... Foreign-born........... Polish................ Serbo-Croatian. Slovak............... Magyar.............. Italian.............. German........... Lithuanian----A llother......... N egro.......................... Not reported................. 2,967 49.3 353 5.9 1,294 21.5 227 3.8 1,084 1.5 80.5 90 4,841 18.0 6,015 5,777 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 4,661 1,228 3,433 847 500 487 251 233 184 207 724 175 5 80.7 66.6 87.3 91.7 85.2 89.2 86.2 87.9 80.7 92.0 83.3 75.4 2,869 876 1,993 405 321 279 152 124 138 117 457 94 4 49.7 47.5 50.7 43.9 54.7 51.1 52.2 46.8 60.5 52.0 52.6 40.5 337 69 268 78 29 27 15 30 11 15 63 15 1 5.8 3.7 6.8 8.4 4.9 4.9 5.2 11.3 4.8 6.7 7.3 6.5 1,237 257 980 292 127 145 79 65 30 70 172 57 21.4 13.9 24.9 31.6 21.6 26.6 27.1 24.5 13.2 31.1 19.8 24.6 218 26 192 72 23 36 5 14 5 5 32 9 3.8 1.4 4.9 7.8 3.9 6.6 1.7 5.3 2.2 2.2 3.7 3.9 1,031 573 458 65 80 58 36 29 41 15 134 52 1 17.8 31.1 11.6 7.0 13.6 10.6 12.4 10.9 18.0 6.7 15.4 22.4 85 42 43 11 7 1 4 3 3 3 11 5 1.5 2.3 1.1 1.2 1.2 .2 1.4 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.3 2.2 1Not shown where base is less than 100. CUSTOMS REGARDING CERTAIN DIETARY PRACTICES. Eating between meals. j CD oo https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 94 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART II. ance, “ piecing” was a common habit among the children, since only 18 per cent of them were reported as not eating between meals. A distinction should doubtless be made between the various types and degrees of piecing. One piece of bread and butter in the morning, for example, is of less importance than many “ snacks” of bread eaten at odd times during the day; and a few cents’ worth of candy eaten during the afternoon, serious as its effects may be, is of less consequence than candy, fruit, popcorn, nuts, and ice-cream cones indulged in at intervals all day long. Four types of eating between meals, therefore, conforming to these four illustrations, were recog nized in classifying the diets. (Table 38.) About one-half (49.3 per cent) of the children were classed as hav ing moderate amounts of simple foods, such as bread and butter, milk, or fruit; while 5.9 per cent were having only such suitable foods but were having them so frequently or so indiscriminately as to make it appear a decidedly harmful practice. More than a fifth (21.5 per cent) were “ piecing” on sweets or other undesirable articles and 3.8 per cent were plainly doing this to excess. To what extent a small amount of simple food eaten between meals is harmful it is difficult to say. The consensus of opinion among specialists is that no food between meals is the safest rule. Indis criminate eating of even wholesome foods, and the eating of sweets in particular, is without doubt an injurious practice. Nearly onethird (31.2 per cent) of the children, therefore, who were thus indulg ing in the “ piecing” habit, were doing it probably to their detriment^ and 9.6 per cent almost certainly so. Nationality and eating between meals.— In the matter of “ piecing,” as in other factors already considered, the children of foreign-born mothers were less fortunate than the children of native white mothers, 31.1 per cent of the latter being free from the habit of eating between meals and only 5.2 per cent indulging in it to excess while only 11.6 per cent of the former did not eat between meals, and 11.7 per cent did it to excess. The children of Lithuanian and Polish mothers, with only 7 per cent free from “ piecing,” ranked at the bottom of the list; the children of Slovak and Italian mothers, with about 11 per cent free, came next; the children of German mothers, with 18 per cent, and Negro children, with 22.4 per cent not eating between meals, ranked nearest the native white group in freedom from this habit. Income and eating between meeds.— The children in the higher income groups— from the $1,450 level upward— show a slight superiority over those in lower groups in respect to the custom of “ piecing,” the num ber free from this habit in the former groups avefaging about 23 per cent and in the latter ranging from 17.6 per cent to only 11.9 per cent in families with incomes of less than $850. (Table 39.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis T a b le 39.— A m ou nt and type o f fo o d eaten between m eals, by earnings o f ch ief breadwinner. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Earnings of chief bread winner. Total. N o eating between meals. Unsuitable food. Suitable food. Not reported. Total. Amount limited. Amount excessive. Amount limited. Amount excessive. Number. Percent. Number. Per cent. Number. Percent. Number. Per cent. Number. Percent. Number. Percent. Number. Per cent. Total.................... Under $850.................... $850 to $1,049................. $1,050 to 1,249................ $1,250 to $1,449.............. $1,450 to $1,849.............. $1,850 to $2,249.............. $2,250 and over.............. No chief breadwinner and no earnings........ Not reported................. 6,015 4,841 80.5 2,967 49.3 353 5.9 1,294 851 923 1,065 843 1,041 378 441 737 762 881 683 778 287 337 86.6 82.6 82.7 81.0 74.7 75.9 76.4 420 434 511 424 479 198 252 49.4 47.0 48.0 50.3 46.0 52.4 57.1 51 65 73 42 57 23 15 6.0 7.0 6.9 5.0 5.5 6.1 3.4 233 218 248 187 207 50 62 129 344 103 273 79.8 79.4 67 182 51.9 52.9 9 18 7.0 5.2 26 63 227 3.8 1,084 18.0 90 1.5 27.4 23.6 23.3 22.2 19.9 13.2 j 14.1 33 45 49 30 35 16 8 3.9 4.9 4.6 3.6 3.4 4.2 • 1.8 101 152 168 148 244 88 97 11.9 16.5 15.8 17.6 23.4 23.3 22.0 13 9 16 12 19 3 7 1.5 1.0 1.5 1.4 1.8 .8 1.6 20.2 18.3 1 10 .8 2.9 23 63 17.8 18.3 3 8 2.3 2.3 21.5 CUSTOMS REGARDING CERTAIN DIETARY PRACTICES, Eating between meals. CD Ol https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 96 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D .— PART II. There is nothing about low income itself which would tend toward increased “ piecing/’ unless the more monotonous meals dull the children’s appetites at mealtimes and thus favor eating between meals. On the other hand, in families of low income the less ample food supply would seem to limit rather than increase this practice. Perhaps some other factor associated or coincident with low income, such as greater ignorance of a child’s needs and lack of supervision in respect to this habit, produced the poor record for the low income groups. If so, these groups are not proved to be much more igno rant and neglectful in these respects than the highest earnings groups, as the latter had a record only slightly better. Inadequate breakfasts. Not only should a young child be assured of sufficient food of the right kind, but this food should be distributed fairly evenly among the three meals, the breakfast and dinner being perhaps heartier than the evening meal. It is important, moreover, that none of these meals be omitted and that the breakfast in particular, following as it does the night abstinence and preceding a day of activity, should be ample. The habit of scanty breakfasts or none at all has in fact been found to be one of the chief factors contributing to malnutrition of children. Large numbers of the preschool children studied had no breakfast at all or such meager and unsuitable breakfasts as: “ One cup of cof fee” ; “ 1 cup coffee and 1 piece of apple pie” ; “ 1 cup of coffee and several cookies” ; “ 3 cakes” ; or “ one egg.” It was found that onethird of all the children (32.6 per cent) had no breakfasts or break fasts of this extremely inadequate type. (Table 40.) The break fasts of many others were poor or were of questionable adequacy. Nationality and inadequate breakfasts.— Poorest of the nationalities in respect to breakfasts were the Italians, since three-fifths (60.8 per cent) of their children were having no breakfasts, or only such inad equate ones as those just described. Next in order of inadequacy of breakfasts came the children of Polish, Serbo-Croatian, and Magyar mothers, of whom about half (55.1, 51.8, and 51.2 per cent, respec tively) had breakfasts of this extremely poor type or none at all. The smallest proportions without adequate breakfasts were found among the children of German mothers (23.7 per cent), Negro mothers (16.8 per cent), and native white mothers (10.5 per cent). https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 97 CUSTOMS REGARDING CERTAIN DIETARY PRACTICES. T a b l e 40.— Inadequate breakfast, by color and nationality o f mother. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Who hac very inadequate breakfasts. Color and nationality of mother. Total. Number. Per cent. W hite................................................................................................................ Serbo-Croatian.................................................................................... 6,015 1 1,960 32.6 5,777 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 1,921 193 1,728 509 304 236 149 161 54 99 216 39 33.3 10.5 43.9 55.1 51.8 43.2 51.2 60.8 23.7 44.0 24.9 16.8 1 Includes 12 children who had no breakfast. Income and inadequate breakfasts.— In common with nearly all the undesirable conditions already discussed, inadequate breakfasts were distinctly more prevalent in the lowest income groups. Table 41 shows that the percentage of children who did not have breakfasts that were at all satisfactory decreased from 44.5 per cent in the fami lies with incomes of less than $850 to but 13.8 per cent in the $2,250 earnings group. But again the fact that so considerable a propor tion as 18.8 per cent and 13.8 per cent, respectively, of the children in the two highest income groups did not have adequate breakfasts indicates that some cause other than poverty contributed to the result. T a b l e 41.— Inadequate breakfast, by earnings o f ch ief breadwinner. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Who had very in adequate breakfasts Earnings of chief breadwinner. Total. Number. Percent. to $1,649- . . .............................................................................. ¿1,05 0 to ¿i,24Q_. ............................................................................. ¿1,250 to $1,449 ......................................- ......................................... $1 450 to $1,849.................................................................................................. ¿IRfiOto $ 2 2 4 9 ......................................................................................................... 1Indudes 12 children who had no breakfast https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 6,015 11,960 32.6 851 923 1,065 843 1,041 378 441 129 344 379 395 388 255 266 71 61 47 98 44.5 42.8 36.4 30.2 25.6 18.8 13.8 36.4 28.5 98 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D .— PART II. Inadequate lunches. Totally insufficient lunches were likewise common among the chil dren studied. As in the case of breakfasts, only the extremely poor lunches were considered “ inadequate,” in making the tabula tions, and the term therefore refers only to such lunches as the fol lowing: “ One slice bread and coffee” ; “ cakes, coffee” ; “ bread and lard, 1 cup coffee” ; “ 2 slices bread and butter, coffee” ; “ 1 plate beef soup” ; “ 2 cobs corn, 1 slice bread and butter” ; or “ 2 slices bread and margarine, 1 dill pickle.” Of the children studied, 16.9 per cent had either no lunch at all or one of this inadequate type. Furthermore, 493 children, or 8.2 per cent of the entire group, had neither lunches nor breakfasts of any better type. (Tables 42 and 43.) The children of native white mothers fared somewhat better than the average, only 6.9 per cent having no lunches, or lunches of this extremely inadequate type, and but 2.3 per cent having neither lunches nor breakfasts of a better type; while the children of foreignbom parentage, of whom 20.2 per. cent had inadequate lunches or none and 11 per cent had neither breakfasts nor lunches above the inadequate grade, fared distinctly worse than the average. The children of Polish mothers made the poorest showing; 28.1 per cent of them did not have adequate lunches and 17.2 per cent had neither lunches nor breakfasts that were satisfactory. T a b l e 42.— Inadequate lunch, by color and nationality o f mother. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Who had very in adequate lunches. Color and nationality of mother. Total. Number. Percent. Polish.................................................................................................. Slovak................................................................................................. Magyar................................................................................................. German................................................................................................ All other.............................................................................................. 6,015 U,016 16.9 5,777 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 921 127 794 259 120 148 53 31 23 44 116 95 15.9 6.9 20.2 28.1 20.4 27.1 18.2 11.7 10.1 19.6 13.3 40.9 1Includes 88 children who had no lunch. A combination of inadequate breakfasts and lunches is especially detrimental, for it means that a child must go from supper one night till supper the night following without any real meal. That 8.2 per cent of all the children, 11 per cent of the foreign-bom, and 17.2 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis CUSTOMS REGARDING CERTAIN DIETARY PRACTICES. 99 per cent of the Polish children, were thus receiving but one real meal a day is indeed significant. T a b l e 43.— Inadequacy o f both breakfast and lunch, by color and n ationality o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Both breakfast and lunch inadequate. Color and nationality of mother. Total. Number. Përcent. Total................... White........................... 5,777 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 Native., j ............. Foreign-born......... P olish............ Serbo-Croatian Slovak............. Magyar............ Italian............. German........... Lithuanian___ All other......... Negro............................ Not reported................ 493 8.2 476 42 434 159 77 83 26 24 6 13 46 17 8.2 2.3 11.0 17.2 13.1 15.2 8.9 9.1 2.6 5.8 5.3 7.3 Summary o f customs regarding dietary practices. The findings regarding certain dietary practices which have just been individually considered may be summarized briefly. In the following statement, the condition to be desired is compared with the findings relative to it among the children studied: It is a matter of common agreement among specialists that it is best for young children— (1) To be given simple, easily digested Only 3.4 per cent of the children, and foods suited to their digestive tract. practically none in the foreign groups, had such meals. (2) To have as the evening meal, in Only 22.8 per cent of the children at the particular, a light and easily digested one. most could be said to have had such eve ning meals, and 60.8 per cent had even ing meals of the exactly opposite type. (3) To have all meals at moderately regular hours. Less than half (47 per cent) had such regular meals. (4) To have as many meals as needed but no food between meals. Only 18 per cent had no food between meals, and 31.2 per cent were quite evi dently indulging in “ piecing” to a harm ful extent. (5) To have a good breakfast to start the day. A t least one-third had totally inade quate breakfasts, or none. (6) To have a good lunch at noon. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sixteen and nine-tenths per cent had distinctly poor lunches or none, and 8.2 per cent had neither adequate lunches nor adequate breakfasts. 100 CHILDREN" OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART II. These averages, moreover, are for the total group, and the distinctly poorer records of many groups are obscured thereby. It is obvious that these factors are not all of equal importance. Indeed it is often difficult to convince mothers that they are impor tant at all, since a child may live and apparently thrive in total disregard of all such considerations. Irritability, peevishness, dis turbed sleep, digestive difficulties, and the lack of appetite at meal times are results which commonly accompany violations of one or more of these rules; but these are rarely attributed to their real cause. The effects, moreover, are not always immediately visible, but may show cumulatively later on in a poorly nourished body, or a weakened digestive tract. Certain it is, at any rate, that the ideal conditions described above can not be continually disregarded with out risk to the present and future well-being of the child. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis DIETARY FINDINGS CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO PHYSICAL CONDITION. Slightly over half (52 per cent) pf the 6,015 preschool children for whom schedules were obtained were given physical examinations. The physical findings are presented fully in a special report.3 Cer tain data revealed in these examinations, however, are significant in connection with the dietary findings, and will therefore be dis cussed briefly in this section. Special relationships which have been deemed worthy of comment are: Diet and dental caries; diet and anemia; diet and postural defect; diet and defective tonsils; and diet and the total number of defects. In studying these relationships it has been borne in mind that a child’s state of nutrition is the result not of his diet at the time, but rather of that which he has had through all his previous years. It is doubtless true, however, that the present diet is more or less indicative of the type which he has formerly received. An excep tion is found in the case of children who have been breast fed in infancy and have later dropped to an unsatisfactory diet. State o f nutrition as indicated by weight according to height. The grades of diet are compared in Table 44 with two main groups which are defined in terms of weight according to height. The first group comprises all children of average weight or above, and is subdivided into those whose condition of nutrition was adjudged excellent by the physician who made the physical examination, and the others; the second, which comprises children below average weight for height, is subdivided into those less than 7 per cent below, those between 7 and 10 per cent below, and those 10 per cent or more below average weight for height. For this comparison the diet grades are combined into three groups. If, as is frequently assumed, weight is an accurate index of nutri tion, a close relation might be expected to appear between the weight for height groups and the grade of diet. However, the distribution of the children in these weight groups, as shown by Table 44, seems to bear little relation to their classification according to diet. A slightly larger proportion of children having A and B diets (20.2 per cent) were placed in the group with excellent nutrition than of the children having D and E diets (18.3 per cent). »Rude, Anna E., M. D .: Physical Status of Preschool Children, Gary, Ind., pp. 27-62. U. S. Chil dren’s Bureau Publication No. 111. Washington, 1922. 101 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 102 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D .— PART II. T a b l e 44.— R elation o f weight to height, by grade o f diet. Children 2 to 7 years of age given physical examination. Grade of diet. Relation of weight to height.1 C A and B Number. Per cent Numdistriber. bution. Per Numcent distriber. bution. D and E Per Per Num- cent cent distridistriber. bution. bution. Not Total............................. 3,125 100.0 332 100.0 885 100.0 1,555 100.0 353 Average and above............... Excellent nutrition2....... Other............................... Below average........................ Less than 7 per cent....... 7, but less than 10per cent 1Ôper cent and over....... 1,319 580 739 1,806 1,180 323 303 42.2 18.6 23.6 57.8 37.8 10.3 9.7 135 67 68 197 128 38 31 40.7 20.2 20.5 59.3 38.6 11.4 9.3 380 174 206 505 337 83 85 42.9 19.7 23.3 57.1 38.1 9.4 9.6 676 284 392 879 598 151 130 43.5 18.3 25.2 56.5 38.5 9.7 8.4 128 55 73 225 117 51 57 1 The height and weight table used as standard was that prepared by the Children’s Bureau for the weigh ing and measuring test during the Children’s Year campaign, the averages for children aged 6 to 48 months having been taken from the anthropometric table compiled by F. S. Crum and those for children aged 5 to 7 years, inclusive, from Bowditch. 2 Excellent as judged by the examining physician. The fact that many of the children on good diets failed to qualify as of excellent nutrition may be explained by the following points: (1) The diets were only qualitatively graded and the amount of food may easily have been under the child’s requirement; (2) the factor of suitability and digestibility of foods was largely disregarded in diets graded B, and these diets may easily have failed to nourish the children even though apparently containing all the requisite food ele ments; and (3) a diet satisfactory in every way may fail to produce a well-nourished individual if toxins from tonsils or other sources, or other physical defects, are present to interfere. The fact that the groups with diets lacking in one or more of the food essentials— the D and E diets— had nearly the same proportion of children of excellent nutrition as the group with the best diets and no greater a proportion of underweights than that group is more difficult to explain. Three queries in respect to this situation immediately arise: Are the diets typical? Does the diet really matter? Or is the weight to height ratio alone not a sufficient criterion of the condition of nutrition ? The precautions taken to eliminate nontypical diets have already been mentioned. Attention has further been called to the fact that the diets of the day preceding the visit of the agent had a significant relation to nutrition only as they were typical of the diets which the child had been receiving; and to the fact that the influence of good feeding during infancy continues to be seen in the child’s condition, especially in the years immediately following that period. Further more, variation in the grade of a child’s diet from day to day, while tending to lessen any correlation of poor diets with poor nutrition https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis DIETARY FINDINGS AND PHYSICAL CONDITION. 