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A TY P IC A L RURAL SCHOOL BUS.

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A State law requires that transportation be furnished for children living more than 2J miles from rural schools.

/
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
JAMES J. DAVIS. Secretary

CHILDREN’S BUREAU
V

GRACE ABBOTT. Chief

CHILD LABOR IN
NORTH DAKOTA

Bureau Publication No. 129

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1923

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NOT POSSIBLE TO DISTRIBUTE THIS BULLETIN IN LARGE
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AT

15 CEN TS P E R C O PY

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CONTENTS,
Page.

Letter of transmittal...................................................
Introduction......................................................................................................................
Work of rural children.................................
Rural life ................................................... ........ .......... - ......... 3
Field work done b y children.,:...............
General processes.......................................................................... ............ . . .
Plow ing........................................................... - ......... ...............................
D isking....................................... .......................... ................... .......... .
Harrowing...................................................................
Cultivating..............................................
Hoeing........................... ............................................................— ------H auling............................
Handling com crops....................................................................................
Handling grain...........................................
Planting grain......................................................................
Harvesting grain with bin der.................................
Shocking..............................
Harvesting grain with header................................................................
Stacking grain............................................................................................
Threshing..................................................................................
Handling hay and forage................................................................................
Mowing.......................................................................... ............... , ...........
Raking or bucking ........ .................................- ....................................
Driving stacker or hay fork.....................................................................
Stacking h a y ..........................- ............... .................................................
Pitching.......................................................................................................
Handling potatoes......................... 1.......................................... ....................
Other kinds of field work......................................
Duration of field work......... .......................................................................
Farm work other than field w ork...................................................
Chores and housework................................
Farm work away from h om e..................................................................................
Accidents to children engaged in farm work......................................................
Schooling of farm children...................................................................................
Percentage of attendance................................................................................
Reasons for absence.......................................................................
Absence due to illness .............
Absence due to bad weather or bad roads...... ....................................
Absence due to w ork.............................................................
Other reasons...................................................................
Retardation......................
Summary........................................................................................................#•.........

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v
1
3-40
7-20
8-13

8
11
11
12
13
13
13
14-17
15
15
15
15
16
16
18-19
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
20
21
23
25
27
29-38
30
32-36
33
34
34
36
36
39

CONTENTS.

Page.
Employment of children in Fargo, Grand Forks, and Minot................ ................. 41-63
Inspections of child-employing establishments............................ ...................
42
School children reporting em ploym ent............ . . „ ................. ........................ 44-63
Number and age...................... 1................................................................. ..
44
45
Grade in school........................................... .................................................. . .
Nativity and occupation of fathers.......... ........ ................. .........................
45
Children’s occupations and conditions of w ork ................ . . ................... i 47-61
Number and kinds of positions h eld........................... ............. ........ .
47
Street trades
........................................... g......... . . . ...............
49
Personal and domestic service.............. ......... ............................... .
53
56
Agricultural work. . . . ............................................................................
58
Mercantile occupations. . . ................................................. ......... . . . . . .
Other occupations.......................................... / . ......................................
59
Disposition of earnings........................ .................. .....................................
61
Violations of the State child-labor law................................................... .
62
Appendix. Accidents as reported b y 104 of the 845 children who had worked
on farms during 1921............................................................................................... L.
65
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Facing page.
A typical rural school bus.................................... .........................................................
x
Sod houses still used for dwellings..... ........................ ...............................................
4
Prosperous modem farm................................................................................................. _ 4
Typical prairie farm building................................... ....................................................
5
Harrowing or “ dragging” ............................... ...............................................................
10
Drilling...................................................................................... .......................................
10
Cook cart and sleeping cart of a threshing crew (in winter quarters)....................
26
Old type of North Dakota rural schoolhouse (closed because of floods)..............
34
New type of rural schoolhouse................................................................... ..................
34

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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. D epartment

of L abor ,
Children ’ s B u r ea u ,

Washington, June 27, 1923.
Si r : There is transmitted herewith a report on Child Labor in
North Dakota, the investigation for which was planned and carried
on under the general supervision of Ellen Nathalie Matthews, director
of the industrial division of the Children’s Bureau. The information
obtained as to rural child labor was analyzed by Ethel M. Springer
and that relating to the work of city children by Harriet A. Byrne
and Helen M. Dart.
The bureau acknowledges with appreciation the interest and
cooperation of the chairman and members of the North Dakota
Children’s Code Commission, through whose initiative the survey was
undertaken. Acknowledgment is made also of the assistance rendered
by officials of the State agricultural college, especially by Dr. P. F.
Trowbridge, of that institution, who furnished information regarding
farm occupations; by officials of the State department of public
instruction; and by city and county school superintendents and
teachers.
Respectfully submitted.
G race A bbott , Chief.

Hon. James J. D a v is ,
Secretary o f Labor,

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CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.
INTRODUCTION.
North. Dakota is situated on the western edge of the great wheat
belt of North America. Fertile plains watered by the Red River
of the North and the James River and bearing rich wheat crops lie
in the eastern part of the State, and beyond the Missouri River low
hills and grazing lands stretch to the western boundary. The State
covers a territory greater than the New England States and New
Jersey, and the majority of its counties are as large as Rhode Island.
Despite the fact that two generations have grown up since the
pioneers came to the region it is still sparsely settled. The popula
tion of the whole State in 1920, according to the United States census,
was 646,872, or only 9.2 persons to the square mile.1 Over fourfifths of the population (86.4 per cent) were classified as rural.2 Only
three cities had 10,000 or more inhabitants; three had populations of
from 5,000 to 10,000, and six had populations of from 2,500 to 5,000.
The percentage of native-born whites at that time for the entire
State was 78.6, and of foreign-born whites, 20.3, the percentage of
foreign born in the urban population being 18.3 and in the rural
population 20.6.3 The prevailing nationalities are the Scandinavian,
Russian, Canadian, and German, constituting in 1920 84 per cent of
the entire foreign-born population. The Russians who have settled
in the southern counties of the State are from the southeastern sec
tions of Russia, but speak German rather than Russian. Scandina
vians predominate in the population of the northern and eastern
counties, and Canadians are found principally along the northern
boundary. Germans are located in the central and southern counties.
The Children’s Bureau study of the extent and conditions of child
labor in North Dakota is one of several surveys relating to child
welfare in the State made by the bureau at the request of the North
Dakota State Children’s Code Commission. The study covered the
largest three cities (Fargo, Grand Forks, and Minot), and six rural
counties selected on the advice of members of the commission and
other local officials as representative of agricultural conditions. in
1Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, Vol. I, Population, pp. 29, 122.
1All incorporated places having 2,500 inhabitants or more are treated as urban and the remainder of
the country as rural. Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, Vol. I ll, Population, p. 9.
* Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, Vol. Ill, Population, pp. 752-765.

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CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

the State as a whole. These were Pembina, in the extreme north
east, where land values are high and potato production extensive;
Hettinger in the southwest, where the soil is poorer and less adapted
to the cultivation of crops than to stock raising; Pierce and Stuts
man, representing the central sections of the State, devoted largely
to the cultivation of wheat; Logan County in the south, representing
territory in which the percentage' of non-English speaking popula
tion is high; and Dickey County, in which agricultural and social
conditions are fairly typical of those in the southeastern part of the
State.
Information as to the extent and kinds of work done by children
was obtained by agents of the Children’s Bureau through interviews
^ with children in selected rural schools of these six counties. One
hundred and thirteen schools were visited. The total number of
children enrolled in the schools was 2,674.4 Of these, 1,992 between
the ages of 6 and 17 were present when the schools were visited and
were interviewed in regard to farm work. Detailed information
was obtained from all children under 17 years of age who reported
that they had during the year previous to the interview lived on a
farm and done farm work for at least 12 days of 6 hours or more, or
who, while attending school, customarily spent 3 hours or more a
day at chores. In addition, a study was made of causes of absence
from rural schools, based on reports secured from local teachers
through the cooperation of the State superintendent of public instruc
tion and the county superintendents.
The plan of study in the cities varied somewhat from that of the
rural inquiry because of the differences in the kinds of work open to
city children and the conditions under which they are employed.
An inquiry into the extent and kinds of vacation work and employ
ment before and after school was made by bureau agents by means
of personal interviews with all children under 16 attending public
schools in the three cities. In addition the establishments most
likely to employ children were inspected, in order to ascertain the
extent of child employment, especially during school hours. A
brief inquiry was also made into the methods of administering the
laws affecting child labor.
4 See p. 29.

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WORK OF RURAL CHILDREN.
RURAL LIFE.

Practically all the farming country of North Dakota is laid out in
sections 1 mile square, just as it was originally staked off in claims
when the land was allotted by the Government to homesteaders.
The size of farms, therefore, is ordinarily stated in terms of sections
or parts of sections, the quarter section, or 160-acre division, being
so usual that the expression is frequently heard: “ He owns three
and a half quarters,’ ’ or “ He has sold half a quarter.” The average
acreage per farm in the State as a whole was 466.1 in 1920;1 for
the group of farmers whose children came within the scope of the
study the average was 503.3, and more than one-fourth held farms
comprising one section (640 acres) or more of land.
A single farmhouse on a section inevitably means isolation. A
farmer sometimes builds his house in the corner of his property near
est to other dwellings; but at best this gives him few neighbors,
though the sense of isolation is doubtless somewhat lessened by the
fact that the flat, treeless country makes it possible to see great dis
tances, and buildings or villages 5 or 6 miles off seem only half as
far away. Of the children included in the rural study more than
one-half lived 5 miles or more, and almost one-tenth lived 10 miles
or more, from town.
The oldest roads in North Dakota are known as “ trails,” and in
the flat prairie country are sometimes merely beaten paths along
the section lines, though many of them have been graded and put
in good condition. Every county has at least one automobile road
leading out from the county seat, but as the roads are compara
tively few in number and as most of them run east and west, par
alleling the two transcontinental railroads which cross the State,
they are inadequate for the needs of the population. Automobile
bus lines running east and west have been established between the
principal cities, but connections between the north and south are
not well developed. Automobiles have become almost indispensable
and are owned by families possessing few other conveniences. Rural
mail delivery as yet covers only a small portion of the State.
While the plain country does not have the transportation difficul
ties of a mountain region, it has its own dangers— winds which sweep
violently across it, periods of intense dry cold, snowstorms, and
1 Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, Vol. VI, Part 1, Agriculture, Reports for States, the
Northern States, p. 615,

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CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

occasionally sudden blizzards in which the snow swirls so thickly
that it is impossible to see more than a few inches ahead and almost
impossible to keep a foothold in the shifting, treacherous drifts.
With the first rise in temperature in early spring the melting snows
turn the barren fields into lakes, and for two or three weeks the
floods make travel impossible. (See illustration facing p. 34.)
These conditions make school attendance difficult and at times out
of the question. Some of the teachers’ registers in rural districts
showed that on some days the schools had been closed because
neither teacher nor children could reach the building. State offi
cials and men with state-wide interests have adjusted themselves to
the distances and to the uncertainties of the weather and are accus
tomed to make the rounds of the State despite the great sacrifice of
time involved. Through business interests, lodges, or farm organi
zations practically all the important men and women of the State
are personally acquainted with one another. “ We are like a great
family,” said one of these men. The ordinary farmer, however,
whose annual trip to town with his load of grain is his chief contact
with the outside world, lives an isolated existence, and for the women
and children who do not make the trips to town life is still more
barren. Individuals in nearly every county commented on the lack
of recreation for young persons in the rural districts. For many the
church is the only center of social life.
Because many rural children five long distances from school the
State provides transportation for those living more than 2\ miles
away, by furnishing it directly or by giving the family an allowance
for this purpose. Nearly one-fifth of the rural children in the study
lived more than 2\ miles from school, including 38 children who
traveled 4 miles or more each way.
Rural school buildings in North Dakota include some of the most
modern types, and almost every school has at least a small school
library; some have victrolas or other musical instruments, and some
have simple play equipment. (See illustration facing p. 34.) Many
buildings, however, are in run-down condition, unattractive, and
insanitary. While comparatively few of the schools visited were
equipped with inside toilets, the outbuildings containing privies
were for the most part substantially built and in fair weather served
well enough. Many of them had been neglected at the approach of
cold and stormy weather, and consequently doors were frozen open
and snow had sifted into the compartments, rendering it difficult
and in some instances impossible to use them. The school water
supply presented a serious problem. Wells became contaminated
during the summer, and the pumps were frozen and broken in the
winter. A well adequately protected from cold and contamination
is so expensive that in the majority of districts all attempts to pro-

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SOD HOUSES, S TIL L USED FOR DW ELLIN G S.

4-1

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PROSPEROUS M O D E R N FARM.

4 -2

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WORK OF RURAL CHILDREN.

vide water on the school premises had been abandoned. Children
brought bottles of water from home, or a pail of water was secured
from the nearest farmhouse. At one school a mile away from the
nearest water supply the teacher, who lived in the school building
during the week, brought a 10-gallon can of water with her on Mon
day morning, and this water served teacher and eight or nine pupils
for all purposes until Friday night.
On account of the great distances and the lack of timber throughout
this part of the country, material for building purposes is scarce and
expensive, but though the typical “ claim shack,” a one-room shanty
constructed of rough boards and tarred paper, and even sod houses
built by the pioneer homesteaders, are still seen, they are rapidly
giving place to larger and better houses. The typical farmhouse of
to-day is of wood, one or two stories high, and containing from four
to six rooms. The average size of the farmhouses in which the rural
children of the study lived was six rooms; eight persons constituted
the average household. Congestion in some of the houses was very
great, as shown by the fact that about one-sixth of the children
came from homes in which there were more than two persons per
room; 50 children, or 6 per cent of the group studied, lived with
households of more than 3 persons per room. The house in which
one Russian-German family consisting of 10 persons lived was a
primitive building of stone chinked with mud, one story in height,
and consisting of three small square rooms arranged in a row. Only
one-third of the children lived in dwellings in which there were as
many rooms as there were persons; it was not unusual in the small
farmhouses for beds or cots to be set up in the kitchen or living room.
Although it was customary at the approach of winter to add double
doors and windows, to sheath the house below the window sills with
tarred paper, and to bank the sides all around with dirt or manure,
the extreme cold of winter weather sometimes makes it impossible,
even with these precautions, for a family to use all the rooms in the
house, and mothers often made up beds for their children on the
floor around the kitchen stove. Modem equipment, such as wind
mills, indoor water supply, telephones, and electric appliances, had
been added to the farmhouses as the prosperity of the owners per
mitted. (See illustration facing p. 4.)
No attempt was made in the present study to ascertain the finan
cial status of the farmers whose children reported working on the
farms. Five hundred and ninety-one, or 69.9 per cent of them,
were the children of farm owners, and 195, or 23.1 per cent, the
children o f tenants;2 but there appears to be no marked distinction
»According to the census of 1920, 73.3 per cent of the farms of North Dakota were operated by their
owners and 25.6 per cent by tenants. Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, Vol. VI, Part I, Agriculture, Reports for States, the Northern States, pp. 19,35, 618.

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CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

between the two classes. Tenants may be men of comfortable income,
while owners may be men barely able to keep the land which they
secured as homesteads. Many farmers in North Dakota are undoubt
edly suffering from overspecialization of their crops in wheat, result
ing in depleted fertility of the soil. Others have met with financial
loss through unfavorable weather conditions which have damaged
or destroyed their crops. In some cases, however, mortgages on
land and crops have held men to their farms when the prospect
seemed utterly discouraging. “ Too poor to m ove” was the plight
of some. The undaunted optimism of the men on the farms and of
their financial supporters in the towns, however, is a safeguard to
the State’s development. “ These heavy snows mean better crops,”
the remark of a man whose cattle were dying from starvation, is
symbolic of the spirit of the State.

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FIELD WORK DONE BY CHILDREN.

Eight hundred and forty-five children reported that they had
worked on a farm during the year preceding the inquiry. (See
Table I.) About 69 per cent of the workers were boys, and of
those under 10 years of age, the boys outnumbered the girls 3 to 1.
Children under 10 years of age (124) constituted 15 per cent of the
total; those between the ages of 11 and 14 years, inclusive, 62 per
cent; while the percentage of children 15 and 16 years of age was 14.
The comparatively small proportion of older children is due to the
fact that only a small number of children of these ages were attending
school when the information was obtained. The working children
formed 42.4 per cent of all the children between the ages of 6 and 17
who were seen by the bureau agents in the schools. Proportionately
more of the older children than of the younger reported having
worked. Of 435 children 6 and 7 years of age, 6.4 per cent, and of
414 children 8 and 9 years of age, 23.2 per cent, had worked; in each
higher age group the proportion of working children increased,
until of the 14 and 15 year old boys and girls, 74.7 per cent reported
that they had worked.
All except 29 of the children who reported farm work had worked
in the fields. The various kinds of field work reported by children
are shown in Tables III and IV, which show also the numbers of
children working and their ages. Certain processes which are the
same regardless of the crop are listed as “ general processes” ; but
operations which vary with'the kinds of crops have been discussed
in connection with the handling of the specific crop.
T a b l e I .— Proportion o f children interviewed working on farm s, by age.

Children 6 to 16 years of age.
Age of children.

Total..................................
6 years, under 8...............
8 years, under 10................
10 years, under 12....................
12 years, under 14..............
14 years, under 16..................
16 years, under 17...............

Total
inter
viewed.

Total working.
Number.

Per cent.

U,992

845

42.4

435
414
420
393
273
57

28
96
213
265
204
39

6.4
23.2
50.7
67.4
74.7
68.4

1 Includes only children of same ages as those working.

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CHILD LABOR IN' NORTH DAKOTA.
T a b l e I I .—Age o f children working on farm s, by sex.

Children 6 to 16 years of age.
Age of child.
Total.

Boys.

Girls.