103 and other physical conditions, would not entirely eliminate it unless so marked as to make the classification of the diet merely a matter of chance as to the particular day chosen. And as will be seen later, marked correlations with other items of physical condition than weight point to a definite relationship existing between the diet of the day taken in this study and the child’s habitual diet. In considering the second query, with reference to the importance of the diets in relation to nutrition, it should be remembered at the outset that the diet grades A and B were based on the apparent ability of diets to provide all the elements essential to good nutrition — calcium for bones and teeth, iron for tissues and the red blood cells, vitamines for the maintenance of health and the prevention of deficiency diseases, as well as proteins capable of supporting normal growth and a sufficient quantity of food to supply the needed energy. It is well known that a shortage of these essentials other than the energy-producing elements does not always show itself immediately in the weight. The body can take calcium from bones; and teeth to supply its more vital needs and can lose iron from the red corpuscles, for a considerable time before loss in weight results. Vitamines, moreover, may apparently be stored to some extent in the tissues, and drawn from this source in times of under-supply, making it appear for the time being that the body can thrive without them. Change in the state of nutrition, in other words, lags con siderably behind change in the diet. That a certain diet has not yet caused underweight, therefore, does not prove that the diet is satisfactory. This is especially true of the* preschool period, particu larly the first year or two, since the effects of good infant feeding seem to persist for some time in spite of an extremely undesirable subsequent diet. A surprising lack of underweight in children livings on an almost exclusive bread-and-coffee diet has been noted again and again in preschool clinics. Such children are pale, fat, flabby, and lifeless, with scarcely one characteristic of a normal child excepting weight. One worker has characterized them as “ lifeless lumps of lead who stay wherever they are put.” And yet if weight alone is a standard of nutrition they must be regarded as in “ good” condition. In view of these facts it can scarcely be considered proved that the diet standards were too high or that diet does not matter, even though children whose dietaries included no apparent source of calcium or vitamines, and insufficient proteins, were found to be of normal weight. Such a diet, if continued many months, can not fail to work havoc in some way, whether or not it causes under weight. It would seem, however, that data as to the discrepancy between diets and weights such as those given in Table 44, secured for more than 3,000 children, would indicate the wisdom of con146830—23-----8 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 104 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D .— PART II. sidering other factors than weight for height in estimating the state of nutrition. It is generally admitted that underweight children are as a rule undernourished; but, unquestionably, many children of average weight and above are also malnourished. Would not an examination of the child’s diet be the best method of detecting faulty nutrition in its incipiency ? Ch abt vm.—P er cent of children 2 to 7 years of age w ith carious teeth , b y grade of d iet. Carious teeth. A conspicuous example of the relation between diet and physical condition is shown by Chart V I I I , which pictures the relation between the type of diet and the presence of dental caries. Even though neglect to clean the teeth, and other factors which might contribute to decay, were doubtless coexistent with faulty diets, the absence of bone-forming elements in the diets was doubtless an important cause of this condition. Only 52.1 per cent of the children in the highest diet group as compared with 75.6 per cent, or nearly one and one-half times as many, of those in the lowest diet group had decayed teeth. (Table 45.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis T a b l e 45.— Prevalence o f carious teeth, by grade o f diet and age o f child. Children 2 to 7 years of age given physical examination. Grade of diet. A and B. Age of child. C. Not graded. D and E. Total. Having carious teeth. Number, Per cent Total. Number. Percent.1 Total....... 3,125 2,021 64.7 2 years, under 3 3 years, under 4. 4 years, under 5 5 years, under 6, 6 years, under 7 7 years, under 8, 511 496 549 667 682 108 218 364 533 598 220 200 21.1 44.0 66.3 79.9 87.7 90.9 1 Not shown where base is less than 50. 332 173 52.1 30.3 51.5 6a 0 79.7 Having carious teeth. Having carious teeth. Total. Total. Having carious teeth. Total. Number. Percent.1 Number. Per cent. Number. Percent. 885 596 67.3 1,555 1,175 75.6 69 182 192 184 197 61 14 81 129 149 168 55 20.3 44.5 67.2 81.0 85.3 90.2 76 234 288 412 408 137 30 113 199 340 368 125 39.5 48.3 69.1 82.5 90.2 91.2 77 327 4 3 6 8 5 21.8 17.4 DIETARY FUNDINGS AND PHYSICAL CONDITION.- Having carious teeth. O cn https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 106 C H IL D R E N " OE P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , I N D .— P A R T I I . One of the chief faults of these diets appears to have been lack of calcium due to the small amounts of milk used. The diet grades usually, though not invariably, represented the following amounts of milk: A, 1J pints; B, 1 pint; C, £ pint; D, less than \ pint; E, none or practically none. In view of the importance of calcium in tooth formation the diet grades regarded as milk grades become especially significant. (Table 46.) T a b l e 46.— P h y sica l d efects, by grade o f d iet. Children 2 to7years of age given physical examination. H aving carious teeth. Grade of diet. H aving bony defects of rachitic origin. H aving postural defects. H aving defective tonsils. H aving anemia. Total. N u m Per N u m Per N u m Per N u m Per N u m Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 B T> .................................... N ot graded.................................... 3,125 2,021 64.7 467 14.9 793 25.4 1,626 52.0 243 00 To ta l.................................... 332 19 313 885 1,555 1,512 43 353 173 2 171 596 1,175 1,141 34 77 52.1 39 1 38 106 279 272 7 43 11.7 78 3 75 220 452 435 17 43 23.5 153 7 146 489 850 824 26 134 46.1 17 5.1 46.6 55.3 54.7 54.5 17 66 151 147 4 9 5.4 7.5 9.7 9.7 54.6 67.3 75.6 75.5 21.8 12.1 12.0 17.9 18.0 12.2 24.0 24.9 29.1 28.8 12.2 38.0 2.5 iN o t shown where base is less than 100. Bony defects of rachitic origin. Defects of rachitic origin are intimately connected with deficiency in diet and under a proper dietary régime tend to disappear. The relationship between the grade of diet and bony defects of rachitic origin is definitely indicated by Table 46. Of the children with A and B diets, 11.7 per cent had bony defects of rachitic origin as com pared with 18 per cent of those with D and E diets. Particularly with reference to the defects here considered, a fact already pointed o u t4 must be borne in mind; namely, that a child’s nutrition is the product not of his present diet but of that which he has had through all his previous years. Postural defects. “ Winged shoulders” and other postural defects are common accom paniments of the low muscular tone resulting from poor nutrition. In children of the preschool age, especially during the earlier years, such conditions usually have not become manifest to the same extent as in older children. In the group studied, nevertheless, more than a fourth (25.4 per cent) were found already to have such postural defects. The tendency toward these defects increased with the defectiveness https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis DIETAKY FINDINGS AND PHYSICAL CONDITION. 107 of the diet; 29.1 per cent of the children with D and E diets were found to have defects of posture, as compared with 23.5 per cent of those with A and B diets. Defective tonsils. It is a matter of general knowledge that enlarged or diseased tom sils, or adenoids—with which they are frequently associated—may markedly affect the physical condition of the child— the enlarged ton sils by obstructing the breathing and the diseased ones by the de pressing effect of their toxins. That there may be another relation between abnormal tonsils and poor nutrition, with malnutrition as the cauSe and abnormal tonsils as the result, has more than once been suggested by pediatrists. In connection with this point it is interest ing to note that of the children with A and B diets 46.1 per cent had defective tonsils, as compared with 54.7 per cent of the children with D and E diets. (Table 47.) That the percentage of defective tonsils is noticeably smaller among the children with A and B diets does not, it is true, necessarily signify a cause and effect relationship, for unfavorable conditions other than deficient diets might also be present. Moreover, the preva lence of abnormal conditions of the tonsils is shown in Table 47 to increase with age, such conditions appearing in 2 per cent of the group under 3 years of age, and 53.5 per cent of the 6- to 7-year age group. Since such a relationship has already been suggested by specialists, however, the data here presented at least offer an argument for further investigation of this Doint. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 108 T able 47.— Prevalence o f defective tonsils, by grade o f diet and age o f child. Qrade of diet. Total. . Total................. 2 years, under 3.......... 3 years, under 4.......... 4 years, under 5.......... 5 years, under 6 .......... 6 years, under 7.......... 7 years, under 8 .......... 1 3,125 511 496 549 667 682 220 1,626 203 254 319 377 365 108 Not shown where base is less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 52.0 39.7 51.2 58.1 56.5 53.5 49.1 332 39 76 66 65 69 17 153 15 35 33 31 31 8 Number. Per cent. 1 Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.1 Total. Total. Total. Total. Number. Per cent. Having defective tonsils. Having defective tonsils. Having defective tonsils. Having defective tonsils. Not graded. D and E. C. A and B. Having defective tonsils. Age of child. 46.1 885 489 55.3 1,555 850 54.7 353 134 38.0 27 96 39.1 52.7 57.3 56.0 60.9 54.1 76 234 288 412 408 137 38 50.0 51.3 60.1 58.7 51.5 48.9 327 4 3 123 3 3 37.6 46.1 50.0 47.7 44.9 69 182 192 184 197 61 6 8 1 110 103 120 33 120 173 242 210 67 5 4 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART II. Children 2 to 7 years of age given physical examination. DIETARY FINDINGS AND PHYSICAL CONDITION. 109 Anemia. The method of determining anemia—by the inspection of the mu cous membranes for pallor—is only a rough one, and the cases singled out in this way are those in which the hemoglobin is considerably re duced. Even so, it was found that 7.8 per cent of the children who received physical examination were anemic. (Table 48, Chart IX .) Ch abt IX .—Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age anemic, by grade of diet. Grade of diet: A and B (adequate). G. D and E (inadequate). Although other factors than diet, such as toxins from tonsils, adenoids, and diseased teeth, are more commonly responsible for anemia than is diet, a diet which does not provide sufficient quantities of iron and other constituents of the red corpuscles is quite capable of producing a secondary anemia. It is therefore of interest to note the incidence of anemia in the different diet groups. In this connec tion it must be remembered that according to the findings of the physical examinations the percentage of anemic children increased with age, rising to 16.7 per cent in the seventh year. As is shown in Chart IX , only 5.1 per cent in the highest diet group were anemic, whereas in the lower grades the proportion increased steadily until in the poorest group 9.7 per cent of the children were so classed. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 110 T a b l e 48.— Prevalence o f anem ia, by grade o f diet and age o f child. Children 2 to 7 years of age given physical examination. • Total. Total....... ......... 3,125 243 7.8 332 2 years, under 3.......... 3 years, under 4.......... 4 years, under 6 .......... 5 years, under 6 .......... 6 years, under 7.......... 7 years, under 8 .......... 511 496 549 667 682 5 3 1 .0 .6 39 76 3.8 66 220 21 67 114 33 I Not shown where base is less than 50. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 0 .0 16.7 15.0 65 69 17 17 1 2 11 3 51 1.5 3.1 15.9 885 69 182 192 184 197 61 66 5 25 30 6 7.5 1,555 2 .6 76 234 288 412 408 137 136 15.2 9.8 Number. Per cent.1 Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.1 Total Total. Total. Total. Number. Per cent. Aneimie. Anemic. Anemic. Anemic. Not reported. P and E C A andB Anemic. Age of child. • 151 9.7 353 9 2.5 K l 1.3 1.3 5.2 9.7 17.4 15.3 327 4 3 4 1 .2 m H Ê3 15 40 .71 21 6 8 5 2 3 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART II. Grade of diet. DIETARY FINDINGS AND PHYSICAL CONDITION. I ll Number o f defects. One method of comparing the physical condition of a group of children is by the total number of defects which they are individually found to have. Underweight counts as one defect, carious teeth another; and anemia, bad tonsils, a defective heart, and other abnor mal conditions are each in turn regarded as one defect. Findings in respect to these defects and their significance are presented in detail in another of the reports on the investigation in Gary.5 In Table 49 the proportion of children on good diets who were free from defects is compared with that among children who were less satisfactorily fed. T a b l e 49.— N um ber o f d efects, by grade o f d iet. Children 2 to 7 years of age given physical examination. Total. With specified grade of diet. Number of defects. B C D Per Num cent Per Per Per ber. distri A i Num cent Num cent Num cent bution. ber. distri ber. distri ber. distri bution. bution. bution. E 1 Not grad ed. Total........................... 3,125 1 0 0 .0 19 313 1 0 0 .0 885 1 0 0 .0 1,512 1 0 0 .0 43 353 With defects......................... 2,976 Less than 5.................... 1,789 1 ............................... 332 2 ............................... 440 3............................... 537 4 ............................... 480 5 to 9 .............................. 1,123 5 ............................... 426 6 ............................... 316 7 ............................. 196 8 ............................... 123 9 ............................... 62 10 to 15.......................... 64 1 0 ............................. 30 1 1 ............................. 21 1 2 ............................. 8 13............................. 3 14............................. 1 15............................. 1 Without defects................... 149 95.2 57.2 14 287 182 49 38 91.7 58.1 15.7 846 503 83 128 150 142 324 127 95.6 56.8 9.4 14.5 16.9 16.0 36.6 14.4 9.7 7-3 1,481 818 108 188 259 263 622 229 174 97.9 54.1 7.1 12.4 17.1 17.4 41.1 15.1 11.5 41 17 307 257 89 79 52 37 50 26 13 El 41 19 2!7 1 0 .6 14.1 17.2 15.4 35.9 13.6 1 0 .1 12 1 4 5 2 2 1 1 6.3 3.9 66 29 102 37 36 14 9 6 2 .0 2 .0 1 .0 3 1 2 .1 2 1 .1 9.3 32.6 1 1 .8 11.5 4.5 2.9 1.9 1 .0 65 25 2 .6 .1 1 .3 2.4 19 2 .1 1 .1 .8 .2 7 2 5 26 8.3 2 .8 21 10 .7 .3 (S) (*) 4.8 86 12 6 2 39 4.4 3 5 7 23 6 6 5 E O. 1 j.3 1 .4 .1 .1 .1 31 2 .1 i 2 1 1 2 46 Per cent distribution not shown where base is less than 100. * Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. 1 Only 4.8 per cent of the whole group of children examined had no defects at all, while 57.2 per cent had less than 5, 35.9 per cent had from 5 to 9, and 2 per cent had 10 or more defects. In comparison with these average figures the proportions among children on A and B diets were fairly creditable, the percentage free from defects being 9.3— almost twice the average— while 67.8 per cent were found to »Rude, Anna E., M. D.: Physical Status of Preschool Children, Gary, Ind. Publication No. 111. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis U. S. Children's Bureau 112 CHILDREN OP PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D .— PART II. have less than 5. Compared with other diet groups also the children having A and B diets made a distinctly better showing: Per cent free from defects. A and B diets. C diets........ D and E diets Per cent with less than 5 defects. 9.3 4.4 2.1 67.8 61.2 55.8 Over 4 times as high a percentage of the children in the A and B diet group were free from defects as of those in the D and E groups. The average number of defects, as derived from Table 49, increased from 2.3 for children with A diets, to 3.5 for children with B diets,4— the same as the average for the entire group—for those with C, 4.4 for those with D, and 4.9 for those with E diets. Summary o f relationship between diet and physical condition. In interpreting these relationships, it must be borne in mind that the information regarding diet refers to the diets the children were receiving at the time of the study— doubtless more or less typical o f their customary diets; and that parallelism does not necessarily prove a cause and effect relationship. So many interdependent factors— numbers of which are not investigated at all— are involved in studies like the present one that caution must be used in explaining such relationships. In this exposition, therefore, it has not been intended to give the impression that diet is the only factor— or in some cases that it is necessarily a factor at all— in the causation of the physical defects discussed. In accordance with the recognized fact that an adequate diet is essential for the nutrition of the body— bones, teeth, blood, muscles, and its every component part— and that good nutri tion is an important factor in the prevention of various kinds of bodily defects and disease, this study, involving thousands of cases, has shown that the carefully and adequately fed children were really in the best condition— though other factors than diet may have had a share in making them so. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis S U M M A R Y A N D C O N C L U S IO N S O F D IE T A R Y S T U D Y . The diets of 6,015 children of Gary, Ind., between the ages of 2 and 7, inclusive, were studied by the schedule method. These diets were classified into five groups— A, B, C, D, and E— according to their adequacy and suitability for children of these years. A and B diets are those apparently capable of covering the child's actual requirements; A being both adequate and suitable and B adequate, but with one or more flaws in respect to suitability; C is a diet the adequacy of which is questionable; D diets lack one or more of the essentials of nutrition; and E is an almost totally deficient diet. The diet records were likewise examined for the presence or absence of certain foods commonly depended on for a child's diet— milk, eggs, cereals, vege tables, fruits, potatoes— and for the use of coffee. The practices concerning certain customs of eating—regularity of meals, suitability of foods, type of evening meal, “ piecing/' and adequacy of break fasts and lunches were also considered. In all instances the relation of the different items to age, nationality, income, and other significant factors was examined. Finally, the relation of certain physical conditions to the grades of diet was studied. The outstanding findings in respect to these different items may be summarized as fol lows: Adequacy o f diets. Judged by accepted standards as to what constitutes a diet capable of promoting normal growth and development in children, the large majority of the children studied were not being adequately fed. Less than 10 per cent of the entire group had diets on the day before the agent’s visit which appeared adequate (A and B), and only 25 of this group had diets both adequate and suitable. In fact, nearly two-thirds of the total number of children and three-fourths of the children of all nationality groups, save native whites, Germans, and Lithuanians, had diets which were almost certainly lacking in one or more of the essentials. M ilk. One of the chief factors responsible for so large a percentage of inadequate diets was the scanty use of milk, without which the re quirements of the body—for calcium in particular— can not be met. Only 18.9 per cent of all the children were getting the pint which is almost universally recognized as the minimum necessary, and 57.2 113 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 114 CHILDREN- OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.