845

581

264

8
20
38
58
85
128
125
140
128
76
39

5
14
29
46
64
90
75
97
75
58
28

3
6
9
12
21
38
50
43
53
18
11

Generally speaking the kinds of field work reported by the largest
numbers of children were the simplest—hauling of all kinds, raking
hay, hoeing, and shocking grain. (See Table IV.) As a rule younger
children did only the simpler kinds of work. An exception may be
noted, however, in the case of plowing, which, though it can not be
classed as light work, was reported by almost half the children.
Table V III shows for each group reporting any specified kind of
work the number and percentage of children under 10 years of age.
It will be seen that the younger children in large numbers did such
work as picking up potatoes, picking and husking com, shocking
grain, and driving header boxes. Boys as young as 6 years and
girls of 7 and 8 did some of these kinds of work. While the work
of most of the younger children was of a kind that did not require
the use of machinery, nor, except in the case of driving a header
box, necessitate the handling of horses, some young children did the
simpler operations involving the use of farm implements; boys as
young as 7 years and girls as young as 10 years reported driving
stackers or hay forks, raking hay, and spike harrowing. A few
young children also—boys of 8 and girls of from 10 to 12 years of
age— used the heavier farm implements such as plows, cultivators,
and mowing machines; but no child under 10 had operated a corn
planter, a com binder, or a grain header.
General processes.
Plowing.— Plowing was one of the most common kinds of field
work done by the children included in the study. It was continued
for greater lengths of time than most other kinds of work and was
probably the operation which most interfered with school attendance,
inasmuch as many children withdrew early from school in the spring
because of spring plowing and many entered late because of fall
plowing. More accidents also were reported in connection with the
use of plows than in connection with operating or handling any other

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WORK OF RURAL. CHILDREN,

kind of farm implement. Nearly one-half the children (361 boys and
54 girls) had done plowing. (See Table IV.) The type of plow most
used in North Dakota, according to information furnished by the
State agricultural college, is the horse-drawn double-gang plow.
The worker lifts the plows from the ground by means of a foot lever
and regulates their depth by means of hand levers. A majority of
the children had worked with two-share plows and a majority with
five or more horses. Although most of them were 12 years of age
or over (see Table III) boys only 7 and 8 years of age reported that
they had plowed.
T a b l e I I I .— Kinds o f field work done by children working on farm s, by age.

I 10 years,
under 11.

11 years,
under 12.

12 years,
under 13.

13 years,
under 14.

14 years,
under 15.

15 years,
under 16.

128

125

140

128

4
3
5
3
11
10

11
4
14
2
25
19

38
il
26
14
43
40

54
27
49
27
80
73

58
26
46
40
70
85

80
44
75
54
97
95

67
59

1
5
5
25
21

3
1
28
22

5
4
7
40
25

8
4
9
33
30

4
4
a
14
12

13
8

11
7
69
1
35
10
3

24
13
58
3
36
13
10

26
24
71
5
33
13
12

39
39
77
4
15
16
9

31
20
39
7
22
5
9

415
215
347
263
447
487
27
23
33
201
146
156
117
418
26
205
64
53

1
6
2

1
1

1
2

6
6

22
3

1
3
1
18
16

1
14

1
1
25

12
1

20
2

23
1
3

16 years,
under 17.

9 years,
under 10.

845

8 years,
under 9.

Total..................... .
General processes:
Plowing.........................
Disking........................
Harrowing (spike)........
Cultivating (any type).
Hoeing...........................
Hauling.........................
Handling com crops:
Com planting...............
Cutting com "by hand..
Driving com binder....
Picking corn.................
Husking corn................
Handling grain:
Grain drilling...............
Driving grain binder...
Shocking.......................
Driving Leader............
Driving header box___
Loading header box___
Stacking grain..............
Hauling “ bundles to
threshing machine__
Pitching "bundles to
threshing machine__
Loading threshed grain.
Handling hay or forage:
Mowing.........................
Rakingl.........................
Driving stacker or hay
fork............................
Stacking hay.................
Pitching hay.................
Picking up potatoes............

7 years,
under 8.

Total.

Kind of field work.

6 years,
under 7.

Children 6 to 16 years of age who did each specified kind of field work.

12
21
4
3
7

108
68

1
3

2
5

5
7

7
16

8
8

15
13

27
9

27
3

4
a

9
18

24
36

51
70

51
67

70
87

70
67

54
41

1
23

9
5
5
32

12
6
8
51

22
13
12
51

14
17
12
53

25
26
18
53

15
33
25
55

3
21
17
31

13
10
9

359
435
105
134
108
369

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1
3

CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.
T a b l e IV .— Kinds o f field work done by children working on farm s, by sex.

Children 6 to 16 years of age who did each specified kind of
field work.
Kind of field work.

Total.

Boys.

Girls.

Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
Total...................................................
General processes:
Plowing.................................................
Disking...........................................
Harrowing (spike)................................
Cultivating
.................................
Hoeing...................................................
Hauling................................................ .
Handling of com crops:
Corn planting........ ..............................
Cutting com by hand...........................
Driving com bin der............................
Picking corn..........................................
Husking co m ........................................
Handling grain:
Gram drilling........................................
Driving grain binder............................
Shocking................................................
Driving "header......................................
Driving header bo x ................. ............
Loading header box..............................
Hauling bundles to threshing machine.
Pitching bundles to threshing machine
Loading threshed grain........................
Handling hay or forage:
Mowing.................................................
Bucking.................................................
Driving”stacker or hay fork.................
Pitching hay.........................................

845

100.0

581

100.0

264

100.0

415
215
347
263
447
487

49.1
25.4
41.1
31.1
52.9
57.6

361
198
312
244
314
397

62.1
34.1
53.7
42.0
54.0
68.3

54
17
35
19
133
90

20.5
6.4
13.3
7.2
50.4
34.1

27
23
33
201
146

3.2
2.7
3.9
23.8
17.3

25
20
32
139
111

4.3
3.4
5.5
23.9
19.1

2
3
1
62
35

.8
1.1
.4
23.5
13.3

156
117
418
26
205
64
53
79
108
68

18.5
13.8
49.5
3.1
24.3
7.6
6.3
9.3
12.8
8.0

146
110
318
25
131
45
47
73
102
54

25.1
18.9
54.7
4.3
22.5
7.7
8.1
12.6
17.6
9.3

10
7
100
1
74
19
6
6
6
14

3.8
2.7
37.9
.4
28.0
7.2
2.3
2.3
2.3
5.3

359
418
109
105
134
108.
369

42.5
49.5
12.9
12.4
15.9
12.8
43.7

317
331
102
84
114
85
246

54.6
57.0
17.6
14.5
19.6
14.6
42.3

42
87
7
21
20
23
123

15.9
33.0
2.7
8.0
7.6
8.7
46.6

Fifty boys and five girls reported that they had plowed for one
month or more during the year covered by the study,,and probably
the number would have been larger if more children had been able
to state definitely the number of days they had done the work. One
boy of 15 had operated a two-share plow drawn by five or six horses
for two and one-half months. Another boy, 13 years of age, whose
school record showed that he had not entered school until November
14, 23 days after it had opened, said that he had plowed “ all the
fall till the ground froze.” One 13-year-old girl had plowed for four
weeks with a two-share plow drawn by five horses, and her sister, 15
years of age, had done the same sort of work for three weeks.
Plowing is dangerous as well as heavy work for children. Many told
of being thrown from plows.1 Short of stature and fight in weight,
sitting with feet dangling from the saddle of the plow, they have
little chance of escaping a fall if the plow jolts over a stone or comes
to a sudden stop. In plowing wet lands where the plows clog there
is danger that the operator will be cut by disks or run over while
1 See p. 27.

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One of the most frequently reported kinds of farm work among children included in the
study. Note dust stirred up by feet of horses and teeth or spikes of machine.

D R ILLIN G .
Reported by 19 per cent of the children included in the study.
10

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WORK OF RURAL CHILDREN.

cleaning the shares or moldboards, especially when flies make the
horses restive.
T a b l e V . — Age and sex o f children under 17 years o f age flow ing, by type o f flow used.

Children plowing.

Age and sex.

Total
working
chil
dren.

Total...............................

845

Type of plow used.
To
tal.

415

Type
5 and Disk More
than of plow
12- 3 and
4
6
share. share. share.
not
re
plow.
one
share.
type. ported.
45

312

10
1

1
1

Under 10 years.........................
10 years, under 15....................

124
606
115

16
316
83

4
36
5

11
234
67

Chil
dren not
plow
ing.

430

12
7

1
18
2

108
290
32

220

11
7

1
14
2

78
129
13

Boys. : ................................

581

361

273

Under 10 years.........................
10 years, under 15....................
15 years and over.....................

94
401
86

16
272
73

4
28
4

11
204
58

9
1

Girls...................................

264

210

Under 10 years.........................

30
205
29

44
10

8
1

30
9

30
161
19

1
1

Dishing.— Of the group of children studied 215 children (198 boys
and 17 girls), or 25 per cent, reported disking or turning the soil by
means of disks or circular shares. (See Table IV.) One hundred and
eighty-five children, 86 per cent of those who had done any disking,
had worked with three or four horses; five boys had driven tractors.
Disking is considered by agricultural specialists as more hazardous
than plowing because of the fact that ground to be disked is prac
tically always rough, and there is danger that the worker may be
thrown under the disks. Although the machines vary in size they
are of one type; the driver regulates the depth of the disks by hand
levers operated from his seat. Often the disks are weighted and
used to roll down freshly broken sods by driving over the field cross
wise, work that is dangerous even for an adult.
The ages of the children who had disked ranged from 8 years
upward. In spite of the hazards of this work, more than half the
children reporting it were under 14 years of age.
Harrowing.— In the districts visited the customary treatment of
the ground after plowing is harrowing by means of a spiked “ drag”
or harrow. More than two-fifths of the children included in the
study had harrowed, and all except four had used the spike harrow.
While the operator of the spike harrow is ordinarily safe enough, as
he rides horseback, or walks, or sits in a seat on a platform or small
“ rig” behind the harrow, the work involves discomfort, for the worker
54911°—23----- 2

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QTTTTJ> LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

is surrounded by a cloud of dust (see illustration facing p. 10) ; and,
if he is walking, the continued tramping over soft ground is exhaust
ing. Hamlin Garland in “ A Son of the Middle Border” has thus
graphically described his experience as a boy in doing this work:
u Dragging is even more wearisome than plowing, in some respects,
for you have no handles to assist you and your heels sinking into the
soft loam bring such an unwonted strain upon the tendons of your
legs that you can scarcely limp home to supper, and it seems that
you can not possibly go on another day.” When the harrow be
comes filled with weeds or rubbish the driver must stop and clean
the teeth by lifting the sections of the harrow.. In all, 347 children
(312 boys and 35 girls) had driven spike harrows, 5.8 per cent of
them under 10 years of age. (See Table VI.) The methods of op
erating were fairly evenly divided between walking and riding) the
majority had driven three and four horses.
T able V I . — Age o f children under 17 years o f age doing spike harrowing, by number o f
horses used.
Children doing spike harrowing.

Age of child.

Total.............................
V. .

Total
working
children.

Number of horses used. ,
Total.

1 and 2 3 and 4 5 horses
horses. horses. and over.

845

347

217

124
606

20
263
64

6
23
3

11
160
46

82
67
15

Driv
Number
ing
horses tractor.
not re
ported.

Children
doing no
spike
harrow
ing.

498

3
11

104
343
51

Cultivating.—Two hundred and sixty-three children reported cul
tivating as a part of their field work. It is hard work, as the worker s
seat is above the row to be cultivated and he must, by swaying his
body and pushing with his feet, so guide the two sets of shovels on
the cultivator (one on each side of the row) that they will pass near
the hills or rows without injuring them. The shovel cultivator is
used almost exclusively in North Dakota rather than the disk or
spiked-tooth cultivator. One hundred and eighty-two (69 per cent)
of the children reporting cultivating had used a one-row cultivator;
the others a two-row or other type of implement. (See Table VII.)
The so-called Canadian cultivator, found in Pembina County, differs
from the ordinary cultivator in being used upon fallow ground, so
that from some points of view the work of the 25 children reporting
that they used this machine might be classed as harrowing.
The ages of the children who reported cultivating ranged somewhat
higher than those of children reporting plowing, disking, or harrow
ing. Only 2 per cent of the children who had cultivated were under

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WORK OF RURAL CHILDREN.

10 years of age; 17.5 per cent were under 12.
VIII.)

(See Tables III and

T a b l e Y I I . — Type o f cultivator used, by sex o f child.
Children under 17 years of age culti
vating.
Type of cultivator used.
Total.

Boys.

Girls.

263

244

182
30
2
25
7
17

169
27
2
22
7
17

13
3
3

Hoeing.—More than half the children included in the study had
hoed. Most of the hoeing was done in connection with the home
garden, the care of which, in some instances, was intrusted entirely
to the children of the family. (See Table III.) Nearly one-tenth of
the children reporting this work were under 10 years of age. (See
Table VIII.)
Hauling.— Hauling was likewise one of the tasks which fell fre
quently to the lot of the younger members of the family. In some
cases it meant trips back and forth across the farm, moving hay,
straw, or grain; in other instances, longer trips to town with threshed
grain, or return trips with loads of “ feed.” Not infrequently the
child who hauled was expected to help with loading or unloading the
wagon, pitching, lifting, or shoveling, as the case might be.
Fifty-eight per cent (487) of the children had done hauling, 144,
or 29.6 per cent, of them being under 12 years of age. (See Table
III.) Fifty of the 252 children who could give definite information
as to the number of days they had done the work had hauled for
two weeks or more. Of these, seven had hauled for at least one month.
Handling corn crops.
Because relatively little com is grown in North Dakota, com
paratively few children reported handling corn crops. Only 27 had
used a corn planter. (See Table IV.) Probably the 30 children who
had used two-row cultivators (see p. 12) were cultivating com, though
information on cultivating was not secured by crops. Only 33,
including one girl 14 years of age, had used a corn binder. Both the
com binder and the com planter are complicated machines, and the
majority of those who reported using them were 14 years of age or
older. A few (23) had cut com by means of hand tools.
Picking com was much more frequently reported than any other
work in connection with corn crops. The ear of com is broken off
from the stalk by hand, sometimes by loosening the com from the
husk as it is broken off, sometimes by breaking off the unhusked ear,

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CHILD LABOR n r NORTH DAKOTA.

and is thrown upon the ground, to be gathered later, or tossed into
a receptacle or wagon. This is one of the simplest kinds of work on
the farm and had been done by 201 of the children, including one boy
6 years and two girls 8 years of age. Fifteen per cent of the children
who had picked com, a relatively high proportion, were under 10
years of age. (See Table VIII.)
Husking com was reported by only 146 children, not including
those who had husked incidentally in connection with chores and
feeding stock.
T a b l e V I I I .—Proportion o f children under 10 years o f age doing each specified hind of

field work.
Children 6 to 16 years of age.
Under 10 years.

Kind of field work.
Total.

Number.
205
369
201
105
418
447
148
487
418
347
108
415
134
359
109
215
108
263
117
156
28
34
26
»

37
66
30
14
46
42
12
31
25
20
6
16
5
13
4
7
3
5
2
1

Per cent.1
18.0
17.9
14.9
13.3
11.0
9.4
8.2
6.4
6.0
5.8
5.6
3.9
3.7
3.6
3.7
3.3
2.8
1.9
1.7
.6

1Not shown where base is less than 50.

Handling grain.2
North Dakota has a larger acreage in barley and rye than any
other State, is surpassed only by Kansas in its wheat acreage, and
ranks fifth in the number of its acres devoted to the raising of oats.3
In 1919 according to the United States census, 62 per cent of the
improved land of the State was used for raising grain crops.4 Hence,
it is not surprising that the handling of grain is the field work which
figures most largely in the lives of the children. (See Tables III
and IV.)
• . 1 ___________________ ________
a For the purposes of this report "grain” means oats, wheat, barley, rye, millet if threshed and not
used for forage, and flaxseed. Although a few children reported handling seed flax somewhat differently
from other grains, on the whole, so far as the children’s work is concerned, variations in method were
insignificant.
*
3 Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, Vol. VI, Part I, Agriculture. Reports for States, The
Northern States, pp. 70, 71.
i
Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, Vol. VI, Part I, Agriculture, Reports for States, The
Northern States, p. 624. The acreage for millet is not reported and is therefore not included in this per
centage.

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WORK OR RURAL CHILDREN.

Planting grain— It was the general impression in the State that
very little planting was done by children, and many of the children
included in the study said that planting or drilling was u dad’s job.”
Nevertheless, 156 (19 per cent) reported that they had operated
grain drills. In handling these machines the operator regulates from
his seat, by means of hand levers, the depth at which the seed is to
be planted; he watches the drills to see that all work properly, and
he fills the seed box from time to time. He is obliged to lift heavy
sacks of seed and usually must manage three or four horses. (See
illustration facing p. 10.) The great majority of the children who
reported drilling were 14 years of age or older, and no child younger
than 9 reported drilling during the year of the study. (See Table III.)
Harvesting grain with Under.— Grain is commonly harvested with
a binder. The worker controls the machine by means of various
levers. He must oil the parts frequently, and if the ground is
uneven he may have to regulate the height of the cutter. Running
a grain binder is considered by farmers to be rather easy work,
especially if another worker drives the machine with a tractor, and
it is not considered particularly dangerous unless the ground is
rough. Accidents sometimes occur, however, to persons oiling or
adjusting the binders, especially when in front of or under the
machine.
Grain binders had been operated by 117 children, including nine
boys under 12 years of age and two girls of 12, the majority of the
children, however, being boys 14 years of age or older. The majority
of the children had operated binders driven by four horses; 15 had
operated binders driven by tractors, 9 of whom had driven tractors
and 6 of whom had controlled the binder while some one ehe drove.
Shocking.— Following the binders in their progress across the
harvest field are the shockers, who stand the bundles together on
end to protect the grain from the weather. This is a task frequently
given to children. Almost half the children included in the study
(418) had done shocking, more than half the boys and an unusually
large percentage of the girls. Moreover, the group included a rela
tively large number of children under 10 years of age— 46, or 11
per cent. (See Table VIII.) Of the 288 children who were able
to give the number of days they had worked at shocking 132 had
worked at least two weeks, 14 of them having shocked regularly for
a month or more.
Harvesting grain with header.—Although the machine most com
monly used in North Dakota for harvesting grain is the grain binder,
in some districts visited grain was harvested by means of headers,
the difference between the two machines being slight except for an
additional device on the grain binder for bundling. The header was
said by experts at the State agricultural college to be too complicated

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CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

a machine for a boy under 15 years of age to operate, but of the
25 boys reporting that they had harvested grain with a header 13
were under 15. The only girl reporting the work was 16 years of
age. None of the children who had worked on a header during
the year covered by the study were under 10. (See Table III.) In
driving headers children usually had to manage four horses; none
reported working on headers drawn by tractors.
Grain harvested by means of headers is not bound but is tossed
by the machine over a roller into the header box, a rack with one
side lower than the other so that it may travel close to the header
in a position well under the roller. The header box, drawn by two
horses, must proceed at the same rate of speed as the header in order
to maintain a position in which it can catch the grain. As soon as
one header box is filled, another is driven up to take its place. Driv
ing the header box was reported by almost one-fourth of the children
included in the study, including a relatively large number of young
children. Twenty-seven of the boys and 10 of the girls were under
10 years of age. (See Table III.) With animals accustomed to the
work little skill is required of the driver. Sometimes a child not
only controls the horses but loads the box, that is, adjusts or levels
the grain as it falls from the header. Loading header boxes was
reported by 64 children, 19 of whom were girls. More often the
loading is done by an older child or an adult, while a young child holds
the reins. In this case the person loading is the one to drive the
header box away when filled, and in the interim between the removal
of one box or rack and the arrival of the next the small driver sits
perched aloft upon the arm of the header. Two children reported
that tfiey had been injured by falling from header boxes.5
Stacking grain.— Stacking grain was reported by only 6 per cent
of the children, 47 boys, ranging in age from 10 to 16 years, and 6
girls of from 12 to 16 years of age. It is work requiring both strength
and skill, for the foundation of the stack must be properly laid and
the bundles of grain placed in such a way as to shed water and
protect as much of the pile as possible from rain. In every case the
children reporting that they had stacked grain had actually set up
the stack and properly adjusted the grain as it was pitched. The
number does not include any who only led out the horses drawing
the fork of stacking machines.®
Threshing.— Work done by children during the threshing season
included hauling water or straw for engines, hauling bundles to
machines, pitching to the threshing machine, loading or leveling
with a shovel the threshed grain, hauling grain to granaries or
elevators, and unloading grain at elevators or freight trains. (See
Table IV.)
6See p. 66.