---- PART II. per cent had no milk at all to drink. In several nationality groups, indeed, three-fourths of the children had no milk to drink; and 970 children of all groups had no milk at all either in food or as a beverage. Coffee .8 A second factor contributing to the inadequate character of the diets was the prevalence of the coffee habit a m o n g these children. Two-thirds of the entire group were found to drink coffee habitually, and 40 per cent to have it more than once a day. Not only so, but in certain of the groups of foreign-horn parentage, coffee was drunk by more than 90 per cent of the children, and three-fourths of the Polish group had it two or more times daily. ' Coffee drinking, moreover, appears to have been inversely propor tional to the use of milk. Not only do the schedules show about the same percentage of children drinking coffee as of those lacking milk, but a comparison of coffee drinking by milk groups shows the use of coffee to increase markedly as the amount of milk decreases. To leave out milk and substitute coffee plays havoc with any diet, what ever may be its redeeming features. Other foods. Milk is not the only desirable food which was little used, since vegetables, fruits, cereals, and eggs were likewise conspicuously lack ing. More than half of all the diets lacked each of these impor tant foods, 60.1 per cent being without fruits, 59.5 per cent without eggs, 76.6 per cent without cereals, and 50.4 per cent without vege tables other than potatoes. Potatoes and meat were present in higher percentages of the diets than any other foods, about twothirds of the total number containing each of these articles of diet. The extensive use of potatoes is one of the most commendable features observed. The extensive use of meat is rather to be regretted, in view of the low incomes of many of the families reached by the study and the absence of more important foods from most of the diets, since when meat is not used the tendency is toward a greater use of more essential foods. Item s lacking. The extreme poverty of the diets is further shown by the fact that nearly half (45.5 per cent) of them lacked as many as four of the foods usually included in a child’s diet to insure that his require ments are met and to provide sufficient variety—milk, eggs, vege tables, potatoes, fruit, cereal, and meat. In five of the nine nation ality groups, moreover, about two-thirds of the children were without four or more of these foods— 69 per cent of the children of colored mothers lacking this number. 8“ Coffee,” throughout this discussion, indicates both coffee and tea. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis SU M M ARY AND CONCLUSION'S OF DIETARY STUDY. 115 Technique o f feeding. Not only were a high percentage of the diets studied of doubtful adequacy, but they were likewise faulty in respect to practices which may be included under the term technique of feeding. Only 3.4 per cent of all the children, and practically none of the children of foreignbom mothers, had meals which were suitable to children of their age, and 18.3 per cent of all had meals which were extremely unsuit able in character. The evening meal of 61 per cent of the children was a “ heavy” one; less than half of the entire group (47 per cent) had meals at regular hours; and eating between meals was almost a universal practice, only 18 per cent of all the children— and in most of the foreign groups less than this percentage—being free from the habit. One-third of all the children and almost two-thirds of the children of Italian mothers had breakfasts of an extremely inadequate type such as “ one cup of coffee,” or “ bread and coffee,” or “ cakes,” or no breakfasts. Lunches of a similar type, or no lunches, were re ported for 16.9 per cent of all the children, 28.1 per cent of the chil dren of Polish mothers, and 40.9 per cent of the children of Negro mothers. Furthermore, 8.2 per cent of all the children, 11 per cent of those of foreign-born mothers, and 17.2 per cent of those of Polish mothers, had neither breakfasts nor lunches that could be considered at all adequate. D iet and physical condition. The percentage of children with no defects was over four times as high in the A and B as in the D and E diet groups. The average number of defects per child increased from 2.3 among children with A diets to 4.9 among those with E diets. The proportion having certain defects closely related to nutrition increased from 5.1 per cent in the A and B grades to 9.7 per cent in the D and E grades in the case of anemia; from 46.1 per cent in the A and B grades to 56.2 per cent in the D and E grades in the case of defective tonsils; from 23.5 per cent to 29.1 per cent for postural defects; from 11.7 per cent to 17.9 per cent for bony defects of rachitic origin; and from 52.1 per cent to 75.6 per cent in the case of carious teeth. On the other hand, little correlation was found between weight for height and grade of diet. Although children living on diets lacking in elements known to be essential to their normal development appeared to thrive when judged solely by the standard of weight for height, it does not seem safe to conclude that these diets are therefore satisfactory; for the effects of a faulty diet may not be immediately apparent, and may not be reflected in the weight. A t any rate the best-fed children in this study were the best ones physically, measured b y standards other than weight, and this relationship was most strikingly true in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 116 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART II. respect to teeth. It seems to be an argument for considering other factors than weight alone in judging the nutrition of a child. It is difficult to determine to what extent these better physical conditions in the better diet grades are due to diet, for it is recognized that other factors doubtless play a part in producing them. But since the most notable deficiency appeared to be the lack of calcium, traceable to the small amounts or total absence of milk, it seems reasonable to conclude that the differences in the proportion of chil dren with defects in the good and the poor diet groups is due in part at least to dietary deficiencies. Nationality. The relation of nationality to the items of diet which have been severally discussed, is one of the most significant observations of this report and may profitably be summarized here. In order to make comparisons among the different nationalities easily possible, Table 50, showing the ranking of the nationalities in respect to these items, has been compiled. In the case of meat, eggs, milk, cereal, fruit, vegetables, and potatoes, and in the grade of diet, the rank is in order of decreasing use of the foods and decreasing adequacy of diets; in the case of coffee, in order of increasing use. For the other features— eating between meals, inadequacy of breakfasts and of lunches, regularity of meals, and lack of four or more specified articles of food— rank is in the order of the more favorable. Statements showing the percentages of children in each nationality group (1) whose chief breadwinners were earning less than $1,250, (2) whose mothers were unable to speak English, and (3) whose mothers were unable to read or write in any language, have also been included for purposes of comparison. The children of native white mothers, it will be noted, rank first in respect to family income, and in the proportion of literate mothers. The diets of these children, likewise, are all above the average, being first in every column except those for coffee, meat, and fruits, and having a favorable position in these. Although better than the others in most respects, the record of this group is not one of which to boast. The proportion of the children included in it who lacked fruits, vegetables, milk, or eggs, and who had inadequate diets, was in each case more than half; close to two-thirds were without cereal; about the same proportion ate between meals; more than one-third were in the coffee-drinking group; and almost one-fourth lacked four or more of the specified items of diet. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 117 SU M M ARY AUD CONCLUSIONS OF DIETARY STUDY. T a b l e 50.— R ela tive ran k o f the d ifferen t n a tio n a lity g rou p s in the p ro p o rtio n s o f children h a vin g o r la ckin g sp ecified item s o f d iet o r fa llin g in certa in sp ecified cla sses. Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age having on selected day— Total............................ Native white.............. Foreign-bom white... Polish.................. Serbo-Croatian__ Slovak................. Magyar................ . Italian................. German............... . Lithuanian........... All other............... Negro........................... 57.2 18.9 i 46.9 61.6 6 64.5 5 59.8 9 73.6 8 70.8 10 75.1 3 51.8 4 57.3 2 48.8 7 65.5 1 7 4 8 9 10 2 6 3 5 59.5 27.9 14.8 12.4 16.7 9.0 48.1 63.8 9 75.4 5 63.9 8 68.3 4 63.2 7 67.9 2 48.7 6 66.7 3 50.5 10 77.2 8 .2 6 .8 2 2 .0 15.9 1 5 9 4 7 10 2 6 3 8 16.0 44.3 43.0 56.0 39.4 52.9 60.4 29.4 46.2 36.6 56.0 50.4 60.1 44.2 53.7 8 59.2 9 61.8 6 51.6 1 38.8 2 41.5 3 42.1 10 64.0 7 52.8 4 43.5 43.5 67.6 7 70.1 10 79.7 9 75.8 6 67.4 4 60.0 2 52.2 8 74.2 3 56.2 5 66.4 5 Per cent. Rank. Per cent. No fruit. No cereal. Rank. Per cent. i Ph 36.1 i 26.3 13.3 Percent. i | Rank. 1P5 other No pota No vege toes. tables. Per cent. d 03 Per cent. No milk 1 pint of as bever milk and No eggs. age. over. Per cent. Color and nationality of mother. 76.6 1 1 5 9 4 7 8 2 10 3 6 62.0 83.0 82.8 90.8 78.9 86.3 89.4 76.8 92.0 76.9 84.5 Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age having on selected dayColor and nationality of mother. No meat. Rank. Per cent. Total. Native white.......... Foreign-bom white. Polish............... Serbo-Croatian.. Slovak.. ........... Magyar........ Italian.............. German............ Lithuanian....... All other.. ____ Negro...................... Tea or coffee. Meat twice and three times. Meat. Rank. Tea or coffee twice Per cent. and over. 33.1 65.7 18.7 66.8 39.9 28.6 35.2 39.9 43.6 33.5 24.4 40.8 29.4 21.3 32.5 35.3 69.7 64.0 59.2 55.7 66.3 74.9 57.0 69.7 76.9 66.7 62.5 16.5 19.3 13.7 15.7 20.5 26.8 16.6 21.5 28.9 22.4 24.1 35.2 83.8 91.2 87.4 94.3 92.4 85.3 68.4 84.9 67.2 31.0 15.2 53.5 76.2 53.7 70.3 55.0 18.1 24.1 57.8 35.8 6.9 Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age. Total. Native white........... Foreign-bom white. Polish................ Serbo-Croatian.. Slovak.............. . Magyar.............. Itahan............... German............. Lithuanian........ All other............ Negro....................... 1 45.5 60.5 22.7 54. 8 60. 5 10 71.4 5 53. 8 4 47. 8 7 63.4 2 31.6 8 65.8 3 41.2 9 69.0 42.5 68.3 7 75.6 5 72.4 9 76.7 8 75.9 10 77.0 3 57.0 4 62.7 2 51.6 6 72.4 l è 1 Includes children with no breakfast. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 8.9 1 __ 9 5 47.0 19.2 4.3 i 1 .1 9 2.4 10 7 2 .2 2 .1 7 4 8 2 10 1.5 11.4 .9 6 -2 . 8 ’ 1 0 .8 a, 5 6 3 4 4.3 65.9 38.7 32.9 29.1 34.1 43.0 39.2 55.7 33.8 49.5 39.7 80.5 32.6 l 6 6 .6 9 5 87.3 91.7 85.2 89.2 10.5 43.9 9 55.1 8 51.8 5 43.2 7 51.2 10 60.8 3 23.7 6 44.0 4 24.9 2 16.8 8 6 7 3 10 4 2 8 6 .2 87.9 80.7 92.0 83.3 75.4 1 J Includes children with no lunch. Per cent. Rank. Per cent. 403 Rank. 4o3 « Eating With in With in between adequate adequate meals. breakfast.1 lunch.* Per cent. With regular meals. Percent. Per cent. With A and B diet grades. Rank. Per cent. I08 | Rank. Lacking 4 With D or more and E items in diet diet. grades. Per cent. Color and nationality of mother. 16.9 1 6.9 9 7 28.1 20.4 27.1 18.2 11.7 2 0 .2 8 5 3 2 6 4 10 1 0 .1 19.6 13.3 40.9 118 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D.— PART II. T a b l e 50 — R ela tiv e ran k o f the d ifferen t n a tio n a lity g rou p s in the p ro p o r tio n s o f child ren h a vin g o r la ck in g sp ecified item s o f d iet o r fa llin g in certa in sp ecified cla sses— (j on. Per cent of children 2 to 7 years of age. Color and nationality of mother. In families with earnings of chief breadwinner under $1,250. With mother unable to speak English. With mother unable to read and write. Rank. Per cent. Rank. Per cent. Rank. Per cent. Native white......................................................... Foreign-bom white................................................ 1 8 5 9 4 6 2 7 3 10 26.9 55.3 62.6 54.7 643 52.6 58.9 37.7 60.0 45.7 71.6 23.3 36.6 47.1 2 10 9 6 4 7 3 8 5 1 .2 55.9 80.0 70.7 48.7 34.7 62.3 1 1 .0 65.8 39.1 8 2 10 6 .5 35.0 40.6 55.4 23.8 10.7 45.7 5.7 67.1 26.7 3 6 .0 1 7 9 5 4 The children of German mothers rank second to those of native white mothers in respect to maternal literacy and earnings of chief breadwinner, and are, correspondingly, next to them in rank in most of the other columns. Neither the children of native white nor those of German parentage, however, rank so much better than the others as the economic status, greater percentage of literacy, and other ad vantages of these groups would lead one to expect. At the other extreme of the earnings scale were the colored fami lies. Since in the homes of 71.6 per cent the income was under $ 1,250, it is not surprising to find about three-fourths of the colored chil dren without eggs, milk, or cereals, and having inadequate diets; about two-thirds without milk or fruits; and more than two-fifths without vegetables other than potatoes. In contrast, two-thirds of this group had meat and a fourth of them had it more than once a day. In view of the low income and the absence of milk and other essential foods, this use of meat must be regarded as of doubtful ad vantage. The most commendable feature of the diets of these chil dren was the fact that less than one-third of them drank coffee. This was the best coffee record among all the race and nationality groups. The highest percentage of inadequate diets as well as of extremely inadequate breakfasts was found among the children of Italian moth ers; the milk record of this nationality was also the poorest, 75.1 per cent of the children receiving none to drink and only 6.8 per cent hav ing so much as a pint. The record of the children of this group was likewise among the poorest in reference to most other items, sjnce approximately 85.3 per cent drank coffee, had no cereal, and ate between meals, about two-thirds were without eggs, and the same proportion lacked four or more of the specified items. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis SUM M ARY AND CONCLUSIONS OF DIETARY STUDY. 119 Worthy of remark in respect to the Italians is their high rank in the use of vegetables and fruits, and low rank in the use of meat. Their use of vegetables exceeded that of all nationalities save the Magyars, not even excepting the native whites, and their use of fruits that of all save the native whites and the Germans. Even so, their record is not remarkably high; for 41.5 per cent of the children had no vegetables other than potatoes, and 60 per cent, no fruits. When it is observed that the mothers of nearly half the children of this group were illiterate, that the mothers of almost two-thirds were unable even to speak English, and that the chief breadwinners’ earnings in the families in which 58.9 per cent of them lived were under $1,250, the low rating of the children of Italian parentage is more readily understood. In every item save cereal and potatoes the children of Polish mothers were below the average of the foreign born. Particularly to be remarked were their excessive use of coffee, 91.2 per cent drinking it and 76.2 per cent having it two or more times a day; their high percentages of inadequate breakfasts (55.1 per cent) and lunches (28.1 per cent); their almost universal custom of “ piecing” (91.7 per cent); their meager use of milk (64.5 per cent having none), fruits (70.1 per cent having none), eggs (75.4 per cent having none), and vegetables (59.2 per cent having none other than potatoes); and their general use of meat (only 39.9 per cent having none). The diet of bread, coffee, and meat commonly credited to this nationality seems to have been generally characteristic of this group. That 62.6 per cent of these children were in income groups under $1,250, and that the mothers of 40.6 per cent were illiterate and those of 80 per cent unable to speak English, are facts worthy of consideration in connection with these deficiencies of diet. Not strikingly different from the Polish group were the SerboCroatians, Slovaks, and Lithuanians; in the large majority of the items these four groups occupy places among the four or five poorest. The Lithuanians rank poorest for eating between meals, use of vege tables and cereal, and literacy, and rank first in the meat list; while the Serbo-Croatians rank lowest in the meat column, as well as in the columns for fruits and regular meals, and are high in no respect. The Magyar group, on the other hand, was noticeably better than the Polish, their record being more comparable with that of the Ger mans. This is not surprising in view of the fact that in income, literacy, and ability to speak English, their record was not far behind that of this nationality. Worthy of mention is the fact that the greatest percentage of children eating vegetables was found among the Magyar group. 14683°— 23----- 9 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 120 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IN D .— PART II. Incom e. It is a popular assumption that the explanation for inadequacy of children’s diets must be looked for largely if not solely in the economic status of their parents. That the earnings of the family breadwinner had some share in determining the type of diet of a child in the present Ch abt X —Use of certain item s of diet in relation to earnings of chief breadwinner; children 2 to 7 years of age. Earnings of chief breadwinner. 100°/. Under $850____ $850 to $1,049... $1,050 to $1,249. $1,250 to $1,449. $1,450 to $1,849. $1,850 to $2,249. $2,250 and over. Under $850.............. $850 to $1,049.......... $1,050 to $1,249....... $1,250 to $1.449____ $1,450 to $1,849____ $1,850 to $2,249........ $2,250 and over....... U S I N G T E A OR C O F F E E Under $850....... $850 to $1,049... $1,050 to $1,249. $1,250 to $1,449. $1,450 to $1,849. $1,850 to $2,249. $2,250 and over. HAVING D AND E GRADES OF DIO Under $850....... $850 to $1,049... $1,050 to $1,249.. $1,250 to $1,449.. $1,450 to $1,849.. $1,850 to $2,249. $2,250 and over. Under $850....... $850 to $1,049... $1,050 to $1,249. $1,250 to $1,449. $1,450 to $1,849. $1,850 to $2,249. $2,250 and over. study has already been suggested. Chart X , which summarizes in graphic form the relationship of income to each of the most important dietary factors with which this report is concerned, indicates the closeness of the relationship. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis SU M M ARY AND CONCLUSIONS OF DIETARY STUDY. 121 In the groups with earnings less than $1,250 there appears to have been little variation as to the use of the different foods or as to the grade of diet, though the use of fruit shows some increase with better earnings even here. After the income reaches $1,250, however, there is a steady though gradual increase in the consumption of all foods and in the diet grade, and a corresponding decrease in coffee drink ing and in the percentage of diets lacking four or more items. Of the desirable foods, fruit shows the most rapid increase in use, the per centage of children having it being doubled in the range of income from $1,250 to $2,250. Meat, on the other hand, shows the least change, there being less than 7 per cent difference between the two extremes of income; and vegetables and cereals also vary but slightly within this range. The study shows that meat and vegetables vary comparatively little with any factors, about two-thirds of all children having meat, and less than 50 per cent eating vegetables. Although better diet conditions are to a considerable degree coin cident with higher earnings, it is apparent from Chart X that factors other than poverty must also play a part in keeping the diets on the low plane which they largely occupy. Were income alone responsible, surely there would not be among the children in the highest income group 62.1 per cent without cereals, 44.4 per cent without vegetables, 42.2 per cent without eggs, 38.5 per cent without milk, 30.4 per cent without fruit, 22.9 per cent without potatoes, and 33.6 per cent drinking coffee. Racial dietary prejudices may in part account for the failure to use cereals and potatoes, but they do not explain the prevalence of coffee drinking or the lack of eggs, milk, fruit, and vegetables. The conclusion seems to be warranted that ignorance of the needs of growing children, the lack of reali zation of the importance of these foods in a young child’s diet, and the consequent failure to provide them or to make certain they are eaten, are also important factors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis G ENERAL S U M M A R Y AN D CO N CLU SIO N S. This inquiry into the conditions surrounding children of preschool age in Gary, Ind., based upon the information secured from the moth ers of 6,015 children, and representing 3,991 families, has revealed certain favorable conditions in the community and in the families of the children and others that tend to affect adversely their health and welfare. COM M UN ITY CONDITIONS. Sewer and water systems had been so constructed that they could readily be extended, and the purity of the water supply was safe guarded; but in some of the less developed sections sewer connections and city water supply were lacking in many homes. Garbage col lection and disposal, street cleaning, and inspection of alleys were receiving regular attention (by the end of the period of the study). The milk and food supply was protected by an adequate ordinance— enforced by one milk and food inspector— and the municipal laboratory was equipped to render the services required of it. Housing regulations were distinctly inadequate, with the result that not only housing shortage but such evils as lot overcrowding, rear houses, and badly constructed tenements and “ shacks” appeared in some sections. The health office had an insufficient staff consisting of a part-time health officer and one nurse. A sanitary inspector and a deputy were employed, however, to inspect housing and sanitation. In the summer of 1918 a beginning was made in municipal child-health work through a station in the center of the foreign district, with a city nurse who was employed as a member of the police staff in charge, for the care of children between the ages of 2 and 6 years as well as of infants. Aside from the playgrounds in connection with schools, the city had in 1918 only one municipal playground. However, compara tively few large districts were so overcrowded that children of the ages here considered had altogether inadequate play space, and the city was ambitious to provide more ample park and playground facil ities. Many of the children had yards of their own, or shared by two or three families. Since the time of the study, the annexation of a town has made possible a lake-front park. 123 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis H O M E CONDITIONS AND THE CARE OF TH E CHILDREN. The mothers of almost- two-thirds of the children considered had been born outside the United States, and were of many different nationalities, the Slavic predominating; the mothers of only 4 per cent were colored. Inability to speak English handicapped the mothers of 37 per cent of the children and the fathers of 11 per cent. The mothers of almost one-fourth of the children and the fathers of about one-eighth were unable to read or write in any language. All but 6 per cent of the children were living in homes in which both the mother and the father were present. Family life in the group studied was relatively stable; almost four-fifths of the families had moved from one city to another but once or not at all. The families were found to be of average size; two-thirds of the children were in families with from four to six members living in the home. Almost two-thirds of the children were living in districts of comparatively slight develop ment with reference to sanitation and with largely foreign populations. The information secured in the course of the inquiry indicates to some extent the degree to which the mothers and fathers were able to give their children the essentials of care with reference to shelter, food, recreation, and hygienic habits. No information was obtained re garding clothing, nor were data secured with reference to the moral training of the children. Their physical condition has been described in a separate report.7 Housing. Favorable aspects of the housing as found in this study were the predominance of the one- or two-family dwelling (three-fourths of the children lived in dwellings of this type,) and the possibilities of cross ventilation (nine-tenths lived in homes which on at least three sides had doors or windows opening to the outer air.) Not quite two-fifths of the children lived in houses equipped with sink, water-closet, and bathtub, and the homes of one-fifth lacked all these sanitary con veniences. Almost four-fifths of the children lived in homes which were not dependent upon a water supply located outside the dwelling. The families of four-fifths of the children did not share a toilet with any other family. Of the 6,015 children included in the study, one-fourth were in households which were overcrowded, according to the standard of two or more persons per room. i Rude, Anna E., M. D.: Physical Status of Preschool Children, Gary, Ind. U. S. Children’s Bureau Publication No. 111. 124 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis GENERAL SUM M ARY AND C O N C L U S IO N S . 125 Economic status. The chief breadwinner (almost always the father) in 28 per cent of the families earned less than $1,050 a year, and in almost three-fifths he earned less than $1,450. In only 15 per cent of the families did the chief breadwinner’s earnings reach or exceed $1,850. The chief breadwinners of three-fifths of the families were employed in the steel industry. Although the information regarding earnings was secured for the year 1917, a year relatively free from unemployment, 52 per cent of the chief breadwinners had experienced periods of nonemploy ment of from 1 to 12 months’ duration. Illness, of self or some other member of the family, was the major cause of nonemployment most often reported, but in 9 per cent of the cases in which the chief bread winner was a wage earner he had lost working tune from industrial causes beyond his control. During the same year the mothers in about three-fifths of the families were not gainfully employed, either within their homes or outside. The mothers of 33 per cent kept lodgers or did other gainful work at home, and the mothers of only 5 per cent did work which took them outside the home. One child in 13 had been deprived of the care of his mother for longer or shorter periods— during the day, at least—because of the mother’s employment. The majority of the children whose mothers had been employed outside the home were cared for at home, by an adult in the household or b y an older child. The mothers of three-fifths of the children had no help with their household tasks. H abits o f cleanliness. Only 21 children failed to receive at least one bath a week in the summer time. In winter, 6 per cent were not bathed thus often, and 61 per cent more were not bathed more than once a week. The younger children were bathed more frequently than the older. Sleep. The amount of sleep the children were receiving appeared to be inadequate in at least one-twelfth of the cases. Daytime naps were not common, and 42 per cent of the 2- and 3-year-old children not receiving daytime naps were sleeping less than 12 hours nightly. Nearly two-fifths of the children failed to observe a regular hour for retiring and about the same proportion did not have a regular time for rising. About one-third of the children were sleeping in some of the clothes they wore by day. Only about one-half slept with open windows at all seasons. Four per cent of the children occupied bedrooms alone, and 42 per cent slept four, five, six, or more in a room. Not quite one-fourth of the children had separate beds; 27 per cent shared beds with two other persons. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 126 C H IL D R E N OF P R E SC H O O L A G E , G A R Y, IN D . D iet. Less than 10 per cent of the children were receiving diets which according to the scale used appeared in every way adequate to their needs; 29.2 per cent were receiving diets of questionable adequacy, and 60.5 per cent had diets plainly incapable of covering all their bodily requirements. The younger children had slightly better diets than the older ones. With reference to specific items of the diet, only 18.9 per cent of the children were receiving the amount of milk which it is agreed is the minimum they should be given, and more than half the children (57.2 per cent) had no milk at all to drink on the day to which the information relates.8 On the other hand, more than two-thirds of the children had coffee or tea on the day of the study, many of them more than once. Three-fifths of the diets did not include eggs, threefourths lacked cereals, and half included no vegetables except potatoes. Potatoes and meat were used more generally, each being present in about two-thirds of the diets. Meals were irregular and unsuited to the needs of children in the majority of cases, and eating between meals was almost universal. In the cases of one-twelfth of all the children both breakfast and lunch failed to meet an extremely low standard of adequacy. The clinical findings failed to indicate any definite relation between the grade of diet and the weight of the children; however, the phys ical examinations showed that on the whole the children receiving the better diets were more free from defects and in better physical condition. Variations of care according to nativity and race. In practically all respects the foreign-born mothers and the colored mothers were less able than the native white to give their children adequate care. The proportion of home ownership was highest among the foreign bom, due possibly to the fact that company pro vision for housing had been more complete for the native white population. But in respect to sanitary conveniences such as city water, flush toilets, and bathtubs, the native white ranked first, the foreign born second, and the colored third. The homes of foreignbom mothers were the most overcrowded, and the homes of the native white the least. Economic conditions were better in the homes of children whose mothers were native white than in the homes of those whose mothers were foreign bom or colored. The chief breadwinner’s annual earn ings fell below $850 in the cases of 7 per cent of the children in the first group, but of 17 per cent of those in the second and 24 per cent of those in the third. * For description of method of securing data, see p. 53. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis general summary and conclusions. 127 In about three-tenths of the families with native white mothers, in two-fifths of those with foreign bom , and in over half of those with colored mothers, the mother had been gainfully employed during the period covered by the inquiry. The proportion of mothers who received no help in their household tasks was largest among the foreign bom and smallest among the native white. No significant differences between the different race and nativity groups appeared with reference to time spent outdoors and hours of sleep, but in other items native white mothers usually ranked first; sometimes the foreign bom and sometimes the colored had second place. Children of foreign-bom mothers were bathed less often than children of native white or of colored mothers. The su periority of the homes of the native white with reference to sanitary conveniences must be borne in mind in this connection. Observing a regular hour for going to bed was the practice for 80 per cent of the children in the native white group, 63 per cent of the colored chil dren, and 53 percent of the children in the group of foreign-bom parent age. The children of native white and of colored mothers also retired at earlier hours than the children in the other group. A smaller pro portion of colored children than of the children of native white or of foreign-bom mothers used as night clothing part of their day time apparel. With respect to ventilation of the bedroom, the care of the children of native white mothers was markedly superior, and the children of the foreign bom had the poorest records. Over crowding in the bedroom was much more prevalent in the homes of the foreign bom than in those of the other two groups. An analysis of the rank of the various nationality groups accord ing to the various items in the diets of the children has been given elsewhere in this report. (See pp. 60, 62.) In most respects the diets of the children of native white mothers were superior to the diets of children in other groups. However, almost half of the children in this favored group had inadequate diets according to the standard employed in this study. The diets of about seven-tenths of the colored children and the children of foreign-born parentage were inadequate. Variations o f care according to income. The definite correlation between income and infant mortality revealed by infant mortality studies made by the Children’s Bureau appeared in the Gary study of infant mortality, the infant death rate being lower in the higher income groups. Similarly, in this study the children of preschool age living in families with the higher incomes were receiving the most nearly adequate care. More than one-tenth of the children in the earnings group under $1,050 had been deprived of the care of their mothers for longer or shorter https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 128 C H IL D R E N OF P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , IN D . periods because of the mothers’ gainful employment outside the home. The mothers of half the children in the highest earnings group ($1,850 or over) had hired assistance in their household tasks, in contrast to much lower percentages in the other groups. Crowding of bedrooms was more usual in families in which the breadwinner’s earnings were low. The use of different foods and the grade of diet showed little variation when comparison was made of the three lowest income groups only. Above $1,250, however, there seemed to be a relation between income, consumption of food, and diet grade. Yet income alone did not appear to be the determining factor in the diets of the children. The discussion of diets has pointed out that ignorance of the needs of growing children and of the importance of certain essential foods is at least equally responsible with the economic factor for the deficiencies found. CONCLUSIONS. The findings of this study relate only to the children of one city; doubtless similar conditions, with more or less minor variations, exist in many other communities. Certain of the conditions revealed may be remedied by community action for better housing and by still further extension of sewer and water connections. Increased earnings in many of the homes would undoubtedly result in more adequate care of the children. Of fundamental and immediate importance, also, is the education of the mothers in the essentials of child care— the food requirements of children and the methods of preparing suitable meals for them, and their needs with reference to sleep, fresh air, and cleanliness. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis AP PE N D IX A . SAM PLE D IETS FO R TH E VARIOUS D IET GRADES. G r a d e A .— A d equ a te a n d su ita b le in character. [Age, 2 years.] Hour. Meal. Dinner............................... Supper............................... Milk. Other foods. 8 .0 0 Oatmeal, toast, prunes. 12.30 ....... d ò .................... Mashed potato, spinach, soft egg, bread and butter. 5.30 ....... d o .................... Toast, baked apple. Comments: Contains 1 J pints milk, a vegetable besides potato, two fruits, and an egg. Requirements seem well covered. Foods are suitable in character, meals regular and at good hours. There is no hap hazard eating between meals. G r a d e B .— C on ta in s essen tia l elem ents bu t fa ils to m easure u p to A standard. [Age, 4 years.] Meal. Hour. Milk. Other foods. Breakfast....... 8.15.............. Half pint....... Shredded wheat biscuit, 1 dish cornflakes, and milk. Dinner........... 1 2 . 0 0 ............ None............... Steak, potatoes, navy beans, bread, and butter. Supper........... 5.30.............. ....... d o ............. Steak, roast pork, sweet corn, potato, buttermilk, apple pie, cheese. Other............. Irregularly ....... d o ............. Crackers, apple, ice-cream cone, muskmelon. during day. Comments: Child probably has 1 pint of milk but not the 1J pints for the A standard. The requirements may be covered but the meals are not ideal, and eating between meals is too promiscuous for an A diet. G r a d e C.— Q u estion a ble. [Age, 6 years.] Meal. Hour. Milk. Other foods. Breakfast...... 9.30.............. None............... Cocoa and oatmeal. Dinner........... 1 . 0 0 .............. ....... d o............. Beef, potatoes, apple, bread, and butter. Supper.......... 7.00.............. Half pint....... 2 fried eggs, canteloupe, bread, and butter. Other............. 9 p. m. (ir None............... 2 or 3 plums, crackers. regular). Comments: Diet is better than D diets because of some milk, fruits, eggs, and whole cereal. It can not be graded as B because milk is under standard, and it is doubtful if requirements are all met. Meals are irregular and “ piecing” common. G r a d e D .— Inadequ ate. [Age, 4 years.] Meal. Hour. Milk. Other foods. Breakfast....... 7.30.............. 1 cup coffee, bread. Dinner........... 1 .0 0 (irregu . . . . . d o ............. 1 cup tea, 2 cakes. lar). Supper.......... 6.30.............. ....... d o ............. Beef soup with carrots, potato, beans, 2 slices bread. Other tim es.. Irregular— ....... d o ............. Bread. Comments: Without milk the calcium can not fail to be low. The diet appears unquestionably low in calories, in adequate protein, in minerals, and in vitamines. It perhaps should be called an E diet, but the meat and vegetables make it somewhat superior to ones rated as E. G r a d e E .— E xtrem ely in ad equate. [Age, 5 years.] Meal. Hour. Milk. Other foods. Breakfast...... 9.00.............. Coffee, 1 slice bread. Spaghetti, bread, root beer. 1.00_____ Supper.......... 6 . 0 0 .............. ....... d o ............. Lettuce with vinegar, bread, root beer. Other............. Irregular___ ....... d o ............ Bread. Comments: Diet seems totally lacking in all requirements of an adequate diet. 131 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 132 C H IL D R E N OF PR ESC H O O L AGE, G A R Y , IN D . APPEN SCHEDULE USED Father, Sym. Surname. BA B Y —N. 1. Name. S. N. 2. B. G. 3. L. B., S. B., M. 4. L. I ................................................................. 5. Date of birth.................................................................................... * ..1 9 1 6 . 6 . Attendant: (a) Phy’n, Hosp., Mwf., Oth., N. (b) Late, N . . . ..............hrs. (c) Name....... ...................1............ ........... ¿ ............. .............................. 7. Died: (a) Date.......................................... 191 (b) Age............... m ............ (c) Phy’n............................................ ............................................- ......... (d) D. C. Causes:...................................................................................... . 8. m. Feeding: (a) Breast only, through................ ........m. (b) Weaned end of. (c) Food: Cow’s milk, N . Cond. milk, N. Solid food, N........ ^.. Prop, foods, N. (specify)............................................ . . . . . . . . (d) Supervised by: N., Phy’n, Nurse, Lit., Oth.................................... (ej Cause of weaning:................................, ........................................................... Phy’n, N. 9. Bedroom: (a) Sep. room, N.- A d ...................Ch................... Total............................................. (b) Specify oth. occ............................................................................................... . ................ (c) Sep. bed, N. A d ...................Ch................... Total...................... .................................. (d) Specify oth. occ...................................................................... ..................... .................... . (e) Window open: Winter, N.; Summer, N ................................................................. ....... 10. No. baths per wk.: W ......................... S.......................................................... ...................... . 11. Outdoor air: (a) Amount___________ hrs. (b) Place.......................................................... ........ MOTHER—12. Prenatal care: (a) Lit., N.; Nurse, N.; Phy’n, N. 1 2 3 4 5 7 6 8 9 Phys. exam. (d) H. L. A., N. (e) Meas., N. (c) Urine exam., N ...................... Confinement: 13. No. visits after by (a) Att’d....................... .........(b) Oth. med................ . 14. In bed...................d. 15. Complications: (a) Instr. del., N.; (b) C. S., N.; (c) Conv., N .................................................. (b) Duration. 16. Nursing care: (a) Kind. * 17. Help with h’wk. (a) Acc’t preg., N.; (b) A cc’t coni., N.; (c) Usual, N.; (d) Special, N.; * is. Mother’s Employment History. (c) Extent. (b) Industries. (a) Occupations. 19. Work year before confinement: (a) Lodgers....................... (b) Oth. gain, home (specify)........................................ (c) Outside (specify)....................................................... 20. W ork year after confinement: (a) Lodgers.......................... (b) Oth. gain, home (specify)........................ . .............. (c) Outside (specify)..................................................... 21. From baby acc’t wk. from............... ..mo. to....................... (b) Extent.......................... ............................ ......... (c) Caretaker............................. — ...................... Age. (d) Oth. (specify)............................................... ............ 2 2 . (a) Age............(Mo.............,1917); (b) Marriage ages.......... (c) Duration................................. ......... .. ............................... 23. No. (d) Ages. ...ceased............ bef. ...ceased............ bef. ...ceased.............bef. .resumed.............aft. .resumed.............aft. .resumed.............aft. .mo. (a) Reg., Irreg. ____ .A t home, Away M ATERN ITY HISTORY. (a) Sex. (fi) C’ s age 1917. 1 2 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (c) Mo. of birth. (d) M’s age. (e) Period gest. (0 Cause of death. (g) Age at death. 133 A P P E N D IX E S . D IX B . IN STUDY. Mother’s maiden name.................................... ............. ...................................................................................... Sym. F A T H E R —24. (a) O c c................................................................................... (b ) In d. (c) A ge.................... yrs. (d ) E m p., O w n a cc’t, W age earner............... ........ IN COM E—25. Father’s wages $................................. per hr., day, wk., m o., y r.. 26. N onem p.: N . (Specify causes and periods)........................................................... ....... ...........................................................................' . . ................ 27. Ann. earn. $............................... 28. Mother’s earnings: (a) Outside#...................................................(b)L odg. $............................... (c) Oth. gain, home wk., $....................................................... (d) Total $...... ........................ 