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6 See p. 18.

WORK OF RURAL. CHILDREN.

Hauling bundles to the threshing machine, reported by 73 boys
and 6 girls, the majority of whom were at least 14 years of age, has
been differentiated from other hauling because of the danger involved
when the wagon draws close to the machine. Very frequently the
person who hauls the bundles also pitches them or feeds them into
the machine.
Pitching bundles of grain into the machine is a heavy job, one
which requires strength and skill and usually represents continuous
work for long hours over a considerable number of days. The
worker pitches the bundles to a moving belt which carries them
under a set of moving knives that cut the binding twine and spread
out the bundles. He works in such close proximity to rapidly
moving machinery that he is in danger of being caught by knives,
belts, or other parts of the machine. It was said that very few
children would be found pitching to threshing machines,' but 108,
or 13 per cent, of the children studied said that they had done this
work. The majority of these children (64.8 per cent) were 14 years
of age or older. (See Table III.) Eleven children reported that
they had done the work for one month or over and 23, for from two
weeks to one month. (See Table IX .)
Loading threshed grain, reported by 54 boys and 14 girls, consists
of leveling the grain with a shovel as it pours into a wagon from the
thresher. It is a dusty, fatiguing job. Most of the children who
reported it were 12 years of age or younger. (See Table III.) Very
few had unloaded threshed grain, inasmuch as men were customarily
on hand to care for the grain when it reached the cars or elevators.
Not strictly a threshing job but closely associated with the hurry
and excitement of the threshing season is the cooking which girls
and women do on “ cook carts.” (See illustration facing p. 26.)
The women are a part of the regular threshing crew, many of them
sleeping in the carts at night. Nine of the girls included in the
study reported that during the previous season they had done this
work. Three of them were under 13 years of age. (See Table X IV.)
T a b l e I X .— Length o f time worked by children under 17 years o f age pitching to threshing

machine, by sex o f child.
Children pitching to threshing ma
chine.
Duration of pitching to threshing machine.
Total.

Boys.

Girls.

Total.........................

108

102

Less than 1 week...... ........
1 week, less than 2.............
2 weeks, less than 1 month.
1 month and over..............
Duration not reported.......

28
13
23
11
33

27
10
23
10
32

1
3

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1
1

CHILD LABOR IN' NORTH DAKOTA.

Handling hay and forage. ,
Mowing.— Mowing is comparatively simple work, requiring only
the control of horses and the manipulation of a lever regulating the
height of the cutter bar from the ground. More than one-half of all
the boys and about one-sixth of all the girls in the study had mowed
hay during the season of 1921, including a few children of both sexes
under 10 and a number who were less than 12 years of age. (See
Tables III and VIII.) Although the work is simple, it is one of the
most dangerous of the farm operations intrusted to children because
of the chance that the worker may be thrown in front of the cutters.
Raking or bucking.— Baking is another occupation which was re
ported frequently. Of the children included in the study, 418 (50
per cent) had done simple raking and 109 (13 per cent) had done
bucking. (See Table IV.) Six per cent of the children reporting
simple raking, all except one of whom were boys, were under 10 years
of age; of those reporting buck raking, 3.7 per cent, all boys, were
under 10. (See Table VIII.)
There are two kinds of simple rakes, both drawn by one or two
horses, the old-fashioned dump rake, which the worker has to dump
with a foot lever at each windrow, and the side-delivery rake that
works on the same principle as a street sweeper* drawing the hay to
a row at the side. A more complicated machine is the sweep rake,
a wide rake with teeth extending in front several feet, near the ground
and almost horizontal. The worker sits on a seat at the back. When
the rake is full, he throws his body backward from the waist, thereby
lifting the teeth of the rake from the ground, so that no more hay
will be picked up, and drives the load to the stack. Where the
hay is thick, it may be raked entirely with the sweep rake. The
buck rake is similar to the sweep rake. Both require two or four
horses. Bakes are light and tip easily if they encounter any obstruc
tion. Although raking is generally considered not particularly dan
gerous, more accidents were reported by the children as occurring
while they were at work on rakes than in connection with any other
operation except plowing.7
Driving stacker or hay fork.— One hundred and five children, over
four-fifths of whom were under 14, had driven a stacker or hayfork,
an operation called by some of the children “ working the slings.”
(See Tables III and VIII.) The stacker is a stationary machine
equipped with fork and pulleys. The child’s work consists in riding
or leading out the horse or horses drawing a rope by which the hay
is hoisted, a man being located on the stack or in the haymow, as a
rule, to arrange the hay as it is released by the fork.
*See p. 28.

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WORK OF RURAL, CHILDREN.

Stacking hay.— When hay is stacked by hand, the worker stands
on the pile and with a fork takes up the hay, which is pitched to the
stack by another worker, and distributes it in such a way as to shed
rain. Boys 9 years of age and older and girls 11 years of age and
older reported stacking hay. One hundred and thirty-four children,
16 per cent of the group studied, had done the work. (See Table
III.)
Pitching.— Although it was more difficult to get specific informa
tion in regard to pitching grain, since it occurs in connection with
other kinds of work, such as loading racks or pitching on or off stacks,
85 boys and 23 girls, or 13 per cent of the entire group, reported that
they had pitched grain. (See Table IV.) It is heavy work, though
less likely than most operations to continue for any considerable
length of time.
Handling potatoes.
Cutting eyes or sprouts, planting, hoeing, spraying, and later dig
ging and picking up potatoes were reported by the children included
in the study; but of these various operations only the work of picking
up or gathering potatoes was done by a considerable number.
Although potatoes are regarded as a coming crop in North Dakota, in
1919 they were raised on only 0.3 per cent of the improved land of the
State.8 In very few districts was their production sufficiently
extensive for the use of machinery.
Three hundred and sixty-nine, or 44 per cent, of the children re
ported picking up potatoes, including a larger number of those under
10 years of age than reported any other kind of field work. (See Table
VIII.) The children pick up and toss into baskets, bags, or wagons
the potatoes, which, as a rule, have already been loosened from the
soil by light plows or potato diggers. The work involves constant
stooping. Potato harvest in a number of communities occurs after
the opening of the school session in the fall and means loss of time for
many children. In one school visited by bureau agents every child
except one had “ gone potato picking” for a whole week. The teacher
had closed the school, and the one child who was not gathering pota
toes had no school to attend.
Other kinds of field work.
Other kinds of field work which 237 children reported included
planting and caring for home gardens, gathering vegetables, following
corn or other planters to see that they were operating properly,
weeding fields which had been gone over by cultivators, laying flax in
piles, carrying binder twine, and numerous other jobs.
■s 8 Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, Vol. V I, Part I, Agriculture, Reports for States, The
Northern States, p. 624.

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CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

Duration of field work.
From 590 children a report was secured as to the number of months
devoted to field work during the year preceding the study. Of these,
207 (35 per cent) had worked less than one month, but 131 (22 per
cent) had worked four months or more, either steadily during the
summer or an equivalent amount of time at intervals throughout the
year. (See Table X .) In the group of children working in the fields
for four months or more the number of children of foreign-born fathers
was proportionately somewhat larger than the number of children of
native-born fathers— 25 per cent as compared with 19 per cent.
Eight per cent (45) of those reporting the duration of their work had
worked for six months or more in the fields, an amount of work which
could not fail to infringe upon the minimum period of the school term.
Of these, 31 were children of foreign-born fathers, most of them the
children of Russi an-Germans.
No information as to the daily hours spent by the children in .field
work was obtained, inasmuch as the study was made at a time when
practieally no work in the fields was in progress.
T a b l e X .— Length o f time worked by children under 17 years o f age doing field work, by

sex o f child.
Children reporting duration
of field work.
Duration of field work.
Total.

Boys.

Girls.

Total...............

1590

412

178

Less than 1 month...
1 month, less than 2.
2 months, less than 3
3 months, less than 4
4 months, less than 5
5 months, under 6 —
6 months and over...

207
125
62
65
47
39
45

97
81
52
58
44
37
43

110
44
10
7
3
2
2

1 Excludes 255 children who did not report duration of work.

T able X I .— Length o f time worked by children under 17 years o f age doing field work, by
nationality offather.
Children reporting luration
0 field work
Nationality of father.
Total.

Nativity not reported.....................................................................................
Excludes 255 children who did not report duration of work,

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Less
than 4
months.

Four
months
and
over.

1590

459

131

241
335
121
86
71
23
34
14

196
252
83
70
51
19
29
11

45
83
38
16
20
4
5
3

FARM WORK OTHER THAN FIELD WORK.

The most important kinds of farm work other than field work
which were reported by the children included in the study are listed
in Table X II. Of these tasks herding#cattle was the most common.
Children as young as 6 years, both boys and girls, had herded; 27
per cent were under 10 years of age; and 44 per cent had done the
work for one month or more. They are often out on the prairie
alone on foot or on horseback for long hours in the heat of the summer
without shelter or drink and are in danger of being thrown from
horseback or attacked or trampled on by the cattle.
Many boys, and a few girls, reported such work as the construc
tion of barbed-wire fences, digging or drilling holes for posts, hauling
and setting up posts, stretching wires, and repairing broken places.
(See Table X II.)
T a b l e X I I .— Kinds offarm work other than field work, done by children under 17 years o f

age, by sex o f child.
Children reporting each speci
fied kind of farm work.
Kind of farm work other than field work.
Total.
Herding cattle..................................................................................................

Other... .7.......................................................................................................

217
145
146
91
152

Boys.

Girls.

139
137
114
68
121

78
8
32
23
31

Sixty-eight boys and 23 girls had done some form of work in con
nection with butchering. The term includes almost every possible
form of assistance rendered by the children at the time of killing
stock for meat. Some of them had “ scraped” or shaved the hides;
some had helped with “ cutting up.” Some of the girls had made
sausages, running the chopped meat into casings. Other children
had tended fires, brought water for cauldrons, attended to “ scald
ing,” or carried the cut meat away to be stored. One boy who had
scraped hides for butchering said it was also his job to “ catch the
Pig-”

Cleaning seed for the spring planting had begun about the time
the schools were visited by the bureau agents and it was found that
many children were being kept at home to assist in the preparation
of the seed. Some children turned the crank of the fanning mill;
21

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C H ILD LABOR IN N O R T H DAKOTA.

others fed the mill, emptying sacks of grain into the hopper to be
cleaned. Others, by means of a shovel, kept the seed, as it came
from the machine, in a pile, while still others put up the cleaned
seed in bags. A few had helped to treat the seed with a cleansing
solution of formaldehyde used for the prevention of smut, stirring
the seed with a shovel. In all, 146 children had helped in some way
or other in cleaning seed.
Children also reported that they had cleared fields of stones or of
thistles, prepared manure to be used for fuel, taken care of farm
machinery, sheared sheep, and done a variety of other jobs.

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CHORES AND HOUSEWORK.

Most of the children had routine chores or housework to do.
Seven hundred and forty-seven of the 845 children reported daily
tasks either indoors or about the barns. (See Table X III.) As
the interviews with the children were held in February, March, and
early April, while the weather was still cold, it is probable that less
work was reported than would have been, at other seasons. A
number of children said that more work was required of them in
the summer than in the winter. For example, several girls who
reported no milking at the time of the inquiry said that they milked
during the summer months.
T a b l e X I I I .— Kinds o f daily'work other than farm work, done by children under 17 years

o f age, by sex o f child.
Children reporting daily tasks.
Kind of daily work
Total.
Total.......................................................................................................

Boys.

Girls.

1747

516

231

Housework...................................................................................................
Other tasks.....................................................................................................

596
244
313

472
57
246

124
187
67

Chores only......................................................................................................
Housework only.............................................................................................
Other tasks only.......................................................................................

261
85
38

234
7
31

27
78
7

1 Excludes 98 children not reporting any daily tasks.

Chores consisted of milking, caring for stock, and other work about
the barn, such as carrying out manure and cleaning the barn. Of
the 596 children reporting chores 124 were girls. (See Table X III.)
Forty-eight per cent (4.07) milked as part of their daily chores; the
majority of them milked five or more cows a day. The group
included 105 girls and 302 boys. One 13-year-old boy, who usually
milked six cows both morning and evening, said that during thresh
ing he had all the cows on the farm to milk.
Four hundred and eighty-nine children (58 per cent), including
one as young as 6 years of age, reported caring for stock. Of these
30 per cent cared for at least 20 head of cattle or horses. Compara
tively few girls did this work. Most of the children (391 of the 489)
cared for stock both morning and evening, but of those who looked
after the animals only once a day more reported doing it in the
evening than in the morning.
23

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C H ILD LABOE OT N O R T H DAKOTA.

Two hundred and forty-four children reported such housework as
cooking, washing dishes, making beds, sweeping, and caring for
younger children. Of these 57 were boys. (See Table X III.) A
9-year-old boy, for example, built the fires in the morning, swept
the floors of a two-room house, and brought in fuel and water; in
addition, before he made a 2-mile trip to school, he helped feed stock
(5 horses and 12 cows) and chopped wood; in the evening he did
the chores and washed dishes.
Many of the children— that is, 313 of the 747 who reported that
they had regular duties other than farm work—had done more or
less occasional work which could hardly be classed as chores or house
work— handling separators and other utensils in connection with
dairying, for instance, repairing farm property, such as pens or
fences, looking after poultry, and hunting eggs. This sort of work
was not necessarily done every day, but rather is typical of the sort
of special tasks which might be required any day. Much of it was
seasonal; for example, through the winter many children had had
considerable work in shoveling and clearing away snow.
Twenty of the 178 children reporting hours worked at home at
chores or housework or both for four hours or more a day; 79 worked
two hours or more. Hours averaged slightly longer for children of
foreign-bom parents. These hours of work, it should be remembered,
are added to the six and a half or seven hours a day spent at school
and to the time spent in getting to and from school over bad roads.
One 12-year-old boy said that his chores required an hour in the
morning and an hour in the evening. He milked 3 cows morn
ing and night, separated the cream from the milk, cared for the
stock (37 head of cattle, 12 horses, 8 calves, and 6 hogs), hauled
feed to the barn, and cleaned out the barn. He lived 2f miles from
school. His attendance record showed that he had been absent 48
days for work at home and had been in school only between 50 and
60 per cent of the school term. Older children reported heavier
work than this. Thus, two brothers, 14 and 16 years of age' began
their chores at 5.30 every morning, each milking 5 cows and together
feeding and caring for 40 cows, 18 horses, 7 calves, and 7 pigs, and
pitching straw used as bedding. They had the same chores to do
at night with additional tasks which kept them occupied until 8.30,
at which hour they began to study their lessons.

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FARM WORK AWAY FROM HOME.

A fairly large proportion (20 per cent) of the children had worked
away from home during the year, either for wages or for their board.
(See Table X V .) Contrary to prevalent opinion it appeared to be
less customary for the working children of foreign-born parents
than for working children of native-born parents to do work away
from home, for those reporting it constituted 26.4 per cent of the
children of native-born fathers included in the study and only 15
per cent of the children of foreign-born fathers. The larger pro
portion among children of native fathers may be due in part to the
fact that exchanging work with neighbors or relatives, a custom well
established in isolated farming areas, was somewhat more prevalent
among the native than foreign-bom families. Only 22 of the 168
children working on other than the home farm were girls. The
children ranged in age from 8 to 16 years, the majority being under
14 years of age. B y far the largest number, 107, had been engaged
to help with the extra work connected with harvesting; 45 had
been employed as general farm helpers; 16 had been hired for other
kinds of farm work. (See Table X IV .)
T a b l e X I Y .— Kinds o f farm work done by children under 17 years o f age working away

from home, by age and sex.
Children 'working away from home, who did each specified kind of farm
work.
Kind of farm work.1

Total.

Total. ,

Boys.

Girls.

Under 13 years
13
and
Total.
years. over.

Under 13 years
13
and
years. over.

Total............................

168

106

146

General farm work................
Harvesting.............................
Hauling bundles and
feeding threshing machine.............................
. Employed on cook cart..
Hauling...........................
Picking up potatoes.......
Other harvesting............
Other farm work...................
Plowing and harrowiflg
only..............................
Herding...........................
All other..........................

45
107

16
38

29
69

42
88

15
30

27
58

3
19

1
8

2
11

37
9
24
21
16
16

2
3
13
14
6
8

35
6
11
7
10
8

13
9
6
8

11
4
10
8

2
9

24
13
16
16

2
6

7
5
4

2
5
1

7
5
4

2
5
1

1Children who had worked for more than one employer are classified by most important job.

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C H IL D LABOR LPT N O R T H DAKOTA.