29. Other sources....................................................................................... ..T ota l# ............................... (S) Agg. $.................... / . ----HOME—30. Lived in home described from............................................... ,19 to................... , 1918. 31. Bldg, faces Al., St., Rear. 32. Dwel. in bldg......................................33. Floor: B, 1, 2, 3, 4. 34. Air on 4, 3, 2,1 sides. 35. Persons: (a) Fam............... (b) Oth................... (c) T ot................... 36. Specify others: (a) A d ................(b) Ch...........¿ ..(c) Relationship to children............................ 37. R oom s............. 38. S leep.rm s..............39. D arkrm s. (a) N o..............(b ) U se..... 40. W ater: (a) City, Dug well, Dr. well, Cist, (b ) In dwel., Out dwel. (specify .). 41. Toilet: (a) W . C., P . (b ) In dwel., Hall, Por., Cel., Y d . (c) Fam . using. 42. Bath, N . 43. Sink, N . 44. R en ta l# .................... p e rm .; Own, Buying___ 45. Description of premises (yd ., bldg., and d w el.)................................................. 46; (a) (d) (b ) (c) (e) (f) (g) N. W . N . W .. Yrs. in Yrs. m N . P . F . M. P. N . B. F .W . F. 0 . U , S. city. (h) (i) Country Nation of birth. ality. M ......... F .. .. (j) Spk. Eng. (k) R . and W. Y . N .. Y . N .. Y . N .. Y . N 47. Removals since January 1,1911. (a) Came to (specify city and State). (b ) Mo. and yr. 48. W ill m other bring or send children to conferences: Y . N ................... 49. Prefers appointment: (a) A . M., P . M. (b ) M., T ., W ., Th., F ., S. R ough Notes: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (c) Cause. 134 Sym. C ity and State.......................................................................Street address........................................................................ W d .........................s - N oL IV IN G C H IL D R E N 2 T O 7 Y E A R S O F A G E (a) Hour. 4. Present diet. (b) A rose..............A. M.; Usual, N. (c) Nap, N................ hrs.; Usual, N. (d) Total sleep.......... hrs., Usual, N. 6. Bedroom: Child A w a y from Mother. 10. (a) A ges. I (b ) E xtent and duration. 1L Illnesses: (a) Sc. fe v e r ......... yrs., N. (b ) W h. cgh................. yrs., N. (c) M easles............. yrs., N. (d ) Inf. paral. 12. Out-of-doors: (a) No. hrs. d a il y .................... (b ) R em arks........................................................................ - .......................... 4. Present diet. Morning.......... N oon ............... N ight............... Other............... (a ) Hour. (b ) Usual. Y . N. Y . N. Y . N. Y . N. (f) Remarks. (e) Age of ctker. (c) Causes. yrs., N. (d ) Menu dav preceding visit (food and beverages). (c) A m t. m ilk. I 6. Bedroom: (a ) Separate room, N . (specify other occ.)....................................- - - .............. - - - .............. - - - - - - ..................................................... . . . C h ............. A d . . . . . . . T o t a l . (b ) Separate bed, N . (specify other occ.)............... ... ---C h . . . . . . . A d - . . : . a o ta i.............................................................- - - \v (c) W indows open nights: w inter, N , Summer, N . 7. Nightclothes: (a ) Specify............. — . . . . . . . - ...... ........................(b ) W orn during day, jn . per 8. No. baths p erw 1 k .: W in t e r ..............S u m m e r............... 9. bentist: (a ) Y . N . (b ) E xtract, Y . N . (c) Other, Y . N . (specify causes and num ber of visits).......... ..... 10. (a ) Ages. (b ) E xtent and duration. (c) Causes. (d ) Caretaker. (e) Age of ctker. (d ) Inf. paral................yrs., N. (c) M easles............. yrs., N. 11. Illnesses fa) Sc. fe v e r ___ . . yrs., N. (b ) W h. cgh. ............. yrs., N. um>oi-aoors: w i n o . m s, u a u v .................... ......................................................................................................... v ¿, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ff) Remarks. OF P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , I N D . 8 (a) Separate room, N. (specify other occ.)................................ ................. v - ............................................................................Ch..........* A d.......... ' T ota l.. (b) Separate bed, N. (specify other occ.)............. .Ch — .A d . . . . . . . J-otai.......................................................................... Tnv Vfav" N* — .. — .......... (b ) (c) Windows open nights: Winter, N, Summer, N. 7. Nightclothes: (a) Specify.......... No baths per wk.: W inter............ Summer.............. 9. bentist: (a) Y . N. (b) Extract, Y. N. (c) Other, if. N. (specify causes and number of visits).......... C H IL D R E N Other............... 5. Sleep: (a) R etired............ P. M.; Usual, N. S .N . (d ) Menu day preceding visit (food and beverages). (b ) Usual. | (c) A m t, milk. Y . N. Y . N. Y . N. Y . N. 1„ 1. Preg. no. 2. Age ............. yrs. 3. Inf. feeding: (a) Breast only, th ro u g h ___ ____ m . (b ) Weaned end o f ............. m . (d ) Menu day preceding visit (food and beverages). (a ) Hour. (b ) Usual. (c) A m t. milk. Y . N. Y . N. Y . N. Y . N. Other............... 5. Sleep: (a) R e tire d ............. P . M.; Usual, N. (b ) A r o s e ...............A . M.; Uspal, N. (c) Nap, N._...............hrs.; Usual, N. (d ) Total s le e p ........... hrs.: Usual, N. 3« 4. Present diet. 14683 6. Bedroom : (a) (b ) (c) 8. No. baths per O Separate room , N . (specify other o cc .).......................................................................................................................................... ...C h . — A d ............ T o t a l. Separate bed, N. (specify other occ.)...................................... Ch.............A d .............. Total — ................................................................................ ..................... W indows open nights: W inter, N , Summer, N. 7. N ightclothes: (a) Specify........................................................................... (b ) W orn during day, N. wk.: W in te r............. Summer . . . . ____ 9. Dentist: (a) Y . N. (b ) Extract, Y . N. (c) Other, Y . N. (specify causes and number of visits).......... 10 ._________________________________ ___________________________________ Child A w ay from Mother. (a ) Â ges. " (b ) E xten t and duration. (c) Causes. (d ) Caretaker. (e) Age of ctker. (f) Remarks. .......... Mother dead: (a) D a t e ................................... (b ) C ity and State Schedule inf. given b y M., F ., Oth. (sp e c ify )................. ... (c) C auses.................................................................... .......... .............................. ................... A g e n t :..................................................................... D a t e :...................................... . 1918. A P P E N D IX E S . 11. Illnesses: (a) Sc. fe v e r .......... yrs., N. (b ) W h. cgh................yrs., N . (c) M easles...............yrs., N . (d ) Inf. paral................. yrs., N. 12. Out-of-doors: (a) No. hrs. d a il y ..................... (b ) Remarks— ....... ............................................ ............. ............................................ . 135 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis GENERAL TABLES, G e n e r a l T a b l e I .— N um ber o f years residence o f fo r e ig n -b o m m others in the U nited S ta tes, by n a tio n a lity o f m other. -- -------------------- -— - -- ... Children 2 to 7 years of age of foreign-born mothers. Number of years residence of mother in United States. Nationality of mother. Total. Less than 5 years. 5 years and over. Not reported. Number'. Per cent. -Number. Per cent.- Number. Per cent. Total...................... P olish ................... Serbo-Croatian.................. Slovak.................. Magyar...................... Italia n ....................... German .................... Lithuanian............... A ll other foreign b orn ................ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 199 5.1 32 9 10 17 5.5 11 78 4.9 9.0 3,696 94.0 39 1.0 875 94.8 94.0 96.5 95.9 91.7 96.9 95.1 11 3 10 2 5 2 1.2 .5 1.8 .7 1.9 .9 OO^j 279 214 785 .7 140 G e n e r a l T a b l e I I .— N um ber o f p erson s in fa m ily , by co lo r and n a tio n a lity o f m oth er. Children. 2 to 7 years of age. Number of persons in family. © 36 0.6 5 2 .4 1 .4 4 10 2 .5 4.3 £ 58 28 16 3 3 1 2 1 6 14 l N ot shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 .0 593 327 218 34 33 17 17 10 .4 19 14 74 .7 45 6 .0 3 1 .5 .4 .3 .5 .2 .7 9 .9 17.7 5.5 3.7 5.6 3.1 5.8 3.8 8.3 6.2 8.5 19.4 hi © & a 3 A 1,299 d © © © Ph 2 1 .6 hi © © & £ 1,505 429 536 29.1 706 17.9 1,037 255 155 16.8 163 92 15.7 100 78 '14.3 68 56 19.2 68 27 10.2 78 48 21.1 60 45 20.0 245 205 23.6 39 56 24.1 1 1 © Ph & £ 25.0 1,157 23.3 26.4 27.6 27.8 18.3 23.4 25.7 34.2 26.7 28.2 16.8 264 866 ’ 229 118 147 68 85 44 43 132 27 ■4*3 § O © hi 1 (2 A 19.2 684 14.3 22.0 24.8 20.1 26.9 23.4 32.1 19.3 19.1 15.2 11.6 hi hi. 125 541 115 91 99 31 37 20 38 110 18 1 O hi © Ph 1 1 .4 rQ a 3 A 386 d © © hi © Ph hi © rÛ i 3 A 6.4 173 4.0 19 6.8 74 7.7 148 13.8 303 8.8 36 12.5 81 8.2 17 15.5 48 18.1 57 10.4 28 9.3 15 10.7 27 4.9 18 14.0 13 2 8 \3. 5 8.8 3 8.9 16.9 20 5.6 29 12.7 49 3.9 '6 9 7.8 1 © hi © PH 2.9 1.0 3.8 3.9 2.9 5.1 5.2 6.8 .9 1.3 3.3 2.6 <3 & 1 A 53 7 46 9 3 14 2 6 5 2 5 -4-3 1 © PH 0.9 .4 1.2 1.0 .5 2.6 .7 2.3 2.2 .9 .6 s ¿a A 1 © Ph © rg £ *1© hi © Ph <3 1 3 A 1 © & © Ph 19 0 .3 .4 .3 0 .6 17 0 .3 13 20 6 4 3 2 .7 .5 2 10 .1 .3 7 11 6 1 .0 4 .7 2 .7 1 .3 3 1.3 2 2 .2 .9 2 5 .2 2 .2 6 .7 .4 35 .6 .7 .5 .7 1 G A R Y , IN D .7 .3 © Ph -f-5 1 O hi © • Ph AGE, 12 12 © rg No tre poirted. PRESCH OOL © Ph d © 12 and over. 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 OF Native w h ite................. 1,843 Foreign-born w hite___ 3,934 923 Polish....................... 587 Serbo-Croatian. . . . 546 Slovak...................... 291 M agyar..................... 265 Italia n...................... 228 Germ an................... 225 Lithuanian.............. 869 A ll other.................. 232 Negro............................... 6 N o t reported.................. hi © ,g hi A 6,015 d Ü o 1 To ta l..................... 2 1 To ta l chil dren. C H IL D R E N Color and nationality of mother. GENERAL 141 TABLES, G e n e r a l T a b l e I I I .— L en g th o f resid en ce in d w ellin g a n d co lo r a n d n a tio n a lity o f m oth er, by fa m ily ten u re o f hom e. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Fam ily tenure o f home. A m ai. Length o f residence in dwelling and color and nationality of mother. Renters. Buyers. Owners. Per Per “ Squat Per Per ters.” N um cent N um cent N um cent N um cent dis dis dis dis ber. ber. ber. ber. tribu tribu tribu tribu tion. 1 tion. tion. tion.1 Total___. . . . . . . . . . . Less than 1 year................ 1 year, less than 2 ............. 2 years, less than 3 ............ 3 years, less than 4............. 4 years, less than 5............. 5 years and over................ . N ot reported...................... N ative white mothers____ Less than 1 year......... 1 year, less than 2 ___ 2 years, less than 3 ___ 3 years, less than 4 ___ 4 years, less than 5 ___ 5 years and over......... N ot reported............... Foreign-born m others____ Less than 1 year......... 1 year, less than 2____ 2 years, less than 3 ___ 3 years, less than 4 ___ 4 years, less than 5 ___ 5 years and over......... . N ot reported............... Polish.......................... Less than 1 year-1 year, less than 2, 2 years, less than 3. 3 years, less than 4. 4 years, less than 5. 5 years and over__ Not reported......... . Serbo-Croatian............. . Less than 1 year.... 1 year, less than 2 .. 2 years, less than 3. 3 years,less than 4. 4 years, less than 5. 5 years and over..., N ot reported........... S lovak............................. Less than 1 year..., 1 year, less than 2 .. 2 years, less than 3. 3 years, less than 4. 4 years, less than 5. 5 years and over__ N ot reported........... Magyar.......................... . Less than 1 year.... 1 year, less than 2 .. 2 years, less than 3. 3 years, less than 4. 4 years, less than 5. 5 years and over__ Not reported......... Italian........................... Less than 1 year... 1 year, less than 2. 2 years, less than 3. 3 years, less than 4. 4 years, less than 5. 5 years and over... N ot rep orted .. . . . . 6,015 100.0 1,799 100.0 900 100.0 81 3,210 100.0 25 2,284 1,131 738 394 408 1,004 56 1,843 770 353 199 121 114 272 14 3,934 1,347 736 523 272 292 725 39 923 303 200 12Ì 60 38.0 18.8 12.3 6.6 6.8 16.7 0.9 100.0 41.8 19.2 10.8 6.6 6.2 14.8 0.8 100.0 34.2 18.7 13.3 6.9 7.4 18.4 1.0 100.0 32.8 21.7 13.1 6.5 6.0 19.1 0.9 100.0 33.7 18.4 11.9 5.5 8.5 20.4 1.5 100.0 29.5 14.8 16.3 9.3 8.1 21.6 0.4 100.0 41.9 12.0 12.4 7.6 8.6 17.2 0.3 100.0 47.5 15.5 9.8 6.4 3.0 17.0 0.8 291 280 211 142 191 674 10 405 84 66 43 27 44 138 3 1,387 206 213 167 115 147 532 7 315 54 49 29 28 26 127 2 239 27 37 26 17 30 101 16.2 15.6 11.7 7.9 10.6 37.5 0.6 100.0 20.7 16.3 10.6 6.7 10.9 34.1 0.7 100.0 14.9 15.4 12.0 8.3 10.6 38.4 0.5 100.0 17.1 272 208 132 59 89 136 ' 4 241 76 63 27 20 20 34 30.2 23.1 14.7 6.6 9.9 15.1 0.4 100.0 31.5 26.1 11.2 8.3 8.3 14.1 0.4 100 0 28.8 21.9 16.1 6.1 10.5 16.0 0.5 100.0 18.2 27.6 18.2 8.3 8.3 19.3 13 19 16 9 6 17 1,707 53.2 623 19.4 11.8 379 184 5.7 3.8 122 5.4 173 0.7 22 1,178 100.0 51.6 608 18.9 223 128 10.9 74 • 6.3 4.2 50 7.9 93 0.2 2 1,827 100.0 51.7 945 364 19.9 13.2 242 6.0 109 72 3.9 77 4.2 1.0 18 408 100.0 51.7 211 98 24.0 13.5 55 3.9 16 13 3.2 2.2 9 6 1.5 286 100.0 143 50.0 22.0 63 37 12.9 4.5 13 15 5.2 11 3.8 4 1.4 212 100.0 114 53.8 32 15.1 34 16.0 8.0 17 10 4.7 4 1.9 1 0.5 133 100.0 78 58.6 16 12.0 15.8 21 9 6.8 6 4.5 3 2.3 1 1 176 8 587 198 108 70 32 50 120 9 546 161 81 89 51 44 118 2 291 122 35 36 22 25 50 1 265 126 41 26 17 8 45 2 9.2 8.9 8.3 40.3 0.6 100.0 11.3 229 24 26 31 . 24 25 99 10.9 7.1 12.6 42.3 0.4 100.0 10.5 11.4 13.5 10.5 10.9 43.2 107 29 10 10 9 11 38 100.0 27.1 9.3 9.3 8.4 10.3 35.5 1 1 638 184 140 103 39 67 102 3 192 35 53 35 16 16 37 1 10 1 1 7 1 67 12 19 11 9 6 10 8 3 2 3 58 28 8 7 2 8 92 23 19 23 5 7 14 1 40 13 8 4 8 7 12 4 1 2 10 2 1 1 4 2 4 19 9 1 1 7 15 4 11 4 4 1 1 1 1 86 18 6 13 9 5 i Per cent distribution not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis N ot re port ed.! 48 25 12 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 129 83 21 11 6 100.0 64.3 16.3 8.5 4.7 7 1 5.4 0.8 142 C H IL D R E N OF PRESCH OOL AGE, G A R Y, IN D . G e n e r a l T a b l e I I I . — L en gth o f resid ence in d w ellin g a n d co lo r a n d n a tio n a lity o f m oth er, b y fa m ily ten u re o f /¿ome—‘Continued. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Fam ily tenure of home. Total. Length of residence in dwelling and colbr and nationality o f mother. Owners. N um ber. Foreign-bom mothers—Con. German................................. Less than 1 year........... 1 year, less than 2 ........ 2 years, less than 3 ___ 3 years, less than 4 ___ 4 years, less than 5___ 5 years and over........... Lithuanian........................... Less than 1 year........... 1 year, less than 2 ........ 2 years, less than 3 ___ 3 years, less than 4___ 4 years, less than 5___ 5 years and over........... N ot reported................. A ll other............................... Less than 1 year........... 1 year, less than 2 ........ 2 years, less than 3 ___ 3 years, less than 4 ___ 4 years, less than 5 ___ 5 years and over___ . . . N ot reported................. Negro m oth ers........................... Less than 1 y e a r................. 1 year, less than 2 ............... 2 years, less than 3 . . .......... 3 years, less than 4.............. 4 years, less than 5.............. 5 years and over.................. N ot reported........................ Nationality of mother not reported ....................................... Less than 1 year.................. 1 year, less than 2............... 5 years and over.................. 63 7 10 11 2 9 24 107 10 25 14 9 8 39 2 241 37 50 33 17 33 69 2 5 1 1 1 100.0 9.3 23.4 13.1 8.4 7.5 36.4 1.9 100.0 15.4 20.7 13.7 7.1 13.7 28.6 0.8 127 38 6 4 8 3 7 10 39 6 11 9 60 5 8 131 48 25 15 11 16 15 1 29 2 9. 2 13 5 4 16 79 38 20 9 '7 3 10. 9 3.9 3.1 12.6 2 100.0 36.6 19.1 11.5 8.4 12.2 11.5 0.8 35 7 12 7 4 5 453 2T8 85 62 36 21 27 100. 0 Ml 35 9 1 75 1 12 5 2 4 0.5 3 1.0 2 1 2 9 18.8 13.7 7.9 4.6 6.0 21 2 2 1 Per cent distribution not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Renters. Not Per Per Per "Squat Per re cent cent cent ters.” 1 cent port N um Num N um dis dis dis dis ed.1 ber. ber. tribu tribu ber. tribu tribu tion.1 tion.1 tion.1 tion.1 228 100.0 73 32.0 43 18.9 32 14.0 10 4.4 20 8.8 50 21.9 225 100.0 54 240 56 24.9 32 14.2 16 7.1 16 7.1 47 20.9 4 1.8 869 100.0 310 35.7 172 19.8 117 13.5 64 7.4 74 • 8.5 119 13.7 13 1.5 232 100.0 164 70.7 41 17.7 16 6.9 1 0.4 2 0.9 5 2.2 3 1.3 6 3 1 2 Buyers. i G T eneral able I V .— A m o u n t o f m on th ly ren ta l, by n u m ber o f room s in d w ellin g. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Am ount of m onthly rental. Num ber of rooms in dwelling. Total. Less than $5. Free. 6,015 28 506 892 2,304 T.060 737 240 143 44 40 21 10 7 3 $15,less than $20. $20, less than $25. $25,less than $30. $30,less than $35. $35,less tnan $40. $40 and over. 5 263 671 720 473 266 167 204 183 248 2,780 4 155 63 32 9 1 115 229 248 48 27 3 2 14 61 46 32 18 10 33 46 67 44 19 10 12 4 3 13 187 371 1,117., 439 356 160 79 27 29 2 2 2 1 3 113 443 96 58 5 2 2 31 209 166 53 6 5 1 1 9 108 67 67 8 1 17 40 42 55 10 1 4 2 1 6 26 85 52 6 28 1 5 Am ount not reported. . 25 2 4 19 GENEKAL TABLES. T otal..................................... 1 2 3 4 ......................................................... 5 ................................................. 6 ........................................................ ............................................... 7 8 9 Tenure Dwelling of dwell* not ing not rented. reported. $10,less than $15. $5, less tnan $10. 143 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 144 C H IL D R E N General Table V OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, i m .— L o c a t i o n o f w a te r s u p p l y , b y d is tr ic t o f re s id e n c e . Children 2 to 7 years of age; 1 Location of water supply. District of residence. Total. In dwelling. Outside dwelling- N ot reported. Number. Percent.1 Number. Percent.1 Number. Percent. Total..................................... 6,015 4,757 79.1 1,239 20.6 A m bridge....................................... 162 40 1,496 99 393 2,890 892 43 160 24 1,465 57 284 2,231 511 25 98.8 2 16 24 42 108 648 381 18 1.2 First S ubdivision ........................ Lincoln P ark................................. Ridge R oad and Glen Park....... South Side__ •............................... Tolleston....................................... W est G ary..................................... 'N o t shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 97.9 72.3 77.2 57.3 19 0.3 Ï.6 7 . 5- 27.5 22.4 42.7 1 111 .3 .4 G e n e r a l T a b l e V I .— S a n ita ry accom m od ation s o f d w ellin g, by d istrict o f residence. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Sanitary accommodations. District o f residence. Water supply. T o tal. City. W ell or eistem . Toilet. Not reported. Watercloset. Bathtub. Yard privy. Not reported. Yes. Sink. N ot reported. No. Yes. Not reported. No. Total......... 6,015 4,498 74.8 1,496 21 0.3 3,964 65.9 2,032 33.8 19 0.3 2,236 162 100.0 40 5 49 110 632 617 43 37.2 3,760 62.5 19 162 100.0 0.3 ' 7 .5 1,481 35 99. Ö 40 8 64 .5 7 28.0 21.9 69.2 1 13 .3 130 .4 1,952 202 2 33.1 67.5 22.6 262 927 690 41 66.7 32.1 77.4 1 11 .5 1,324 15 .3 .4 100 520 114 1 40 165 84 11.0 7 25.4 292 18.0 2,359 12.8 778 42 74.3 81.6 87.2 1 11 88.5 0.3 4,637. 77.1 1,356 162 100.0 24 .5 1,457 97.4 54 .3 273 .4 2,182 461 24 69.5 75.5 51.7 22.5 22 0.4 16 32 45 2.1 7 .5 119 697 429 18 30.3 24.1 48.1 1 11 2 1 .3 .4 .1 TABLES. 162 162 100.0 40 First Subdi Vision 1,496 1,484 99:2 50 99 Ridge R oad and Glen P ark........ 393 282 71.8 South Side.......... 2,890 2,245 77.7 892 275 30.8 43 24.9 A m bridge............ GENERAL Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 1 N ot shown where base is less than 100. 145 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 146 G e n e r a l T a b l e V I I .— S a n ita ry accom m od ation s o f d w ellin g, by co lo r and n a tio n a lity o f m oth er. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Sanitary accommodations. W ater supply. Total. C ity water. WeU or . cistern. N ot reported. Watercloset. Yard privy. Sink. Bathtub. Toilet. N ot reported. Yes. No. N ot reported. Yes. N o. N ot reported. 19 0.3 2,236 37.2 3,760 62.5 19 0.3 4,637 77.1 1,356 22.5 22 21.6 7 .4 1,277 69.3 559 30.3 7 .4 1,607 87.2 228 12.4 8 .4 .3 2,395 491 60.8 1,528 53.2 432 38.9 46.8 11 .3 912 82 23.2 3,011 8.9 841 76.5 91.1 11 •3 2,874 622 73.1 1,047 67.4 301 26.6 32.6 13 .3 4 2 1 .7 .4 .3 .7 1.0 .3 .7 .4 19.6 39.6 34.0 9.1 13.2 30.2 22.3 34.9 1 6 1 79.4 60.5 65.6 89.9 86.8 69. 8 77.0 64.7 6 .3 .7 .4 81.1 85.0 70.4 73. 2 60.1 88. 9 56.9 81.5 1 6 1 18.2 15. 0 29.2 26. 8 39. 9 11.1 42.5 18.1 .7 .3 107 82 85 71 91 25 369 42 5 4 1 .7 .4 29.0 49.1 43.3 20.0 38.6 50.7 31.9 44.8 4 6 1 70.4 50. 9 56.4 80. 0 61.4 49.3 67.4 54.7 6 1 .7 .4 21 0.3 3,964 294 16.0 7 .4 1,437 78.0 70.9 1,131 68.6 290 28.8 31.4 13 79.2 59.9 68.7 84.5 76.8 53.3 74.4 69.0 20.1 39. 8 30.9 15.5 23. 2 46. 7 25.0 30.6 118 217 90 41 53 105 217 71 413 278 164 212 140 111 586 127 5 170 268 126 53 88 114 277 104 1 476 464 205 194 137 200 494 189 1 466 330 191 241 198 157 669 150 6 115 216 99 24 30 68 194 81 0.4 G A R Y , IN D , 33.8 399 24.9 83.7 1 N ot shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org T" of St. Louis Federal Reserve Bank 65.9 2,032 74.8 1,496 PRESCH OOL AGE, Total.......... 