Children engaged to do general farm work were usually employed
by the month, board being included in their wages. One boy of 11
received board, clothing, and $6 a month in cash; another boy, 14
years of age, received $50 a month and maintenance. General farm
workers worked all day, doing both field work and chores; and^ some
had been employed for six or seven months. Those employed
especially to assist with the harvest were usually paid by the day, the
rates varying from about $1 a day to $5 or more. Twelve boys,
3 of whom were under 14 years of age, had received $5 or more a day
for hauling bundles and feeding threshing machines, some of them
furnishing their own wagon and horses. One 13-year-old and one
14-year-old girl receiving exceptionally high wages were employed
on a “ cook cart” at $7 a day, the regular wage for a cook in a thresh
ing gang. A few children were paid on a piece basis. One boy, for
example, plowed at the rate of $2 an acre. Children who picked up
potatoes were usually paid from 5 to 7 cents a bushel. Good pickers
among the children could gather 60 bushels in a day, and one boy
said he had gathered 115 bushels in one day, earning $8.05 for that
day’s work.
T a b l e X V . — Daily wages o f children under 17 years o f age working away from home,

by nativity o f father.
Children working away from home.
Daily wages.
Total.

Native
father.

Foreign- Nativity
of father
horn
not re
father:
ported.

Total................

168

Cash payments..........
Less than $1........
SI, less than S2...
$2, less than $5 ...
$5 and over. . . . . .
Piecework..........
No p a y ... - ...............
Amount not reported

103
11
31
31
16
14
40
25

54
3
19
23
4
5
22
7

45
8
12
8
12
5
18
14

4
4

Forty children, 23.8 per cent, of those who had worked away from
home had themselves received no pay. In some cases their parents
had collected their wages; in others parents had arranged for an
exchange of work with other farmers.

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COOK CART AND SLEE PING CART OF A T H R E S H I N G CREW (IN W IN T E R
QUARTERS).

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ACCIDENTS TO CHILDREN ENGAGED IN FARM WORK .1

Some of the work which children do on and about the farm is
physically dangerous. Of the 845 children included in the study,
104 while engaged in farm work had had an accident resulting in
some injury. Twelve children stated that they had broken their
arms or legs, or had broken bones in other parts of the body; 5 had had
dislocations; 8, sprains; 7 had been crushed or badly bruised; 15
had had bad cuts or lacerations; the remainder could not tell specifi
cally the nature of the injury. In this last group were children who
could give only such accounts of their injuries as “ kicked by cow,
could not walk for six weeks;” “ fell from header box, wheel went
over head, laid up one m onth;” “ fell from plow, wheel ran over leg,
took one month to recover;” “ fell from horse, unconscious five
hours.”
The occupations in which children were engaged at the time the
accidents occurred may be divided roughly into two groups: Occu
pations such as herding cattle and caring for stock, which brought
the children into close contact with farm animals, and occupations
which involved^ handling farm implements or machinery. As horses
and mules are commonly used to operate farm machinery, however,
their sudden starting or running away when drawing the machinery
was the actual cause of many of the accidents in the latter group.
By far the largest number of accidents occurring while the child
was operating or handling farm implements were those in connection
with plowing. Again and again children would report that they
had been thrown from the machine by a jolt when a plowshare struck
a stone. Some children who had been hurt by falls from plows said
that since their accidents they had always walked when plowing
because they were afraid to ride.
Accidents to children while plowing had caused varying degrees of
disability. Three children had been incapacitated for one month.
One boy of 7 had broken his arm; a boy of 8 had been run over by a
wheel of the plow; a boy of 12 had had his leg so torn that he could
not walk for a month. Two children had been incapacitated for two
weeks— one, a boy of 12, had cut his knee; the other, a girl of 13 years,
had been thrown from the plow when the horses started to run away,
her leg catching in the wheel of the plow in such a way that her hip
was injured. Three children had been incapacitated for a week.
1A complete list of accidents, showing the ages at which they occurred and the occupations at which
the children were engaged is given in Appendix, p. 65.

64911°—23------3

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C H ILD LABOR

IN N O R T H DAKOTA.

Two of these had been thrown from plows when the implements
struck stones; the third, while operating a tractor, had attempted
to reach a lever, had missed it, and had fallen in front of the shares.
Seven children said they had been “ laid u p ” less than one week;
one of these had been knocked unconscious by a fall from the seat of
the plow; another had torn his wrist by falling from a plow.
Next to plowing, raking caused the largest number of accidents
(namely, 10) to children operating farm machinery. Two of these
accidents had occurred to children operating the more complicated
rakes or buckers. In 7 cases horses had been instrumental in causing
the accident, either by making a misstep or by running away; an
11-year-old boy, for example, had been thrown from a bucker, break
ing his arm, when a horse stepped into a hole and upset the machine;
another boy had two ribs broken by falling off the raker when the
horses started to run away. A boy, 9 years of age, had driven a
bucker over a hay pile, upsetting the machine; an 11-year-old boy
had put his foot on the brake at a turn, tipping over the machine;
a third, a boy of 12, had cut his foot with the rake so seriously that
he was lame for three weeks.
Accidents to children handling farm implements other than plows
and rakes numbered 21 and included a variety of implements and
varying degrees of disability. Fifty accidents had occurred to chil
dren engaged in work which did not necessitate the use of farm imple
ments. Fourteen had occurred while the children were* herding cattle
or horses, 13 while they were doing chores. Twenty-three others
had resulted from kicks by animals.
Some of the children interviewed who, had no work to report had
in previous years been injured and physically incapacitated for further
work. One boy formerly accustomed to regular farm labor had lost
a leg as the result of an accident received while at work and-had not
been able to help on his home farm during the year of the study.
Occasionally a child loses his life as the result of an accident while
engaged in farm work. In a cursory reading of a few of the North
Dakota newspapers during the period of the investigation, items
about the deaths of four children while doing farm work were noted.

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SCHOOLING OF FARM CHILDREN.

Information on the causes of absence among farm children in the
six counties studied was secured from a number of representative
schools, selected with the advice of the State superintendent of
public instruction and county superintendents of .schools. Teachers
in these schools were asked to make monthly reports of the specific
reasons for the absence of their pupils. The records from 162 oneroom schools and 18 graded schools attended by considerable num
bers of farm children were found to be sufficiently complete and
accurate for use. These 180 schools include the 113 which were
visited by Children’s Bureau agents in interviewing children in
regard to their farm work. Thus the children for whom causes of
absence were reported include some known to have done considerable
farm work (i. e., the group discussed in the preceding sections of
this report), some who did little or no farm work (i. e., those attending
the 113 schools visited who reported less than 12 days or no farm
work), and others in regard to whose work nothing is known.
The numbers of children in these various groups are as follows:
Total enrollment, all schools included in study...................................................... 3 860
Enrollment, schools visited......................................... .................................... ........... 2 674
Children interviewed, reporting farm work.......................................................
845
Children interviewed, reporting little or no farm work.................................... 1 213
Children not interviewed (absent).....................................................................
616

Enrollment, schools not visited.........................................................................

2 286

The attendance records for 395 of these children, about 10 per
cent of the total, showed that they had not resided in the district
during all the school term. As transients they constitute one of the
problems of school attendance, but inasmuch as they may have had
the advantage of attending schools in other districts during the
season on which the study is based, their records have been eliminated
from the following analysis of school records. The total group upon
which the analysis is based therefore numbers 3,465, of whom 1,761
were boys and 1,704 were girls. Twelve per cent or 418 of the
children were below compulsory school age;1 356, or 10 per cent,
were 15 years of age or over. Of the latter group, 225 children 15
' The compulsory school attendance law requires attendance at public school of children between 7 and
15 years of age, or until 17 years of age if the child has not completed the eighth grade. The following are
exempted: Those receiving equivalent instruction elsewhere; those “ actually necessary to the support of
the family as determined by the State’s attorney, subject to appeal” ; those physically or mentally incapaci
tated; those living at specified distance from school if transportation is not provided: and those who have
completed the eighth grade. Compiled Laws of North Dakota, 1913, sec. 1342, as amended by acts of 1917
ch. 206. ......- - ............
..........
•v . . . . . . . . . .

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C H ILD LABOB IH H O R T H DAKOTA.

and 16 years of age had not completed the eighth grade and were
therefore required to attend school under the provisions of the com
pulsory school attendance law. In all, 2,874 of the children for
whom school records were secured came within the provisions of
the law.
T a b le X V I .— Grade in which children in selected rural schools were enrolled, by age

and sex.
Children from selected rural schools.

; 164
33

Girls..............

1,704

Under 7 years—
7 years, under 15.
15 years, under 17
17 years and over.
Age not reported.

1,321
130
29
24

| Second year high.

| Third year high.

| Fourth year high.

365

392

361' 374

291

344

61
396
2

8
350
4

381
8

333
21
1
6

332
36
4
2

241
44
3
3

224
107
11
2

29
31
4
3

13
23
18

1
8
15

2
6

151

171

3
372

241

186

193

173

183

187
l

24
215
2

3
179
3

185
6

157
Î4

97
65
8
1

9
18
3
1

4
9
8

1
6

121
24
3
3

2
1

162
17
4

291

221

179

199

188

191

140

173

1^8-

37
181

5
171
1

196
2

170
19

120
20

127 20
42 13
1
3
1 2

9
14
10

176
7
1
4

127
2
7

1 ....
7
9
5

[ Not reported.

Eighth.

| First year high.

462

Sixth.

Seventh.

1,761

342
309
3

Fifth.

Boys.............
Under 7 years----7 years, under 15.
15 years, under 17.
17 years and over.
Age not reported.

2,649
294
62

Fourth.

Under 7 years......
7 years, under 15..
15 years, under 17 .
17 years and over.
Age not reported..

13,465 «63

|Third.

Total...........

Second.

Total.

Age and sex.

First and lower.

Grade m which enrolled.

60
7
40
5
8
29
4
17
2
6
31
3
23
3
2

i Excludes 395 children who did not live in district entire school year.

Percentage of attendance.
Conditions in the counties selected for special study were fairly
typical of the entire State. In the six counties the average length
of the school term for the year ended June 30, 1922, was 161 days;2
for the State as a whole, the average length of the term for both
one-room and graded schools was 164 days and for one-room schools
alone 159 days. The percentage of attendance for the same year
in these six counties averaged 87.8 for all schools and 85.7 for oneroom schools;2 while throughout the State the percentage of attend
ance for all schools was 87, and for one-room schools 86.
Tables X V II and X V III show in detail the percentages of attend
ance and the total days’ absence for the children for whom school
records were secured. More than half the children (52.5 per cent)
2 According to unpublished figures furnished by the State department of public instruction.

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WORK OF RURAL CHILDREN.

had missed 20 days or over, that is, one full school month out of the
term; nearly one-third (30.3 per cent) had missed 40 days or over;
and more than one-sixth (17.7 per cent) had been absent 60 days or
over. (See Table X V III.) More absence was reported for boys than
for girls. Thirty-five per cent of the boys and 25 per cent of the girls
were absent 40 days or more. All told, the waste in school time for
this group of 3,465 children was about 99,000 days. The cost of this
wasted time, paid for at the average rate of tuition as estimated by
the State department of public instruction, amounts to approximately
$50,000.3
T a b l e X V I I .— Per cent o f attendance o f children in selected rural schools, by sex.

Children.
Per cent of attendance.
Number.

Total...................................................

3,465

Total reporting attendance.........................
Less than 30 per cent.............................
Less than 40 per cent............................
Less than 50 per cent............................
Less than 60 per cent............................
Less than 70 per cent............................
Less than 80 per cent............................
Less than 90 per cent............................
Less than 100 per cent...........................
100 per cent............................................
Not reporting attendance...........................

3,396
146
252
414
635
932
1,350
2,041
3,237
159
69

Boys.

Girls.

Cumu
Cumu
Cumu
lative Number. lative Number. lative
per cent.
per cent.
per cent.
1,761
100.0
4.3
7.4
12.2
18.7
27.4
39.8
60.1
95.3
4.7

1,719
90
152
255
388
556
768
1,096
1,646
73
42

1,704
100.0
5.2
8.8
14.8
22.6
32.3
44.7
63.8
95.8
4.2

1,677
56
100
159
247
376
582
945
1,591
86
27

100.0
3.3
6.0
9.5
14.7
22.4
34.7
56.4
94.9
5.1

T a b l e X V I I I .— Total days’ absence o f children in selected rural schools, by sex.

Children.
Total days’ absence.1

Boys.

Girls.

Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Number. distribu Number. distribu Number. distribu
tion.
tion.
tion.

Total...................................................

3,465

100.0

1,761

100.0

1,704

100.0

No absence.................................. ...............
Less than 5 days..........................................
5 days, less than 10......................................
10 days, less than 20.....................................
20 days, less than 40.....................................
40 days, less than 60.................... ................
60 days and over..........................................
Not reported.............................. .................

159
360
440
619
770
435
614
68

4.6
10.4
12.7
17.9
22.2
12.6
17.7
2.0

73
155
203
303
376
234
376
41

4.1
8.8
11.5
17.2
21.4
13.3
21.4
2.3

86
205
237
316
394
201
238
27

5.0
12.0
13.9
18.5
23.1
11.8
14,0
1.6

1 For all children the median days' absence was 23.1 days, for boys 26.7, and for girls 19.8.

The percentage of attendance for the special group of children who
were known to have done little or no farm work was considerably
higher than that for the entire group. (See Table X IX .)
* Unpublished figures for the year ended June 30, 1922, furnished by the North Dakota Department of
Public Instruction.

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C H ILD LABOR IN N O R T H D AKOTA. t

T a b l e X I X .— Comparison o f per cent o f attendance in entire group with per cent o f

attendance o f children repotting little or no farm work.
Total children. '
Per cent of attendance.
Number.

Children reporting
little or no farm
work.

Cumula
Cumula
tive
Number.
tive
per cent.
per «ent.
1,119

3,465
3,396
146
252
414
635
932
1,350
2,041
3,237
159
69

100.0
4.3
7.4
12.2
18.7
27.4
39.8
60.1
95.3
4.7

1,099
31
46
63
95
141
249
486
1,019
80
20

100.0
2.8
4.2
5.7
8.6
12.8
22.7
44.2
92.7
7.3

A comparison of attendance records by nationality is possible
only for that group of children included in the farm work study.
Among those 845 children it was found that the attendance rate of
the children of native-born fathers was higher than that of the
children of foreign-born fathers; and that of the foreign born, the
children of Scandinavian fathers averaged somewhat higher in
attendance than did those whose fathers were of other nationalities.
It seems especially unfortunate that children who are handicapped at
the beginning of their school life by their ignorance of English, as
many of the Russian-German children, for example, are, should
lose so much schooling through absence. In some districts of North
Dakota, peopled largely by Russian-Germans, English is seldom
spoken except in the public schools; children come to school not
knowing a word of English and need every day that the schools
offer if they are to make ordinary progress.
Reasons for absence.
The most serious factors contributing to absence in the North
Dakota rural schools are illness, bad weather and bad roads, and
farm and other work at home. (See Table X X .)
T a b l e X X .—Reasons fo r absence o f children in selected rural schools, by sex.
Children reporting absence for each specified reason.
Boys.

Total.

Reason for absence.

Girls.

Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
Total...... .............................. .

—

3,465
2,005
249
1,649
57
1,839
74
28
268
825

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100.0
57.9
7.2
47.6
1.6
53.1
2.1
0.8
7.7
23.8

1,761

100.0

1,704

100.0

959
87
931
31
913
40
19
145
377

54.5
4.9
52.9
1.8
51.8
2.3
1.1
8.2
21.4

1,046
162
718
26
926
34
9
123
448

61.4
9.5
42.1
. 1.5
54.3
2.0
0.5
7.2
26.3

W O R K OF RU R A L C H ILD R E N .

Absence due to illness.—Personal illness as a reason for absence
was given more frequently than any other, having been reported by
58 per cent of all the children. More girls than boys and more
younger children than older had been absent for this reason. (See
Table X X I.) Forty-five per cent of the children losing time because
of their own illness had lost less than one school week. Two hundred
and forty-nine children (7.2 per cent) had been kept at home because
of illness of other members of the family. (See Tables X X and
X X II.) More girls than boys gave this as a reason for absence;
and among the girls the older ones gave it more frequently than the
younger, because doubtless they were the ones to be kept at home
when extra help was needed with the housework. The number of
days lost for this reason was small compared with that due to other
causes of absence, the amount of time lost by more than half the
249 children being less than five days each.
T a b l e X X I . — Duration o f absence o f children in selected rural schools, by age and sex*

Children from selected rural schools.
Reporting no
absence due to
own illness.
Age and sex.

Reporting absence due to own illness—

Total.
Less than 10
days.

Total.
Num
ber.

Total.........................

Per
cent.1

10 days and
over.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.1

Num
ber.

Per
cent.1

Num
ber.

Per
cent.1

3,465

1,460

42.1

2,005

57.9

1,514

43.7

491

14.2

Under 7 years........................
7 years, under 10....................
10 years, under 15..................
15 years and over..................
Age not reported...................

418
1,037
1,612
356
42

150
368
716
194
32

35.9
35.5
44.4
54.5

268
669
896
162
10

64.1
64.5
55.6
45.5

180
505
697
125
7

43.1
48.7
43.2
35.1

88
164
199
37
3

21.1
15.8
12.3
10.4

Boys...............................

1,761

802

45.5

959

54.5

741

42.1

218

12.4

Under 7 years........................
7 years, under 10....................
10 years, under 15..................
15 years and over..................
Age not reported...................

218
534
794
197
18

82
200
374
132
14

37.6
37.5
47.1
67.0

136
334
420
65
4

62.4
62.5
52.9
33.0

94
262
326
56
3

43.1
49.1
41.1
28.4

42
72
94
9
1

19.3
13.5
11.8
4.6

Girls.................................

1,704

658

38.6

1,046

61.4

773

45.4

273

16.0

Under 7 years........................
7 years, under 10....................
10 years, under 15..................
15 years and over...................
Age not reported...................

200
503
818
159
24

68
168
342
62
18

34.0
33.4
41.8
39.0

132
335
476
97
6

66.0
66.6
58.2
61.0

86
243
371
69
4

43.0
48.3
45.4
43.4

46
92
105
28
2

23.0
18.3
12.8
17.6

1Not shown where base is less than 100.

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C H ILD LABOR IJST N O R T H DAKOTA.

T a b l e X X I I .—Duration o f absence o f children in selected rural schools, by reason for

absence.
Children in selected rural schools—
Reporting absence for each specified reason.

Illness of child................... 3,465 1,460 42.1 2,005 57.9
Illness of other member of
family............................ 3,465 3,216 92.8 249 7.2
Farm and home work___ 3,465 1,816 52.4 1,649 47.6
57 1.6
3,465 3.408 98.4
Bad weather and bad
roads.............................. 3,465 1,626:46.91,839 53.1
74 2.1
3,465 3,39197.9
28 0.8
3' 465 3,437,99.2
Indifference...................... 3,465 3,197^92.3 268 7.7
Other reasons.................... 3,465 2,64076.2 825 23.8

915 26.4 599 17.3 341 9.8 120 3.5

18 0.5

I Per cent.

| Number.

1 Per cent.

j Number.

Number.

| Per cent.

| Per cent. |

"3
Q
O

| Number.

1 Number.

Less 5 days, 10 days, 20 days, 40 days, 60 days
and
than 5
less
less
less
less
days. than 10. than 20. than 40. than 60. over.
| Per cent.

Number.

Total.

| Per cent.

Number.

Total.

Reason for absence.

1 Number.

Reportabsence
for each
specified
reason.

12 0.3

131 3.8 59 1.7 31 0.9 20 0.6
2 0.1
6 0.2
443 12.8 268 7.7 316 9.1 346 10.0 142 4.1 134 3.9
1
4 0.1
9 0.3
3 0.1
40 1.2
937 27.0 474 13.7 277 8.0 119 3.4
35 1.0 13 0.4 18 0.5
6 0.2
3. 0.1
1 C1)
18 0.5
5 0.1
65 1.9 52 1.5 52 1.5 56 i.6
71 2.0 56 1.6
54915.8 88
1

19
2
1
30
20

0.5
0.1
0)

0.9
0.6

(l)

13 0.4
13 0.4
41 1.2

1 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.

Absence due to bad weather or bad roads.— Much of the nonattend
ance in the rural schools of North Dakota is due to blizzards, deep
snow, extreme cold, and the wet roads of the spring ®break up.”
Next to illness, bad weather and bad conditions of the roads were
the reasons most frequently given for absence from school. More
than half the children said that inclement weather or the bad con
dition of roads kept them away from school. (See Table X X .)
However, only 4 per cent of the children had missed 20 days (one
school month) or more for this reason, and almost half had lost less
than one school week. (See Table X X II.)
Good roads make attendance at school possible even in bad weather,
as is indicated by the fact that in the county having the best roads
a smaller proportion of absences than in the other counties was
attributed to bad weather or bad roads. Possibly the unusually
heavy snows of the winter covered by the study had resulted in a
larger proportion of absence due to bad weather and poor conditions
of the roads than occurs in normal years.
Absence due to work.— Farm work and other work at home which
farm children do results in a serious loss of schooling for many chil
dren. One thousand six hundred and forty-nine children, or 48 per
cent of those for whom records were secured, were absent more or
less for farm work and other work at home,4 including 931, or 53 per
cent, of the boys, and 718, or 42 per cent, of the girls. (See Table
* No distinction was made between: arm work and other work at borne by teachers reporting cause?
of absence,

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OLD TYPE OF NOR TH

DAKOTA RURAL SCHO OLHOU SE (CLOSED BECAUSE
OF FLOODS).

NEW TYPE OF RURAL SCHO OLHOUSE.
34

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W O R K OF RU RAL CH ILD R E N .

X X III.) More older than younger children stayed out of school on
account of work. Of those under 7 years of age, 13 per cent, and of
those between 7 and 10 years, 31 per cent, had been kept at home for
work; but in the group of children between 10 and 15 years of age
the percentage reporting absence for farm or home work was 62, and
in the group 15 years of age or over it was 76. Of the boys 10 years
of age and over 73 per cent and of the girls in the same age group
56 per cent had been absent for work at home.
The amount of school time lost for farm or other work at home
was very great. Among the children 10 years of age and over, 41
per cent of all the boys and 17 per cent of all the girls had stayed
out of school one school month or more in order to work. Seven
hundred and thirty, or almost half the children (46.5 per cent) who
entered school late in the fall, did so because of farm or homework;
43.8 per cent of those withdrawing bpfore the close of the term in the
spring gave work as their excuse. Of the children entering late
because of work, 38 per cent missed one month or more at the begin
ning of the fall term; and of those withdrawing early to work 59 per
cent cut short their attendance at the close of the term one month
or more.
Of the children of compulsory school-attendance age, that is, between
the ages of 7 and 17, only those could legally have been excused from
school for work who had completed the eighth grade or “ were
actually necessary to the support of the family as determined by the
State’s attorney.” 5 A strict interpretation of the child labor law
also would prohibit during school hours the employment on farms of
children under 14 years of age. The law regarding employment
vdiile school is in session6 applies to “ any business or service what-,
soever,” making no exemption in favor of parents employing* th^ip,
own children. It may be urged that boys and girls ,^ o i™ ^ ^ o r
their own parents and receiving no wages are not em plo^d Dufsame arguments can not be applied in defep^e^^m e^m p^^fhent
of children by others than their p a r e n 9 0 u 3 t f ahfe* children
under 14 included in the study w er^a^Ioyed;|^jay from the home
farm, though it is not known how n ^ ^ \ ^ n th em were employed
during school hours.
In connection with the serious inroads into school attendance
made by farm work and other work at home it is well to remember
that one of the principal reasons for shortening school terms in
rural districts is the urgency of farm work. Children living in dis
tricts offering but a short school term may have satisfactory records
6 See p. 29, footnote 1.
eCompiled laws, North Dakota, 1913, sec. 1404. The child labor law of North Dakota passed in 1923
(see p.42), provides that no person shall employ any child under 14 years of age in any business or service
whatever during any part of the term during which the public schools pf t&e district ip which the child
resides are in session.

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CHILD LABOR IH NORTH DAKOTA.

of attendance only because they are legally permitted to be out of
school and at work during months which should furnish opportunities
for education.
T a b l e X X I I I .—Duration o f absence o f children in selected rural schools due to farm and

home work, by age and sex.
Children in selected rural schools—
Reporting no
absence due-to
farm and home
work.

Age and sex.

Reporting absence due to farm and home work.

Total.
Total.
Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Less than 20 days. 20 days and over.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

•
Total................. 3,465

1,816

52.4

1,649

47.6

1,027

29.6

622

18.0

Under 7 years.............
418
7 years, under 10........ 1,037
10 years, under 15....... 1,612
15 years and over.......
356
Age not reported........
42

364
715
620
84
33

87.1
68.9
38.5
23.6

54
322
992
272
9

12.9
31.1
61.5
76.4

51
277
604
92
3

12.2
26.7
37.5
25.8

3
45
388
180
6

.7
4.3
24.1
50.5

Boys..................... 1,761

830

47.1

931

52.9

491

27.9

440

25.0

Under 7 years.............
7 years, under 10........
10 years, under 15.......
15 years and over.......
Age not reported........

218
534
794
197
18

190
357
238
33
12

87.2
66.9
30.0
16.8

28
177
556
164
6

12.8
33.1
70.0
83.2

26
148
279
36
2

11.9
27.7
35.1
18.3

2
{ 29
277
128
4

.9
5.4
34.9
65.0

G irls...................

1,704

986

57.9

718

42.1

536

31.5

182

10.7

Under 7 years.............
7 years, under 10........
10 years, under 15.......
15 years and over.......
Age not reported........

200
503
818
159
24

174
358
382
51
21

87.0
71.2
46.7
32.1

26
145
436
108
3

13.0
28.8
53.3
67.9

25
129
325
56
1

12.5
25.6
39.7
35.2

1
16
111
52
2

.5
3.2
13.6
32.7

Other reasons.—Among other reasons for absence were lack of
adequate clothing, truancy, and parental indifference, none of which
caused extensive absences as compared with illness, bad weather,
bad roads, or work. (See Table X X II.) A few children had been
absent because of events of importance in the child’s family, such as
weddings or funerals, or family excursions. Church days or days
set aside for religious instruction were not infrequently reported as
breaking into school attendance. Younger children were often
obliged to remain at home if for any reason older brothers and sisters
were unable to attend. Occasionally a child was absent because
the school bus had failed to stop for him.
Retardation.
Measured by the standard adopted by the United States Bureau
of Education 7 two-fifths (39.6 per cent) of the children included in
7 According to this standard children are retarded who enter the first grade at 8 years of age or over, the
second grade at 9 years or over, and so on,

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W O R K OF RU RAL C H ILD R E N .

the study of causes of nonattendance were retarded, nearly one-half
of them being two years or more below the grade which was normal
for their age. This is about the same percentage of retarded children
as was found in studies made by the Children’s Bureau of children
in beet-growing districts in Colorado and Michigan; of approxi
mately 1,300 children in the Michigan rural schools included in the
study, 39.2, and of about 3,000 children in the Colorado rural schools,
38.5 per cent were retarded.8 The proportion of retarded children in
the North Dakota rural schools included in the study is much higher
than the average percentage of retardation (26.3) among city children
of the same ages in 80 cities of the United States.9
Among children who reported farm work the proportion retarded
(42.7 per cent) was much higher than that (24.9 per cent) among
children who were known to do little or no farm work. (See Table
X X IV .)
T able X X I V .— Com parison o f retardation am ong children engaged in farm work with
retardation am ong those reporting little or no farm work.
Children 8 to 16 years of aee interviewed in regard to work on
farms—

Retardation.

Engaged in farm
work.

Total.

Number.

Reporting little
or no farm work.

Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
distri Number. distri Number. distri
bution.
bution.
bution.

Total...................................................

1,424

100.0

740

100.0

684

100.0

Retarded......................................................
1 year............. ......................................
2 years...................................................
3 years and over............................... .
Normal.........................................................
Advanced........................................i ...........
Not reported................................................

486
284
117
85
767
148
23

34.1
19.9
8.2
6.0
53.9
10.4
1.6

316
173
79
64
368
52
4

42.7
23.4
10.7
8.6
49.7
7.0
0.5

170
111
38
21
399
96
19

24.9
16.2
5.6
3.1
58.3
14.0
2.8

Bovs.......................................................

702

100.0

507

100.0

195

100.0

Retarded......................................................
1 year.....................................................
2 years...................................................
3 years and over....................................
Normal.........................................................
Advanced.....................................................
Not reported...........................'....................

273
160
57
56
363
59
7

38.9
22.8
8.1
8.0
51.7
8.4
1.0

219
125
48
46
250
36
2

43.2
24.7
9.5
9.1
49.3
7.1
0.4

54
35
9
10
113
23
5

27.7
17.9
4.6
5.1
57.9
11.8
2.6

Girls.......................................................

722

100.0

233

100.0

489

100.0

Retarded......................................................
1 year.................... .................................
2 years......................................*...........
3 years and over....................................
Normal.........................................................
Advanced.....................................................
Not reported................................................

213
124
60
29
404
89
16

29.5
17.2
8.3
4.0
56.0
12.3
2.2

97
48
31
18
118
16
2

41.6
20.6
13.3
7.7
50.6
6.9
0.9

116
. 75
29
11
286
73
14

23.7
15.5
5.9
2.2
58.5
14.9
2.9

8 Child Labor and the Work of Mothers in the Beet Fields of Colorado and Michigan. U. S. Children’s
Bureau Publication No. 115, pp. 50,105.
» The percentage of retardation among city children of each age in 80 cities was computed from unpub
lished figures for 1917-18 furnished by the United States Bureau of Education.

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CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

In the group of children reporting their fathers’ nationality, that
is, the children included in the study of farm workers, the proportion
of retarded children was higher among those of foreign-bom fathers
than among those of native fathers, being particularly high (62 per
cent) among children of Russian-German parentage, but as low (34
per cent) among children of Scandinavian parentage as among
children of native parents.
Proportionately more boys than girls were retarded. Forty-five
per cent of all the boys for whom school records were secured as
compared with 34 per cent of the girls were retarded one or more years.
The only group of girls included in the study among whom the extent
of retardation was at all comparable to that found among the boys
was the group of 233 girls who reported farm work during the year
covered by the study. Among the children who had done farm
work 43 per cent of the boys were retarded and 42 per cent of the
girls. (See Table X X IV .)

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SUMMARY.

Of 845 children between 6 and 17 years of age who had done farm
work during the year covered by the study, all except 29 had worked
in the fields. Seventy-one per cent of the children were under 14
years of age. The youngest children did such work as picking up
potatoes, picking and husking com, shocking grain, and driving
header boxes. Eight-year-old boys and girls of from 10 to 12 years
of age, however, used some of the heavier farm implements such as
plows, cultivators, and mowing machines. Children under 10
years of age constituted 17.9 per cent of the children picking up
potatoes while of those using a plow 3.9 per cent were under 10
years 6f age.
Of 590 children reporting the duration of theif field work 22 per
cent had worked four months or more during the year previous to
the inquiry. This amount of work meant, of necessity, fewer days
of school attendance than are provided in the average school term
in North Dakota; for many children it meant considerably fewer
days than the school term in spite of the fact that school terms in
rural districts are sometimes shortened to accommodate farm workers.
The most important kind of farm work other than field work
w h i c h * was done was herding cattle, reported by 217, or 25.7 per cent
of the children. Boys and girls as young as 6 years had herded.
More than one-fourth of those who had herded were under 10 years
of age.
Chores, including milking, caring for stock, and cleaning barns,
were reported by four-fifths of the boys and by nearly half the
girls. A few of those reporting had worked four or more hours a
day at chores or housework while attending school.
One-fifth of the children (168, or 19.9 per cent) had worked away
from home during the year previous to the interview, most of them
having been engaged to help in harvesting. Most of these children
had received pay, though in a few instances their parents had arranged
for an exchange of work with neighbors or relatives.
One hundred and four children had been injured while engaged in
farm work. Fifty of the accidents had occurred while the children
were herding cattle, feeding and watering stock, milking, cleaning
bams, or doing other jobs which brought them in close contact
with farm animals. Fifty-four accidents— about two-fifths of them
in connection with plowing—had occurred while the children were
operating farm implements.
39

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CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

In a study of the school records of 3,465 rural children in the 6
counties included in the study, the most important causes of absence
from school were found to be illness, bad weather and bad roads,
and work on farms or other work at home. The actual amount of
school time lost by the children for farm or home work was larger
than for any other cause. Among children 10 years of age and over,
41 per cent of the boys and 17 per cent of the girls had lost one school
month or more. Forty-two per cent of the 2,776 school children
who were under 14 years of age, and 59 per cent of those who were
between the ages of 10 and 14, had stayed out of school for farm or
home work, contrary to the State child labor law,1 which prohibits
all employment during school hours of children under 14 years of
age. Two-fifths of the 2,541 children who were between the ages
of 8 and 17, were retarded one or more years; that is, they were one
or more years below the grade considered normal for their ages.
Boys left school at an earlier age than girls and in greater numbers
and were more retarded in their school work, but the percentage of
retardation for girls reporting farm work was the same as for boys
reporting such work.
1See p. 35, footnote 6.

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EMPLOYMENT OF CHILDREN IN FARGO, GRAND FORKS, AND
MINOT.
Although the urban1 population of North Dakota constitutes
only 14 per ce n t2 of the total population of the State, so that the
great majority of the children live in rural communities, the fact
that towns are growing rapidly and developing industrially gives
point to a survey of child-labor conditions in the larger North Dakota
cities. Fargo, Grand Forks, and Minot are the only cities in the
State with a population of 10,000 or more; that of Fargo is 21,961,
that of Grand Forks 14,010, and that of Minot 10,476.3 Fargo is the
third largest distributing point for farm machinery in the United
States, and on account of its location and its excellent transporta
tion facilities the rapid growth of the past 10 years seems likely to
continue. In Grand Forks a new State flour mill is being erected at
a cost of over $2,000,000. Minot has had the most rapid rise of all*
three cities, having increased its population 69.3 per cent during the
past 10 years. On account of an increase in potato growing through-,
out the State and a lack of facilities for storing and transporting the
crop a starch factory is being erected in the city which will handle
1,000 bushels of potatoes and turn out 10,000 pounds of starch
daily.
i All incorporated places having 2,500 or more inhabitants are classed as urban.
* Compiled from Fourteenth Census of United States, 1920, Vol. I ll, p., 752.
• Fourteenth Census of United States, 1920, Vol. I ll, p. 702.

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INSPECTIONS OF CHILD-EMPLOYING ESTABLISHMENTS.

The principal establishments in these three cities likely to employ
children, including grocery and dry goods stores, drug stores, dry
cleaning firms, florists’ shops, laundries, telegraph offices, and theaters,
were visited by an agent of the Children’s Bureau in May, 1922, for
the purpose of ascertaining the extent of child employment. Of the
46 establishments visited 16 employed no children under 16 years of
age. In the remaining 30 establishments 37 children were found to
be working. Of these, 15 were employed in grocery stores and 8 in
other kinds of stores; of the remaining 14 children, 8 were employed
by telegraph companies as messenger boys. Twenty-seven of the
children worked only on Saturdays or before or after school, a large
• proportion of all the working children being still in school.
While the number of children at work was small, the proportion
found to be illegally employed was very large. According to the
State child labor law in effect at the time of the study 1 no child
under 14 might be employed in “ any business or service” during'
school hours, and no child under 14 might engage in certain specified
. occupations at any time. Hours of work were restricted for chil
dren between 14 and 16 to 8 a day or 48 a week, and work before 7
a. m. or after 7 p. m. was prohibited for children under 16. Of the
37 children found at work none had employment certificates, though
certificates were required by law for the occupations in which 27 of
the children were engaged. At least 30 of the total number of work- ing children were employed in violation of one or more other pro
visions of the State child labor law. Thus 16 children under 14
years of age were employed in violation of the minimum-age pro
vision of the law. There were also 18 violations of the hours and
19 of the night-work provision. Delivery boys employed in grocery
stores after school and on Saturdays almost invariably worked over
8 hours. A small group of high-school boys and girls were beginning ~
to be employed in the theaters. They had first appeared on the
stage on amateur night, but at the time of the survey some were on
call by the managers. They reported at 7 p. m., and usually stayed
until 10 p. m. Ushering in the motion-picture houses was also be
coming a common occupation for both boys and girls. The evening
performance kept them on duty until 9.30 p. m. Violations of the
law in one respect or another were found in 30 of the 46 establishi Compiled Laws, North Dakota, 1913, secs. 1404-1414. The North Dakota child labor law passed in 1923
made no change in the minimum age, hours, or night work provisions of the law. For changes in administrative provisions, see p. 63.