6,015 4,498 Native w hite___ 1,843 1,542 F o r e ig n -b o r n white................ 3,934 2,790 923 633 Serbo-C r o 465 atian.......... 587 327 Magyar......... 291 200 265 224 228 175 225 120 A lloth er....... 869 646 N egro................... 232 160 6 6 OF Num- Per Num - Per N um - Per Num - Per N um - Per Num - Per Num - Per Num - Per Num- Per Num - Per N um - Per N um - Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent.1 her. cent. ber. cent. C H IL D R E N Color and nationality o f mother. G T eneral able V I I I . — T y p e and lo ca tio n o f to ilet, by n u m ber o f fa m ilie s u sin g to ile t and d istrict o f resid ence. Children 2 to 7 years of age. T ype and location of toilet. Water-closet. Number of families using toilet and district o f residence. Outs de dwelling. Yard privy. Total. Total. In dwelling. Porch. Hall. Cellar. L ocation not reported. Yard. A ll districts................................... 6,015 1..., 3,964 65.9 3,141 52.2 414 6.9 123 2.0 195 3.2 89 1.5 3 264 534 91 66 9 162 162 68.3 58.7 51.7 59.5 3,015 ’ Ì2Ò 4 2 63.0 13.2 2.3 1.8 53 286 45 24 6 1.1 31.4 25.6 21.6 40 .8 6.0 14.8 1.8 144 43 6 2 3.0 4.7 3.4 1.8 12 28 10 36 3 .3 3.1 5.7 32.4 ioo. 0 1ÓÒ.Ó 162 162 100.0 100.0 1 481 1 323 134 20 3 1 35 35 99.0 99. 5 99.3 1,296 l ' 216 77 3 86.6 91.4 57.0 74 1 52 17 3 1 1 1 4.9 .1 38.5 1 .1 1 .7 110 106 4 130 126 4 33.1 34.4 4 1 3 1.0 .3 28 '28 120 120 30.5 32.8 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis .2 2 2,032 L 518 376 85 45 8 40 40 8 7 1 7.4 8.0 3.0 33.8 19 0.3 31.7 41.3 48.3 40.5 19 .5 .5 .7 7 .5 7 1 1 2 2 (2) 5 5 .5 3 3 .8 .8 1 Í .3 .... 2 Less than one-tenth o i l per cent, 64 55 9 262 240 22 66.7 65.6 1 .3 1 147 i N ot shown where base is less than 100, 26 2 2 Num Per N um Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 TABLES. 4 782 910 176 in 36 162 1 162 Clark’ .. . 40 40 1,496 1 1 330 2.. 135 3. 20 3 8 99 1 90 9 2 393 1. 366 2___ 26 1 N ot reported,................ ................. Per cent. GENERAL N um Per Num Per Num Per Num Per N um Per Num Per Num ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. 1 2 .... 3 . . Not reported. able 148 G eneral T V I I I .— T yp e an d lo ca tio n o f to ile t, by n u m b er o f fa m ilie s u sin g to ile t and d istrict o f residence— Concluded. Children 2 to 7 years of age. T ype and location of toilet. N um ber of families using toilet and district of resideuce. Outside dwelling. Total. Total. In dwelling. 2 0.1 2 .3 2 2 67.5 70.4 62.1 54.7 1,358 1,314 41 1 2 47.0 64.6 6.7 .8 22.6 25.8 12.5 175 173 2 19.6 24.1 1.6 2 2 323 50 219 28 21 5 12 11.2 2.5 35.8 21.9 115 33 54 26 2 4.0 1.6 8.8 20.3 70 25 37 6 2 2.4 1.2 6.0 4.7 1.3 4 4 .4 .6 12 9.4 7 5 2 .8 .7 1.6 84 9 27 9 36 3 4 3 1 2.9 .4 4.4 7.0 .4 .4 N um Per Num - Per ber. cent.1 . ber. cen t.1 927 602 232 58 28 7 690 533 112 27 17 1 41 41 32.1 29.6 37.9 45.3 11 11 77.4 74.2 87.5 0.4 P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , IN D . https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Per cent. OF i N ot shown where base is less than 100. N um Per N um Per N um Per N um Per N um Per N um Per N um cen t.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. ber. 1,952 1,431 380 70 63 8 202 185 16 1 N ot reported. Location not reported. Yard. Cellar. Porch. Hall. South side................................................ 2,890 1.......................................................... 2,033 612 2......................... ................................ 128 3.......................................................... 91 26 892 Tolleston................................................. 718 1.......................................................... 128 2.......................................................... 28 17 1 43 43 Yard privy. C H IL D R E N Water-closet. G e n e r a l T a b l e IX . T yp e a n d lo ca tio n o f to ile t , by n u m ber o f fa m ilie s u sin g a n d co lo r a n d n a tiv ity o f m oth er. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Type and location of toilet. Water-closet. Number of families using toilet and color and nativity of mother. Total chil dren. 3 ................................. 4 and over..................................... Not reported................................ Native white mothers........................ 1 ............................... 2 ................................. 3................................................. 4 and over..................................... Not reported................................ Foreign-born white mothers.............. 1 ..................................... 2 .................................... 3 .................... 4 and over.................................. Not reported................................ Negro mothers..................................... 1 ............ ................. 2 ............................. 3. 4 and over............................. Not reported................................ Nativity of mother not reported....... Cellar. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. Num Per Num Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 2,032 33.8 1,518 376 85 45 31.7 41.3 48.3 40.5 3,964 65.9 3,141 52.2 414 6.9 123 2 .0 195 3.2 89 1.5 3,015 31.4 25.6 40 55 26 .8 6 .0 3.0 4.7 3.4 12 14.8 144 43 66 36 1,843 1,641 162 27 9 1,437 1,283 129 19 2 1 .8 53 286 45 24 1 .1 4 63.0 13.2 2.3 111 68.3 58.7 51.7 59.5 2 1 .6 2 1 .8 .3 3.1 5.7 32.4 78.0 78.2 79.6 1,299 1,241 55 3 70.5 75.6 34.0 4.8 5 .3 3 1.9 6 7 3,934 3,003 686 138 82 25 232 133 62 Not reported. Location not reported. Yard. 120 10 1 16 66 .2 40.7 43 38 5 2.3 2.3 3.1 28 10 36 3 1 1 2 ( 2) 0 .2 8 399 358 33 .1 .1 2 63.0 55.1 51.4 54.7 62.4 1,689 60 1 2 85 80 5 56.2 8.7 .7 36. è 60.1 302 49 204 30 13 7.7 113 39 48 24 1 .6 29.7 21.7 2.9 1.3 7.0 17.4 150 106 38 3.8 3.5 5.5 4.3 6 2 6 23 9.9 1 .8 16 * 5 1 2 .2 .8 .9 2 4 76 10 26 10 27 3 12 1 2 1.9 .3 3.8 7.2 2 .1 5 2 .3 5.2 .8 9 2 5 5 5 0.3 19 7 .4 20.4 308 67 38 5 104 50 35 9 7 3 38.8 37.0 44.9 48.6 44.8 37.6 7 11 .3 11 1 .4 1 1 '"'1..... 1..... 1 Not shown where base is less than 1,528 1 ,1 1 0 1 6 2 1 .6 2 1 .8 19 8 6 1,893 378 71 44 9 127 83 27 23 4 1 .8 6 89 3 14 6 6 2 2 100. 2 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. 1 149 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Porch. 3,264 534 91 1 1 Hall. 4,782 910 176 5 3 Yard privy. In dwelling. GENERAL TABLES. Total.......................................... 6,015 1 .................................................... 2 ..................................... Outside dwelling. Total. N u m b er o f roo m s in 150 G e n e r a l T a b l e •X . — d w e llin g , b y d is tr ic t o f r e s id e n t# . Children 2 to 7 years of age. District of residence. Total. Clark.1 Number. Total. and over— Not reported. Per cent Per cent distri Number. distri bution. bution. 6,015 100.0 28 506 892 2,304 1,060 737 240 143 84 21 .5 8.4 14.8 38.3 17.6 12.3 4.0 2.4 1.4 .3 162 100.0 40 Number. Per cent distri bution. 1,496 100.0 .5 .6 42.0 45.1 9.3 2.5 .6 Per cent distribution not shown where base is less than 100, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Ridge Road and Glen Park. First Subdivision. Ambridge. 33 98 333 355 366 150 95 50 2.2 6.6 22.3 23.7 24.5 10.0 6.4 3.3 v5 Lincoln Park.1 99 Tolleston. South Side. Per cent Per cent Per cent Number. distri Number. distri Number- distri bution. bution. bution. 393 42 49 128 89 52 20 7 5 1 100.0 10.7 12.5 32.6 22.6 13.2 5.1 1.8 1.3 .3 2,890 17 342 595 1,407 282 154 37 23 21 12 100.0 892 100.0 .3 9.2 12.4 35.4 25.1 13.3 2.5 .6 3 82 20.6 111 48.7 9.8 5.3 1.3 .8 .7 .4 22 11.8 316 224 119 11 4 1.2 .4 West Gary.1 43 CHILDREN OE PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND Number of rooms in dwelling. GENERAL 151 TABLES. G e n e r a l T a b l e X I . — A ggregate annual earnings o f fa m ily in 1917 and color and n a tiv ity o f m other, by annual earnings o f ch ief breadwinner. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Annual earnings of chief bread winner in 1917. Aggregate annual earnings of family in 1917 and color and nativity of mother. Total............................. Aggregate including earn ings of chief breadwinner . o n ly ..................................... Aggregate including addi tional earnings................... Under SI,050............ . SI,050 to SI,849.............. SI,850 and over............... N ot reported............. Native white m others........! Aggregate including earnings o f chief breadwinner o n ly ___ Aggregate including _ additional earnings... Foreign-born white mothers. Aggregate including earnings o f chief breadwinner o n ly ___ Aggregate including additional earnings... Negro m others...................... Aggregate including earnings o f chief breadwinner only Aggregate including additional earnings... N ativity not. reported......... 1 Not Total. Under SI,050. $1,050$1,849. Per Per cent cent Num- dis- Num- dis- Number. tri- ber. tri- ber. bubution .1 tion. 1,774 $1,850 and over. Per cent dis- Numtri- ber. bution .1 No chief bread winner and no earnings. Per cent dis- Numtri- ber. bution .1 Not reported Per cent dis- Numtri- ber. tribution .1 tion. 1 6,015 1 0 0 .0 3,431 57.0 920 51.9 1,744 59.1 555 67.8 23 17.8 189 54.9 2,584 447 1,152 612 373 1,843 43.0 7.4 19.2 48.1 1,205 40.9 264 32.2 106 71 155 45.1 29.9 2.3 6 8 21 1 0 0 .0 245 19 481 82.2 55.0 4.7 1 0 .2 6 .2 1 0 0 .0 854 376 321 77 80 257 1 0 0 .0 31 1,206 65.4 162 63.0 612 63.2 352 73.2 637 3,934 34.6 37.0 356 1,893 36.8 1 0 0 .0 129 330 26.8 1 0 0 .0 95 1,402 2,118 53.8 703 50.1 1,092 57.7 1,816 232 46.2 699 115 49.9 42.3 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 2,949 1 0 0 .0 819 1 0 0 .0 2 1 .2 18.1 4.3 4.5 822 282 1 0 0 .0 968 1 0 0 .0 27.9 9.6 3.4 101 1 0 0 .0 801 87 344 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 3 0.9 152 106 44.2 6 .2 16.3 9 ...... 22 1 0 0 .0 71 67.0 35 217 33.0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 92 200 60.6 14 109 50.2 130 4 39.4 78 108 49.8 6 20 6 12 1 103 44.4 55 47.8 39 1 129 55.6 60 52.2 48 3 4 1 6 129 8 shown where base is less than 100. G e n e r a l T a b l e X I I .— A n n u a l earnings o f ch ief breadwinner in 1 9 1 7 , b y color and n a tiv ity o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Color and nativity of mother. Total. Native white. Annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917. Number. Per Numcent ber. distribution. Foreign-bom Per Per cent Numcent Numdistriber. distriber. bution. bution. Total.................... 6,015 1 0 0 .0 1,843 1 0 0 .0 3,934 1 0 0 .0 Under $850............ 8850 to $1,049........... $1,050 to $1,249....... $1,250 to $1,449....... $1,450 to $1,849....................... $1,850 t o $2,249....................... $2,250 and o ver....................... No chief breadwinner and 851 923 1,065 '843 1,041 378 441 14.1 15.3 17.7 14.0 17.3 6.3 7.3 122 6 .6 135 239 255 474 280 7.3 13.0 13.8 25.7 10.9 15.2 673 729 775 570 548 174 156 17.1 18.5 19.7 14.5 13.9 4.4 4.0 129 344 5.7 31 106 1.7 5.8 92 217 2.3 5.5 Not reported.......................... 1 2 .1 201 Per cent distribution not shown where base is less than 100. 14683°— 23------11 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Negro. Not rePer cent distribution. 232 1 0 0 .0 56 59 51 . 18 18 24.1 25.4 6 2 2 .0 3 7.8 7.8 0.4 1.3 2 2 6 20 2 .6 8 .6 i 1 1 152 C H IL D R E N OF P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , IN D , G e n e r a l T a b l e X I I I . — M ajor cause o f n on em p loym en t o f w age earners in 191 7 , by duration o f ch ief breadw inner's n on em p loym en t. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Total. 6,015 1 0 0 .0 2,283 1,466 675 380 256 105 118 756 5,141 2 .0 1 2 .6 1 0 0 .0 1 3 575 36 1,707 1,427 25 650 10 370 26 230 102 1,802 35.1 1,707 3,339 465 328 1,439 64.9 9.0 6.4 28.0 1,427 150 230 39 16 91 370 64 710 7 35 118 2.3 977 19.0 313 3,654 1 0 0 .0 1,090 1,125 3 34 145 484 1 22 12 98 275 72 151 212 0 .2 1,150 31.5 1,090 2,504 430 68.5 201 5.5 32.4 1,185 4 87 597 1,478 1 0 0 .0 617 650 44.0 617 828 34 126 254 8 31 375 484 89 31 264 2 0 .1 2.4 16.3 21 164 9 months and over. 96 59 72 555 25 71 27 3 29 72 8 15 45 495 60 102 15 1 47 60 13 8 20 71 10 1 26 29 2 12 1 275 59 15 135 151 37 7 79 5 34 59 59 12 1 28 1 Í8 46 8 1 26 59 14 17 23 77 166 16 49 95 56.0 2.3 8.5 17.2 301 13 75 125 166 7 26 51 95 79 5 -- 2 6 9 29 12 0.5 5 3 2 .1 10 25.4 73 11 68 6 49 8 20 79 5 400 78 10 54 1 257 348 1 Not shown where base is less than 1 0 0 . 2 Includes children whose breadwinners had 8 8 165 140 4 52 16 12 1 8 12 42 14 12 12 2 4 2 19 2 2 4 21 '8 10 6 1 1 1 died or deserted. 24 288 73 5 44 14 1 1 17 10 1 10 2 7 59 5 13 42 1 1 1 46 13 4 18 1 25 239 301 9 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 68 60 1,125 137 137 585 1 1 .8 © t-4 rû © i o 5 95 650 96 57 315 12 3 6 months, less than 9. 4 months, less than 5. 3 months, less than 4. 2 months, less than 3. 1 month, less than 2 . Less than 1 month. 5 months, less than 6 . Duration of nonemployment. •dg Chief b r e a steadily e: Number. Total. Not reported whether wage earners......... Non wage earners___ Wage earners............ No nonemploy ment reported. Major cause of n o n e m p lo y ment ............... Shutdown... N o jo b ......... Sickness....... Strike or lock out .......... Accident. Not reported2 Steel industry....... No nonemploy ment reported. Major cause of n o n e mployment............ .. ' Shutdown.. . No jo b .......... Sickness....... Strike or lock out ............ Accident___ Not reported2 Other industry__ No nonemploy ment reported Major cause of n o n e m p lo y ment .............. Shutdown.. No jo b ........ Sickness___ Strike or lock out .......... A ccident... Not reported2 Industry not re ported............. No nonemploy ment reported. Major cause of n o n e m p lo y ment ............... Shutdown... N o jo b ___ . . Not reported2 Chief breadwinner not steadily employed. |Per cent disl tion. 1 Major cause of non employment of wage earner in 1917. 1 107 5 4 10 153 G EN ERAL TABLES. G e n e r a l T a b l e X I V .— A g e o f m other a t b eg in n in g w ork aw ay fr o m hom e, by n a tiv ity o f m other. Families with children 2 to 7 years of age. Nativity of mother. Age of mother at beginning work away from home. Total. Native white. Num ber. Total................... Never employed away from home................. Employed away from hom e.. Under 12 years......... 12 years, under 14.......... 14 years, under 16........... 16 years, under 2 0 ........ 2 0 years and over....... Age not reported............. Employment not reported... 1 Per Foreign-bom white. Negro. Not re Per Per Per Per ported.1 cent Num ' cent Num cent Num cent * distri ber. distri ber. distri ber. distri bution. bution. bution. bution. 3,991 1 0 0 .0 1,356 1 0 0 .0 2,457 1 0 0 .0 172 1 0 0 .0 6 1,291 2,676 32.3 67.1 5.0 376 973 16 27.7 71.8 54 114 6 .8 18 18 25 32 9 4 31.4 66.3 7.0 10.5 10.5 14.5 18.6 5.2 2.3 1 6.3 17.5 35.7 10.3 0.7 0.5 35.0 64.7 7.0 86 860 1,589 173 168 307 590 309 42 201 272 562 1,099 481 61 24 6 .8 14.1 27.5 1 2 .1 1.5 0 .6 237 484 140 10 7 1 .2 8 12.5 24.0 1 2 .6 1.7 0.3 12 5 cent distribution not shown where base is less than 100. G e n e r a l T a b l e X V .— E m p loym en t o f m other in 1917, by co lo r and n a tio n a lity o f m other. J Families with children 2 to 7 years of age. Mother gainfully employed, 1917. Color and nationality of mother. Total. Mother not em ployed, 1917. Number. Percent . 1 Number. Per cent.1 Total............ Native white......... Foreign-bom white Polish............. Serbo-Croatian. Slovak.............. Magyar.......... . Italian.............. German............ Lithuanian....... All other.......... Negro...................... Not reported........... 1 Not shown where base is less than ioo. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3,991 1,521 38.1 2,470 61.9 1,356 2,457 567 350 344 180 154 150 137 575 172 425 1,005 229 140 31.3 40.9 40.4 40.0 34.9 33.9 42.2 36.7 59.1 44.2 51.7 931 1,452 338 68.7 59.1 59.6 60.0 65.1 6 120 61 65 55 81 254 89 2 210 224 119 89 95 56 321 83 4 6 6 .1 57.8 63.3 40.9 55.8 48.3 154 G e n e r a l T a b l e X Y I . — A n n u a l earn in gs o f m oth er in 1917 and co lo r and n a tiv ity o f m oth er, by a n n u a l earn in gs o f c h ief breadw inner. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917. Total chil dren. Under $850. $850 to $1,049. $1,050 to $1,249. $1,250 to $1,449. $1,450 to $1,849. $1,850 to $2,249. $2,250 and over. No chief not breadwinner Earnings reported. or no earnings. 6,015 100.0 851 100.0 923 100.0 1,065 100.0 843 100.0 1,041 100.0 378 100.0 441 100.0 129 100.0 344 100.0 Not employed........................ 3,757 Employed............................... 2,258 Earnings: 317 302 $50 to $99.......................... 234 $100 to $149....................... 181 $150 to $199....................... $200 and over................... 859 Not reported.................... 365 Native white mothers 1,843 1 284 559 Earnings: 86 75 74 62.5 37.5 507 344 59.6 40.4 543 380 58.8 41.2 633 432 59.4 40.6 551 292 65.4 34.6 701 340 67.3 32.7 263 115 69.6 30.4 318 123 72.1 27.9 27 102 20.9 79.1 214 130 62.2 37.8 5.3 5.0 3.9 3.0 14.3 6.1 100.0 69.7 30.3 66 35 38 36 127 42 122 92 30 7.8 4.1 4.5 4.2 14.9 4.9 100.0 75.4 24.6 50 77 27 35 145 46 135 92 43 5.4 8.3 2.9 3.8 15.7 5.0 100.0 68.1 31.9 66 63 40 31 182 50 239 149 90 6.2 5.9 3.8 2.9 17.1 4.7 100.0 62.3 37.7 43 36 36 12 122 43 255 177 78 5.1 4.3 4.3 1.4 14.5 5.1 100.0 69.4 30.6 4.7 49 ■46 4.4 5.2 54 32 3.1 11.5 120 3.7 39 474 100.0 67.5 320 32.5 154 10 14 21 13 44 13 201 144 57 2.6 3.7 5.6 3.4 11.6 3.4 100.0 71.6 28.4 13 11 11 13 32 43 280 221 59 2.9 2.5 > 2.5 2.9 7.3 9.8 100.0 78.9 21.1 9 10 4 3 58 18 31 10 21 7.0 7.8 3.1 2.3 45.0 14.0 1Ì 10 3 6 29 71 106 79 27 3.2 2.9 0.9 1.7 8.4 20.6 100.0 74.5 25.5 4.7 4.1 6 2 18 14 9 8 30 11 7.5 5.9 3.8 3.3 12.6 4.6 6 13 12 2 37 8 2.4 5.1 4.7 0.8 14.5 3.1 27 19 32 14 53 9 5.7 4.0 6.8 3.0 11.2 1.9 6 8 7 5 24 7 3.0 4.0 3.5 2.5 11.9 3.5 9 8 6 8 17 11 3.2 2.9 2.1 2.9 6.1 3.9 1.9 2.8 1 13 5 8.1 5.2 3.7 2.2 11.1 1.5 2 3 23 11! 5 3.7 11 7 5 3 15 2 1 1 212 69 4.9 1.6 25 0.8 10.7 4.1 2 15 2 8 14 7.5 13.2 100.0 673 377 296 100.0 56.0 44.0 729 426 303 100.0 58.4 41.6 775 462 313 100.0 59.6 40.4 570 368 202 100.0 64.6 35.4 548 369 179 100.0 67.3 32.7 174 118 56 100.0 67.8 32.2 156 95 61 100.0 60.9 39.1 92 17 75 217 126 91 100.0 58.1 41.9 Total............................. Foreign-bom white Employed I . .................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3,934 2 858 1,576 59. 9 40.1 OF P R E S C H O O L A G E , G A R Y , IN D , Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per cent Num cent Num cent Num cent Num cent Num cent Num cent Num-' cent Num cent Num cent Num distri distri distri distri distri distri distri distri distri distri ber. ber. ber. ber, ber. ber. ber. ber. ber ber. bu bu bu bu bu bu bu bu bu bu tion.1 tion.1 tion.1 tion.1 tion.1 tion.1 tion.1 tion.1 tion.1 tion.1 C H IL D R E N Annual earnings of mother in 1917, and color and nativity of mother. 207 211 146 124 616 272 232 111 121 5.3 5.4 3.7 3.2 15.7 6.9 100.0 47.8 52.2 59 32 30 35 107 33 56 38 18 24 16 12 14 31 24 10.3 6.9 5.2 6.0 13.4 10.3 1 1 5 6 4 2 7 4 8.8 4.8 4.5 5.2 15.9 4.9 30 59 19 30 123 42 59 25 34 9 • 11 3 2 7 2 4.1 8.1 2.6 4.1 16.9 5.8 39 47 29 16 147 35 5.0 6.1 3.7 2.1 19.0 4:5 22 29 34 22 23 9 80 34 18 6 12 9 2 2 7 5 4 3 1 1 1 5 1 6.0 3.9 4.0 1. 6 14.0 6.0 22 27 21 14 65 30 18 11 7 4.0 4.9 3. 8 2.6 11.9 5.5 4 6 13 8 19 6 1 1 2.3 3.4 7.5 4.6 10.9 3.4 4 3 4 5 13 32 3 1 2 2.6 1.9 2.6 3.2 8.3 20.5 8 9 4 1 41 12 6 6 3.2 2.8 1.4 2.8 9.7 22.1 2 1 4 2 1 1 2 ....... 1 ....... ........................................ 2 4 9 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 Not shown where hase is less than 100. 155 è https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 7 6 3 6 21 48 20 8 12 GENERAL TABLES. Earnings: Under $50........................ $50 to $99.......................... $100 to $149.................... $150 to $199..................... $200 and over................... Not reported.................... Negro mothers.......... Not employed.................. Employed....................... Earnings: Under $50......................... $50 to $99.................. . $100 to $149....................... $150 to $199....................... $200 and over................... Not reported.................... Nativity oi mother not reported........... Not em p loyed ....._____ Employed..................... . Earnings: $100 to $149....................... 156 G e n e r a l T a b l e X V I I .— Separation o f child from m other on account of'm other's em ploym ent, by caretaker o f child during m ajor separation. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Separated from mother on account of her employment. Caretaker of child during major separation. Total.1 Total................................................................... *6,015 471 260 92 162 fi 198 138 60 13 1 year, less than 2. Per Num cent.2 ber. 2 years, less than 3. Num Per cent.2 ber. Num ber. Per cent.2 Num ber. 5,543 92.2 219 3.6 91 1.5 67 219 115 40 69 6 99 77 22 5 46.5 44.2 91 56 21 35 19.3 21.5 67 41 11 30 100.0 TlT Less than 1 year. 42.6 50.0 55.8 35 20 15 21.6 17.7 14.5 25 14 11 1 4 years and over. Period not reported. Num Per cenL2 ber. Per cent.2 Num ber. Per cent.2 Num ber. Per cent.2 1.1 32 0.5 44 0.7 18 0.3 14.2 15.8 32 14 6 8 6. 8 5.4 44 27 10 17 9.3 10.4 18 7 4 3 3.8 2.7 18 15 3 9. 1 10.9 14 9 5 3 7.1 6.5 7 3 4 4 3.5 2.2 18.5 12.6 10. 1 i Indudes those separated only during the mother’ s working hours and those away from their mothers both day and night. * Not shown where base is less than 100. * Indudes 1 child for whom separation from mother was not reported. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3 years, less than 4. 4.9 10.5 1.9 CHILDREN OE PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND. jNot separated from mother. GENERAL TABLES. 157 G e n e b a l T a b l e X Y I I I .