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EMPLOYMENT OF CITY CHILDREN.

ments visited. Few employers, according to their own statements,
were aware of its provisions.
While the child labor law laid down standards which were higher
than those in effect in many States no State agency was made re
sponsible for its enforcement,2 nor had any system of factory in
spection been developed in the State up to the time of the studyThe local school authorities, as a result of the employment-certificate
provision, were in a position to insist that at least the age, educa
tional, and certificate requirements of the law should be met, but up
to the time of the Children’s Bureau inquiry they appeared not to
have recognized the importance of this provision and the need of its
enforcement. In the three cities included in the study, only one
official responsible for issuing certificates was found who even knew
of the existence of the certificate law.
* See p. 63.

54911°—23-----4

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SCHOOL CHILDREN REPORTING EMPLOYMENT.

A study of work done by children attending the public schools of
Fargo, Grand Forks, and Minot was made in April and May, 1922.
Through the cooperation of school officials the names of all children
under 16 years of age who had worked for pay at any time since the
close of school in June, 1921, were secured from teachers. In this
manner the names of about 3,100 children were obtained, all of
whom, except a few who were absent at the time of the inquiry, were
interviewed at school by agents of the Children’s Bureau. Detailed
information about their work was obtained from all of these who
were under 16 years of age on May 1, 1922, and who had worked 12
days or more during the period of 46 weeks from June 10, 1921, to
May 1, 1922. No effort was made to include children attending
parochial schools, business colleges, or other private schools, so that
the number of school children reporting employment does not include
every child in the three cities who had been employed during the
period, though it probably represents the great majority.
Number and age.
The total number of public-school children under 16 years of age
reporting gainful employment of 12 days or more during the period
covered by the study was 1,730. Of these 716 were in Fargo, 509
in Grand Forks, and 505 in Minot.
Information regarding the proportion of school children of differ
ent ages reporting gainful employment was available only for Grand
Forks, where the working group was 3 per cent of the total number
under 8, 17 per cent of those aged 8 and 9, 26 per cent of the 10 and
11 year old group, 37 per cent of those 12 and 13 years of age, and
22 per cent of those aged 14 and 15. The smaller proportion report
ing gainful employment in the group of children over 14 years of age
is undoubtedly due to the fact that children who have completed
the eighth grade may leave school1 and therefore would not be
included in this group of school children.
Proportionately three times as many boys as girls reported having
been employed. Table I shows the ages of the children who had
worked. Only about one-fifth were 14 years of age or older. Rela
tively fewer younger girls than boys had worked. For instance, 16
per cent of the girls as compared with 21 per cent of the boys were
under 10 years of age.
1 For details of the compulsory school attendance law, see p. 29, footnote 1.

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E M P L O Y M E N T OF C IT Y C H ILD R E N .

T a b l e I .— Age o f school children under 16 years o f age reporting gainful employment,

by sex.
Both sexes.
Age.

Boys.

Girls.

Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Number. distribu Number. distribu Number. distribu
tion.
tion.
tion.

Total............................................ .
6 years, under 8....................... ...................
8 years, under 10..........................................
10' years, under 12........................................
12 years, under 14............ ...........................
14 years, under 16.......................................
Not reported............ ....................................

1,730

100.0

1,311

100-0

419

100.0

63
281
490
562
327
7

3.6
16.2
28.3
32.5
18.9
.4

52
227
352
420
253
7

4.0
17.3
26.8
32 0
19 3
.5

11
54
138
142
74

2.6
12.9
32.9
339
17.7

Grade in school.
Table II shows the school grade of the children reporting employ
ment. Nearly 90 per cent were in the elementary grades, more than
one-third of these being in the seventh and eighth.
T a b l e I I .— Grade attended by children under 16 years o f age reporting gainful employ

ment, by sex.
Both sexes.
Grade attended.

Boys.

Girls.

Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Number. distribu Number, distribu Number. distribu
tion.
tion.
tion.

Total..................................................

1,730

100.0

1,311

100.0

419

100.0

First..............................................................
Second..........................................................
Third............................................................
Fourth..........................................................
Fifth.............................................................
Sixth............................................................
Seventh....................... ................................
Eighth..........................................................
High school..................................................
First year..............................................
Second year...........................................
Third year.............................................
Grade not reported.......................................

7
67
135
219
262
278
299
261
199
136
58
5
3

0.4
3.9
7.8
12.7
15.1
16.1
17.3
15.1
11.5
7.9
3.4
0.3
0.2

6
62
109
171
191
194
227
189
160
109
46
5
2

0.5
4.7
8.3
13.0
14.6
14.8
17.3
14.4
12.2
8.3
3,5
0.4
0.2

1
5
26
48
71
84
72
72
39
27
12

0.2
1.2
6.2
11.5
16.9
20.0
17,2
17.2
9.3
6.4
2.9

0.2

Of the children 8 to 15 years old, 276, or 17 per cent, were retarded2
in school, a few (22) being retarded three years or more. Propor
tionately more of the children doing agricultural work than of those
engaged in any other occupations were retarded. This was not due,
as might perhaps be expected, to the presence in the group of agri
cultural workers of a larger proportion of older children than in the
other working groups. The fact that children doing agricultural
work were late in entering school, and exceptionally irregular in
attendance,3 doubtless made it more difficult for them to make a
* See p. 36, footnote 7.

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* See p. 35.

C H ILD LABOR IH N O R T H DAKOTA.

grade every year. Practically no difference in respect to their school
progress was shown by children who had worked only during the
summer vacation and by those who had had employment before and
after school and on Saturdays. In Grand Forks, the only one of the
cities from which comparable data for all children were secured, the
percentage of retardation was higher in most age groups for the
working children than for those who did not work.
T a b l e III.

Comparison o f retardation among working children and nonworking
children between 8 and 16 years o f age in Grand Forks, by age.
All children.

Working children.

Retarded.

Age.
Total.

Total.........................
8 years, under 9......................
9 yearsj under 10....................
10 years, under 11..................
11 years; under 12..................
12 years, under 13..................
13 years, under 14..................
14 years, under 15..................
15 years, under 16..................

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

1,920

270

14.1

283
246
247
237
225
237
241
204

12
15
25
34
42
40
57
45

4.2
6.1
10.1
14.3
18.7
16.9
23.7
22.1

Nonworking children.

Retarded.
Total.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.1

*489

19.8

1,431

30
60
41
86
74
98
79
21

1
4
2
16
10
21
29
14

6.7

253
186

5.9

18.6
13.5
21.4
36.7

151
151
139
162
183

18
32
19
28
31

11.9
21.2
13.7
17.3
16.9

Num
ber.
173

Per
cent.
12.1

1 Not shown where base is less than 50.
* Excludes 5 children for whom age was not reported.

Almost one-third of the entire group of working children had
received a grade of only fair or poor, that is, a percentage below 78,
in their studies during the school year covered by the survey. Unfor
tunately no figures showing the school standing of all the children
enrolled in school to which this proportion should be compared are
available. It is significant, however, that among ^children doing
agricultural work 38 per cent had received a grade below 78; and
also that only 5 per cent of the agricultural workers, as compared
with 12 per cent of all the children, were graded as excellent (i. e.,
having a percentage of from 92 to 100).
Nativity and occupation of fathers.
It would appear that in these North Dakota cities children of
foreign parentage are more likely to work while attending school
than the children of the native bom. Thus, while somewhat more
than half (56 per cent) of the working children had native white
fathers, native whites constituted 71 per cent of the entire adult
population of the three cities; and while more than one-third (36
per cent) of the working children were of foreign-bom parentage,
foreign whites comprised only 28 per cent of the total adult popula
tion of the three cities.4 The majority of the foreign-bom fathers
4 Fourteenth Census of the United States, VoL m, p. 756. Adult includes all persons 21 years of age
and over

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EMPLOYMENT OE CITY CHILDREN.

were Scandinavian but about one-sixth were Canadian, usually
English, and about one-twelfth were Jews.
Most (87 per cent) of the working children had fathers alive and
at work. Only 2 per cent had a stepfather or foster father; only 6
per cent were supported by their mothers.^ In a few cases an older
brother or sister or other relative acted as head of the family. Three
children supported themselves entirely; one of these whs an orphan
girl, one a boy whose father was ill, and one a boy whose father was
dead. About one-fourth of the chief breadwinners in the families
of the children included in the study were engaged in retail trade,
chiefly as owners or managers of stores or clerks, or were real estate
or insurance agents, or commercial travelers; another one-fourth
were occupied in the manufacturing or mechanical industries, the
great majority as skilled workmen, a few as owners or managers
of factories, or contractors. The remaining one-half worked at
various occupations, as Table IV indicates, excepting 43 for whom.no
occupation was reported. Of^these, 22— most of them farmers and
ministers— were retired, 11 others had private sources of income
other than earnings, 4 were receiving mothers’ pensions, and 2 were
receiving compensation for injuries.
T a b le IY .— Occupation o f chief breadwinner in fam ilies o f school children under 16 years

o f age reporting gainful employment.
School children un
der 16 years of age
reporting gainful
employment.
Occupation of chief breadwinner.
Per cent
Number. distribu
tion.
1,730

100.0

448
438
186
155
144
108
170
43
38

25.9
25.3
10.8
9.0
8.0
6.2
9.8
2.5
2.2

i Clerical occupations, public service, and agriculture.

Children’s occupations and conditions of work.
Number and Tcinds o f 'positions held.—Eight hundred and twentythree children, or 48 per cent, had held only one position (exclu
sive of errands and odd jobs) during the period covered by the
survey; the remainder had held two or more positions. The largest
number reported had worked in street trades, which included selling
and delivering papers and magazines, distributing handbills, selling
vegetables, fish, or some other commodity, and carrying posters
advertising amusement attractions; and the next largest number

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C H ILD LABOR I3ST N O R T H DAKOTA.

had engaged in domestic or personal service. Agricultural pursuits,
in which children were gainfully employed on farms or gardens,
were also reported by a large number of children. Some of these
children had done general farm work, including cultivating land and
planting and harvesting crops, while others had done some special
kind of work, chiefly picking up potatoes or weeding out mustard
plants from wheat fields, work which was locally known as picking
mustard.
T a b l e Y .— Occupation as o f A pril SO, 1922, o f school children under 16 years o f age

reporting gainful employment, by sex.
Boys.

Both sexes.
Occupation as of April 30, 1922.

Girls.

Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Number. distribu Number. distribu Number. distribu
tion.
tion.
tion.
1,730

Having positions.........................................

419

1,311

671

100.0

524

100.0-

0.4

0.6

147

100.0

Work in mercantile establishment.......

8.9

10.1

4.8

Delivery.............................. ..........
Selling.............................................
Other...............................................

45
11
4

6.7
1.6
0.6

43
7
3

8:2
1.3
0.6

2
4
1

1.4
2.7
’ 0.7

379

56.5

374

71.4

3.4

1254
84
41

37.9'
12.5
6.1

254
83
37

48.5
15.8
7.1

•1
4

0.7
2.7

Personal and domestic service..............

156

23.2

7.1

119

81.0

Care of children only............... ......
Other...............................................

» 21
96
39

3.1
14.3
5.8

0.4
6.7

21
94
4

14.3
63.9
2.7

Errands and odd jobs...........................
All other work.......................................

37
36

5.5
5.4

24
33

4.6
6.3

13
3

8.8
2.0

Street trades..................................... .
Delivering papers only...................
Other...................................... ........

1,059

. 2

787

272

1 Includes 13 children who both sold and delivered papers.

* Includes 6 children who both did housework and cared for children.

Six hundred and seventy-one, or about two-fifths of the children
reported as working during the year, had employment on April 30,
1922, the last day of the period covered by the survey. These
children probably represent fairly the proportion of public school
children of their ages working at any one time during the school
year, although the occupations no doubt change somewhat with
the seasons, and many more children work during school vacations.
Table V shows the occupations in which the children were engaged
on this date. Two hundred and fifty-two (38 per cent) of the 671
reporting present occupation worked less than two hours a day;
200 (nearly 30 per cent), from two to three hours daily; while 98
(15 per cent) spent three or more hours a day at work. Twelve
children working on Saturdays reported a working-day of eight
hours or longer. More than three-fourths of those who had a posi-

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EMPLOYMENT OF CITY CHILDREN.

tion on the specified date were receiving an amount ranging from $1
to $5 a week; one-fourth were earning less than $1. The median
earnings for the group as a whole were $1.86.
T a b l e V I .— Principal occupation o f school children under 16 years o f age reporting

gainful employment, by sex.
Both sexes.

Boys.

Girls.

Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Number. distribu Number. distribu Number. distribu
tion.
tion.
tion.

Principal occupation.

Total...................................................

1,730

100.0

1,311

100.0

419

100.0

Farm work...................................................
Work in mercantile establishments............
Street trades................................................
Personal and domestic service....................
Manufacturing and mechanical and trade
not otherwise specified............................
Messenger service*........................................
Errands and odd jobs..................................
All other work.............................................

256
147
657
501

14.8
8.5
38.0
29.0

247
133
641
155

18.8
10.1
48.9
11.8

9
14
16
346

2.1
3.3
3.8
82.6

37
7
58
67

2.1
0.4
3.4
3.9

36
7
38
54

2.7
0.5
2.9
4.1

0.2

20
13

4.8
3.1

Inasmuch as many children had held more than one position
during the year it was necessary, in order to discuss the conditions
of work, to select for each of these children what seemed to be the
most important occupation in which he had engaged. This occu
pation is referred to as the “ principal occupation” in the following
discussion of conditions of employment, hours, earnings, etc. Tables
V I and VII show the number of children reporting their principal
employment in the various occupational groups. Since conditions
of employment were shown to be very similar in all three cities
no attempt has been made to present the facts for each of the
cities separately.
T a b l e V I I .—Principal occupation o f school children under 16 years o f age reporting

gainful employment, by time o f year employed in principal occupation.
School children under 16 years of age reporting gainful employment.
Time of year employed in principal occupation.
Principal occupation.

Total.

During summer
only.

During school year D uring both summer
only.
and school year.

Number. Percent.1 Number. Per cent.1Number. Percent.1
Total.................................

*1,730

615

35.5

473

27.3

641

37.1

Farm work.................................
Work in mercantile establishments.......................................
Street trades...............................
Personal and domestic service..
Manufacturing and mechanical
and trade, not otherwise specifled...........................................
Messenger service.......................
Errands and odd jobs................
All other work............................

256

219

85.5

3.9

10.5

147
657
*501

45
131
158

30.6
19.9
31.5

41
235
139

27.9
35.8
27.7

61
291
203

41.5
44.3
40.5

37
7
58
67

26
2
8
26

13.8
38.8

7
3
18
20

31.0
29.9

4
2
32
21

55.2
31.3

1 Not shown where base is less than 50.
£ Includes 1 child for whom time of employment was not reported.

Street trades.— B y far the greatest number of the children who had
been employed had engaged in some sort of street work. Of the 657

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CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

children reporting street work as their principal occupation only 16
were girls.
All except 42 of these children had sold or delivered newspapers
or magazines. The 42 children who distributed handbills, sold fish
or vegetables, carried posters advertising motion-picture attractions,
or sold crocheted articles or hosiery, worked only occasionally. The
50 who had sold or delivered magazines worked only a few hours one
or two days a week; only 1 boy had done this work as much as 46
weeks (the period covered by the survey), and more than one-half
had worked less than 13 weeks. Many of the children who sold or
delivered newspapers, on the other hand, comprising the great
majority of those doing street work, worked several hours a day
throughout the school year as well as during the summer vacation.
Thirty per cent of the sellers and 9 per cent of the carriers were under
10 years of age; 59 per cent of the former and 37 per cent of the
latter were under 12. Only 42 sellers and 34 carriers were 14 or 15
years of age. Street trading is not included in the occupations in
which children under 14 are prohibited from working by the State
child labor law, and none of the three cities had any ordinance regu
lating it. The circulation manager of one of the Grand Forks
papers stated that he had refused to give papers to some very young
children who had applied. In Fargo the policewoman, realizing the
necessity of some supervision of newsboys, had fixed the minimum
age for newspaper street work at 12 years. This age restriction had
been in force for three or four years. For a year the practice had
been in force of issuing a permit to each child who secured newspapers
directly from the company, but no badge was given. The only proof
of age required for this permit was that secured from school records.
However, these attempts at supervision had not reached all the news
boys, for many children under 12 years of age secured their papers
from older boys.
T a b l e V I I I .— Age o f school children under 16 years o f age engaged in street trades.
Children under 16 years of age engaged in street trades.1
Age.

Total...................................................
7 years, under 8.....................1.....................
8 years, under 9............................................
11 years, under 12..................................... .
12 years, under 13........................................
13 years, under 14......................... ..............
14 years, under 15........................................

Selling
papers
only.

Total.

657
9
36
59
78
80
116
102
98
63
2

i Principal occupation.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

412
6
25
39
57
49
71
66
58
36
4
i

Selling
and de
livering
papers.

Deliver
ing pa
pers
only.

Selling
or de
livering
maga
zines.

135

1
1
4
3
7
2

1
4
7
12
27
23
29
22
10

3
6
9
7
12
6
3
2
1
i

Other
street
trades.
42
3
7
7
8
7
2
2

EMPLOYMENT OP CITY CHILDREN.

Children undertaking the work of selling or delivering papers
usually kept at it for some time. About one-fifth of both sellers
and carriers had worked throughout the period of 46 weeks covered
by the inquiry; 63 per cent of the former and 70 per cent of the latter
had worked at least 13 weeks. Most of the children sold their papers
or completed their routes within two hours, carriers working a some
what shorter time than sellers. Only 31 per cent of the children
delivering newspapers, as compared with 50 per cent of those who
sold them, had worked two hours or more a day. Forty-two children,
most of whom sold Sunday papers, reported that they worked 3, 4,
or 5 or more hours a day. Few sellers and fewer carriers worked
after 7 p. m.
About 11 per cent of the boys selling papers and 14 per cent of
those having paper routes worked on Sunday. Eleven sellers,, four
carriers, and one boy who both sold and delivered, worked only on
Sundays. In addition to the Sunday edition of local papers, boys
sold out-of-town papers (which usually arrived Saturday morning)
on Saturdays and Sundays. One 15-year-old boy had sold Fargo,
Minneapolis, and St. Paul papers every Sunday throughout the
46-week period covered by the study, working from 5 a. m. until
noon. Another boy, 13 years of age, sold papers on Sunday mornings
from half past 6 until 10.
Carriers were paid, according to the number of papers they de
livered, from $2 to $2.50 a week in Minot, from $7 to $10 a month in
Grand Forks, and from $5 to $5.50 every two weeks in Fargo. In
Fargo many of the boys hired some one to help them on their routes,
paying him from 30 cents to $1.25 a week, depending on the age of
the assistant, and, to some extent, on his demands. In many cases
younger brothers anxious to earn a little money often did the greater
part of the work for the smaller part of the earnings. Thus, an
8-year-old boy delivered papers every day from 4 to 5.30 p. m. for
5 cents a day. Morning routes commanded better compensation than
afternoon delivery; in Fargo boys carrying the morning paper re
ceived $4 a week.
Sellers’ earnings were usually small— about one-fourth of those
reporting earnings made less than $1 a week, and the majority (over
two-thirds) made less than $2.50. Only 15 per cent of the carriers
had earned less than $1 and only one-half less than $2.50. A few
sellers made from $5 to $10. A 14-year-old boy in Fargo was typical
of this group. His weekly earnings during the summer were $10.50
($6 for the morning paper and $4.50 for the evening), and during the
school year, $5 ($2 for the morning and $3 for the evening). His
hours during the summer were from 6 to 10 in the morning and from
3 to 6 in the afternoon, while during the school year he worked from
6 to 8.30 in the morning before school and from 4 to 6 in the afternoon.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

CHILD LABOR I H 'NORTH DAKOTA.

He had been selling for more than four years. He said, “ It’s hard
to sell now, because there are so many boys. They’re going to quit
some who haven’t been selling one year.”
Although the time spent at the work was short, and few boys
worked after 7 o’clock in the evening, certain aspects of newspaper
selling make it unsuitable work for young children. Standing on
street corners even for as much as two hours in the extreme cold of
the North Dakota winters is likely to prove physically taxing; street
cars and automobiles on crowded streets are a special source of
danger to the young and heedless; contact with the over-stimulating
life of the street is generally believed to result in undesirable precocity
and impatience with discipline and ordinary routine even when street
activities are confined to daylight hours, while such contact after
dark is likely to be even less desirable for young children. Almost
one-third of the sellers, it will be remembered, were under 10 years
of age.
T a b l e I X .—Duration o f principal occupation o f school children under 16 years o f age

engaged m street trades.
Children under 16 years of age engaged in street trades
Duration of principal occupation.
Total.

Total............................. i ...................
2 weeks, less than 6.....................................
6 weeks', less than 13................... i ..............
Over 13 wee®, less than 33.........................
Not reported................................................

Selling Deliver Selling or Other
Selling
delivering street
ing
and
papers delivering
maga
papers
trades.
only.
papers.
only.
zines.

657

412

4
119
90
49
113
46
178
58

3
78
46
28
77
35
120
25

18
3
2
3
2
2
5
1

135

16
18
11
26
8
50
6

1
12
15
1
3
1
1
16

42
10
9
6
5
1J

T a b l e X . —Daily hours in principal occupation o f school children under 16 years o f age

engaged in street trades.
Children under 16 years of age engaged in street trades.
Daily hours in principal occupation.
Total.

Selling
papers
only.

Selling
and de
livering
papers.

Deliv
ering
papers
only.

Selling or
delivering
maga
zines.

Other
street
trades.

657

412

135

Tótal reporting....................1— . . . . . . . . . .

610

405

134

é Lessthah 2 hours.......................... .

320
258
32

197
192
16

13
4
1

91
40
3

14
9
1

5
13
11

Total. . . : .............................

2 hours, less than 4................................
’ '4 hours.1less than 8 ..............................

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

EMPLOYMENT OF CITY CHILDREN.

While boys working on routes were less subject to certain of these
dangers than sellers, their work involved some hardships. Those
who served morning paper routes were obliged to start out very early
in order to insure the arrival of the paper at all houses before the
head of the household left for the day. In Fargo they were sup
posed to report at 4.30, though many did not arrive until between
5 and 6; in Grand Forks the route boys started out between half
past 4 and half-past 5 a. m. Over one-fourth of the 153 bo vs who
delivered papers delivered morning papers before 7 o’clock. It is
very likely that at least the younger children delivering morning
papers were not getting sufficient sleep for their proper development.
One 8-year-old child going to school all day had delivered papers
from 5 to 5.30 six mornings a week for at least 46 weeks; in order
to have had the amount of sleep needed by a child of his age he would
have had to go to bed at 5 o’clock in the afternoon. The State child
labor law prohibits employment in, any occupation before 7 in the
morning or after 7 at night, the penalty to be paid by the employer;
while children selling or delivering newspapers are popularly sup
posed to be in business for themselves, the latter, as a matter of fact,
are quite as much employed as children hired for other kinds of work.
The heavy weights carried by boys serving paper routes were also
somewhat of a hardship. Those who delivered the afternoon paper
in Fargo carried from 100 to 125 papers, a weight of from 25 to 30
pounds.6 A circulation manager in Grand Forks reported that the
weight of the heaviest load carried was about 20 pounds, the average
being 15. In Minot the route carrier’s load was from 10 to 15 pounds.
Hand wagons, used by newspaper deliverers in many cities, were not
in general use.
Personal and domestic service.— Just as street work was done almost
exclusively by boys, so housework and the care of children were
generally girls’ jobs. Only four boys had done such work, but most
of the girls (80 per cent) reported it as their principal work. By
far the greater number (301) had cared for children; 67 had done
housework. About half were under 12 years of age, 12 per cent were
under 10, the median age of girls doing housework being 13.2 years
and that of girls taking care of children being 11.9 years.
* Weighed by the Children’s Bureau agents.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

T a b l e X I .— Age o f school children under 16 years o f age engaged in ‘personal and domestic

service.
Children under 16 years of age engaged in personal and
domestic work.1
Ago.
Total.

501
2
9
28
54
71
97
77
82
64
16
1

House
work
only.
37

House
Care of
work
children
and
only.
care of
children.
32
1

3
4
3
5
8
12
2

3
1
5
5
10
4
3

271
1
5
17
20
41
57
49
46
28
7

Caddy.

74
1
3
10
10
20
9
11
8
1
1

Other
personal
and
domestic
work.
87
1
2
8
18
15
12
9
7
12
3

1 Principal occupation

About three-fifths of the children reporting duration of work had
worked 6 weeks or longer but only 90 (about one-fourth) as much
as 13 weeks, and only 16 had had employment throughout the 46
weeks covered in the survey. Most of the girls who cared for children
were employed a few hours once or twice a week, usually by neighbors
or relatives. The “ work” often involved nothing beyond playing
with a baby while the mother went shopping or out to an entertain
ment. In many cases, however, it meant that young children hired
to care for a baby were kept up until a very late hour waiting for the
return of the baby’s parents from a dance or the theater; 26 per cent
of the girls who cared for children and reported hour of beginning
had begun their work at 7 p. m. or later and 84 had finished after 7
or had remained all night with their charges. In a few cases also
young children had worked very long hours for little remuneration.
One girl of 10 years had cared for children from 8 in the morning
until 6 at night, with only one hour free at noon. For this work she
was paid $4 for three weeks’ work, or $1.33 a week. Another girl 11
years of age had worked from 8 in the morning until 8.30 at night
caring for children and doing housework with no cessation except a
possible few minutes at meal time. This child had worked through
the whole vacation period for $8; that is, for 62 cents a week.
One child, a girl aged 13 years, had worked at 10 different times
taking care of children from 7 at night until 2.30 in the morning.
A child of 12 had worked throughout the summer from 9.30 in the
morning till 10.30 at night caring for children, for which she was paid
$1 a week. Twelve and one-half hours, from 7 a. m. till 7.30 p. m.,
was the time another 11-year-old girl who cared for a 2-year-old
child worked for three weeks. She had no time free even during her
meals.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

EMPLOYMENT OF CITY CHILDREN.
T able

XII.—Duration o f principal occupation o f school children under 16 years o f age
engaged in personal and domestic work.
Children under 16 years of age engaged in personal and
domestic work.

Duration of principal occupation.
Total.

House
House work
and Care of
work
care of children
only.
only.
children.

Total...................................................

501

Less than 2 weeks........................................
2 weeks, less than 6......................................
6 weeks, less than 13....................................
13 weeks.......................................................
Over 13 weeks, less than 33.........................
33 weeks.......................................................
Over 33 weeks...............................................
Not reported................................................

11
134
90
29
60
3
26
148

1
14
6
2
1
1
g

Otherperand
Caddy. sonal
domestic
work.

271

13
7
2
3
1
3
3

5
66
46
15
42
1
10
86

2
16
22
5
4

3
25
9
5
10

While in most instances the housework reported was not very
laborious, there were a few girls who had done housework during the
summer or who were working for board and room while going to
school, whose work was long and arduous: A crippled girl 15 years
of age had worked at housework throughout the period of the survey.
During the summer months she had worked 9 hours a day, receiving
$14 a month and board; during the school year she worked before
school for 1£ hours, after school for
hours, and on Saturday and
Sunday for $10 a month and board. Another girl, 14 years of age,
supporting herself, had worked 10 weeks during the summer from
7 a. m. till 8 p. m. for $3 a week and board and room. During the
school year she worked two and three-quarter hours a day for board
and room. Seventeen children doing housework reported ending
their work after 7 p. m., and three reported beginning before 7 a. m.
Twenty had worked more than 8 hours; 14 at least 10 hours a day.
In all these cases, as in the case of girls taking care of children at
night, the hours of labor provisions of the State child labor law were
being violated.
T able

XIII.—Daily hours in principal occupation o f school children under 16 years o f
age engaged in domestic and personal service.
Children under 16 years of age engaged in domestic and
personal service.

Daily hours in principal occupation.
Total.

House
House work
and Care of
work
care of children
only.
only.
children.

Otherperand
Caddy. sonal
domestic
service.

Total...................................................

501

271

Total reporting.............................................
Less than 2 hours..................................
2 hours, less than 4................................
4 horns, less than 8.................... ...........
8 hours and over....................................
Not reported.................................................

284
54
100
73
57
217

31
5
9
8
9
6

25
2
4
7
12
7

137
21
70
33
13
134

51
4
7
20
20
23

40
22
10
5
3
47

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

Another form of personal and domestic service commonly reported
was caddying. Seventy-four boys stated that this had been their
principal occupation during the period of the survey. They were,
in general, not quite so young as newsboys, but about one-fifth were
under 10 years of âgé. Only nine were 14 or older. Most of the
work is in the summer, but the golf season extends into the fall and
begins in the spring two or three months before the end of the school
term. Only 14 boys, however, had worked on school days; 14 others
had worked on Saturdays or on Saturdays and Sundays, and 46 had
worked only during vacation. Although 15 boys reported working
more than eight hours, most of them had had a shorter working-day.
All except 18 of the boys had worked over a period of at least six
weeks.
,
Caddying, while giving children a great deal of exercise in the open
air, entails the carrying of quite a heavy load. The weight carried
varies with the size of bag ahd number of sticks contained in it, but
an average weight reported was 20 pounds. When the distance
walked and the weight carried are both considered, it is believed
that many children, especially younger ones, can become fatigued
by one round of a golf course. Many children did more than one
round.
The only other kind of personal and domestic service reported by
any considerable number of children was j anitor service. It consisted
of caring for furnaces, hauling away ashes, chopping wood, shoveling
snow, caring for lawns, and washing windows. A few children re
ported regular jobs of caring for furnaces, lawns, or walks, but for
most of them such work meant only a job here and there. Eightyseven children (77 boys and 10 girls) or only about 5 per cent of
those working reported such work as their principal occupation.
Agricultural work.— Two hundred and fifty-six children reported
their principal occupation as agricultural, a fact which is not sur
prising when it is remembered that North Dakota is primarily an
agricultural State and the cities chiefly trading centers for the sur
rounding farming population. All except nine of the children report
ing agricultural work were boys. One-third were under 12 years of
age, 12 per cent under 10. All except 37 had worked during the
summer only, but 17 (7 per cent of the total number of children for
whom farm work was the principal occupation) had stayed out of
school to do farm work. Some of these- were children who had left
school before the end of the term or who had entered late on account
of doing farm work; others had stayed out of school after they had
entered, to do some specific work, chiefly picking up potatoes. Over
one-fourth had worked at least 13 weeks.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

EMPLOYMENT OF CITY CHILDREN.

Much of the work consisted of relatively simple tasks, such as
weeding gardens, picking up or gathering potatoes, weeding mustard
plants out of wheat fields, or shocking grain. Many of the children
who reported farm work, however, had done work involving the use
of horses or tractors in cultivating the land and in planting and
harvesting crops.® Among these operations were plowing, disking,
harrowing and drilling, operating a corn or grain binder or a hay
mower, and threshing. The use of horses or tractors in the farm
work which they had done was reported by many boys, a number of
whom were under 10 years of age. Herding cattle and herding sheep
were reported by some of the children. Some herded on horseback,
others walked. A few of these children were under 10 years of age.
Children herding cattle often had to go long distances from their
homes, spending long hours alone, and returning late in the evening.

Weekly earnings averaged considerably higher ($5.19) than for
any other occupation, inasmuch as farm work was usually full-time
work rather than because the rate of pay was higher. Board and
room were usually included in the farm worker’s wage.
Hours for children doing agricultural work were very long— only
5 per cent of those reporting hours had worked less than 2 hours a
day; 132 had worked more than 8 hours, and 79 children, or two-fifths,
of the total number of farm workers reporting the length of their
working day had worked at least 10 hours. Thirty-nine children
had begun work before 7 o’ clock in the morning and 11 had con
tinued their work after 7 p. m. One boy, 12 years of age, who had
done general farm work throughout the summer, reported working
from 4 in the morning until 5 at night with little time off for meals,
since he carried breakfast and lunch to the field with him. For these
long hours the child received $2.31 a week and board. Another
boy, 14 years of age, reported doing general farm work from 6 a. m.
till noon, from 1.30 p. m. to 9 p. m. (13£ hours a day) for 12 weeks.
His wages were $2.08 a week and board. A 12-year-old boy had
worked for two weeks herding cattle, from 6.30 in the morning until
8 at night, with several intermissions, the daily hours which he
worked totaling eight. For this work he was paid 50 cents a week
and board.
s See pp. 8-13.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

T a b l e X I V .— Age and sex o f school children under 16 years o f age engaged in mercantile

work.
Children under 16 years of age engaged in
mercantile work.1
Age and sex.
#

Total.

Delivery Delivery
and
only.
other.

Selling.

Other
only

Total.....................................................................

147

7 years, under 10............................................................
10" years, under 12..........................................................
12 years, under 14..........................................................
14 years, under 16..........................................................

11
27
55
52
2

7
19
28
27
2

2
4
10
6

1
2
12
10

1
2
5
9

Boys........................................................................

133

10 years, under 12..........................................................
12 years, under 14..........................................................
14 years, under 16..........................................................

9
24
50
48
2

7
18
27
27
2

1
4
10
6

1
8
7

1
1
5
8

Girls.........................................................................

1
1
4
3

2
3
5
4

1
1

» Principal occupation.

It would appear that the State child labor law includes agricultural
employment under its m a x im u m -hours provision, since it specifies
“ all gainful occupations,” but like most laws of this kind it fails to
function in the case of children hiring out for farm labor.

Mercantile occupations.—Many children worked in groceries, meat
markets, drug stores, and 5 and 10 cent stores. Most of them sold or
delivered merchandise, but some cleaned store, kept stock in order, or
were general helpers, doing whatever work was needed. One hundred
and forty-seven children (133 boys and 14 girls) reported "such work
as their principal occupation. They were as a rule somewhat older
than children reporting other kinds of work. One-third of them were
14 years of age or older; only 8 per cent were less than 10. Half of
them had worked at least 13 weeks. While 62 children, or about
two-fifths of all who had been employed iu stores, had worked only
during vacation or on Saturday, many worked both on Saturday and
on school days. Twelve children had worked regularly 6 days a
week throughout the 46 weeks covered in the survey. One 13-yearold boy had worked for three weeks during school hours. One-fifth
of those reporting hours had worked more than 8 hours a day. Con
trary to the child labor law, 1 child began his work before 7 in the
morninsr and 20 worked after 7 in the evening.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

EMPLOYMENT OF CITY CHILDREN.

T a b l e X V .—Daily hours in principal occupation o f school children under 16 years o f age

engaged in mercantile work.
Children under 16 years of age engaged in mer
cantile work.
Daily hours in principal occupation.

Total.
Total....... , ..........

147

Total reporting............
Less than 2 hours..
2 hours, less than 4.
4 hours, less than 8,
8 hours and over..
Not rep orte d .............

130
15
50
26
39
17

Delivery Delivery
only. and other. Selling.
22

Other
only.

25
20

As might be expected from the regularity of the work, children
working in stores earned more than those in street work or in domes
tic or personal service. Ten children had earned $7.50 or more a
week. Median earnings were slightly over $4 a week.
The following are some examples of conditions of Work in mercantile
establishments: One 14-year-old boy had worked as clerk in a drug
store throughout the school term. On school days he worked on an
average 5£ hours after school, on Saturday 11 hours, and on Sunday
6 hours, receiving $8 a week. Another 14-year-old boy had worked
all summer delivering groceries from 8.30 in the morning until 6.20
at night with one hour off at noon. His wages were $10 a week. A
13-year-old boy had worked eight and one-half hours daily during the
summer vacation and for three and three-fourths hours daily through
out the school year delivering for a dry-cleaning establishment.
This work was illegal, since the North Dakota child labor law pro
hibits the employment of children under 14 in the transmission of
merchandise.
Other occupations.—A number of children had worked as carpen
ters’ or painters’ helpers, deliverers, or assistants in printing estab
lishments, tailoring shops, bakeries, or brickyards, deliverers of m ilk ,
and can and bottle washers in ice-cream factories. Thirty-seven chil
dren had done one of the above-named kinds of work at some time
during the year as their principal occupation. Of these only one
was a girl. Four children reporting this work were under 10 years
of age; 15 were 14 years of age or over. All except 11 of the 37
children had worked only during summer vacation. Hours were,
therefore, longer than for most of the jobs reported by the children.
More than one-half of those reporting their daily hours had worked
at least an 8-hour day. Six children had worked either before 7 a. m.
or after 7 p. m. As in mercantile occupations, earnings were fairly
high; although 12 children had received less than $5 a week, 13 had
64911°—23-----5

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

earned at least $10. That the work was often unsuitable or contrary
to law or both is illustrated by the following examples: A boy 14
years of age washed cans and bottles for an ice-cream company for
two hours after school every school day and nine hours on Saturday
throughout the school term, work for which he received $5 a week.
Another 14-year-old boy worked in a printing shop. There he melted
metal every day all summer from 8 a. m. to 12 and from 1 to 5 p. m.
A boy 14 years of age had hauled coal from 6 a. m. to 12 and from
12.30 to 4 p. m. for eight weeks during the summer. A 13-year-old
girl wrapped bread in a bakery. She had worked every night from
7.30 to 9 p. m., not only in the four months of the summer vacation,
but after school and on Sunday.
T a b l e X V I .—Daily hours in 'principal occupation o f school children under 16 years o f age

engaged in 11other work.”
Children under 16 years of age engaged in “ other work.”

Daily hours in principal occupation.
Total.

Total................................................—
Total reporting............... .................................
2 hours, less than 4....................................
4 hours, less than 8...................................
8 hours and over........................................

Manufac
turing and
mechanical Messenger
occupa
service.
tions and
trade n.o.s.1

Errands
and odd
jobs.

169

123
30
31
18
44
46

33
3
7
4
19
4

23
19
2
1
1
35

1
4
2

All other
work.

67
.

60
g
21
9
22
7

1 Not otherwise specified.

Messenger service was reported by 7 boys, 3 of whom were under
14 and 3 of whom had worked after 7 p. m. Fifty-eight children
reported doing errands and. odd jobs as their principal occupation—
about 3 per cent of the total number. Sixty-seven children had had
jobs as ticket sellers, ushers, garage helpers, musicians, actors,7 or
bell hops. About two-fifths of these had worked only in the summer
time, but 36 had worked during the school year and on school days
Twenty-two had worked at least eight hours a day. Children who
were engaged to play at dances or who appeared in the theaters or
worked as ushers often worked late at night; 24, or more than twofifths of those reporting hours, had worked after 7 o ’clock. This
kind of work appeared to be of shorter duration than many of the
jobs which children held— only about one-third had worked at least
13 weeks.
i The 1923 law provides that for work in theaters, concert halls, and places of amusement children under
16 must obtain a special permit from the judge of the juvenile court, juvenile-court commission, or board
of child welfare.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

EMPLOYMENT OP CITY CHILDREN.

T a b l e X V I I .—Principal occupation o f school children under 16 years o f age reporting

gainful employment, by weekly earnings in principal occupation.
Children under 16 years of age reporting gainful employment.
Weekly earnings.
Principal occupation.
Total.

Less
than
$2.50.

$2.50,
less
than
$5.

$5,
less
than
$10.

$10
and
over.

No
cash.

Cash
and Fluctu Not re
board. ating. ported.

Total......................................

1,730

636

287

136

114

433

Farm work.......................................
Work in mercantile establishments.
Street trades....................................
Personal and domestic service.......
Manufacturing and mechanical and
trade, n. o. s.................................
Messenger service............................
Errands and odd jobs......................
All other work.................................

256
147
657
501

23
28
357
185

31
28
160
51

42'
31
24
16

17
5

6
2

19
24

75
29

211

37
7
58
67

8
1
28
6

3
2

3
10

13
3

Disposition of earnings.
The majority of the children earned less than $5 a week, though a
few had earnings sufficiently large to make a real difference in the
family income. Only 313 of the 1,730, however, had contributed
any of their earnings to the family, and only 281 had used all their
money to help support themselves; 522 others had used some of their
earnings for self-support. It is probable that most of these had
helped to buy their clothes. About 30 per cent were working only
for spending money or to have money in the bank. A slightly larger
number of children were spending their money entirely on such things
as amusements and candy than were contributing all their earnings
to the family. Relatively fewer children of native white than of
foreign parents contributed the entire amount earned to their fami
lies, the proportions being 6 and 9 per cent, respectively; and fewer
of the former (15 per cent) than of the latter (18 per cent) used their
money entirely to help buy necessities for themselves. Even in the
less prosperous families the children’s earnings were not, for the most
part, used in meeting family expenses; only 15 per cent of the children
whose fathers were laborers used all their money, and only 15 per
cent used part of it for this purpose.

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CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.

T a b l e X V I I I .—Proportion o f school children under 16 years o f age reporting gainful

employment that worked before 7 a. m. or after 7 p. m.
Children under 16 years of age reporting gainful
employment.
Working before 7
a. m.

Principal occupation.

Working after 7
p. m.

Total.
Number. Per cent.1 Number. Per cent.1
Total....................................................................

Manufacturing and mechanical and trade n. o. s.......

1,730
256
147
657
501
37
7
58
67

106

6.1

»172

9.9

39
1
58
4
3

15.2
0.7
8.8
0.8

4.3
13.6
2.3
18.8

1.7

11
20
15
;94
3
3
2
24

3.4
35.8

1Not shown where base is less than 50.
‘ Excludes 14 children who stayed at place of employment all night.

Violations of the State child labor law.
Many of the children had worked in violation of one or more of
the provisions of the State child labor law in effect at the time of the
study.8 Of the 1,396 children under 14 years of age, 117, or 8 per
cent, reported their principal employment in occupations specifically
prohibited for children under 14.9 Of the 327 who were 14 or over,
67 were engaged in occupations for which employment certificates
were required,10 but none had a certificate. In fact up to the time of
the survey no employment certificates had been issued in any of the
three cities. Contrary to law,11 also, 15 children under 14 years of
age had worked at their principal occupation during school hours.
In addition to the violations of the law in regard to the age of
employment, the certificating provision, and employment during
school hours, there were many violations of the hours of labor clause,
which specified that no child under 16 might be employed more than
8 hours a day or 48 hours a week, or before 7 a. m. or after 7 p. m. in
any gainful occupation whatever.12 Of the total number of working
children, 237, or 14 per cent, had worked at their principal occupation
more than eight hours a day. One hundred and thirty-two of these
were children doing agricultural work, and 47 were those who had
engaged in some form of domestic or personal service; but 58 (25
per cent) of the hour violations occurred in occupations which are
» For changes made by the child labor law of 1923 see pp. 42, 60, 63.
bCompiled Laws, North Dakota, 1913, sec. 1404.
lo Compiled Laws, North Dakota, 1913, sec. 1405.
n Compiled Laws, North Dakota, 1913, sec. 1404.
‘ ‘ Compiled Laws, North Dakota, 1913, sec. 1410.

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EMPLOYMENT OF CITY CHILDREN.

not only subject, as a rule, to stricter legal regulation than the other
two classes of employment, but are also much more easily regulated.
One hundred and six children had worked before 7 in the morning, and
172 after 7 at night. Table X V III shows in what groups of occupa
tions this work occurred. All of these children were working in viola
tion of the law, with the possible exception of 14 newspaper sellers
and peddlers in business on their own account who had worked after
7 p. m. The greatest offenders against the early morning regulations
were route carriers employed by the newspapers; a strict interpre
tation of the law would penalize their employers just as it did others,
since no class of occupations was exempt from the hours provision.
A number of the children working after 7 o ’clock in the evening were
employed as musicians for dances, as motion-picture machine opera
tors, as ushers or performers on the stage— types of work which
appear to be growing more and more popular among school children.13
A very flagrant case of violating the night-work provision of the
child labor law was that of a 15-year-old boy who cleaned railroad
coaches from 12 midnight until 8 in the morning throughout the 46
weeks covered by the study.
The State child labor law of 1923 may be expected to decrease the
number of violations, since it provides more adequate administra
tive measures than the child labor law in effect at the time of the
study. For the first time a State agency is made responsible for the
enforcement of the law, and the provisions relating to the issuance
of employment certificates have been strengthened. Under the 1923
law it is the duty of the State board of administration to enforce the
act and to exercise general supervision over its administration, to
prepare and distribute blanks for use in carrying out the act, and to
revoke certificates. The law also requires a promise of employment
before a certificate is issued and the return of the certificate to the
issuing office, both important administrative provisions.
u See footnote 1. page 60, footnote/.

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APPENDIX—ACCIDENTS AS REPORTED BY 104 OF THE 845
CHILDREN WHO HAD WORKED ON FARMS DURING 1921.
A .—Accidents occurring while operating implements.

Sex.

Age at
Age. time oi
injury.

Male___
...d o ......

Occupation.

10
12

7 Plowing.............
12 ....... do.T...............

Female..

Male___

...d o ......

12
0

Plow hit stone; fell from machine;
dislocated ankle.
Horse ran away; leg caught in
wheel; hip injured.
.......do.................. Reached for lever and missed it,
fell from tractor, between share
and land wheel; bruised and
sprained wrist.
.......do.................. Fell from plow just behind horses,
cut knee.
Plow hit stone; thrown from plow;
cut cheek.
....... do................... Plow hit rock; fell from machine;
scraped leg.
....... do.......... ....... Plow hit rock; thrown, and
skinned whole side.

...d o ......

.. .do.......

...d o ......
...d o ......

9
13

9
13 ....... do..................

...d o ......

...d o ......
...d o ......

13
14

...d o .......

...d o ......

...d o ......
...d o ......
— do......

14
11
11

...d o ......
...d o ......

12
13

...d o .......
...d o ......
...d o __ _
...d o ......
...d o ......

16
14
12
16
15

...d o ......

...d o ......
Female..

14
13

M ale....

...d o .....

...d o ......

Cause and nature of injury.

Plow hit stone; fell and smashed
finger.
8 .......do................... Fell from plow; machine ran over
leg.
13 .......do..................
13 ....... do.................. Horses ran away; fell from ma
chine; knocked unconscious.
15 ....... do................... Plow struck rock; thrown from
plow and hurt leg.
14 ....... do................... Plow struck rock; thrown from
machine and fell on neck.
15
Plow hit stone; thrown from ma
chine and hurt knee.
10 ....... do.................. Plow hit stone; fell from machine;
plow ran over shoulder.
14 .......do............... .
(1)
....... do..................
....... do.................. Fell from plow backward; hurt
0
hand.
(i)
....... do................. .
....... d o ................. Plow jolted; thrown; foot caught
0
in wheel; nearly broke it.
.......do.................
0
8 Disking................
8 Drilling................
15 Cultivating......
Cut fingers; was cut several times
15 Mowing...“. . . .
Horses raw away; fell from ma
chine and hurt hip.
11 Raking................ Wheel caught in wire; horse ran
. away; boy fell off and broke 2
ribs.
11 Bucking............... Horse stepped in hole; bucker
tipped over and threw boy;
broke arm.
9 .......do................... Bucker tipped in going over hay
pile; boy fell and sprained arm.
12 Raking hav......... Foot cut by rake..............
Raking.
Ran rake into ditch; girl fell be
0
tween rake and horses: skinned
leg.
11 ___.do................... Horses ran away; machine bruised
leg.
12 ....... do................. Duck flew up and frightened
horses; ran away; boy fell and
jammed leg.
13 ....... do................. . Horse, trotting, struck hole; hurt
ribs.

Extent of dis
ability.

Lame 1 month.
Lame 1 week.
Lame 2 weeks.
Laid up 1 week.

Lame 2 weeks.
Not reported.
Lame 1 month.
Laid up 1 week.
Did not stop work.
Not reported.
Lame 1 month.
Lame 2 days.
HI 1 day.
Lame £ day.
Stiff neck 2 days.
Lame a few days.
Laid up 3 days.
Not reported.
Do.
Not hurt badly.
Not reported.
Not serious.
Did not stop work.
Laid up 1 week.
Not reported.
1 d ay c o u ld n ’ t
walk.
Lame 4 days.
Didn’t work any
more that sum
mer.
Arm in sling 7 days.
Lame 3 weeks.
Not reported.
Not reported.
2 weeks, could not
w a lk /
Not reported.

tfot reporte d.

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CHILD LABOR IN NORTH DAKOTA.
A .—Accidents occurring while operating implements.— Continued.

No.

Sex.

Age at
Age. time of
injury.

36 Male.......

37 ...d o ......

3«
39

Female.

14
9

40 Male___
41 ...d o .—

11
15

42 ...d o ......
43 .. .do......

12
13

Female.

•7

Male.. . .

46
47 . . d o ......

Female.

49 Male___
50 Female.

9
13

51 Male___
52 .. .do......

13
11

53
54 .. .do.......

11
11

Occupation.

Cause and nature of injury.

Horses started too soon; caught
foot in rake.
11 .......do................... Put foot on brake, tipping ma
chine; injured leg.
12
7 .......do.................. Slipped in hay; fork ran through
leg.
11 Stacking hay___ Broke arm.......................................
....... do.................. Fell off stack; fork went through
(>)
leg.
12 Driving binder... Leg caught in wheel; sprained......
Driving header Header box tipped over; dislo
«
cated arm.
box.
6 ..... d o .................. Header box went into hole; fell
off; wheel went over head.
11 Hauling............... Rough road; fell off wagon and
wheel went over him; broke 2
ribs.
9
Fell from wagon; broke arm.........
9 ....... d o ............... Twisted leg~ in wagon wheel;
badlv hurt.
14 ....... do................... Horses started; fell off wagon;
hurt side.
9
Turning grind Hand caught in grindstone..........
0)
stone.
Building
fence. . . Hurt finger......................................
13
11 Not reported....... Frightened by cattle; tripped, fell
under wheel of mowing machine
and injured eye.
Barefooted;
fell on scythe; cut leg.
0)
10 .......do.................. Hand caught in pulley; tore flesh..
’ 8. Raking................

Extent of dis
ability.

Laid up 2 days.
Not reported.
1J weeks.
Laid up 3 weeks.
Not reported.
Do.
Hurt 1 hour.
Not reported.
Sick 1 month.
1 month.
Not reported.
Do.
4 days.
No disability.
Not reported.
Do.
Da
Not serious.
Laid up 1 month.

B .— Accidents occurring while handling animals.
M ale....:

56 ...d o ......
57 ...d o ......

15
14

58
59 ...d o ......
60

14
13
16

61
62
63 . . . d o . . . .

10
12
12

64 Female..
65 Male___
66 ...d o ......

13
12
11

67 ...d o ......
68

10
14

69 Female..
70 Male___
71 .. .do......
72 .. .do......
73 ...d o ......

12
12
14
8
15

5 Herding cattle__ Horse fell; boy fell from horse;
broke arm.
13 ....... do................... Thrown from horse; broke leg.___
12 ....... d o . . . . . . . . . . . . Horse tripped in hole: fell off
horse; broke collar bone.
ki
Horse fell on boy; broke an kle....
10 ....... do.................. Fell off horse; arm out of join t.. . .
Horse rolled on foot; sprained
14
ankle.
10 ....... do.................. Horse fell; sprained thumb__ . . . .
9
Horse bucked; nearly broke arm ..
10 Herding horses... Saddle came off; fell from horse;
hurt arm.
13 Herding cattle.... Fell from horse; hurt hip.
10 ....... do.................. Kicked by horse; feet hurt.
11 Herding horses... Thrown off horse; head and side
hurt.
10 Herding cattle.... Thrown from horse.......................
Horse fell on child; hurt leg; not
13
seriously.
6 Watering mule... Fell off mule; broke arm................
8 Driving colt........ Colt kicked arm..............................
14 Breaking colt___ Thrown from pony; sprained ankle.
8 Cleaning bam___ Kicked by cow; wrist bruised.......
14 D r i v i n g b u l l Got wire m hand...................
aw ay from
hay.
15 Milking............... Kicked by cow................................

Female..

75 Male___
76 ...d o .....

8
14

7
14

77 .. .do......

78
79 .. .do......

10
9

80 .. .do......

81 .. .do......
82 . . .do......

11
12

11
11

1Not reported.

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Going for horses.. Kicked in head by horse...............
Bringing cattle Horse fell; boy tnrown and hurt
ankle.
home.
Feeding horse.... Horse kicked; part of body not
reported.
.......do.....................................i .......
Tying cows in Kicked; part of body not reported.
Darn.
Leading horse___ Horse got tangled in rope; boy
fell from horse; hurt back.
Hitching horse. .. Kicked; part of body not reported.
1Not reported....... Horse kicked: broke ribs...............

In sling 6 months.
Not reported.
1 month.
Not reported.
1 week.
Lame 10 days.
Kept on working.
Not sick.
1 week.
id a y .
3 days.
2 weeks.
2-3 days.
Not reported.
1J months.
2 weeks.
1 week.
Not much hurt.
1J weeks.
Could not walk for
6 weeks.
3 weeks.
2-3 weeks.
Laid up 1 week.
Not reported.
Not much hurt.
Lame several days.
Not reported.
4 weeks

APPENDIX,
B .— Accidents occurring while handling animals— Continued.

No.

Sex.

Age at
Age. time of
injury.

Female.
...d o ...
85 ...d o .......
...d o ..
...d o ..
...d o .

(»)

Cause and nature of injury.

Occupation.

Not reported....... Horse fell on leg; sprained foot—
Kicked by horse while driving;
part of body not reported.
___do................... Fell from horse and kicked by
horse.
___do.................. Horse kicked forehead; large scar..
Kicked
by colt; part of body not
___do..................
reported.
Horse frightened by cows; kicked
boy; part of body not reported.
Boy hit horse with stick; kicked
in head.
Kicked by horse; part of body not
reported.
Kicked by horse; boy fainted........
Kicked by horse; hurt leg..............
Horse ran away; boy hit in mouth;
knocked out tooth.
..d o................ Boy fell from horse........................
. .do................
....... do.................
....... do.................
. .do................

99
100
101
102
103
104

Extent of dis
ability.

Not reported.
1 month.
Lame 3 weeks.
In bed 3 weeks.
Lame 1 week.
Lame 2 days.
In bed two days.
2 or 3 days.
HI 1 day.
Lame 1 day.
id a y .

Unconscious
hours.
Kicked by horse; part of body not Not reported.
reported.
Horse stepped on wrist..................
Kicked by horse; ankle hurt.........
Kicked by horse; part of body not
reported.
....... d o .......................................... . Not serious.
Fell from horse.............................. Not hurt much.
Horse kicked face, just below eye. Not reported.
Do.
Horse kicked shoulder..................
Do.
Horse bucked; stamped on foot...
No
bad
results.
Horse maddened by bite from
another horse; kicked boy in
stomach

1Not reported.
SUMMARY.

A. Accidents occurring while operating implements................... ......................... ..................... ............... 54

While plowing........................................................................................... ....................... ?§
While raking or bucking.................................................................*.................................... - - ........
While operating other im plem ents................................ ..............................................................

B. Accidents occurring while handling animals...................................................................................... - - 50
Herding cattle or horses....................................... - .................................. . . - ..................................
Exact nature of work not stated...................................................................... ...............................

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Full text of Child Labor in North Dakota, Bureau Publication No. 129

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