— Separation o f child from mother on account o f m other’ s em ploym ent, by annual earnings o f ch ief breadwinner in 1917. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917. Total. Separated from Not separated from mother on account mother. of her employment. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Total..................................... 10,015 5,543 92.2 471 7.8 Under $1,050................. $1,050 to $1,849.................... $1,850 and over.......................... No chief breadwinner and no earnings.. Not reported............................... 1,774 2,949 819 129 1344 1,585 2,773 802 79 304 89.3 94.0 97.9 61.2 88.4 189 176 17 50 39 10.7 6.0 2.1 38.8 11.3 1Includes 1 child for whom separation from mother was not reported. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 158 G e n e r a l T a b l e X I X ..— T yp e o f hou seh old h elp in 1917, by a n n u a l earn in gs o f c h ie f breadw inner a n d 'color and n a tiv ity o f m oth er. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Usual household help in 1917. Adult hired part time. Adult not hired. Laundry work only. Kind not reported. Child or chil dren only. reported No household Not as to house duties. hold help. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 Total.......................................... 6,015 3,583 59.6 196 3.3 190 3.2 682 11.3 804 13.4 506 8.4 12 0.2 33 0.5 9 0.1 1 8 1 .1 .3 .1 5 8 10 .3 •3 1.2 1 5 .1 .2 2 6 .6 .3 9 i 24 1 2 5 .6 .3 6 .6 6 9 7.0 .3 1.3 .8 •6 1.9 2 .2 5 1 2 .1 .1 .1 8 3 2 1 .2 •2 .1 .3 2 4 1.9 .1 3 .2 2 i .9 .4 1 .4 1,774 $1,050 to $1,849.............................. 2,949 819 $l'850 and over............................. No chief breadwinner and no 129 344 Native white mothers........................ 1,843 257 968 $1,050 to $1,849.............................. 481 $1^850 and over............................. No chief breadwinner and no 31 1,236 1,827 292 69.7 62.0 35.7 12 47 108 .7 1.6 13.2 7 81 86 .4 2.7 10.5 191 346 72 10.8 11.7 8.8 130 387 220 7.3 13.1 26.9 191 240 30 10.8 8.1 3.7 62 166 843 168 484 140 48.1 48.3 45.7 65.4 50.0 29.1 2 27 124 6 23 75 1.6 7.8 6.7 2.3 2.4 15.6 16 120 3 50 59 4.7 6.5 1.2 5.2 12.3 26 47 228 31 140 43 20.2 13.7 12.4 12.1 14.5 8.9 12 55 416 28 218 143 9.3 16.0 22.6 10.9 22.5 29.7 17 28 77 18 39 12 13.2 8.1 4. 2 7.0 4.0 2.5 3,934 1,402 $1,050 t o l l , 849.............................. 1,893 330 $1,850and over. No chief breadwinner and no 2,603 980 1,305 150 ffc 7 66*2 69.9 68.9 2 18 71 5 24 33 17.0 1.8 .4 1.3 10.0 8 62 4 25 25 7.5 1.6 .3 1.3 7.6 7 7 408 152 178 29 6.6 10.4 10.8 9.4 8. 8 2 25 368 100 160 74 23.6 9.4 7.1 8.5 22.4 3 5 405 157 194 18 4.7 10.3 11.2 10.2 5.5 54.4 58.6 76.5 9 1 1 4.1 .4 8 6 3.7 2.6 19 30 45 8 27 13.8 19.4 7.0 7 27 18 2 9 2 12.4 7.8 1.7 13 23 24 16 7 10.6 10.3 13.9 Negro mothers.......... ......................... Undei $1,050................................. 217 232 10 50 118 136 $l,8o0 and ov 6r >>--- -- -- -- -- -- -- No chief breadwinner and no 1 6 2 2 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 10 1 1 3 2 2 1 1 s • i 1 i 1 ....... ......... I CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND. No household Annual earnings of chief breadwinner Adult hired help. in 1917 and color and nativity of full time. mother. Total. G e n e r a l T a b l e X X .— N um ber o f baths p er w eek in w in ter and in sum m er, by co lo r and n a tio n a lity o f m oth er. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Number of baths per week in winter. Color and nationality of mother. Total. Less than 1. 1. 2, less than 7. 7 and over. Number of baths per week in summer. Not reported. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent. ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent. 361 6.0 3,690 61.3 1,800 29.9 149 2.5 15 0.2 57 297 38 52 34 9 90 21 10 43 7 3.1 7.5 4.1 8.9 6.2 3.1 34.0 9.2 4.4 4.9 3.0 932 2,671 728 343 425 208 129 149 160 529 84 3 50.6 67.9 78.9 58.4 77.8 71.5 48.7 65.4 71.1 60.9 36.2 782 889 145 175 81 71 42 54 53 268 126 3 42.4 22.6 15.7 29.8 14.8 24.4 15.8 23.7 23.6 30.8 54.3 69 66 10 17 5 3 2 3 3.7 1.7 1.1 2.9 .9 1.0 .8 1.3 3 11 2 .2 .3 .2 1 .2 2 1 2 3 1 .8 .4 .9 .3 .4 26 14 3.0 6.0 Num Per ber. cent. 21 0.3 21 3 4 2 .5 .3 .7 .4 5 1.9 3 4 1.3 .5 1. 2, less than 7. 7 and over. Not reported. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. 1,069 17.8 2,698 44.9 2,211 36.8 16 0.3 152 908 247 141 120 75 74 61 67 123 7 2 8.2 23.1 26.8 24.0 22.0 25.8 27.9 26.8 29.8 14.2 3.0 781 1,790 373 274 258 132 142 108 123 380 126 1 42.4 45.5 40.4 46.7 47.3 45.4 53.6 47.4 54.7 43.7 54.3 904 1,205 297 167 163 84 44 59 32 359 99 3 49.1 30.6 32.2 28.4 29.9 28.9 16.6 25.9 14.2 41.3 42.7 6 10 3 1 3 .3 .3 .3 .2 .5 3 .3 GENERAL TABLES. Total................. 6,015 Native white.............. 1,843 Foreign-bom white... 3,934 Polish................... 923 Serbo-Croatian__ 587 Slovak.................. 546 Magyar................. 291 Italian.................. 265 German................ 228 Lithuanian.......... 225 All other.............. 859 Negro......................... 232 Not reported.............. 6 Less than 1. 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. 159 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 160 CHILDREN OP PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND. G e n e r a l T a b l e X X I .—-Num ber o f hours rest at night and prevalence o f daytim e nap, by age o f child and color and n ativity o f mother. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Having no usual daytime nap. Age of child and color and nativity of mother. Total. Number hours rest at night. N o t re ported. 14 a n d over. 13, l e s s than 14. 12, l e s s than 13. 11, l e s s tnan 12. 10, l e s s tnan 11. 9, 1 e s s than 10. CD (CDh fe 8, l e s s than 9. Number. +3 d CD Less than 8. Total. Total.......................... 6,015 4,767 79.3 12 61 442 1,319 1,696 903 217 48 .69 524 1,043 1,031 1,032 984 151 2 1,234 85 211 285 289 319 45 3,371 424 799 718 702 624 102 2 159 15 32 28 40 40 4 48.6 72.6 83.6 93.8 97.6 96.8 1 3 4 2 2 8 13 9 13 14 4 40 9C 77 86 133 16 115 237 206 194 133 18 47 71 49 22 22 6 6 15 16 8 3 8 19 15 12 11 4 67.0 25.1 53.8 71.4 85.5 97.0 1 13 3 254 22 60 66 60 42 4 620 91 170 134 128 83 14 55 14 16 12 4 7 2 150 30 52 35 16 14 3 18 3 3 6 3 3 6 2 3 4 1 46 5 12 7 9 10 3 101 4 17 17 21 39 3 317 36 70 56 58 85 12 3 2 24 1 1 1 3 4 7 9 1 122 177 247 348 265 39C 294 401 332 331 55 48 2 316 470 15 24 46 69 61 121 72 122 105 118 17 16 962 1,180 102 149 193 271 199 259 214 264 215 206 37 31 2 41 45 4 5 8 8 5 10 8 15 14 7 1 1 28 2 7 6 5 8 11 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 years but under 3....... 3 years but under 4....... 4 years but under 5....... 5 years but under 6....... 6 years but under 7....... 7 years but under 8....... Age not reported.......... Native white mothers......... 2 years but under 3....... 3 years but under 4....... 4 years but under 5....... 5 years but under 6....... 6 years but under 7....... 7 years but under 8....... Foreign-bom mothers......... 2 years but under 3....... 3 years but under 4....... 4 years but under 5....... 5 years but under 6....... 6 years but under 7....... 1,079 1,437 1,233 1,100 1,008 156 2 1,843 339 392 399 338 329 46 3,934 693 992 796 715 633 103 2 Negro mothers.................... 232 46 2 years but under 3....... 52 36 4 years but under 5....... 46 45 7 Nativity of mother not re6 1 1 2 1 1 85.7 61.2 80.5 90.2 98.2 98.6 99.0 68.5 8 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 1 1 1 v 1 28 2 12 10 4 3 1 2 60 8 17 15 8 10 2 2 1 3 2 1 1 161 GENERAL TABLES. G e n e b a l T a b l e "X X I.—-N u m b er o f h ou rs rest a t n ig h t an d p reva len ce o f daytim e n a p , by a ge o f ch ild a n d co lo r an d n a tiv ity o f m other■—Concluded. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Not reported as to daytime nap. Having usual daytime nap. Total. 2 years hut under 3............ 3 years but under 4........... 4 years but under 5............ 5 years but under 6........... 6 years but under 7............ 7 years but under 8............. Age not reported............... . Native white mothers............... 2 years but under 3............. 3 years but under 4............. 4 years but under 5............. 5 years but under 6........... . 6 years but under 7............. 7 years but under 8............. Foreign-bom mothers............... 2 years but under 3........ 3 years but under 4............. 4 years but under 5............. 5 years but under 6............. 6 years but under 7............. 7 years but under 8............. Age not reported................. Negro mothers........................... 2 years but under 3............. 3 years but under 4............. 4 years but under 5............. 5 years but under 6............. 6 years bu t under 7............. 7 years but under 8............. Nativity of mothernotreported. 2 years but under 3............. 3 years but under 4............. 4 years but under 5............. 5 years but under 6............. 6 years but under 7............. Number hours rest at night. 1,221 20.3 552 51.2 27.2 193 15.7 61 5.5 20 2.0 4 2.6 2 1 1 594 253 178 108 45 9 1 556 268 193 75 12 7 1 1 32.2 74.6 45.4 27.1 13.3 2.7 14.1 38.7 19.5 9.4 1.7 1.1 1.0 32 147 350 422 198 47 12 9 18 7 6 97 60 31 9 1 26 12 7 1 1 6 4 1 3 4 2 1 57 169 210 112 27 69 79 54 19 49 68 31 7 32 38 21 2 19 18 6 2 6 1 86 161 186 76 35 78 93 37 36 51 65 26 10 25 24 10 3 3 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 23 11 6 6 5 3 1 1 2 2 18 12 4 1 1 4 1 3 5 6 3 2 3 ? 2 1 1 1 1 i 15 8 4 2 1 3 2 1 17 10 3 4 68 29.3 30 20 8 4 4 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 63 157 180 55 105 14? 17 61 67 6 22 23 5 3 8 1 2 1 4 1 2 1Not shown where base is less than 100. Total. 18 9 5 3 25 8 10 4 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 10 6 3 27 0.4 15 1 .3 3 1.5 1.2 .3 4 1 t'l 1 Number hours rest at night. ported. 1 Less than 8. 18, l e s s than9. 19, l e s s than 10. [10, l e s s ! than 11. 11, l e s s than 12. i 12, l e s s than 13. 13. l e s s than 14. 14 a n d over. N ot re ported. Per cent. Total. Number. Age of child and color and nativity of mother. 2.2 162 G e n e r a l T a b l e X X I I . — H o u r and reg u la rity o f retirin g , by co lo r an d n a tio n a lity o f m oth er. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Hour and regularity of retiring. Total. No regular hour. Total. Before 7. Between 7 and 8. Between 8 and 9. Between 9 and 10. Regularity not reported. 10 and later. Not reported. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per. ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.1 ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. centTotal............................................. 6,015 2,162 35.9 3,704 61.6 61 1.0 517 8.6 1,521 25.3 1,319 21.9 283 4.7 3 (2) Native white....................................... 1,843 Foreign-born white............................ 3,934 Polish........................................... 923 Serbo-Croatian............................. 587 Slovak........................................... 546 Magyar.......................................... 291 Italian........................................... 265 German........................................ 228 Lithuanian........ .......................... 225 All other....................................... 869 Negro................................................... 232 Not reported....................................... 6 305 1,773 493 271 282 114 139 55 95 324 80 4 16.5 45.1 53.4 46.2 51.6 39.2 52.5 24.1 42.2 37.3 34.5 1,469 2,087 424 300 262 174 117 161 125 524 146 2 79.7 53.1 45.9 51.1 48.0 59.8 44.2 70.6 55.6 60.3 62.9 26 33 6 6 2 4 2 1 1.4 .8 .7 1.0 .4 1.4 .8 .4 646 814 162 113 104 60 48 60 42 225 61 35.1 20.7 17.6 19.3 19.0 20.6 18.1 26.3 18.7 25.9 26.3 429 846 180 134 119 79 34 65 53 182 42 2 23.3 21.5 19.5 22.8 21.8 27.1 12.8 28.5 23.6 20.9 18.1 98 172 49 16 20 14 17 10 18 28 13 5.3 4.4 5.3 2.7 3.7 4.8 6.4 4.4 8.0 3.2 5.6 0.1 1.4 .9 14.5 5.6 2.9 5.3 3.1 5.8 6.0 11.0 5.3 8.7 12.1 2 1 12 2 268 221 27 31 17 17 16 25 12 76 28 1 .1 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 2 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. 149 .2.5 69 74 6 16 2 3 9 12 5 21 6 3.7 1.9 .7 2.7 .4 1.0 3.4 5.3 2.2 2.4 2.6 CHILDREN OE PRESCHOOL A g e , GARY, IND, Regular hour. Color and nationality of mother. G e n e r a l T a b l e X X I I I .— H o u r a n d reg u la rity o f retirin g , by a n n u a l ea rn in g s o f c h ie f bread w in ner in 1917. • ~ ----------------- -------Children 2 to 7 years of age. Hour and regularity of retiring. Annual earnings of chief breadwinner in 1917. Regular hour. Total. No regular hour. Total. Before 7. Between 7 and 8. Between 8 and 9. Between 9 and 10. 10 and later. Not reported. Num Per Num Per ber. cent. ber. cent. 6,015 2,162 35.9 3,704 61.6 61 1.0 517 8.6 1,521 25.3 1,319 21.9 283 4.7 Under $8S0..................... 851 *850 to $1,049............ 923 $1,050 to $1,249............ 1,065 $1,250 to $1,449................. 843 $1,450 t o $ l,849............. ................. 1,041 $1,850 to $2,249.................. 378 $2,250 and over........................... 441 N o chief breadwinner and no earnings 129 Earnings not reported........................ 344 405 403 427 289 301 59 91 58 129 47.6 43.7 40.1 34.3 28.9 15.6 20.6 45.0 37.5 434 504 622 527 714 306 333 69 195 51.0 54.6 58.4 62.5 68.6 81.0 75.5 53.5 56.7 13 5 9 3 8 6 9 2 6 1.5 .5 .8 .4 .8 1.6 2.0 1.6 1.7 50 69 72 66 96 52 73 8 31 5.9 7.5 6.8 7.8 9.2 13.8 16.6 6.2 9.0 169 209 258 233 282 125 139 31 75 19.9 22.6 24.2 27.6 27.1 33.1 31.5 24.0 21.8 166 186 239 166 273 103 97 26 63 19.5 20.2 22.4 19.7 26.2 27.2 22.0 20.2 18.3 36 35 44 59 53 20 14 2 20 4.2 3.8 4.1 7.0 5.1 5.3 3.2 1.6 5.8 Total......................... Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. 3 C1) 2 0.2 1 .2 Num Per ber. cent. 149 2.5 12 16 16 27 26 13 17 2 20 1.4 1.7 1.5 3.2 2.5 3.4 3.9 1.6 5.8 GENERAL TABLES, Num Per ber. cent. Regularity n,ot reported. 1 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. Oi 00 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 164 G e n e r a l T a b l e X X I Y .— H o u r and reg u la rity o f r is in g , by age o f child. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Hour and regularity of rising. Total. No regular hour. Num ber. 6,015 Total......................... 2 years, under 3 .............................. 3 years, under 4 ............................... 4 years, under 5 ............................... 5 years, Under 6 ............................... 6 years, under 7 ............................... 7 years, under 8 ............................... Not reported.................................... 1,079 1,437 1,233 1,100 1,008 156 2 2,309 438 597 499 391 347 35 2 Num Per cent.1 ber. 38.4 40.6 41.5 40.5 35.5 34.4 22.4 Before 6. Total. 3,546 601 808 . 700 680 639 118 Per cent. 59.0 55.7 56.2 56.8 61.8 63.4 75.6 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Num ber. 49 12 13 10 7 5 2 Between 7 and 8. Between 6 and 7. Per cent. 0.8 1.1 .9 .8 .6 .5 1.3 Num ber. 582 122 135 94 97 112 22 Num ber. Per cent. Per cent. 8 and later. Num ber. Per cent. 9.7 1,680 27.9 1,232 20.5 11.3 9.4 7.6 8.8 11.1 14-1 269 355 326 315 349 66 24.9 24.7 26.4 28.6 34.6 42.3 198 305 267 261 173 28 18.4 21.2 21.7 23.7 17.2 17.9 1 * Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. Not reported. Num ber. 3 3 Per cent. (2) 0.2 Regularity not reported. Num ber. Per cent. 160 2.7 40 32 34 29 22 3 3.7 2.2 2.8 2.6 2.2 19 CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND. Regular hour. Age of child. G e n e r a l T a b l e X X V . — H ou r and reg u la rity o f risin g , by co lo r a n d n a tio n a lity o f m oth er. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Hour and regularity of rising. Regular hour. Color and nationality of mother. Totàl. No regular hour. Total. Number. Per cent.1 Number. Between 6 and 7. Before 6. Per Numcent.1 ber. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Between 7 and 8. Number. 8 and later. Number. Per cent.1 Number. Per cent. Total............ . 6,015 2,309 38.4 3,546 59.0 49 0.8 582 9.7 1,680 27.9 1,232 20.5 3 (2) Native white.......... Foreign-born white. Polish............... Serbo-Croatian. Slovak.............. Magyar............. Itahan.............. German............ Lithuanian....... All other........... Negro...................... Not reported. . ....... 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 362 1,833 503 269 287 142 131 52 107 342 112 •2 19.6 46.6 54.5 45.8 52.6 48.8 49.4 22.8 47.6 39.4 48.3 1,394 2,033 412 301 252 146 129 171 113 509 115 4 75.6 51.7 44.6 51.3 46.2 50.2 48.7 75.0 50.2 58.6 49.6 14 32 3 8 1 8 .8 .8 .3 1.4 .2 2.7 219 337 80 40 39 23 41 18 14 82 26 11.9 8.6 8.7 6.8 7.1 7.9 15.5 7.9 6.2 9.4 11.2 709 920 179 142 112 69 57 80 45 236 49 2 38.5 23.4 19.4 24.2 20.5 23.7 21.5 35.1 20.0 27.2 21.1 450 743 150 111 100 46 31 72 54 179 37 2 24.4 18.9 16.3 18.9 18.3 15. 8 11.7 31.6 24.0 20.6 15.9 2 1 0.1' (2> 1 .1 Not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1 .4 11 3 1.3 1.3 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. Regularity not reported. Number. Per cent. 160 2.7 87 68 8 17 7 3 5 5 5 18 5 4.7 1.7 .9 2.9 1. 3 1.0 1.9 2.2 2. 2 2.1 2.2 GENERAL Per cent.1 Not reported. 166 G C H IL D R E N e n e r a l OF PRESCH OOL AGE, G A R Y, IN D . T a b l e X X V I — The w earin g o f n igh t cloth in g , by color and n a tio n a lity o f m other. ------- ; Children 2 to 7 years of age. Wearing as night clothing. Color and nationality of mother. ' Total. Total............................................- ....................... 6,015 Not reported.................................................................. 1,843 3.934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 . https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Wearing Not re no night Clothing No cloth ported. clothing. ing worn worn during during day. day. 14 13 2 2 5 4 1 2,058 3,926 17 376 1,651 393 239 238 116 171 70 142 282 31 1,460 2,264 527 347 308 173 87 157 82 583 196 6 7 6 1 1 2 1 1 4 G e n e r a l T a b l e XX V II.- ■N um ber o f hou rs rest a t n igh t, by n u m ber o f ad d ition a l occu p a n ts o f ch ild ’s bedroom . 14683 Children 2 to 7 years of age. Number of hours rest at night. to Number of additional occupants of child’s bedroom. Less than 8. Total. Num- Per ber. cent. 8, less than 9. 9, less than 10. 10, less than 11. Num- Per ber. cent. Number. cent. 11, less than 12. 12, less than 13. 13, les s than 14. 14 and over. Not reported. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent.1 ber. cent. Num Per ber. cent. Num Per ber. cent.1 6,015 16 0.3 93 . 1.5 589 9.8 1,669 27.7 2,119 35.5 1,103 18.3 264 4.4. 60 261 1,415 1,800 1,232 808 469 30 1 3 6 4 1.0 102 .4 .2 .3 .3 1.7 .8 1.0 1.9 2.3 17 125 184 115 6.5 8.8 10.2 9.3 2 .4 2 14 35 28 8 ,6 1.3 63 13.4 73 389 504 355 247 100 1 28.0 27.5 28.0 28.8 30.6 21.3 80 551 624 408 278 175 3 30.7, 38.9 34.7 33.1 34.4 37.3 63 245 318 249 143 82 3 24.1 17.3 17.7 20.2 17.7 17.5 18 64 85 43 30 24 6.9 4.5 4.7 3.5 3.7 5.1 2 12 22 12 4 8 .8 .8 1.2 1.0 .5 1.7 5 12 22 18 13 9 23 1.9 .8 1.2 1.5 1.6 1.9 1 ...... 2 ............. 3 ............ 4 ................. 5 and over.. Not reported 1 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. m : GENERAL TABLES, Total.. None............ 05 -cr https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 168 G en er al T able X X V I I I .— A dditional occupants o f child's bed, by color and n ationality o f m other. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Type of additional occupants of child’ s bed. Total. Children only. Adults only. Adults and children. Not reported. Adults only. Not reported. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.1 Number. Percent. Number. Percent.1 Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Total................. Native white.............. Foreign-born white... Polish................... Serbo-Croatian___ Slovak................... Magyar................. Italian.................. German................ Lithuanian........... All other............... Negro.......................... Not reported............... 6,015 1,843 3,934 923 587 546 291 265 228 225 869 232 6 1,360 697 613 97 96 56 35 40 52 26 211 45 5 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org m Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 22.6 37.8 15. 6 10.5 16.4 10.3 12.0 15.1 22. 8 11.6 24.3 ' 19.4 2,636 676 1,845 427 291 247 148 165 104 104 359 . 115 43.8 36.7 46.9 46.3 49.6 45.2 50. 9 62.3 45. 6 46. 2 41.3 49.6 1,224 356 824 196 115 117 78 36 54 52 176 43 1 20.3 19.3 20.9 21.2 19.6 21.4 26.8 13.6 23.7 23.1 20.3 18.5 753 97 633 198 81 126 30 22 17 41 118 23 12.5 5.3 16.1 21.5 13.8 23.1 10.3 8.3 7.5 18.2 13.6 9.9 5 0.1 .1 .2 .3 4 2 2 0.2 26 0.4 3 8' 2 1 .2 .2 .2 .2 14 7 1 1 .8 .2 .1 .2 1 .4 1 3 '.Z 1 1 1 2 5 .4 .4 .4 .2 2.2 11 .4 1 I 1 1' CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND. Not members of fanrly. Members of family. No additional occupants. Color and nationality of mother. G e n e r a l T a b l e X X I X .— N u m ber a n d p u rp o se o f v isits to d en tist, by age o f ch ild an d c o lo r a n d n a tiv ity o f m oth er. Children 2 to 7'years of age. Age of child and color and nativity of mother. 5,290 1,061 1,355 1,085 246 For extraction only. 2 visits. 193 34 3 visits. 4 and Number over. not re Total. ported 475 2 visits. 244 3 visits. 47 29 20 Not re ported as to 4 and Number visits. not re over. ported. For other reasons, with or without extraction. 60 36 26 169 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 6,015 Who had paid specified number of visits to dentist. GENERAL TABLES. Total. 2 years, under 3.......... .................. 3 years, under 4............... ............................. 4 years, under 5............... .................. 5 years, under 6...................... 6 years, under 7........................... ................ 7 years, under 8............................................. Not reported.................................................. Native white mothers............... . f ..................... 2 years, under3...................... ....................... 3 years, under 4....................... . . . . . . ............ 4 years, under 5...................... ....................... 5 years, under 6......................... .. .................. 6 years, under7......................... 7 years,under 8...................... Foreign-born white mothers.............. ................ 2 years, under 3..................................**........ 3 years, under 4.......................... *’ ............ . 4 years, under 5........................... 5 years, under 6........................... 6 years, under7........................... 7 years, under 8.. ; .............................“ ........ Not reported........... .................... . ! ! * ' ” *’ V Negro mothers....................................................... 2years,under3..............i l l ” “ ” “] 3 years, under 4................................... . *" ’ 4 years, under 5........................... . . . ' . . ‘. I '.'.T . 5 years, under 6.............................................. 6 years, imder 7..................................*f 7years,under8......................... ........". ’ " V Nativity of mother not reported............! ! ! ! ’ ] ’ " 2 years, under 3..... ..................................." ] J 3 years, under 4.................................. 4 years, under 5................................ ........... . 5 years, under 6.................................. 6 years, imder 7..................................’ ' ’ Who had paid no Total. visits to Total. dentist. 170 G CHILDREN OF PRESCHOOL AGE, GARY, IND. e n e r a l T a b l e X X X .— N um ber o f visits to d en tist, by age o f child and a n n u a l earnings o f c h ief breadw inner in 1917. Children 2 to 7 years of age. Age of child and annual earn ings of chief breadwinner in 1917. Who had paid no visits to dentist. Total. Who had paid one or more visits to dentist. Not reported as to visits. Percent.1 Number. Per cent.1 Number. Per cent. Total. 2 years, under 3.................... 3 years, under 4— ............. 4 years, under 5.................. . 5 years, under 6.................... 6 years, under 7.................... 7 years, under 8.................... Not reported........................ Under $1,050............................... 2 years, under 3.................... 3 years, under 4.................... 4 years, under 5.................... 5 years, under 6---............... 6 years, under 7--................ 7 years, under 8................... $1,050 to $1,849............................ 2 years, under 3.................. . 3 years, under 4.................. . 4 years, under 5..........1....... 5 years, under 6— '. 1 . 6 years, under 7.................. . 7 years, under 8.................. N ot reported........................ $1,850 and over.......................... 2 years, under 3........ ......... 3 years, under 4............. . ..4 years, under 5.-................ 5 years, under 6.................. 6 years, under 7........ •......... 7 years, under 8.:..;............. No chief breadwinner and no earnings.................................. 2 years, under 3 . . ............... 3 years, under 4.................. 4 years, under 5.................. 5 years, under 6.................. 6 years, under 7.................. 7 years, under 8.................. Earnings not reported.............. 2 years, under 3.................. 3 years, under 4.................. 4 years, under 5................. 5 years, under 6........... ...... 6 years, under 7.................. 7 years, under 8.................. 6,015 819 136 190 176 158 142 17 1,061 1,355 1,085 899 762 126 2 1,640 329 412 326 280 239 54 2,605 533 682 543 430 365 50 2 642 132 166 138 114 82 10 129 17 26 23 29 30 4 344 51 73 73 65 69 13 107 16 25 18 23 23 2 296 51 70 60 52 53 10 1,079 1,437 1,233 1,100 1,008 156 2 1,774 334 431 352 319 279 59 2,949 541 717 609 529 488 63 2 1 Not shown where base is less than 100. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 5,290 87.9 721 12.0 4 0.1 .2 .1 98.3 94.3 88.0 81.7 75.6 80.8 16 81 148 201 245 30 1.5 5.6 12.0 18.3 24.3 19.2 2 1 1 .1 92.4 98.5 95.6 92.6 87.8 85.7 132 3 19 26 39 40 5 342 8 34 66 99 122 13 7.4 .9 4.4 7.4 12.2 14.3 2 2 .1 .6 11.6 1.5 4.7 10.8 18.7 25.0 2 .1 1 .1 1 .2 78.4 . 97.1 87.4 78.4 72.2 57.7 177 4 24 38 44 60 7 21.6 2.9 12.6 21.6 27.8 42.3 82.9 22 1 1 5 6 7 2 48 17.1 88.3 98.5 95.1 . 89.2 81.3 74.8 86.0 3 13 13 16 3 14.0 INDEX. Adopted children, status of, in determining family limits, 12. Age: Amount of milk as beverage by, 65-66. Amount of sleep received by, 43. Grade of diet by, 58. Number of meals daily by, 91. Suitability of foods to, 40, 89-96. Use of tea or coffee by, 70. Alleys, inspection of, 5,123. Ambridge subdivision, housing conditions in, 17, 22-23. Anemia, by grade of diet, 109-110,115. Bacteriological tests, provision for, 5. Bath accommodation, houses having, 25. B y nativity of mother, 26. Baths, frequency of, 125. B y nativity of mother, 40-41,127. Bedfellows, 49-50. Bedroom: Number of occupants— By earnings of chief breadwinner, 48-49 128. By nativity of mother, 47, 127. Ventilation, 46-47,125,127. B y nationality of mother, 47. Boarding children, status of, in determining fam ily limits, 12. Bony defects of rachitic origin, by grade of diet 106, 115. Breakfast, inadequate, 126. B y earnings of chief breadwinner, 97. By nationality of mother, 96-97, 99,1 1 5 , 126. Building: B y land company, 4, 5,6,13,17,18. B y private enterprise, 5,18-19. Commissioner of, duties, 15. Ordinances regarding, 5,15,16. Regulations concerning, 5, 6,15-17. Buildings, department of, 15. Canvass made in order to determine number of preschool children, 2. Care and hygiene, 40-51. According to income, 127-128. According to nativity of mother, 126-127. S e e a lso u n d e r f o l lo w in g it e m s : Baths, 40-41. Care during mother’s employment, 38,125. Dental care, 50-51. Recreation, 41-42. Sleep, conditions pertaining to, 43-50. Carious teeth, by grade of diet, 104-105, 115. Cereals: Use in diet, 78-79,114,126. B y earnings of chief breadwinner, 78-79. B y nationality and color of mother, 78. Chief breadwinner: Definition, 30. Earnings. S e e Earnings. City health officer, part-time employment of, 5 City ordinances. S e e Ordinances. City planning, 3-4. City regulations. S e e Regulations. Civic and social factors: Garbage, collection and disposal, 5 , 1 2 3 . Health protection, 5,6. Housing. S e e Housing. Milk supply, 5, 6. Playgrounds, 5, 41-42, 1 2 3 S e e a l s o Recreation. Provision and action regarding, 4 - 6 . Sanitation. S e e Sanitation. Sewer system, 4,123. Water supply, 4, 6, 19, 23-24, 25, 123. Welfare work, 5,6,123. Clark subdivision, housing conditions in 18 2 2 24,26. ' ’ ’ Coffee or tea: Use of— 23 By earnings of chief breadwinner^ 70 - 7 2 . B y nationality and color of mother, 72 - 7 4 . Number of times daily, 68. By age of child, 70. By nationality and color of mother 72-74. ’ Relation to use of milk, 69-70, 1 1 4 . Community, influence of schools upon, 8. Community conditions surrounding child life 3 - 6 123. ’ ' Composition of family, 1 1 . Conditions affecting child welfare, 3 - 5 1 . Child care and hygiene, 40-51. Community, 3-6,123. Economic conditions, 30-39. Home and family, 7 - 1 4 . Housing, 15-29. S e e a l s o Housing. Contagious disease, control of, 5. Customs regarding certain dietary practices, 89-100. Dental care, 50-51. Dental caries, by grade of diet, 104-105. Description of Gary, 3-6. Diet: Adequacy of, 96-99,113, 115, 126, 127. B y nationality of mother, 96-99,1 1 5 . Grading according to, 54-56. S e e a l s o Diet, grade of. Eating between meals, 92-96, 115, 126. B y earnings of chief breadwinner, 94-95. B y nationality of mother, 93-94. Educational need regarding, 59. 171 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 123 ’ 172 INDEX, Diet—Continued. Grade of— B y age, 58. B y district of residence, 61-62. B y income, 59-60, 128. B y nationality, 60-61. Weight in relation to, 126. Weight in relation to height by, 101-104. Grading according to adequacy, 54-56. Items lacking, 85-88, 114. B y income, 86, 87, 120-121. B y nationality, 87-88, 117. Meals— Breakfast, adequacy, 96-97,99, 115, 126. Lunch, adequacy, 98-99, 115, 126. Number daily, b y age of child, 91. Regularity, by nationality, 92. Supper, type, 90-91. Method of study, 53-56. Grading of diets, 54-56. limitations of material, 53-54. Seeming of records, 53-54. Nutrition as related to, 101,102, 103,101,106. Physical condition in relation to, 101-112,115116. Suitability of foods to age of children, 40,89-96. B y nationality of mother, 90. Summary showing deviation from accepted standards, 99-100. Type of— By gamings of chief breadwinner, 59-60,86, 87, 118,119, 120-121, 128. Disease, contagious, control of, 5. District of residence: Diet grades, distribution of children in, by, 61-62. Distribution of children by, 13. Millr used as beverage by, 67-68. Number of children in family by, 14. Source of water supply by, 23-24. Type of dwelling by, 20. Duration and stability of family life, 11-12. Earnings: Chief breadwinnercare of child according to, 127-128. Cereals, use of, by, 78-79. Coffee, use of, by, 70-72. Dental care in relation to, 51. Diet in relation to, 59-60, 86, 87, 116, 118, 119,120-121,128. Eggs, use of, by, 80. Em ploym ent, type of, b y , 34. Employment of mother influenced by, 33, 38. Fruits and vegetables, use of, by, 76. Household help in relation to, 39,128. Literacy and ability to speak English in re lation to earning capacity, 33. Meals, adequacy of, by, 97. Eating between, 94-95. Meat, use of, by, 84-85. Milk, as beverage, amount of, by, 66-67. Nativity of mother according to, 33. Number of persons in family by, 32. Potatoes, use of, by, 77. Retiring and rising, regularity, by, 45. Supplementary income, 30,33. Ventilation of bedroom in relation to, 46. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings—Continued. Mother, 38. S e e a l s o Employment of mother. Economic conditions, 30-39, 125. S e e a l s o Earnings. Eggs: Use in diet, 79-80,114,126. B y earnings o f c h i e f breadwinner, 80. B y nationality and color of mother, 79-80. Employment: Chief breadwinner— Type of work and earnings, 34. Mother (gainful employment)— At home, 30,37,125. Away from home, 30, 36-37,125. Separation from child as result of, 38, 125, 127-128. Earnings of father as related to, 33, 38. English: Ability to speak— Father, 9,124. Mother, 9,124. B y nationality, 9,116,118,119. Acquisition of, importance, 9, 33. Family: Composition, 11. Conditions, 7-14, 124-128. Removals from city to city, 11-12,124. Size, by nativity of mother, 7,48. Family life, duration and stability of, 11-12. Fathers: Ability to speak English, 9,124. Earnings. S e e Earnings of chief breadwinnet. Literacy, 10,124. Fire limits, ordinance concerning, 16. First Subdivision: Development of, 6,13,17,18. Housing, 17, 22, 23. Food supply, inspection of, 5. Foods, specified, use of, 63-88. Cereals, 77-79. Coffee or tea, 68-74. Eggs, 79-80. Items lacking from diet, 85-88. Meat, 81-85. Milk, 63-68. Vegetables and fruits, 74-77. Potatoes (white), 76-77. Foreign born: Diet of children, 60-61. S e e a l s o u n d e r Diet. H ousingConditions, 5,13, 26. Tenure, 21-22. Literacy of parents, 10. Population of, 7. Residence of mother in United States, length of, 9-10. Welfare work on South Side, 5,6,123. S e e a l s o Nationality of mother. Fruits and vegetables: Use in diet, 74,75-76,114. B y earnings of chief breadwinner, 76-77. B y nationality and color, 75. IN D E X . Garbage, collection and disposal, 5,123. Gary: Area, 6. Description, 3-6. B y district ofresidence, 13. Growth, 4, 8. Industries, 3,4. Number of children studied in, 2,53. Population of, 6. Topography of, 3. Glen Park subdivision, housing conditions, 18, 23, 26. Grades of diet, 55-56. S e e a l s o Diet. Health officer, city, part-time employment of, 5,123. Health protection, 5, 6. Height, relation of weight to, by grade of diet, 101104. Home conditions, 7-14,124-128. Home ownership: B y district of residence, 23. B y nativity and color, 21-22. Household: Size, by nativity of mother, 7, 48. Household help: Extent of, 39,125,127. Income in relation to, 39,128. Housing: Congestion— Lot, 4,16,17,18-19,123. Room, 16,17, 27-29,124,126,127,128. Fire protection, regulations concerning, 16. Land company projects, 4,5,6,13,17,18. Law (State) relating to [passed 1913], 5,16,26. One-family houses, 19,42. Private enterprise, 5,18-19. Privies, 19,25,26,27. Regulations, inadequacy of, 5,15. Rental and tenure, 21-23. Sanitary conveniences, 18,19,23-27,124. Type of houses, 5,17,18-21. B y district of residence, 20,22. Ventilation, 16,19,20-21, 46-47, 124, 125, 127. Water supply, 4,6,19,23-25,123. Hygiene and care, 40-51. Baths, 40-41. Dental care, 50-51. Recreation, 41-42. Sleep, conditions pertaining to, 43-50. Immigrant laborers, housing, 5,13. Income. S e e Earnings. Industries in Gary, 3,4. Infants born in 1916, number in family, by number of preschool children in family, 12-13. Inspection: Alleys, 5,123. Housing, 5,15,16,123. Milk and food, 5. Plumbing, 15. Sanitation, 5,6,15,123. Water, 4, 6. Kirk subdivision, housing in, 17. Laboratory* municipal, 5,123. Land company, development by, 4,5,6,13,17,18. Legislation, housing, 5,15-17, 26. Lincoln Park subdivision, housing conditions, 22, 23, 26. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 173 Literacy: Father, 10,124. Mother, 10,124. B y nationality, 10,116,118,119. Lodgers: Family earnings supplemented by keeping, 30, 37,38,125. Tendency to keep, by nativity and color of mother, 29. Lot congestion, 4,16,17,18-19,123. Lunch, inadequate, by nationality of mother, 98-99, 115,126. Malnutrition: Physical defects in relation to, 106-107S e e a l s o Diet: Nutrition as related to; Phys ical condition in relation to. Meals: Adequacy, 96-99, 115. Eating between, 92-96, 115, 126. Amount and type of food by nationality of mother, 93-94. B y earnings of chief breadwinner, 94-95. B y nationality of mother, 94. Number daily, 91. Regularity, 40, 92,115, 126. Suitability of foods to age of child, 40,89-96,126. S e e a l s o Diet. Meat, daily use: By amount of milk used as beverage, 81-82. B y grade of diet, 82-83. B y nationality and color of mother, 83-84. B y earnings of chief breadwinner, 84-85. Medical inspection of schoolchildren, 1,6. S e e a l s o Bureau Publication No. I ll, Physical Status of Preschool Children, Gary, Ind Method of procedure in study: Part 1 ,2. ‘ Part II, 53-56. Grading of diets, 54-56. Limitations of material, 53-54. Securing of records, 53-54. Milk: Amount used as beverage, 64,113,126. B y age of child, 65-66. B y district of residence, 67-68. B y earnings of chief breadwinner, 66-67. B y nationality and color of mother, 67. Contrasted with consumption of meat, 8182. Contrasted with consumption of tea or coffee, 69-70, 114, 126. Amount used in food, 64-65. Minimum standard required, 64,113. Number of children receiving, 64, 113, 126. Ordinance regarding, 5,123. Milk supply, inspection of, 5, 6. Miller (town), annexation of, for recreational pur poses, 4 (footnote), 123. Mothers: Ability to speak English, 9,124. B y nationality, 9,116,118,119. Earnings, 38. Employment (gainful)— A t home, 30,37, 125. Away from home, 30,36-37,125. Separation from child as result of, 38, 125. Literacy, 10,124. B y items of diet, 116,118,119. 174 INDEX, Nationalities: Non-English-speaking, 8. Predominating, 7. Nationality of mother, 7-10. Ability to speak English, 9,116,118,119. Diet— Cereals, use of, 78,117. Eggs, use of, 79-80,117. Fruits and vegetables, use of, 75,117. Grade, 60-61,117. Meat, use of, 83-84,117. Milk, use of, as beverage, 67,117. Potatoes, use of, 77,117. Rank, 116-119. Suitability of foods to age of child, 80. Tea or coffee, use of, 72-74, 117. Earnings of chief breadwinner, 118. Literacy, 10,118. Meals— Adequacy of, 96-99, 117. Eating between, 93-94,117. Regularity of, 92,117. Non-English-speaking nationalities, 8. Residence in the United States, 9-10. Ventilation of bedroom, 47. Nativity of mother: Baths, frequency of, 41. Earnings of chief breadwinner, 33. Home ownership, 21-22. Hour of retiring, 45. Room congestion, 29. Sanitary conveniences, 26. Sleep received, 43-44. Ventilation of bedroom, 46,127. Water supply location, 25. Negroes: Earnings of chief breadwinner, 33. Employment of mother in relation to, 38. . Literacy, 10. Lodger keeping, extent of, 29. Number of persons per room, 29. Sanitary conveniences, 24,25,26. Separation of mother and child because of em ployment of mother away from home, 38. Tenure of home, 21,22. Toilet facilities, 26, 27. Night clothing, 46. Nonemployment of chief breadwinner, 35-36,125. Non-English-speaking nationalities, 8. Nurse: Employed by health department to visit con tagious cases, 5,123. Employed by police department for infantwelfare work, 5, 6,123. Nutrition: Diet as related to, 101,102,103,104,106. State of, as indicated by weight according to height, 101-104. Weight in relation to, 101. One-family houses: Advantages, 19,42. Description, 19. Disadvantages, 19. Law lacking with reference to, 5,16-17. Ordinances: Building, 5,15,16. FirelimitS and building within them, 16. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Ordinances—Continued. Lots (residence), improvement in First Subdi vision, 18. Milk and food, 5,123. Plumbing, 15. Overcrowding: Lot, 4,16,17,18-19,123. Room, 16,17, 27-29, 124, 126, 127, 128. Ownership of homes: B y district of residence, 23. B y nativity and color, 21-22. Physical condition: Dietary findings in relation to, 101-112,115. School standing in relation to, 1. Physical examinations: Results, by grade of diet, 106, 126. S e e a l s o Bureau Publication No. 111. Physical Status of Preschool Children, Gary, Ind. Pine subdivision, housing in, 18. Plan of city, 3-4. Playgrounds, 41-42. Municipal, 5, 41,123. School, 5, 41,123. S e e a l s o Recreation. Play spaces, 6,42. Plumbing: Ordinance regulating, 15. Population of Gary: Foreign bom , -7. Negro, 7. Total (1910, p. 21; 1917, p. 6.) Postural defects, by grade of diet, 106-107,115. Potatoes (white): Use in diet, 76-77. B y earnings of chief breadwinner, 77. B y nationality, 77. Preschool children: Distribution, by district ofresidence, 13 - 1 4 . Number in study, 2. Per cent of families having specified number of, by nativity of mother, 7-8. Reasons for study of, 1-2, Private enterprise, housing by, 5,18-19. Privies: Number of children using, 25. By district ofresidence, 26-. Number o f families using same accommoda tion, 19, 27. Reasons for study, 1-2. Recreation: Provisions for, 4 (footnote 1), 6,123. Time spent out of doors, 41-42. S e e a l s o Playgrounds. Regulations: Building, 5,6,15-17,123. Controlling contagious disease, 5. Sanitation, 5,6. Rental and tenure, 21-23. Residence of foreign-bom mothers in the United States, length of, 9-10. Ridge Road subdivision, housing conditions in, 18,23, 26. Room congestion, 16,17,27-29, 124, 126,127, 128. Legislation concerning, 16,17. INDEX. 175 Sanitation: Tea or coffee—Continued. Conveniences, 19,23-27,124. Use of—Continued. By district of residence, 18,23-24,26. Number of times daily, 68. By nativity of mother, 25,26. B y age of child, 70. Inspection, 5,6. B y nationality and color of mother, Schedule used in study, 132-135. 72-74. Schools: Teeth, carious, by grade of diet, 104-105. Tenements: Dentalinspection in, 50. Law pertaining to, 16,17. Influence upon community life, 8. S e e a l s o Housing. Medical inspection in, 1,6. Tenure and rental, 21-23. Night classes for adults, 8. Toilet facilities, 19,25,26,124. Separation of mother and child on account of B y nativity of mother, 26. mother’s employment, 38. Law requiring, 16,26. Sewer system, 4,123. Location and type of toilet, by number of Sleep: families using, 26-27. Amount received— Tolleston subdivision: By age, 43. Housing conditions in, 18,23,26. By nativity of mother, 44. Incorporation of, 5. B y number of additional occupants of bed, Tonsils, defective, by grade of diet, 107-108,115. 50. Topography of Gary, 3. B y number o f additional occupants of bedroom, 48-49. Unemployment of chief breadwinner, 35,36. Conditions affecting, 46-50. Vegetables and fruits: Night clothing, 46,125,127. Potatoes (white), 76-77,114,126. Retiring and rising, regularity of, 44-45,125,127. Use in diet, 74-76, 114. Ventilation in bedroom, 46-47,125. B y earnings of chief breadwinners, 76-77. South Side subdivision: By nationality and color, 75. Housing conditions in, 18,23,26. Ventilation: Nurse (city) employed in, 5,6,123. Extent of— Welfare station established in, 6. B y type of dwelling, 19,20-21,124. Stability of family life, 11-12. In bedroom, 46-47,125,127. . Streets: Ordinance regarding, 16. Cleaning of, 5,123. Water-closets. S e e Sanitary conveniences. Paving of, 4,17,18. Water supply: Plan of. 4. Analysis, 4,6. Summaries: Establishment of, 4. Customs regarding dietary practices, 99-100. Location, by nativity of mother, 25. Dietary study, 113-121. Protection of, 6,123. General, 123-128. Source, by district of residence, 23-24. Relationship between diet and physical con Source other than city system, 19,23-24. dition, 112. Weight: Diet in relation to, 126. Height, by grade of diet, in relation to, 101-104. Tea or coffee: Nutrition in relation to, 101. Use of— Welfare work (South Side), 5, 6,123. By earnings of chief breadwinner, 70-72. West Gary subdivision, housing conditions in, 13, B y nationality and color o f mother, 72-74. 18, 22, 23, 24. Contrasted with consumption o f milk, 69“ Winged shoulders,” malnutrition in relation to, 70,114,126. 106. o https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis S HANTY IN SEASONAL W O R K E R S ’ C AMP, HOUSI NG 95 PERSONS. [Dimensions, approxim ately 60 b y 20 b y 16 feet.] https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis