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DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR.
BULLETIN
OF THE
BUREAU OF LABOR.
No. 67-NOVEMBER, 1906.
ISSUED EVERY OTHEK MONTH.
W A SH IN G TO N :
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
19 0 0 .,
CONTENTS.
Page.
Conditions of entrance to the principal trades, b y Walter E. Weyl, Ph. D.,
and A. M. Sakolski, Ph. D ......................................................................................
Cost of industrial insurance in the District of Columbia, b y S. E. F orm an.. .
Digest of recent reports of State bureaus of labor statistics:
Massachusetts.........................................................................................................
M ichigan.................................................................................................................
Nebraska..................................................................................................................
New Y o r k ...............................................................................................................
Digest of recent foreign statistical publications.....................................................
Decisions of courts affecting la b or.............................................................................
Laws of various States relating to labor, enacted since January 1, 1904..........
Cumulative index of labor laws and decisionsrelating thereto...........................
in
681-780
781-822
823-831
831-834
835
836-841
842-860
861-906
907-918
919-948
B U L L E T IN
OF THE
BUREAU
OF L A B O R .
No. 67._________________WASHINGTON.
N ovember,
1906.
CONDITIONS 0E ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
BY WALTER E. WEYL, PH. D., AND A. M. SAKOLSKI, PH. D .(a)
INTRODUCTION.
An investigation into the conditions of entrance to the principal
trades leads along two closely related lines of inquiry. One con
cerns itself with the advance in mechanical arts and the changes in
industrial conditions which are constantly affecting the skill and
qualifications of artizans and mechanics; the other relates to the
methods commonly pursued in equipping workers for their respective
trades and occupations and the adjustment of these methods to
modem economic changes. The two are thus directly interwoven
and interdependent. Every change in industrial processes which
permanently alters the technical character of the labor in a certain
trade or occupation is bound to affect the conditions of entrance
thereto, however gradual or imperceptible the change may be. The
starting point of this investigation must therefore be an inquiry into
the industrial changes affecting the conditions of entrance to the
leading trades. To even the most casual students of economics it is
obvious that the conditions of industry and the nature of employ
ments are constantly undergoing change. With each year come new
advances in the mechanic arts; with each year occupations become
more specialized and the division of labor more perfect and more
minute. The machine displaces the hand process and more compli
cated machines displace those of a simple kind. The process of man
ufacture is divided and subdivided into an ever greater series of more
minute operations. The old hand trades have disappeared or are dis
appearing. In the place of a well-defined occupation, the metes and
bounds of which were known to all, a series of new trades has arisen,
a The collection and arrangement of the data in this article, as well as the final
preparation of a large part of the manuscript, was done entirely b y Dr. A. M. Sakolski.
681
682
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
and what is more significant to the present study, there have come
to be hundreds and thousands of new occupations, many of which
consist in single simple operations.
The effect of this disintegration of trades upon the industrial
efficiency of the community has frequently been studied. Its effect
upon such problems as the localization and centralization of industry,
upon the distribution of wealth, upon general unemployment, upon
the monotony and upon the productivity of labor has also been
studied. The present investigation, however, concerns the effect
upon the skill and character of the workers and the consequent
changes in the conditions of entrance to the various trades.
The importance of this problem can hardly be overestimated.
Upon the skill or the lack of skill of the great mass of the workers of
industrial countries depends in a large measure the nature and char
acter of their populations. The habits acquired and the discipline
received b y workmen in the acquisition of technical skill are most
potent influences upon their lives. But more important still is the
selective influence that the technical character of a trade exerts
upon the workers. If the labor processes require an increasing
amount of skill and training for their performance, the more proficient
workers of the community seek employment therein. If, on the other
hand, the amount of skill needed in the processes of a trade is lessened,
a corresponding tho opposite effect will be had upon the character
and qualifications of the workers. The conditions of entrance to
the trade having become less difficult, the less efficient workers are
enabled to work alongside or to replace those who possess a higher
degree of skill or efficiency.
It is not the object of this article to furnish any definite answer to
the question whether the amount of skill required in industry has
been increased or decreased as a result of the new industrial proc
esses. Answers have been given to this question on the one side and
on the other, but there has not yet been made any study suffi
ciently broad to permit an entirely unassailable reply to the question.
The question is difficult b y reason of the multiplicity of industrial
operations, and it is complicated by the unequal growth of industries,
b y the constant introduction of new trades and the decay of others,
and b y the numerous gradations of skill and efficiency wrought by
t :e extensive use of machinery and division of labor. It is also
complicated by a change in the nature of skill itself— a change from
manual dexterity to a more intellectual activity— and b y a growing
emphasis upon nervous rather than physical energy. Thru the m e
o: mechanical devices and subdivision of labor in manufacturing
processes, skill has become not only qualitative but quantitative; in
other words, there is a skill which requires a man not only to do his
work better but also to do more of it. New forms of skill indicate
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
683
not only manual dexterity, but speed, accuracy, and close mental
application.
In view of these changes in the nature of skill itself, it is extremely
difficult to apply any test which will determine whether the skill in
an occupation is increasing or decreasing. For the purposes of this
discussion, however, two tests may be roughly applied, viz: (1) The
character and social condition of the workers in the trade or occupa
tion, and (2) the length of preparatory training, or the experience
required previous to entering the trade as an ordinary journeyman.
A. study of the former test concerns itself with the displacement
of native skilled workmen by unskilled foreign laborers at lowerwages, or the displacement of one class of foreigners by another class
of foreigners at lower wages, or the displacement of men by women
and children. In almost every case of such displacement there is a
presumption of a lessening of skill, tho the presumption may be
rebutted in exceptional instances.
The second test of the standard of skill in a given occupation,
viz, the training or experience essential to competition on the part
of the worker, is by far the more important. Where the amount
of technical training ordinarily required to become competent is
lessened or the length of the apprenticeship term is shortened there
are generally indications of decreasing skill. To this extent the
decay of the old apprenticeship system of acquiring craft knowledge
may be taken as evidence of loss of skill, altho the training formerly
obtained under apprenticeship may under present conditions be
obtained in other ways.
The importance of maintaining a high standard of skill in their
occupations is felt by all workmen. It was this motive which led
artizans, thru their associations and otherwise, to enforce stringent
rules regarding apprenticeship and to exclude all from the trade
who had not served the full apprenticeship term. It was this motive,
likewise, which prompted so many workmen to resist the imme
diate introduction of machinery, as well as new processes, tending
to reduce skill, since these generally interfered with the rigid enforce
ment of apprenticeship and otherwise affected the conditions of
entrance to the trade.
The policy of directly opposing the introduction of machinery
is now recognized as impracticable, and with the present disinte
gration of trades it is usually impossible, except in a few occupations,
strictly to enforce apprenticeship regulations or otherwise effectively
control the conditions of entrance to a trade. The present endeavor
of workingmen to maintain the standard of skill in their craft is
directed mainly to the regulation of the use of machinery and new
processes introduced, as well as to the organization under their
control of the machine operators and the lower grade workers.
684
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
There is also an endeavor on the part of many workers to maintain
the standard of skill in their craft by prohibiting the grading of
journeymen or by opposing teamwork and the employment of helpers
and junior mechanics who may do the work of journeymen. The
conditions of entrance to a trade thus become an important matter
to workingmen desiring to prevent not only a too rapid increase in
their numbers, but, more important still, the injection into the trade
of men of less skill. The control of the entrance to the trade is, how
ever, becoming increasingly difficult. The extensive use of machinery
in almost all trades and handicrafts, the minute subdivision of labor
processes, and the consequent specialization of occupations, have
been gradually displacing the old forms of skill and workmanship
and causing the institution of new methods of acquiring craft knowl
edge. The old system of apprenticeship, which at the beginning of
the nineteenth century was the almost universal method of enter
ing a trade or handicraft, is fast becoming obsolete. Tho in former
days apprenticeship possest many advantages, under modern condi
tions it is becoming more and more unsuitable, especially in trades
in which there has already been marked a decline in the skill of
the workers. In many important trades where the labor processes
have been minutely subdivided and simplified, such as boot and
shoe making, garment making, etc., apprenticeship regulations
have been abandoned, and even in trades in which apprenticeship
still forms the principal avenue of entrance to the trade it not only
differs in many other respects from the old form of apprenticeship,
but its term is lessened and the requirements are not so strict nor
so rigidly enforced. In the building trades, for example, which
have been less affected by machinery and the subdivision of labor
than most other trades, many workmen become journeymen with
out serving a full apprenticeship. It is becoming recognized that
the organization of modem industry is not adapted to the proper
training of apprentices.
In industries in which production on a large scale is carried on as
a result of the use of machinery and the subdivision of labor, neither
the employer nor the workman can afford the time or the effort to
apply himself systematically to the training of apprentices, and
even if he could his work would be of small value to the boy, and is
usually not desired by him. Boys can now readily become pro
ficient in an occupation at which they can earn journeymen’s wages
by applying themselves to a particular branch of a trade rather than
by endeavoring to acquire the whole trade thru an apprenticeship.
As a consequence of the unsuitability of the apprenticeship system
to modem industrial conditions, other methods of acquiring skill in
the craft have been substituted. Chief among these are, first, the
helper system, by which a knowledge of the craft is acquired casually
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
685
in the shop, and, second, systematic trade and technical education.
The first system is peculiar to certain trades in which experience
rather than training is essential to competency, and in which the
labor is too arduous for youths. Since there is no definite form of
probation under the helper system, the workmen have no control
over the number of learners in the trade. As a consequence, there
is much friction between helpers and journeymen, and trouble
arises from the endeavor of the journeymen to prevent the helpers
from entering the trade.
Trade and technical education is applicable only to those trades
requiring some scientific as well as manual skill. It is claimed by
workingmen that the trade schools turn out mechanics too rapidly,
without giving them a thoro knowledge of the craft, and that as a
consequence there is a tendency to lower the standard of skill and
the rate of wages. The same objection is not urged against trade
and technical education where the men educated are already workers
in the craft.
DISINTEGRATION OF TRADES.
The original conception of a trade or craft was that of a manual
occupation requiring time and training for its acquisition. Every
artizan or mechanic practising a craft was considered a sharer in a
monopoly or a holder of a “ vested rig h t/’ which he enjoyed as a
reward for the time and energy spent in acquiring proficiency. In
other words, the trade of a mechanic was a “ mystery,” into the secrets
of which he had been initiated thru the process of apprenticeship. If
a worker gained entrance to his trade by other means than thru
apprenticeship, he was considered an “ illegal man” and his employ
ment was prohibited. This difficulty of apprenticeship in a craft
largely influenced the wages, hours, and standard of living of those
who had earned in it the title of journeymen.
Before the eighteenth century the agricultural worker was practi
cally the only workman who was not a craftsman or mechanic, not so
much because his work may have required little training and skill but
rather because he was not compelled to undergo a definite term of
apprenticeship as evidence of proficiency.
The old conception of a trade or craft gradually changed with the
development of modern industry following the rapid introduction of
machinery and the subdivision of labor processes. It is now no
longer necessary for every mechanic or artizan to acquire a knowledge
of all branches of the craft in which he is engaged. Hence the long
period of training, which was essential to every artizan practising any
manual trade, in a great number of occupations and industries is fast
becoming obsolete. In fact, the acquisition of manual dexterity
under modern industrial conditions is often rendered useless, owing to
686
BULLETIN OE THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the introduction of a machine or the employment of some mechanical
device, which does the work more effectively than it can be done by
the hand process. Formerly, as a matter of necessity, the handicrafts
man acquired proficiency in all branches and subdivisions of his pecu
liar trade. In most occupations at the present time he need learn
only one branch or subdivision of a trade to enter upon an active
industrial career and gain a livelihood at his calling. As a result of
this condition occupations are constantly multiplied, while the demar
cation of different manual trades and the class distinctions among
different grades of artizans tend to disappear. The gradual disinte
gration of old crafts is constantly displacing the old forms of skill
and manual efficiency by new manual and mechanical processes.
With the introduction of machinery, and with the constantly
increasing subdivision of labor, trades either become eliminated
altogether, or the various branches of one trade become differentiated
or specialized. A continual struggle between hand labor and machine
labor results. Hand labor either disappears altogether or is event
ually remanded to higher artistic work, and thus the more skilful
workers are called to the higher classes of work, while the unskilled
workers are retained as machine operators.
Modern industrial development is thus creating new and more
numerous gradations of workers in different trades and occupations.
When, in former times, it was essential for the mechanic to learn his
craft as a whole, he was capable of either producing a single commodity
or performing a complete mechanical process, to which the tools and
methods peculiar to his trade were adapted. Under modern condi
tion s the mechanic may belong to one of several groups of workmen
in the same industry, each group differing from the others in earnings
and kind of work, the finished product of the combined groups being
what was in former times the work of one man.
The “ specialization ” or subdivision of occupations is not only far
advanced in the manufacturing industries, but has also affected many
hand trades little influenced by machinery, in which formerly all
the processes were performed by a single mechanic or by several
mechanics of an equal grade of skill and efficiency. How far the dis
integration of trades has progressed is illustrated by the recent
developments in several of the important trades and industries.
Probably no other craft has undergone such rapid disintegration
within recent years as that of the machinist. Regarding these changes
in Great Britain Sidney and Beatrice Webb write as follows:
A century ago the small skilled class of millwrights executed every
kind of engineering operation, from making the wooden patterns to
erecting in the mill the machines which had been constructed by their
own hands. The enormous expansion of the engineering industry has
long since brought about a division of labor, and the mechanics in a
great engineering establishment to-day are divided into numerous
CONDITION'S OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
687
distinct classes of workers, who are rarely able to do each others work.
The pattern makers, working in wood, have become sharply marked
off from the boiler makers and the iron founders. The smiths, again,
are distinguished from the fitters, turners, and erectors. Another
form of specialization has arisen with the increased use of other
metals than iron and steel, and we have brass founders, brass finish
ers, and coppersmiths. Each generation sees a great development in
the use of machines to make machines, so that a modern engineering
shop, in addition to the time-honored lathe, includes a bewildering
variety of drilling, shaping, boring, planing, slotting, milling, and
other machines, attended by wholly new classes of machine minders
and tool makers, displaying every grade of skill. Finally we have
such new kinds of work, with new classes of specialists, as are involved
in the innumerable applications of iron and steel in modern civiliza
tion, such as iron ships and bridges, ordnance and armor plating,
hydraulic apparatus and electric lighting, sewing machines and
bicycles. To discover the exact limits of a “ trade” in these closely
related but varied occupations, is a task of supreme difficulty. All
are working in the same industry,, and in the large establishments of
to-day, all may be engaged by a single employer. The same recurring
waves of expansion and contraction sooner or later affect all alike.
On the other hand, there exist between the separate occupations great
varieties of methods of remuneration, standard earnings, and strategic
position. The strictly apprenticed boiler makers (shipyard platers)
working in compact groups, at cooperative piecework, earning some
times as much as a pound [$4.87] a day, find it advantageous m good
times to roll up, by large subscriptions, a huge reserve fund, to main
tain a staff of special trade officers to arrange their piecework prices at
every port, and to provide handsomely for their recurring periods of
trade depression. At the other end of the scale we have the intelligent
laborer become t o automatic machine minder, securing relative con
tinuity of low-paid employment by working any simple machine in any
kind of engineering establishment, and interested mainly in the open
ing of every operation to the quick-witted outsider. The pattern
maker again, working in wood, at a high time rate, has little m com
mon with the pieceworking smith at the forge. (a)
In the United States a similar differentiation has taken place in
the machine trades, making it exceedingly difficult to specify the
work done by machinists. In fact, the International Association of
Machinists during the last decade has experienced considerable diffi
culty in defining the craft of its members. At the meeting of the
arbitration board of the International Association of Machinists and
the National Metal Trades’ Association in New York, May 10, 1900,
the following definition of a machinist was adopted by resolution :
A machinist is classified as a competent general workman, com
petent floor hand, competent lathe hand, competent vise hand,
competent planer hand, competent shaper hand, competent millingmachine hand, competent slotting-machine hand, competent die
sinker, competent boring-mill hand, competent tool maker and com
petent linotype hand. To be considered a competent hand in either
a Industrial Democracy, new edition, 1902, p. 107.
688
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
class, he [the machinist] shall be able to take an j piece of work per
taining to his class, with the drawings or blueprints, and prosecute
the work to successful completion within a reasonable time. He shall
also have served a regular apprenticeship or have worked at the trade
four years. (a)
The Milwaukee convention of the International Association of
Machinists held in May, 1903, extended further the scope of the
definition given above by admitting specialized workmen in the
machine shop—who in reality are not considered all-round machin
ists— to a classified membership in the association. They still
excluded, however, workmen in the machine shop who, by reason of
their slight training and skill, are properly called “ handy m en /’
The extent of the jurisdiction of the International Association of
Machinists, as a result of the admission of specialists to membership,
covered the following classes of machine-shop workers, according to
the report of the president of the association, July 1, 1904:
(1)
General hands, (2) erecting hands, (3) floor hands, (4) vise
hands, (5) assemblers, (6) adjusters and repairers of metal working
parts of all classes of machinery, (7) men operating all classes of lathes,
(8) men operating all classes of planers, (9) milling machine men,
(10) men operating all classes or shapers, (11) men operating all
classes of slotters, (12) men operating all classes of boring mills, (13)
men operating all classes of gear cutters, (14) tool grinders, (15) men
operating Jones & Lamson, Gisholt, and American turret lathes, (16)
drill press hands, (17) screw machine hands, (18) men operating all
machines of a similar character as heretofore mentioned, (19) tool
makers, (20) die sinkers, (21) jig workers, (22) mold makers in glass
factories or elsewhere, (23) all men engaged in the manufacture of
metal model novelties, where skilled hand labor or machines are used,
(24) all surgical instrument makers, (25) all metal pattern makers
employed in machine shop.(b)
The recent general convention of the International Association of
Machinists (1905) took a further step in extending its jurisdiction,
enacting a law admitting any person to the union who attends a
machine that is not absolutely automatic in its operation, whether he
had served an apprenticeship or not, the only qualification being that
he is competent to earn the standard rate of wages for the class of
work performed by him. The International Association of Machin
ists accordingly comprizes at the present time all workers in the
machine shop, except the common laborers and the attendants of
perfectly automatic machines, such as nut-tapping machines, bolt
cutters, power saws, and small simple drill presses used to drill rough
holes upon common rough work.
Owing to this minute subdivision and subclassification of machin
ists' work, it is not a difficult matter for employers to introduce the
a Machinists’ Monthly Journal, Yol. X I I , p. 313.
6 Ibid., Yol. X V I, p. 790.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
689
“ handy man” in a position formerly occupied by skilled machinists,
thus causing numerous disputes and conflicts. Commenting upon
this situation the president of the International Association of
Machinists, in the report of April 1, 1903, said:
You will notice from the report on strikes that we have had several
strikes against the introduction of the “ handy-man system.” The
employers are not to blame for this in all cases, lor now and then we
find instances where the machinists refuse to do a certain class of
work. As a result the employer is forced to employ whomever he
can get to do the rest of the work.
The difficulty we are constantly confronted with is to decide in
what consists machinists’ work. For instance, in some locomotive
shops machinists do steam-pipe work and the building of engine
works, while in others this work is performed exclusively by the
“ handy man.” There should be drawn a definite line, so that mem
bers of our organization should know their constitutional rights, and
feel that they will be considered in the fulfilment of the same.
In my opinion we can not completely solve this problem until we
have taken entire control of the machine shop, when we will be in a
position to make an agreement covering the employment of all who
work therein. (a)
The difficulty of defining machinists’ work is plainly the result of
the evolution of machine-shop equipment during the last decade, an
evolution which resulted in the widespread introduction of automatic
and semiautomatic machines and all kinds of special tools, rendering
it possible for unskilled mechanics to do the work formerly done by
skilled machinists. Regarding these changes a writer in Cassier’s
Magazine makes this comment:
The twentieth century conception of a machine shop is not an
aggregation of intelligent workmen, provided with the most efficient
tools and apparatus that ingenuity can devise, and using them with
all the cunning that trained minds can suggest. The shop, from the
present standpoint, is simply a huge machine tool, as void of conscious
volition as an automatic screw machine, of which the intelligent
operator is the manager, and in which lathes and workmen, drills and
inspectors, nutting machines and laborers are on one common plane
of nonsentient, coacting subordination.^)
Similarly, in carpentry and woodworking, the labor-saving machin
ery has accomplished remarkable changes during the past three
decades. Only the older generation of house carpenters, and a few
younger men who have learned their trade under more conservative
« The absence of a definitely accepted classification of machinists’ work up to the
year 1900 was a constant cause of difficulty with employers. All machine shops
employ a number of so-called “ handy m en,” who in some union shops are permitted
to do certain kinds of work, which in others are regarded as properly belonging to the
machinists’ craft. The definition of a machinist, as given at the meeting of the
arbitration board in 1900, has since been largely accepted in union shops, and thus
the atmosphere has been cleared somewhat.
&Louis Bell, The Philanthropy of Self H elp, Cassier’s Magazine, Vol. X X IV , p. 440.
690
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
conditions, can now make doors, shutters, sashes, or frames with any
degree of dexterity. The introduction of machinery has transferred
that work to the planing mills, and the work of the house carpenter
is limited to fitting the products of the mill together. When the
change was first introduced, about thirty or thirty-five years ago, it
affected a great reduction in the cost of building operations. The
steam planer, shaper, and mortising machine began to turn out work
at a cost that seemed phenomenally low when compared with the
cost of the handmade product. (a)
The trade of the cabinetmaker is likewise invaded by the machinemade goods. The cabinetmaker of to-day, even where hand work
predominates, is not like his father. He makes a table top, but not
the legs. The man who makes the legs can not make a wardrobe.
The wardrobe hand never touches a chest of drawers, or a sideboard,
or a chiffonier. (*6) Practically the only all-round cabinetmaker of the
present time is the man who executes repairs. The others do not
exercise the craft as a whole, but only a very small part of it. More
over, the furniture industry of the present day is essentially a machine
industry employing unskilled labor. Wages in this craft were for
merly much higher than at present, and furniture making was called
a good trade. In 1900, it was stated in the testimony before the
Industrial Commission, wages in furniture factories thruout the
country did not average more than $1.25 a day. The furniture
workers were not sufficiently organized to adjust themselves to the
new conditions wrought by the rapid introduction of machinery.
Consequently another class of workmen, the machine wood workers,
largely composed of unskilled immigrant laborers, began rapidly to
displace the skilled carpenters and cabinetmakers. According to the
Report of the Industrial Commission, (c) out of every 75 men employed
in a furniture factory perhaps only 5 are skilled mechanics, the rest
being simply feeders; in this way a large number of immigrants are
employed, and often children and women find places. In 1900, in
cabinetmaking, 50 per cent were Germans— who are considered in
the trade as the best men— and 25 per cent were foreigners of other
nationalities. The wages of machine wood workers vary from $1.25 to
nearly $6 per day, the men receiving the lowest wages being box
makers in large cities, and the men receiving the highest wages
being last makers in New York.
The clothing industry offers another illustration of rapid transition
from manufacture by hand to a factory system of production accom
panied by the widespread introduction of machinery and a minute
subdivision of labor. The revolution in the clothing industry in the
a American Journal of Sociology, Vol. II, p. 786.
&Cassier’ s Magazine, Vol. X X , p. 109.
c Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. X V , p. 424.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
691
United States was brought about thru the introduction during the
early seventies of the so-called “ team work.” Previously it had
been the practise for a tailor to make an entire garment. A slight
division of labor resulted from the use of the sewing machine, which
came into use about 1850; but it was not until the seventies that the
factory system in the form of the contractor’s shop was predominant
in the manufacture of ready-made garments. With this change in the
mode of manufacture the industry no longer required skilled handi
craftsmen to the same extent as formerly. The employment of men
in teams to produce a single garment introduced a system of division
of labor which made it unnecessary for most of the workers to be
skilled artizans. Consequently it became unprofitable for employers
to make use of journeymen tailors in the manufacture of ready-made
garments. These men were readily replaced by unskilled Jewish,
Italian, and Scandinavian immigrants, employed in teams by the
so-called “ contractors,” whose only interest lay in the furnishing of
a large product to the manufacturer at a low cost to themselves.
Under the “ contracting system” the clothing manufacturers,
instead of keeping tailors employed in their own shops or having the
clothing sent to the homes of the individual workers to be made up,
turn over the cut cloth and trimmings to a contractor, who, for a
stipulated sum, agrees to have them made up into finished garments.
For this purpose the contractor employs one or more teams of work
men. A team usually consists of from three to eight men, each of
whom is engaged on a specific part of the garment. In a team
engaged in coat making, for example, one man does the machine
stitching, another sews on the sleeves, while others do the basting,
buttonhole making, etc. There is also one man who does the press
ing, and a girl who does the finishing and sews on the buttons. When
trade is dull and the different teams compete for work, the members
must either consent to work for lower wages or agree with the con
tractor to turn out a larger product at the end of each day for the
same wages. Hence the process of “ sweating,” the evils of which
have been frequently brought to the attention of the public thru
repeated investigations and Government inquiries.
In the modern clothing factory— a still later phase of the develop
ment of the clothing industry and one which is fast superseding the
contractor’s shop— there is a further subdivision of labor, and a still
more extensive use of the mechanical motive power and machinery.
Whereas, under the contracting system 3 to 20 persons were employed
in one shop, a factory now employs 200, and each garment passes
thru the hands of from 50 to 100 persons. Moreover, factory pro
duction on a large scale permits the use of machinery and improved
mechanical devices in working out the smallest details of garment
construction. B y thus subdividing complex operations the factory
692
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
system facilitates the entrance to the trade of less skilled workers.
An apprentice or beginner can learn individual operations in the
garment-making trade by a few weeks’ training, while the simplicity
of the specialized work soon permits the attainment of a speed and
efficiency which the all-round journeyman tailor of former days
never dreamed of acquiring.
In a shop where specialization has reached its highest develop
ment under the factory system, the different occupations comprized
in the manufacture of a coat are those of the (1) fitter (who also cuts
the linings, marks the pockets, and puts on tickets), (2) pocket maker,
(3) canvas baster, (4) padder of lapels, (5) bar tacker (on pockets),
(6) seam presser, (7) lining maker, (8) lining operator, (9) sleeve
maker, (10) lining presser, (11) sleeve presser, (12) collar padder, (13)
shaper, (14) baster and fuller of stay tape, (15) lining baster (pre
pares for machine), (16) operator, (17) presser, (18) edge cutter, (19)
edge baster, (20) lining baster for shoulders, (21) operator for shoul
ders, (22) sleeve baster around edge; (23) collar and sleeve baster (pre
pares for operator), (24) presser on sleeve, (25) joiner of collar to
lapel, (26) armhole baster, (27) operator who sews in sleeves, (28)
garment examiner, (29) collar finisher, (30) lining finisher around
armhole, (31) basting puller, (32) edge presser, (33) buttonhole cutter,
(34) buttonhole maker, (35) general busheler and hanger sewer, (36)
presser of entire coat, (37) button marker, (38) button sewer, and
(39) busheler. («)
A similar multiplication of occupations with simplification of proc
esses has taken place in the slaughtering and meat-packing indus
try. Before the advent of large slaughtering and packing houses a
cattle butcher was an all-round workman. He knew the butchering
business in all its details, and was able to kill and dress a bullock
with the aid of one or two helpers. In those days it required from
three to five years for a learner to become proficient as a cattle or
sheep butcher. At the present time, with the minute division of
labor existing in the large butchering concerns, any ordinary laborer
can be trained in one of the numerous occupations within a week’s
time. (*6) According to Professor Commons:
It would be difficult to find another industry where division of
labor has been so ingeniously and microscopically worked out. The
animal has been surveyed and laid off like a map; and the men have
been classified in over thirty specialties and twenty rates of pay
from 16 cents to 50 cents an hour. The 50-cent man is restricted to
a Pope, The Clothing Industry in New York, pp. 70, 71.
6 The butchers’ union of Australia still maintains apprentice regulations, denning
the period of apprenticeship and limiting the work that is to be done by an apprentice,
but since the organization of the present national union of butcher workmen in this
country no attempt has ever been made to institute a system of apprenticeship.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
693
using the knife on the most delicate parts of the hide (floorman) or
to using the ax in splitting the backbone (splitter); and wherever a
less skilled man can be slipped in at 18 cents, 18 J cents, 20 cents, 21
cents, 221 cents, 24 cents, 25 cents, and so on, a place is made for
him and an occupation mapped out. In working on the hide alone
there are nine positions at eight different rates of pay. A 20-cent
man pulls off the tail, a 22^-cent man pounds off another part where
the hide separates readily, and the knife of the 40-cent man cuts a
different texture and has a different “ feel” from that of the 50-cent
man. Skill has become specialized to fit the anatomy.
In this way, in a gang of 230 men killing 105 cattle an hour there
are but 11 men paid 50 cents an hour, 3 men paid 45 cents, while the
number getting 20 cents and over is 86, and the number getting
under 20 cents is 144. (a)
The following table shows a list of occupations in 1903-4 in Chi
cago packing houses, with the number of men in each occupation for
a gang of 230 men, their rates of pay, and their schedule of output:
CATTLE BUTCHERS, GANG OF 230 MEN.(6)
No. of
men.
Position.
Penner.......................................................................
Knocker, when raising gates and dumping o u t ..
Knocking only.........................................................
2 Shackler....................................................................
2 Hoister......................................................................
[Sticking.....................................................................
4 •[Heading and sticking..............................................
[Heading only...........................................................
1 Dropper....................................................................
2 Pritcher u p ...............................................................
1
Gullet raiser.............................................................
3 Foot skinner.............................................................
3 Leg breaker..............................................................
n Ripper open..............................................................
7
Floorman..................................................................
H Breast sawyer..........................................................
H Caul puller................................................................
Pulling cauls and opening eich..............................
l Eich opener..............................................................
l Tail ripper................................................................
3 Fell cutter.................................................................
Cord cutter...............................................................
21 Rumper.....................................................................
/Fell
beater................................................................
3 (Fell puller.................................................................
2 Gutter.......................................................................
Backer.......................................................................
Tail sawyer...............................................................
f
4 Splitter......................................................................
2 Hanging oil..............................................................
21 Clearing ou t.............................................................
2\ Hide dropper............. *.............................................
Clear out and drop together..................................
Neck splitter............................................................
n
21 Skirt trimmer..........................................................
3 Ladder men................................ .............................
4 Bruise vrimmer........................................................
1 Scribe sawyer...........................................................
1 Cutting out tongues................................................
6 Boning heads...........................................................
All other knife men.................................................
Laborers not covered by agreement.....................
3
1
Scale of wages Scale of work (No. of cattle
per hour.
per hour), 1903-4.
*0.181
.24
.24
.18|
.20
.321
.321
.321
.20
.20
.20
.221
.25
.25
.50
.25
.261
.20
.20
.20
.271
.271
.40
.221
.224
.261
.45
.261
.50
.221
.30
.321
.321
.311
.21
.221
.221
.20
.21
(c)
.20
.161-. 191
Left to
60.
80.
Left to
Left to
Left to
25.
30.
Left to
Left to
Left to
35.
25 sets.
80.
15.
75.
50.
40.
75.
20.
25.
Left to
40.
House committee.
House committee.
House committee.
House committee.
House committee.
House committee.
House committee.
House committee.
60.
40.
40.
30.
25.
60.
40.
40.
20.
60.
60.
Left to House committee.
Left to House committee.
Left to House committee.
100.
321.
« Commons, Trade Unionism and Labor Problems, p. 224.
&Ibid., p. 226.
c$1.05 per 100.
115b — No. 67— 06------ 2
694
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
In the minor branches of the slaughtering industry the division of
labor is equally minute. Thus, among the beef boners there are as
many as 25 occupations enumerated in the union wage scales, the
highest paid receiving not more than 30 cents per hour. The sau
sage makers comprize 13 different occupations, and in the dry-salt
department there are from 10 to 14 different occupations.
Besides the elimination of apprenticeship a notable effect of these
industrial changes, resulting from the extensive use of machinery
and the subdivision of labor processes,,has been the constant oblit
eration of trade boundaries and demarcations.
Formerly the peculiar tools employed in a trade and the material
worked up by the artizan were the principal criteria for designating
the limits of a trade or craft. Under modern conditions, however,
neither the tool nor the material affected nor the article produced
can be said to distinguish one occupation from another. Occupa
tions have been multiplied so rapidly and the gradations of skill and
workmanship have become so numerous and imperceptible that it
is frequently exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to specify the
distinguishing marks and characteristics which separate one group of
workers from another. In a few trades, principally in the building
trades and others which have not yet been materially affected by
machinery and mechanical processes, tools peculiar to the trade con
tinue to form the basis of craft demarcation. The bricklayers and
masons, who have been comparatively free from the invasions of
mechanical processes, still adhere to the principle that every work
ingman using a flat trowel, whether setting masonry or laying bricks
or plastering walls, is within the jurisdiction of their craft. (°)
The plumbers likewise seek to uphold the principle that tools des
ignate the craft, (b) while the trade rules of the sheet-metal workers
and the boiler makers and iron shipbuilders prohibit laborers and
helpers working with them from using the tools peculiar to their
occupation.
a The officers of the Bricklayers and Masons’ International Union are endeavoring
to discourage this principle. Thus, the secretary in his Fortieth Annual Report (1905)
stated:
“ No organization of workingmen that we know of has any hereditary or patent
rights to the use of the chisel, point or pean-hammer. These belong to the stone
masons’ kit of tools, as well as to that of the stonecutter. * * * The one
thing required, owing to conditions that exist in this country, is simply that the
stone mason shall confine his use of these tools to the class or grade of work that
properly comes within his province, and which has been conceded and defined as
coming under the head of stone masonry. * * * The whole matter is simply a
question of trade jurisdiction of certain work. This being adjusted, What does it
matter, we ask, as to what tools either workman uses, so long * * * as each con
fines himself to his own classification of work?” —The Bricklayer and Mason, Febru
ary, 1906, p. 4.
&Plumbers, Gas and Steam Fitters’ Official Journal, October, 1902, p . 25.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
695
Probably the best example of confining the limits of trade juris
diction to the use of the same tools is found in the stonecutting
industry. The stonecutters, marble-cutters, and granite cutters are
organized into separate national trade organizations, owing princi
pally to the fact that each group requires different tools in manipu
lating the material upon which it works. A man who cuts granite
or hard stone has to use certain kinds of tools, and these are not fitted
to be used upon soft stone. The steel needs to be of the finest quality
and the temper of the best. In the soft-stone industry a different
kind of temper and a different treatment of the material is required.
It is difficult for any one person to change from the occupation of
granite to that of soft-stone cutting, and consequently the trades
remain separate and independent of each other.
The manipulation of the same material by workmen of different
occupations, tho often forming the basis of trade-union organization,
constitutes the principle of craft demarcation in only a few instances.
As far as skill and earning capacity are concerned, the different wood
working trades are separated even farther from each other than the
different stonecutting trades. Machine woodworkers are composed
chiefly of comparatively unskilled and poorly paid workingmen;
whereas house carpenters and cabinetmakers, tho comprizing various
grades of skill and workmanship among their members, are, on the
whole, a higher class of mechanics; and pattern makers (who, besides
the manual dexterity required in cutting patterns from wood, must
possess a thoro knowledge of mechanical drawing and designing and
also know something of metal molding) rank among the highest grades
of skilled artizans.
Similarly, in the garment-making industry, the gradations between
the different groups of workers are numerous, tho they are comprized
under one international trade organization. The disparities in the
earnings of the different grades and the differences in skill and train
ing of each are such as to render inappropriate a grouping under one
trade. Likewise in the glass and pottery industries, in boot and
shoe making, and in tobacco manufacturing, there are numerous
occupations, each separated from the others by differences in the
skill, the earnings, and the physical and intellectual qualifications of
the workers.
This disintegration of trades and handicrafts, wrought by the
introduction of new processes, by machinery, and by the increased
subdivision of labor, has had a noteworthy effect upon the organiza
tion of labor unions. In some cases it has resulted in uniting into
one organization workers of varying degrees of skill, strength, and
earning capacity. In other cases it has given rise to serious friction
among different groups of workmen, the nature of whose labor is
closely related, but who are under separate trade jurisdictions. The
former is the so-called industrial type of trade union— that is, a union
696
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
comprizing all workers of an industry regardless of disparities in skill
and wages— while the second has produced the phenomenon of mod
ern trade unionism known as jurisdictional disputes. Among the
leading examples of the industrial type of trade-union organization
are the Boot and Shoe Workers’ Union, the United Garment Workers
of America, and the Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Work
men of North America. Each of these will be examined in turn.
THE BOOT AND SHOE WORKERS’ UNION.
In the early organizations the boot and shoe workers in the United
States were separated into a number of independent unions, each
occupation having its own association. The cordwainers were organ
ized independently; the cutters also had a separate union; and the
lasters were strongly organized under the Lasters’ Protective Asso
ciation, which was the immediate successor of the Knights of St.
Crispin. Later these different branches of the shoemaking industry
were united into the Boot and Shoe Workers’ Union, which was
formed in April, 1895, after the revolution in the industry caused by
machinery had taken place. According to the constitution of the
Boot and Shoe Workers’ Union “ any male or female boot and shoe
worker over 16 years of age and actively employed at the craft is
eligible to membership.” (a)
Since its organization the union has taken a conciliatory attitude
toward machinery, tho its predecessors had opposed machinery until
finally compelled to take a different view. Its policy has been to
accept the machines and make the best of them. “ Lack of intelligent
and comprehensive action when lasting machines were introduced
was the one thing which more than all others combined caused the
destruction of the once powerful Lasters’ Protective Union.” ( 6) No
restrictions regarding machinery, wages, or the subdivision of labor
in the industry are made by the present organization of boot and
shoe workers, and ho apprenticeship regulations are enforced. The
general president of the union, in his report for 1899, stated:
Unfortunately the rapid introduction of labor-saving machinery,
and the consequent subdivision and simplification of labor to the
extent that skill is fast becoming unnecessary, together with the rapid
development of the factory system to the point where only large
capital can succeed, makes the workers in our craft hesitate as to the
advisability of joining in the labor movement, lest their activity in
defense of their class may cause offense to their employer and that
some more submissive person may secure the coveted job .(c)
a Constitution of the Boot and Shoe Workers’ Union, 1904, sec. 44.
b The Union Boot and Shoe Worker, May, 1900, p. 9. Four per cent of the strikes
in the boot and shoe industry between the years 1887 and 1894 were against the intro
duction of machinery. (Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. X V II, p. 658.)
Since then there have been very few strikes under union auspices in the industry.
c Convention Proceedings of the Boot and Shoe Workers’ Union, 1899, p. 4.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
697
To overcome this situation the members were urged to build the
strength of the union upon beneficiary rather than defensive princi
ples. In 1899, accordingly, they adopted a policy of high dues and
benefits, which still persists in the organization.
In addition to a beneficiary system, the Boot and Shoe Workers’
Union relies largely upon the influence of the union stamp for the
maintenance of its power. In granting the use of the union stamp
to manufacturers the union, however, makes no demands as to wages
or conditions of employment, but merely seeks as far as possible to
obtain exclusive employment for its members. (a) The officers of the
organization take cognizance of the fact that to enforce higher wages
in union shops would lead to the defeat of the organization, competi
tion among boot and shoe manufacturers being so keen that a slight
advantage in wages of union over nonunion workmen would compel
the employers of the former to go out of business. The efforts of the
union are mainly directed toward advertising the union stamp,
thereby increasing the demand for union-made shoes. Incidentally
the organization seeks also to advance the wages of the lower-paid
portion of the craft, so that an equality of earnings may be more
nearly established, thus recognizing that one branch of the trade is
of just as much wage importance as another and entitled to some
thing like more equal earning capacity. (b)
THE UNITED GARMENT WORKERS.
This organization comprizes the five principal occupations included
in the manufacture of ready-made garments: (1) Cutting; (2) oper
ating or machine work; (3) basting; (4) finishing; and (5) pressing.
CUTTING.
Cutting is considered the most skilled branch of the ready-made
clothing industry, having been only slightly affected by machinery.
The cutter formerly did his work entirely by the use of shears, and the
custom tailors still use this method. It is laborious and expensive,
but is well suited for high-grade work. In most clothing factories
the present method of cutting is by means of a circular disk or knife
operated by electricity and guided by the artizan. This device
increases the output of the cutter, but does not replace his skill, since
the same accuracy is required in guiding the knife as under the old
method.
Previous to the manufacture of clothing on a large scale the greatest
skill of the cutter was the designing and the fitting of a garment. In
o Convention Proceedings of the Boot and Shoe Workers’ Union, 1902, p. 9.
b Ibid., 1904, p. 22. The union stamp is granted to manufacturers of all grades of
shoes, since the union endeavors to make the label of actual value to the shoe workers
rather than a stamp of superior quality of goods.
698
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR*
merchant tailoring the cutter takes the customer’s measure, cuts the
goods, superintends the “ try on,” and acts as foreman. These
functions require marked ability, and consequently the cutter who
works upon custom-made goods is more highly skilled and better paid
than the cutter working upon the factory product. The new class of
cutters in factories do nothing but the cutting. They are differen
tiated from the designers, the men who design the patterns from
which the cutter marks off and cuts the cloth. The latter are
highly paid artists, but the number required in the industry is very
limited.
The importance of the cutter in the clothing trade has been largely
diminished by the introduction of standard patterns. These are
placed on the goods by the “ marker,” whose chief skill lies in securing
from a given piece of goods a maximum number of suits. The
“ trimmer” follows with the knife or circular disk and cuts the cloth
according to the markings of the former.
Despite this division of labor, the occupations in the cutting
department are the most skilled of the clothing trades. Manufac
turers have undertaken to introduce workmen of less skill and
experience, but such attempts have usually ended in failure. (a) The
cutters are the best organized of the garment workers, and in some
localities they have been able to enforce‘ apprenticeship regulations.
O P E R A T IN G OR M A C H IN E
W O RK.
Division of labor has so affected this part of the work in clothing
manufacture that each operator becomes a specialist, working only
on a small part of a garment. On coats and heavy material the
operating is done principally by men, but on pants and vests women
are largely employed.
BASTING.
This consists of the tacking down of the edges and seams of a gar
ment and is still done largely by hand. In this line of work the
practise is also to subdivide the labor and to make each worker a
specialist. Part of the work of basting, especially on coats, is highly
skilled hand work, and the men who do this work must be trained to
it and are generally well paid. But the basting of the minor parts,
such as the sleeves, lapels, and canvas, requires very little skill, and
is done mainly by women and girls.
GENERAL FINISHING.
This work includes felling, tacking, sewing on buttons, and the like.
It requires neither physical strength nor training, and accordingly is
done by women and children, usually outside the shop. In New
Pope, The Clothing Industry in New York, pp. 22, 23.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
699
York City it is the occupation of a large number of Italian women,
who do the work in their homes, while attending to their household
duties. As a whole, finishing is a very small part of the total labor
involved in the manufacture of clothing.
PRESSING.
Pressing is almost universally done b y men, since it demands a
great deal of physical exertion. A subdivision of labor likewise
obtains in this branch of the industry, and accordingly there are coat
pressers, vest pressers, sleeve pressers, etc., each class trained in its
own branch of work, and generally incapable of doing the work of the
others. The common form of pressing in clothing factories is by the
use of a large flatiron— the “ goose” — which is heated on a stove or
furnace and applied directly to the goods, without mechanical aid.
Much physical exertion on the part of the presser has been saved by
attaching the “ goose” to a crane or movable arm. Within recent
years an innovation in the form of a coat-pressing machine, which
can be used in the less complex parts of the work, has been introduced
in the trade. (a)
The policy of the United Garment Workers regarding machinery
and the division of labor is very similar to that of the Boot and Shoe
Workers’ Union. With the exception of the cutting branch of the
industry no apprenticeship regulations are enforced, and the union
has very little opportunity to impose restrictions regarding the
system under which work is to be performed. As with the Boot and
Shoe Workers, much reliance is placed upon the union label as a
means to obtain better working conditions and to increase the
employment of union garment workers.
THE AMALGAMATED MEAT CUTTERS AND BUTCHER WORKMEN’S
UNION.
The Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen’s Union of
North America, a national organization, contains all the workers in
the slaughtering and meat-packing industry, its jurisdiction covering
every wage-earner, “ from the man who takes the bullock on the hoof
until it goes into the hands of the consumer.”
The different branches
of workers, where sufficient numbers are found in one locality, are
organized as separate local unions, but where a sufficient number of
each branch is not found in one locality they are combined into a
single local organization. The policy of the Amalgamated Meat
Cutters and Butcher Workmen’s Union has been to organize the
unskilled as well as the skilled workers in the industry, and to main
tain a relatively high standard rate among the lowest grades. The
general strike of the summer of 1904 was caused by a demand for a
* Pope, The Clothing Industry in New York, p. 77.
700
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
higher minimum wage for the unskilled laborers. Previous to the
strike the union was composed of 50,000 members, of whom 5,500
were cattle butchers; but of these only about 2,000 are of the most
highly skilled workmen in the slaughtering-industry. Their impor
tance has brought to them the title of “ butcher aristocracy.” “ Their
strategic position is explained by the character and expensiveness of
the material they work upon. The cattle butchers can do more
damage than any other workmen; for a cut in the hide depreciates its
value 70 cents, and a spotted or rough carcass will be the last to sell,
with the risk of the rapid depreciation of a perishable product.” (a)
When it is impracticable or inexpedient to amalgamate under one
national organization all grades of employees in an industry, or differ
ent groups of mechanics doing similar lines of work, jurisdictional dis
putes are not uncommon. These disputes are most frequent and seri
ous in industries in which the labor processes are constantly under
going change. They have practically disappeared in the textile and
mining trades, but are numerous in the building and metal trades,
where they are due both to the introduction of new material and the
“ specialization” of mechanics.
The frequency of quarrels over trade boundaries is a constant
source of irritation to the officials of the American Federation of
Labor, before whom they come up for adjudication. During 1903,
for example, “ the Electrical Workers and Machinists objected to a
charter being granted to the Elevator Constructors.- The Plumbers
had disputes with the Metal Workers and the Electrical Workers over
the question of conduit work, which was finally granted to the Elec
trical Workers. The Sheet Metal Workers contended with the Paint
ers as to which union should do the glazing in metallic skylights and
sashes, and the United Brotherhood of Carpenters with the W ood,
Wire and Metal Lathers over the jurisdiction of wood lathing.” (5)
The origin and character of disputes of jurisdiction or demarcation
is exemplified in the shipbuilding industry of Great Britain, concerning
which Sidney and Beatrice Webb write as follows:
The gradual transformation of the passenger ship from the simple
Deal lugger into an elaborate floating hotel has obscured all the old
lines of division between trades. Sanitary work, for instance, has
always been the special domain of the plumber, and when the sanitary
appliances of ships became as elaborate as those of houses, the plumber
naturally followed his work. But, from the very beginning of steam
navigation, all iron piping on board a steamship, whatever its purpose,
had been fitted by the engineer. Hence the plumbers and fitters both
« Commons, Trade Unionism and Labor Problems, p. 223. The sheep butcher is
not so highly skilled as the cattle butcher, because he pulls off three-fourths of the hide,
whereas the cattle butcher can pull off only 2 per cent, the remainder requiring to be
cut off neatly.
b Studies in American Trade Unionism, edited b y Hollander and Barnett, p. 314.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
701
complained that the “ bread was being taken out of their mouths” by
their rivals.
We need not recite the numberless other points at which the crafts
men working on a modem warship or Atlantic liner find each new
improvement bringing different trades into sharp conflict. The Engi
neers have, on different occasions, quarreled on this score with the
Boiler Makers, the Shipwrights, the Joiners, the Brass Workers, the
Plumbers, and the Tin Plate Workers; the Boiler Makers have had
their own differences with the Shipwrights, the Smiths, and the Chippers and Drillers; the Shipwrights have fought with the Calkers, the
Boat and Barge Builders, the Mast and Block Makers, and the Joiners;
the Joiners themselves have other quarrels with the Mill Sawyers, the
Pattern Makers, the Cabinetmakers, the Upholsterers, and the French
Polishers; whilst minor trades, such as the Hammermen, the Ship
Painters, and the “ Red Leaders,” are at war all round.(a)
One of the most recent of the important jurisdictional disputes in
the United States is that prevailing in the plumbing and steam fitting
trades. Plumbing, steam fitting, gas fitting, sprinkler fitting, fixture
hanging, and pipe cutting are now separate occupations, tho originally
all such work was done by the same workmen. With the progress of
invention the trade has branched out into broader fields, and the
journeymen have become specialists, each following a different line of
work. Regarding this disintegration of the craft the president of the
United Association of Journeymen Plumbers, Gas Fitters, etc., in his
report to the thirteenth general convention, spoke as follows:
Our trade as well as others has been rapidly branching out into
unknown fields, so that to-day we have branching from plumbers, gas
and steam fitters an array of specialists, such as sprinkler fitters,
ammonia pipe fitters, fixture hangers, beer pumpmen, and “ ship
plumbers, ” all of which properly belong to and are, in a great majority
of cases, graduates of the first-named. branch of our trade. While
not all of the last mentioned are affiliated with the United Associa
tion, they are using the same tools and fittings and should properly
affiliate. (6)
The endeavor of the United Association of Journeymen Plumbers to
control all branches of plumbing and steam fitting has led to a juris
dictional dispute with the National Association of Steam and Hot
Water Fitters. The International Association of Journeymen Plumb
ers, Steam Fitters and Gas Fitters was first organized in 1880; went
to pieces in 1888, but was reorganized in 1889 as the United Asso
ciation of Journeymen Plumbers, Gas Fitters, Steam Fitters and
Steam Fitters’ Helpers of the United States and Canada. The year
previous, 1888, the National Association of Steam and Hot Water Fit
ters and Helpers had been formed, which included men employed in
the fitting of engine and boiler connections, and piping for power or
a Industrial Democracy, new edition, 1902, p. 508.
b Plumbers, Gas and Steam Fitters’ Official Journal, October, 1902, p. 25.
702
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
heating purposes, for refrigerating, and for fire extinguishing. The
journeymen doing this line of work had previously belonged to the
plumbers' locals. Accordingly when separate national organizations
were formed a jurisdictional dispute arose, the plumbers claiming that
steam fitting was a branch of their trade.
Ill feeling has existed
between the two organizations ever since. In 1899 a charter was
granted by the American Federation of Labor to the National Asso
ciation of Steam and Hot Water Fitters, with the provision that
steam fitters who were members of the United Association of Journey
men Plumbers might retain their membership in the latter organiza
tion if they preferred, and that steam fitters might join the plumb
ers' locals in towns where their number was too small to form a
separate union. The United Association of Journeymen Plumbers
entered a vigorous protest against the granting of this charter, and
have since been seeking to have it annulled.
The jurisdictional disputes in the wood-working trades have grown
out of the same conditions as that of the plumbing and steam-fitting
trades. The Machine Woodworkers' International Union was formed
in St. Louis, August 5, 1890. At that time both the United Brother
hood of Carpenters and Joiners and the International Furniture
Workers' Union admitted machine woodworkers to membership,
altho neither organization made any special effort to organize this
class of mechanics. In 1894 the United Brotherhood of Carpenters
conceded to the Machine Woodworkers' International Union juris
diction over all factory woodworkers, and drew up an agreement with
the latter in which the jurisdiction of each organization was defined.
In the following year the Machine Woodworkers amalgamated with
the International Furniture Workers' Union, thus virtually abrogat
ing the jurisdictional agreement with the carpenters. In October,
1897, a new agreement was made whereby the Machine Woodworkers
were given full jurisdiction over all mill hands, except carpenters who
might at times be engaged at mill work, and except millwrights and
stair builders. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters was to have
sole jurisdiction over outside carpentry work and the fitting up of
offices and stores. (a) In 1898 the Carpenters in general convention
abrogated all agreements made with other woodworking organiza
tions, and ordered that no such agreements be made in the future and
that no other woodworking organizations be recognized. Local and
district councils of the United Brotherhood, however, were still per
mitted to make local agreements with other woodworking organiza
tions b y a vote of their members. (*6)
The jurisdictional dispute continued until 1900, when representa
tives of the Amalgamated Woodworkers presented themselves at the
a The Carpenter, November, 1897, p. 7.
&Ibid, October, 1898, p. 1.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
703
general convention of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and
Joiners and tried to arrange an agreement with the latter regarding
the limitations of their craft boundaries. The woodworkers claimed,
besides all work in mills, the right to put up saloon, bank, and drug
store fixtures manufactured in shops under their control. The car
penters refused to grant the claims of the woodworkers, at the same
time asserting their jurisdiction over all carpenter work as specified in
their constitution, “ believing that the division of control by two
organizations of one trade can not be tolerated, particularly where the
standard of wages of one is lower than that maintained by the other. ”
The Brotherhood was instructed to carry out this recommendation in
each locality “ in such manner as their best judgment suggests. ” (a)
The present constitution of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters
and Joiners provides for the admission to membership of journeymen
carpenters and joiners, stair builders, ship builders, millwrights,
planing-mill bench hands, cabinetmakers, and men running wood
working machinery. The jurisdiction of the Brotherhood is to extend
over all engaged in these occupations, “ whether working on the build
ing in its erection or repairs, or employed in the preparation of mate
rial for the same.” This broad claim, if conceded, would give the
Brotherhood control over the members of the Amalgamated W ood
workers, whose field is embraced in the last three occupations named
above.
Another instance of how the use of new materials and changes in
building conditions may lead to disputes over trade jurisdiction is
found in the Bricklayers and Masons’ International Union. This
union is one of the best organized and most independent of the build
ing trades organizations. In the past it has held itself aloof from the
general movements and alliances with which most of the other unions
are affiliated. Within the last decade, however, owing principally to
the fact that other trades are encroaching upon the work of brick
layers and masons, a strong sentiment of joining the American Federa
tion of Labor has grown up within the union. The necessity is felt of
an alliance with an organization which wields some influence in
settling jurisdictional disputes. The officers of the union believe
that the policy of isolation is inadequate to the rapidly changing
conditions of the trade. New materials and processes which formerly
did not compete with the bricklayers’ and stonemasons’ crafts are
now competing actively with them. This condition is bringing with
it a train of disputes involving endless trouble. Moreover, specializa
tion within the trade is causing secession from the union, as well as
the formation of smaller unions of trades which were formerly included
in the older union. The Bricklayers and Masons have at present
jurisdictional* disputes, of more or less importance, with the Stone
« Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. X V II, p. 130.
704
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Cutters’ Union, the Electricians, the Elevator Constructors, and
with the Terra Cotta and Tile Workers. (a)
Jurisdictional disputes in the manufacturing industries, tho less
frequent than in the building and metal trades, produce the same
irritation and conflict among organized workers. A recent case of
friction caused by the overlapping of craft boundaries in the manu
facturing trades is the jurisdictional dispute of the Journeymen
Tailors’ Union and the United Garment Workers. For several years
there has been constant friction between the journeymen tailors and
the garment workers as to the proper distinction between customtailored and factory-made garments. The new methods which are
constantly being introduced into garment manufacturing are con
tinually wiping out the distinct lines which divide one trade from
the other. This being true, there naturally arose friction between
the unions in the same industry and closely allied to one another.
To eliminate this friction and to conserve the best interests of garment
workers, a movement has been inaugurated to unite them all into one
organization, working harmoniously for a common end.
The journeymen tailors were among the earliest craftsmen to form
trade unions in the United States. Even previous to the last century
we find records of their organization in New York, Philadelphia, and
some other large cities of the eastern coast. In 1872 a national union
was formed, but soon went out of existence. The present organiza
tion, the Journeymen Tailors’ Union of America, was founded in 1893.
The manufacture of clothing on a large scale has not displaced the
journeyman tailor. Rather has the ready-made clothing industry
taken the place of garment making in the home. Nevertheless, the
journeymen tailors have been affected in various ways by the factory
system of clothing manufacture. The journeymen tailors, unlike
garment workers, endeavor to maintain a sort of apprenticeship
system, but owing to a number of causes very few apprentices are
found to-day in the custom branch of the clothing trade. One of
the principal reasons why boys do not care to remain apprentices
to journeymen tailors is the rise of cheap, custom tailoring, known
as “ special-order work,” wherein the “ team system” of manufacture
prevails. Within recent years large clothing firms doing a regular
factory business have inaugurated a system of sending out agents
all over the country to solicit special orders for “ made-to-measure”
garments. This class of work is not done by journeymen tailors, but
by a separate class of men, whose skill ranges from that of the
ordinary garment worker to that of the custom tailor. Hence,
journeymen tailors’ apprentices can readily enter this field of work
before serving out their full term of apprenticeship. Largejy for this
a Studies in American Trade Unionism, edited by Hollander and Barnett, p. 313.
See also The Bricklayer and Mason, February, 1906.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
705
reason the Journeymen Tailors refuse to ally themselves with the
“ special-order” workers.
The question of assuming jurisdiction over the “ special-order”
tailors has been voted upon three times in the Journeymen Tailors’
Union, and in 1903 was finally defeated, despite the favorable stand
taken by the officers of the union. The secretary-treasurer, Mr. John
B. Lennon, took the ground that the “ team system” of manufacture
in custom work does not necessarily mean a deterioration in the
quality of workmanship. “ This change of system of making custom
tailoring from the regular journeyman tailor who made the complete
job, to the factory or team system,” he said in a recent report, “ does
not necessarily mean for the average class of work a deterioration as
to quality. This has heretofore been the case but I believe largely
because of the fact that the regular journeymen tailors would not
permit the organization of this class of work under our union, and
consequently did not and would not work at it.” (a) Mr. Lennon urged
the members to become active factors in the making of this class of
work, saying that the efforts of the union to prevent the introduction
of the factory method of making custom clothing had been continu
ally disastrous, causing the work of the journeyman tailor to be
restricted to a narrow field and resulting in an oversupply of labor
and lower wages than formerly.
In 1903, after the refusal of the Journeymen Tailors to admit the
“ special-order” tailors, the United Garment Workers began to
organize these workmen under a separate classification. An agree
ment had been drawn up in 1895 between the two organizations,
whereby the Garment Workers were granted jurisdiction over
“ special-order” workmen in the United States and Canada, whether
working under the system of the “ old-time” journeymen tailors or
under the factory system, when the average price at which the suit
made up was sold in the United States was not more than $25 and
in Canada not more than $18. Where the price of the suits was
higher the workers could be admitted to the Journeymen Tailors’
Union. (b) This arrangement, however, has failed to eliminate friction
between the two organizations which, it is hoped, may be eventually
accomplished thru federation or amalgamation.
EFFECT OF THE DISINTEGRATION OF TRADES UPON
THE SKILL OF THE W ORK ER.
One of the principal effects of the disintegration of trades has been
the gradual breaking down of the barriers which formerly separated
the skilled from the unskilled occupations. The numerous grada
tions of skill resulting from the extensive use of machinery and sub-
a The Tailor, February, 1905, p. 6.
5 Ibid., p. 7.
706
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
division of labor render it extremely difficult to classify laborers into
noncompetitive groups, each upon a different plane from the others.
Various classification of such industrial groups have been offered from
time to time by economists. John Stuart Mill was the first English
economist to attempt to grade and classify occupations into separate
groups. Imprest by the1 difficulties which beset a parent in an
attempt to bring up his son in an occupation widely different in char
acter and of a higher grade than his own, Mill wrote concerning the
different industrial groups as follows:
So complete, indeed, has hitherto been the separation, so strongly
marked the line of demarcation, between the different grades of
laborers, as to be almost equivalent to an hereditary distinction of
caste; each employment being chiefly recruited from the children of
those already employed in it, or in employments of the same rank
with it in social estimation, or from the children of persons who, if
originally of a lower rank, have succeeded in raising themselves by
their exertions. The liberal professions are mostly supplied b y the
sons of either the professional, or the idle classes: the more highly
skilled manual employments are filled up from the sons of skilled
artizans, or the class of tradesmen who rank with them; the lower
classes of skilled employments are in a similar case; and unskilled
laborers, with occasional exceptions, remain from father to son in
their pristine condition. (a)
According to the above statement of Mill, industrial society may be
roughly divided into four groups: (1) Liberal professions, (2) skilled
manual employment, (3) the lower class of employed artizans, and (4)
the unskilled, common laborers. Tho these four groups were held to
be practically noncompetitive, Mill nevertheless recognized a tendency
toward the breaking down of the barriers which separated one from
the others.
M ills classification of industrial groups was adopted by the English
economist, John Elliott Cairnes, the latter emphasizing the noncom
petitive character of the different groups. The classification of Sidney
and Beatrice Webb, which differs only slightly from that of Mill and
Cairnes, distinguishes the character of the four industrial groups as:
(1) Manual work, (2) routine mental work, (3) artistic work, and (4)
intellectual work.
A classification very similar to the above but more suited to our
existing conditions is given by Prof. Franklin L. biddings. His
divisions are: (1) Automatic manual labor, including common laborers
and machine attendants; (2) responsible manual labor, including
those who can be trusted with some responsibility and labor of selfdirection; (3) brain workers, such as bookkeepers; (4) responsible
brain workers, including superintendents and directors.
a John Stuart Mill, The Principles of Political Economy, New York, 1883, Yol. I,
p. 480.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
707
All the above classifications are open to the objection that they
draw broad lines of division, which under actual conditions do not
exist. The numerous gradations, not only among workers practis
ing the same trade, but in industrial society as a whole, do not
permit a strict classification of separate industrial groups. Certain
classes of workers in the manual occupations, however, have similar
characteristics and are on the same social and industrial plane as
regards skill and apprenticeship. Confining ourselves accordingly to
manual trades we may roughly divide industrial workers into two
categories:
(1) Those who, from their natural ability or training, have become
proficient in all branches of a trade or craft; men who are not only
able to do the finer kinds of work, but because of their training and
skill, are also able to perform their work intelligently without the
constant supervision and direction of others. These men receive
relatively higher wages in all countries, and byr their skill are enabled
to adjust accurately fcheir tools to the machinery and manipulate
them so that the work may be turned out with accuracy' and rapidity.
(2) The second category comprises the bulk of the unskilled
workers; men who have not the ability or who are not sufficiently
trained to become skilful mechanics. These men have not the
knowledge or ability to intelligently perform all the processes of a
trade, but when given a simple service to perform, or when placed in
charge of a machine to which the material is adjusted, they are able
to turn out accurate work, and one of them, in some cases, may take
charge of several machines. If a man of this class is intelligent and
is rapid as well as accurate in his movements, he may in time acquire
a skill which may increase his earnings to that of the trained mechanic.
The problem, however, is complicated by the difficulty of defining
skill. Under modern conditions, skill implies not only manual
dexterity, but speed and accuracy. It is measured not only by the
quality of the product, but also by the quantity of the product.
While there is a certain degree of skill and intelligence required in the
commonest kind of labor (the terms “ skilled” and “ unskilled” labor
are relative terms), nevertheless, in the sense in which the term
“ skilled” and “ unskilled” are used, unskilled labor is generally under
stood as that labor which does not require experience in order to per
form it with a degree of efficiency and rapidity of movement that will
enable it to give the satisfaction desired by the employer. Skilled
laborers, on the other hand, are those who have sufficient experience
and training in the character of the work which they perform to do it
both efficiently and speedily. The effect of new processes and
machinery in modern industry has been to enhance quantitative skill,
while decreasing the relative importance of qualitative skill. Quan
titative skill implies close application and the possibility of the
worker enduring intense nervous strain. Qualitative skill, which we
708
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
more generally recognize in the skilled worker, implies both manual
dexterity and a thoro knowledge of the processes of a trade.
Whether the evolution of modern industry is tending to displace
manual skill by intellectual skill is a mooted question with economists.
Prof. Alfred Marshall, a leading English economist, maintains that
manual skill is losing importance relatively to general intelligence and
vigor of character, and this skill with which we are familiar nowadays
we do not often recognize as skill.
In districts in which manufactures have long been domiciled, a
habit of responsibility, of carefulness and promptitude in handling
expensive machinery and materials becomes the common property of
all; and then much of the work of tending machinery is said to be
entirely mechanical and unskilled, and to call forth no human faculty
that is worthy of esteem. But in fact it is probable that not onetenth of the present populations of the world have the mental and
moral faculties, the intelligence, and the self-control that are required
for it: perhaps not one-half could be made to do the work well by
steady training for two generations. Even of & manufacturing popu
lation only a small part are capable of doing many of the tasks that
appear at first sight to be entirely monotonous. Machine weaving,
for instance, simple as it seems, is divided into higher and lower
grades; and most of those who work in the lower grades have not
“ the stuff in them” that is required for weaving with several colors.
And the differences are even greater in industries that deal with hard
materials, wood, or metals, or ceramics. ( a)
Professor Marshall supports his theory that the tendency of modem
machine production is to enhance the intelligence of the worker by
reference to the development of the watch-making industry in the
United States and the introduction of the linotype in the printers’
trade. He further states that:
New machinery, when just invented, generally requires a great
deal of care and attention. But the work of its attendant is always
being sifted; that which is uniform and monotonous is gradually
taken over by the machine, which thus becomes steadily more and
more automatic and self-acting; till at last there is nothing for the
hand to do, but to supply the material at certain intervals and to take
away the work when finished. There still remains the responsibility
for seeing that the machinery is in good order and working smoothly;
but even this task is often made light by the introduction of an
automatic movement, which brings the machine to a stop the instant
anything goes wrong. ( b)
« Marshall, Principles of Economics, Yol. I, p. 261.
b Ibid., p. 316. Professor Marshall’s opinion is supported b y Mr. Sydney Chapman,
in a work entitled The Lancashire Cotton Industry, p. 83, who writes: “ The more
automatic the machinery the more exacting on the whole is the call made upon the
intelligence of the operatives. For automatic machines are probably complicated and
possibly delicate and expensive. The operatives managing them must understand
them if the best results are to be secured. The perfecting of machinery, therefore,
must ultimately be accompanied b y a demand for more thoughtful, better educated
and more highly paid labor.”
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
709
Prof. John A. Hobson differs from Professor Marshall in regard to
the effect of machinery upon the intellectual skill of the artizan. He
holds that the machine operator does not necessarily require a greater
display of judgment than the hand worker. Such higher intellectual
judgment is possest by the inventor rather than the machine attend
ant. He admits, however, that—
The growth of machinery has acted as an enormous stimulant to
the study of natural laws. A larger and larger proportion of human
effort is absorbed in processes of invention, m the manipulation
of commerce on an increasing scale of magnitude and complexity,
and in such management of machinery and men as requires and edu
cates high intellectual faculties of observation, judgment and specu
lative imagination. Of that portion of workers who may be said,
within limits, to control machinery, there can be no question, that the
total effect of machinery has been highly educative. Some measure
of these educative influences descends even to the “ hand” who tends
some minute portion of machinery. (°)
Again, in speaking of the effect of machinery in industry, he says:
The growth of machine industry then may be measured by the
increased number and complexity of the processes related to one
another in the mechanical unit or machine, and by a corresponding
shrinkage of the dependence of the product upon the skill and volition
of the human being who tends cr cooperates with the machine.
Every product made by tool or machine is qua industrial product or
commodity the expression of the thought and will of man; but as
machine production becomes more highly developed, more and
more of the thought and will of the inventor, less and less of that of
the immediate human agent or machine tender is exprest in the
product. (*6)
The almost universal opinion of workingmen* is that machinery
tends constantly to lower the skill of the workers. Thus Mr. T. V.
Powderly, former general master workman of the Knights of Labor,
at the Sixth Annual Convention of Labor Commissioners, in Indian
apolis in 1888, said:
It is neither profitable nor encouraging to learn a trade when the
chances are that some morning the mechanic will awake to find a
machine standing in his place doing the work which he performed the
day before. Inventions have been introduced so rapidly and exten
sively during the last ten years that many trades have been almost
revolutionized. The rapid introduction of machinery has a tendency
to depress wages; the reduction in wages and the lack of security in
workshop management has been the cause of sending many a boy to
college who would have gone into the workshop after passing thru
the routine of the common public school. (c)
a Political Science Quarterly, Vol. V III, 1893, p. 116.
6 Evolution of M odem Capitalism, p. 49.
c Quoted in Lavasseur, The American Workman, p. 92. For opinions regarding
effect of machinery see Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. V II, pp. 121, 606,
744, 780.
115b— No. 67—06----- 3
710
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Mrs. Fanny B. Ames, former factory inspector for the State of
Massachusetts, in her testimony before the Industrial Commission,
stated that with the invention of machinery unskilled workers are
retained as machine workers, while hand labor is continually remanded
to higher artistic work. (a)
Whatever may be the effect upon the general intelligence of the
workers, j t can not be denied that the tendency of machinery and the
new processes of-production is to replace the skill of the handicrafts
man. A new form of skill, however, may be created, a skill which is
dependent largely upon the character of the machines introduced. If
the machine or new process is automatic and simple in character, com
paratively little skill is generally required of the attendant, tho
mechanical skill may be required of the person who adjusts the mate
rial to the machine. If, on the other hand, the machine requires
care and dexterity in its management, involving a knowledge of its
mechanism on the part of the operator, a new kind of skill may be
demanded which, in some cases, may be of a higher grade than that
possest by the hand worker. Moreover, where the machine work
requires close mental application, severe nervous tension, and rapidity
o f movement, a “ physical” or quantitative rather than qualitative
skill may be demanded of the attendant.
MEASUREMENT OF SKILL.
Altho practically it is impossible to apply any single conclusive
criterion by which skill may be measured, there are, nevertheless,
certain conditions which distinguish the different kinds and grades
of labor known as skilled and unskilled. Generally speaking, the
skill of an occupation may be determined (1) by the training or
experience essential to competency; (2) by the character and social
conditions of the workers, and (3) by their standard of earnings. These
criteria may be applied either separately or together, each being
gaged by the circumstances and conditions which alter or determine
its effect. In considering the problem whether skill has increased
or decreased in certain trades it will be necessary to sum up the evi
dence concerning changes in the amount of necessary training, as
well as evidence bearing on the character and conditions of the
workers, their wages, etc.
TRAINING OR EXPERIENCE ESSENTIAL TO COMPETENCY.
As a general rule a long term of apprenticeship prevailing in a
trade denotes a high grade of skill. The time required to learn the
trade, however, is not necessarily exactly equal to the prescribed
apprenticeship fixt by employers and unions in the different trades,
o Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. V II, p. 60.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
711
since conditions other than the skill essential to the craft may deter
mine the apprenticeship period enforced by a trade organization.
The period fixt by several American unions is frequently alleged to
be excessive and artificial. ( a) The five years’ term of the Glass Bottle
Blowers’ Association, for example, is enforced only as a concession
to the employers, who are enabled thereby to employ a journeyman
at apprenticeship wages. An apprentice glass-bottle blower gener
ally becomes efficient inside of half the term of apprenticeship.^)
Similarly the t^rm of apprenticeship for a kiln man in pottery is fixt
by the union at three years; but the most radical of the employers
declare “ that an apprentice is a kiln man in one year if he is ever
going to be.” (c) The three years of apprenticeship of the Cigar
Makers’ Union under modern conditions is likewise held to be exces
sive and is enforced only in exceptional cases. (d) Immigrants after a
few weeks’ instruction are enabled to roll cigarg with moderate speed
and accuracy, and after a few months of steady practise become
proficient in their line of work.
A number of national trade unions seek to prevent the excessive
exploitation of apprentices by employers, insisting that apprentices
receive journeymen’s wages at the termination of the apprentice
ship period fixt by the union rules. The endeavor, likewise, is to
have the earnings of the apprentice increased at successive periods
during the term, so that in the last months of apprenticeship his
earnings will approach the journeymen’s scale. Thus the Dish Mak
ers and Pressers, who are an important branch of the Brotherhood
of Operative Potters, endeavor as far as practicable to limit the
apprenticeship period in their trade to five years, and insist that
------------------------ m------------------------------------------------------------ ----
a Ex-Commissioner of Labor Carroll D. Wright testified before the Industrial Com
mission that it was claimed b y some writers that the old system of apprenticeship
under modern conditions had become in a certain sense robbery of the apprentice,
who is kept on apprentice work long after he had become a skilled laborer.— Report
of the Industrial Commission, Vol. V II, p. 18.
&'Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. V II, p. 110. See also, Eleventh Special
Report of the Bureau of Labor, p. 639. In his report to the twenty-sixth convention
of the Glass Blowers’ Association President Denis Hayes stated that “ No one will
attempt to controvert the fact that compelling an apprentice in the bottle trade to
serve five years for half pay is an injustice, not only to the boy himself, but to the
journeymen, whose labor he often displaces.” — Proceedings of the 26th Annual Con
vention of the Glass Bottle Blowers’ Association, 1902, p. 50.
c See Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 672. In reply to
this union officials say, as regards the mere matter of placing saggers in a kiln, it is
true, but “ should any problem of economic kiln filling arise or anything happen by
which the responsibility of placing the ware in the kiln fell upon this man and an
unusual assortment of ware be presented, he would lose the firm more in a week than
they should ever hope to gain b y having their own way about apprentices.”
d Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 581; also Report of the
Industrial Commission, Vol. V II, p. 181.
712
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
thereafter the apprentice receive journeymen wages. The Glass Bot
tle Blowers’ Association likewise limits the period to five years,
while the stonecutters’, bricklayers’ , cigar makers’ , and pattern mak
ers’ unions do not permit an apprentice to serve longer than the
term stated in the constitution of the international organization. (°)
Probably a better test of skill in a trade than that of the term of
apprenticeship as fixt by employers and trades unions is the experi
ence and practise that is ordinarily required for advancement from
the lower to the higher grades of workmanship in a craft. Progres
sion within a trade permits a boy to move from the simpler to the
more complex operations at a rate commensurate with his diligence
and dexterity, thus giving those who have extraordinary ability or
,who apply themselves earnestly to their work an opportunity to
pass rapidly thru the various stages of apprenticeship. Consequently
the so-called “ helper system” of entrance to a trade, as we shall
explain later, is more adapted to modern conditions than the appren
ticeship system. B y the “ helper system” is meant the process of
“ moving u p ” the person desiring to become a proficient mechanic
in a trade or occupation. The “ helper” as a beginner does the sim
pler kinds of work, but as he gains experience he gradually acquires
sufficient application and proficiency to enable him to work upon
the more complex processes of the craft. The essential distinctions
between this system of promotion and that of apprenticeship is that
no formal instructions are given the “ helper ” and no definite period of
training is required.
CHARACTER AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF WORKERS.
The character and social conditions of workers afford a rude test
of the skill required in their trade. Men of a high order of intel
lectual powers and manual dexterity and judgment as a general
rule avoid entering the lower grades of unskilled occupations, espe
cially when they have the opportunity of adapting themselves to
more remunerative employments. Accordingly, when new proc
esses in a trade result in a loss of skill or a decline of the manual and
intellectual requisites on the part of the worker, they who were for
merly occupied therein either continue to ply their trade under the old methods or abandon it altogether. (b)
Owing largely to this reason the unskilled trades, or trades in
which skill is declining, are largely recruited, especially in the United
a The controversy between journeymen and employers over apprenticeship is sel
dom concerned with the length of term of apprenticeship. The disputes are gen
erally about the number of apprentices permitted in the trade.
&“ Where skilled labor is replaced b y unskilled, the paramount importance of main
taining the standard of life warns off the hand worker, both from any claim to work
the new process and from any attempt to compete in cheapness with machine work.” —
Webb, Industrial Democracy, new edition, 1902, p. 427.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
713
States, from country laborers or unskilled immigrants. The history
of the textile industry u will serve to remind us that many of those
who perform the more monotonous parts of manufacturing work
are as a rule not skilled workers who have come down to it from a
higher class of work, but unskilled workers who have risen to it. A
great number of those who work in the Lancashire cotton mills have
come there from poverty-stricken districts of Ireland, while others
are the descendants of paupers and people of weak physique, who
were sent there in large numbers early in the century from the most
miserable conditions of life in the poorest agricultural districts, where
the laborers were fed and housed almost worse than the animals
whom they tended.” (a)
The position of the unskilled immigrant in industry is very similar
to that of a boy who must start out to earn his own living, but who
can not afford either the time or the expense involved in acquiring
a skilled occupation. He accordingly seeks employment that
demands very little experience or previous training as a requisite
for competency, but which insures an immediate income sufficient
for a livelihood. As a general rule, newly arrived immigrants,
when accepting employment, have little regard for the possibilities
of the future industrial betterment' which such employment offers.
Their prime object is to acquire an industrial foothold without the
loss of time and effort involved in preparation for an industrial
career. Accordingly, the bulk of immigrants enter such employ
ments which, owing either to the extensive use of machinery or to
subdivision of labor, require on their part little previous training or
intellectual equipment.
The immigrants who enter the unskilled employments must be
distinguished from foreign mechanics who have received their indus
trial training abroad, and who are enabled thereby to resume their
occupation in this country. Immigrants entering the stonecutting
trades, for example, are generally skilled workmen, mostly Italians,
who have served an apprenticeship in their native land. It has
been the custom for these foreigners, known as “ harvesters,” to
come to this country during seasons of prosperity and work at stone
cutting until the dull season sets in, when they return to their homes.
Mr. D. F. Kennedy, testifying before the Industrial Commission, stated
that in the stonecutting trades three-fifths of the workers learned
their craft in the old country. (b) The native stonecutters were for
merly much injured by the competition of these foreigners, and in
order to discourage their immigration the union requires from for
eign stonecutters an initiation fee of $50, whereas Americans are
charged but $10.
a Marshall, Principles of Economics, Vol. I, p. 325.
&Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. V II, p. 745.
714
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
In view of the large influx of unskilled foreigners the number
of skilled mechanics who come into this country is relatively insig
nificant. The restrictive policy of trade unions regarding admission
of foreigners, together with the alien contract labor law, tends to
discourage the immigration of skilled mechanics to the United States.
The most important of the modern industries which have been
largely invaded by unskilled immigrant labor are: (1) Cotton manu
facturing; (2) clothing manufacturing; (3) slaughtering and meat
packing; (4) coal mining; (5) boot and shoe making, and (6) machine
woodworking. Machine stonecutting and machine iron molding are
also being rapidly taken over by immigrant laborers, since in these
trades the hand workers do not adapt themselves to the machines.
The textile industries for more than half a century have been a
favorable field for cheap immigrant labor. The lowest paid opera
tives in the New England States are in the textile cities and work
in the textile industries. Requiring a comparatively low grade of
skill, the work in textile mills takes a class of people as operatives
that would not be in demand in other industries requiring higher
education and better opportunities. Practically the only native
operatives in the cotton mills at the present time are found in the
South. In other sections immigrants are employed as operatives
almost exclusively. The earliest immigrants to enter cotton mills
were the Irish, Scotch, and English. These have been largely dis
placed in the lower grades of work by French Canadians, and by
Portuguese, Poles, and other nationalities from eastern Europe.
The character of the population in the New England cotton-mill
towns is almost entirely foreign. The percentage of native-born
Americans among cotton-mill employees is exceedingly small, and
these are found generally in the higher positions. Thus, in the last
census, it was shown that the population of Fall River, 104,863
people, contained only 14,619 of native American parentage. Of
the rest, 17,000 were of English, 18,000 of Irish, and 30,000 of French
Canadian parentage. The populations of Lowell and New Bedford
also are largely made up of persons of foreign parentage.
The recent mechanical improvements in cotton spinning and weav
ing, including the automatic loom with warp stop-motion attachment
and the ring spinning frame, are mainly responsible for the displace
ment of the former operatives by immigrants. “ The nationality of
the operatives is changing, and the workers on the whole are not
considered as efficient or as thrifty as in the past. Some time since
the textile foreign population in Massachusetts was largely English,
but we find them supplanted b y French Canadians, who in turn gave
way largely to the Portuguese. Now the Poles, Jews, and Greeks
are being employed in large numbers at textile work.” It is asserted
by the manufacturers that the introduction of this unskilled, inex
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
715
perienced labor into the mills is not desired by them, but “ they claim
to be practically forced into the position on account of the scarcity
of help which * * * is prevalent in all textile centers.” (a)
In earlier times many of the immigrants from England and Ireland
who entered the cotton mills were previously trained in the work and
consequently were well adapted to it. At present there is very little
immigration of this class of skilled operatives. The newcomers in the
industry are largely inexperienced and unskilled immigrants, regard
ing whom Mr. T. M. Young writes as follows:
Compared with the Lancashire standard, the mill labor obtainable
at Fall River is dear and bad— dear because America is now riding on
the top of a wave of commercial and industrial prosperity, employ
ment is plentiful, and the standard of expenditure for every class is
high; bad because everybody there is climbing up the social ladder
as fast as he can, and the cotton industry, being one of its lowest rungs,
receives the beginners. Even a good mill in New England loses 5 per
cent of its work people every weeE, and has to find substitutes. There
are towns in Massachusetts whose cotton mills thirty or forty years
ago were filled with American-born work people of a very good class,
earning wages higher than are paid even to-day. As wages gradually
fell by successive “ cuts” to the low level of 1898 these towns were
swept by waves of foreign invasion. Weavers from England and
Scotland first drove out the Americans, only to be driven out in their
turn by an army of Irish. The Irish began after awhile to be trouble
some, and crowds of French Canadians were summoned from over the
borders to take their places. Even the docile “ Kanucks” have
now given way in some places to Portuguese, Greek, and Syrian immi
grants, and the mill superintendents are wondering what will come
next. I have seen in some mills notices printed in four languages
and orders given b y gestures or thru interpreters. The labor dis
placed by immigration rises to better things, and the expansion of
American industry provides at present openings for all.(*6)
The rapid movement of immigrant labor, not only from place to
place, but also from trade to trade, makes it difficult to organize
operatives in the cotton mills. The “ mule” spinners alone (mule
spinning being a skilled craft) are well organized, but mule spinning
is being gradually abandoned in favor of ring spinning, for which
cheap, unskilled female labor can be employed.
The development of the clothing industry in the United States is
likewise producing changes in the character and skill of the operatives.
The most noteworthy effect of the continuous process of subdividing
the labor among garment workers has been the introduction of less
skilled immigrant labor in the industry. The Jewish immigrants
displaced the native and the Irish garment workers who did their work
in their homes, each operator making the entire garment complete.
Within recent years the tendency has been for Italian immigrants to
a Bulletin of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, No. 37, p. 186.
&The American Cotton Industry, p. 12.
716
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
replace Jewish immigrants, especially in factories where a minute
system of division of labor prevails. The Italian, when he first comes
to this country, is willing to work for less wages than the Jewish gar
ment worker. According to the Report of the Industrial Commission:
The Italian tailor in his own country receives only about one-half
the wages received b y the Russian, rolish, Hungarian, and Rou
manian Jews in their own countries, and about one-quarter of the
wages paid for similar grades of work in western Europe. Conse
quently, in the United States, with his standard of living, he can suc
cessfully compete with the newly-arrived Russian Jew and four to one
against the newly-arrived German or Englishman. The Russian Jew
who is not a tailor, but learned his work in this country and works in
the shop as operator or presser, is usually from the stock of small
business men m the old country, who have a fairly good standard of
living, and is regarded among the clothing workers as of the better
class. He will insist on better living and higher wages for his partic
ular kind of work than the tailor. (a)
Another advantage which the Italians have is the employment of
their wives and sisters. The Italian and his wife will work in the
shop together. If he is a pants operator she becomes his helper, or
if he is a coat maker she is his baster and finisher. The labor of both
covers the expenses of the family. In the case of the Jews, the Jewish
woman will not work in the shop after she is married. Thus the
Italian and his wife can work together for the same price which the
Jew will demand for his labor alone, and in this way the Italian is able
to displace the Jew in the garment trades. (6)
A similar substitution of races arising from changes in labor proc
esses has taken place in the bituminous mining industry. Mining
machines have displaced a large number of soft-coal miners and
increased the number of unskilled men in the mines. With the excep
tion of the machine operators, who must be trained in their work,
practically no other skilled worker need be employed in the mining of
coal with machines. Under the hand system one man undercuts by
hand and takes the coal down b y hand, and does everything; but
with the use of the machines the labor is subdivided, thus leading to
an influx of unskilled immigrant workers whose only qualification is
the power of great physical endurance.
In the machine mine it takes seven or eight .men to perform these
various functions, and, in the mine as in the mill, the machine is the
master and the men are its servitors. The operator of the mechan
ism simply directs its energies, when the motive power is given to it,
and the coal is undercut or mined; the blaster follows with drills
and explosives to loosen the mass; the loaders reduce it and shovel it
into pit cars; the timbermen follow and prop the roof which no longer
has the mineral to rest upon; laborers assist in every process, and a
a Report of the Industrial Commission, Yol. X V , p. 325.
b Ibid., p. 326.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
7l7
machinist is retained for repairs. Each one does his certain portion of
the work and no more, and doubtless does it better as well as faster by
reason of his greater skill thus acquired. * * * Herein lies the
chief value of the machine to the mine owner. It relieves him for the
most part of skilled labor, and of all the restraints which that implies;
it opens to him the whole labor market from which to recruit his
forces, it enables him to concentrate the work of the mine at given
points, and it admits of the graduation of wages to specific work, and
the payment of wages by the day. (a)
Regarding the effect of machine mining upon the character of the
mine worker, President John Mitchell stated before the Twelfth
General Convention of the United Mine Workers:
If the rapid increase [of machine coal mining] is continued a few
years longer the skill now required by those engaged in the mining
of coal will be no longer necessary, and instead of being a body of
tradesmen or skilled workers we shall become simply coal shovelers,
whose only essential qualifications in securing employment will be
the possession of a strong back and an abundance of physical energy. (b)
Mr. Mitchell, in his testimony before the Industrial Commission,
stated emphatically that the men employed in machine mining do
not require as much experience and skill as is required in hand mining.
It takes two men to handle the machine. That requires the skilled
men, but after that is done it requires unskilled men, because they
only load the cars; because they only shoot it down, and what is
required most is a man with a strong back who can shovel lots of
coal. (c)
The fact that the relative proportion of unskilled to skilled labor
is increased by the use of coal-mining machines has caused a lower
grade of workers to enter the bituminous mines. The coal-mining
industry of the United States has been a field peculiarly affected by
the influx of fresh immigrants, but in the earlier days these were
composed largely of Scotchmen, Welshmen, and Irishmen who had
had previous experience at mining. Under the present system of
mining the immigrant requires no previous experience, and conse
quently we find inexperienced Italians, Slavs, and often Negroes
taking the place of the Scotch, Irish, and American miners. In
Illinois the Slavs predominate. The great majority of them have
entered this field since 1894, their introduction being brought about
thru the general strike of the American and western European miners.
According to Professor Commons:
The English-speaking miners universally show an inclination to
keep Slavs and Italians from coming into the mines, and their immi
gration has been very slight since 1897. Practically the only way
in which the Slav coming from the old country can now get employ*&
ee Fifth Biennial Report of the Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1887-1888, p. 340.
&Proceedings of the Twelfth Convention of United Mine Workers of America, p. 46.
c Report of the Industrial Commission, Yol. X I I , p. 55.
718
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
ment as a miner is thru the intervention of a relative or friend
who agrees to be responsible for him. The State law requires two
men to work together in a “ room,” and the miners’ union requires
them to share their earnings equally. Consequently a new miner
who wants work must find an old miner who will teach him and share
with him. This naturally is not easy to do. Furthermore, he must
serve a year’s apprenticeship above ground as a laborer before going
below. This applies to miners proper who are paid by the ton. A
different restriction * * * exists for “ mine workers,” who are
paid by the day. (a)
The Mine Workers’ Union endeavors to organize all workers in the
coal mines regardless of their skill or nationality. The Englishspeaking miners, however, do not look with favor upon the large
influx of immigrants into the unions.
The substitution of races in the slaughtering and meat packing
industry has been an almost continuous process during the last twenty
years. About 1886 the workers were American, Irish, and German.
After that date the Bohemians entered in large numbers, few of them
having begun work as early as 1882. The Bohemians worked their
way forward until, after a few years, one-half of the killing gangs
were Bohemians, the others being Germans, Irish, and Americans.
The'Americans as wage-earners have been driven practically out
of the stock yards, and are being followed by the Irish and German.
Those who have accumulated money leave for something more
certain. According to Professor Commons:
The older nationalities have already disappeared from the unskilled
occupations, most of which now, are entirely manned by Slovaks,
Poles, and Lithuanians. The Poles began to appear at about the
same time as the Bohemians, tho not in as large numbers; and they
have not advanced in the same proportion. The Slovaks and Lith
uanians were first seen in 1899. One Slovak who has been in the
yards ten years has worked himself up to a 50-cent job ; but he is
.exceptional, and these two races have as yet only shared with the
Negroes the unskilled positions. The Negroes first came during the
strike of 1894, when many were imported from the South and large
cities.
The substitution of races has evidently run along the line of lower
standards of living. The latest arrivals, the Lithuanians and Slovaks,
are probably the most opprest of the peasants of Europe; and 18
cents for a day of twelve or fourteen hours in the Carpathian foothills
becomes 18 cents an hour in the stock yards. Even with only four
days’ work a week, the Slovak’s position is greatly improved, for in
Uhrosko he had no work in winter. Yet his improved position shows
itself, not in more expensive living, but in fabulous savings gained
by packing sometimes as many as 12 persons in three rooms, taking
in boarders, and sending his children to work. The new arrivals of
o Commons, Trade Unionism and Labor Problems, p. 344.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
719
this class of labor swell the ranks of the thousands waiting at the
packing-house gates every morning. (a)
Machinery, breaking down the apprenticeship regulations, has been
partly responsible for the introduction of unskilled immigrant labor into
the boot and shoe industry. In 1900, according to testimony before
the Industrial Commission, probably 85 per cent of the workers were
native born. (*6) The declines in wages that had occurred in the indus
try up to that time were ascribed to the rapid introduction of machin
ery and to lack of organization, due to the mixt nationalities which
had entered the trade. In addition to the Irish, Germans, and French
Canadians of earlier years, Armenians and Italians have recently
been introduced in the boot and shoe industries in limited numbers.
In the West, Swedes, Norwegians, Germans, Irish, and English are
largely employed in boot and shoe factories. The French Canadians
were the first immigrants brought into the boot and shoe industry,
and they still form a large and important element in the membership
of the organization. The Boot and Shoe Workers’ Union publishes
its journal partly in French to reach this class of workers.
In the woodworking and furniture industries also the enormous
development in recent years of the factory product has been accom
panied by a corresponding influx of immigrants. Work which the
carpenter formerly executed at the place of building is now prepared
beforehand in factories, and these factories are manned to the extent
of 50 to 75 per cent by foreigners. The woodworking factory is
essentially a machine industry with unskilled labor. This industry
is located principally in Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. In the
furniture factory the greater number of workmen are merely feeders
of automatic machines. In this way a large number of immigrants
are employed, and often women and children find places. In cabinet
making 50 per cent are Germans, who are considered the best men
in the trade, and 25 per cent are foreigners of other nationalities,
wrhile 25 per cent are native bom. In furniture factories in. country
districts in Wisconsin the Germans have worked at a wage as low as
50 cents a day, their women also doing carpenter work at the bench. (c)
Cigar making was never a highly skilled trade except for the better
grades of work, and consequently has been ever since the beginning
largely performed by foreigners. The first immigrant cigar makers
in the United States were principally Cubans and Spaniards, who
did a high grade of work. These have been largely replaced by
Bohemians and other European immigrants. The immigrants as
a rule do not serve an apprenticeship, but are taught the trade in
nonunion shops, usually by small manufacturers in the same manner
a Commons, Trade Unionism and Labor Problems, pp. 246-248.
&Report of the Industrial Commission, Yol. X V , p. 422.
c Ibid., pp. 423, 424.
720
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
as garment workers in large cities receive their instruction. After
working a few years on the cheaper grades of cigars in nonunion
shops, and when they have become proficient enough to do finer
grades of work and earn the union scale, they join the organization.
There is at present a school in New York for teaching cigar making.
It was established in 1898, and now trains annually about 400 per
sons, most of them women and girls. The charge for instruction is
$10, but some who plead poverty are charged only $5. Am immi
grant learning both “ bunch making” and “ rolling,” and changing
from one to the other, requires usually about three months to become
sufficiently proficient to turn out a marketable product. At the end
of about four weeks, however, most of the pupils leave the school and
seek employment in the shops, either as “ bunch makers” or “ rollers.”
THE EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN.
The displacement of men by women or children is generally an
indication of loss of skill in a manual occupation. Since their indus
trial activity is usually ended in marriage, women, as a general rule,
do not care to undergo a long and rigid training in preparation for
an industrial career. Their position in the industrial world, there^
fore, tho somewhat analogous to that of the unskilled immigrant, is
peculiar. As stated by Prof. John A. Hobson:
A large proportion of the woman’s industrial career is occupied in
acquiring the experience which makes her a valuable worker, and the
probability that, after she has acquired it, she may not need to use it,
diminishes both directly and indirectly the net value of her industrial
life; the element of uncertainty and instability prevents the advance
ment of competent women to posts where fixity of tenure is an impor
tant factor. (a)
Owing to these reasons women workers rarely enter the highly
skilled manual trades. They accordingly replace men only in such
occupations where little training and practise is required for
proficiency.
The employment of women in industry, moreover, is limited further
by the fact that many occupations are unquestionably beyond their
physical powers. The tendency to increase the speed of machinery
and strain the nervous powers of the operatives is undoubtedly the fore
most deterrent to the replacement of men by women in the important
manufacturing industries. This will be explained more fully by an
inquiry into the employment of women in such industries as (1)
cigar making, (2) clothing manufacturing, (3) cotton manufacturing,
(4) boot and shoe making, and (5) printing.
Cigar manufacturing offers a good illustration of an industry in
which female are steadily replacing male workers, owing both to the
a Evolution of Modern Capitalism, p. 302.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
721
fact that the labor therein has suffered loss of skill and that com
paratively little physical strain is demanded of the operative. The
cigar-making trades were first entered by women and children when;
in the early seventies, the introduction of the “ m old” gave rise to
the system of division of labor or “ team work,” known as “ bunch
and filler breaking.” From that time the number of women workers
steadily increased. When the “ suction tables” came into use as a
device for assisting in the rolling of cigars by hand, the employers
early instituted the practise of having them operated by females in
place of males. The number of cigars produced by the suction table
has been constantly increasing relatively to the handmade product.
Consequently the increase of women workers has been more rapid
than that of male employees. This is partially shown in the Milo wing
table of the number of male and female workers in cigar and cigarette
manufacturing in the United States at decennial periods from 1860
to 1900:
MALE AND FEMALE W ORKERS IN CIGAR AND CIGARETTE MANUFACTURING IN
THE UNITED STATES A T DECENNIAL PERIODS, 1860 TO 1900.
[From the Twelfth Census, Vol. IX , p. 645.]
Year.
I860......................................................................................
1870......................................................................................
1880......................................................................................
1890......................................................................................
1900......................................................................................
Male em
ployees
16 years
of age or
over.
Per cent
of
increase
over pre
vious
census.
Female
employees
16 years
of age or
over.
7,266
21,409
40,099
59,452
62,168
194.6
87.3
48.3
4.6
731
2,615
9,108
24,214
37,762
Per cent
of
increase
over pre
vious
census.
257.7
248. 3
165.9
56.0
Undoubtedly the rapid increase in the number of females employed
in the production of cigars, and cigarettes is due partly to the develop
ment in cigarette manufacturing as well as to the extensive use of
machinery. The relative production of cigars and cigarettes at
decennial periods from 1870 to 1900 is-as follows:
PRODUCTION OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES AT DECENNIAL PERIODS, 1870 TO 1900.
[From the Twelfth Census, Vol. IX , p. 652.]
Year.
1870..................................................................................................................
1880..................................................................................................................
1890..................................................................................................................
1900..................................................................................................................
Cigars.
1,139,470,774
2,367,803,248
4,087,889,983
5,963,170,381
Cigarettes.
13,881,417
408,708, £66
2,233,254,680
2,639,899,785
Altho the Cigar Makers’ International Union has never excluded
female hand workers from membership but few of these are included
in its ranks. In the report of the international president, Septem
ber, 1901, the number of union cigar makers was reported as
722
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
38,518, of whom only 3,238, or about 8 par cent were women. These
are exclusively “ hand workers/’ since the union does not admit to
membership the “ suction-table” operators. It is obvious that the
percentage of women hand cigar makers in the industry is larger. (a)
The probable reason for the small number of women cigar makers
in the union is that women as well as immigrants are employed
principally in the manufacture of cheap cigars, a class of work done
largely by nonunion cigar makers.
When the machines, combined with the “ team system,” gradually
began to replace the male hand workers on the cheaper grades of
cigars, these workers were driven into the finer grades. Clear Havana
fillers and other high-grade cigars, which were formerly made exclu
sively by Spaniards and Cubans, are now made largely by American
cigar makers. This class of work is known as “ Spanish work,” and
is much more remunerative than the cheaper grades of work. The
principal difficulties in the way of men competing with the machine
operators and women workers on the cheaper grades of cigars seem
to arise from the lower wages received by the latter. (b)
The tendency for female to replace male labor as a result of new
processes and subdivisions of labor is not so pronounced in garment
manufacturing as in cigar making. Women have always actively
participated in the manufacture of ready-made clothing. Previous
to the introduction of the factory system in this industry they did
the work in their homes. Their earnings were then comparatively
small, and they literally toiled “ in poverty, hunger, and dirt.”
The women home workers usually worked on all parts of the gar
ment, but with the coming of the factory system in the early seven
ties there arose a division of labor following sex lines. Except in
the manufacture of overalls, shirts, and other clothing for workingmen,
women’s labor at present is confined largely to the minor parts.
Work requiring skill and physical endurance is now done by men.
In 1900, Henry White, the secretary of the United Garment Workers,
testified before the Industrial Commission that at least one-fourth
of the workers in the garment industry were women. (c) This ratio,
however, includes the women workers upon overalls and working
men’s clothing.
There are certain well-defined parts of the work on men’s clothing
that are universally performed by women, but there is much of the
« According to statistics gathered by the Cigar Makers’ International Union in 1901
the total number of hand cigar makers in the United States and Canada was 77,101,
of whom 22,250 were reported to be females.
b Altho refusing the privilege of the label to manufacturers using machines, the
cigar makers’ unions have endeavored on several occasions to organize the machine
operators into a separate branch of their organization. They have not succeeded,
however, and practically all cigars made b y machine are produced by nonunion labor.
c Report of the Industrial Commission, Yol. V II, p. 182.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
723
labor that may be done by either men or women, the custom varying
in different communities. In a community where the cheapest cloth
ing is made, or where it is manufactured on a large scale, the per
centage of women employed is the smallest. New York, Pennsyl
vania, and Maryland, the three leading States in the industry, have
a smaller percentage of women workers in the clothing industry than
the rest of the United States. Probably the principal reason for the
smaller percentage of women in these States is the higher speed main
tained by the men workers.
NUMBER AND PE R CENT OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
MEN’ S CLOTHING, FACTORY PRODUCT, IN SIX STATES AND IN THE UNITED
STATES, 1900.
[From the Twelfth Census, Vol. I X , p. 263.j
State.
New Y ork ..........................................................................
Illinois................................................................................
Pennsylvania.....................................................................
Maryland...........................................................................
Ohio....................................................................................
Missouri.............................................................................
United States....................................................................
cent of
cent of
of Per
Number of Per
total em Number
total em
children.
women.
ployees.
ployees.
16,700
9,105
5,115
5,202
4,365
5,098
69,862
40.44
60.79
48.73
53.49
66.94
83.18
57.76
326
778
358
594
176
74
3,011
0.79
5.19
3.32
6.11
2.70
1.21
2.49
Of the total 120,950 clothing workers in the country at large in
1900, 57.76 per cent were women. Only five States have as low a
percentage. “ The conclusion which is to be drawn is that while a
large part of the work in this industry has been and will continue to
be performed by women, a wide extension of this field is character
istic rather of the less important States than of those that have suc
ceeded in dominating this trade. If immigration were to be greatly
restricted, however, it is possible that this situation would be altered,
since the male labor, which has contributed so largely to the growth
of the clothing trade in New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Balti
more, is largely that of immigrants.” ( a)
By far the largest number of women in the clothing industry are
employed at basting and finishing, work requiring the least skill and
physical exertion. Only when basting is much subdivided and the
operations require little skill, such as padding lapels and basting
sleeves, is the work relegated to women. The basting of heavy gar
ments and of complicated parts of the work which require skill is*1
2
a Willet, Employment of Women in the Clothing Trade, in Columbia Studies in
History, Economics, and Public Law, Vol. X V I, No. 2, p. 55. The work gener
ally performed by women inside the shop is the following: (1) Tacking, (2) felling,
(3) edge basting' (4) sewing buttons, (5) basting armholes, (6) padding lapels, (7) hand
buttonholing, (8) basting sleeves, (9) basting canvas, (10) operating, (11) busheling,
(12) overcasting, (13) finishing, (14) sewing on pockets, (15) pocket making. On
pants, inside the shop, the work done b y the women is (1) operating, (2) basting, (3)
busheling, and (4) sewing on buttons. In the making of vests women are employed
in all divisions of the work.
724
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
done by men. Skilled women basters (usually Jewish women) are
employed on light work, such as basting on vests and pants, work
which is within their physical endurance. “ From a study of New
York City alone it would be natural to conclude either that machine
operating and basting on men’ s clothing was, except in rare
instances, beyond the physical strength of women, or that the skill
demanded was such as they could acquire only with great difficulty.
Yet in other cities women are employed as operators and basters on
all but the heaviest grade of goods. In Chicago, for example, there
are coat factories in which all the machine work is done by Polj^h or
Bohemian women and girls. In the face of such facts broad gener
alizations on the subject of the work for which women are suited
must be made with great care.” (a)
There is practically only one branch of the work in which women
are not found, i. e., the work of pressing. This work is unquestion
ably too arduous for them.
The proportion of women employed in the clothing factories in
New York, according to Mrs. Mabel Hurd Willet, varies in coat shops
from 16 to 37.5 per cent of the total employees, averaging about 26
per cent; in the vest shops the average is 48 per cent, and in pants shops
as high as 60 per cent. In computing these averages the women fin
ishers who take out work to be done at home are included among the
employees. (6) The effect of outside employment is to scatter the
work among a larger number of women than if done in the shop by
employees devoting themselves exclusively to the work.
From evidence thus far adduced there seems to be no likelihood
that the percentage of women in the clothing industry will continue
to increase; first, because of the constant tendency to increase the
speed of the workers, thus taxing more and more the physical endur
ance of the workers, and secondly, owing to the possibility of employ
ing' new immigrant male labor more profitably than female labor.
Men work more steadily than women, while among certain classes of
immigrants, such as Jews and Poles, women work in the factory only
so long as they remain unmarried. Consequently, upon reaching a
certain age, a majority of them cease to be active workers.
In New
York fewer women are employed in some of the less skilled branches
of the work than one might expect. Pocket making, sleeve making,
seam stitching, and other light operations require as much skill as
does general operating, and the men performing this work frequently
earn high wages. In Chicago, however, the situation is very differ
ent from that in New York. The factory system there has been asso
ciated from the first with the employment of women as operators. (c)
a Willet, Employment of Women in the Clothing Trade, p. 67.
b Ibid., p. 65.
c lb id ., p. 71.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
725
But it is a well-known fact that the pace set by the Jewish men in
the garment industry is one that women have not been able to main
tain, and employers have frequently found it more profitable to
employ men even on the lighter work, such as basting, which requires
little skill and which was done formerly almost exclusively by women.
Yet, despite the above statement, the census figures show that the
relative decrease in the number of women workers in the manufac
ture of men’s clothing is less rapid than that of the men workers.
Thus, between 1890 and 1900, the men 16 years of age or over
employed in the manufacture of men’ s clothing decreased from
67,786 to 48,077, or 29.1 per cent, while the women workers 16 years
of age or over decreased from 75,621 to 69,862, or only 7*6 per cent.
These figures are admittedly incomplete. (®)
The number of children employed in the clothing industry has
never been great. The work that children can do is limited to pull
ing bastings, sewing on buttons, carrying 1?undies, and the like; oper
ations which are but a small part of the manufacturing processes.
It is evident that not many children are employed as operators.
Women and children came into the occupations of boot and shoe
manufacturing with the advent of machinery in the industry. As in
the manufacture of clothing, however, their field has been limited
to a few occupations not requiring strength or physical endurance.
A definite tendency of displacement of male by female operatives,
however, can be traced. In the New England States such displace
ment has taken place in comparatively few factories, tho in other sec
tions of the country it is not uncommon to find women and girls oper
ating machines and doing work that was formerly done by men. On
the other hand, in the West and South, men and boys have for years
been employed in the stitching of uppers and in work performed almost
exclusively by women in New England. (b)
' According to the Twelfth Census, the employees in the boot and shoe
industry in the years 1880, 1890, and 1900 were divided as follows:
NUMBER OF EM PLOYEES IN THE BOOT AND SHOE IN DU STRY AT DECENNIAL
PERIODS, 1880 TO 1900.
[From the Twelfth Census, Vol. IX , p. 741.]
P ercents t increase.
1890
to
1900.
1880
to
1890.
1900.
1890.
1880.
Males (over 16 years)...................................................
Females (over 16 years)...............................................
Children (under 16 years)............................................
91,215
47,186
4,521
91,406
39,849
2,435
82,547
25,122
3,483
c0.2
18.4
85.7
10.7
58.6
C30.1
T otal.....................................................................
142,922
133,690
111,152
6.9
20.3
Twelfth Census, Vol. IX , p. 261.
6 Thirteenth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 122
Decrease.
a
c
115b— No. 67—06----------- i
726
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
It will be noted from this table that the number of females of
16 years of age or over employed in the industry increased 18.4 per
cent during the decade between 1890 and 1900, whereas the number
of males 16 years of age or over decreased 0.2 per cent. Children
employed in the industry increased 85.7 per cent. These figures
plainly show that the number of women and children engaged in the
boot and shoe industry has been advancing during the last ten years.
“ To a considerable extent women have taken the place of men in oper
ating the lighter machines, while children now perform work that
women were doing heretofore.” ( a)
A limit to the increase in the number of women workers in the boot
and shoe industry can undoubtedly be explained by the fact that the
increasing speed of the worker tends to make labor a race, and that the
nervous strain of doing the same thing over and over again as rapidly
as possible has a wearing effect. A man operating a heel-nailing
machine will nail on as many as forty 60-pair cases of heels in a day—
that is, 2,400 pairs or 4,800 shoes, in a day. One not accustomed to it
would wonder how a man could pick up and lay down 4,800 shoes in
a day, to say nothing of putting them on a jack into a machine and
having them nailed on. (6)
Since the introduction of machinery in the textile industry women
and children have formed an important element of the operatives.
With the exception of weaving, however, certain occupations (gener
ally those requiring the least skill and physical power) have been taken
over entirely by women, and, as in the clothing industry, division of
employment is along s.ex lines. In spite of the fact that female ring
spinners are gradually displacing the skilled male mule spinners, there
seems to be no tendency for the proportion of women employed in
cotton manufacture to increase. In fact, the census figures in the
following table show a movement in the opposite direction:
EMPLOYEES IN COTTON M ANUFACTURE OF THE UNITED STATES A T DECENNIAL
PERIODS, 1850 TO 190Q.
[From the Twelfth Census, Vol. I X , p. 27.]
Men 16 years of
age or over.
Year.
Number.
1850
.................................................
I860.................................................................
1870......................... .......................*..............
1880...................................................... .........
1890.................................................................
1900.... ............................................................
33,150
46,859
42,790
61,760
88,837
134,354
Women 16 years of
age or over.
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
of in
Number.
of in
Number.
of in
crease.
crease.
crease.
41.4
c8.7
44.3
43.8
51.2
59,136
75,169
69,637
84,558
106,607
123,709
27.1
c7.4
21.4
26.1
16.0
a Twelfth Census, Vol. I X , pp. 741, 742.
6 Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. V II, p. 363.
c Decrease.
Children under 16
years of age.
22,942
28,341
23,432
39,866
23.5
c 17.3
70.1
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
727
The importance of the figures * * * is enhanced by the
circumstance that the cotton-manufacturing industry is typical of the
factory system in its highest form and on the largest scale. There is
scarcely another industry that approaches it in the nunibers of hands
employed within mills; and the numbers of men and womenemployed
are more nearly equal than is the case with any other industry of a
magnitude to be compared with this. (a)
The relative decline in the number of women employed in the indus
try during the last decade is undoubtedly due largely to the displace
ment of female weavers. In fact the tendency “ is so marked that the
next enumeration should show the men in a majority.” (*6) According
to the returns of the Census of 1900 (which are considered incomplete)
there were 91,515 weavers in the United States, of whom 41,776 were
men, 47,941 were women, and 1,798 were children. There are no
earlier returns with which to compare these numbers, “ but it is well
known to those conversant with the industry that only a few years
ago the weaving of cotton goods was regarded as peculiarly the work
of women.” (c)
Still other causes to which the decline in the relative number of
women in cotton manufacture may be attributed are, first, the
speeding of machinery, making the work more intense and nerve
racking, and, secondly, the displacement of female operatives by
male immigrants. The first cause is undoubtedly the more important
of the two. Employers and employees may differ as to the difficulty
in managing the increased number of machines placed in charge of
individual operatives, but it is generally admitted that the work is
growing more intense. (d) The testimony of a representative of the
Cotton Weavers’ Association before the Industrial Commission shows
this increasing strain of work. He said:
Anybody who works in the mills now knows it is not like it was
twenty-five or thirty years ago, because the speed of the machinery
has been increased to such an extent, and they nave to keep up with it.
In some mills in this city [Fall River], and probably in other cities in
this State, the operative is compelled to turn off so much production
per week, and if the production does not come up to the point, he or she
is discharged. * * * There was a time when that was not the case.
They took their sewing and their knitting along, and there was no
anxiety about how. much work they could get off, but it is [not] so now.
* * * Now they work from the time they go in until they come
out. (c)
a Twelfth Census, Yol. IX , p. 31.
&Ibid., p. 33.
c Twelfth Census, Yol. I X , p. 33. Mr. T. M. Young (American Cotton Industry)
cites several instances where, within the same mill, the ordinary looms were operated
b y women, whereas the improved automatic looms were in charge of male weavers.
d Report of Massachusetts Board to Investigate the “ Subject of the U n em p loyed /’
as quoted in Levasseur, The American Workman, p. 93.
« Report of the Industrial Commission, Yol. X IV , p. 578.
728
BULLETIN OF- THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The increase in the number of children employed in cotton manu
facture, shown in the table on page 726, is undoubtedly due to the
expansion of the industry in the South, and does not represent a
permanent tendency toward the employment of children in cotton
mills.
The printing industry further exemplifies the limitations to the
employment of female labor. The high average of speed maintained
by linotype operators is the foremost factor in preventing the dis
placement of men by women in this line of work. When the machines
first came into use there was a great fear among the printers that
female stenographers would work the machines, a fear arising from
the close resemblance of the keyboard of the linotype to that of the
typewriter. While it is true that women learn to operate the machines
readily they have not the endurance to maintain continually the speed
which men maintain. Up to the present time no definite tendency to
replace male by female labor upon the machines has appeared. The
proportion of female to male operators, according to the latest avail
able statistics, is smaller than the proportion of female to male hand
compositors. The following is a statistical table of male and female
operators, both union and nonunion, compiled by the secretary of
the International Typographical Union for the year beginning
January, 1904:
UNION AND NONUNION MACHINE OPERATORS OF EACH SE X AND TO TAL MACHINE
TENDERS AND OPER ATO R MACHINISTS IN THE PR INTIN G INDUSTRY, 1904.
Class of employees.
Union.
Non
union.
Total.
Per cent
of union
of total.
Male machine operators................................................................
Female machine operators............................................................
Machine tenders..............................................................................
Operator machinists......................................................................
8,526
325
596
970
519
195
31
69
9,045
520
627
1,039
94.26
62.50
95.05
93.35
T otal......................................................................................
10,417
814
11,231
92.75
In January, 1904, the number of women operating typesetting
and type casting machines in the United States and Canada, accord
ing to the above table, was 520, about 5 per cent of the total number
of linotype operators. The number of women engaged in the United
States in 1900 as compositors, according to the United States Census,
was 9,617, about 26 per cent of the total number of compositors. (°)
The proportion of nonunion female to nonunion male operators is,
however, greater than the proportion of union female to union male
operators. The policy of the Typographical Union in insisting that
the women workers receive the same compensation as the men doing
the same class of work has tended to limit the number of women
employed in union printing offices. Employers prefer male to female
printers, when the same rate of compensation is demanded by each.
« Twelfth Census, Yol. II, p. 507.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
729
THE LOWERING OF WAGES AS EVIDENCE OF LOSS OF SKILL.
Altho the lowering of the standard of earnings in a trade or industry
is very often an evidence of declining skill, the exceptions are so
important as to render this criterion almost nugatory. It is evident
that when a labor saving or cheapening invention dispenses, to a
limited extent, with any particular trade or calling and the essential
work remaining is restricted to a narrow field, or crowded into a
certain season, there must be economic waste thru excessive com
petition of the workers and thru the intervals of enforced idleness
on the part of the men who are displaced thereby. This circum
stance will result in a lowering of wages until the conditions in the
trade are readjusted. The increased productivity of the new process
makes possible, however, the payment of a relatively higher scale of
wages than formerly, especially when the new process is introduced
gradually and the old process competes with it.
The effect of such competition between the product of machine
and hand workers is well exemplified in the glass industry. When
the fruit j ar blowing machine was first introduced, about 1890, the hand
blowers endeavored to meet the competition by consenting to work 45
per cent below the sckle. This reduction, however, did not prevent the
wider use of the machine, tho about 600 hand fruit jar blowers were
members of the union at the time of the introduction of the machine.
At present practically no fruit jars are made by hand, the disparity
in the labor cost between blowing by the hand and the machine
processes being such as to eliminate entirely the hand-made product.
The displaced hand fruit jar blowers were accordingly compelled to
take up other lines of employment or work at lower wages as gatherers
and finishers.
The making of milk jars by machinery followed that of fruit jars,
but the hand operators did not attempt to compete with the machine.
A similar policy is also being pursued in regard to the recently
invented beer bottle machine. There are about 1,900 beer bottle
blowers in the Glass Blowers’ Association, whom it is expected the
machine will eventually displace. Since the use of the machine is con
trolled by one company the product is being introduced gradually,
causing only a gradual displacement of the hand beer bottle blowers.
The endeavor of the union is to place the hand beer bottle blowers
upon other makes of ware, but considerable difficulty is experienced
in accomplishing the transition, owing to the fact that the beer bottle
blowers are specialists and must undergo a new apprenticeship train
ing when transferred to other lines of work.
Despite the elimination of the skilled hand worker in some branches
of the glass industry by the introduction of machinery, no general
reduction of wages has resulted. In 1900 it was stated authorita
730
BULLETIN OF THE BUEEAU OF LABOE.
tively that the machine operators in the manufacture of lamp chim
neys were earning 50 per cent more than the hand workers, averaging
$6 per day.(a) Bottle-machine operators also earn relatively high
wages. At the twenty-seventh annual convention of the Glass
Blowers’ Association (1903) the machines and the wages of the opera
tors were reported as follows :(*6)
Per day.
Operators of bottle machines........................................................................... $4.00 to $6.00
Operators of jar machines................................................................................. 3.50 to 7.00
Operators of finishing m achines.....................................................................
5.00 to 6.00
The minimum wages of both hand and machine operators is fixt
by the constitution and rules of the Glass Bottle Blowers’ Association
at $20 per week in cash. (c)
Bituminous coal mining is another industry in which the machine
operators receive higher wages than hand workers. The United
Mine Workers enforce a differential rate in the bituminous States for
hand and machine mining. In 1900, in the State of Ohio, the rate
for machine mining was two-thirds and in Indiana it was threefourths of the rate for hand mining. Owing to the increased output
of the machine-mined product those working with the machines can
earn more than those working by the hand process* altho the
former possess much less skill and training than the latter. (d) The
purpose of the United Mine Workers’ Union is to keep the stand
ard rate of earnings of the machine miners as high as possible,, in
order to mitigate the evil effects of the too rapid introduction of the
machines. President John Mitchell, of the United Mine Workers,
stated before the Industrial Commission:
We are opposed to the introduction of mining machinery for the
reason that the men have to compete with the machine; * * *
we must dig coal by hand as cheap as the machine will dig it, allowing
for the cost of the machine. (e)
The large economy of the machine method makes it possible to pay
much higher wages with increased profit to capital and without
reducing the price of the product. The Mine Workers’ Union, by
« National Glass Budget, June 9, 1900, p. 1.
&Proceedings of tbe Twenty-seventh Annual Convention of the Glass Bottle Blow
ers’ Association, pp. 49, 50.
c Wage Scale and Working Rules adopted b y the Glass Bottle Blowers’ Association,
etc., 1905-6, p. 82.
d Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. X V , p. 404.
« Report of the Industrial Commission, Yol. X II, p. 55. To the Twelfth Conven
tion of the United Mine Workers (1901) Mr. Mitchell said: “ While we owe it to our
selves and to our craft to protect our trade against the encroachment of mining
machinery, I do not wish to be regarded as one who would obstruct progress or favor
retrogression; but I am unalterably opposed to a system which places a premium upon
machinery, all the benefits of which are given to the mine owners.” — Proceedings of
the Twelfth Convention of the United Mine Workers of America, p. 46.
CONDITIONS OF ENTEANCE TO THE PEINCIPAL TEADES.
731
their insistence that the net earnings of the machine miner be higher
than the hand miner, have thus prevented a reduction of the wages of
the hand miners whose product must compete with the machine
product.
METHODS OF PREVENTING DISPLACEMENT OF SKILL.
The entrance to the clearly defined trades of former days were
defended by apprenticeship rules and regulations intended to safe
guard the skill and maintain the wages of the workers. Since trades
have begun to disintegrate and apprenticeship rules have become
obsolescent, since the time of training has been shortened and the
gates have been thrown down for floods of new workers, immigrants,
and women and children, new methods have been devised by the
workers to prevent the displacement of skill and to control the con
dition of entrance to the trades. The methods most frequently
employed are:
(1) Opposition to machinery and new processes, or claim of juris
diction over the machine operators.
(2) Prohibition of the grading of members of the craft.
(3) Prohibition of the use of journeymen's tools by laborers and
helpers, or the debarment of helpers and handy men from certain lines
of work.
(4) Rules against “ lumping" or subcontracting and team work.
Each of these will be considered in turn.
OPPOSITION TO MACHINERY AND NEW PROCESSES.
Since the beginning "of the modem era of machine industry work
men, whether organized or unorganized, have regarded with dislike
every labor-saving device or mechanical improvement introduced in
their own craft. In the early days they frequently assumed an atti
tude of open hostility, destroying the machines and driving away the
operators. In more recent times, however, this policy has been
abandoned, but labor organizations, while disclaiming hostility to
machines or new processes, have endeavored in a number of instances
to devise rules to retard their introduction and hinder their immediate
use. A double motive underlies this policy. One concerns itself with
the fear of displacement of the hand worker and the ultimate elimina
tion of the craft, while the other arises from the effect of machinery
in wholly or partially depriving certain handicraftsmen of their
acquired skill. This motive is exemplified in the history of several
of the leading American trade unions, notably those of the plumbers,
the cigar makers, and the stonecutters.
732
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
PLUMBING.
Until a decade or so ago the “ idle” time of the journeyman plumber
(during which he was not engaged on outside jobs) was occupied in
making lead traps and bends and other plumbing fixtures, which have
since past to the foundry or workshop. At the present time only
a few plumbers of the old school can make lead traps and their
services are never required for the work. A man sitting at a modern
machine can now turn out many scores of traps or other “ fixings” in
the time formerly required by the plumber to make two or three.
Besides, the product of the machine is superior in many ways to the
hand-made article. The work and skill required in connecting fix
tures in buildings have also been materially lessened by more recent
inventions. The slow skilful handling of lead has been superseded
to a great extent by new and less expensive methods.
To protect the trade against a further loss of skill the rules of the
plumbers contain a long list of plumbing goods, such as drum traps
with outlets and screws attached, lead pipes with ferrules and nip
ples attached, etc., the use of which they endeavor to stop. The
rules likewise contain a recommendation that all members advocate
the use of iron sewer pipes in buildings, “ believing that it will benefit
the health of the community and create a demand for more skilled
labor.” It is also provided that all brass and nickel waste, flush, and
supply pipe shall be prepared by the plumber who places it in position.
“ These rules to be enforced wherever practicable.” ^)
CIGAR MAKERS.
Prior to 1861 cigar, snuff, and tobacco products in all styles were
manufactured, wholesaled, and frequently retailed on the same prem
ises. The employees in the tobacco industry were all-round men
and worked in all departments of the business, making cigars, snuff,
and smoking tobacco. Moreover, there was an entire absence of the
machinery used in modern manufacture, and consequently the busi
ness was conducted on a very small scale. Iii fact the employer often
worked at the same bench with his employees. Often his helpers
were fed and lodged by him, and in some cases were paid a portion
of the product as wages. (*6)
The introduction of modern machinery led to a transition from this
domestic system to a factory system of tobacco manufacture, causing
at the same time a division of the industry into various branches, each
branch producing a single class of goods. Cigars are now manufac
tured on a large scale by establishments located usually in large
cities, equipped with modern and expensive machinery, employing
a Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. X V II, p. 160.
&Tobacco, November 3, 1899, p. 1.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
733
thousands of wage-earners and manufacturing millions of cigars annu
ally. The prepared filler is placed in the hopper of a machine which
apportions the quantity necessary for each cigar, places it in the
mold spread to receive it by the operator of the machine, and shapes
it. The wrapper is subsequently added by hand or machinery.
There are also stripping machines for removing the midrib from the
tobacco leaf, besides the “ bunching” machines for preparing the
tobacco for the wrapper.
Division of labor in the trade also plays an important part, which
may be inferred in the following processes: “ Booking” consists in
straightening out and dampening the leaves; “ stripping” is drawing
out the large midrib of the leaf. Girls are usually employed at this
work. “ Bunch making” is the selection and shaping of the “ filler”
tobacco. This is usually done by hand on the 10-cent cigars and by the
mold on the 5-cent cigars. “ Rolling” consists in cutting the wrapper
and then rolling it around the filler. This is done by hand or by the
aid of the “ suction table,” the latter being a model plate with perfor
ations for air suction, so as to hold the leaf in place. The plate also
cuts the leaf to the exact shape desired for the wrapper. Either with
or without the suction table the cigar must be rolled by hand, but the
table permits less skilled workmen and girls to take the place of the
skilled mechanics.
The “ suction table” can not really be called a machine, since it is
not a labor-saving device. It is simply a device for facilitating the
work. It is not automatic, but assists the hand worker in measuring
and cutting the cigar wrapper. Much of the skill of the hand worker
consists in cutting the wrapper the correct size and rolling it smoothly
over the “ bunch.” The “ suction table” does the measuring by
means of a die consisting of a perforated steel plate. The air suction
holds the wrapper tightly over the die while a lever to which a roller
is attached is moved by the operator over the die. This operation
practically gives the wrapper its proper shape, and by raising the die
by means of a foot lever the operator is enabled to separate the super
fluous portion of the wrapper. The air suction keeps the wrapper
taut over the die, enabling the operator to roll the “ bunch” with less
care than without the aid of the table.
The mold, which is a device for shaping the “ filler,” or “ bunch,”
was introduced in 1869. It likewise simply facilitates hand labor
and is not a machine. The effect of the introduction of the mold
was the inauguration of the “ team system” of manufacture. Pre
viously it was customary for one cigar maker to shape the “ filler”
and also roll the wrapper, thus producing the complete cigar.
The Cigar Makers’ International Union did not prohibit its members
from working with the “ molds” when they first came into use. Con
siderable opposition, however, developed in many localities on the
734
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
part of the cigar makers who rebelled against the use of the mold
and the “ team system” of manufacture. Tho not directly opposing
the use of the molds the Cigar Makers’ International Union at first
insisted that the “ bunch maker” as well as the “ roller” should join its
ranks, and granted the label only to the shops conforming to this
rule.(a)
This clause was found impracticable of enforcement and was soon
repealed.
The attitude of the Cigar Makers’ International Union toward the
“ suction table” has been one of opposition. In 1887, when the
“ suction table” was rapidly coming into general use, the president of
the International Union recommended that manufacturers using the
machine should not be allowed the union label. This rule has since
been adopted, and still forms a part of the constitution of the Cigar
Makers’ International Union. (5)
The opposition of hand cigar makers to both the mold and the
suction table is due largely to the fact that the use of these
devices for facilitating their work causes a loss of much of the skill
acquired by them in learning the trade. The occupation of cigar
making became so simple thereby that employers early inaugurated
the practise of employing women and children in place of adult male
cigar makers. The machine workers are not considered cigar makers
b y the union, and consequently are not admitted to membership.
The following extract from a letter of Mr. G. W. Perkins, president
of the Cigar Makers’ International Union, dated May 6, 1903, and
contained in the Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of
Labor, states the attitude of the union toward the machines:
Replying to your query with reference to the attitude of the Cigar
Makers’ International Union toward machinery, let me say that, first,
the International Union does not prohibit its members from working
on machines. There are, however, no machines manufactured that
will successfully make cigars. For that reason we do not allow the
use of our labels on cigars made b y machines. The reason for this
is, that if our label means anything; it means good wages and good
workmanship. (e) >
STONECUTTING.
The stonecutting interests in large cities have gradually introduced
machinery for dressing cut stone for building purposes. The machine
known as the “ planer” was introduced in the eighties, but attention
was not drawn to it by stonecutters until the early nineties. The
stone “ pick” came into use later, as did also pneumatic tools for
carving. When first introduced stonecutting machinery was not*&
« Constitution of the Cigar Makers’ Internationa! Union, 1888, Art. II, section 9.
&Constitution of the Cigar Makers’ International Union, section 154.
c Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 572.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
735
operated by journeymen stonecutters, but by such laborers as showed
skill in operating machinery similar to the machines in planing mills,
sash, door, and blind factories. As the use of the machines extended,
and journeymen stonecutters began to be displaced thereby, the first
impulse of the journeymen stonecutters was to oppose and endeavor to
abolish their use. (°) Where this was found impracticable they insisted
that the planers be operated by journeymen stonecutters, who should
receive the standard rate paid for hand labor. Thus, in 1896, in
Chicago, the local journeymen stonecutters’ union notified the con
tractors that all planers and lathes in stone yards on and after March 1
of that year must be operated by union stonecutters at the rate of
50 cents per hour at an eight-hour day. (a) The strike that followed
resulted in an agreement between the union and the contractors
which provided that one-half of the persons employed in operating
machinery should be stonecutters and the other half planer hands.
The stone pick is a heavy tool shaped like a pick for digging, and it
takes the place of the point and hammer. It is used more in quarries
than in stone yards. With it a workman can do two or three times
as much work in a day as with a point and hammer. The Journey
man Stone Cutters’ Association excluded the use of the pick by the
following by-law, adopted in 1902, on the ground that its use required
nothing but brute strength, and it afforded a means of supplanting
skilled stonecutters with mere laborers:
This association will use every effort to discourage the use of what
is known as a stone-pick, and in no case shall the pick be used on any
stone that is to be shipped to any place where the pick is prohibited. (b)
Pneumatic tools have been in general use in the stonecutting
industry since the early nineties. They do better work, cut clearer
lines, and make more accurate curved work than can be done with a
mallet and chisel. The union has never objected to their use, since
they do not do away with the skill of the journeyman stonecutter.
As much care and accuracy are required in guiding the tool as were
formerly required in working with a mallet and chisel.
The policy of the union in endeavoring to restrict the use of stone
cutting machinery has not been very successful, owing to the fact that
little skill is required to operate the machines, and it has not been
usual for the stonecutting contractors to employ journeymen stone
cutters as machine operators. The only requirements of the planer
operator are a strong back and great physical endurance. At present,
in most localities, where the planers are in use, they are operated by
common laborers. The scope of the planer and other machinery in&
a Report of the Industrial Commission, Yol. V III , pp. 355, 356.
&Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 344.
736
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the, stonecutting industry, however, is limited. The planer and the
so-called circular saws can do only straight and circular cuts; hence,
the stonecutting machinery does not entirely deprive the stonecutter
of his art. Moreover, the cheapening of stonecutting thru the use of
machinery has resulted in a larger use of stone for building purposes,
and has consequently increased the demand for skilled stonecutters.
CLAIM OP JURISDICTION OVER MACHINE OPERATORS.
When opposition to machinery and new processes is found to be
impracticable or otherwise undesirable, trade unions endeavor, as
far as possible, to protect the old members against loss of skill or
wholesale displacement: First, by assuming jurisdiction over men
employed in the new process, and secondly, by insisting that they
receive a relatively higher wage scale than the workers under the
old process.
This policy has been pursued with varying degrees of success in
the glass industry, printing trade, iron molding, and also in the
soft-coal mining industry.
GLASS INDUSTRY.
Up to a decade ago the glass trade was considered as being free
from the use of machinery or mechanical appliances. Following the
introduction of the jar-making machines, machines for making
tumblers and chimneys came into use. For a time the manufacture
of narrow-neck bottles with necks less than 1 inch in diameter was
considered beyond the possibility of machine manufacture. Within
the last two years, however, machines have been introduced for the
manufacture of beer and other narrow-necked bottles. In addition
to the machine for making fruit jars and beer bottles already men
tioned window-glass machines have been introduced within the last few
years, but thus far little is known of them or of their practical value,
as secrecy is maintained by the manufacturers in regard to their use.
It is claimed, however, that no high-waged labor is required in attend
ing them, as no blower or gatherer is needed. One ordinary workman
at laborer’s wages operates two machines. (a)
When, in 1898, an automatic machine for blowing lamp chimneys
was introduced much excitement was created in the trade, and to
prevent demoralization of the industry a company was formed in
1899 to control the machine. It was claimed then that these
machines were averaging about 2,000 chimneys per turn, at a labor
cost of $5, whereas the cost of about 250 chimneys per turn in the
hand shop was about $3.50. (6)
The first impulse of the flint glass workers’ union, when the chimney
blowing machine was introduced, was to oppose it, their members
a National Glass Budget, March 14, 1903.
b Ibid, May, 27, 1899.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
737
refusing to work the machine. The machine, however, was formally
recognized by the general convention of Flint Glass Workers in 1899,
but certain restrictions were placed upon its use. The number of
hours that it could be worked were limited, and the union insisted
that it be operated only by members of their organization. These
rules have since been a source of trouble between the manufacturers
and the union, and therefore have been modified from time to time.
The glass-bottle blowers, unlike the flint-glass workers, made no
opposition when the fruit-jar machines were introduced, and, as
previously mentioned, the portion of their membership working on
this ware consented to work 45 per cent off the scale. They, how
ever, also insisted that the operators be members of their own organ
ization and that its members be given preference to run the machines
when new men were put on. (a) The union has not always succeeded
in this demand, especially in case where very little skill is required
in operating the machine. The organization at present, however,
comprizes a machine and press department, for which a special
scale of wages is annually drawn up. Included in this branch are
the machine operators on milk jars and wide-neck ware, such as
vaseline, stove polish, octagonal, hexagonal, and square bottles.
A three-years’ apprenticeship is required for men in this branch,
whereas five years are required for hand blowers. In 1903, 400
members, constituting about 5 per cent of the entire membership,
were reported in the machine and press department of the Glass
Bottle Blowers’ Association.
The officers of the Glass Bottle Blowers’ Association have repeat
edly urged the members not to oppose the machines, and when
given work upon them to bring out their best possibilities. The
president’s report to the convention of 1898 stated:
There is no denying the fact that the machine is now becoming a
pronounced factor in our trade. It is our duty to do all in our power
to provide some means or encourage every prospect that will lead to
the employment of our members displaced by machinery. (6)
To the twenty-fifth convention the president, Mr. Denis Hayes,
repeated this warning, adding:
To my mind the most logical way to meet this question is not to
antagonize machinery, but to endeavor to control it, so that we
may not only have a voice in the fixing of the labor cost of its prod
uct, but in a measure regulate the hours of operation.
As a result of both the conciliatory policy of the unions and the
increased productivity, as we have already shown, mechanical
improvements in the glass industry have entailed neither a lowering
a Proceedings of the Twenty-second Convention of the Glass Bottle Blowers’
Association, 1898, p. 12.
&Ibid., p. 13.
788
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
of wages nor a lessening of the number of men employed. The effect
has been rather to relieve much of the physical strain of the labor,
thus bringing into the industry a more intelligent and temperate
class of men.(°)
IRON MOLDING.
As in the glass industry, labor-saving machinery was not a serious
factor of the foundry until within the last ten years. Of late, how
ever, molding machines have undergone a wonderful development
and are beginning to be seriously reckoned with by the hand molder.
The first attempt to aid the hand work in molding was a device
known as a stripping plate, by means of which the sand and rough
surface of the pattern is stript off. This device has been in use
for more than two decades, but it can not be called a molding machine
since it does not “ draw” the pattern from the mold. Its uses have
been multiplied, and it has been attached to the various types of
molding machines later introduced. (*6) Next to the stripping plate,
come the power rammers, a device for dispensing with the hard
work of ramming up the molds, which in plain or ordinary castings
is a serious item in limiting production. At present four kinds
of rammers are in use—friction, steam, comprest air, and hydraulic.
Both the rammer and the stripping plate are combined and are used
on molding machines.
Molding machines which withdraw the pattern from the mold, and
thus displace the most skilful work of the hand molder, are not ordi
narily used in foundries where a general run of work is done. Neither
are they profitably employed in job work where different patterns
are necessary with almost every new casting turned out. They are,
however, used extensively in repetitive work. In 1901 there were at
least twenty-five styles of molding machines in use in the United
States. Some are designed and made by the firms using them, and
are not on the market. B y the use of machines it is claimed that
unskilled laborers perform the task equivalent to that of skilled hand
molders, and do even better work at less cost. The newer types of
machines tend to become automatic. A molding machine put on the
market in 1904 is almost completely automatic in its operation,
merely requiring an attendant, who lifts the flask off and sets it to one
side, blows the sand from the table b y means of an air hose, and all is
ready for renewing the process. (c)
a Report of the Industrial Commission, Yol. V II, p. 901.
&In speaking of labor-saving machinery in the foundry, reference is not made to the
improved facilities in the shape of power cranes, cupolas, etc., but rather to machinery
designed to displace the skill and labor of the mechanic. This form of machinery is
commonly known as molding machines.
c Foundry, November, 1904, p. 144.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
739
In the stove-molding trade molding machines have not yet become
an important factor, owing to the machine-like movement and
rapidity of the hand stove molders. The power rammer, o r 11squeezer’ ’
is about the only machine known in the stove foundry, and this has
been in use in one form or another during the last thirty years. (a)
It is generally admitted by both the manufacturers and the molders
that the machines tend to displace the skill of hand molders. Their
use promotes likewise a division of labor even in cases where a skilled
hand molder must operate the machine. The hard work not requir
ing a molder’s skill is now profitably relegated to unskilled hands.
Thus the work of shaking out the flasks and taking out the castings,
of shoveling over and tempering the sand, is done by laborers and
helpers. The devices for economizing work in foundries result in a
definite task being provided for each molder, at which he soon becomes
expert and which greatly increases his output. Moreover, it is claimed
by many foundry employers that by far the best results can be obtained
by molding machines when they are operated by ordinary laborers.
The attitude of the Iron Molders’ Union toward the molding
machine prior to 1899 was that of ignoring it. No organized effort
was made to keep the machines out of the foundry, but union molders
refused to operate them. The machines were accordingly put in
charge of common laborers, or men trained to work them. In the
general convention of the Iron Molders’ Union in 1899 the president,
Mr. Martin Fox, forcibly pointed out the danger of this 11laissezfaire” policy, and urged that the organization adopt measures to
control the machine worker. In his report to the convention he
said:
The advent of the labor-saving machine in the foundry was the sig
nal for an outburst of ridicule and contempt; they were relegated at
first to the unskilled laborer. To-day that laborer has become a seri
ous rival of the mechanic in many subdivisions of our trade. * * *
I strongly advise that our members agree to work on these machines
and bring out their best possibilities, providing satisfactory arrange
ments can be made as to wages. The mistake was made at the begin
ning when our members refused to work on them, but we shoula be
guided by our experience, and without further delay adopt such a
policy as will give to our members the control of the machine and
retain to them the trade which they have spent the best years of their
lives in acquiring. (-)
A few years later Mr. Fox again urged the union to take active
measures for controlling the machine operators. He said:
The demand for skilled molders will not always be as great as it is
to-day, and we can well conceive the time when the molder who
would now refuse to take a job as a machine operator will be glad of
a Iron Molders’ Journal, Vol. 39, p. 105.
b Proceedings of the Twenty-first Convention of the Iron Molders’ Union, 1899, p. 11.
740
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the opportunity. * * * It is manifestly to our interest to pro
tect the machine operator in his wages and to assist him in securing
a wage commensurate with his output and skill. (a)
Mr. Fox pointed out to the convention that it is no longer the sim
plest kind of work that is made upon the molding machine. “ Every
year has seen an extension of its sphere, and a very high grade and
difficult class of work is being successfully made with the use of the
machine. As the work made on the molding machine improves in
quality,” he said, “ it follows that a high degree of skill is required of
the operator. Thus, in some instances, foundry men have found it
more profitable to employ journeymen molders as machine operators
upon the better class of work.” Mr. Fox stated, however, that on
the common run of work unskilled operators can easily become effi
cient specialized molders.
Altho no special provision was made for the admission of machine
operators into the Iron Molders’ Union by the convention of 1899,
the executive board, in September, 1901, granted a charter to a local
organization of-machine molders. The following year the constitu
tion of the organization was amended so that machine operators
could be admitted. (b)
The point of friction between the employers and the unions over
the question of admitting machine operators is a question of wages,
the iron molders adhering to the policy of maintaining a high standard
of earnings among the machine operators in order to protect the hand
molders. (c) Regarding the necessity of this policy the Iron M old ed
Journal, January, 1903, contains the following editorial comment:
We can well look forward to the time when there will not be the
same demand for skilled molders that there is to-day, and, feeling as
we do, that there is a class of molders who would make excellent
machine operators, we are anxious to reserve for them, if possible,
the opportunity to operate any machine. (d)
Despite the endeavor of the Iron Molders’ Union to control the
machines, comparatively few_ molders are to-day operating molding
machines. It is claimed by some employers that molders who work
the machine do not always show a willingness to do justice to the*&
a Iron Molders’ Journal, Vol. 38, p. 617.
&The present qualifications for membership in the union read as follows: “ A n y
molder serving an apprenticeship of four years at the trade in any of its branches or
subdivisions or who has worked at the trade in any of its branches or subdivisions
and is competent to command the general average of wages paid in the branch or
subdivision with which he is identified, may be admitted as a mem ber.” This clause
formerly read: “ A n y molder serving an apprenticeship of four years at the trade, or
who has worked at the trade four years, and is competent to command a general average
of wages, may be admitted,” etc. See Constitution and Rules of the Iron Molders’
Union, 1902, Art. V III, section 1, and 1899, Art. V III, section 1.
c Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. X IV , p. 150.
d Iron Molders’ Journal, Vol. 39, p. 14.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
741
possibilities of the machine, or conscientiously assist in its develop
ment. The aversion of skilled hand molders to the operating of
machines seems to be due to two principal causes: (1) The machines
demand considerable physical exertion on the part of the molder, and
(2) the work of operating the machine differs widely from that of hand
molding. Moreover, owing to the lower piece-rate wages paid the
machine operators it is impossible for them in some cases to earn the
minimum rate of wages demanded by the union. Consequently the
machines in a great number of foundries are now run b y unskilled
immigrant laborers. (a)
PRINTING.
The printers have solved the problem of assuming jurisdiction
over machine operators much more successfully than the iron molders.
Previous to 1890 typesetting was essentially the same art as it was in
the sixteenth century, tho other branches of the printing trade had
become revolutionized by improved labor-saving machines. “ Prob
ably no other handicraft employing such a large number of persons
[as that of type composition] underwent as little change during this
period.77 During the last two decades, however, machine compo
sition has been rapidly supplanting typesetting by hand. “ The
machine is still constantly encroaching on the field of the hand com
positor, but the period of introduction may be properly considered as
concluded with the year 1900. By that time, the craft had adjusted
itself to the new conditions and the future trend of events could be
foreseen with some clearness.77(6)
When the linotype was first introduced hand compositors were
greatly alarmed over the possibility of the machines being operated
with unskilled labor, but the technical character of the machine soon
made it evident that the skilled hand compositor was required for its
operation. “ Every part of the hand compositors knowledge is
useful to the machine operator, except an acquaintance with the
location of the case boxes, and instead the operator must learn the
keyboard of the machine. In addition, the operator must think far
more quickly. He must not only know the same things, but he must
be able to use knowledge more rapidly.77(c)
Regarding the qualifications of a linotype operator Ex-President
Donnelly, of the International Typographical Union, testified before
the Industrial Commission as follows:
Q. Is the untrained man, not a practical printer, as capable of
running a Mergenthaler linotype machine as a practical printer?— A.
N o; an untrained man who has not learned the printing trade is not
« Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, pp. 167,168.
Barnett, The Introduction of the Linotype, Yale Review, Yol. X I I I , p. 251.
c Ibid., p. 273.
115b— No. 67—06------5
742
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
as capable of operating a machine, and does not make a competent
printer or operator.
Q. Suppose he had been trained as a typewriter, would he be on a
parity with the practical printers in running the machine?— A. Not
at all. The typewriters to-day who could be considered competent
to operate a machine, or ought in a short time to become competent
to operate a printing machine, are men who receive higher wages as
typewriters and stenographers than they would receive at the printing
trade. (a)
Undoubtedly the foremost cause tending to maintain a high grade
of efficiency and skill among linotype operators is the higher speed
which they must acquire. The machines are used mainly in offices
where rapid composition is deemed the most important qualification
of the compositor. The machine operator in following the copy must
retain in his mind a considerable number of words in order to save
time. It is estimated that a machine compositor who holds in his
mind 2,000 words per hour must give closer mental application to his
work than does the hand compositor. (*6) The higher speed attained
on machines makes the work more exhausting than hand composition,
and thus both mental retention and physical endurance are required
of the operator. The International Typographical Union has at times
approached the problem of seeking to keep the speed attained on
machines within what it considers reasonable limits. On several
occasions the conventions of the International Union sought to
impose a maximum limit of output, but this policy failed in its appli
cation. In England, however, the practise prevails of limiting the
output of operators on the linotype. (c)
The International Typographical Union took no measures to
oppose the machines when introduced. The union, however, imme
diately claimed jurisdiction over the operators.^) At the thirtysixth annual session a resolution was adopted that u The International
Typographical Union favors the recognition of such (typesetting)
machines,” and “ recommends that subordinate unions * * *
take speedy action looking to their recognition and regulation,
endeavoring everywhere to secure their operation b y union men upon
a scale of wages which shall secure compensation equal to that paid
hand compositors.” (e) At this time (1888) there were fewer than 100
a Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. V II, p. 276.
&Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 75.
c The Printing Trades and the Crisis in British Industry, in the Economic Journal,
Vol. X I I , pp. 1-12; also Barnett, The Introduction cf the Linotype, Yale Review,
Vol. X I I I , p. 268, and Eleventh Special Report cf the Commissioner c f Labor, pp.
53-56.
d “ Occasionally a small union refused for a time to make a scale for machines, but
the International Union steadily discountenanced such a p o li c y /’— Barnett, The
Introduction of the Linotype, Yale Review, Vol. X I I I , p. 262.
e Convention Proceedings, 1888, p. 181.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
743
machines in operation in the United States and Canada, and the
greater part of these were being run experimentally. (°)
The success of the typographical union in carrying out this policy
is undoubtedly due largely to the fact that the character of the work
on the machine was such as required trained hand compositors. A
knowledge of the construction of the machine, while useful, is not
essential to the operator. Where machines are used in sufficient
numbers, machinists known as machine tenders are usually employed
to do the repairing and adjusting.
The most pronounced economic advantage accruing to the printers
from the introduction of the machine has been the material reduction
secured in the length of the working day. The work of the machine
operators being much more exhausting and constant than that of
the hand compositors, the union insisted that the former be granted
a workday not exceeding eight hours. In newspapers offices, where
the machines are principally in use, the workday in many cases is
considerably less, not exceeding six hours. (**6)
PROHIBITION OF THE GRADING OF JOURNEYMEN.
The disintegration of a trade, caused either by machinery or a
greater division of labor, as we have already shown, frequently leads
to gradations of skill and efficiency among the workmen engaged
therein, thus enabling a less efficient and lower-paid group of mechanics
to constantly encroach upon the work of the higher grade. The
lower grades of mechanics within the craft are consequently a serious
detriment to the highly skilled classes. The employer, wherever it
is profitable and possible to introduce a less skilled workman at a
lower wage, will take this course regardless of the effect it will have
upon the higher grade of workmen in the same craft. Hence, jour
neymen and workmen possessing the qualifications and training which
enable them to perform the most difficult processes in a craft seek to
protect themselves from the encroachment of the less skilled, either
by requiring a high standard of efficiency of all who seek entrance to
their trade or by prohibiting the grading of members of the trade.
The methods of accomplishing this are (1) the enforcement of a min
imum wage below which no journeyman is permitted to work; (2) the
prohibition of the payment of differential wage rates.
The antagonism against the grading of journeymen is well illus
trated in the history of the International Association of Machinists.
The disintegration that has affected the trade of the machinist within
« In 1904, according to the returns of the unions, 92.75 per cent of all machine
employees were members of the International Typographical Union.
& In 1904 there were 5,491 machines in use in newspaper offices and 1,638 in book
and job offices. Barnett, Introduction of the Linotype, Y ale Review , Yol. X I I I ,
p. 264.
744
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the last two decades has introduced, as we have already shown, a
large number of relatively unskilled workmen, namely, the specialists
and the handy men. The machinists endeavored to prevent these
lower grades of mechanics from encroaching upon their work by
enforcing a uniform wage scale in each locality. Their minimum
wage, tho specially designed for the weaker and less skilled machinists,
also affords protection to the more highly paid men, since employers,
when they are forced to pay to less skilled mechanics as high a wage
as is paid to those who possess higher qualifications, naturally choose
the latter. It is the most highly skilled machinists who enforce a
high minimum rate. In 1893 a strike was caused in Paducah by the
proposed grading of machinists in a railway shop from $2.50 to $2.75
per day. The men objected to a superintendent having the power
to say who should get $2.50 and who should get $2.75.(a)
Again, in 1895 the Machinists’ Journal uttered an editorial pro
test against the practise in the machine shops of the navy-yard of
grading machinists and paying a different rate of wages to each
grade. This protest was continued until the year 1900, when the
convention of the American Federation of Labor “ past a resolu
tion instructing their council to try to change the Navy Depart
ment rules, so that machinists might be employed only under one
class, which should receive the standard rate of wages.” (**6)
Despite the efforts of the international association to prevent the
grading of machinists, the rise of the specialists and the increasing
subdivision of machinists’ work are constantly making possible, and
perhaps necessary, the division of mechanics into different grades
and classes, with a different scale of wages for each class. “ This
was tacitly recognized by the International Association of Machin
ists, when in 19Q3 it changed its constitution so as to permit the
admission into its ranks of specialists and others working in the
machine shop who could not be described as machinists. Prior to
1903 the constitution admitted ‘ any workman performing the work
of a machinist * * * provided he receives the minimum rate of
wages paid in his locality;’ but since 1903 this section has been so
amended as to admit ‘ any person working in a machine shop and
engaged in any manner with the making and repairing of machinery
* * * provided he receives the minimum rate of wages of his
class in his locality.’ ” (c) It is thus by the enforcement of a mini
mum rate of wages for each grade of workmen that the machinists
endeavor to control the conditions of entrance to their trade.
« Machinists’ Monthly Journal, Yol. V, p. 262. Also Studies in American Trade
Unionism, edited by Hollander and Barnett, pp. 116-118.
&Studies in American Trade Unionism, edited by Hollander and Barnett, p. 117.
See also Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. X V II, pp. 221, 222.
c Studies in American Trade Unionism, edited b y Hollander and Barnett, pp. 117,
118.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
745
The Journeymen Stone Cutters’ Association likewise for many years
has discountenanced the grading of its members by employers.
According to the by-laws of the association “ any man shall be con
sidered a practical stonecutter who can complete stonework true
and perfect. This will include all kinds of stonework— plain and
molded or carved. All stonework on which a mallet, mash hammer,
and chisel are used, shoddy work and pitch-faced ashlar included,*
shall be considered as practical stonecutting, and shall be performed
according to the rules and regulations of the branch under which it
is done, provided it does not conflict with the constitution and
by-laws of the general union. ” (a)
Despite the dislike of the National Association of Stone Gutters to
the grading of journeymen and the payment of a different rate of wage
to each grade, this practise exists in several localities. “ Where the
grading system prevails there are usually three grades. All of the
grades are composed of journeymen, the least experienced belonging
to the third grade. Men in the second grade are expected to do more
and better work than men in the third grade, and they get higher
wages. Men in the first grade are expected to do more and better
work than men in the second grade, and they get the highest wages.
The grades are fixed by the union on application of the men. * * *
Apprentices of unusual skill, after serving the four years of appren
ticeship, not infrequently get second-grade cards.” (6)
In the foundry two classes of iron molders have always been dis
tinguished, one known as bench molders on small castings, such as
make up the different parts of a stove, and the other, known as floor
molders, who work on large castings, as engine cylinders, machinery,
etc. Small castings require less care and time for molding, tho stove
molders and others working on small castings become very proficient,
and work with great rapidity. In the molding of large castings
skilled molders generally must be employed, but the greater part of
the work of preparing the mold is done by helpers and handy men. (c)
Tho different wage scales for floor molders and bench molders have
generally prevailed in the industry, the policy of the Iron Molders’
Union has been to equalize their earnings as far as possible. (d) Bench
molders, as a general rule, receive slightly more per day than floor mold
ers, the wage scale for the former being $3.25, whereas floor molders
receive $3 per day in foundries where the time-work system prevails. (e)
a Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 342.
b Ibid., p. 343.
c Thus the molding of an engine cylinder often requires as many as seven molders
and an equal number of helpers, and takes a week for the completion cf the process.
d Studies in American Trade Unionism, edited by Hollander and Barnett,- p. 240.
e Piecework system cf wage payment is almost universal in the stove-molding
branch cf the industry.— Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p.
150.
746
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Ex-President Fox, of the Iron Molders’ Union, in his report to the
general convention of 1902, cautioned the delegates against insisting
upon a uniform minimum rate for all grades of work. ‘ ‘ In establishing
minimum rates, especially when they approach the higher ranges, we
should be careful to use wise discrimination when there is a class of
work of very inferior grade included, and upon which molders are
employed who are adapted for that class of work only. Circumstances
over which we have no control are creating a class of molders capable
of distinct classification from that of the all-round mechanic or
jobbing molder.” (a)
PROHIBITION OF THE USE OF JOURNEYMEN’S TOOLS BY
LABORERS AND HELPERS.
Rules and regulations prohibiting helpers and laborers from using
journeymen’s tools aim to prevent the “ illegitimate man,” who has
not undergone the training or complied with the apprenticeship regu
lations required by the union, from surreptitiously entering the craft.
They are enforced by most of the building trades, especially those in
which a high standard of skill and efficiency is maintained. The
sheet-metal workers, for example, do not permit laborers or helpers to
use the journeyman’s tools, or to assist any journeyman in doing
mechanical work, excepting that of holding the “ dolly.” (b) A similar
rule is enforced by the bricklayers, stonecutters, and by some of the
local organizations of plumbers and steam fitters.
The Bricklayers and Masons’ International Union in particular for
many years has enforced rules to maintain the skill of the craft. One
of these rules forbids mortar to be spread on a wall with any other
instrument than a trowel, or b y any other workman than a brick
layer. Altho these rules result in restricting the output, they are not
enforced wholly for this purpose. There is a strong feeling among the
bricklayers that using a trowel is the act of a skilled artizan, and that
the use of a shovel in the place thereof by a laborer or unskilled
mechanic is a distinct reduction of the dignity of the craft. The New
York agreement of 1900 of the local Bricklayers and Masons’ Inter
national Union and the employers’ association contained the follow
ing clause:
That no laborers be allowed upon any wall or pier to temper or
spread mortar, which shall be delivered in bulk, said mortar to be
a Iron Molders’ Journal, Yol. 38, p. 610. In his testimony before the Industrial
Commission, Ex-President F ox made the statement that the introduction of machin
ery is practically going to “ eliminate the highly skilled molder in a short time” from
the agricultural and malleable iron work branches of the trade.— Report of the Indus
trial Commission, Vol. X IY , p. 148.
b Agreement of the Amalgamated Sheet Metal Workers’ Protective and Benevolent
Association of New York, and the Employers’ Association of Roofers and Sheet Metal
Workers of Greater New York and Adjacent Cities.— Report of the Industrial Com
mission, Yol. X V II, p. 394.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
747
spread with a trowel by the bricklayers, who shall work by the hour
only. Nor shall any member of the bricklayers7unions work for any
one not complying with all the rules and regulations herein agreed
to.(«)
Similar in effect to the above clause is the following, contained in
the agreement between the Painters7 District Council and the Con
tracting Painters of Chicago and Vicinity, March 1, 1904, to March 1,
1906:
S e c t i o n 7. Said party of the first part agrees that they will not
sublet to any of their employees or others, by contract or otherwise,
any wall washing, painting, glazing, paper cleaning, or any character
of hard-wood finishing, either on contracts or in factories, and under
no circumstances shall they employ laborers or nonunion men to do
any class of preparatory work in any branch. ( b)
Kegarding similar rules of building trades in Great Britain, Charles
Booth writes as follows:
Differentiation of the laborers and the artizan7s work is sharply
defined. There are rigid rules in several of the trades emphasizing
this. The use of the tools, for instance, of the skilled man by the
laborer is frequently forbidden. In the provinces and in much of
the suburban work in London this division is, however, less abso
lutely maintained, and it is here that the laborer is trained to become
a handyman or is gradually qualified to claim work probably in
another locality as a fully trained artizan. (c)
The limitation of the number of helpers and handy men arises
from the same motive as the prohibition of the use of the journey
man^ tools. Since the helper receives a lower wage than the jour
neyman the employer usually wishes to have more helpers and fewer
journeymen. The unions, on the other hand, in order to give as
much employment to their own members as possible and to prevent
too many helpers from gaining admission to the craft, in a number
of cases fix the number of helpers a journeyman may have. Thus
for many years the United Association of Journeymen Plumbers,
etc., has complained that the employment of helpers results not only
in an oversupply of plumbers, but in a decline of the standard of
workmanship in their craft. Accordingly, in 1896, a movement
was inaugurated, which was favored by a number of employers, to
abolish the “ helper.77 Separate locals have taken up the question
and a number have succeeded altogether in eliminating the helper
from the craft. (d) Where it has been found impracticable to abolish
the u helper77 strict rules are enforced limiting the number that may *&
a Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. X V II, p. 380.
&Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, No. 55, pp. 1623, 1624.
c Life and Labor of the People of London, Vol. V, p. 61.
d The Lynn agreement of 1904 between contracting plumbers and the local plumbers’
organization, contained a provision that no plumber should be allowed to work with
helpers.— Bulletin of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor/*No. 33, p. 255.
748
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
work with journeymen. The following clause in the Dubuque Steam
Fitters’ agreement, 1903, is typical of the provision relating to the
restriction of helpers usually inserted in agreements of journeymen
and employers in the plumbing and steam fitting trades:
The journeyman steam fitter may use a helper who has worked at
the trade any length of time, but he can not use more than one
helper or pipe hander. Helpers shall do no jobbing or other work
except under the supervision of a journeyman steam fitter. Aiiy
previous offense shall bar him from being further employed in any
union shop.(°)
The electrical workers follow a similar policy, usually restricting
the number of helpers to one for each journeyman employed. (b)
In iron molding the question of the “ helper” or handym an is
not so serious as in the building trades. It is generally admitted
that a force of helpers and laborers is required in the foundry, since
much unskilled work is done in connection with molding. The work
of shaking out the flasks, taking out the castings, and shoveling
over and tempering the sand is done by laborers and helpers. The
ratio of laborers to molders depends largely on the class of work,
large castings requiring a larger number of helpers than small cast
ings. In very small castings the aid of helpers is not always essen
tial. The tendency in foundries is more and more to restrict molders
to skilled work, while the ordinary work and minor processes, such
as are enumerated above, not requiring the molder’s skill, are rele
gated to unskilled hands. While the Iron Molders’ Union is not
directly opposed to this tendency of the greater division of labor, it
seeks, nevertheless, to discourage the practise as far as practicable,
on the ground that the helper tends to displace the apprentice.
Thus, an editorial in the Iron Molders’ Journal states that the unlim
ited employment of helpers and handy men “ would create a class of
men whose knowledge of the trade would be of a most limited nature,
and who would become practically one-job men, and who, because
of their mechanical inferiority, would be unfit for membership in
our organization.” (c)
The question of employing unskilled laborers in the foundry was
brought up for discussion at a conference of the Iron Molders’ Union
with the Stove Founders’ National Defense Association in 1902,
and the following clause adopted:
The general trend of industrial development is towards employing
skilled labor, as far as practicable, at skilled work, and in conform
edQuoted in Studies in American Trade Unionism, edited b y Hollander and
Barnett, p. 303.
b Agreement between the Electrical Contractors of Boston and Vicinity and Local
No. 103 of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers of America.—Bulletin
of the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor No. 34, p. 367.
c Iron Moldors’ Journal, Vol. 40, p. 504.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
749
ance with this tendency every effort should be made by the mem
bers of the Stove Founders’ National Defense Association and the
Iron Molders’ Union of North America to enable the molder to give
seven hours of service per day at molding, and to encourage the use
of unskilled help to perform such work as sand cutting and work of
like character, when the molder can be given a full day’s work.(a)
The effects of specialization and the varying degree of skill among
molders of the present time is beginning to be felt by union iron molders.
“ It requires no demonstration,” wrote the editor of the Iron Molders’
Journal, “ to convince us that the foundry industry in many of its
features is being revolutionized. Specialization has already induced
us to modify the policy of the Iron Molders’ Union in important
directions.” (b)
RULES AGAINST “ LUMPING” OR SUBCONTRACTING AND
TEAM WORK.
The opposition to subcontracting and team work arises from the
fact that this method of employment leads to division of labor and
a lowering of skill by inducing journeymen to employ as many
helpers as possible. The interest of the journeyman when he works
under contract is to turn out as great a product in as short a time
and with the least cost to himself, regardless of the quality of his work
manship. He accordingly employs laborers and helpers to do the
less skilled parts of the work. This increases the number of helpers
in the trade, and consequently tends to increase the supply of jour
neymen and lower the standard of efficiency. As we have already
seen, a helper is ever alert to take up the work of the journeyman
with whom he works, and in this way gain admission to the trade.
A number of American labor organizations, during some period
of their history, have been compelled to face the question of “ lump
ing” or subcontracting and team work. The methods of dealing
with the problem may be illustrated by reference to a few selected
organizations.
An early instance of open opposition of an American trade union
to the system of subcontracting and team work is found in the glass
industry. In the first convention of glass-bottle blowers, held in
Philadelphia in 1856, the principal question before the body was
the unpopularity of the new method of work then being introduced,
namely, the system of having each blower hire his own helper to
assist him. This practise was considered an infringement upon the
apprenticeship system. The convention accordingly past a law
prohibiting blowers from employing helpers or anyone working for
less than the standard rate of wages. Two years later (1858) another*6
o Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, No. 62, p. 193.
6 Iron Molders’ Journal, Vol. 39, p. 250.
750
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
convention past the following
system:
resolution
against
the
contract
That we will not work in any factory with anyone who has a molder
or finisher or an assistant in making bottles or vials or for other
purposes than gathering glass, except such assistant be a regular
journeyman or apprentice to the business. (°)
This regulation has prevailed in union glass-bottle factories thruout the United States ever since.
Similar opposition against the practise of journeymen hiring their
own helpers developed early in the history of the Iron Holders’
Union, when a number of strikes were inaugurated with the object of
abolishing what was known as the ‘ ‘ berkshire system.’ ’ The principal
feature of this system was that each journeyman molder had a helper
or “ buck” whom he paid from his earnings and who, after several
years’ experience, might enter the trade as a molder with a hired
“ buck” of his own. This practically amounted to a “ contract
system” of employment, and was regarded by the union as an
encroachment upon the apprenticeship system. The Iron Molders’
Union, after several years of opposition and conflict, succeeded in
abolishing the “ berkshire system” in union foundries thruout the
country. In 1897, Ex-President Martin Fox, of the Iron Molders’
Union, stated before the National Stove Founders’ Association that
the “ berkshire system” had ceased in the United States, except
in a few foundries. Mr, Hogan, the secretary of the stove foun
ders’ organization, made a similar statement in his testimony Jiefore
the Industrial Commission, adding that in his opinion the employ
ment of “ berkshires” was injurious both to the molders and to the
manufacturers, since it is best for both that every molder should be
thoroly instructed in his business, an end accomplished only thru
apprenticeship. (*6)
Hostility to “ teamwork,” or the practise of several persons working
jointly upon the same product, each performing a separate operation,
is of much the same character as the opposition to the practise of
mechanics employing their own helpers and laborers. Both systems
of employment have the same tendency to increase the subdivision of
labor and thus lower the standard of skill and cause an oversupply of
journeymen in the craft. For these reasons the members of the
Journeymen Tailors’ Union, despite the urging of their officers, have
stedfastdy refused to assume jurisdiction over the “ special order”
tailors who do custom work but who are employed in teams, each
tailor making only part of a garment. (c)
The opposition of the cigar makers to the system of teamwork
a The Commoner and Glass Worker, October 18, 1902, p. 9.
&Report of Industrial Commission, Vol. V II, p. 865.
c See ante, pp. 704, 705.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
751
known as “ bunch and filler breaking/’ which came into vogue with
the introduction of the mold, is likewise due to the fact that it lowers
the standard of skill in the trade. With the use of the mold “ bunch
making” became a separate branch of the trade, requiring so little
skill that it became an easy matter for employers to introduce cheap
labor into the cigar-making industry/®) The molds which are
devised for shaping the “ filler” or “ bunch” are made of wood, in
two pieces, each pair of molds being carved out to admit 10 or 20
bunches. The “ bunches” when placed in the molds are comprest
in order to get the desired form. The bunch maker accordingly does
not take so much pains to shape them in his hands as he would if the
molds were not used, since the mold gives a uniform shape to the
bunches without much preliminary manipulation. Even if he puts
in too much or too little filler tobacco, the outside appearance is
about the same, tho not infrequently the filler tobacco is so prest
together as to form hard places in the “ bunches,” and consequently
the cigars will not draw or smoke well.
The Cigar Makers’ International Union, as we have already shown,
never prohibited its members from working under the “ team system.”
Many of the members, however, rebelled against it and refused to
work with ‘ ‘ bunch makers. ’ ’ The International Union at first insisted
that the “ bunch makers” as well as the “ rollers” should become
members of the u n ion /*6) But owing to the fact that the “ bunch
makers” were mostly women and boys this rule was found impracti
cable of enforcement, and consequently was repealed. At present
the team system prevails in practically all cigar factories where
the cheaper grades of goods are produced.
A notable instance of nonopposition to the system of subcontract
ing or hiring of helpers by journeymen is found in the pottery industry,
where this system of employment almost universally prevails. The
journeymen “ jiggermen,” dish makers, and pressers pay their helpers
from their earnings, being at once employees and employers. Each
employs his own “ batter ou t” (the boy who cuts off and prepares the
clay), his mold runner, and his finisher/0) The pottery employees do
not seriously object to the contract system, tho in July, 1902, the
Brotherhood of Operative Potters made the proposition to the Western
Manufacturers’ Association that all contract labor in all branches of
the trade should be abolished. 0*) The principal reason for the non
opposition in the pottery trade seems to be that an oversupply of
skilled workmen is not caused thereby. The number of helpers
a Cigar Makers’ Journal, February 10, 1878.
6 See Constitution of the Cigar Makers’ International Union, adopted 1887, Art.
IY , sec. 1.
c Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner cf Labor, pp. 667, 668.
d Ib id., p. 679.
752
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
employed by each journeyman is limited. To employ more than the
average number would not be profitable, since in this way a larger
product can not be turned out. (a) Furthermore, not all helpers are
capable of becoming journeymen, and consequently there is a con
stant “ weeding out” of the incompetent and inefficient.
MODERN APPRENTICESHIP.
The various measures taken by workmen for the defense of their
skill, such as have been enumerated above, tend to enable them
either directly or indirectly to exercise some control over the condi
tions of entrance to their trades. It is a generally recognized prin
ciple of trade unions that without such control the maintenance of
high standards of skill and large earning capacity is impossible.
Pride in good workmanship characterizes the skilled journeyman, and
differentiates him from the unskilled., “ Every true mechanic takes
deep interest in the general standard of workmanship for the entire
craft, as well as pride in his own individual work. His feeling
toward the incompetent workman is one of disapproval, to the extent
of seeking to exclude him from the organization, unless prevented
by other union policies.” (*6) The rigid enforcement of apprentice
ship laws when possible, the supervision of promotion within the
craft, and the entrance examinations conducted either by the unions,
by employers, or by both jointly, are therefore defended and upheld
on the ground that higher standards of workmanship result therefrom.
The control of entrance to the trades is, however, becoming increas
ingly difficult. The extensive use of machinery in almost all trades
and handicrafts, the minute subdivision of labor, and the consequent
specialization of occupations,, as has already been pointed out, have
been gradually displacing the old forms of skill and workmanship,
thus rendering necessary changes in the methods pursued by workmen
in acquiring craft knowledge and in equipping themselves for indus
trial careers. The old system of apprenticeship, which at the begin
ning of the nineteenth century was the almost universal method of
entering a trade or handicraft, is rapidly becoming unsuitable to
modern industrial conditions, and the type of apprentice who spends
the whole term of his apprenticeship in one employ, not only master
ing one branch of a trade but the whole trade, has largely ceased to be.
Few men now have the desire or the opportunity to teach an appren
tice his trade, and even if this were not the case trades and occupations
are subdivided into so many different branches, and so deputed to
various machines, that it is sufficient for an apprentice to be put to
one small division or form of work, and to. remain there until he is
a In some cases one helper serves two journeymen, who combine in employing him.
&Studies in American Trade Unionism, edited b y Hollander and Barnett, p. 267.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
753
entered as a full-fledged mechanic, “ stunted in all future stages of
his growth by an unsuitable environment, a restricted outlook, and
his too early planting out.” (a)
To fully comprehend the modern decadence of apprenticeship, a
knowledge of the old system that prevailed previous to the nineteenth
century is essential. At the time Adam Smith wrote the “ Wealth of
Nations” apprentices almost without exception were obliged to serve
seven years. This period was regulated and enforced by law. In
olden times the enforcement was under the supervision of the gilds,
and the wares of the artizan could not be sold unless he had been
regularly apprenticed. (b) The apprentice generally began his train
ing in his early boyhood and was indentured to a single employer
during the whole period of apprenticeship. It- was the custom to
take an apprentice into the employer’s family, with whom he lived
in very close relations. In return for the training and sustenance
he received, the whole labor of the apprentice belonged to his master.
In some cases money, too, was given to the employer for teaching the
boy his trade, and, if he could not give money, he gave time, or became
bound for more than the usual number of years. (c)
There is little doubt that the old apprenticeship system was largely
a matter of exploitation on the part of the employer. (d) The long
term is explicable not only from the fact that trades were less sub
divided and disintegrated and consequently more difficult to acquire
than at present, but also because boys were indentured at a very
early age, generally between 12 and 16 years.
A description of the old indenture system prevailing in the small
industries (petites industries) of France, by a French writer, M. Olphe
Gaillard, sheds some light upon the conditions under which the
apprentice of former days worked. “ It is not rare,” writes M. Gaillard,
“ to meet with some small shops where apprentices work from thirteen
to fourteen hours per day, with a Sunday half holiday, and are lodged
in damp, ill-ventilated hovels or in cold barns, exposed to the
weather.” if) Added to the wretched physical environment was the*5
« S. G. Rawson, The Nation, the Apprentice, and the Polytechnic, Contemporary
Review , Vol. L X X X , p. 585.
5 Bolles, Apprenticeship and Industrial Schools in Pennsylvania, Annual Report
of the Pennsylvania Bureau of Statistics, 1893, p. 3.
c Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (Rogers edition), Vol. I (Book I, Chap. X ),
p. 107.
d The keen discernment of Adam Smith pointed out that a seven years’ term was
excessive, and that the “ longest apprenticeships can give no security against fraud.”
“ In the common mechanic trades,” he writes, “ those (i. e., lessons) of a few days
might certainly be sufficient. The dexterity of hand, indeed, even in common trades,
can not be acquired without much practise and experience.” —Wealth of Nations,
Book I, Chap. X .
e La crise de l ’ apprentissage et les conditions du travail des jeunes ouvriers dans
l ’industrie modeme. La Science Sociale, Vol. 34, p. 193.
754
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
lack of opportunity for mental culture. The apprentice of the old
days did not come in constant contact with fellow-workmen in the
same craft, and his long hours of fatiguing manual work did not
permit intellectual recreations. Furthermore, as M. Olphe Gaillard
points out, the small isolated shops in which apprentices worked were
not so amenable to inspection or legislation as modem factories. (°)
The gradual decadence of this ancient method of teaching boys the
knowledge of a craft may be ascribed to various causes, all of which
have their roots in the economic changes wrought by machine,
industry. In general they may be summed up as follows:
(1) Production on a large scale, which destroys the personal
relations between employer and employee or master and apprentice.
(2) The extensive use of machinery and subdivision of labor.
(3) The unwillingness of employers to take on apprentices.
(4) The unwillingness of journeymen to instruct apprentices.
(5) The dislike of boys for apprenticeship.
Each of these, in so far as they have affected changes in the methods
of entrance to a trade, will be taken up in turn and discust separately.
LARGE SCALE PRODUCTION OF MODERN INDUSTRY.
In olden times, as has already been remarked, the apprentice (who
frequently entered the household of his master) was under the direct
supervision and responsibility of the latter for his training and his
moral conduct. Such close personal relations between apprentice and
master, under the modern system of production on a large scale, is
utterly impracticable, if not impossible. The employer is no longer
responsible for the training and conduct of the apprentice, even in
cases where the apprentice is duly indentured. Instead of the master
directly supervising the training of th e #apprentice, this duty in
modern workshops is relegated either to the foreman or to the journey
men, or it is entirely neglected. The speed and stress under which
modem industry proceeds frequently renders the training of an “ all
round” apprentice a financial loss to the employer, who can not
permit his journeymen to be diverted from their labor in order
to look after the apprentice’s instruction. Consequently the appren
tice, instead of being trained to do journeymen’s work, is not uncom
monly given odd jobs around the shop, acting as errand boy and
handy man. (*
6)
a La crise de 1’ apprentissage et les conditions du travail des jeunes ouvriers dans
l ’ industrie moderne. La Science Sociale, Yol. 34, p. 192.
& This practise has proceeded so far that a comparatively new group of mechanics,
the electrical workers, define an apprentice as one ‘ ‘ who is employed to do errands,
carry material to or on job, attend lockers, and assist journeymen in testing,” but who
may not be employed for any other purpose. See agreement drawn up b y the New
Y ork Electrical Workers and employers (1900), in Report of the Industrial Commission,
Yol. X Y II, p. 415.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
755
Even if the old form of apprenticeship were retained under modem
conditions, and the employer were still held personally responsible
for the training of the apprentice, in the great majority of trades and
occupations the practical usefulness of such a system would be almost
nil. In industries in which automatic or semiautomatic machines and
a minute subdivision of processes have come into play, small oppor
tunity is afforded a boy to acquire a thoro knowledge of aH branches
of a craft. Moreover, a mechanic under modern conditions finds it
more profitable to confine himself to only one narrow branch of a
trade, for he gains thereby as great a pecuniary advantage to himself
as if time and effort were expended in the acquisition of the whole
trade. Only a very few employees in the manufacturing industries
possess a broad knowledge of the different branches and processes
of a whole craft, and these are generally the class of men who direct
the labor of others— the foremen and superintendents. But for the
great bulk of the workmen, who perform the mechanical operations,
little knowledge beyond the particular process in which each is
separately engaged is required. The feeding of an automatic or a
semiautomatic machine tool, or attending a turret lathe in the
machine shop; the stitching of a small section of a garment in a
clothing factory; the severing of the hide from a definite part of a
beef carcass, and a number of other occupations of similar character,
demand very little experience and can be done efficiently after a few
weeks’ instruction and practise. So minute are the subdivisions
in such occupations that a man often does little more than a hun
dredth part of a trade. There are many who are called tailors, boot
makers, cabinetmakers, engineers, carpenters, and so forth, who in
reality are acquainted with only a small section of the trade which
they profess.
THE UNWILLINGNESS OF EMPLOYERS TO TAKE ON APPRENTICES.
Owing to this disintegration of trades neither employers nor
employees are particularly desirous of having apprentices in the
workshop. The expense of training apprentices, together with the
losses frequently resulting from material spoiled by them, or the
impossibility of marketing their product, leads employers to seek
additional mechanics from laborers and helpers rather than train
apprentices for this purpose. This condition is aggravated by the
fact that the apprentices as well as the employees no longer remain
steadily in one shop with the same employer, but readily move about
from place to place, seeking higher wages and better conditions.
However much the trade unions seek to enforce the indenturing of
apprentices there is no security that they will serve out their term
under one employer. In the glass-bottle manufacturing industry,
where the indenture system largely prevails, union employers
756
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
frequently complain that apprentices do not serve the five years’
term but run away and seek employment in nonunion shops. (a)
The same complaint is made in other industries or trades in which
the old system of apprenticeship is still maintained.
UNWILLINGNESS OF JOURNEYMEN TO TRAIN APPRENTICES.
If the modern apprentice is to receive instruction at all in the shop,
it must come principally from the foremen and journeymen. But a
journeyman naturally has no direct interest in the apprentice (unless,
perchance, the apprentice happens to be a son or near relative).
He rather regards the apprentice as a rival who may eventually
“ take the bread out of his mouth.” The consequence is that the
instruction of the apprentice is frequently neglected. Instead of
being trained as an all-round and efficient mechanic, in most trades
he is merely put to work at some simple occupation in which he
readily becomes a proficient as well as a profitable employee. (6)
The apprentice thus tends to become a specialist. Separated both
from the employer and from the journeymen little opportunity is
afforded him for practise and instruction in all branches of a trade.
In a number of industries which have been badly disintegrated, it
is almost impossible under normal conditions for the apprentice to
receive a regular course of instruction.
No better illustration is afforded of this condition than the recent
changes in the machinist trades. In modern machine shops (except
where employers conduct special schools for apprentices), the
tendency toward specialization renders the training of apprentices
both expensive to employers and troublesome to the journeyman;
hence, except in extraordinary cases, very few apprentices are
found in the machine shops, and these do not become skilled in
the higher grades of work. Boys in the shop are taught to operate
one machine and none other. They thus become “ specialists” or
machine tenders rather than machinists. Moreover, since modern
machine tools in a large number of cases require little skill or exertion
to operate, a boy with ordinary intelligence after a few months’
practise can earn the wages of a competent machinist. Where skill
is required in adjusting material to the tools, in a large number of
machine shops skilled machinists do the work, while handy men and
attendants take charge of the machines, i. e., handle the levers and
a The National Glass Budget, May 11, 1901. Apprentices that are registered with
the trade unions are universally required to serve out their term with one employer,
provided the latter desires it. To keep track of the boys who leave their employers
before*finishing their term of service the unions have enacted rigid laws with reference
to runaway apprentices.
b Joseph Horner, The Training cf Workmen, Cassier’ s Magazine, Yol. X X , p. 110.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
757
watch the operation of the machine. This practise increases the
proportion of unskilled to skilled mechanics in the machine shops. ( a)
In machine shops of the present day apprentices or beginners may
be separated into five different classes: (1) Those who are taught the
branches of lathe work, vise work, plane work, gear cutting and mill
ing— the “ all-round” machinist; (2) those who are taught lathe
work and vise work only; (3) those who are taught lathe work only,
or vise work only, or plane work only; (4) the handy men— secondrate machinists, and (5) the specialists who are simply taught to oper
ate or attend a single machine. The tendency is to restrict appren
tices more and more to the last two grades. It is thus difficult for
employers to procure skilled machinists and practically impossible
for the unions to enforce a definite term of apprenticeship. Con
sequently a crying demand for skilled machinists and a widespread
complaint of the lack of competent and thoroly efficient mechanics
has arisen on the part of employers. Several of the large firms thruout
the country have taken steps to provide themselves with skilled
mechanics. Schools for the training of apprentices have been started
in the shops of these firms, wherein thoro instruction in all branches
of machinists’ work is afforded the pupils. (b)
The trend toward the “ specialization” of apprentices prevails to
some extent in the printing trade, the constant enlargement of print
ing establishments making this specialization possible. Practically
in only small shops and country newspaper offices do apprentices
have the opportunity of receiving an all-round training. Composi
tors are restricted in a great many offices to one line of work, such as
display, advertising, straight matter, job work, and so forth. Conse
quently, as among machinists, there is little opportunity for journey
men to attend to the needs of apprentices. Master printers must
accordingly rely chiefly upon the small shops for their supply of
thoroly trained journeymen. The same situation prevails in the
British printing industry, where compositors are trained in the non
union printing offices in the small towns, and when proficient they
flock to the large cities and acquire membership in the unions. (c)
Multiplication of occupations and specialization of mechanics are
constantly going on in much of the work relating to the construction *&
a Owing to the practise of placing apprentices upon specialized work, the Inter
national Association of Machinists lately inaugurated a policy of organizing the appren
tices into separate locals known as apprentice lodges. Eleven of these lodges were
organized in 1904.
&Such schools are found at the Baldwin Locomotive Works, the Brown and Sharpe
Manufacturing Company, the Chicago and Northwestern Railway, and thp General
Electric Company.
c Webb, Industrial Democracy, new edition, 1902, p. 467
115:3—No. 67—06------6
758
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
of buildings, (a) despite the fact that the building trades have been
affected less by machinery and mechanical contrivances than the
manufacturing industries. The erection of large structures is con
trolled in the main by corporations who take contracts in all large
cities. These corporations find it profitable to employ mechanics who
are specialists in certain branches of their respective trades, and shift
them about from locality to locality, wherever they have need of them.
Men of this class find little time or opportunity to instruct boys in the
processes of the trade. In fact, no personal tie or intimate relation
exists between the beginner and those who have charge of the work,
for, except in small towns, the apprentice is not generally known to
the foreman or journeyman. The apprentice, moreover, is frequently
physically in the way on a large building where all work must be done
in order and on time, for no large contractor desires boy labor merely
because it can be secured at a lower wage. “ The time consumed in
teaching the trade to beginners would cause a delay in work, more
expensive than the sum saved on wages. ” (**6) Besides, much of the
work done on buildings is of such a heavy character that it can not be
effectually done by boys, and consequently adult laborers or helpers
are more profitably employed in their stead.
DISLIKE OF BOYS FOR APPRENTICESHIP.
If the apprenticeship system is undesirable to the employers and
unsatisfactory to the journeymen, it is even more distasteful to young
people desirous of entering upon an industrial career, for boys ordi
narily prefer the casual system of learning a trade rather than thru
apprenticeship. Various causes have combined to produce this effect,
the most important of which are: (1) The long and excessive term of
apprenticeship with one employer and the low wages paid to appren
tices, especially during the early period of their training; (2) the increas
ing age at which young people now begin then' industrial career, and
(3) the possibility of acquiring a craft knowledge as a common laborer.
The long terms of apprenticeship enforced both by employers and
trade unions have already been referred to. Boys, wearying of the
discipline and restrictions under which they are placed, frequently
either refrain from becoming apprentices or when apprenticed leave
their employers and apply for positions in unskilled trades. (c) Inden
turing does not necessarily hinder desertion of the master by the
apprentice, since very few employers care to take the trouble of legally
enforcing an unwilling apprentice to serve out his full term. An
appeal to law in such a case is as exceptional an occurrence nowadays
as is the payment of wages in kind.
« Booth, Life and Labor of the People of London, Vol. Y, p. 100; also Studies in
American Trade Unionism, edited by Hollander and Barnett, p. 285.
& Studies in American Trade Unionism, edited by Hollander and Barnett, p. 286.
c Bolles, Apprenticeship and Industrial Schools in Pennsylvania, p. 13.
759
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
The difficulty of obtaining apprentices in occupations which require
a long training for proficiency is well brought out in the custom tailor
ing trade. The Journeymen Tailors’ Union has been very liberal in
its apprenticeship regulations, permitting each journeyman to have
one apprentice. The returns of locals in 1903 show that there were
only 625 apprentices reported, whereas the membership of the union
was about 14,500. (a) As stated by the president of the Journeymen
Tailors’ Union in his report for 1905, “ The world is now moving too
rapidly, industrially speaking at least, for anyone to take six, seven,
or eight years to learn a trade. * * * The most careful inquiry
and investigation has demonstrated that there are but few apprentices
to the tailoring trade in the world to-day.” (6)
In a number of trades the great profit of apprentices to employers,
where the latter seek to maintain the apprenticeship system, is the low
wages paid the apprentice. Commenting upon this condition an
editorial in the Plumbers’ , Gas and Steam Fitters’ Official Journal,
February, 1906, stated that it is a visionary idea that a boy would fol
low up a business at the rate of pay stipulated for apprentices in the
plumbers’ trade. The following is about the usual rate of pay which,
with its regular increases, is laid down for apprentices:
Per day.
For
For
For
For
For
For
For
the
the
the
the
the
the
the
first six months.................................................................................................... $0.50
second six months...................................................................................................... 75
second year.......................................................................................................... 1.00
third year.............................................................................................................. 1.25
fourth year............................................................................................................ 1.50
first six months of the fifth year...................................................................... 2.50
last six months of the fifth y e a r . ................................................................. 3.00
“ How many practical men,” continues the editorial in the Plumb
ers’ Journal, “ will admit that a man will work for $1.50 a day when he
has been at the trade four years? Imagine a skilled mechanic with
four years’ experience working at a job at $ 1.50 per day, and his digger,
perhaps, unable to speak the English language, receiving $1.75 or $2,
and sometimes more. How long would an ambitious young man of
18 or 20 years of age work as a mechanic at anything less than $2 per
day ? * * * There is no law in any city or State in this United
States and Canada that will permit an employer or a boy’s parents
to bind him out and compel the boy to remain at work where he is
assigned, because the laws concerning the binding of apprentices have
been abolished about seventy-five years.” (c)
The low wages received by apprentices is further exemplified in the
pottery industry. In the most important trades comprised therein
apprentices work at a discount from the prevailing journeyman’s
a The Tailor, August, 1903, p. 5.
b Ibid., February, 1905, p. 6.
c Plumbers, Gas and Steam Fitters’ Official Journal, February, 1906, pp. 1,2.
760
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
scale— i. e., for the same ware turned out by both appientice and
journeyman the apprentice receives a rate of wage which varies from
33 per cent discount off the regular for the first six months of appren
ticeship to 10 per cent off for the last year. This discount, together
with the small output of a beginner, reduces the earnings of appren
tices to a very low average, and discourages intelligent and ambitious
boys from becoming skilled workers in the industry. (a)
In the printing trade a similar practise of paying apprentices at
fractional rates of the journeymen’s scale prevails in some localities.
Thus in the Cincinnati agreement of local Typographical Union No. 3
the scale for apprentices, which is typical of apprenticeship wages pre
vailing in localities where it is regulated by agreement, is graded as
follows:
First year, one-fourth of journeyman’s wages.
Second year, one-third of journeyman’ s wages.
Third year, one-half of journeyman’s wages.
Fourth year, two-thirds of journeyman’s wages.
In the fourth year of apprenticeship the printer’s apprentice is gen
erally known as a “ two-thirder, ” because of the fact that he is entitled
to two-thirds of the prevailing scale of wages.
A still lower apprentice scale of wages than the above prevails in
some locals of the Machinists. Thus the agreement entered into
between the Erie Railroad Company and the International Associa
tion of Machinists, commencing July 1, 1905, contained the following
wage scale for apprentices:
Per hour.
First year............................................................................................................................. $0.08
Second year..................................................................................................................................10
Third year.................................................................................................................................... 12
Fourth year.........................................................................................
14
After the fourth year the apprentice is classed as a journeyman. (b)
One reason why the small earnings of apprentices tend to discourage
boys from acquiring a skilled trade by serving an apprenticeship is
the tendency to increase the age at which young people begin an
industrial career. We have seen that under the old apprenticeship
system boys begin to learn a trade when quite young, 14 years being
the usual age at which a boy was indentured. The higher standards
of elementary education and compulsory school attendance laws,
together with child-labor legislation, have raised the minimum age of
an apprentice to 16 years and in some cases even to 18 years. . Most*&
a An apprentice presser, for example, serves five years before becoming a journey
man, and is paid at the rate of 33J per cent discount off the scale in his first year, 25 per
cent off the second year, 20 per cent off the third year, 15 per cent off the fourth year,
and 10 per cent off the fifth year. After five years he receives the journeyman’s scale.
See Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 670.
&Machinists’ Monthly Journal, August, 1905, Yol. X V II, p. 684.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL, TRADES.
761
of the trade unions have rules which prohibit the taking of appren
tices before the age of 16, while several place the minimum at 18. (a)
This increase of the age of apprenticeship in many industries arises
also from the fact that the work (particularly in the building and
metal trades) is of such a heavy, dangerous, or intense character that
it can not be readily performed by youths.
The constant tendency toward specialization and simplification of
the processes within a trade frequently enables a boy or an ordinary
laborer to acquire a working knowledge of a craft without undergoing
a regular training. If a general inquiry were made among the
mechanics of the different trades as to how they acquired their craft
knowledge, the answer in a large number of cases would be, “ I merely
picked it up.” Even in the building trades, in which the appren
ticeship system prevails more largely than in other industries, the
casual acquisition of craft knowledge is gradually replacing the reg
ular system of apprenticeship. In an investigation of 124 cases in
London in 1893, conducted by Mr. Charles Booth, (6) 118 gave the
following particulars regarding the way in which the craft was
learned:
METHOD B Y WHICH, 118 MECHANICS IN BUILD ING IN DU STRY LEARNED TH EIR
TRADES, LONDON, 1893.
Trade.
Number
appren
ticed.
Taught
Picked
up knowl
by
father.
edge.
Masons..............................................................................................................
Bricklayers.......................................................................................................
Carpenters and joiners....................................................................................
Plasterers.........................................................................................................
Painters............................................................................................................
Plumbers..........................................................................................................
Smiths and fitters...........................................................................................
Other branches...................................................
.....................................
Laborers...........................................................................................................
3
16
26
1
4
1
2
2
2
4
4
7
3
4
1
2
4
1
4
6
1
2
9
9
All trades................................................................................................
55
27
36
a An investigation conducted by the Wisconsin bureau of labor and industrial statistics in 1889
showed that o f 525 workmen in the building trades, 101, or 19 per cent, began to work at their trades
after having reached the age of 25 years. Of these 48 were native born and 53 foreign born. The
number beginning to work at their trades before 18 years of age were 181, or 34 per cent, 16 per cent
being native born and 18 per cent foreign bom .—Fourth Biennial Report of the (Wisconsin) Com
missioner of Labor and Industrial Statistics, pp. 38, 39.
b Charles Booth, Life and Labor of the People of London, Vol. V, pp. 103, 104.
762
BULLETIN
of
the
bureau
of
labor.
In 93 of the above cases particular attention has been given as to
the locality in which the trade was learned, showing:
LOCALITY IN W HICH 93 MECHANICS IN BU ILD IN G IN DU STRY LEARNED TH E IR
TRAD ES, LONDON, 1893.
In
In London. provinces.
Apprenticed..............
Learned from father
Picked u p ..................
26
17
a3
T otal................
53
40
10
a Including
30
7
1 in America.
In large cities in the United States, where the building trades are
less efficiently organized than in Great Britain, the number of work
men who acquire craft knowledge by other means than apprentice
ship or the regular form of promotion is undoubtedly relatively more
than shown in the above table. ( a) In the plumbing trades particu
larly many become journeymen without being thoroly trained. An
editorial in the official journal of the Plumbers, February, 1906,
complains:
There will always be cities or towns enough that are unorganized
that will turn out helpers and apprentices in large enough number to
supply the demand. And then again, and on the other hand, there
will always be some cities where the employers and journeymen will
not be judicious enough to regulate the number to be employed as
they should be. The scab shop and the nonassociation employers will
also continue to manufacture plumbers at a compound rate, and then
again, we may be years convincing some old-fashioned and stubborn
cities that the trade is overrun by an extensive number of men. * * *
The journeyman is also responsible, to a great extent, for this condi
tion of affairs, because in years past, when plumbing was considered
more of an art than it is to-day and the wages were comparatively
higher, the journeyman, to use the language of the street, “ got the
swelled head,” and thought he must have a boy to carry his overalls
around and to shine his tools for him, and walk: on the other side of
the street with his tool bag lest society should see him with a dirty
carpet sack on his shoulder. (6)
a The Relation of Labor Organizations to the American B oy and to Trade Instruc
tion, b y E. W. Bemis, in Annals of the American Academ y of Political and Social
Science, September, 1894, Vol. V, p. 218. In the Massachusetts census for 1885, the
fact was brought out that in none of the building trades was there one-half and in
most cases not one-fourth as many apprentices as the rules of the trade unions would
allow. In Wisconsin in 1889, according to the Fourth Biennial Report of the Com
missioner of Labor and Industrial Statistics (p. 69), there were only 1 apprentice to
every 13 journeymen among masons; 1 to every 12 among carpenters; 1 to every
12J among painters, while there were 3 apprentices to every 4 journeymen among the
plumbers.
b Plumbers, Gas and Steam Fitters’ Official Journal, February, 1906, p. 2.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
763
In view of the fact that the trend of industrial development is con
tinually causing a relaxation of apprenticeship regulations, it is
surprizing to see the number of trades in which apprenticeship still
forms one of the principal and most important methods of entrance.
But, as we have already shown, the apprenticeship system of to-day
is an entirely different thing from what it was a century ago. In
former days the apprentice was usually a member of the employer’s"
household; in most trades at the present time he is merely a boy
working with a number of journeymen, doing a similar line of work.
Tho a few trade organizations seek to uphold the system of inden
turing, an indentured apprentice is a rarity. (°) Moreover, it must
be remembered that a considerable number of the trade unions which
retain the traditional apprenticeship system are not successful in
enforcing them. Thus, the constitution of the Cigar Makers’ Inter
national Union provides that all persons learning cigar making or
packing must serve a three years’ apprenticeship, and that no shop
should be granted the label that does not enforce this provision.
This provision, however, is admittedly a dead letter, and the union
only encourages compliance with the apprenticeship laws in such
localities where it is exceptionally strong. (**6) In the printing trade,
likewise, both in the United States and in Great Britain, compliance
with the apprentice regulations is not universally insisted upon, and
the union members are largely recruited from nonunion printers who
have acquired their trade without undergoing an apprenticeship. (c)
But probably the best evidence of the nugatory character of union
•apprenticeship regulations is the relatively small number of strikes
conducted to enforce these regulations.
This is shown in the
accompanying table of the causes of strikes by leading trades.
Studies in American Trade Unionism, edited by Hollander and Barnett, p. 269.
Even in France, where the system of small industries prevails more largely than in the
United States, indenturing is the exception rather than the rule. An investigation
conducted by the French Government in 1901 showed that out of 2,000 apprentices
in the printing trade only 41 were indentured. The duration of the indenture was
from two to five yearn. See Journal de la Soci6te de Statistique de Paris, Yol. 44, p. 85.
& Testimony of Ex-President Adolph Strasser, of the Cigar Makers’ International
Union, Report of the Industrial Commission, Yol. V II, p. 265.
c W ebb, Industrial Democracy, new edition, 1902, pp. 464,465; also Bemis, The
Relation of Labor Organizations to the American B oy and to Trade Instruction,
Annals of American Academ y of Political and Social Science, September, 1894, Yol.
V, p. 217.#
764
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.
PERCENTAGE OF STRIKES DUE TO SPECIFIED GROUPS OF CAUSES, B Y LEADING
INDUSTRIES, 1887-1894.(0)
Stone
Tobac Coal
Cotton Boot
Build quarry Glass Print co and mining Cloth
and
and
and
ing
ing ing and trades.
ing
cigar
woolen
shoe
trades. cut
trades. manu coke manu indus indus
manu facture. try.
ting.
facture. facture.
try.
Causes.
For increased wages or
union scale.........................
Against decrease of wages. .
Hours, overtime, holidays..
Time and methods of pay
ment, fines, etc..................
For recognition of union___
In sympathy with strikers
elsewhere............................
Against nonunion and other
obnoxious men, foremen,
etc.......................................
For employment or rein
statement of men, fore
men, etc..............................
R e g a r d in g a p p r e n t i c e s __
_
Against introduction of
machinery..........................
Miscellaneous........................
T otal........................
37.7
4.0
27.6
31.6
2.9
31.2
27.6
4.5
21.4
46.3
5.3
20.2
57.3
11.1
.1
52.9
24.8
2.3
44.6
12.4
12.8
39.1
23.7
4.1
32.1
24.6
.15
2.4
8.8
9.6
.1
8.2
.J8
3.9
1.2
.4
.2
8.1
.7
4.9
5.0
8.8
.2
4.1
4.6
7.2
5.3
.4
1.4
23.7
7.2
1.9
7.7
14.4
7.8
8.7
2.4
1.4
4.9
4.3
10.8
.3
1.1
.4
1.7
3.7
12.4
4.3
2.0
.7
.8
1.8
2.3
.1
6.6
6.1
.5
.1
3.1
2.8
13.2
.02
6.7
.8
2.5
.8
.2
10.9
.6
12.6
3.9
9.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
4.2
o Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol X V II, p. 656.
It will be seen from this table that strikes regarding apprentices
are most frequent in the strongly organized trades, tho even in these
relatively few strikes result therefrom. The glass industry naturally
has the largest percentage of strikes caused by violation or enforce
ment of apprenticeship regulations. The glass trades from early
times have been very strongly organized, and on account of the high
skill required a long apprenticeship is necessary. The trade unions
have endeavored, with very considerable success, to enforce strict
limitations concerning the number of apprentices, and hence we find
that in 12.4 per cent of the total number of strikes in the glass
industry from 1887 to 1894 the cause was connected with apprentice
ship. Organizations whose craft have undergone a disintegration,
causing a decline in skill, can do little to prevent any person from
entering the trade at any time he sees fit. Thus in the Cigar Makers7
International Union from 1885 to 1901 the ratio of strikes conducted
to enforce apprenticeship rules to the total number is comparatively
insignificant, as shown by the following table, compiled from the
reports of the international president:
PER CENT OF STRIKES IN THE CIGAR M AKERS’ INTERN ATIONAL UNION TO ENFORCE
APPREN TICESH IP RULES, 1885 TO 1901.
Period.
1885-1887..................................................................................................
1887-1889..................................................................................................
1889-1891..................................................................................................
1891-1893..................................................................................................
1893-1898..................................................................................................
1896-1901..................................................................................................
Strikes to
Total
enforce
number of apprentice
strikes.
ship rules.
167
160
254
275
290
495
7
11
8
2
.2 0
18
Per cent
of total.
4.2
6.9
3.1
0.7
6.9
3.6
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
765
Another evidence of the nonenforcement of apprenticeship regula
tions is the noticeable absence of provisions relating to apprentices
in many trade and industrial agreements. Except in the old handi
crafts, which have suffered little deterioration from machinery or
new processes, together with the building, the metal, and the print
ing trades, no provisions regarding entrance to the trade are usually
contained in th e, agreements between employers and employees.
Tho such provisions are invariably found in the trade agreements of
the glass and pottery trades, grange cutters, pattern makers and
iron molders, and a few other metal trades, they are usually absent
in the agreements of wage scales entered into by the Boot and Shoe
Workers’ Union, the Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Work
men, the textile organizations, and the iron, steel, and tin workers.( a)
The usual term of apprenticeship prevailing in American unions is
from three to four years, tho some organizations enforce a five-years’
term. Employers as a class do not object to the length of appren
ticeship fixt by the trade unions. In fact, in a'few industries (i. e.,
the glass industry) it is the employers, and not the unions, which
insist upon a long term of apprenticeship. The controversy regard
ing apprentices is generally over the limitation of the number of
apprentices, a question with which our study is not directly concerned.
The following table gives in condensed form the period of appren
ticeship required by American national and international trade
unions and the minimum and maximum 'kges at which the appren
ticeship may be begun when stated in the constitutions and rules of
the organizations:
PERIOD OF APPREN TICESH IP REQU IRED B Y AMERICAN NATIO NAL AND IN TERN A
TIONAL TRAD E UNIONS, AND AGE AT WHICH APPREN TICESH IP MAY BE BEGUN.
Union.
International Brotherhood of Blacksmiths..........................................
Bricklayers’ and Masons’ International Union....................................
Brotherhood of Boiler Makers and Iron Shipbuilders........................
Brotherhood of Bookbinders..................................................................
United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners...................................
Cigar Makers’ International Union......................................................
Glass Bottle Blowers’ Association........................................................
Journeymen Stone Cutters’ Association...............................................
United Hatters of North America.........................................................
Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers, Brass Molders, and Brass Work
ers’ Union..............................................................................................
Sheet Metal W orkers’ International Association................................
Iron Molders’ Union.................................................................................
Pattern Makers’ League..........................................................................
International Typographical Union......................................................
Age (yea rs) when
Term of
apprentice3ship may
appren
be be3gun.
ticeship
(years). Minimum.
Maximum.
64
3
3
4
4
b3
d5
4
3
3
«3
4
4
4
16
(0
( c)
( c)
18
16
16
15
( c)
21
(0
(<0
(0
21
18
21
18
21
16
16
20
a The unions which adhere most strictly to the apprenticeship regulations are moderately successful,
in enforcing them. Among these are the Pattern Makers’ League of North America, the Bricklayers’
and Masons’ International Union of America, the National Brotherhood of Operative Potters, and
the Table Knife Grinders’ National Union of the United States.
&Minimum.
d For machine operators, three years.
cN ot reported.
e Period recommended for adoption by local unions.
766
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The traditional system of apprenticeship, despite its inadaptability
to modern industrial conditions, is not without its advantages. Even
in the manufacturing trades, which are so unfavorable to the acquisi
tion of an all-round knowledge of a craft, the apprenticeship sys
tem is frequently beneficial to both the employer and the mechanic.
In the first place, the apprenticeship system assures the employer a
supply of trained workmen, possessing intellectual and manual effi
ciency. A mechanic who has acquired his craft knowledge by a
process of difficult training possesses a pride of workmanship which
insures greater interest and a better exercise of judgment and skill.
Employers in different trades recognize this fact, and occasionally
endeavor to reestablish the old apprenticeship system. Several of
the large engineering works have instituted courses of instruction
for apprentices in their shops, while in the printing trades, the textile
industry, and in a number of the building trades, employers in dif
ferent localities have likewise taken steps to train boys as efficient
workmen in their respective trades.
Undoubtedly the greatest advantage of the apprenticeship system
accrues to the mechanic himself. B y receiving an all-round train
ing he is thereby enabled to work in all branches of the craft,
and thus attains greater adaptability to changing employments.
Much of the distress caused by the changes that are constantly
occurring within a trade can be thus obviated.
Furthermore, a
thoro training in all branches of a craft divorces the worker from
his dependence upon a single machine or a single mechanical process
for a livelihood. It gives him a wider intellectual and manual outlook,
by means of which he is more readily able to turn from ‘one process
to another if the change in trade or fashion should render such a step
necessary. He thus becomes more independent, and is better
equipped to take his part in the struggle for existence.
SUBSTITUTES FOR APPRENTICESHIP.
THE QUASI APPRENTICESHIP SYSTEM IN MANUFACTURING
INDUSTRIES.
In a number of manufacturing industries where machines have
replaced the skill of the handicraftsman a method of training is in
vogue which is similar to apprenticeship, inasmuch as a person wish
ing to. become a worker undergoes a preliminary course of instruction.
The training, however, differs from that of the old apprenticeship
system in that, owing to the simplicity of the operation performed,
only a few months are usually required for proficiency. Consequently
no age qualification for learners prevails. Adults as well as young
people starting out to earn a livelihood are admitted as learners.
This degenerate or u quasi apprenticeship ” system is the usual
method by which a garment maker enters upon his occupation. The
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
767
effect of the use of machinery and of the minute subdivision of labor
in the clothing industry, as we have already shown, has been the
employment of unskilled immigrants as operatives in place of the
old-time skilled journeymen tailors. These immigrants ordinarily
begin as learners in the small shops of the contractors, where each is
taught a single branch of the trade as a reward for his labor, and
frequently in return for a stipulated fee. As the learner becomes
proficient and is able to turn out a perfect product with moderate
rapidity, he generally leaves the employ of the contractor and seeks
employment in the factories or larger shops. Since the function of
the contractor is that of an employer as well as teacher, his object
is to get as much work out of the learner <as possible. To accomplish
this the learner is confined to a particular kind of work at which pro
ficiency may readily be acquired after a few weeks of practise. The
immigrant thus becomes either an operator on pants, a baster or presser
on coats, a sleeve maker, a shoulder padder, or a worker in any other
of the numerous occupations involved in the making of a garment. ( a)
The common methods of entrance to the occupations of cigar
making, boot and shoe making, machine woodworking, and the textile
trades are very similar to that prevailing in the clothing industry.
Tho skilled hand cigar makers may require several years’ training
to become thoroly proficient, cigar “ rollers” using the “ suction
table” can readily earn the average wages after two or three months’
practise, and “ bunch makers” can become proficient in even less
time. A large manufacturing firm in New York City, employing
a thousand female cigar makers working with the aid of suction
tables, maintains a learners’ department, where those wishing to
learn cigar rolling or “ bunch” making are paid a minimum wage of
$3 per week during the time they are taught these occupations.
Many of the learners in this department, after a few weeks’ instruc
tion, can earn the average wage per week, working at piecework rates.
Hand cigar makers usually acquire their craft knowledge in the
shops of the small manufacturers employing immigrant labor or in
the country t o w n s . An immigrant wishing to become a cigar maker
frequently pays a journeyman or a small manufacturer a stipulated
sum to teach him the trad^. Beginners, after three or four weeks,
can learn to make bunches or to roll cigars, and within three months
they can do both operations sufficiently well to have their product
a Several of the occupations in garment making, however, require more training for
proficiency than that which is furnished in the contractors’ shops. The pocket mak
ers, for example, being among the most skilful men of the trade, are able to earn $30
and $35 per week in the busy season. They require considerable experience and
training before they become proficient in their line of work. The coat presser is like
wise a skilled mechanic, and receives a higher average of wages than most of the other
workers.
768
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
placed on the market. Beginners, of course, are employed on the
cheapest grades of cigars, since considerable tobacco is spoiled by
them while learning. (a)
The method of entrance to the textile trades is even simpler than
that of cigar making or garment making. With the recent improve
ments in weaving and spinning machinery has come a noticeable
decline in the quality and skill of the operatives. Modern automatic
looms for weaving are so easily managed that a case is mentioned
where a totally inexperienced girl learned to run 14 looms within a
week.(*6) As she becomes more experienced the number of looms
placed in charge of the learner can be increased until the maximum
is reached. (c) It usually requires one year for an absolutely green
male hand to become competent to take charge of the maximum
number of looms per weaver in the mill and to be thoroly educated
into the work of efficient weaving, but he may be safely given charge
of as many as 15 looms after a few weeks’ practise.
In the occupation of ring spinning the time required for learning
is even shorter than that of weaving. A girl can begin to earn the
average rate of wages after two or three weeks’ training. (d)
HELPER SYSTEM OF ENTRANCE TO A TRADE.
The “ helper system” of promotion or the progression within a trade
is frequently a substitute for apprenticeship. The laborer known
as the “ helper” must not be confounded with the apprentice. The
latter is generally a youth undergoing a training to become a journey
man. He uses a journeyman’ s tools and is in most trades permitted
to do a journeyman’s work. The helper, however, except in a very
few trades, receives no instruction and is restricted to certain kinds
of unskilled employment. As we have already pointed out?, he is
not allowed to use the journeyman’s tools, and in many trades is
not under the jurisdiction of the journeyman’s union. As his name
implies he helps the journeyman, performing for the latter such serv
ices as do not require craft proficiency. B y reason of his opportu
nity to watch the work of the journeyman the “ helper,” or “ handy
man,” is frequently enabled to acquire the craft knowledge of the
latter and eventually perform the same services.
A further distinguishing feature of the “ helper system” of pro
motion to a trade is the absence, in most cases, of a definite term of
a Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 580.
&Young, American Cotton Industry, p. 62.
c An evidence of the fact that little training is required in the cotton-weaving
industry is that the weavers’ unions have no mles regarding qualification for mem
bership. Mr. Thos. F. Connolly, secretary of the Lowell Weavers’ Union, testified
before the Industrial Commission that his union is for the operative, irrespective of
skill.— Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. V II, p. 347.
d Report of the Industrial Commission Vol. X V , p. 420.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
769
training or experience required for admission to the trade. Helpers
are found largely in occupations in which the work is of such heavy
character that a greater physical strength is demanded than is ordi
narily possest by youths, hence they are frequently men of mature
age. In several of the building trades, such, for example, as tile
laying, the helper must carry water, brick, and tiles, and do other
heavy work.
The helper system also predominates over apprenticeship in occu
pations where experience rather than training is essential for profi
ciency. Under modern methods of running press rooms, for example,
a number of years of practical work on small presses is essential for
one desiring to take charge of a rotary press and to perform the higher
grades of work. Accordingly the young men who should be rated as
apprentices in a press room are feeders and job pressmen, who attend
the small presses or who assist in the operation of large cylinder
presses. When they have had sufficient experience and have proven
themselves capable of taking charge of the operation of a. large press,
they can be promoted to this higher position. The same methods
of promotion or progression within the trade prevail in the electrical
trades.
The electrical workers are comparatively newcomers in
the building trades, and the occupation is still considered to be in
its infancy. Many of the journeymen receive their training in the
technical schools, but before they become proficient workmen they
must gain practical experience in their craft, and accordingly they
begin as “ helpers” or “ juniora.” Ordinarily a helper is allowed to
do certain lines of work in any branch of the trade, and as soon as he
feels confident that he can do journeymen’s work, he is given an
examination which, if successfully past, entitles him to a journey
man’s wages. If not successful, he continues to work as a helper,
receiving helper’s wages. (a)
Probably the best illustration of progression within a trade after
years of experience and by means of entrance examinations is the
method of promoting engine and train men prevailing with American
railway companies. (6) As a general rule engine men in charge of
locomotives are promoted from firemen, and conductors are pro
moted from the position of brakemen. No definite term of service
a The following clause in the Boston agreement of the electrical workers and the
employers (1904) covers this provision: “ A helper shall not be allowed to finish work
in any branch of the trade. If a helper feels confident he is able to do journeyman
work after he has served three years, he shall make application to the classifying
board, and if he successfully passes the examination he shall be entitled to a journey
man’ s wages; if not successful, he shall continue to work as a helper, receiving
helper’s wages, and can not make application for another examination for six
months.” — Bulletin of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, No. 34, p. 367.
&For a detailed description of admission to the various grades of railway service, see
Report of the Industrial Commission, Yol. X V II, pp. 746-774.
770
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
is prescribed for either firemen or brakemen, but when a vacancy
occurs in the higher positions those among the firemen who are held
to be most capable are given the positions. A thoro examination is
required of the applicants before they are permitted to become
candidates. (®)
The relation of helper to the journeymen in, many occupations is
closer and more personal than the relation of apprentices and jour
neymen. It is usually advantageous to the journeyman to have a
competent helper, especially where the piecework system of wage
payment prevails. The helper is in most cases under the direct super
vision of the journeyman, whose methods and whose workmanship
he has an opportunity of observing closely. It is not uncommon for
an experienced helper to know as much of a journeyman's work as
the journeyman himself; and this, as has been previously explained,
frequently leads the employer to hire more helpers at lower wages than
received by journeymen. There are, however, different classes of
helpers, and the displacement of journeymen by them can occur
only in such occupations in which the duties of the helper are very
similar to those of the journeymen, or where the former has con
stant opportunity of closely observing the work of the latter.
Three different groups of helpers may be roughly distinguished:
(1) Ordinary laborers, (2) “ improvers,” “ holders on,” or “ junior
workmen,” and (3) handy men. The first group, who usually pre
pare material for the journeymen or who bring them their tools and
do other odd jobs, are not serious rivals to the skilled mechanic, and
only in rare cases do they strive to enter the ranks of the journeymen.
In bricklaying, plastering, and a few other building trades in which
there is much unskilled work to be done, practically no opportunity
is afforded the helper to become a mechanic, and accordingly the
unions of these trades have made no serious efforts to control the
building laborers working with them.
The case is different, however, with the second class of helpers,
namely, the “ holders on,” “ improvers,” or “ junior workmen.”
These men, tho not in training, are enabled to do work similar to
that of the journeyman under whose direction they are employed,
and if diligent and observing they soon acquire a thoro knowledge
of the craft. Since their wages are from 25 to 50 per cent lower than
those of the journeyman, they not infrequently strive to attain the
rank of journeymen by doing the work of the latter at lower wages.
In order to maintain the standard rate, therefore, the journeymen
whose work is encroached upon endeavor both to restrict the num
ber of these “ illegal men” and to organize them under their jurisdic
tion. The Brotherhood of Boilermakers, the United Association of
For specimen of such examinations, see Report of the Industrial Commission,
Vol. X V II, pp. 756-764.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
771
Journeymen Plumbers, the Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, the
Tile Layers, and a few other trades have already taken the helpers
or junior mechanics under their jurisdiction.
The third class of helpers, the “ handy men,” are not necessarily
attached to journeymen, since they do not aid directly in the work of
the latter. They are men who either are employed around the shop
at odd jobs, or who do the less skilled parts of work, such as finish
ing, filling in, and so forth. The skilled mechanics endeavor to
restrict this class of workers also.
Owing to the fact that the “ helper system” tends to increase the
supply of workmen more rapidly than the apprenticeship system,
numerous cases of friction have resulted therefrom, both between
different grades of workmen in the same trade and between the
trade unions on one side and the employers on the other. The his
tory of the plumbing trades, the printing pressmen, the boiler mak
ers, and the machinists is replete with controversies over the method
of promotion from the grade of handy man or helper to that of
full-fledged journeyman.
The recent controversy in lae international Printing Pressmen
and Assistants’ Union affords the best example of friction between
different grades of workers in the same craft. Three classes of press
men are found in the printing trades: (1) Web or cylinder pressmen
(men who take charge of large cylinder presses, such as are used in
newspaper offices), (2) job pressmen, who are the ordinary press
men of the printing shops (men who mix the inks and adjust the
chases of type on the printing presses), and (3) the feeders or assist
ants. All three branches of the craft are comprized in one inter
national union, the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants’
Union. In large towns and cities each branch maintains separate
local organizations. The web pressmen are the highest skilled in
the trade, since in addition to a knowledge of inks and color mixing
they must understand the mechanism and action of rotary cylinder
presses over which they have charge. Each web pressman in charge
of the press crew requires three or four assistants for the operation of
large presses. Owing to the development of artistic printing the
standard of skill required of pressmen has been considerably enhanced,
and the different grades of pressmen included in the one organization
represent, in a way, the progress that has taken place within the
trade. Pressmen are ordinarily recruited from the assistants or
feeders. According to the constitution of the International Printing
Pressmen’s Union of 1905 all assistants in the web press room must
come from the Assistants’ Union, and the Assistants’ Union shall
have the right to^ organize all help in the web press room. Appren
tices to the web pressmen are taken from the Feeders and Job
Pressmen’s union. (a)
a See Constitution of the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants* Union,
revised and adopted June, 1905, By-laws, Article I II, sections 1 and 2.
772
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Considerable controversy in the International Union has resulted
from the practical application of this rule. The young men who do
the work in press rooms that should be rated as apprentices' work
are quite numerous, and this makes it difficult to rotate them in line
of succession. Altho previous to 1901 a four-years' apprenticeship
of “ practical presswork" and a rigid examination as to competency
was nominally required for admittance to the ranks of journeymen
pressmen, an assistant, if he was able to earn the pressmen's scale, was
given permission to work as a pressman until the period of his nom
inal apprenticeship had expired. He was then eligible to member
ship in a pressman's local, and when transferring his membership he
could not then be charged an initiation fee greater than the difference
between the initiation fee of the local from which he withdrew and
of that which he joined. Under these conditions promotion from one
grade to another was not so much a matter or question of training
and experience as the maintenance of the standard rate. The union
has not, however, succeeded in defining with distinctness the quali
fications for each grade of pressmen. As a usual thing a boy gener
ally spends a number of years working in a printing office as a feeder,
either assisting a -journeyman or operating the small presses and
doing other odd jobs about the press rooms. When the employer or
foreman places him in charge of a larger press, at which he is compe
tent to earn the prevailing scale of wages, he is ordinarily regarded
as a journeyman pressman. This system of promotion deprived the
higher-grade mechanics of the control over the admission to their
branch of the trade, and consequently made it possible for employers
to readily replace them. The president of the International Union
stated to the thirteenth annual convention (1904) that “ Pressmen
are claiming that the so-called helper is in too many instances an
illegitimate pressman with the garb of unionism thrown around him
by a feeders' union." (°)
The web pressmen complained further that the feeder, or assistant
who does the work both of the feeder and of a pressman, was only
standing in the way of the competent pressman. Consequently an
effort was made in several localities to establish an apprenticeship
period for such assistants and job pressmen as were desirous of taking
charge of cylinder presses. In 1902 Web Pressmen's Local No. 40,
of Denver, refused to admit a member of an assistants' union who
had worked four years in a press room and who had been given
charge of a press at journeymen pressmen's wages. The pressmen
held that he was not entitled to the position he had received at the
hands of his employer, since he had not complied with their appren
ticeship rules. Disputes of this character occurred in other locals,
a Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Convention, 1901, p. 341.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
773
the web pressmen contending that as long as any of their members
were out of employment no assistant should be allowed the right of
advancement. (a)
In the annual conventions of 1904 and 1905 of the International
Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union the controversy over the
proper method of advancing pressmen from the lower to the higher
grades of work continued to be the bone of contention. In 1904 a
law was past making it compulsory upon the pressmen’ s locals to
admit to membership all union men who were operating job presses,
provided that the latter had complied with the laws and rules of the
assistants’ and feeders’ unions. (6) The next year the convention
endeavored to put an end to the dispute between job pressmen and
web pressmen by passing a law granting the right to a pressman to
run any kind of printing press, provided he earned the standard rate
fixed by the workmen of that class and transferred his membership to
the local having jurisdiction over the same.
The controversy over the “ helper” in the plumbers’ organization,
tho of a different character, was no less interesting than that of the
pressmen. Here the conflict raged between the employers and
mechanics. Both in England and the United States it has long been
the practise for journeymen plumbers to be recruited largely from
helpers. According to Sidney and Beatrice W ebb:
The employers in London do not engage boys or apprentices to
assist the men in plumbing, or to learn the trade. The custom is
for each plumber to be attended by an adult laborer, known as the
“ plumber’s mate.”
Any employer is at liberty to promote a
plumber’s mate to be a plumber whenever he chooses, provided only
that he pays him the plumber’s standard rate. Notwithstanding
the fact that the number of “ plumber’s mates ” who form the class
of learners, is four or five times as numerous as would suffice to
recruit the trade, the London branches of the United Operative
Plumbers’ Society effectively maintain a high standard rate.^)
a Proceedings of the Fifteenth Convention, 1903, p. 369.
b In 1902 the feeders and job pressmen, dissatisfied with their treatment b y the web
pressmen, inaugurated a movement to secede from the International Pressmen’s
Union and form a separate international organization. They claimed that the web
pressmen endeavored to prevent their advancement. The proposition was voted on
b y the union and defeated.
c Industrial Democracy, new edition, 1902, pp. 475, 476.—A different attitude of
journeymen plumbers toward the “ m ate” is exprest in Charles Booth’s Life and Labor
of the People of London, Vol. V, p. 62: The “ plumber’s m ate” stands in the same
position as the laborer of the other sections [building trades], but it seems to be
admitted that if he is employed at all he must find some of his work in the use of the
plumbers’ tools for subordinate purposes, and thus be in training to do plumbers’ work.
This is a bitter source of complaint with many plumbers, but others admit that a
smart mate can not help the plumber without picking up a great deal of the trade,
and if b y this means he becomes thoroly efficient the plumbers have no right to keep
him from getting the full rate of wages.
115b—No. 67—06-----7
774
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The effect in the United States of employing helpers has not been so
favorable to the journeyman as in London. For a number of years
the plumbers’ unions have complained that the employment of helpers
results in an oversupply of plumbers. (a) The general complaint of the
journeymen is that the helper, after a year or two, does not care to
become an apprentice, but gets a helper of his own and works as a
journeyman. In 1896 the United Association of Plumbers began a
movement to abolish the ‘ ‘helper” from the craft and to prohibit the
further employment of apprentices until the oversupply of journey
men in the trade was reduced. (b) This policy is defended on the
ground that some of the employers made it a practise to have most
of their work done by helpers, tho they charged their customers no
less than if they had paid journeymen’s wages. The officials of the
union claim that the movement is not intended to be permanent, and
that it has never been strictly enforced. In 1900 it was stated that
no helpers were employed in Chicago, Cleveland, Omaha, Denver, and
St. Louis. In the St. Louis agreement between the plumbers and the
employers of that year a clause provided that there “ will be no more
apprentices or juniors hired during the term of this agreement, but all
apprentices who are registered by the joint association shall be per
mitted to complete their time, which will be 5J years, and at the
expiration of same shall receive journeymen’s wages; but in no case
shall there be more than one apprentice employed in a shop at one
time.” The agreement with the New York Master Plumbers’ Asso
ciation for the year beginning July 1, 1902, contained a similar
clause. (c)
Many of the employers in the plumbing trade were in favor of tem
porarily dispensing with apprentices, claiming that the oversupply
of journeymen was tending to increase the number of small contract
ors. It is a comparatively easy matter for a journeyman plumber
possessing a kit of tools to open a small shop of his own and under
take small plumbing contracts. It is these small shops which, accord
ing to the report of the president of the union in 1900, are becoming a
most menacing evil, causing the introduction of an immense number
of apprentices into the trade and thus tending to decrease the wages
of the journeymen. (d)
a Plumbers, Gas and Steam Fitters’ Official Journal, February, 1906.
ft Mr. Kelley, president of the United Association of Journeymen Plumbers, testi
fied before the Industrial Commission that the term of apprentices at that time was
four years as a helper, to be followed b y two years of apprenticeship, i. e., work under
instruction. When the full term was completed the apprentice received a certificate
from the journeymen’s organization, and sometimes from the organizations of jour
neymen and of employers jointly.— Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. Y II,
p. 966. See also Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 373.
c Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 362.
d Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. X V II, p. 160. Also Eleventh Special
Report of the Commissioner of Labor, p. 373.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
775
Where it has been found impracticable to do away entirely with
helpers the union has endeavored to restrict their number, and in
drawing up agreements both among plumbers and steam fitters pro
vision is generally made that not more than one helper be allowed to
a journeyman, and that no helper or apprentice should be sent to do
jobs upon which a journeyman is not employed. This restriction
prevents employers from sending out apprentices and helpers to do
repair jobs.
It is also a growing practise, both among steam fitters and plumb
ers, ior the local unions to conduct examinations of apprentices and
helpers who seek admittance as journeymen. The constitution of the
United Association of Journeymen Plumbers prescribes that each
local shall have an examining board, where circumstances will permit,
to examine into the qualifications of candidates for membership.
Any member who moves to another city must satisfy the require
ments of the local examining board if it is demanded, even tho he has
past an examination in the city from which he came. In a number
of localities these examinations are conducted jointly by the local
employers' association and the union. A strike was caused in St.
Louis, February, 1899, by the journeymen refusing to accede to a rule
past by the employers, that any fitter, having been rejected by the
examining board of the union, shall be examined by a committee of the
master plumbers' association, and “ if found competent shall be per
mitted to work in any shop that will employ him."(°)
In New York recently the employing steam fitters complained that
the union made the requirements of the examination intentionally
severe in order to keep the membership low. (*6) The president of the
international association, in his report to the fourteenth convention,
stated that in other localities there was also considerable complaint
that the examinations were too severe, and he advised as a remedy
that these examinations be under the control of the international
union instead of the locals.
In a number of States and localities there are laws prescribing a
special theoretical examination of plumbers and gas and steam fitters.
The aim of these laws is to protect the public against the doing of
poor work by incompetent journeymen. The unions are strongly in
favor of such State and municipal regulations regarding entrance to
their trade, and endeavor to have them enforced wherever possible.
With the advent of machinery in the boiler-making and shipbuild
ing industries, the helper and handy man are likewise tending to
encroach upon the work of the journeyman boiler maker and displace
a Report of the Industrial Commission, Vol. V II, p. 949.
&Proceedings of the Fourteenth Convention of the United Association of Journey
men Plumbers, p. 29. See also Eleventh Special Report of the Commissioner of
Labor, p. 375.
776
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the apprenticeship system. Details of all kinds in connection with
boiler construction, which were formerly made by hand, can now Jbe
purchased in the open market in the same manner as traps, drums,
and other parts formerly made by the plumber. A modern steam
boiler is in every detail a machine-made article. From, the shaping
and bending of the plates to the fastening of the rivets and the tight
ening of the joints machine work is paramount; likewise the riveting
of ships' hulls, deemed impossible other than by hand a few years
ago, is now done by portable squeezers operated by water or by
comprest air.(°) The most difficult and critical work the boiler
maker formerly had to execute by hand is now delivered exactly
from dimensions as per blueprint furnished. Consequently much of
the work done by the skilled boiler maker has been relegated to
“ holders on " and handy men.
The question of limiting the number of helpers in the trade and
restricting them to certain lines of work is thus becoming a serious
matter to be dealt with by the journeymen boiler makers. In 1900
the president of the Brotherhood of Boiler Makers discust the ques
tion in his report and urged the organization of helpers and handy
men under the jurisdiction of the Brotherhood, as follows:
The handy man question should receive ample attention, for in
protecting and placing them we are protecting ourselves. Thev should
become members of our craft ana help us as well as be helped. I
don't mean all classes of helpers, only those who can take our places
in cases of emergency. Their work should be set aside for them the
same as ours, and then it would be an easy matter to help protect
each other. (*6)
Following this advice in 1900, helpers and handy men were first
admitted to the local lodges of journeymen boiler makers in the
United States. (c) The year following separate lodges of helpers and
handy men were organized under the title of the Helpers' Division
of the Brotherhood of Boiler Makers and Iron Shipbuilders, the con
stitution of the Brotherhood providing that a helpers' subordinate
lodge may be organized in any locality “ with the consent of the reg
ular subordinate lodge of the district," such lodges to be governed
and installed by the executive council. (d) The helper and handy
man division is thus not a self-governing branch, merely having the
privilege of electing one vice-president of the International Brother
hood. Moreover, its constitution and by-laws are formulated b y the
a Cassier’s Magazine, Vol. X X , p. 109.
&Journal of the Brotherhood of Boiler Makers and Iron Shipbuilders, August 1,
1900, p. 231.
c In England helpers and handy men had already been organized under the juris
diction of the Boiler Makers’ Union.
d Constitution of the Brotherhood of Boiler Makers and Iron Shipbuilders (1901),
p. 35.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
777
executive council of the International Brotherhood of Boiler Makers
and Iron Shipbuilders. In July, 1905, the Brotherhood of Boiler
Makers and Iron Shipbuilders had organized 83 helpers7lodges under
its jurisdiction. There were about 300 journeymen's local lodges. (a)
TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION.
Trade and technical education is regarded by many employers as
the logical substitute for the old system of apprenticeship. Indus
trial and technical schools have accordingly been established in a
number of localities, and are found at present in the important indus
trial centers in the United States. They may be roughly grouped
into three classes: (1) The manual-training schools; (2) the trade
schools, and (3) technical schools and colleges.
The manual-training schools do not directly aim to teach their
pupils a trade. Their paramount purpose is rather to train boys and
girls in the use of tools and accustom them to manual exercise. An
educational discipline is thereby acquired which may be useful in all
walks of life, but which does not necessarily add directly to the earn
ing capacity of the pupil. The other two classes, however, have as
their principal aim the preparation of pupils for a trade or profession
thru which they may gain a livelihood. The trade school proposes
to give a beginner or apprentice a thoro and practical knowledge of
some manual occupation. The technical school, on the other hand,
is a high-grade trade school, in which both a craft and the scientific
principles upon which it is grounded are taught. (6) Such schools and
colleges, combining a high intellectual as well as a manual training, are
intended for foremen and superintendents rather than handicrafts
men and mechanics.
The trade schools which limit their instruction to the teaching of
manual occupations are alone designed to take the place of the old
apprenticeship system. These ordinarily may be divided into two
classes: (1) Those in which the practical knowledge of a craft is
taught to a beginner, and (2) those in which men who are already
working at the trade, but who wish to improve their training and
workmanship, are given instruction. A number of the important
trade schools of the United States combine both of these features.
a The wages of the different grades of workmen in the boiler-making and ship
building industry are shown in the following scale, taken from the agreement with
Bartlett, Hayward & Co., of Baltimore, February, 1904, and published in the Journal
of the Brotherhood of Boiler Makers and Iron Shipbuilders, March 1, 1904, p. 161:
Per day of
nine hours.
Boilerm akers.................................................................................................................... $3.37J
“ Holders o n ” .................................................................................................................. 2.50
H eaters.............................................................................................................................. 2.25
H elpers.............................................................................................................................. 2.00
&Eighth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor, 1892, p. 15.
778
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The trade schools whose primary aim is to give a pupil an efficient
practical knowledge of some handicraft, so as to enable him to
straightway enter as a journeyman after completing the courses of
instruction, usually restrict their instruction to matters pertaining
directly to the craft, and seek to turn out trained mechanics in as
brief a time as possible. It is this species of trade education which
is most distasteful to the trade unions, and against which they are
constantly combating. As a general rule the boys completing
their courses in these schools do not immediately become journeymen,
but begin as helpers, and in some instances as apprentices.
The trade schools, whose primary object is the technical improve
ment of the workman in the trade he is already following, seem well
adapted to present conditions. The statement frequently heard that
a trade can not be taught in a school is in certain respects true. But
to give instruction to a workman who is already a mechanic, which
renders him capable of doing his work better and more quickly, and
in addition furnishes him with a general idea of the part played by
his effort in the production of commodities to which he probably con
tributes only a small portion of the labor and skill, is of practical
value in almost every occupation. Where practical instruction in an
industry is given in a school it is impossible to reproduce conditions
prevailing in actual factories and workshops. A boy, in order to
become a thoro mechanic must receive his training under the same
conditions that he may meet with when a full-fledged journeyman.
Hence, the classes to which practical work in a trade is taught should
be largely confined to students already actually engaged in some
branch of the trade. “ For while it is obvious to all practical men
that trades can not be successfully taught in a school, yet much can
be done to supplement the training of the workshop by affording
facilities for practical work in those branches of a trade which young
men get few opportunities of learning in their shops.” (a) Further
more, instruction should be given b y practical men who, in addition
to special ability in their own particular trade, possess a general
knowledge of the scientific or artistic principles which are more or
less intimately connected with their industry.
In considering trade education, it must be borne in mind that not
all occupations can be successfully taught in a school. It is only
such trades which, in addition to practical workmanship, require a
theoretical and intellectual training on the part of the mechanic.
For this reason the building and engineering trades are more largely
taught in trade schools than are other occupations. The- plumbing
trades (usually popular courses in trade schools), for example, demand
a training in the principles of sanitation for proficient workmanship,
a Workers on their Industries, edited b y Galton, p. 5.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO THE PRINCIPAL TRADES.
779
while a knowledge of mathematics and mechanical drawing is a valu
able acquisition to those desiring to become proficient machinists or
pattern makers.
The trade unions, tho conceding that schools in which workmen can
receive instruction in their trade are a benefit, with few exceptions do
not encourage trade education other than that acquired by the
apprentice in the shop. They accordingly grant no exemption from
the full term of apprenticeship to graduates of trade schools. The
schools not opposed by the trade unions are those which are open
only to apprentices and mechanics, and in which the instruction aims
primarily to supplant the practical training acquired in the workshop.
On the other hand, schools which attempt to make mechanics are
bitterly opposed by the skilled trades as a direct interference with
apprenticeship regulations. Such schools, it is claimed, not only
create an abnormal supply of embryo workmen, but also lower
the standards of skill and efficiency in a craft and have a depressing
effect upon wages.
In several localities the agreements between employers and unions
of bricklayers and masons contain provisions regarding special instruc
tion of apprentices in elementary or trade schools. Thus, the
“ Working Rules and Apprenticeship System of the Master Builders’
Association and the Bricklayers’ Union No. 3, of Boston, Mass.,”
contain the following statement:
Recognizing the fact that special instruction in the fundamental
features of the bricklaying trade (which instruction shall comprehend
education of both mind and hands, so that the individual shall gain a
proper knowledge of quantity and strength of materials and the
science of construction) is of as much importance as special instruc
tion in other trades or professions, and, realizing that the chances of
an apprentice to get as much instruction as he is entitled to, while at
work on buildings, is necessarily limited, the parties to these rules
agree that they will join in an effort to establish an institution in this
city (Boston) where all the trades shall be systematically taught;
that when such school is established they will unite in the oversight
and care of the same and will modify these rules so that a reasonable
deduction shall be made from the term of an apprentice (not less than
three years as fixt at present) by virtue of the advantage gained
thru instruction in said school. (a)
Similarly, the arbitration agreement between the Chicago Masons
and Builders’ Association and Bricklayers and Stone Masons’ Union
No. 21, April 1, 1903, to May 1, 1905, provides:
The contractor taking an apprentice shall engage to keep him at
work for nine consecutive months in each year ana to see to it that
during the remaining three months of the year the apprentice attends
school. The apprentice shall, during the months or January, Febru
ary, and March, each year, attend a technical school acceptable to
a Seventeenth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor, 1902, p. 415.
780
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the joint board, and a certificate that he has done so will be required
before he is allowed to work during the year. (®)
With the important exception of the absence of practical experience,
the trade and technical education has much the same advantages as
the old apprenticeship system. The great drawback to the presentday worker is the high uncertainty that invention and new processes
create^ causing disarrangement of industrial conditions and leading to
a maladjustment in the demand and supply of certain kinds of labor.
This condition must be met by enabling the worker to readily adapt
himself to the changing employments. He should be made versatile,
and if a mechanical device- supplants him in his branch of the trade
he should be enabled to adjust himself to another branch. Much dis
tress due to changing industrial conditions would thus be mitigated.
Moreover, the worker would thus get rid of the notion that he is
destined to spend his life in the repetition of some simple process.
Trade education, combined with practical shop experience, seems to
be adapted to these purposes, and it therefore should be made acces
sible to as many mechanics as possible. The workman who is skilled
in the use of tools, and in addition has a thoro understanding of the
technical processes of his trade, is more capable of accommodating
himself to new employments. He is therefore more competent to
improve his social conditions, since he readily moves from a less to a
more remunerative occupation in his line of work, a mobility which
conduces to industrial independence and robs inventions of their
terrors.
The most serious danger connected with trade and technical educa
tion is the tendency on the part of the schools to hastily turn out
workmen with only a smattering of a trade, and then thrust them
upon the labor market as a constant menace to the thoroly trained
and skilled mechanic. The mechanic’s opposition to private trade
schools of this sort is consequently well founded. Many, conducted
in a purely commerical spirit, do not teach the pupils the value of
skilled trades.
Another danger in trade and technical education to be reckoned
with is the possibility of overemphasizing the theoretical at the
expense of the practical instruction. The splitting up of trades and
occupations in many industries seems to render technical training of
little practical value to the worker. Frequently the sacrifice and
energy expended in attaining technical knowledge of the trade is not
requited to the worker when he enters his industrial career, especially
when he is confined to a narrow range of work and has very little
opportunity of utilizing to its full advantage the theoretical knowl
edge he has obtained in the trade school. Young men who are
educated are not content to remain manual workers, and seek employ
ment more adapted to their higher intellectual training.
a Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, No. 47, p. 909.
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE IN THE DISTRICT OF
COLUMBIA.
BY S. E. FORMAN.
INTRODUCTION.
The purpose of the present article is to show the cost of insurance
in the District of Columbia to those whose earning capacity is small,
and who are consequently unable to purchase insurance in the ordi
nary way, by annual, semiannual, or even quarterly payments. The
cost of ordinary commercial insurance is also discust in order to show
by comparison the much higher prices paid for insurance by the very
poor who purchase it with small weekly premium payments. The
main subject of inquiry has been the cost of what is known as indus
trial insurance, inasmuch as insurance of this class is carried almost
exclusively by the working people and the poor.
The subject has been treated strictly from the point of view of the
insured. The economies of life insurance viewed from the standpoint
of the companies have not been discust. The forms under which the
several insurance companies are organized, whether stock or mutual,
the financial condition and cost of management of the companies, the
merits or demerits of this or that kind of policy, are subjects lying
entirely outside the scope of this investigation. In the purchase of
many necessaries, the poorer the purchaser the higher the price he
must pay for his commodity, and the purpose of this inquiry is sim
ply to learn to what extent the same thing is true in respect to the
purchase of insurance.
In the annual reports of the superintendent of insurance for the
District of Columbia life insurance companies are divided into three
classes: Regular life insurance companies, life-assessment associations,
and fraternal beneficial associations. Under this classification a
regular life insurance company is understood to be one which insures
for a fixt premium to be paid annually, quarterly, monthly, or
weekly, according to the terms of the policy. The quality of regu
larity resides in a fixedness and unchangeableness in the amount and
number of the premiums named in the contract. In a regular company
the sum or sums to be paid as premiums are thus always ascertainable
781
782
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
from the terms of the policy. A life-assessment association is one
where the amount to be paid by the policy holder as a premium is
subject to change. Under the assessment plan a levy may be made
upon the policy holder sufficient to meet any losses sustained by the
company, and the levy may take the form of a higher premium or a
greater number of premiums. A fraternal beneficial association is
declared b y the District Code (sec. 749) to be “ a corporation, society,
order, or voluntary association, formed or organized and carried on
for the sole benefit of its members and their beneficiaries, and not for
profit, having a lodge system with ritualistic form of work and repre
sentative form of government, making provision for the payment of
benefits in case of death. Each such association, may make pro
vision for the payment of benefits in case of sickness, temporary or
permanent physical disability, either as a result of disease, accident,
or old age.”
Of the three kinds of insurance thus recognized by the insurance
department of the District of Columbia, the first and second kinds,
regular and life-assessment, are conducted for the sake of profit—
the premiums are paid into the treasuries of business concerns organ
ized for the purpose of profit. The third kind, fraternal beneficial
insurance, yields no pecuniary profit to those who conduct it— all that
is paid into the treasury, minus a small sum for clerk hire and other
necessary expenses, finds its way back to the members of the frater
nity or to their beneficiaries. The subject of insurance, therefore,
may be divided into two main topics, insurance for profit, or com
mercial insurance, and insurance without profit, or purely fraternal
insurance. This article ‘will make comparison only of the cost of
insurance conducted in the District of Columbia for the sake of profit.
Before passing to the main subject a rapid glance will be taken at
the industrial conditions which prevail in the District.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS.
The city of Washington— for the District of Columbia and Wash
ington are coextensive— is unlike any other American city in its
industrial organization. It has no large mills or factories, no great
jobbing houses, no extensive shipping or railway interests. Of course
the effects of this are seen in the character of the city’s population.
Moreover, yearly one-third of the entire population is colored and
the great mass of these belong to the common labor class, employed
either at unskilled labor or in domestic or personal service. Street
railways, the skilled occupations, and the professions afford employ
ment to but few.
If the occupations of the people of Washington be compared with
the occupations of the people of other cities containing a nearly
equal population the unique features of industrial conditions in the
783
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE,
Capital will at once be appreciated. Washington, with its population
of 278,718 (Census of 1900), Detroit with its population of 285,704,
and Milwaukee with its population of 285,315 may be taken for such
a comparison. The table below shows for the three cities the number
of persons engaged in those occupations where the number involved
is at least 500 in some one of the cities:
PERSONS 10 YEA R S OF AGE OR OVER ENGAGED IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS IN 1900 IN
WASHINGTON, D ETROIT, AND M ILW AUKEE.
[From the Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900.]
Sex and occupation.
Washing
ton.
Detroit.
Milwaukee.
MALES.
Bartenders. . T7......................................................................................
11,523
4,898
2,842
1,345
921
3,994
12,476
1,153
521
1,667
860
511
1,074
581
4,781
1,301
1,293
603
225
2,924
11,828
745
251.
1,450
654
325
895
501
3,245
834
1,205
541
235
3,313
10,635
821
271
947
658
299
903
505
Electricians............................................................................................
Merchants and dealers (not wholesale)..............................................
Street-railwav employees.....................................................................
Bakers.........*..........................................................................................
Salesmen.................................................................................................
Blacksmiths...........................................................................................
Bntehers.................................................................................................
Hucksters and peddlers........................................................................
Tin plate and tinware makers.............................................................
Agents.....................................................................................................
Boatmen and sailors.............................................................................
Engineers and firemen (not locomotive)............................................
Restaurant and saloon keepers...........................................................
B oot and shoe makers and repairers......... ........................................
Tailors.....................................................................................................
Bookkeepers and accountants.............................................................
Manufacturers and officials..................................................................
Painters, glaziers, and varnishers......................................................
Brewers and maltsters___f r ................................................................
Steam-railroad employees....................................................................
Carpenters and joiners.........................................................................
Machinists..............................................................................................
Iron and steel workers.........................................................................
Saw and planing mill employees.........................................................
Coopers...................................................................................................
Stove, furnace, and grate makers.......................................................
Brass workers........................................................................................
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives................................................
Leather tanners and curriers...............................................................
461
3,945
817
622
2,644
775
569
526
469
1,551
223
1,116
612
496
616
837
925
1,441
118
1,185
2,298
1,392
300
58
27
5
26
94
14
524
4,066
889
661
2,665
983
896
928
495
2,094
820
1,714
834
877
1,060
1,734
1,918
2,460
248
2,131
3,510
1,896
3,198
188
183
1,109
943
805
135
430
3,417
710
722
2,846
959
837
525
917
1,997
548
1,303
1,217
1,188
1,338
1,756
1,816
1,896
1,277
2,378
3,228
2,966
4,404
585
668
170
372
636
2,169
FEMALES.
Servants and waitresses.......................................................................
Laundresses...........................................................................................
Clerks and copyists...............................................................................
Nurses and midwives............................................................................
Teachers..................................................................................................
Housekeepers and stewardesses..........................................................
15,231
7,192
4,697
1,311
1,598
529
6,981
1,018
1,382
642
1,297
484
6,430
1,177
545
564
1,255
357
2,993
813
708
482
1,320
344
214
2,949
914
943
768
1,108
589
986
135
1,503
3,134
1,042
897
571
1,709
771
790
862
240
Servants and "waiters............................................................................
Printers, lithographers, and pressmen...............................................
Porteraand helpers in stores........... 1..................................................
T)rfl.ymAn; hflAlcmftn, n.T*d t*wr\St*vrs.................. .................................
Laborers (not specified).......................................................................
Dressmakers..................................................................................
Seamstresses................................... .......................................................
Stenographers and typewriters....................................................
Bookkeepers and accountants.............................................................
Saleswomen..........................................„................................................
Milliners................................................ .*................................................
Tailoresses..............................................................................................
Hosiery and knitting mill operatives.................................................
Tobacco and cigar factory operatives................................................
16
784
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The comparison shows plainly that Washington is a city in which
an unusually large number of people are engaged in personal service.
The total laborers, servants (male and female), waiters and wait
resses, and laundresses and nurses in Washington outnumber those
in Detroit similarly classified by nearly two to one and those in Mil
waukee by more than two to one. Moreover, the table shows that
the people of Washington are not engaged to any considerable extent
in the ordinary occupations of the industrial world. The steel and
iron workers, brassworkers, boot and shoe workers, and the like,
who are quite numerous in Detroit and Milwaukee, in Washington
are of little or no numerical importance. It will be seen that the
large number of persons in Washington dependent upon the very
lowest-paid occupations has a direct bearing upon the insurance
business of the city.
COST OF O RD IN ARY INSURANCE.
Insurance conducted for profit, or commercial insurance, is desig
nated as either ordinary or industrial. It is called ordinary when
the premiums are paid annually, semiannually, or quarterly; indus
trial when the premiums are paid weekly or monthly. Ordinary
insurance is characterized by large and infrequent premium pay
ments; industrial insurance by small and frequent premium pay
ments. Since, as a rule, only the well to do can make large payments,
it may be said that ordinary insurance is purchased by the prosperous
and that industrial insurance is purchased by the poor. The policy
conditions also of these two kinds of insurance differ widely from
each other. In order that there may be some basis for measuring
the cost of insurance to the poor a very brief consideration will first
be given of the cost of ordinary insurance.
The premiums paid in 1903 in the District of Columbia for com
mercial insurance, the amount of insurance, and the number of poli
cies in force December 31, 1903, were as follows:
NUMBER OF POLICIES AND INSURANCE IN FORCE DECEMBER 31,1903, AND PREMIUMS
PAID IN DURING Y E A R .
[From the Report of the Department of Insurance of the District of Columbia for the year ending
December 31, 1903. In the Report of the Department of Insurance the premiums on 3,728 ordinary
policies for $3,152,619, issued by companies writing both ordinary and industrial insurance, were not
separately reported. Using as a basis the average premium on all ordinary insurance for which the
premiums paid were reported, the premiums on this $3,152,619 of ordinary insurance have been esti
mated at $116,000 and included in this table under the premiums paid in on ordinary insurance
during year.]
Kind of insurance.
Premiums paid
in during year.
Policies in force December
31,1903.
Number.
Amount.
Ordinary.....................................................................................
Industrial (including policies in assessment associations)..
$1,960,429.98
1,024,753.09
23,271
207,596
$53,263,631.43
24,127,215.84
T otal................................................................................
2,985,183.07
230,867
77,390,847.27
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
785
It is thus seen that while the premiums paid for ordinary insurance
were greatly in excess of those paid for industrial insurance, the
number of policies in force on the industrial plan was vastly greater
than the number of ordinary policies. It is also seen that the average
amount of an ordinary policy (nearly $2,300) is about twenty times
as great as the average amount of an industrial policy ($116).
The rate at which companies sell ordinary insurance depends
altogether upon the kind of policy bought, and the kinds of policies
are almost as many as the wit of man has been able to devise. For
the purposes of this article all those kinds of policies into which the
idea of investment is blended with the idea of insurance may be
ignored.
This study is concerned here chiefly with insurance considered as
a means of protection— insurance pure and simple. What rates do
the policy holders who meet their premiums in the ordinary way pay
for insurance where the idea of protection alone enters into the con
tract ? This question is answered precisely enough by the following
table, which shows the average rate charged for nonparticipating
policies by six companies which transact by far the larger part of
the nonparticipating business in the District:
AVERAGE RATE CHARGED FOR $1,000 OF INSURANCE B Y S IX LEADING COMPANIES
FOR O R D IN A R Y N ON PARTICIPATIN G POLICIES.
[The figures upon which this table is based are taken from the “ Handy Guide to Premium Rates,
Applications, and Policies of American Life Insurance Companies,” 1905.1
Average
Average
Average
annual Age of insured (years). annual Age of insured (years). annual
Age of insured (years). premium
premium
premium
per $1,000.
per $1,000.
per $1,000.
21....................................
22....................................
23....................................
24....................................
25....................................
26....................................
27....................................
28....................................
29....................................
30 ..................................
31....................................
32....................................
33....................................
34....................................
$15.30
15.63
16.01
16.37
16.76
17.18
17.63
18.08
18.57
19.08
19.63
20.19
20.79
21.4?
$22.10
35..................................
36..................................
22.81
23.55
37..................................
24.35
38..................................
39..................................
25.20
26.10
40..................................
41..................................
27.04
42..................................
28.04
43..................................11 29.12
30.26
44..................................1!
31.47
45..................................!!
32.77
46..................................1
47..................................11 34.13
!
35.60
48..................................i
1
j
49..................................
60..................................
51..................................
52..................................
53..................................
54..................................
55..................................
56..................................
57..................................
58..................................
59......................... . . . . .
60..................................
$37.16
38.84
40.62
42.50
44.52
46.70
48.98
51.53
54.16
56.97
59.98
63.19
The rates given in the above table are approximately those charged
not only in the District of Columbia but everywhere in the United
States b y responsible concerns for pure insurance on nonparticipa
ting policies when the premium is paid annually. They contain all
the elements of ordinary insurance cost, including that of business
management, and since they represent the experience of all the great
companies thru a long period of time they may safely be taken as a
standard of reference when comparisons are desired.
786
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Since the cost of ordinary insurance in the District is the same as
that charged everywhere, and since one company charges almost pre
cisely the same as another for the same amount of protection, the
subject of the cost of ordinary insurance requires no extended com
ment and admits of no elaborate comparisons.
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
Industrial insurance is organized with the premium payments
adjusted to meet the necessities of people working for a small wage.
Policies are issued in very small amounts, the average being far below
$500, which is the maximum limit in most industrial companies.
Premiums are payable weekly, most frequently in amounts of 5 or
10 cents, on Mondays, and collectors call for them regularly at the
homes. Such a method involves not only an army of agents for
the soliciting and collecting, but a very large number of clerks and
officials for the keeping of such a multitude of small weekly accounts
and for the efficient administration and supervision of the complicated
machinery of such an organization.
All of this detail of collecting, bookkeeping, etc., entails necessarily
much additional expense and this expense is largely increased by—
1. The inevitable losses resulting from the many policies which are
allowed to lapse before the companies are compensated for writing
the policies or even the agent for soliciting them;
2. The higher mortality rate resulting from the character of the
medical examinations, which, on 5 and 10 cent policies, are necessarily
superficial; and
3. The higher mortality rate due to the large proportion of infan
tile risks.
The premium charges for ordinary insurance have been established
by many years of experience and have assumed almost the character
of mathematical constants. Industrial insurance, on the other hand,
is a production of more recent times and its charges have not to the
same extent been subjected to the various tests of an extended
experience. But the volume of industrial insurance has already
swollen to enormous proportions, and is growing at an accelerated
rate. More than 15,000,000 industrial policies are in force in the
United States and the amount of industrial insurance approximates
$2,000,000,000. “ There is scarcely a block in our large cities or a
remote hamlet in the country section which does not receive a visit
from at least one industrial agent each week.” (a) The extent of
industrial insurance among the poor in the District of Columbia is
strikingly illustrated by the fact that in 19 poor families investigated,
numbering 124 persons, 119 industrial policies were found to be in
force. (*6)
a The Standard, March 18, 1904, p. 277.
&Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, No. 64, p. 613.
787*
COST OF INDUSTRIAL, INSURANCE.
Two kinds of protection are purchased on the industrial plan, the
ordinary form of policy which gives protection in case of death alone,
and the policy which combines protection in case of sickness and
accident with protection in case of death. Hence two kinds of indus
trial insurance must be examined: (1) Industrial life insurance, and
(2) Industrial combination insurance which gives sick, accident, and
death benefits. In the District of Columbia companies that conduct
the second kind of industrial insurance do not to any great extent
conduct the first kind also. These two kinds of insurance will be
considered separately.
INDUSTRIAL LIFE INSURANCE.
It has been seen that the total number of industrial policies of all
kinds in force in the District of Columbia at the end of 1903 was
207,596; that the holders of these policies paid during the year as
premiums $1,024,753.09; and that the amount of industrial insurance
in force on December 31, 1903, was $24,127,215.84. In round fig
ures it may be said that $20,000 is paid every week by the working
people of Washington for keeping in force over 200,000 policies which
carry protection to the amount of over $24,000,000. The amount
of this insurance that is in life policies only and the amount in com
bination policies is shown in the following table:
NUMBER OF POLICIES AND INSURANCE IN FORCE DECEMBER 31,1903, AND PREMIUMS
PAID IN DURING Y E A R FOR COMPANIES ISSUING L IFE POLICIES ONLY AND FOR
COMPANIES ISSUING COMBINATION POLICIES.
[From the Report of the Department of Insurance of the District of Columbia for the year ending
December 31, 1903. In the Report of the Department of Insurance the premiums on 3,728 ordinary
policies for $3,152,619, issued by companies writing both ordinary and industrial insurance, were
not separately reported. Using as a basis the average premium on all ordinary insurance for
which the premiums paid were reported, the premiums on this $3,152,619 of ordinary insurance have
been estimated at $116,000 and deducted to ascertain the premiums paid in on industrial life policies
during year as shown in this table.]
Kind of insurance.
Industrial life insurance..........................................................
Industrial combination insurance (combining sick, acci
dent, and death benefits).....................................................
T otal................................................................................
Premiums
paid in during
year.
Policies in force December'
31, 1903.
Number.
Amount.
$864,059.61
178,675
160,693.48
28,921
1,127,085.92
1,024,753.09 j
1
207,596
24,127,215.84
$23,000,129.92
It will be seen from the foregoing table that the great bulk of the
industrial insurance is in the companies which issue life policies only.
Thus, 86 per cent of all the industrial policies in force at the end of
1903 in the District of Columbia was in these companies; of the pre
miums paid in during 1903 on industrial policies 84 per cent was to
these companies; and the insurance in force carried by these com
panies represented 95 per cent of all the industrial insurance.
788
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
In Washington practically all of the business of industrial insurance
for payment of benefits in case of death only is done by five companies,
all of which carry on a business outside the District. Two of these
companies count their agents by the thousands, their policy holders
by the millions, and their premium receipts by the tens of millions.
One of the companies employs 250 agents in Washington alone. The
manner in which the industrial life business in the District is dis
tributed among the several companies is indicated in the following
table:
NUMBER OF IN DU STRIA L L IFE POLICIES AND INSURANCE IN FORCE DECEMBER
31,1903, AND PREMIUMS PAID IN DU RIN G Y E A R FOR EACH COMPANY.
[From the Report of the Department of Insurance of the District of Columbia for the year ending Decem
ber 31,1903. In the Report of the Department of Insurance the premiums on 3,721 ordinary policies
for $3,147,869 issued by Company No. 1 and 7 ordinary policies for $4,750 issued by Company No. 5
were reported in combination with the premiums on industrial policies. Using as a basis the average
premium on all ordinary insurance for which the premiums paid were reported, the premiums on this
ordinary insurance have been estimated at $115,825 and $175, respectively, and deducted to ascertain
the premiums on industrial life policies as shown in this table.]
Company.
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
Premiums
paid in during
year.
Policies in force December
31, 1903.
Number.
Amount.
1 .. . ..................................................................
2................ ........................................................
3.........................................................................
4.........................................................................
5 ........................................................................
$541,681.88
147,269.44
83,134 70
45,985.23
45,988. 36
109,052
31,836
21,048
10,043
6,696
$15,039,999.00
3.867.895.00
2.411.951.00
1.229.011.00
451,273.92
T otal................................................................................
864,059.61
178,675
23,000,129.92
Like the ordinary companies, the industrial companies offer a
great variety of policies. There is the industrial whole-life policy,
the industrial endowment policy, the industrial paid-up policy, the
industrial infantile policy.
IN D U S TR IA L W H O LE-LIFE POLICY.
This policy corresponds quite closely in character to the nonpartici
pating policy whose rates were stated (page 785) in connection with
the subject of ordinary insurance. Just as the rates for ordinary
insurance are almost identical in the different companies, so an
almost perfect equality of rates exists among the several industrial
life companies. In respect to whole-life policies this is shown by the
following table:
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
78tf
AMOUNT OF INSURANCE GIVEN B Y FIVE COMPANIES DOING BUSINESS ON THE IN
DUSTRIAL PLAN IN THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, THE W E E K L Y PREMIUM BEING
5 CENTS AND CONTINUING THRUOUT THE W HOLE LIFE OF THE INSURED.
[A weekly premium of 10 cents doubles the amount of the policy. The full amount of the policy as
stated below is paid only in case of death after the policy has been in force for one year.]
Age at next birthday
(years).
Amount
of policy.
10....................................
11....................................
12....................................
13....................................
14....................................
15....................................
16....................................
17....................................
18....................................
19....................................
20....................................
21....................................
22....................................
23....................................
24....................................
25....................................
26....................................
$120
118
116
112
108
a 103
100
94
92
6 89
c 87
<*84
«82
80
78
76
74
a Amount
6 Amount
« Amount
d Amount
e Amount
/ Amount
Age at next birthday
(years).
27..................................
28..................................
29.............................
30..................................
31..................................
32..................................
33..................................
34..................................
35..................................
36..................................
37..................................
38..................................
39..................................
40..................................
41..................................
42..................................
43..................................
of policy
of policy
of policy
of policy
of policy
of policy
issued
issued
issued
issued
issued
issued
at
at
at
at
at
at
Amount | Age at next birthday Amount
(years).
of policy.'
of policy.
$72 1 44..................................
45..................................
/71
69 , 46..................................
67 1 47..................................
66 | 48..................................
64 | 49.
. .
62 i 50..................................
60 i 51..................................
59 ; 52..............................
57 ! 53..............................
55 ! 54..............................
54 I 55..................................
52 1 56..................................
50 1 57..................................
49 ; 58..................................
47 1 59...............................
45 60................................
$44
42
41
39
38
37
35
34
32
31
30
28
27
26
25
23
22
age15 by one company is $104.
age19 by one company is $90.
age20 by one company is $88.
age21 by one company is $86.
age22 by one company is $84.
age28 by one company is $70.
The rates of the various industrial life companies are practically
identical. They differ widely, however, from those charged for
ordinary insurance, and very useful comparisons may be instituted
between industrial rates and ordinary rates. By taking the rates
given on this page and on page 785 and computing the amount of pro
tection the policy holder gets for each dollar expended, the figures
shown in the following table are obtained. -In this table the amount
of protection purchasable with an annual premium expenditure of $1
made in the industrial way (in weekly payments) may be compared
with the amount of protection purchasable with the same premium
expenditure made in the ordinary way (in annual payments). The
table shows also the percentage of difference which exists between
the amounts.
115b—No. 67—06----- 8
790
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
AMOUNT OF IN DU STRIA L OR OF O R D IN A R Y NON PARTICIPATING INSURANCE PUR
CHASABLE FOR EACH $1 OF THE ANNUAL PREMIUM E X P E N D IT U R E , AND PE R
CENT OF EXCESS OF O R D IN A R Y OVER IN D U STRIA L INSURANCE.
[The full amount of the industrial insurance as stated below is paid only in case of death after the policy
has been in force for one year.]
Insurance purchasable for each
$1 of the annual premium
expenditure.
Age of insured
(years).
Industrial.
21...........................
22...........................
23...........................
24...........................
25...................... .
26...........................
27...........................
28...........................
29...........................
30...........................
31...........................
32...........................
33...........................
34...........................
35...........................
36...........................
37...........................
38...........................
39...........................
40...........................
$32.31
31.54
30.77
30.00
29.23
28.46
27.69
27.31
26.54
25.77
25.38
24.62
23.85
23.08
22.69
21.92
21.15
20.77
20.00
19.23
Ordi
nary.
$65.36
63.98
62.46
61.09
59.67
58.21
56.72
55.31
53.85
52.41
50.94
49.53
48.10
46.69
45.25
4a 84
42.47
41.07
39.68
3a 31
Per cent
of excess
of ordi
nary
over in
dustrial.
102
103
103
104
104
105
105
103
103
103
101
101
102
102
99
100
101
98
98
99
Insurance purchasable for each
$1 of the annual premium
expenditure.
Age of insured
(years).
Industrial.
41.........................
42.........................
43.........................
44.........................
45..........................
46.........................
47.........................
48.........................
49.........................
50.........................
51.........................
52.........................
53.........................
54.........................
55.........................
56......................
57.........................
58.........................
59.........................
60.........................
$18.85
18.08
17.31
16.92
16.15
15.77
15.00
14.62
14.23
13.46
13.08
12.31
11.92
11.54
10.77
10.38
10.00
9.62
8.85
a 46
Ordi
nary.
$36.98
35.66
34.34
33.05
31.78
30.52
29.30
28.09
26.91
25.75
24.62
2a 53
22.46
21. 41
20.42
19.41
ia 46
17.55
1&67
15.83
Per cent
of excess
of ordi
nary
over in
dustrial.
96
97
98
95
97
94
95
92
89
91
88
91
88
86
90
87
85
82
88
87
The foregoing table shows that the workingman of 30 years of age,
for example, who must purchase his insurance by weekly payments,
obtains only $25.77 of protection for each dollar that he pays in,
while the well-to-do policy holder of the same age, who can purchase
his insurance by annual payments, obtains $52.41 of protection, or
more than twice as much.
PA ID -U P VALU ES AND CA SH -SU RREN D ER VA LU ES OF IN D U S T R IA L
L IF E POLICIES.
A majority of the industrial companies doing business in the
District make a provision for a paid-up policy after the premiums
have been paid for a certain period. Thus one company has in its
policies the following provisions:
If after the payment of the weekly premium hereon for five or
morn years, this policy shall become void by reason of default in the
payment of premiums, the company agrees to issue a nonpartici
pating paid-up policy for an amount computed according to the first
table below, the said paid-up policy to be continued in force for the
full expectation of lire of the insured, at the date of issue of the
paid-up policy, according to the second table below, provided that
this policy shall be legally surrendered to the company and applica
tion for said paid-up policy made in writing on the blank obtainable
from the company for that purpose within eight weeks after said
default.
It is not necessary to give the tables referred to above in full but
it will be profitable to compare the paid-up values of a typical ordinary.
791
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE,
nonparticipating policy with those guaranteed in the industrial life
policy from which the above provisions have been quoted. Below is a
table which makes such a comparison easy. Two columns show the
paid-up values guaranteed for each $1 of annual premiums on the
industrial life and on the ordinary nonparticipating policy, the policy
issuing at the age of 35 years. A third column gives the per cent
of paid-up insurance guaranteed by the ordinary policy in excess
of that guaranteed by the industrial policy for each $1 of annual
premium.
PAID-UP VALUE OF AN IN DU STRIAL L IFE POLICY AND OF AN O R D IN A R Y NONPAR
TICIPATIN G POLICY ISSUED AT THE AGE OF 35.
Paid-up insurance guaranteed for
each $1 of annual premium
expenditure.
After premium has been paid—
Ordinary Per cent of
Industrial nonpartici excess of
insurance. pating in ordinary
surance. over indus
trial.
5 years.............................................................................................
6 years...................................................................................................
7 years................................................................................................
8 years...................................................................................................
9 years...................................................................................................
10 years...................................................................................................
15 years...................................................................................................
20 years...................................................................................................
$3.33
4.01
4.69
5.40
6.08
6.76
10.09
13.24
$5.51
6.74
7.93
9.25
10.57
11.89
17.22
21.94
65
68
69
71
74
76
71
66
Most of the industrial policies provide for a cash-surrender value.
The accompanying table gives the cash-surrender value guaranteed
by one of the policies of a company doing a large industrial business
in the District. For purposes of comparison a typical exhibit of the
cash-surrender values guaranteed by the same company on an ordi
nary nonparticipating* policy is also given.
CASH-SURRENDER VALUE OF AN IN DU STRIAL L IFE POLICY AND OF AN O R D IN A R Y
NONPARTICIPATING POLICY A F TE R PREMIUMS HAVE BEEN PAID FOR 20 YEARS.
Cash-surrender value at end of 20
years.
Age (years).
21................. .
22....................
23.....................
24.....................
25....................
26....................
27....................
28.....................
29....................
30....................
31....................
32....................
33.....................
34....................
35.....................
36.....................
37.....................
38.....................
39.....................
40.....................
Ordinary
of
Industrial (propor Percent
excess of
(weekly
tioned to
ordinary
premium an annual
indus
10 cents). premium over
trial.
of $5.20).
$33
34
34
35
35
35
36
37
37
37
38
38
38
38
39
39
39
39
39
38
$53.26
54.19
54.79
55.55
56.47
57.03
57.75
5& 36
5a 86
59.47
59.97
60.36
60.66
61.03
61.29
61.26
61.48
61.40
61.23
60.94
61
59
61
59
61
63
60
58
59
61
58
59
60
61
57
57
58
57
57
60
Cash-surrender value at end of 20
years.
Age (years).
41...................
42...................
43...................
44...................
45...................
46...................
47...................
48...................
49...................
50...................
51...................
52...................
53...................
54...................
55...................
56...................
57...................
58...................
59...................
60...................
Ordinary
cent of
Industrial (propor Per
excess of
(weekly
tioned to
ordinary
premium an annual
indus
10 cents). premium over
trial.
of $5.20).
$38
38
38
38
37
37
36
36
36
35
35
33
33
32
31
30
30
29
27
27
$60.73
60.39
59.83
59.31
5a 56
57.86
56.96
5ft 10
55.05
53.96
52.81
51.62
50.30
49.03
47.66
46.36
45.03
43.68
42.33
41.04
60
59
57
56
58
56
58
56
53
54
51
56
52
53
54
55
50
51
57
52
792
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
IN D U STR IA L IN FA N TILE PO LICY.
In very recent years the industrial companies have undertaken to
extend the benefits of insurance to young children. The number
of infantile policies can not be ascertained accurately from insurance
reports, but special investigation covering a limited region shows
that about one-fourth of all industrial policies are written upon the
lives of children under 10 years of age.
In the policies of the industrial life companies there is an infantile
clause'which specifies the benefits that are to arise when death occurs
within the infantile period, that is, between the ages of 1 and 10
(sometimes 12). The following table shows the amount of the death
benefit usually guaranteed m an industrial infantile policy for a
weekly premium of 10 cents:
DEATH BENEFITS PAYABLE ON AN IN DU STRIAL IN FAN TILE POLICY FOR A W E E K L Y
PREMIUM OF 10 CENTS.
Amount payable if death occurs after the policy has been in force—
Age at
1
6
3
next
1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years 6 years 7 years
9
birth Under months months months
un or un or un-! or un or un or un or un
8
or under or under or under or
3
day
der 2 der 3 der 4 | der 5 der 6 der 7 der 8 years.
6
9
(years). months.
months. months. 1 year. years. years. years.: years. years. years. years.
'
2.
3.
4.
5.
$16
18
20
22
7.
8.
9.
28
32
40
6.
24
$20
22
26
28
32
38
44
56
$24
28
32
36
44
52
70
100
$30
34
40
48
58
70
100
150
$34
40
4858
78
110
160
240
$40
48
58
86
120
170
240
$48 1 $58
102
58
94
140
190
130
180
240
240
I
$110
150
200
240
$160
200
240
$200
240
$240
!
For a weekly premium of 5 cents death benefits of half the amounts
stated in the foregoing table are paid.
YOUNG PE O PLE ’ S ENDOWMENT PO LICY.
Besides whole-life infantile policies, some of the industrial compa
nies issue children's endowment policies, the nature of which may be
learned from the table which follows. Under the form of policy to
which this table relates the endowment term is, in all cases, twenty
years, and the amount of the endowment is $50 for each 5 cents of
weekly premium, the amount being due and payable twenty years
from date of issue of policy:
793
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
D EATII BENEFITS PA YA B LE ON AN IN DU STRIAL 20-YEAR ENDOWMENT POLICY IF
DEATH OCCURS DURING THE ENDOWMENT PERIO D, FOR A W E E K L Y PREMIUM OF
5 CENTS.
Amount payable if death occurs during the—
Age at next birthday
(years).
, 1st
i year.
2d
year.
3d
year.
4th
year.
5th
year.
6th
year.
7th
year.
8th
year.
9th
year.
10th
year.
2................................
3................................
4................................
5................................
6................................
7................................
8................................
9................................
$8.00
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
15.00
$10.00
11.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
15.00
16.00
17.00
$12.00
13.00
14.00
15.00
16.00
17.00
18.00
19.00
$14.00
15.00
16.00
17.00
18.00
19.00
20.00
21.00
$16.00
17.00
18.00
19.00
20.00
21.00
22. 00
23.00
$18.00
19.00
20.00
21.00
22.00
23.00
24.00
25.00
$20.00
21.00
22.00
23.00
24.00
25.00
26.00
27.00
$22.50
23.00
24.00
25.00
26.00
27.00
28.00
29.00
$25.00
25.00
26.00
27.00
28.00
29.00
30.00
31.00
$27.50
27.50
28.00
29.00
30.00
31.00
32. 00
33.00
n th
year.
12th
year.
13th
year.
14th
year.
15th
year.
16th
year.
17th
year.
18th
year.
2................................ $30.00
3................................ 30.00
4................................ 30.00
5................................ 31.00
6................................ 32.00
7................................ 33.00
8................................ 34.00
9................................ 35.00
$32.50
32.50
32.50
33.00
34.00
35.00
36.00
37.00
$35.00
35.00
35.00
35.00
36.00
37.50
38.00
39.00
$37.50
37.50
37.50
37.50
38.00
40.00
40.00
40.00
$40.00
40.00
40.00
40.00
40.00
42.50
42.50
42.50
$45.00
45.00
45.00
45.00
45.00
45.00
45.00
45.00
$50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
'50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
$50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
Amount payable if death occurs during the—
Age a t next uirtnuay
(years).
I
19th
year.
20th
year.
$50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
$50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
It will be noticed that during the infantile period the full face
value of the policy does not accrue, either in the case of a whole-life
or an endowment policy. In all the infantile contracts the amount
to be paid is calculated upon the age of the child at the time of death.
CH A RAC TERISTIC FE A TU R E S OF IN D U S TR IA L L IF E POLICIES.
As a rule the terms of the regular industrial life policies are liberal.
The amount of the benefit is to be paid promptly upon the death of
the insured. Sometimes it is to be paid within twenty-four hours
after death is proven. All the companies insert a provision like this:
If the insured shall die within six calendar months from the date
hereof [the date of the execution of the policy] the company will pay
only on^-fourth of this sum [the amount of the policy]. If the insured
shall die after six months and within one year from the date hereof
the company will pay only one-half of this sum. After one year from
its date the policy will be in force for its full amount.
The following privileges and concessions are found in most of the
industrial life policies issued by the regular industrial companies:
1. If the terms of the policy are not satisfactory or if its conditions
are not accepted and agreed to, the policy may be surrendered for
cancellation within a short period, and if surrendered the premiums
already paid are refunded.
2. The policies are usually incontestable after two years— some
times after one year.
3. When the death of the insured occurs while a premium is in
arrears not exceeding four weeks the company usually agrees to pay
794
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the policy, notwithstanding the arrears. Of course the amount paid
is decreased by the amount of the arrears.
4. Should the policy become void in consequence of nonpayment
of premiums it may be renewed if not more than 52 premiums are
due, upon payment of all arrears and the presentation to the company
of evidence that the insured is in sound health.
5. The insured may change the beneficiary at any time.
6. The insured may engage in any occupation except in the military
or naval service in time of actual war.
LAPSES OF IN D U S TR IA L L IF E POLICIES.
A most important topic in connection with the cost of industrial
insurance is lapses. Whatever may be the effect of a lapse upon the
finances of the insurance company there can hardly be any question
as to the effect upon the person purchasing insurance; a lapse must be
regarded as involving a loss. The industrial policy, it seems, eomes
easy and goes easy. In the District of Columbia during 1903 there
were, according to the report of the department of insurance, more
than 30,000 lapses of industrial policies, distributed among the several
regular industrial companies as follows:
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
12,976
4,108
8, 661
1,541
3, 285
1
2
3
4
5
30, 571
Total
CONCLUSIONS
AS
TO
TH E
COST OF R E G U LA R
INSURANCE.
IN D U S T R IA L L IF E
The greatest of the industrial companies claims the following
advantages for industrial insurance:
It is especially adapted to persons of moderate means.
It costs 5 cents per week and upward.
No initiation fee is charged.
No increase of payment is required.
Premiums are collected weekly at the homes of policy holders.
All ages from 2 next birthday to 70 are taken.
Claims are payable promptly at death.
Males and remales are taken at the same cost.
Only healthful lives are insured.
The nine advantages urged above may be reduced to'one: Indus
trial insurance enables the poorer classes to pay for their insurance
weekly in small amounts. This substantial and cogent advantage
gives to industrial insurance all its vigor and prosperity. This con
venience of payment, however, is purchased at great cost. An exam
ination of the foregoing tables illustrates strikingly the general truth,
which the poor are often made to realize so keenly, that their dollar
COST
OF
INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
795
has much less purchasing power than that of the well to do. Wher
ever the industrial rates are compared with the ordinary rates the
former are found to be much higher than the latter. In the matter
of whole-life insurance industrial rates are practically 100 per cent
higher than the ordinary rates. The paid-up values of ordinary pol
icies are from 65 per cent to 76 per cent higher than those guaranteed
in industrial policies and a similar difference exists between the cashsurrender values of the two kinds of policies.
INDUSTRIAL COMBINATION (SICKNESS, ACCIDENT, AND LIFE)
INSURANCE.
The industrial insurance issued by the companies that have thus
far been discust, the companies doing a life business only, constitutes
over nine-tenths of all industrial insurance in force in the District of
Columbia. But the insurance written by the other class o f industrial
companies (the assessment industrial companies) has an importance
far greater than would appear from an examination of the amount of
insurance in force, for the reason that these companies draw their
premium receipts almost entirely from the poorer classes and espe
cially from the colored wage-earners of the common labor and servant
classes. There are in force in the District of Columbia nearly 30,000
policies which in addition to insuring the life carry an indemnity for
disability by accident and by disease. The companies which sell this
kind of insurance are in nearly every instance of the assessment type.
They are not compelled by law to carry a reserve, and some of them
have no substantial funds of any kind but meet their losses with the
premiums collected from week to week. Others, however, have
reserve funds sufficient, in the opinion of the managers, to meet all
probable obligations. These assessment companies should not be
confounded with the fraternal beneficial associations which furnish
insurance to their members on a purely cooperative plan, all the money
that is paid into the treasury, minus a small sum for clerk hire and
other necessary expenses, being distributed to the members or their
beneficiaries. The assessment companies engaged in the business of
industrial insurance are, on the other hand, commercial organizations
conducting the business for profit.
The absence of a reserve in an assessment company is supposed to
be offset by the flexibility of the premium. The terms of the con
tract of an assessment policy assume the existence of an association,
the members of which have agreed to make good the losses as they
arise. It is not, therefore, the managers of an assessment company
that are liable for the indemnities, but the policy holders themselves.
This is plainly set forth in the policy of every assessment company.
The following clauses extracted from,the policies of several assessment
796
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
industrial companies doing business in the District will illustrate this
feature of the assessment contract:
1. The association is not required by law to maintain a reserve.
The association reserves the privilege to make additional assessments
in case the weekly payments are not sufficient to meet all claims.
2. This insurance is granted in consideration of the premium here
inbefore stated, which shall be paid to the company on or before every
Monday during the continuance of this contract, and of any additional
sum that may be required.
3. That in case of epidemic sickness, numerous accidents, or
widespread increase of mortality, or when the weekly payments are
not sufficient to meet all claims, the board of directors of this associa
tion reserve the right to levy additional weekly assessments; and
whenever assessments are levied and members are duly notified of
the same, failure to pay such assessments after a period of thirty days
from date of notice shall suspend such member from benefits until
such extra assessments are paid. These extra assessments shall not
be levied until after the assets of the association, exclusive of the
capital stock, are exhausted.
4. The insured hereby agrees to pay two semiannual assessments
not to exceed the weexly premium paid on the policy, and in the
event of unusual casualties, sickness, and mortality any other assess
ment that may be levied by the board of directors.
5. The board of trustees shall have the power to levy extra
assessments when needed or raise the rate if necessary.
Altho the right of the assessment companies to levy all necessary
sums is unquestionable, nevertheless, as a matter of practise, extra
assessments are seldom called for. The assessment companies must
compete with the regular industrial companies, and a company which
should habitually levy extra assessments would soon find its business
disappearing. The policy clauses giving the company the right to
levy additional assessments have an important legal significance, but
they do not materially affect the premiums paid. A 5-cent weekly
premium in an assessment company means a yearly premium of $2.60,
and seldom more than that.
The real difference between the business conducted by the assess
ment industrial company and that conducted by the regular indus
trial company resides in the nature of the insurance. The regular
industrial company insures against death, and against death alone.
The assessment industrial policy offers indemnity for sickness and
accident as well as insurance upon death. Theoretically, a more
comprehensive form of insurance could not well be devised.
Four ,of the assessment industrial companies of the District issue
life as well as combination policies, yet the great bulk of the assess
ment business consists of insurance carrying sick, accident, and death
benefits. This business is done almost entirely among the poorer
classes and especially among the colored wage-earners of the common
labor and servant classes, and for this reason has an importance much
797
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE,
greater than is indicated by the amount of insurance in force. The
business is distributed among twelve companies in the manner shown
in the following table:
NUMBER OF POLICIES AND AMOUNT OF IN DU STRIAL COMBINATION (SICK, ACCI
DENT, AND LIFE ) INSURANCE IN FORCE DECEMBER 31, 1903, AND PREMIUMS AND
ASSESSMENTS COLLECTED DURING Y EA R .
Company.
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No:
No.
6 ____
7____
8 ____
9___
10___
11___
12 (*>)
1 3 ...
14 ...
15___
16 ...
17 ...
T otal.............
Policies in force Decem
Premiums
ber 31,1903.
and assess
ments
collected
Amount.
during year. Number.
$41,777.47
a 27,073.74
a 17,606.20
14,304 91
a 12,404.48
a 9,065.05
24,087.70
7,435.29
2,838.76
283.38
2,666.80
1,059.70
6,104
o5,301
o3,259
2,796
o 2 ,624
o 2 ,105
2.097
2.097
1,127
612
554
245
160,693.48
28,921
$143,207.50
0 246,465.75
ol29,722.00
97.860.00
ol02,787.50
081,007.42
182,400.00
60,089.50
61.416.00
3,700.25
15.365.00
3,065.00
1,127,085.92 *
o Includes some policies for payment of death benefits on ly .'
b Premiums paid monthly.
It has been seen that the premium rates for regular industrial
insurance on the whole-life plan are pretty much the same in all the
companies. Where the insurance policy carries the triple indemnity
against sickness, accident, and death the charges of one company differ
widely from those of another. The rates charged by the several
assessment industrial companies of the District selling combination
insurance may be learned from the tables following. It will be
observed that the sick and accident indemnities in any given schedule
are always the same. It will be noticed also that in all the companies
the age element is treated very broadly while in one company it is
ignored altogether.
SCHEDULE OF PREMIUMS AND BENEFITS OF COMPANY NO. 6.
Weekly premium (cents).
5...................................................................................................
5...................................................................................................
5...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
10 ...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
25...................................................................................................
25...................................................................................................
25...................................................................................................
Sick and accident
benefits paid.
Age at next
birthday
(years).
Amount Number
per week. of weeks.
3 to
41 to
51 to
10 to
41 to
51 to
15 to
41 to
51 to
15 to
41 to
51 to
20 to
41 to
51 to
40
50
60
40
50
60
40
50
60
40
50
60
40
50
60
« For accident, 7 weekly benefits only.
$1.25
a 12
1.00
012
a 12
a 12
a 12
a 12
a 12
a 12
a 12
a 12
a 12
«12
o l2
a 12
o l2
.75
2.50
2.00
1.50
3.75
3.00
2.25
5.00
4.00
3.00
6.25
5.00
3.75
Death
benefit.
$12.50
10.00
7.50
25.00
20.00
15.00
37.50
30.00
22.50
50.00
40.00
30.00
62.00
50.00
37.00
798
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
SCHEDULE OF PREMIUMS AND BENEFITS OF COMPANY NO. 7.
Weekly premium (cents).
5...................................................................................................
5...................................................................................................
5...................................................................................................
1 0 ..................................................................................................
10 ..................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
25...................................................................................................
25...................................................................................................
25...................................................................................................
Sick and accident
benefits paid.
Age at next
Death
birthday
(years).
Amount Number benefits.
per week. of weeks.
2 to
41 to
51 to
10 to
41 to
51 to
15 to
41 to
51 to
18 to
41 to
51 to
18 to
41 to
51 to
40
50
60
40
50
60
40
50
60
40
50
60
40
50
60
$1.25
1.00
.75
2.50
2.00
1.50
3.75
3.00
2.25
5.00
4.00
3.00
6.00
5.00
3.75
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
$12.50
10.00
7.50
25.00
20.00
15.00
37.50
30.00
22.50
50.00
40.00
30.00
65.00
50.00
37.50
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
$12.50
10.00
7.50
5.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
37.50
30.00
22.50
15.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
<*10
<*10
a 10
<*10
a 10
<*10
<*10
<*10
a 10
a 10
a 10
<*10
<*10
<*10
<*10
<*10
$12.50
10.00
25.00
20.00
37.50
30.00
50.00
40.00
62.00
50.00
65.00
60.00
100.00
70.00
150.00
150.00
SCHEDULE OF PREMIUMS AND BENEFITS OF COMPANY NO. 8.
5...................................................................................................
5...................................................................................................
5 _______________________________________________________
•
5 ____
10...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
15.................................................... , .............................................
15...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
4 to
42 to
48 to
55 to
8 to
42 to
v48 to
55 to
15 to
42 to
48 to
55 to
18 to
42 to
48 to
55 to
42
48
55
60
42
48
55
60
42
48
55
60
42
48
55
60
$1.25
1.00
.75
.50
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
3.75
3.00
2.25
1.50
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
SCHEDULE OF PREMIUMS AND BEN EFITS OF COMPANY NO. 9.
5..................................... : ............................................................
5....... .•..........................................................................................
10....................................................................................................
10....................................................................................................
15....................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
20....................................................................................................
20....................................................................................................
25....................................................................................................
25....................................................................................................
30....................................................................................................
30....................................................................................................
35..................................... : ............................................................
35....................................................................................................
40....................................................................................................
50....................................................................................................
2 to
41 to
6 to
41 to
10 to
41 to
15 to
41 to
18 to
41 to
20 to
41 to
20 to
41 to
20 to
20 to
40
50
40
50
40
50
40
50
40
50
40
50
40
50
40
40
$1.25
1.00
2.50
2.00
3.75
3.00
5.00
4.00
6.25
5.00
7.00
6.00
8.00
7.00
8.00
10.00
SCHEDULE OF PREMIUMS AND BENEFITS OF COMPANIES NO. 10 AND NO. 11.
1....................................................................................................
)....................................................................................................
1....................................................................................................
i....................................... ...........................................................
1..................................................................... .............................
1..........................................*.........................................................
1....................................................................................................
2 to
41 to
51 to
8 to
41 to
51 to
15 to
41 to
51 to
18 to
41 to
51 to
18 to
41 to
51 to
40
50
55
40
50
55
40
50
55
40
50
55
40
50
55
$1.25
1.00
.75
2.50
2.00
1.50
3.75
3.00
2.25
5.00
4.00
3.00
6.00
5.00
3.75
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
6 10
610
610
610
610
610
610
610
<* For accident, 5 weekly benefits only.
5 For sickness 12 and for accident 7 weekly benefits paid by company No. 10
$12.50
10.00
7.50
25.00
20.00
15.00
37.50
30.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
65.00
50.00
37.50
799
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE,
SCHEDULE OF PREMIUMS AND BENEFITS OF COMPANY NO. 13.
Weekly premium (cents).
5...................................................................................................
5
................................................................................
5...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
15...................................................... ^...........................................
15...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................................
25...................................................................................................
25...................................................................................................
25...................................................................................................
30...................................................................................................
30...................................................................................................
30...................................................................................................
Sick and accident
benefits paid.
Age at next
Death
birthday
(years). Amount Number benefits.
per week. of weeks.
4 to
36 to
46 to
8 to
36 to
46 to
12 to
36 to
46 to
15 to
36 to
46 to
18 to
36 to
46 to
20 to
36 to
41 to
35
45
60
35
45
60
35
45
50
35
45
50
35
45
50
35
40
45
$1.25
1.00
1.00
2.50
2.25
2.00
3.75
3.25
3.00
5.00
4.50
400
6.00
6.00
5.00
7.00
6.50
6.00
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
$14.00
12.50
10.00
28.00
25.00
20.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
52.00
45.00
40.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
80.00
75.00
60.00
SCHEDULE OF PREMIUMS AND BENEFITS OF COMPANY NO. 14 FOR A L L AGES.
Sick and accident
benefits paid.
Weekly premium (cents).
Amount Number
per week. of weeks.
5 ........................................................................................................................
10........................................................................................................................
15........................................................................................................................
20........................................................................................................................
25........................................................................................................................
$1.50
3.25
4.00
4.75
5.25
Death
benefit.
$15.00
35.00
45.00
55.00
65.00
(•>
(a)
(a)
(o)
(«)
SCHEDULE OF PREMIUMS AND BENEFITS OF COMPANY NO. 15.
Weekly premium (cents).
5...................................................................................................
5...................................................................................................
5...................................................................................................
5...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
10................................................. ..................................................
10...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
Sick and accident
benefits paid.
Age at next
birthday
Amount Number
(years).
per week. of weeks.
2 to
10 to
40 to
50 to
2 to
•10 to
40 to
50 to
2 to
10 to
40 to
50 to
9
39
49
59
9
39
49
59
9
39
49
59
$1.25
1.50
1.25
.71
2.50
3.00
2.50
1.50
3.75
450
3.75
2.25
Death
benefit.
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
$12.00
15.00
12.00
8.00
25.00
30.00
25.00
15.00
37.00
45.00
37.00
23.00
SCHEDULE OF PREMIUMS AND BEN EFITS OF COMPANY NO. 16.
5...................................................................................................
5...................................................................................................
5...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
10...................................................................................................
10................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
15...................................................................................................
20.....................................................................
20...................................................................................................
20...................................................................................... ............
25.............................................................................................
25....................................................................................................
25.............................................................................................
a Five
1 to
41 to
51 to
1 to
41 to
51 to
15 to
41 to
51 to
18 to
41 to
51 to
18 to
41 to
51 to
40
50
60
40
50
60
40
50
60
40
50
60
40
50
60
$1.25
1.00
.75
2.50
2.00
1.50
3.75
3.00
2.25
5.00
400
3.00
6.00
5.00
3.75
(&)
(&)
(?)
(») .
(&)
(b)
(b)
(&)
(*)
(*)
(»)
(»)
(»)
(J>)
(b)
weekly benefits guaranteed, followed by half benefits unless permanently disabled.
6 Four weekly benefits guaranteed, followed by half benefits unless permanently disabled.
$20.00
12.50
10.00
40.00
25.00
2a 00
45.00
37.50
3a00
eaoo
50.00
40.00
75.00
60.00
45.00
800
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
A cursory examination of the foregoing tables shows that the cost
of industrial combination insurance is by no means a fixt quantity.
How greatly the cost in one company differs from that in another
may be learned from the two tables which immediately follow. In
the first of these tables is a parallel statement of the maximum
amounts of sick and accident benefits guaranteed in any one year
by the saveral companies at certain ages for a weekly premium of 5
cents. The table also shows the number of weekly indemnities for
which each company is liable.
NUMBER AND TOTAL AMOUNT OF W E E K L Y SICK AND ACCIDENT BENEFITS PAID
IN AN Y ONE Y E A R FOR A W E E K L Y PREMIUM OF 5 CENTS, B Y THE ASSESSMENT
INDUSTRIAL COMPANIES ISSUING COMBINATION POLICIES.
Total benefits paid in any one year on policy issued at—
Number
of weekly
25
35
benefits
30
20
45
55
40
50
60
paid.
years. years. years. years. years. years. years. years. years.
Company.
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
6 ...
7 ...
8 ...
9 ...
10..
11..
13..
14..
15..
16..
17..
a 12
10
10
&10
ol2
10
„ io
? c)
10
(d)
<•>
$15.00
12.50
12.50
12.50
15.00
12.50
12.50
( c)
15.00
(<*)
(«)
$15.00
12.50
12.50
12.50
15.00
12.50
12.50
(<0
15.00
(*)
(«)
$15.00
12.50
12.50
12.50
15.00
12.50
12.50
(<0
15.00
(d)
i *)
$15.00
12.50
12.50
12.50
15.00
12.50
12.50
( c)
15.00
(d)
(«)
$15.00
12.50
12.50
12.50
15.00
12.50
10.00
(0
12.50
$12.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
12.00
10.00
10.00
(<0
12.50
(d)
<d)
<0
(«)
$12.00
10.00
7.50
10.00
12.00
10.00
10.00
( c)
7.10
(*)
(0
$9.00
7.50
5.00
$9.00
7.50
5.00
9.00
7.50
10.00
(«)
7.10
(<*)
<‘ )
10.00
(«)
(d)
(«)
Seven weekly benefits allowed for accident.
6 Five weekly benefits allowed for accident.
cFive weekly benefits of $1.50 each guaranteed, followed by half benefits unless disability is pro
nounced permanent.
d Four weekly benefits of $1.25 each guaranteed, followed by half benefits unless pronounced incurable
by the company’ s physician.
« Number of weekly benefits not specified in the contracts, but left to discretion of the company.
a
The next table compares in like manner the funeral or death benefits
guaranteed in the policies of the several assessment industrial com
panies for the weekly premium of 5 cents. As a rule the death
benefit is equal to the weekly sick benefit multiplied by the maxi
mum number of benefits guaranteed, but the rule does not always
hold good. It is a custom among these companies to keep the maxi
mum sick and accident liability about equal to the death benefit, and,
as will be seen later, the latter liability is frequently substituted for
the former.
DEA TH B E N E FIT PAID FOR A W E E K L Y PREMIUM OF 5 CENTS B Y THE VARIOUS
ASSESSMENT IN DU STRIA L COMPANIES ON COMBINATION POLICIES.
Age at issue.
Company.
20
25
30
35
40
45
years.
years.
years.
years.
years.
years.
years, j years.
$12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
14.00
15.00
15.00
20.00
$12,50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
14.00
15.00
15.00
20.00
$12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
14.00
15.00
15.00
20.00
$12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
15.00
12.00
20.00
$10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
12.50
15.00
12.00
12.50
$10.00
10.00
7.50
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
15.00
8.00
12.50
$7.50
7.50
7.50
$7.50
7.50
5.00
C om p a n y N o. 9 . .
C o m p a n y N o . 1 ft......................
C o m p a n y N o . I t .......................
Company No. 13.......................
Company No. 14.......................
C o m p a n y N o . 15.......................
Company No. 16.......................
$12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
14.00
15.00
15.00
20.00
7.50
7.50
10.00
15.00
8.00
10.00
10.00
15.00
10.00
Per cent of highest above
lowest..................................
60
60
60
60
67
50
100
100
200
Company No. 6 .........................
Company No. 7 .........................
Company No. 8 .........................
50
55
60
years.
801
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
The two preceding tables enable us to institute comparisons
between the charges made by the several assessment companies which
sell combination insurance on the industrial plan, and they show that
the price varies in a remarkable manner. For the same premium the
total sick and accident benefits allowed in one company are some
times twice and the death benefits three times what they are in
another.
It is interesting to compare the cost of combination insurance when
paid for in weekly payments with its cost when paid for in the ordi
nary way. Fortunately a comparison of this kind can be made with
out entering the domain of theory, for it happens that there is in the
District a company doing a large regular business which sells for an
annual premium a policy carrying sick, accident, and death benefits.
The cost of a policy of this kind is here given:
COST OF COMBINATION (SICK, ACCIDENT, AND L IFE ) INSURANCE IN A REGULAR
COMPANY W IT H PREMIUM PAID IN ONE ANNUAL PAYMENT.
Age (years).
20............................................................................................
25............................................................................................
30............................................................................................
35............................................................................................
40............................................................................................
45............................................................................................
50............................................................................................
55............................................................................................
60.............................................................................................
Yearly
premium.
$24.37
26.21
28.60
31.70
35.79
41.32
48.89
59.31
73.79
Maximum Maximum
sick
accident
benefit
benefit
($5 weekly ($5 weekly
for 26
for 200
weeks).
weeks).
$1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
$130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
Death
benefit.
$1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
With the above schedule and the tables on page 800 before us,
we may make the comparison here desired. In the table following
will be found the result of the comparison. The first part of the
table compares the amount of accident protection purchasable on the
assessment industrial plan for each $1 of premium expenditure with
the amount purchasable on the ordinary plan for the same premium
expenditure; the second part compares in a similar way the sick bene
fits guaranteed by the assessment industrial policy with those guar
anteed by the ordinary policy; the third compares the death benefits
of the two kinds of policies. In interpreting the table it should be
remembered that each element of protection compared is only one
of the three things guaranteed in both classes of policies, >to wit,
insurance against accident, insurance against sickness, and insurance
against death. In qualification of the figures of this table it should
be said that the benefits guaranteed under a policy in the assessment
industrial company are largely reduced by many terms and conditions
which do not appear in the policies of the ordinary insurance company.
These conditions are fully set forth on page 807 et seq.
802
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
ACCIDENT BENEFITS (MAXIMUM) GUARANTEED FOR EACH $1 OF PREMIUM ON
COMBINATION POLICIES B Y ASSESSMENT IN DU STRIAL COMPANIES AND B Y AN
O R D IN A R Y COMPANY.
Accident benefits (maximum) guar
anteed per $1 of premium.
Age (years).
20..............................................................................................................
25............................... : .............................................................................
30..............................................................................................................
35..............................................................................................................
40..............................................................................................................
45........*....................................................................................................
50..............................................................................................................
55..............................................................................................................
60..............................................................................................................
Per cent of
Industrial
of
(average of Ordinary. excess
ordinary
10 com
over
panies).
industrial.
$3.89
3.89
3.89
3.89
3.70
3.19
2.89
2.59
2.45
$41.03
38.15
34.97
31.55
27.94
24.20
20.45
16.86
13.55
955
881
799
711
655
659
608
551
453
SICK BENEFITS (MAXIMUM) GUARANTEED FOR EACH $1 OF PREMIUM ON COMBI
NATION POLICIES B Y ASSESSMENT INDU STRIAL COMPANIES AND B Y AN OR D I
N A R Y COMPANY.
Sick benefits (maximum) guaran
teed per $1 of premium.
Age (years).
20..............................................................................................................
25..............................................................................................................
30..............................................................................................................
35..............................................................................................................
40..............................................................................................................
45..............................................................................................................
50..............................................................................................................
55..............................................................................................................
60..............................................................................................................
a
Industrial
(average of
10 com
panies).
Ordinary.
Per cent of
excess of
ordinary
over
industrial.
$4.62
4.62
4.62
4.62
4.42
3.77
3.47
2.80
2.69
$5.33
4.96
4.54
4.10
3.63
3.15
2.66
2.19
1.76
15
7
«2
a 13
«22
a 20
a30
a 28
a53
Excess is in favor of industrial insurance.
DEATH BENEFITS GUARANTEED FOR EACH $1 OF PREMIUM ON COMBINATION PO LI
CIES B Y ASSESSMENT IN D U STRIA L COMPANIES AND B Y AN O R D IN A R Y COMPANY.
Death benefits guaranteed per $1 of
premium.
Age (years).
20..............................................................................................................
25..............................................................................................................
30..................... ......................................................................................
35...............................................................................................................
40..............................................................................................................
45..............................................................................................................
50..............................................................................................................
55...............................................................................................................
60...............................................................................................................
Per cent of
Industrial
of
(average of Ordinary. excess
ordinary
10 com
over
panies).
industrial.
$5.35
5.35
5.35
5.35
5.17
4.31
3.96
3.44
3.53
$41.03
38.15
34.97
31.55
27.94
24.20
20.45
16.86
13.55
667
611
554
490
440
461
416
390
284
The foregoing table shows the widest difference between the prices
of industrial and ordinary insurance yet discovered. As between the
accident indemnity furnished b y the assessment industrial companies
and that furnished b y the ordinary company there can hardly be said
803
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
to be any comparison, for the accident indemnity of the ordinary
policy exceeds that of the assessment industrial policy by many hun
dred per cent. In the matter of sick indemnity the price seems to be
slightly in favor of the industrial companies, altho the modifications,
which are found in the assessment industrial policies and which will be
stated below, would bring the guarantees far below the figures given
in the table. Again the life insurance of the ordinary policy is several
hundred per cent greater than the death benefit of the assessment
industrial policy. When we observe the facts contained in the table
in their entirety, remembering that the indemnities provided by both
the assessment industrial and the ordinary policies constitute a triple
guarantee, we are forced to the conclusion that the small-payment
method of buying combination insurance is inordinately costly when
compared with the large-payment method.
M ONTHLY ASSESSMENT ASSOCIATIONS.
Two of the assessment companies sell combination insurance for
premiums payable monthly. One of these does monthly assessment
business only, while the other carries on both a weekly and monthly
premium business. The rates of these companies are here given:
SCHEDULE OF PREMIUMS AND BENEFITS ON M ONTHLY ASSESSMENT PLAN,
COMPANY NO. 12.
Age (years).
6 to
15 to
20 to
30 to
40 to
50 to
15...................................................................................
20...................................................................................
30...................................................................................
40...................................................................................
50...................................................................................
60...................................................................................
Entrance
fee.
Monthly
premium.
Sick and
accident
benefits
per week.
$2.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
2.00
$0.65
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
.65
$2.50
6.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
2.50
Death
benefit.
$50.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
50.00
SCHEDULE OF PREMIUMS AND BENEFITS ON M ONTHLY ASSESSMENT PLAN,
COMPANY NO. 13.
15 to 35...................................................................................
36 to 45...................................................................................
46 to 55...................................................................................
15 to 35...................................................................................
36 to 45...................................................................................
46 to 55...................................................................................
15 to 35...................................................................................
36 to 45...................................................................................
46 to 55...................................................................................
15 to 35...................................................................................
36 to 45...................................................................................
46 to 55...................................................................................
15 to 35...................................................................................
38 to 45...................................................................................
46 to 50...................................................................................
15 to 35................... ..............................................................
36 to 45............................................................................ .
46 to 50...................................................................................
15 to 35...................................................................................
36 to 45...................................................................................
46 to 50...................................................................................
$3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
$0.25
.25
.25
.40
.40
.40
.50
.50
.50
.60
.60
.60
.75
.75
.75
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.25
1.25
1.25
$1.50
1.50
1.25
2.40
2.40
2.00
3.00
3.00
2.50
3.60
3.60
3.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
6.00
5.50
5.00
7.00
7.00
6.00
$25.00
20.00
20.00
40.00
32.00
32.00
50.00
40.00
40.00
60.00
48.00
48.00
75.00
60.00
60.00
100.00
80.00
80.00
125.00
100.00
85.00
804
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The foregoing rates tell their own story. They can not be com
pared with the rates of other companies, for there are no other com
panies in the District which sell precisely the same kind of insurance
payable in monthly premiums. A comparison of the rates of one
of the companies with the rates of the other shows that the charges
in both cases are practically the same.
COST OF W H O LE -LIFE INSURANCE IN ASSESSMENT COMPANIES.
Several of the assessment industrial companies sell simple wholelife as well as combination insurance. The whole-life business of
these assessment companies is, with one unimportant exception,
conducted on the industrial plan, and the life rates offered by these
companies follow as a rule very closely those offered by the regular
industrial companies. A comprehensive account of the industrial
life rates of the assessment companies would, therefore, be only a
repetition of previous statements. In the schedules of several of
the assessment industrial companies, however, the rates for straightlife insurance show a departure from the charges of the regular indus
trial companies, and these schedules must receive attention.
One assessment company offers the following schedule of rates for
straight-life insurance:
PREMIUM RATES CHARGED FOR STRAIGH T-LIFE INSURANCE B Y AN ASSESSMENT
IN DU STRIAL COMPANY.
Age at next birthday (years).
10 to
16 to
21 to
26 to
31 to
36 to
41 to
46 to
51 to
15..........................................................................................................................
20..........................................................................................................................
25..........................................................................................................................
30..........................................................................................................................
35.......................: .................................................................................................
40..........................................................................................................................
45..........................................................................................................................
50..........................................................................................................................
55.........................................................................................................................
Weekly
premium
(cents).
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Amount of
insurance.
(a)
$100
90
80
70
60
55
50
45
40
a For each five-year period that the policy is kept continuously in force, not exceeding 25 years, onefifth the original mortuary value is added.
The relative cost of a policy of this kind in comparison with a
similar policy issued by a regular industrial company is conveniently
shown in the table below. In the second column are the successive
death benefits guaranteed on a policy at each five-year period when
issued by an assessment industrial company at the age of 20 (at next
birthday), the weekly premium being 10 cents. In the third column
is the mortuary value at each five-year period usually assured by a
regular industrial company, the age being 20 (at next birthday), and
the premium being 10 cents. In qualification of these figures it
should be said that the mortuary value of a policy in an assessment
industrial company is largely reduced by many terms and conditions
which do not appear in the policies of the regular industrial com
panies. These conditions are fully set forth on page 807 et seq.
805
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
DEATH BENEFITS GUARANTEED AT EACH F IV E -Y E A R PERIO D B Y AN ASSESSMENT
INDU STRIAL COMPANY AND B Y A REGU LAR IN DU STRIAL COMPANY ON A POLICY
ISSUED AT AGE 20 (AT N E X T B IR T H D A Y ) FOR A W E E K L Y PREMIUM OF 10 CENTS.
Death benefits guaranteed at spec
ified age for a weekly premium
of 10 cents.
Attained age of insured, policy having been issued at age 20 (at
next birthday).
Assessment Regular
industrial industrial
company. company.
(o)
20 years...................................................................................................
25 years...................................................................................................
30 years.....................................................i .............................................
35 years...................................................................................................
40 years..................................................................................................
45 years and over...................................................................................
b $90
108
126
144
162
180
Per cent of
excess of
regular
over
assessment..
6 $174
174
174
174
174
174
93
61
38
21
T
c4
a The mortuary value of a policy in an assessment industrial company is largely reduced by many
terms and conditions which do not appear in the policies of the regular industrial companies. These
conditions are fully set forth on page 807 et seq.
6 The policy reaches the full value given only when premiums have been paid for a full year,
c Excess in favor of assessment policy.
The above table shows that this particular assessment industrial
policy is a very ingenious affair. The person insured in the assess
ment company has after the age of 45, $6 more of insurance than he
would have received in the regular industrial company. In the
meantime, taking into consideration the amount of protection he
has had and taking the charges of the regular industrial company
as a basis for calculation, he has paid for this insurance premiums
in excess of what the same amount of protection would have cost in
a regular industrial company as follows:
Excess premiums paid—
First five y ears.........................................................................................................$12.55
Second five years.....................................................................................................
9.90
Third five years.........................................................................................................
7.20
Fourth five y ears.................... '...............................................................................
4. 50
Fifth five years.........................................................................................................
1.80
Total........................................................................................................................
35.95
Another assessment industrial company offers for a weekly pre
mium of 5 cents insurance as shown in the second column of the table
following. The third column gives the amount of insurance usually
guaranteed for a weekly premium of 5 cents by the regular industrial
companies. The per cent of difference between the amounts is also
shown, and it will be observed that the regular industrial company
gives a much greater insurance for the same premium— 5 cents per
week.
115b—No. 67—06---- 9
806
BULLETIN OF THE BUJEtEAU OF LABOR.
DEATH BENEFITS GUARANTEED B Y AN ASSESSMENT IN DU STRIAL COMPANY AND
B Y A REGU LAR IN DU STRIAL COMPANY FOR A W E E K L Y PREMIUM OF 5 CENTS.
Death benefits guaranteed for a
weekly premium of 5 cents.
Age at next birthday (years).
Assessment Regular
industrial industrial
company. company.
$94
78
66
57
49
40
32
25
18
12
15..............................................................................................................
20..............................................................................................................
25..............................................................................................................
30..............................................................................................................
35..............................................................................................................
40..............................................................................................................
45..............................................................................................................
50..............................................................................................................
55..............................................................................................................
60..............................................................................................................
Per cent of
excess of
regular
over
assessment
$103
87
76
67
59
50
42
35
28
22
10
12
15
18
20
25
31
40
56
83
A third assessment industrial company offers a whole-life policy
that is worthy of special notice. It will be remembered that the
regular industrial companies pay only one-fourth of the insurance
if the insured dies within six months of the date of the issue of the
policy and only one-half if death occurs after six months and within
one year from the date of the issue of the policy. Now the assess
ment company in question offers a whole-life policy on precisely these
terms and at the same rates charged by the regular industrial com
panies. But it also issues a special whole-life policy that does not
contain the conditions referred to above but is in full force as soon
as it is executed. For this advantageous feature exactly 100 per
cent is added to the premium, while nothing is added to the face of
the policy. The rates of this policy and its conditions are given
below just as they are advertised:
DEATH BENEFITS GUARANTEED FOR A W E E K L Y PREMIUM OF 10 CENTS B Y AN
ASSESSMENT IN DU STRIAL COMPANY.
[Under this policy the full amount of the insurance is in force from the payment of the first premium
and the delivery of the policy.]
Age at next birthday
(years).
Amount
of death
benefit.
10....................................
11....................................
12....................................
13....................................
1 4 ..................................
15....................................
16....................................
17....................................
18....................................
19....................................
20....................................
21....................................
22....................................
23....................................
24....................................
25....................................
26....................................
27....................................
28
...........................
29....................................
30....................................
$120
118
116
112
108
103
100
94
92
89
87
84
82
80
78
76
■ 74
72
71
69
67
Age at next birthday
(years).
31..................................
32..................................
33.................................
34..................................
35..................................
36..................................
37..................................
38..................................
39..................................
40..................................
41..................................
42..................................
43..................................
44..................................
45..................................
46..................................
47..................................
48..................................
49..................................
50..................................
51..................................
Amount
of death
benefit.
$66
64
62
60
59
57
55
54
52
50
49
47
45
44
42
41
39
38
37
35
34
Age at next birthday
(years).
'
i
i
|
52..................................
53..................................
54..................................
55..................................
56..................................
57..................................
58..................................
59..................................
60..................................
61..................................
62..................................
63..................................
64..................................
65..................................
66..................................
67..................................
68..................................
69..................................
70..................................
Amount
of death
benefit.
$32
31
30
28
27
26
25
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
807
“ Policies written up to $500 on the above table and insure for the
full amount when delivered. Policy from date of issue is incontest
able and absolutely free of conditions as to residence, occupation,
or travel, and payable one hour after death.”
The above rates are 100 per cent higher than the regular industrial
rates, and 300 per cent higher than the ordinary rates in regular
companies.
TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF COMBINATION ASSESSMENT POLICIES.
The schedules of rates of themselves will not give a correct idea
of the cost of insurance which the assessment industrial companies
sell. To gain a clear notion of that cost the policies of the company
must be carefully examined. Such an examination will now be
undertaken, but first it will be best to present the exact text of a
typical combination policy issued by one of the assessment industrial
associations in the District:
FORM OF COMBINATION POLICY CONTRACT ISSUED BY AN ASSESSMENT
INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATION.
[Name of company.]
N o .------ .
Age 20.
B y this Certificate of Membership,
In consideration of the statements and agreements made in the application for this
certificate of membership, which application is hereby made a part of this contract
and in further consideration of the payment of the sum of fifteen cents on the date
hereof and the payment of a like sum on Monday of each week hereafter, promises to
pay t o ---------------------, of Washington, D. C., four and 50/100 dollars per week, upon
satisfactory proof of disability, thru sickness or accident, in accordance with the
terms and conditions as provided herein, from giving any attention to or superintend
ing in any manner the duties usually performed, or any other business or occupation
(the proof of which shall consist of the attending physician’s certificate, approved b y
the medical director of the association, or some officer thereof, and which shall be fur
nished weekly b y the member during the continuance of the disability). On each
anniversary of this certificate (after the first) five of the weekly premiums paid
hereon shall be added annually to the amount of the death benefit, and will be payable
at the death of the member named herein, provided this certificate be kept in full
force from date of issue.
In the event of the death of the insured the said association, as provided by the terms
herein, will pay t o ---------------------, wife, forty-five dollars.
In witness whereof, the said association, at its office, in Washington, D. C., has, b y
its president and secretary, signed and sealed this certificate subject to the by-laws,
rules, and regulations, and terms and conditions as printed on the back of this certifi
cate, which are hereby made a part of this contract, in the same manner and to the
same extent as if printed in the bod y hereof, but the same shall not be binding on the
said association prior to the date hereof, or unless the member is alive and in good
health on the date of its delivery, or on the date when the first payment is made known.
Note article 21 of certificate.
Dated this 22d day of August, one thousand nine hundred and 4.
--------------------- , President.
--------------------- , Secretary.
Countersigned b y
--------------------- General Manager.
[s e a l .]
808
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Terms and conditions upon which the within certificate is issued. (a)
1. All dues or other moneys are payable b y the members direct to the association at
its principal office, Washington, D. 0., or such branch offices as may be established,
and the collection of the same elsewhere, from time to time, b y the collector of the
association, shall be deemed and taken to be a mere courtesy and convenience to the
member and shall not be construed as establishing any custom whatever, or as relieving
any member from the duty of paying the'same to the association at the nearest office, as
aforesaid. Should any collector of the association neglect or fail at any time to collect
from any member any dues or other moneys when due to the association, it shall be the
duty of the member to pay the same at the nearest office of the association, within the
time allowed for the payment thereof, whether the association be indebted to him or
her on account of disability or not, and in the event of their failing to do so they shall
forfeit their membership in the association, and their certificate of membership shall
become null and void, and all dues and other moneys paid b y the member shall be
absolutely forfeited,- to vest exclusively in the association, and the member shall not
be entitled to any benefits until five weeks after he has furnished the health certificate
and made payment of all arrearages in dues and other moneys as specified herein.
2. The association shall have the right and power to refuse to reinstate any member
or to restore any certificate of membership forfeited for any just cause, and such refusal
shall be final and conclusive.
3. Should the member tail to pay the weekly dues upon this certificate for three or
more Mondays this certificate shall be void and all payments made hereunder shall be
forfeited, and such member will not be entitled to any benefits for sickness, accident,
or death, but such member can be reinstated, if in good health b y paying up in full
all arrearages in dues and other moneys and furnishing a health certificate from the
association’s medical examiner, but such member may be reinstated b y the associa
tion without a medicals examination, if it so desires, but such member shall not be
entitled to benefits should sickness, accident, or death occur within five weeks after
date of reinstatement, nor after that for any sickness or accident having had its begin
ning during said five weeks, nor for death resulting from sickness or accident commenc
ing or occurring during said five weeks, but such members upon the surrender of their
receipt book and this certificate for cancellation, shall be entitled to the return of all
premiums paid since the beginning of said five weeks.
4. Members in arrears for three or more Mondays by passing a medical examination
satisfactory to the association, if required, may make partial payments of their arrear
ages to the association or its agent, but no liability upon the part of the association shall
exist in favor of any member who has been three Mondays in arrears by reason of
acceptance of such partial payments until five weeks after the payment of all arrear
ages in full, nor for any sickness or accident having had its beginning during said five
weeks nor for death resulting from the same other than the return of dues paid within
sai4 five weeks as provided in section 3 hereof.
5. Should any delinquent member not in good health and free from all ailments
and complaints, or any person on his or her behalf, pay to the association, or any officer,
collector or employee thereof, any dues or other moneys in arrears, the same shall be
returned to such member, and such payment shall not reinstate or restore to member
ship such delinquent, but his or her membership shall be and continue to be forfeited,
and his or her certificate shall be and continue to be null and void.
6. The dues on this certificate are due on Monday of each week, beginning with the
date hereof, and any payment not made on Monday is in arrears after that date. No
payment of dues made on this certificate w ill be recognized b y the association as valid
or binding unless made to a duly authorized agent, and b y such agent entered at the
time of payment in the receipt book belonging with this certificate.
a These terms and conditions are printed in type very small and very hard to read.
COST OT INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE,
809
7. And it is further agreed that if within the period of one year from the date benefits
attach as aforesaid, the insured shall have any sickness, disability or accident, for
which benefits would be payable, and a qualified physician in good standing, shall
ceitify such sickness, disability or accident to be permanent and probably incura
ble, and the medical examiner or any other officer designated b y the association
approve the same, an amount equal to one-half the funeral benefit named in this certifi
cate will be payable; and if such sickness, disability, or accident should occur after one
year from the date said benefits attach the full amount of the funeral benefit w ill be
payable, and in either event, upon such payment or the tender thereof, this certificate
shall cease and be surrendered to the association. In no event shall more than an
amount equal to 52 weekly benefits (in the aggregate) be paid under this certificate.
8. The age of the person insured in this certificate shall be admitted on due proof,
but if not so proven, the amount of sick or death benefit payable under this certificate
shall in no case be more than the weekly payment charged would have purchased in
this association for such person at their true age.
9. This certificate and the receipt book containing the entries of assessments paid
on the same, shall be exhibited to the officers or authorized employees of the association,
at any time upon demand; and when notifying the association of disability under this
certificate, the receipt book must accompany said notice.
10. The disappearance or long-continued absence of the member shall not be
regarded as evidence of death, but satisfactory proof of the fact and cause of death
must be furnished the association, before death benefit can be claimed.
11. Beneficiaries must have something more than a pecuniary interest in the insured,
as speculative policies are not issued b y this association.
12. Members who hold a sick and accident certificate and whose premiums are not
in arrears will be entitled to benefits, if b y sickness or accident they shall be totally
disabled from attending to their usual occupation or other kind of employment; said
member must be strictly confined to bed at his place of abode with some well-defined
disease or accident and attended there b y a duly licensed physician sufficiently often
to answer intelligently, and in full all questions appearing in such blanks as may be
furnished b y the association, otherwise no benefits will be paid. Forms for member’s
and physician’s w eekly reports will be furnished on demand, and all questions therein
must be answered in full to the satisfaction of the association.
13. Failure to furnish reports weekly on blanks furnished b y the association will
invalidate any claim, viz: First report must be furnished seven days from date notice
was received b y the association, and second report seven days from that and so con
tinued thruout illness, whether or not payment has been made for the preceding
week.
14. In order to properly adjust any claim the association may require the member
or beneficiary at any time to furnish an affidavit, and also to furnish an affidavit from
the attending physician at any time and as often as may be deemed necessary, and their
failure to do so within seven days w ill invalidate their claim.
15. When a member becomes disabled thru sickness or accident, he or she shall
at once write to the association and his or her claim w ill go into effect from the date
notice is received b y the association at its principal office, provided said member, at
the time, is attended at his or her residence by a duly registered physician. Failure
to notify the association of sickness or accident within ten days w ill invalidate the
claim. The member shall also submit to a medical examination, if deemed necessary,
b y the association’s own physician.
16. A ll benefits will be computed from the date of the physician’s first visit to the
member to the date of his last visit, provided always that written notice of disability
has been received from said member b y the association on or before the date of the phy
sician’s first visit to the member, otherwise all benefits will be computed from the date
notice is received from said member until date of physician’s last visit to said mem
ber, but in no case will benefits be paid for less than seven days’ disability. In case
810
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
of sickness or death caused by pulmonary or heart disease, consumption, phthisis,
or paralysis, only one-half of the amount otherwise due will be paid,
17. It is hereby agreed that only one-fourth of the maximum benefits specified
herein shall be paid for any sickness, accident, or death occurring previous to the first
twenty-six weeks from date of this certificate, or for any sickness or accident having
had its beginning during said twenty-six weeks, or for death caused b y any sickness or
accident having had its beginning during said twenty-six weeks from date of certificate
of membership. After twenty-six weeks from date of this certificate the full w eekly
sick and accident benefit will be paid, and after one year from the date of this certifi
cate the entire death benefit w ill be paid, but in no case can a member and his heirs or
personal representatives draw more than an amount equal to ten weekly benefits in
any one year, nor more than five weekly benefits for sickness or accident in any one six
months.
18. It is further agreed that one-fourth and one-half weekly benefits paid under this
certificate shall be construed to mean full weekly benefits in computing the number
of weekly benefits payable during the first twelve months of membership.
19. No collector or employee of the association has authority to alter or discharge
contracts or waive forfeiture. The application of every member shall form a part of
the contract between the member and the association, and if any statement contained
therein, b y whomsoever made or written, shall be untrue in any respect, then the
membership and the certificate of membership of any such member shall be null and
void, and all moneys paid on account of same shall be absolutely forfeited to the asso
ciation. Sick benefits will not be paid for illness arising from any of the following
diseases, their consequence or sequel: Rheumatism, neuralgia, lumbago, sciatica,
venereal diseases, confinement, chronic diseases, intemperance, or diseases peculiar
only to women.
20. No suit or action at law, or in equity, shall be maintained to enforce the perform
ance of this contract until sixty days after the filing, in the principal office of the asso
ciation of any claims against the same of any description, nor unless such suit or action
shall be commenced within six months after the beginning of any disability for which
benefits are claimed, or if for death benefits, within six months after the decease of the
person insured under this certificate, and it is expressly agreed that should any such
suit or action be commenced after the expiration of said six months the lapse of time
shall be deemed as conclusive evidence against the validity of such claim, any statute
of limitations to the contrary, notwithstanding. The production of the certificate and
premium receipt book, or a receipt from the claimant shall be a full release and dis
charge to the association and its officers.
21. The board of trustees shall have the power to levy extra assessments when
needed, or raise the rate if necessary.
22. It is hereby stipulated and agreed that in case the member holding this certifi
cate dies b y the hand of justice, or is killed in a fight or brawl, or becomes disabled,
hurt or sick, thru or b y reason of intoxication, or any fight or brawl, thru the
violation of any law, or shall come to death b y his or her own hand, sane or insane, or
be confined with any disease or ailment, chronic or otherwise, contracted before join
ing the association, or when sickness or accident is caused b y being injured while in
active service in the Regular Army or Militia, the association shall not be required or
liable to pay anything whatever to such member, or any person, for or on account of
same.
23. No additional certificate w ill be allowed or considered binding on the associa
tion (unless so indorsed at the time of their issue). If any additional certificates are
issued or taken out b y the within named, or thru his or her sanction was taken out
b y some other person without being indorsed additional, such certificates will be
declared null and void b y the association, and no benefits will be payable except cn
the first certificate that was issued to the member.
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
811
Some of the conditions found in the above policy are not common
to all the policies. For example, the provision for an increase in the
death benefit after a certain time is found in the policies of but two
other companies. Generally speaking, however, the policy printed
above very well exemplifies the nature of the terms and conditions
which are found in assessment industrial policies and which will now
be examined in detail.
CONDITIONS OF BENEFIT PAYMENT DURING FIRST YEAR.
In none of the sick, accident, or death benefit policies do the full
benefits accrue during the first year. The conditions in respect to
first-year benefits can be learned from the following extracts taken
from the policies of leading assessment industrial companies:
1. And it is agreed furthermore that only one-half of the benefits
specified above shall be paid for any sickness occurring after the first
ten weeks from date of this certificate [sic], or for any sickness having
had its beginning after said ten weeks of membership, but in the
case of disability or death during the first twenty weeks from date,
the association reserves the right to return all premiums paid on this
certificate and cancel the same. After twenty weeks from date of this
certificate the full weekly sick and disability benefit and one-half the
death benefit will be paid, and after one year from the date of this
certificate the entire funeral benefits will be paid.
Provided, however, that one-half weekly benefits paid under this
agreement shall be construed to mean full weekly benefits, in com
puting the number of the full weekly benefits payable during the
first twelve months of membership.
2. That neither sick or accident benefits will be paid if sickness
or accident occur before three months from the date of this certifi
cate; if such sickness, disability or accident occur after three months
and before six months from the date hereof one-fourth of the amount
named as sick or accident benefits will be paid. If after six months
and before twelve months, one-half, after twelve months the full
amount.
3. If sickness, death or accident* occur after a membership of ten
weeks and before six months, one-fourth of said sum; after six months
and before nine months, one-half; after nine months and before
twelve months, three-fourths of said sum; after twelve months, the
full amount of said sum.
The fact that practically no benefits accrue for a period ranging
from ten to twenty weeks after the execution of the policy gives
rise at times to a very singular insurance situation. A solicitor of
industrial insurance frequently receives for his services all the pre
miums paid on a policy during the first fifteen or twenty weeks of its
existence. Now it sometimes happens that a solicitor who is popular
and well known in his neighborhood will solicit for three or four
months for one company and then go over to another company.
He then approaches his insurance clientele and asks them to let their
812
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
policies in one company lapse and to insure in his new company. Per
sonal considerations actually lead many to do this. After collecting
premiums for several months in company two the solicitor transfers
his allegiance to company three, and again prevails upon his fol
lowers to change their policies. Thus by a series of skilful changes
he collects the premiums and puts them in his pocket. In the mean
time his policy holders are insured for nothing at all or for only onefourth of the amount for which they pay.
CONDITIONS OF BENEFIT PAYMENT IN CASE OF CERTAIN DISEASES.
The sick and funeral benefits are by no means general indemnities
against sickness and death. Some of the assessment industrial poli
cies are liberal in respect to the cause of disability, but most of them
name a long list of diseases for which only partial benefits and in
other cases no benefits at all will be paid. Only the policies them
selves can tell when benefits will and will not accrue, as will be seen
from the following extracts from the policies of the various companies:
1. And provided further that in case of consumption, heart dis
ease, rheumatism, sciatica or paralysis, only one-half the amount of
sick benefits due under this contract will be payable for disability
caused by such sickness. Provided further, that no more than seven
[twelve for sickness] weeks’ benefits shall be paid for any accidental
injury sustained by the member.
2. Benefit will not be paid for sickness, caused by childbirth,
diseases peculiar to females, venereal diseases or rheumatism in any
form.
3. Only one-half of the sum otherwise due will be paid for death
caused by consumption, phthisis, or heart disease or rheumatism
occurring or having its beginning within one year from date of the
policy.
4. In case of consumption, pulmonary diseases, heart disease,
rheumatism, sciatica or paralysis only one-half the amount of sick
or death benefits payable for disability or death caused by such dis
eases. Where disability is caused by accident not more than five
weeks’ benefits [ten weeks’ sickness] will be paid.
5. No benefits will be paid for any chronic diseases which mem
bers contracted before joining the company. Benefits will not be
paid for confinement, diseases peculiar to women or venereal dis
eases. For consumption, heart disease, rheumatism and paralysis
one-half of sick benefit.
6. No sick benefits will be paid for confinement, diseases peculiar
to women, venereal diseases, rheumatism, or any diseases contracted
before joining this company and not reported in the application.
7. No benefits will be paid for disability caused by intoxication,
violation of the laws of the land, venereal diseases, childbirth, dis
ease of organs peculiar to females, rheumatism or death resulting
from any of them.
8. In case of consumption, heart disease, or rheumatism occurring
within eighteen months from date hereof, only one-half the amount
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
813
otherwise payable, will be payable for disability or death caused by
such sickness.
9. Accident, sick or death benefits will not be paid in any case,
when the accident, sickness or death results from venereal diseases,
suicide, attempt to commit suicide, drunkenness, immorality, insan
ity, or while engaged in active military or naval service, nor for con
sumption within one year from date of application, nor for injury,
sickness or death if caused by negligence or wilful act of applicant.
10. It is further understood and agreed that no benefit for sick
ness, accident or death will be paid in any case where the sickness,
accidents, or death results from venereal diseases, suicide or attempt
to commit suicide, old sores or ulcerated legs * * * . But it is
hereby understood that in case the member be constantly sick or
have a lingering disease, or have yellow fever, smallpox, or any con
tagious disease, the aforesaid benefits may be reduced at any time
by the order of the president or board of directors.
11. In case of sickness or death caused by pulmonary or heart
disease, consumption, phthisis, or paralysis, only one-half of the
amount otherwise due will be paid.
Some of the above conditions have far-reaching effects upon the
claims of policy holders. The naming of so many diseases for which
benefits will not be paid in case of sickness or death relieves the
company of one-sixth or more of its liabilities in some instances and
to a corresponding degree reduces the value of their insurance to
policy holders. For example, in one policy— see (4) preceding—
sickness or death from consumption, pulmonary diseases, heart
disease, rheumatism, sciatica, and paralysis are mentioned as diseases
which will exclude full sick and death benefits. To what extent
policy holders find their claims reduced by this clause may be learned
from the report of the health officer of the District for 1903-4. In
that report the number of deaths caused by the above-named diseases
compared with the total number of deaths from all causes was stated
as bearing the following proportions:'
PER CENT OF DEATHS FROM CERTAIN DISEASES OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF DEATHS
FROM ALL CAUSES.
[From the report of the health officer of the District of Columbia for 1903-4.]
Cause of death.
Consumption.
Pneumonia..
Heart disease
Rheumatism.
Paralysis____
Total
Per cent of
total deaths
from all
causes.
13.055
9.405
9.000
.488
.724
32.672
The foregoing figures show that nearly one-third of all deaths in
the District of Columbia are from the excepted causes. Among the
colored people, with whom the assessment industrial business is mostly
814
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF .LABOR.
done, the percentage of deaths from consumption and pneumonia
would be considerably higher, for the death rate from these particular
causes among the colored people is more than double the rate among
the whites. It is thus seen that more than one-third of the policies
of this company and of several others are liable to be scaled down
to one-half their face value by reason of the harsh conditions in
reference to certain diseases. In one case— see (10) preceding— the
conditions exempting the company from liability are so sweeping as
to leave the policy holder practically no guarantee at all: “ But it
is hereby understood that in case the member be constantly sick or
have a lingering disease, or have yellow fever, smallpox, or any con
tagious disease, the aforesaid benefits may be reduced at any time
by the order of the president or board of directors.” No restriction
whatever as to the amount of the reduction.
CONDITIONS OF ADMISSION.
Generally speaking admission into the assessment industrial asso
ciation is easy. The following exhibit, compiled from official docu
ments in the insurance department of the District, shows the facts
in respect to conditions governing admission:
CONDITIONS GOVERNING ADMISSION TO THE ASSESSMENT INDUSTRIAL
ASSOCIATIONS.
Company.
Entrance fee.
Age limit.
Is medical
examination
absolutely
required.
Company No. 6..............................•...................
Company No. 7 ..................................................
Company No. 8..................................................
Company No. 9..................................................
Company No. 10................................................
Company No. 11................................................
Company No. 12................................................
Company No. 13................................................
Company No. 14................................................
Company No. 15................................................
Company No. 16................................................
Company No. 17................................................
1 assessment .. .
None..................
None..................
None..................
None..................
None..................
$2 to $4..............
None..................
1 assessment___
None..................
None..................
None..................
1 to 70 years................
1 month to 70 years...
2 to 70 years................
2 to 50 years................
2 to 55 years................
1 to 70 years................
6 to 60 years................
4 to 60 years................
20 months to 70 years.
1 to 60 years................
1 to 60 years................
1 to 65 years................
No.
Yes.
No.
No.
Yes.
Yes. (o)
Yes.
In some cases.
No.
No.
No.
No.
a Or
inspection.
According to the foregoing exhibit it may be broadly said that
persons of any age may join the assessment industrial companies
without cost and without medical examination. In three com
panies, however, a medical examination is required before issuing a
policy. While most of the companies do not require a medical
examination, nevertheless nearly all of them submit to a would-be
policy holder an application blank to be filled out. The following
is a specimen of such blanks:
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
815
FORM OF APPLICATION FOR INSURANCE IN AN ASSESSMENT INDUSTRIAL
ASSOCIATION.
The [name of association], of Washington, D. C.
Application.
I hereby apply for a certificate of membership in the [name of association], of Wash
ington, IX C., and promise and agree to make prompt payments of all assessments that
may be levied upon me in accordance with this application, or failing to do so to relin
quish all claims for benefits; and I agree that this application together with the con
ditions hereto annexed, and the certificate that shall issue from it, shall form the
basis of contract between the society and myself.
N a m e .......................... Age next b irth d a y ..............................................years.
A dd ress...................................... C o lo r .....................................................................
Date of b ir t h ..............................190-. Are you m a rried ?.........................
Present state of h ealth ........................................................................... O ccu p ation ............
Date of last illness.................................................................................. Duration..................
Nature of last illness...................................................................................................................
Name of medical atten dan t................................................................. A d d re s s .....................
Have you ever had rheumatism?........................................................When?.........................
What was its nature?............................................................................... Duration?................
Have you ever had any accidental disabling injury?..................... When?.......................
Its nature and result?...................................................................................................................
Have you had any ulcerfe, tumors, or cancerous -sores on the
body?................................................................................................................................
Are you ruptured?.................................................................................
Has it ever disabled you from work or business?...............................................
Have you ever been treated for diseases of the lungs, heart, kid
neys or b la d d e r ? .......................................................................................................................
Do you use intoxicating liquors?......................................................... To what ex te n t? .. .
State fully how many times in the last five years you have had any sickness or injury
that disabled you from attending to business, and how long it lasted, and its nature
Deaf and dumb, blind or insane persons will not be admitted.
Name the person to whom the benefit in the event of your death shall be paid.
N a m e .............................................
How related to y o u ........................................................
I hereby warrant the truthfulness of the answers to the above interrogatories, that
I have not withheld any facts as to m y age, health, habits, or history that might mis
lead the agent or society, and agree as such that they and the conditions annexed, shall
constitute the authority upon which a certificate shall be issued. And I further agree
that should t h e ..................o f ............................. so elect at any time after the expiration
of one year from the date hereof, should I become permanently disabled by sickness
or accident, it may pay to me the amount named herein as a death benefit in full dis
charge of all claims under the certificate and that thereupon the certificate shall be
surrendered to the society for cancellation and the coritract terminated.
......................................, Applicant.
D a t e .................................., 190—.
To be answered by agent.
Have you fully explained and does the applicant understand the conditions under
which the certificate will be issued?
.............................., Agent.
N o t e . — Should the application be rejected, the money paid to the agent w ill be
refunded.
A dd ress......................................
816
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
CONDITIONS RELATING TO TERMINATION OF POLICY.
In all the assessment industrial policies there is a provision giving
the company the right to terminate the contract by the payment
(in whole or in part) of the death benefit in case the holder becomes
permanently disabled. A single extract from one of the policies will
be sufficient to illustrate the “ permanent disability’’ clause: “ If
within the period of one year from the date benefits attach as afore
said, the insured shall have any sickness, disability or accident for
which benefit would be payable, and a qualified physician in good
standing shall certify such sickness, disability or accident to be
permanent and probably incurable, and the medical examiner or any
other officer designated by the company approve the same, an
amount equal to one-half the funeral benefit named in this certificate
will be payable; and if such sickness, disability, or accident should
occur after one year from the date said benefits attach, the full amount
of the funeral benefit will be payable, and in either event, upon such
payment or the tender thereof, this certificate shall cease and be
surrendered to the company.”
Under the foregoing provision, when it is seen that the sick policy
holder is likely to remain sick for the full period during which sick
benefits are payable and perhaps die in the end and render the com
pany liable for death benefits in addition to the sick benefits that
have been paid, the company puts an end to its risks by declaring
the insured “ probably incurable” and paying the death benefit at
once. When compounding its liability in this way it is the custom
of some of the companies to deduct from the sum due as a death
benefit the sum of the sick benefits that have already been paid and
give the policy holder the remainder. The right to proceed in this
way is sometimes stipulated in the contract. Thus in one policy
this clause is found,“ should any member become incurable and dis
qualified (pronounced so by the company’s physician) from following
any and all business or vocation, the company reserves the right of
paying to such a member a sum equivalent to the death benefits,
deducting such fees as may have been paid for any and all sickness
during that policy year in which the applicant was pronounced incur
able, in which case all claims against the company shall stand can
celed and the policy surrendered to the company and become null
and void.” In no case can a company lose by the presence of such
a provision as this, and in the case of most of the companies it is
cheaper to pay the death benefit than it is to pay the sick benefit
for the full period for which benefits are allowed. In other words,
the “ probably incurable” clause permits the company to substitute
a smaller for a greater liability and at the same time to wash its hands
of a bad bargain.
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
817
The policies can of course also be terminated by failure to pay the
premium. In most of the companies members who are in arrears may
be reinstated: “ Members in arrears for more than three assessments
may be reinstated upon payment of back assessments in full,
but will not be entitled to any benefits under the certificate unless
in sound health and free from any disease at the time of such rein
statement, and in case death should occur for any cause whatever
within five weeks from the date of such reinstatement the society
shall not be liable to any extent whatever on account of such death.”
The termination of the policy by lapse thru the nonpayment of
premiums or otherwise relieves the company of all liability. There
are no cash-surrender values or paid-up policy values in combination
insurance: “ If for any cause this certificate should become void all
assessments paid on account thereof shall be forfeited to the company
and all liability on the part of the society shall cease.”
CONDITIONS AS TO THE COLLECTION OF PREMIUMS.
In all forms of industrial insurance it is the practise of the com
panies to collect the premiums at the home of the insured. The
policies, however, do not provide for this convenient method of pay
ment. The companies are under no obligation whatever to send a
collector for the premiums. On the contrary, the policy holder is
expressly obligated to pay the premiums at the office of the company.
The provisions on this point are usually very explicit. The spirit of
the condition in reference to place of payment may be learned in the
following clause taken from a policy of an assessment industrial
company: “ That all assessments and dues are payable at the office
of the association and the sending of a collector is only an act of
courtesy on the part of the association, and the failure of the collector
to call for dues will not be deemed an excuse for nonpayment as
members can pay their dues at the office at any time during office
hours.” Sometimes the condition is more severe, as in the following:
“ In case for any reason the society shall not attend to the collection
of assessments payable on their certificate thru its agent or collector
it shall be the duty of the certificate holder within the time allowed by
the society to bring or send said assessments to the home office or to
the society’s agent or collector, and in the event of the failure of the
certificate holder to perform his duty the society may cancel this
certificate without notice to any person or persons interested therein.”
818
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
COST OF ASSESSMENT IN D U S T R IA L INSURANCE AS AFFE CTED B Y
P O L IC Y CONDITIONS.
It is plain that the numerous conditions with which the assessment
industrial policies are weighted must be taken into account in con
sidering the cost of insurance in the District. Nearly all the condi
tions that have been mentioned tend to make the cost of combination
insurance higher than it appears to be as advertised in the rate
schedules of the companies. The postponement of the full effect of
the policy creates a period in which the policy holder is paying some
thing for nothing or almost nothing; the conditions in respect to
certain diseases reduce greatly the chances of getting the full policy
value; the condition whereby the policy may be terminated by
pronouncing the holder incurable is a one-sided bargain in which the
insured is bound to be worsted; the condition in respect to place of
payment of premium, contractually considered, takes the responsibil
ity for the collection from the company where in industrial insurance
it is supposed to rest, and places it upon the policy holder.
LAPSES OF ASSESSMENT IN D U S T R IA L PO LICIES.
It has been shown that among the buyers of industrial insurance
from the regular companies the loss by lapses is very great. The
assessment industrial business of the District shows even a greater
percentage of loss thru this cause. Just how many lapses of com
bination policies occur in the District can not be told with absolute
precision, yet a reliable estimate can be made.
According to the report of the Department of Insurance for the
year ending December 31, 1903, during the year covered by the
report seven of the assessment industrial companies sustained 2,637
losses and their combined money loss was $13,313.31, or a loss of
approximately $5 on each policy settlement. Assuming this average
of $5 for each loss to have been correct as well for those companies
which reported the amount but not the number of their losses, the
$37,691.27 reported as the total amount of losses for all assessment
companies indicated a total of 7,538 losses. Subtracting the 7,538
policy settlements from the 40,783 policies which ceased to be in
force during the year the number of lapses is found to be 33,245, or
78.9 per cent of the 42,142 policies written during the year.
The table below is given to show how short lived and unstable are
the policies of the assessment companies:
819
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE,
NUMBER OF POLICIES OF THE ASSESSMENT IN DU STRIAL COMPANIES IN FORCE AT
THE BEGINNING OF THE Y E A R 1903, NUMBER W R IT T E N DURING THE Y E A R , NUMWHICH CEASED TO BE IN FORCE DURING THE Y E A R , AND NUMBER IN FORCE AT
THE END OF THE Y E A R .
Policies
in force
Jan. 1,
1903.
Policies
issued
in 1903.
Policies
ceased
to be in
force in
1903.
No. 6...............................................................................
No. 7...............................................................................
No. 8..............................................................................
No. 9...............................................................................
No. 10.............................................................................
No. 11.............................................................................
No. 12.............................................................................
No. 13.............................................................................
No. 14.............................................................................
No. 15.............................................................................
No. 16.............................................................................
No. 17.............................................................................
10,760
3,338
2,217
1,832
1,648
1,321
1,996
2,492
529
492
937
11,281
7,577
5,551
4,467
4,843
4,005
645
719
1,091
824
712
427
15,937
5,614
4,509
3,503
3,867
3,221
544
1,114
493
212
650
1,119
6.104
5,301
3,259
2,796
2,624
2.105
2.097
2.097
1,127
612
554
245
T otal......................................................................................
27,562
42,142
40,783
28,921
Company.
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Policies
in force
Dec. 31,
1903.
It would seem that in some instances the only business done is a
lapse business. A company will begin a year with a certain number
of policies in force. It will write a very large number of policies
during the year, yet wind up the yearns business with a smaller number
than it had at the beginning. And what is true of a single company
for a single year seems to be true for the whole District for as long a
time as statistics are available. On the 1st of January, 1903, there
were 27,562 assessment policies in force. During the year 42,142
new policies were issued, yet the year ended with 28,921 policies, a
net gain of only 1,359 policies.
PREMIUMS AND LOSSES OF ASSESSMENT IN D U S T R IA L COMPANIES.
The amount of insurance in force at the end of the year 1903 in the
District in the several assessment industrial companies and the
premiums collected and the losses paid to policy holders, or their
beneficiaries, during the year are set forth below:
PREMIUMS RECEIVED AND LOSSES AND CLAIMS PAID DURING 1903, AND ADM ITTED
NET ASSETS AND INSURANCE IN FORCE DECEMBER 31, 1903, FOR THE ASSESSMENT
IN DU STRIAL COMPANIES.
Premiums Losses and Admitted
received claims paid net assets
during
during
December
year.
year.
31,1903.
Insurance
in force
December
31,1903.
Company No. 6..
Company No. 7..
Company No. 8..
Company No. 9..
Company No. 10.
Company No. 11.
Company No. 12.
Company No. 13.
Company No. 14.
Company No. 15.
Company No. 16.
Company No. 17.
$41,777.47
27,073.74
17,696.20
14,304.91
12,404.48
9,065.05
24,087.70
7,435. 29
2,838.76
283.38
2,666.80
1,059.70
$10,272.39
3,132.94
3,447.90
3,150.12
2,898.24
1,497.64
10,866.00
354.70
932.30
106.63
1,032.41
$143,207.50
246,465.75
129.722.00
97.860.00
102,787.50
81,007.42
182.400.00
60,089.50
61.416.00
3,700.25
15.365.00
3,065.00
T otal........
160,693.48
37,691.27
Company.
$8,287.15
23,608.40
59,034.67
1,185.79
2,584.97
1,021.13
27,-767.10
5,839.18
7,918.68
994.45
9,878.52
657.37
148,777.41 1,127,085.92
820
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The above exhibit throws a flood of light upon the subject in hand.
One of the first things observable from the figures is the small amount
of assurance per dollar of premium expenditure, $7.01. Again, the
ratio which the amount of losses paid bears to the premiums received
reveals the high price of assessment industrial insurance. This
ratio for the year 1903 was a little more than 23 per cent; or stated in
another way, the assessment companies during that year collected
from the policy holders $4.26 for every dollar they gave back to them.
In some of the companies the ratio of premium receipts to loss dis
bursements was much greater than 4 to 1. One large company it
will be noticed collected nearly $9 in premiums for every dollar
returned to the policy holders, while another company collected more
than $20 in premiums for every dollar it paid out in losses.
OCCUPATIONS OF ASSESSMENT IN D U S T R IA L PO LIC Y H O LDERS.
The character of the occupations of those who buy combination
insurance in the assessment industrial associations in the District is
indicated in the subjoined table. In the preparation of this table the
lists of beneficiaries which the companies are accustomed to publish
were used. From these lists 500 identifications of adults were made
and their occupations ascertained. In the work of identification all
the published lists were exploited in the same manner and to the same
extent.
OCCUPATIONS OF BEN EFICIARIES OF 500 ASSESSMENT IN DU STRIAL CERTIFICATES.
Occupation.
Number. Percent.
Laborers................................................ ............................................................................
Domestics...........................................................................................................................
W idows...............................................................................................................................
W asberwomen...................................................................................................................
Teamsters...........................................................................................................................
Porters................................................................................................................................
W aiters...............................................................................................................................
Barbers...............................................................................................................................
Keepers of ea ting houses..................................................................................................
Cooks (male)......................................................................................................................
Engineers.-..........................................................................................................................
Nurses.................................................................................................................................
Seamstresses.......................................................................................................................
Coachmen...........................................................................................................................
Clerks..................................................................................................................................
Blacksmiths........................................................................................................................
Carpenters..........................................................................................................................
Hucksters...........................................................................................................................
Unclassified............................................................. : .........................................................
127
122
57
54
26
20
12
10
9
8
6
6
6
5
4
3
3
2
20
25.4
24.4
11.4
10.8
5.2
4.0
2.4
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.0
.8
.6
.6
.4
4.0
Total...........*..............................................................................................................
500
100.0
CONCLUSIONS AS TO TH E COST OF COM MERCIAL IN SU RA N CE IN
TH E D ISTR IC T.
The entire field of premium rates charged for the several kinds of
insurance which are sold by the insurance companies of the District
has now been surveyed.
COST OF INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.
821
The price of regular industrial insurance in all its forms has been
seen to be very much higher than that of ordinary insurance. An
analysis of the insurance business of the District of Columbia for 1903
furnishes some measure of the losses to the policy holders resulting
from the purchase of life insurance on the weekly payment or indus
trial plan when compared with the cost of ordinary insurance. The
rates of premium charged differ according to the form of the policy,
but an examination of the several tables which have been given would
seem to justify the statement that on an average the charge for regular
industrial insurance is at least 75 per cent higher than that for ordinary
insurance. If the amounts collected as premiums from the regular
industrial policy holders ($864,059.61) could have been paid in annual
payments and could have purchased insurance at the rates charged by
the ordinary companies, $40,250,227 of protection would have been
secured by the industrial policy holders instead of $23,000,130, the
amount actually secured under the industrial plan. This represents
an apparent loss in insurance protection to the industrial policy
holders of $17,250,000, or, if it be measured in premium payments, an
apparent loss of over $370,000 upon the premium payments of the
year.
With regard to assessment industrial insurance of the combination
type, its cost is very high even when compared with the cost of ordi
nary insurance of the same kind, but on account of the complex nature
of the subject it is not possible to determine exactly the amount of
loss that is occasioned in the District by investments in combination
industrial insurance. Reference to the table of premium rates pre
viously given will afford a tolerably clear notion of the extent of that
loss. It has been shown that the mortuary value of a combination
policy of an ordinary company is fully 300 per cent greater than that
of a similar policy in an assessment industrial company, the premium
expenditure being the same. Applying this ratio to the insurance in
force in the assessment industrial associations December 31, 1903, as
already given, it appears that the premiums which purchased an assur
ance in those companies of a little more than $1,125,000 were sufficient
to purchase approximately $4,500,000 of the same kind of assurance
if they (the premiums) had been paid annually in an ordinary com
pany. Here is an indicated loss in mortuary values of $3,375,000. If
the loss be measured by the premiums collected in excess of what
would have been necessary to purchase the same amount of insurance
in an ordinary qompany, this of course corresponds to the losses as
indicated by the mortuary values, and as the premiums received dur
ing the year were $160,693.48, it would seem that $120,000 would be
a fair estimate of the preinium loss.
115b — No. 67— 06------10
822
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
To sum up, then, the losses during the year 1903 in the District of
Columbia resulting to the policy holders from the weekly payment or
industrial plan of insurance, or the additional amount of insurance
which might have been carried for the same premium payments if
they could have been paid in yearly payments in ordinary companies,
were in round numbers as follows:
Losses measured b y amount of insurance carried—
(а) . Regular industrial insurance................................................................$17,250,000
(б) . Assessment industrial insurance.........................................................
3,375,000
Total..............................................................................................................
20,625,000
Or, if the losses be measured in premium payments made during the
year in excess of what would have been required to purchase the same
amount of insurance if the premiums could have been paid in yearly
payments in ordinary companies, they may be exprest as follows:
Losses measured by excessive premiums—
(a)
. Regular industrial insurance.........................................................$370,000
(b)
. Assessment industrial insurance.................................................. 120,000
Total....................................................................................................................
490,000
Of course the facts set forth above tell nothing about the reasonable
ness or unreasonableness of the cost of either ordinary insurance or of
industrial insurance. They simply show what the cost of industrial
insurance is and how much greater that cost is than the cost of ordi
nary insurance, and illustrate, as did the study of conditions of living
among the poor, that the smaller the earning power of a wage-earner
the smaller also is the purchasing power of each of his dollars.
RECENT REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR STATISTICS.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Thirty-sixth Annual Report o f the Bureau o f Statistics o f Labor.
March, 1906. Charles F. Pidgin, chief, xxiii, 613 pp.
This report consists of six parts, as follows: Part I, Industrial edu
cation of working girls, 37 pages; Part II, Cotton manufactures in
Massachusetts and the Southern States, 68 pages; Part III, Old-age
pensions, 44 pages; Part IV, Industrial opportunities not yet utilized
in Massachusetts, 151 pages; Part Y, Statistics of manufactures, 1903,
1904, 71 pages; Part VI, Labor and industrial chronology for the year
ending September 30, 1905, 227 pages.
I n d u s t r i a l E d u c a t io n o f W o r k i n g G ir l s . — This investigation
was undertaken by the National League of Women Workers in order
to determine the kind of education needed by the working girl and to
what extent the need was supplied by the public schools. Of 2,000
schedules secured in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New
York, and Pennsylvania and presented to the Bureau for tabulation
only 982 were available for the preparation of the tables showing for
the working girls engaged in each of 14 occupations the number of
native and of foreign birth, where educated, class of school attended,
age at beginning work, lowest and highest wages received, economic
relation of the worker to her home, and number of years at work.
The chapter closes with a description of a training school for girls
recently opened in Boston.
Co tto n M a n u f a c t u r e s
in
M assach u setts
a n d in t h e
So u th er n
S t a t e s .— The
object of this investigation was to secure information
for comparative purposes relative to the industrial, economic, and
social conditions in the two sections so far as it related to this class of
manufactures. The presentation consists of a history of the develop
ment of the industry in three Southern States; a discussion of the
effect of immigration; wages, age, and housing of the employees;
natural advantages; cost of living; transportation and taxes; capital
invested; classification of looms, and class and amount of production
in the two sections. The following table, based on the United States
823
824
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
census returns, is presented, showing the percentage of cost each item
entering into the manufactured product is of the total cost:
PERCENTAGE OF COST EACH ITEM EN TERIN G INTO COTTON MANUFACTURE IS OF
TOTAL COST, IN MASSACHUSETTS AND IN THREE SOUTHERN STATES, 1890 AND 1900.
Per cent of cost each item is of total cost.
State.
Massachusetts...
Georgia...............
North Carolina..
South Carolina..
Raw cotton
used.
Other raw
material.
Wages.
Salaries.
Miscella
neous
expenses.
Total.
.1890.
1900.
1890.
1900.
1890. 1900.
1890.
1900.
1890. 1900.
1890.
1900.
45.67
61.00
64.95
69.41
40.68
60.01
56.47
61.25
17.56
10.70
10.14
6.41
15.85
8.80
15.58
9.58
1.24
1.82
2.05
1.51
28.07
19.84
17.76
16.80
33.80
22.08
21.25
20.79
7.46
6.64
5.10
5.87
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
2.10
2.66
2.43
2.20
7.57
6.45
4.27
6.18
The following table compares statistics of cotton manufactures for
1870 with those for 1900, in Massachusetts and in three Southern
States:
COM PARATIVE STATISTICS OF COTTON MANUFACTURES IN MASSACHUSETTS AND
IN THREE SOUTHERN STATES, 1870 AND 1900.
Capital invested.
Cotton mills.
1870.
1870.
Spindles.
Looms.
State.
1900.
Massachusetts.......... $44,714,375 $155,761,193
24,158,159
Georgia...................... 3,433,265
33,011,516
North Carolina......... 1,030,900
South Carolina......... 1,337,000
39,258,946
State.
Value of goods
made.
1870.
1900.
1900.
163
67
177
80
191
34
33
12
1870.
1900.
1870.
1900.
2,619,541
85,602
39,897
34,940
7,784,687
815,545
1,133,432
1,431,349
55,343
1,887
618
745
179,280
19,393
25,469
42,663
Average
number of
employees.
Total wages paid.
1870.
1870.
Massachusetts.......... $59,493,153 $110,478,327 43,512
Georgia...................... 3,648,973
18,457,645 2,846
North Carolina......... 1,345,052
28,372,798 1,453
South Carolina......... 1,529,937
29,723,919 1,123
♦
1900.
1900.
Average yearly
earnings.
1870.
92,085 $13,589,305 $32,327,443 $312.31
18,283
611,868
3,566,951 214.99
30,273
182,951
5,127,087 125.91
30,201
5,066,840 229.46
257,680
1900.
$351.06
195.10
169.36
167.77
O l d - a g e P e n s i o n s .— The purpose of this report was to consider
the possibility of the State establishing a system of old-age pensions.
There is presented in condensed form a summary of an article on
the insurance of workingmen, which appeared in the bureau report for
1900, giving the conditions under which old-age pensions are granted
in various foreign countries. In addition tables are given showing for
the year 1900 the total expenditures for all purposes of each city and
town in the State, expenditures for charity, and per cent of expendi
tures for charity of total expenditures; population, expenditure per
capita for all purposes, and expenditure per capita for charity; total
valuation, total taxation, and number of male polls assessed; per cent
of expenditures for charity of total valuation, per cent of expenditures
for charity of total taxation, and average expenditures for charity per
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- MASSACHUSETTS.
825
male poll; also, number of persons over 60 years of age in the State,
by sex and age groups, and number of deaths of persons over 60 years
of age, by sex and age groups. A discussion follows comparing the
probable expense to the State of a system of old-age pensions, with the
expenditures for charity for the year 1900.
I n d u s t r i a l O p p o r t u n i t i e s n o t y e t U t i l i z e d .— This chapter con
sists of returns from the boards of selectmen of 231 towns. The pur
pose of this investigation was to ascertain the advantages offered by
these towns for the establishment of some industry. From these
returns a series of eight tables is presented showing as follows: Land
available for manufacturing purposes, railroad facilities, and water
power available; local facilities, such as gas and electric-light plants,
electric railways, etc.; raw materials and natural products; idle work
shops and factories; industries wanted, by towns; industries wanted,
by industries; summer resorts, and tax rebates.
S t a t i s t i c s o f M a n u f a c t u r e s , 1903 a n d 1904.— This is the nine
teenth of a series of annual reports on manufacturing statistics. The
statistics presented were compiled from the returns of 4,730 establish
ments, each of which made a report for the two years under consid
eration. Comparative tables are given, showing for the years 1903 and
1904 the number of private firms, corporations, and industrial combina
tions; number of partners in firms, and stockholders in corporations,
by sex, etc.; capital devoted to production, 1903; capital invested,
1904; cost of material used and value of product; the smallest, great
est, and average number of persons employed, and aggregate em
ployees, by months; total wages paid during each year, average
yearly earnings per employee, and classified weekly wages in selected
industries, by sex and age; days in operation during each year, and
proportion of business done. Seventy-nine classified industries are
represented.
The principal facts as to ownership are shown in the following table:
FIRMS, CORPORATIONS, AND IN DU STRIAL COMBINATIONS, AND PARTNERS AND
STOCKHOLDERS IN 4,730 IDEN TICAL ESTABLISHMENTS, 1903 AND 1904.
Firms.
3,085
2,997
Corpo
rations.
1,469
1,552
Indus
trial
Stock
combi Partners. holders.
nations.
20
20
4,777
4,611
56,115
56,053
Average
partners
to a
firm.
1.55
1.54
Average
stock
holders
to a
corpora
tion.
38.20
36.12
From the above table it will be seen that the tendency continues to
be toward an increase of number of establishments controlled by cor
porations and a decrease of establishments under private control.
826
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
The following table presents statistics separately for 9 principal
industries, in aggregate for 70 other industries, and totals for the 79
industries reported on for the years 1903 and 1904:
STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURES, 1903 AND 1904.
Number
of estab
lish
ments.
Industry.
Value of stock used.
1903...
1904.
Amount.
$103,916,188
6,818,838
82,407,903
20,548,240
20,240,029
21,771,869
17,737,702
32,439,770
30,668,362
233,660,311
+$3,178,481
25,329
+ 4,133,330
297,881
- 2,712,893
- 4,245,647
+
783,929
+
464,098
+ 3,905,252
- 3,115,582
Boots and shoes.........................................
Carpetings...................................................
Cotton goods..............................................
Leather........................................................
Machines and machinery...........................
Metals and metallic goods........................
P a p e r ................. ......................................
Woolen goods.............................................
Worsted goods............................................
Other industries (70).................................
656
10
166
105
375
393
81
160
43
2,741
$100,737,707
6,844,167
78,274,573
20,846,121
22,952,922
26,017,516
16,953,773
31,975,672
26,763.110
236,775; 893
T otal..................................................
4,730
568,141,454
570,209,212 + 2,067,758
1903.
1904.
Boots and shoes................... $159,983,193
11,209,336
Carpetings............................
Cotton goods........................ 134,741,484
29,719,280
Leather.................................
58,484,782
Machines and machinery...
49,207,591
Metals and metallic goods .
Paper.....................................
30,202,100
Woolen goods.......................
56,893,318
Worsted goods.....................
46,032,840
Other industries (70)........... 430,075,559
$165,709,642
9,654,392
132,564,840
29,228,192
51,942,230
44,760,700
31,921,767
54,501,657
46,426,816
430,747,398
T otal............................ 1,006,549,483
997,457,634
Per cent
of in
crease (+ )
or de
crease (—).
+ 3.16
- .37
+ 5.28
- 1.43
-11.82
-16.32
+ 4.62
+ 1.45
+14.59
- 1.32
+
.36
1903.
1904.
Per cent
of in
<
crease (+ )
or de
crease (—)
$34,498,626 $34,586,282
2,238,164
2,021,859
37,105,519 32,267,548
3,842,277
1 3,597,466
! 18,721,781 17,139,626
I 13,257,588 11,704,292
l 5,104,929 | 5,450,723
i1 11,264,047 11,003,103
7,354,201 ! 7,291,478
76,951,513 77,275,061
+ 0.25
- 9.66
-13.04
+ 6.81
- 8.45
-11.72
+ 6.77
- 2.32
.85
+ .42
.90 210,093,834 202,582,249
- 3.58
+ 3.58
-13.87
- 1.62
- 1.65
-11.19
- 9.04
+ 5.69
- 4.20
+ .86
+ .16
-
Per cent.
Wages paid.
Goods made and work done.
Industry.
Increase (+ )
or decrease (—).
In six of the leading industries, and in the total for all industries,
there was a decrease in 1904 in the value of product as compared
with that for 1903, while in three of the leading industries an increase
was shown for the year 1904. The greatest increase was in the paper
industry, viz, 5.69 per cent. There was an increase in the amount
of wages paid in ihree of the leading industries in 1904, as compared
with 1903, the greatest increase being in the leather industry, where
it was 6.81 per cent, while the value of product decreased 1.65 per
cent. The increase per cent in value of product and in wages paid
in the paper industry differ but little. While the value of manu
factured products in the worsted goods industry increased 0.86 per
cent, the amount paid in wages fell off 0.85 per cent. There seems
to have been a general decline in 1904 both in the value of products
and in the amount paid for wages, as compared with 1903. ^
In 1903 the capital devoted to production in the 79 industries
amounted to $548,314,237, and in 1904 the capital invested amounted
to $807,433,857.
The table following presents data relative to employees, earnings,
and days in operation, the establishments considered being the same
as in the preceding table:
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- MASSACHUSETTS.
827
AVERAG E NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES, AVERAGE Y E A R L Y EARNINGS, AND AVERAGE
DAYS IN OPERATION IN 9 PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES, IN 70 OTHER INDUSTRIES, AND
IN A L L INDUSTRIES, 1903 AND 1904.
Average number of em
ployees.
Industry.
1903.
Per cent
of in
1904. crease (+ )
or de
crease (—).
Average yearly earnings.
Per cent
of in
1904. crease (+ )
or de
c re a s e ^ ).
1903.
0.16 1516.47 $518.60
5.69 442.15 423.51
6.50 393.61 366.10
6.88 499.65 499.32
Average days in opera
tion.
Per cent
of in
crease (+ )
or de
crease (—).
1903.
1904.
294.16
303.63
290.51
298.46
295.20
290.20
279.66
300.39
+0.35
-4 .4 2
-3 .7 3
+ .65
Boots and shoes. . . 66,797 66,692
4,774
C arpetings...'........ 5,062
Cotton goods.......... 94,270 88,138
7,695
Leather................... 7,200
Machines and ma
chinery................. 32,491 29,520
Metals and metallic
goods.................... 24,024 21,411
Paper....................... 10,964 11,542
Woolen goods......... 26,659 26,178
Worsted goods....... 18,805 18,262
Other industries(70) 159,297 159,171
+
- 9.14
576.21
580.61
+ .79
551.85
465.61
422.52
391.08
483.07
546.65
472.25
420.32
399.27
485.48
298.24
1
- .94 297.04
+1.43 ! 284.88
- .52 292.16
+2.09 285.36
+ .50 294.11
300.59
-10.88
+ 5.27
- 1.80
- 2.89
- .08
303.38
294.12
297.23
301.96
294.92
+2.13
+3.24
+1.74
+5.82
+ .28
T o ta l............ 445,569 433,383
-
471.52
467.44
-
293.12
-
2.73
+0.41
-4 .2 2
-6 .9 9
- .07
+ .76
.87
293.28
.05
Only two of the principal industries show an increase in the aver
age number of employees in 1904 as compared with 1903. In the
leather industry the increase in the number of employees was 6.88
per cent, and in the paper industry 5.27 per cent. Average yearly
earnings increased in 1904 over 1903 in the following industries:
Boots and shoes, machines and machinery, paper and worsted goods,
and declined in carpetings, cotton goods, leather, metals and metallic
goods, and woolen goods. The number of days in operation increased
in seven of the nine principal industries. In all industries a decrease
is shown in the three items of average employees, average earnings,
and average days in operation.
The table following shows the number of employees earning the
indicated weekly wages. The number of employees given is the
number reported in each industry Tor the week showing the largest
number of employees, and does not, therefore, agree with the num
ber shown in the preceding table:
NUMBER OF MALE AND FEMALE ADULTS AND OF YOUNG PERSONS IN 79 INDUS
TRIES, B Y CLASSIFIED W E E K L Y WAGES, 1903 AND 1904.
1903.
Classified weekly
wages.
1904.
Persons 21 years of
age or over.
Males.
Young
persons
(under
Females.
21).
Total.
Males.
Under $5....................
$5 or under $6...........
$6 or under $7...........
$7 or under $8...........
$8 or under $9...........
$9 or under $10........
$10 or under $12........
$12 or under $15........
$15 or under $20........
$20 or over.................
7,738
8,582
17,100
25,975
27,634
41,734
50,229
58,703
48,935
16,568
14,592
16,383
24,419
20,088
16,568
13,820
10,647
4,978
1,519
164
29,656
17,062
12,469
6,276
3,139
1,772
1,022
467
89
14
51,986
42,027
53,988
52,339
47,341
57,326
61,898
64,148
50,543
16,746
T otal................
303,198
123,178
71,966
498,342
Persons 16 years of
age or over.
Young
persons
(under
Females.
16).
15,737
14,231
22,794
29,316
30,543
39,616
50,782 |
57,374
48,554
16,468
325,415
28,691
24.699
29.700
22,860
17,759
13,776
10,948
5,019
1,463
145
Total.
12,374
2,367
966
283
101
30
9
155,060 | 16,130
56,802
41,297
53,460
52,459
48,403
53,422
61,739
62,393
50,017
16,613
j
496,605
828
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The figures in the above table are not comparable, except as to
the totals in the last column under each year, due to the fact that a
different form of question was used in 1904 from that used in 1903
and in previous years.
In order to show the actual result of the productive forces of in
dustry, the element of cost of material must be deducted from the
total value of product, and the remainder will show only the industry
product, or the new values created. This has been done in the case
of the nine leading industries; also the division of industry product
between the wage fund and the fund devoted to profit and minor
expenses, as freight, insurance, interest, rent, commissions, salaries,
etc. The results for the years 1903 and 1904 appear in the table
following:
IN D U STRY PRODUCT, WAGES, AND P R O FIT AND EXPEN SES IN NINE SELECTED
INDUSTRIES, 1903 AND 1904.
1903.
Per cent of indus
try product.
Industry.
Boots and shoes........................................
Carpetings.................................................
Cotton goods.............................................
Leather......................................................
Machines and machinery.........................
Metals and metallic goods.......................
Paper..........................................................
W oolen goods............................................
W orsted goods..........................................
Industry
product.
159,245,486
4,365,169
56,466,911
8,873,159
35,531,860
23,190,075
13,248,327
24,917,646
19,269,730
Wages.
Profit and
minor ex
penses.
Paid in
wages.
Devoted
to profit
and mi
nor ex
penses.
$34,498,626
2,238,164
37,105,519
3,597,466
18,721,781
13,257,588
5,104,929
11,264,047
7,354,201
$24,746,860
2,127,005
19,361,392
5,275,693
16,810,079
9,932,487
8,143,398
13,653,599
11,915,529
58.23
51.27
65.71
40.54
52.69
57.17
38.53
45.21
38.16
41.77
48.73
34.29
59.46
47.31
42.83
61.47
54.79
61.84
$34,586,282
2,021,859
32,267,548
3,842,277
17,139,626
11,704,292
5,450,723
11,003,103
7,291,478
$27,207,172
813,695
17,889,389
4,837,675
14,562,575
11,284,539
8,733,342
11,058,784
8,466,976
55.97
71.30
64.33
44.27
54.06
50.91
38.43
49.87
46.27
44.03
28.70
35.67
55.73
45.94
49.09
61.57
50.13
53.73
1904.
Boots and shoes........................................
Carpetings.................................................
Cotton goods___ *.....................................
Leather......................................................
Machines and machinery........ •................
Metals and metallic goods.......................
Paper..........................................................
Wooien goods............................................
Worsted goods..........................................
$61,793,454
2,835,554
50,156,937
8,679,952
31,702,201
22,988,831
14,184,065
22,061,887
15,758,454
In five of the nine industries, in 1903, more than one-half of the
industry product was paid out in wages, the largest showing being
in cotton goods, with 65.71 per cent, followed by boots and shoes,
with 58.23 per cent, and metals and metallic goods, with 57.17 per
cent. The industry devoting the lowest proportion of the industry
product to labor was worsted goods, with 38.16 per cent. In 1904,
likewise, five industries paid out more than one-half of the industry
product in wages. The carpet industry paid the highest proportion,
71.30 per cent, and the paper industry the lowest, 38.43 per cent.
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- MASSACHUSETTS.
829
L a b o r a n d I n d u s t r i a l C h r o n o l o g y .— This chronology presents
data on the following subjects for each of the cities and towns of
the State for the year ending September 30, 1905: Strikes and lock
outs, wages and hours of labor, trade unions, industrial changes,
and workingmen’s benefits. The chapter closes with a reprint of
the labor laws enacted in Massachusetts in 1905.
Of the 158 labor disputes during the year 153 were strikes, 2 were
lockouts, and 3 partook of the nature of both a strike and a lockout.
The number of disputes shows a decrease of 40 from that of the pre
vious year, and the strikes were of minor importance and involved
a smaller number of persons. The trades in which labor disputes
occurred, with the number of disputes in each, follow: Bakers, 2;
boot and shoe workers, 21; bricklayers and masons, 4; carpenters, 7;
plumbers and steam fitters, 3; other building trades, 6; garment
workers, 7; granite cutters, 7; laborers, 12; metal workers, 11;
teamsters and handlers, 17; textile workers, 45; and miscellaneous,
16. The following table shows the number of disputes, by causes
and results:
STRIK ES AND LOCKOUTS, B Y CAUSES AND RESULTS, Y E A R ENDING SEPTEM BER
30, 1905.
Result.
Failed.
Cause.
Against discharge of employees................
Against nonunion employees....................
Against objectionable employees.............
Against reduction in wages.......................
Against ten-loom system and electric
warp-stop m otion...................................
Against violation of agreement................
Against working conditions......................
For increase of wages.................................
For increase of wages and better work
ing conditions............................*..............
For increase of wages and shorter work
day............................................................
For recognition of union and eight-hour
day............................................................
For shorter workday.................................
In sym pathy...............................................
Miscellaneous..............................................
Total.
Succeed Compro Strikers
ed.
mised.
rein
stated.
2
1
3
3
3
3
1
10
1
11
1
1
Result
Places jimknown.
filled.
Total.
1
10
13
3
13
10
12
3
8
46
2
__
3
3
1
3
1
7
1
5
1
3
2
6
1
1
8
14
4
14
18
158
37
30
32
41 i
There were 69 wage disputes— 46 for increase, 13 against reduc
tion, and 10 for increase in combination with other causes. Of this
number 14 succeeded, 20 were compromised, 23 failed, and for 12
the results are not stated. Of the 158 strikes and lockouts 37 suc
ceeded, 30 were compromised, 73 failed, and for 18 the results are
not stated. Of 110 disputes, returns were complete as to number
830
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
of persons directly involved and working days lost.
table shows these items:
The following
NUMBER AND DURATION OF DISPUTES, PERSONS D IR E C TL Y INVOLVED, AND
W ORKIN G DAYS LOST, Y E A R ENDING SEPTEM BER 30, 1905.
Duration of dis
putes.
Number Persons Work
of dis
directly ing days
putes. involved.
lost.
1d ay........................
2days.......................
3 days.......................
4 days.......................
5 days.......................
6days.......................
7days.......................
8days.......................
9 days......................
10d a y s.. ...............
11days.....................
19 U
davfi
lA
cvjro . . . . . . . .........
14 days.....................
16 days.....................
13
18
15
11
3
9
8
2
1
2
1
5
3
1
631
942
1,068
462
83
530
735
65
135
131
7
298
155
15
631
1,884
3,204
1,848
415
3,180
5,145
520
1,215
1,310
77
3,576
2 ,170
240
Duration of dis
putes.
18 days...................
19 days...................
20days..................I
21days...................
24 days...................
30 days...................
38 days...................
48 days...................
54 days...................
84 days...................
150 days..................
T otal............
Number Persons W ork
of dis
directly ing days
putes. involved.
lost.
3
1
1
1
3
2
1
2
2
1
1
110
1,040
15
25
160
83
163
14
275
253
40
30
18,720
285
500
3,360
1,992
4,890
532
13,200
13,662
3,360
4,500
7,355
90,416
When considered with previous years, comparatively few changes
in wages and working hours were reported for the year. The
granting of the Saturday half holiday during the summer months,
and in some occupations during the entire year, is becoming
more general each year. All classes commended the early closing
hour for retail stores. Where uniformity exists and working rules
and closing hours are strictly adhered to in the same locality among
one craft, it can not be said to have proved disadvantageous to the
employers.
The information relative to trade unions gives for the year the
new unions formed, new affiliations, disbanding of old unions, growth
of the closed shop, conditions of employment, consideration given
labor legislation, etc. As recorded, numerically the trade unions
have decreased rather than increased, since nearly 175 unions went
out of existence during the year, while less than 100 new ones were
formed. This does not necessarily mean a proportional decrease
in trade-union membership. There were more amalgamations of
unions of allied crafts during the year than had taken place for some
time. About 250 locals and 37 central bodies are now affiliated
with the State branch of the American Federation of Labor. While
the unions continued generous in voting financial aid to members
of trade unions on strike, it is a noticeable fact that the moral
assistance in the way of ordering sympathetic strikes was certainly
on the wane.
Of industrial changes durmg the year, 203 new establishments were
incorporated, with an authorized capital stock of $20,676,000; 161
private firms were changed to corporations, with an authorized
capital stock of $9,094,900, and,there were 80 reorganizations, with
an authorized capital stock of $16,623,000, making a total of 444
REPORTS OF STATE BUBEAUS OF LABOB---- MASSACHUSETTS.
831
manufacturing establishments incorporated, with an authorized
capital stock of $46,393,900. There were 217 new factories erected,
172 additions to factories, and 27 factories or additions in process
of construction. Twenty industrial plants came into the State from
other States, 10 moved out of the State, and 42 moved from one
part of the State to another. There were during the year 282 new
firms which began operations and 45 firms went out of business;
also 435 changes in firms and 59 changes in or additions to product.
There were 85 temporary shut downs, covering 482 weeks, 29 shut
downs of unknown length, and 10 indefinite shut downs.
Under workingmen’s benefits is recorded the action taken by
employers to improve the condition of their employees or measures
taken by trade unions or employees themselves for the betterment
of the social and industrial condition of the workingmen.
MICHIGAN.
Twenty-second Annual Report o f the Bureau o f Labor and Industrial
Statistics, including the Twelfth Annual Report o f the Inspection of
Factories. 1905. Scott Griswold, Commissioner, xxii, 512 pp.
In addition to factory, store, hotel, and tenement-house inspection
and the work of women inspectors (286 pages), the following subjects
are presented in this report: State court of mediation and arbitration,
15 pages; penal and reformatory institutions, 10 pages; statistics of
farm and domestic labor, 35 pages; statistics of electrical railways,
6 pages; the coal industry, 10 pages; special industries, 13 pages;
classification of labor and wages, 14 pages; the Portland cement
industry, 18 pages; manufacture of beet sugar, 30 pages; manufac
ture of cigars, 40 pages; manufacture of salt, 6 pages; special men
tion of industrial firms, 10 pages; laws enforced by the department,
15 pages.
S t a t e C o u r t o f M e d i a t i o n a n d A r b i t r a t i o n .— Under this title
is presented the first biennial report of the State court of mediation
and arbitration, and covers the operations of that body for the years
1903 and 1904. It contains the recommendations of the court and
a discussion of the difficulties in arbitration; also a history is given
of the labor disputes occurring in the State for the years 1903 and
1904, by locality and occupation, with the number of persons involved,
cause, and result of each dispute, etc.
S t a t i s t i c s o f F a r m a n d D o m e s t ic L a b o r .— Tables are given
showing by counties and townships for the four sections into which
the State was divided the number of farmers canvassed; average size
of farm s; number of males employed by the year, month, and day;
average number of months worked per year; average m onthly wages,
including board; estimated average value of board; number of farmers
832
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
employing females for domestic w ork; average weekly wages of these
employees, including board; c stimated average value of board, etc.
The following summary is compiled from the entire canvass, the
returns being for the year 1904:
Number of farmers canvassed.......................................................................................
5,922
Number reporting scarcity of farm laborers................................................................ 3, 782
Average size of farms (acres).............. ..........................................................................
165
Number of farm laborers employed b y the year....................................................... 1,665
Number of farm laborers employed b y the month................................................... 5,086
Number of farm laborers employed b y the day......................................................... 3,754
Average months worked per year.................................................................................
8.5
Average monthly wages of laborers, with board........................................................$23.11
Estimated average value of board per month...................................................... _ . $12.00
Number employing domestic female labor................................................................. 1,521
Number reporting scarcity of female labor................................................................ 3,300
Average weekly wages of domestics, with board...................................................... $2.23
Estimated average value of board per week............................................._ ............. $2.32
Number of children under 16 years of age employed as wage-earners................
269
S t a t i s t i c s o f E l e c t r ic R a i l w a y s .— Under this caption a table is
given showing for each of 25 lin:s reporting in 1904 tho miles of single
track operated, average number of employees, and number of passen
gers carried. Statistics were compiled showing for the year 1904 the
following items: Capital stock, $34,075,000; value of lines and equip
ment, $45,000,000; miles of road, measured as single track, 1,158;
amount expended during the year for permanent improvement,
$1,682,718; amount received from passenger traffic, $6,581,275; from
other sources, $328,926; number of cars operated, 1,429; passengers
carried, 151,001,029; average fare for each passenger carried, 4£ cents;
amount paid for wages, $3,499,978.
The following table gives the number of employees, by occupation,
and average daily hours of labor and average daily wages:
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EM PLOYEES ON 25 ELECTRIC R A IL W A Y S , 1904.
Occupation.
Linemen...................... ......
Inspectors............... .......
Machinists.........................
Clerlrs, etc. .. -- ______
Conductors........................
Motormen..........................
Electricians.......................
Engineers..........................
Em
ploy
ees.
82
97
50
243
1,276
1,247
44
53
Aver Aver
age
age
daily
daily
hours. wages.
10
10
10
9
10
10
10
11
12.30
2.11
2.02
1.90
2.02
2.05
2.24
2.94
Occupation.
Firemen............................
Oilers................................
Carpenters.......................
Painters...........................
Car house m e n ................
Track laborers.................
Unclassified.....................
Em
ploy
ees.
77
41
85
68
218
1,214
210
Aver Aver
age
age
daily
daily
hours. wages.
11
11
10
10
11
10
10
$1.86
1.87
2.24
1.96
1.59
1.51
1.72
833
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- MICHIGAN.
T he C o a l I n d u s t r y .— The following table summarizes for 1903
and 1904 the statistical part of the report on this industry:
COAL MINING STATISTICS, 1903 AND 1904.
Items.
1903.
Mines in operation...............................................................................................
Average number of employees...........................................................................
Average daily hours of labor.............................................................................
Average days worked per month.......................................................................
Average daily wages, all employees..................................................................
Production in tons..............................................................................................
Total cost o f production.....................................................................................
Cost of production Pe
per to n .................................................................................
1904.
30
3,149
7.7
21.4
$2.91
1,581,346
$2,482,000
$1.57
28
2,714
7.7
18.3
$3.01
1,414,834
$2,286,160
$1.62
A table is also given showing, by counties, the accidents occurring
in coal mines during the year from December 4,1903, to November 26,
1904.
S p e c i a l I n d u s t r i e s .— This chapter is devoted to certain special
industries, and discusses their development, class of manufacture,
capital invested, output, number of employees, etc. Among the
industries mentioned are thrashing machines and engines, grape juice,
furniture, and stoves.
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f L a b o r a n d W a g e s .—A canvass was conducted
in 1904 among the employees of factories and workshops in every
county of the State where factories are operated, the object being to
collect information in regard to daily hours and wages in classified
occupations. Data were collected from 212,868 employees. The
total amount paid to these employees in 11 months for salaries and
wages was $107,738,039. Daily hours of labor averaged 9.8. The
following table gives comparative figures for 1903 and 1904:
NUMBER AND A V E RAG E D A IL Y W AGES OF PERSONS EM PLOYED IN FACTORIES AND
W ORKSHOPS, 1903 AND 1904.
1904.
1903.
Factory employees.
Number.
Average
daily
wages.
Number.
Average
daily
wages.
Superintendents.......................................................................
Foremen...................................................................................
Office clerks, males..................................................................
Office clerks, females...............................................................
Wage-earners, male adults.....................................................
Wage-earners, female adults..................................................
Wage-earners, male, between 14 and 16 years of age..........
Wage-earners, female, between 14 and 16 years of age.......
5,276
7,419
5,977
3,709
164,482
31,259
3,666
1,511
$4.43
2.61
1.33
1.83
.95
.76
.65
6,155
7,193
6,329
3,727
153,045
31,290
3,404
1,725
$4.32
2.91
2.70
1.36
1.83
T otal...............................................................................
223,299
1.75
212,868
1.77
P o r t l a n d C e m e n t I n d u s t r y .— Under
2.86
1.01
.79
.64
this title is given a list of
the cement plants in the State, with their daily capacity, number of
employees, wages paid, etc. During the year 1904, 14 plants were in
operation, the cost of which aggregated $7,550,781. Employment
was furnished to 1,500 persons, 25 per cent being classed as skilled
834
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
labor. The average daily wages of all employees were $2.20; of
skilled labor, $3.93; the total amount paid in wages for the year was
(for 12 plants) $943,200.
M a n u f a c t u r e o f B e e t S u g a r .— There were 16 plants in opera
tion during the year 1904. Besides these 3 other plants were can
vassed for data. The cost of the 19 plants aggregated $12,390,000.
The product of those in operation amounted to 110,000,000 pounds
of sugar, requiring 449,072 tons of beets, grown on 59,634 acres of
land. The number of skilled laborers employed was 512, with an
average daily wage of $2.82; the number of unskilled laborers em
ployed was 2,910, with an average daily wage of $1.82. The plants
were in operation on an average 59 days each.
M a n u f a c t u r e o f C i g a r s .— Cigar factories to the number of 525
were canvassed in 68 of the counties of the State, tho over 50 per cent
of the output was the product of factories in Wayne County, with the
city of Detroit. The hours of daily labor averaged 8.2; average daily
earnings ranged from $3.08 for superintendents to $2.88 for foremen,
and $2.18 for ordinary cigar makers. The trade is fairly well organ
ized, there being 430 union, 55 open, and 40 nonunion shops. The
aggregate capital invested amounted to $1,513,125, and the value of
product for the year was $6,481,637. The following table shows the
number and average daily wages of the different classes of employees
in the cigar industry in 1904:
N U M B E R A N D A V E R A G E D A I L Y W A G E S O F E M P L O Y E E S I N C I G A R F A C T O R I E S , 1904.
Classified employees.
Superintendents......................
Foremen...................................
Packers.....................................
Shipping clerks........................
Other male employees............
Number.
401
160
269
31
1,974
Average
daily
wages.
Classified employees.
Number.
Average
daily
wages.
13.08
Female em ployees..................
Children under 16 years of age.
2,716
560
$1.15
.57
1.78
1.76
2.18
T otal...............................
6,111
1.56
2.88
M a n u f a c t u r e o f S a l t .— In 1904 statistics were secured from 41
plants, and the following summary gives the principal items concern
ing the operation of these plants: Total cost of all plants, $2,358,762;
average annual cost of repairs, $137,598; product, 4,689,626 barrels;
persons employed, 1,365; total wages paid, $741,150; average daily
wages, $1.81.
S p e c i a l M e n t i o n o f I n d u s t r i a l F i r m s . — Under this head special
mention is made of 22 industrial firms, naming the industry in which
engaged, capital invested, provisions for the health and comfort of
employees, volume and value of product, number of employees,
amount of annual pay roll, etc.
L a w s E n f o r c e d b y t h e D e p a r t m e n t .— This consists of a repro
duction of the laws of the State bearing on labor, and which it is the
duty of the department to enforce.
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- NEBRASKA.
835
NEBRASKA.
Ninth Biennial Report o f the Bureau o f Labor and Industrial Sta
tistics fo r the years 1903 and 1904- Burrett Bush, Deputy Com
missioner. 204 pp.
The subjects presented in this report are: Suggested legislation
and labor laws, 19 pages; child labor, 43 pages; strikes, 2 pages;
fire escape and female and child labor law enforcement, 3 pages; the
value of statistics, 10 pages; the value of statistics to Nebraska, 8
pages; industrial and social statistics, 89 pages.
Suggested
L e g i s l a t io n
and
L abor
L a w s . — In connection
with the reproduction of the present labor laws of the State, the
commissioner of the bureau suggests the enactment of additional
legislation in the interest of labor, based on the experience gained in
the performance of the duties of his office.
C h i l d L a b o r .— Under this caption is presented a discussion of
what constitutes effective child-labor laws, followed by an analysis
of the various forms of child-labor legislation in the several States.
S t r i k e s .— Brief accounts are given of three important strikes,
involving 7,050 persons, which occurred during the biennial period
of 1903 and 1904, viz, the Union Pacific Railroad strike, the team
sters’ strike of Omaha, and the packing house strike of South Omaha.
F ir e
E scape
and
m e n t .— The
F em ale
and
C h il d
L abor
L aw
E nforce
enforcement of the law relating to fire escapes and that
relating to the employment of female and child labor as required of
the State labor commissioner is briefly detailed in this section of the
report.
T h e V a l u e o f S t a t i s t i c s .— Two parts of the report are embraced
under this caption. The first part, “ The value and influence of labor
statistics,” is a reproduction of an article on the subject by Carroll D.
Wright; the second part, “ The value of statistics to Nebraska,”
consists of an outline of the object and work of the labor bureau,
together with the opinion of leading citizens of the State on the value
of the bureau as a means of disseminating statistical and other
information regarding the State.
I n d u s t r i a l a n d S o c ia l S t a t i s t i c s .— A variety of data is here
presented. The statistics are partly the result of original inquiry
and partly reproductions from State and Federal reports.
836
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
NEW YO RK .
Fourth Annual Report o f the Department o f Labor, fo r the year ended
September SO, 1904. Transmitted to the legislature April 17, 1905.
John McMackin, Commissioner. 2 vols.
This general report embraces two volumes as follows: Volume I,
Report of the commissioner of labor on the operations of the depart
ment, ninth annual report of the State free employment bureau in
New York City, legislation and judicial decisions affecting the inter
ests of working people, the open-shop question, the child-labor law,
eighteenth annual report of the bureau of mediation and arbitration,
and nineteenth annual report of the bureau of factory inspection;
Volume II, Twenty-second annual report of the bureau of labor
statistics.
R e p o r t o f t h e C o m m i s s io n e r .— This consists of a general review
of the four distinct lines of work carried on by the State department
of labor, viz, the enforcement of the factory and other labor laws
(bureau of factory inspection); the adjustment of controversies be
tween employers and employees (bureau of mediation and arbitra
tion); the investigation of industrial conditions (bureau of labor
statistics); the bringing together of employers seeking help and
workers seeking positions (free employment bureau in New York
City).
F r e e E m p l o y m e n t B u r e a u .— Since its establishment in 1897 the
work of the State free employment bureau has steadily increased.
During the year 1904 there were 6,650 persons who made application
for work, 3,754 men and 2,896 women. Of the men, 1,620 were
native born and 2,134 were foreign born; 822 were married and
2,932 were single. Of the women, 999 were native born and 1,897
were foreign bom ; 1,473 were married and 1,423 were single. Of
the 2,295 married people, 869 reported having 1,920 children depend
ing on them for support. During the year 4,542 applications for
help were made. There were 4,642 situations (covering 41 trades
and vocations) secured, 1,004 by men and 3,638 by women.
T h e O p e n -S h o p Q u e s t i o n .— The question of the open shop has,
in most cases, been raised by recently organized associations of
employers. This discussion of the question consists of a reproduction
of various papers by students of economics bearing on the different
phases of the subject, together with the attitude, as exprest in con
vention, of several religious bodies toward capital and labor.
T h e C h i l d - L a b o r L a w . — On October 1, 1903, important amend
ments made by the legislature in 1903 to the various acts governiug
the employment of children went into effect. As a consequence of
the advanced age requirements of the new legislation, the inspectors
837
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR— NEW YORK.
found 13,389 children between 14 and 16 years of age in the factories
visited in 1904, as compared with 18,160 in 1903, a reduction of 26.3
per cent. As the aggregate number of employees of all ages was
approximately the same in each year, the proportion of child laborers
declined from 21 per 1,000 laborers in 1903 to 15 per 1,000 in 1904.
It is claimed that New York is freer from child labor than any other
industrial State in the Union.
Eighteeri^f.Annual Report o f the Board o f Mediation and Arbitration,
fo r the year ended September 80, 1904. 205 pp.
This report contains an account of the labor disputes within the
State for the year ending September 30, 1904, together with full par
ticulars of the more important disputes within the period, the text of
joint trade and industrial agreements, and the text of the laws
governing the board of mediation and arbitration.
During the year ending September 30, 1904, the board of mediation
and arbitration collected reports relative to 124 industrial disputes.
The number of working people directly involved in these disputes
was 57,308, while 51,225 more were thrown out of work as a result of
the disputes. The number of working days lost by the workers
directly concerned in the disputes was 1,840,554, while those indi
rectly affected lost 1,658,907, making a total of 3,499,461 working
days lost.
Considering industries, the greatest number of disputes was in the
building trades, it being 40, followed by 24 in metals, machinery, etc.,
14 in transportation, etc., 9 in textiles, and 8 in clothing, etc. In
crease of wages was the cause or object in 49 disputes, trade unionism
in 30, reduction of wages in 12, reduction of hours in 9, and working
arrangements in 6. Of results of disputes, 64 (involving 23,320
strikers) were in favor of employers, 26 (involving 3,655 strikers)
were in favor of employees, and 34 (involving 30,333 strikers) were
compromised.
The mode of settlement of the disputes reported was as follows:
MODE OF SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES, Y E A R ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1904.
Mode of settlement.
Number Employ
of dis
ees in
putes.
volved.
Direct negotiations.........................................................................................................
Return to work on employers' terms.............................................................................
Replacement of workers...................................................................................................
Mediation or conciliation...................................................................*..............................
Arbitration of trade boards............................................................................................
Arbitration of individuals...............................................................................................
No settlement....................................................................................................................
56
29
31
4
1
1
2
11,854
'60,134
2,083
2,712
18,359
300
13,091
■'Total.................................. *.....................................................................................
124
108,533
115b—No. 67—06-----11
838
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
In 56 disputes, involving 11,854 persons, the mode of settlement
was by direct negotiations between the employers and the workmen.
In 29 disputes, involving 60,134 persons, the employees returned to
work on the employers7 terms, while in 31 disputes, involving 2,083
persons, the employees were replaced by other workers.
Forty-two of the total disputes, involving 46,600 persons directly
and 36,080 indirectly and resulting in a loss of 2,365,939 working days,
were in New York City.
Twenty-second Annual Report o f the Bureau o f Labor Statistics, fo r the
year ended September 30, 1904• lix, 364 pp.
The subjects presented in this report are: Trade unions in 1904, 22
pages; the state of employment, 12 pages; wages and earnings, 14
pages; changes in hours of labor, 3 pages; appendix (statistical tables),
857 pages.
T r a d e U n i o n s .— On September 30, 1904, there existed in the State
2,504 local trade unions and similar labor organizations, the aggregate
membership of which was 391,676 working men and women. In the
table following is shown the number of organizations and the mem
bership, by sex, in each year from 1894 to 1904:
NUMBER OF TRAD E UNIONS AND M EMBERSHIP, B Y SE X , 1894 TO 1904.
Number
of
unions.
July 1,1894...........
July 1,1895...........
October 31, 1896...
September 30,1897
September 30,1898
September 30,1899
September 30,1900
September 30,1901
September 30,1902
September 30,1903
September 30,1904
860
927
962
1,009
1,087
1,320
1,635
1,871
2,229
2,583
2,504
Membership.
Men.
149,709
170,129
(«)
162,690
163,562
200,932
233,553
261,523
313,592
380,845
378,859
Women.
7,488
10,102
(a)
5,764
7,505
8,088
11,828
14,618
15,509
14,753
12,817
Total.
157,197
180,231
170,296
168,454
171,067
209,020
245,381
276,141
329,101
395,598
391,676
« Not separately reported.
From the above it is seen that organized labor in New York failed
to increase in numerical strength for the first time since 1897. Of the
2,504 trade unions in existence on September 30, 1904, 670 were
located in New York City and 1,834 in other cities of the State, while
of the 391,676 members, 254,719 belonged to New York City unions
and 136,957 to unions in other places. The female members in all
trade unions numbered 12,817, of whom 6,516 were in unions in the
clothing and textile industries, 2,952 in unions in the tobacco industry,
and 1,059 in unions in the printing, binding, etc., industry.
839
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- NEW YORK.
The membership of trade unions, by industries, on July 1 for the
years 1894 and 1895, on October 31 for the year 1896, and on Septem
ber 30 for the years 1897 to 1904 is shown in the table following:
MEMBERSHIP OF TRAD E UNIONS, B Y INDUSTRIES, 1894 TO 1904.
Industry.
Building, stonework
ing, etc......................
Clothing and textiles.
Metals, machinery, and
shipbuilding.............
Transportation...........
Printing, binding, etc.
Tobacco.......................
Food and liquors........
Theaters and m usic...
Woodworking and fur
niture........................
Restaurants and retail
trade.........................
Public employment. . .
Miscellaneous..............
1894.
1895.
1897.
1896.
1898.
1900.
1899.
1901.
1902.
1904.
1903.
49,066 53,613 56,294 53,273 59,641 71,067 80,441 85,401 91,184 110,457 119,888
39,162 51,921 30,093 32,147 26,433 29,714 28,866 41,883 46,984 40,981 36,090
9,860 11,376 13,010 13,991 16,236 24,014 31,271 35,562 51,749 48,230
18,197 18,191 23,031 23,014 18,090 24,668 30,854 34,371 36,901 61,749
11,059 11,998 13,848 13,313 15,045 16,023 17,117 17,986 21,110 23,845
8,722 9,089 9,799 9,097 8,889 8,886 12,349 10,210 11,633 12,435
5,661 6,541 7,503 6,995 6,812 8,391 9,430 9,451 13,371 19,246
5,688 7,327 7,306 6,920 9,346 9,518 9,698 11,688 11,588 11,674
36,971
71,859
25,278
12,354
18,833
13,614
5,329
4,652
4,218
4,205
4,584
6,683
8,176
8,260 11,823 17,126 13,001
1,243
1,964
1,256
1,529
1,964
2,030
2,087
993
2,114
1,843
1,667
1,989
2,174
1,880
1,937
3,207
3,727
3,122
5,303
7,148
4,728
6,804 8,503 10,942 9,723
8,142 9,160 9,753 9,538
6,383 15,095 29,160 24,527
T otal.................. 157,197 180,231 170,296 168,454 171,067 209,020 245,381 276,141 329,101 395,598 391,676
The number and membership of trade unions, by industries, for
New York City and the State exclusive of New York City, on Sep
tember 30, 1904, is shown in the following table:
NUMBER AND M EMBERSHIP OF TRAD E UNIONS, BY INDUSTRIES, SEPTEM BER 30,1904.
Number of unions in—
Industry.
New
Y ork
City.
Other lo
calities.
The
State.
Membership of unions in—
New
York
City.
Other lo
calities.
The
State.
Building, stoneworking, etc......................
Transportation...........................................
Clothing and textiles..................................
Metals, machinery, and shipbuilding.......
Printing, binding, etc.................................
Woodworking and furniture.....................
Food and liquors.........................................
Theaters ana music....................................
Tobacco........................................................
Restaurants and retail trade.....................
Public employment.....................................
Stationary engine tending.........................
Miscellaneous...............................................
197
72
69
91
35
42
46
11
15
11
27
29
25
484
300
99
232
83
50
100
44
52
94
90
68
138
681
372
168
323
118
92
146
55
67
105
117
97
163
89,052
34,977
26,758
17,170
20,614
10,412
13,845
10,202
8,363
3,655
7,647
8,176
3,848
30,836
36,882
9,332
19,801
4,664
2,589
4,988
3,412
3,991
6,068
1,891
4,526
7,977
119,888
71,859
36,090
36,971
25,278
13,001
18,833
13,614
12,354
9,723
9,538
12,702
11,825
T otal...................................................
670
1,834
2,504
254,719
136,957
391,676
T h e S t a t e o f E m p l o y m e n t .— This chapter brings out the propor
tion of members of representative trade unions in the various indus
tries not at work at the end of each month during 1904 and the causes
of idleness. From the returns it appears that the state of employ
ment was much less favorable thruout 1904 than in 1902. Compared
with 1903, the conditions do not appear so unfavorable; but this is
due to the exceptional amount of idleness produced in .the summer of
1903 by the extensive disputes in the building trades of New York
City. Were the building trades excluded, it would be found that the
proportion of unemployed members of workingmen’s unions in 1904
exceeded that of 1903 for each of the first nine months, excepting
840
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
August. It was during the last three months of the year only that
the relative amount of idleness was smaller in 1904 than in 1903.
The mean proportion of idle members for 1904 was 16.9, as compared
with 17.5 for 1903 and 14.8 for 1902.
The number of members of trade unions idle, by causes of idleness,
at two periods (end of March and end of September) during the years
1903 and 1904 is shown in the table below:
MEMBERS OF TR AD E UNIONS ID L E , B Y CAUSES OF IDLENESS, IN 1903 AND 1904.
End of March,
1903.
Cause of idleness.
Number
idle.
Per
cent.
End of Septem
ber, 1903.
Number
idle.
Per
cent.
End of March,
1904.
Number
idle.
Per
cent.
End of Septem
ber, 1904.
Number
idle.
Per
cent.
Lack of w ork..........................
The weather...........................
Strike or lockout...................
Lack of material....................
Disability...............................
Other reasons........................
Reason not stated.................
23,997
8,650
4,470
534
3,344
905
141
57.2
20.4
10.7
1.3
8.0
2.1
.3
18,528
677
10,153
852
1,993
2,010
157
53.9
2.0
29.5
2.5
5.8
5.8
.5
34,685
36,600
25,723
1,213
3,898
1,573
303
33.4
35.2
24.7
1.2
3.7
1.5
.3
21,718
968
10,593
952
1,873
1,140
136
58.1
2.6
28.3
2.5
5.0
3.1
.4
T otal.............................
41,941
100.0
34,370
100.0
103,995
100.0
37,380
100.0
Of the various industries, at the end of March, 1904, there were
60,361 members of trade unions idle in building, stone working, etc.,
13,318 in transportation, 9,601 in clothing and textiles, 5,232 in
metals, machinery, etc., 4,136 in printing, binding, etc., and 3,174 in
woodworking. At the end of September, 1904, there were 11,674
members idle in building, stone working, etc., 6,500 in transportation,
5,521 in clothing and textiles, 4,213 in metals, machinery, etc., 1,880
in printing, binding, etc., and 2,243 in woodworking.
W a g e s a n d E a r n i n g s .— This chapter presents changes in rates of
wages and the number of working people affected by these changes as
reported by manufacturers and by members of labor organizations/
together with the average daily and average quarterly earnings of
members of labor organizations. During the twelve months ending
September 30, 1904, 19,182 members of trade unions received an
increase of wages averaging $1.59 a week for each member affected,
while 1,102 sustained a decrease in weekly wages averaging $2.30 each.
All the changes together, however, were equivalent to an average net
increase of $1.38 per week per member. In addition to the trade
union reports, incomplete returns from manufacturers showed changes
affecting 562 employees. All these received increases, which averaged
$1.28 per week per person. Less than one-third as many workmen
received advances in 1904 as in 1903, the average advance was lower,
and about three times as many suffered reductions which averaged
much greater than those of 1903. Comparing the total number
affected by changes with the union membership in the State at the
middle of each year, it was found that 34 per cent of the unionists in
the State were affected by changes in 1902, 18 per cent in 1903, and 5
per cent in 1904, which resulted in average net weekly increases of
$1.68, $1.79, and $1.38, respectively.
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- NEW YORK.
841
The average earnings of the organized men and women, by indus
tries, for six months of 1904, are set forth in the following table:
AVE R AG E EARNINGS OF ORGANIZED W ORKIN G PEOPLE, B Y INDUSTRIES, FOR SIX
MONTHS OF 1904.
Average earnings of women,
1904.
Average earnings of men,
1904.
Industry.
First
quarter.
Six
Third
quarter. months.
First
Six
Third
quarter. quarter. months.
$161.41
182.79
139.68
191.48
221.11
174.22
168.05
295.99
132.95
157.74
211.33
212.50
150.85
$213.41
188.95
130.76
202.90
222.06
171.69
181.76
291.16
136.46
168.32
215.04
225.06
152.49
$374.82
371.74
270.34
394.38
443.17
345.91
349.81
587.15
269.41
326.06
426.37
437.56
303.34
$122.20
85.72
64.55
108.09
73.09
76.70
421.30
99.84
82.56
140.03
72.64
79.43
152.07
All industries.................................... | 175.62
195.58
371.20
122.78
113.30
236.08
Building
Working, p.t,n
Transportation...........................................
Clothing and textiles..................................
Metals, machinery, etc...............................
Printing, binding, etc.................................
Woodworking and furniture..................... 1
Food and liquors........................................ !!
Theaters and music.................................... |
Tobacco........................................................ !
Restaurants and retail trade.................... !
Public employment..................................... !
fftatinnary Angiha tending
................... I
Miscellaneous...............................................
$120.88
62:05
56.24
117.63
73.86
90.25
375.57
112.68
94.89
160.65
$243.08
147.77
120.79
225.72
146.95
166.95
796.87
212.52
177.39
300.68
C h a n g e s i n H o u r s o f L a b o r .— During the year ending Septem
ber 30, 1904, the labor unions reported changes in the normal working
time of 6,962 organized wage-earners. The changes were mostly in
the nature of reductions in the weekly hours of labor, but there were
some cases of an increase. An average reduction of 5.5. hours was
made in the weekly schedule affecting 6,896 working people, while 66
workmen had their weekly schedule increased by an average of 26.1
hours. The number affected b y reductions in 1904 was much smaller
than in any one of the preceding three years, the number being 26,147
in 1901, 61,853 in 1902, and 21,636 in 1903.
The following table shows, by industries, the changes in hours per
week and the number of organized workers affected:
CHANGES IN W E E K L Y HOURS OF LABO R OF MEMBERS OF LABOR ORGANIZATIONS
AND MEMBERS AFFECTED, AS RE PO RTE D B Y LABOR UNIONS FOR THE YEAR
ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1904.
Decrease per week.
Industry.
Mem Total
bers af hours.
fected.
Building, etc.........................
Transportation.....................
Clothing and textiles...........
Metals, machinery, etc.........
Printing.................................
W oodworking.......................
Food and liquors..................
Restaurants and retail trade
Stationary engine tending...
Miscellaneous........................
1,065
1,563
260
346
1,704
76
340
175
125
1,242
4,978
14,624
1,410
1,579
3,326$
456
2,846
1,050
2,925
4,864
T otal............................
6,896
38,058$
Increase per week.
Aver Mem Total
age
bers af
hours. fected. hours.
Total Aver
Aver Mem
de
age de
age
bers af crease crease
hours. fected.
of
of*
hours. hours.
4.7
60
1,680
28.0
9.4
6
42
7.0
5.4
4.6
2.0
•
6.0
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
6.0
i
23.4
i
3.9
i
5.5
66 | 1,722
Net change per week.
26.1
1,125
1,569
260
346
1,704
76
340
175
125
1,242
3,298
14,582
1,410
1,579
3,326$
456
2,846
1,050
2,925
4,864
2.9
9.3
5.4
4.6
2.0
6.0
8.4
6.0
23 4
3.9
6,962
36,336$
5.2
Of the 1,065 workers in the building trades that secured a shorter
workday, 374 won the eight-hour day, while all of the others, with
the eight-hour day already won, established in addition the Saturday
half holiday. In 1904 the total number of union workers who secured
the eight-hour day was 1,155, as compared with 5,833 in 1903.
RECENT FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.
AUSTRIA.
Bleivergiftungen in Huttenmannischen und Gewerblichen Betrieben.
Ursachen und Bekdmpfung. K. K. Arbeitsstatistisches Amt im
Handelsministerium. I. Teil. Bericht iiber Erhebungen in Bleiund Zinkhutten. 1905. viii, 51 pp.
This report presents the results of an investigation into the labor
conditions in Austrian lead and zinc works, with special reference to
the causes producing lead poisoning and the means of preventing such
poisoning.
The investigation was conducted in 1904, by a com
mission composed of representatives of the ministry of commerce,
the ministry of agriculture, and a number of medical experts. It was
undertaken in consequence of resolutions adopted by the Interna
tional Workingmen’s Protective Union at its conventions held at
Cologne in 1902 and at Basle in 1904, and in consequence of an inter
pellation of a member of the Lower House of the Austrian Parliament
March 26, 1903, regarding the question of collecting data which
might form a basis for the enactment of special measures for the
hygienic protection of workingmen employed in lead works.
The report covers nine establishments and is based upon the
observations of the commission thru personal inspection of the works.
It is accompanied by 32 photographic views and 9 diagrams, illus
trating buildings, sections of plants, various operations in the
smelting processes, dining and wash rooms, and sleeping rooms for
unmarried employees.
The data collected show for each establishment the character and
quantity of the product, the number and occupations of employees,
the hours of labor, wages, the conditions governing employment, the
location of the plant, with a description of its surroundings, an account
of the various operations in smelting, the sanitary arrangements of
the plant, and the sanitary condition of the employees.
The following data relate to the imperial smelting works located
at Pribram in Bohemia, which is the largest and most important of
the nine establishments visited by the commission, employing over
50 per cent of the total number of persons in the establishments
investigated.
842
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- AUSTRIA.
843
The total number of male employees on April 15, 1904, exclusive
of engineers and firemen, was 460. Of this number 101 had been
employed at the works 5 years or less, 98 between 5 and 10 years, 148
between 10 and 20 years, 104 between 20 and 30 years, and 9 over 30
years. From this it appears that 43 per cent had been employed at
the works less than 10 years, and 57 per cent 10 years or over.
The hours of labor vary according to the character of the work.
Calciners, mixers, chargers, and all others engaged in the direct oper
ations of smelting and refining, work in shifts of 8 hours each; for
blacksmiths, masons, carpenters, and day laborers the shift is eleven
hours, including one hour intermission at noon; all other employees,
as crushers, preparers, engineers, and firemen, work in 12-hour shifts,
including an intermission of 2 hours.
Applicants for permanent employment must be at least 14 and not
over 40 years of age, and must pass a physical examination conducted
by the physician who is connected with the establishment. Young
persons are first employed as messenger boys, helpers, blacksmiths'
apprentices, or in other occupations not injurious to their health or
which might retard their physical development.
Females are employed as day laborers in separating slag and in
removing cinders, or as masons' helpers, charwomen, etc. The num
ber of these is not large, being 21 out of a total of 499 employees on
December 31, 1903.
All employees are members of the Miners' Provident Association,
which provides for the payment of sick and funeral benefits, invalid
ity pension, and widows' and orphans' relief benefits.
The majority of employees live in the immediate vicinity of the
works. Many of them own their homes, for the acquisition of which
loans were advanced to them by the Miners' Provident Association.
A bath house for the use of employees is supplied with a continu
ous flow of warm water, and affords facilities for thoro cleansing after
each shift.
During the summer months the bath is used daily by about 30
men, on Saturdays usually by about 100 men. Adjacent to the bath
house are two smaller buildings furnished with bath tubs and vapor
baths, mainly for the use of foremen.
For the purpose of affording first relief in cases of accident, a small
building, consisting of two rooms and furnished with the necessary
appliances, has been set apart b y the establishment in conformity
with the regulations prescribed by the ministry of agriculture, and
30 men have been instructed for this service by the physician.
844
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The following table presents statistics of sickness which occurred
among the members of the Miners' Provident Association of Pribram
during the years 1894 to 1903:
STATISTICS OF SICKNESS AMONG EMPLOYEES IN THE MINES AND LEAD W ORKS AT
P&IBRAM, BOHEM IA, FOR EACH Y E A R , 1894 TO 1903.
M IN £ E M P L O Y E E S .
Lead colic.
Habitual
constipa
tion.
All cases of sickness.
Number
Per
of em
ployees. Num D a p Num Days Num D a p Num- cent of Days of
ember of sick ber of of sick ber of sick
of
cases. ness. cases. ness. cases. ness. cases. plov- sickness.
ees. («)
Year.
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
Chronic
catarrh of
the stomach.
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
4,856
4,681
4,503
4,306
4,181
4,057
3,938
3,610
3,693
3,593
Average
51
43
27
22
33
47
51
25
46
32
.........1 37.7
1
4,141.8
996
486
1,020
538
1,213
931
1,193
507
687
690
3
10
98
135
19
9
6
3
11
2
11
198
74
45
116
93
43
95
826. lj
7.4
3,061
2,684
2,263
1,787
1,870
2,064
2,042
1,891
1,554
1,545
89.7 ‘ 2,076.1
52,809
63.0
57.3
40,188
50.3
39,802
33,821
41.5
44.7
32,922
50.9 . 36,892
35,981
51.9
31,835
52.4
42.1
26,600
30,036
43.0
Aver
age
days of
sick
ness
per em
ployee,
(o)
10.9
8.6
8.8
7.9
7.9
9.1
9.1
8.8
7.2
8.4
50.1
36,088.6
8.7
135.3
134.8
80.8
67.1
64.5
60.8
54.0
69.0
60.6
63.2
6,288
5,025
5,568
5,258
5,249
5,324
4,565
5,666
5,921
5.673
17.6
13.8
14.1
11.4
11.3
11.8
10.2
12.2
12.6
11.9
5,453.7
12.5
E M P L O Y E E S IN W O R K S .
1894.......................
1895.......................
1896.......................
1897.......................
1898.......................
1899.......................
1900.......................
1901.......................
1902.......................
1903.......................
A verage.......
357
365
395
462
465
452
448
465
470
475
22
20
22
8
9
12
9
12*
9
6
435.4
12.9 255.9
500
227
434
146
166
225
236
250
214
161
22
9
4
5
15
12
11
15
17
14
12.4
342
87
85
112
410
222
224
255
290
270
18
195
28
219
13
154
12
184 !
16
292
14
198
165
7
9
97
11 . 252
19 : 145 ;
229.7
483
492
319
310
300
275
242
321
285
300
14.7 190.1| 332.7
76.4
I
« Computed.
From a comparison of the two principal groups of employees pre
sented in the foregoing table, it will be seen that in both the percent
age of employees affected and in the number of days of illness these
items for the employees in the works exceed by approximately 50 per
cent the numbers reported for those in the mines. Lead colic, for
instance, occurred among the employees in the smelting works only.
Since the housing and other conditions of living are practically the
same for the two groups, the conclusion is inevitable that the differ
ences are caused by the nature of the work.
When compared with 1894, the condition of the employees with
reference to sickness shows a general improvement during the later
years and especially in the case of lead colic, the number of cases hav
ing decreased from 22 in 1894 to 6 in 1903 and the number of days
of sickness in the same period from 500 to 161. These results are, of
course, due to greater attention to sanitary conditions in the various
departments. These consist in the use of water for sprinkling in cer
845
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- AUSTRIA.
tain departments, the wearing of gloves, respirators, and special
working garments. The men are not fully imprest with the impor
tance of wearing either gloves or respirators, however, and the exer
tion is so violent and the dust so penetrating in some rooms that the
use of respirators is actually burdensome. The stained work gar
ments of one shift were also to^be seen hanging in contact with the
street clothing of the men engaged in the succeeding shift. Further
danger arises from failure to enforce the State regulation forbidding
the eating of food in a dust-laden atmosphere. Other remedial
devices are ventilating shafts, air and dust chambers, and mantles,
hoods, etc., for the carrying off of the lead vapors and dust. Much
room for improvement in these respects remains, however, as appears
from analyses of the air in various departments, which was found to
contain lead oxide in proportions varying from 0.3 or 0.4 milligram
to 4.5 milligrams in 28 liters of air, while dust collected from window
sills or other proj ections from the walls was found to contain from 14 per
cent to 55.2 per cent of the same substance. Apart from the annual
cleaning out of the dust chambers, air ways, and condensing appa
ratus, which requires from two to three weeks at the beginning of the
year, one of the most dangerous occupations is that of sifting and
sorting the various kinds of commercial litharge. In this work con
tinuous employment would be impossible, and the employees are
required to engage in it for only five'or six days in succession, after
which a period of eighteen or twenty months is allowed to intervene
before the same persons are again assigned thereto.
The following table shows the number of deaths occurring among
workmen, the number going on the invalid list, and the number of
deaths among invalided employees for each year from 1894 to 1903,
inclusive, with average age:
NUMBER OF DEATHS AMONG EMPLOYEES, NUMBER T R AN SFERRED TO IN V A LID
LIST, AND NUMBER OF IN V A LID E D EM PLOYEES DYIN G AT THE LEAD MINES AND
WORKS, PftlBRAM , BOHEMIA, W ITH A V E RAG E AGE, FOR EACH Y E A R , 1894 TO 1903.
M IN E E M P L O Y E E S .
Employees dying.
Year.
1894........................
1895........................
1896........................
1897........................
1898........................
1899........................
1900........................
1901........................
1902........................
1903........................
A verage.........
Number
of em
ployees.
4,856
4,681
4,503
4,306
4,181
4,057
3,938
3,610
3,693
3,593
Employees
transferred
to invalid
list.
Separations
from service by
death and
invalidity.
Invalided
employees
dying.
Rate per
Per cent Num Average
Num Aver
Num Aver
age Num
age thousand
of em
ber.
ber.* ployees.
employ ber.
ber.
age.
(a)
age.
age.
ees. (a)
50
31
44
41
28
32
33
33
31
36
4,141.8 6 36.5
38.6
46.6
42.1
41.4
41.5
39.3
43.9
44.9
45.1
45.0
10.3
6.6
9.8
9.5
6.7
7.9
8.4
9.1
8.4
10.0
41.4
8.8
80
80
93
81
106
107
88
86
78
62
86.1
50.5
50.2
51.1
51.9
53.2
50.6
50.1
50.2
52.3
49.5
130
111
137
122
134
139
121
119
109
98
53
2.68
2.37
58
54
3.04
2.83
45
53
3.20
3.43
67
3.07 j 58
3.30 ' 58
63
2.95
2.73 1 67
63.2
59.2
62.9
60.7
65.2
64.4
62.4
61.1
63.3
60.1
51.0
122.0
2.95
62.3
57.6
a Computed.
&This average is not derivable from the items given, but accords with total as given in the report.
846
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.
NUMBER OF DEATHS AMONG EMPLOYEES, NUMBER T R AN SFE R R E D TO IN V A LID
LIST, AND NUMBER OF IN V A LID E D EM PLOYEES D Y IN G A T THE LEAD MINES AND
W ORKS, PftlBRAM , BOHEMIA, W IT H AVERAGE AGE, FOR EACH Y E A R , 1894 TO 1903—
Concluded.
E M P L O Y E E S IN W O R K S .
Employees dying.
Year.
1894........................
1895........................
1896........................
1897........................
1898........................
1899........................
1900........................
1901........................
1902........................
1903........................
A verage.........
Number
of em
ployees.
Employees
transferred
%to invalid
list.
Separations
from service by
death and
invalidity.
Invalided
employees
dying.
Rate per
Per cent Num Average
Num Aver
Num- Aver
age thousand
age Num
of em
ber.
ber. ployees,
age.
‘ ber.
employ
age.
(a) ber.
age.
ees.^)
357
365
395
462
465
452
448
465
470
475
3
4
3
2
3
1
1
4
4
41.0
34.7
40.8
45.7
44.3
54.5
62.7
37.9
37.1
-8.4
11.0
7.6
4.3
6.5
2.2
2.2
8.6
8.5
435.4
2.5
41.0
5.7
18
13
8
10
4
8
9
8
11
8
9.7
49.0
50.3
51.0
51.2
43.8
51.6
53.2
42.3
49.4
44.5
21
17
11
12
7
9
10
12
15
8
49.1
12.2
5.88
4.66
2.78
2.60
1.51
1.99
2.23
2.58
3.19
.1.68
2.80
6
8
4
4
57.2
53.9
55.4
58.9
6
5
11
7
7
57.4
65.9
53.6
56.6
59.9
5.8
57.1
a Computed.
No very considerable improvement in conditions can be predi
cated on the death rates and the percentages of separation from
service, tho some gain is apparent from a consideration of the latter
data for employees in the lead works in recent years. The average
age of mine employees dying or transferred to the invalid list is some
what greater than that of the employees in the works, tho the per
centage of total separations is lower for the latter than for the former
group of employees.
Data for other establishments are given with less completeness
than for that at Pribram. It may be noted that at the mine and
works at Raibl, in Carinthia, 7 cases of lead poisoning were reported
for the four years 1894 to 1897, while for the six succeeding years
there were none. At Gailitz, also, none have been reported since
1899. Two of the cases at Raibl were among miners. It is stated as
a reason for the infrequency of this complaint among the smelters at
Raibl that they have an interval of twenty-four hours between shifts,
much of which is spent at field work in the open air, thus allowing
opportunity for the* elimination of the poison from the system.
Some of the establishments had more effective ventilating systems
than were in use at Pribram, as well as more elaborate sanitary regu
lations. At the works at Scheriau, in Lower Garinthia, for instance,
the workrooms are sprinkled freely every day; eating and drinking
in the workrooms, as well as the smoking and chewing of tobacco, are
forbidden; mouth and hands must be carefully cleansed before eating
or drinking; clothing must be changed before and after work, and
the body thoroly cleansed at the close of a shift. Sponges moistened
with vinegar are required to be worn while cleaning out the dust
847
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- AUSTRIA.
chambers and shafts. Abstinence from acid foods and liquors is pre
scribed, and the use of fatty foods, and particularly of milk, is recom
mended.
The American type of furnaces is in use here, and so thoro is the
ventilation that three analyses of the air in the immediate vicinity of
the workmen attending to the roasting process showed a content of
lead oxide of only 0.2 to 0.3 milligram in 250 liters of air. These
regulations and devices were of too recent adoption for the results to
be reported statistically, but at Gailitz, where much the same methods
have been longer used, it is said that severe cases of lead poisoning
have disappeared. An important factor in this improvement is
believed to be the alternate days of agricultural labor, during which
the body rids itself of the absorbed poison.
The following table gives statistics of sickness which occurred
among the employees at the zinc works located at Cilli, Styria, for each
year, 1898 to 1902. The principal product of this establishment
is zinc, with considerable quantities of lead as one of the by-products.
It is the second largest of the establishments investigated by the
commission.
STATISTICS OF SICKNESS AMONG EM PLOYEES IN THE ZINC W ORKS A T CILLI, S T Y R IA ,
FOR EACH Y E A R , 1898 TO 1902.
SM E L T E R S AND SM E L T E R S9 H E L P E R S .
Number
of em
ployees.
Year.
Catarrh of the
stomach.
Rheumatism.
Num
ber
of
cases.
Num
ber
of
cases.
Days
of
sick
ness.
Days
sick
ness.
All cases of sickness, (a)
Num
ber
of
cases.
Per cent
of em
p lo y e e s.
Average
Days days of
of
sickness
sick
per *
ness. employee.
GO
1898...............................
1899...............................
1900...............................
1901...............................
1902...............................
Average.................
48
54
60
60
60
4
2
4
1
7
45
80
48
8
63
17
15
20
32
15
152
226
234
511
131
60
48
62
77
46
125.0
88.9
103.3
128.3
76.7
56.4
3.6
48.8
19.8
250.8
58.6
103.9
884
816
714
1,077
517
801.6
18.4
15.1
11.9
18.0
8.6
14.2
ALL O TH ER EM PLOYEES.
1898...............................
1899...............................
1900...............................
1901...............................
1902...............................
Average.................
a
145
157
172
177
172
164.6
5
6
11
7
2
6.0
39
116
160
71
15
80.2
No cases of lead colic reported.
21
24
43
51
39
232
307
511
783
413
103
91
131
150
95
71.0
58.0
76.2
84.7
55.2
1,615
1,556
2,140
2,540
1,177
11.1
9.9
12.4
14.4
6.8
35.6
449.2
114.0
69.3
1,805.6
11.0
&Computed.
The Miners’ Provident Association in Miess-Schwarzenbach, Lower
Carinthia, embracing the employees in the lead mines and smelting
works of this locality, and the third largest of the establishments
investigated by the coinmission, reported cases of sickness among
848
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
their members for each year, 1894 to 1903, as shown in the following
table:
STATISTICS OF SICKNESS AMONG EMPLOYEES IN LEAD MINES AND SMELTING W ORKS
AT MIESS-SCHWARZENBACH, LOW ER CARIN TH IA, FOR EACH Y E A R , 1894 TO 1903.
SM ELTERS.
Lead colic.
Catarrh of
the
stomach.
Intestinal
catarrh.
Habitual i1
constipa
tion.
All cases of sickness.
Average
number
of em- Num- Days Num- Days Num- Days Num Days Num Per cent
ber
ber
ployees. ber
of
ber
of
of
of
of em
ber
of
of
sick- of
sick
sick
sickof
ployees.
of
(a)
cases. ness. cases. ness. cases. ness. cases. ness. cases.
i
1894...
1895...
1896...
1897...
1898...
1899...
1900...
1901...
1902...
1903...
11
15
21
26
29
44
71
58
48
61
A y .( a )
38.4
7 ;
1 |
1
1
7
18
2.5
67
180
24.7
1
9
34
32
8.6
1
1
7
4
2
14
79 ' 7
324
21
285 ! 8
70
179
57
51
3
5
5
76.6
i
1
5
1
4.°
14
33.1
1
1 ; 22
1
4
3
16
2
18
2
10
i ;1
i! 5
2
i 11
8.6
L 2i
7
15
14
27
18
26
38
30
145
129
44.9
63.6
100.0
66.7
103.8
62.1
59.1
53.5
51.7
302.1
211.5
Average
Days days of
of
sickness
sick
per
ness. employee.
(a) •
194
131
99
307
180
283
400
265
1,190
1,375
116.7
442.4
17.6
8.7
4.7
11.8
6.2
6.4
5.6
4.6
24.8
22.5
11.5
A L L O T H E R E M P L O Y E E S , IN C L U D IN G M IN E W O R K E R S .
1894...
1895...
1896...
1897...
1898...
1899...
1900...
1901...
1902...
1903...
297
321
384
469
505
503
566
704
845
866
A y . (a)
546.0
3
1
0.4
21 ! 277
228
! 20
| 25 ! 326
1 15
162
24
357
i 37
503
19
266
53
1 60 545
i 60
483
65
439
7
6.0
34.6 358.6
i
2 1 40
10 |121
85
6
8
73
92
8
25
376
11
83
6
50
18
185
139
16
11.0 124.4
a
1
1
3
1 184
174
268
272
351
506
460
7
496
4
719
16
766
3.8
35.0 419.6
4
7
6
6
10
25
62
63
82
91
62.0
54.2
69.8
58.0
69.5
100.6
81.3
70.5
85.1
88.5
76.8
2,689
2,103
3,236
4,350
5,297
7,564
7,000
6,956
8,605
8,867
9.1
6.6
8.4
9.3
10.5
15.0
12.4
9.9
10.2
10.2
5,666.7
10.4
Computed.
FRANCE.
Annuaire des Syndicats Professionnels Industrials, Commerciaux et
Agricoles Constitues Conformement d la Loi du 21 mars 1881{.) en
France etaux Colonies. Direction du Travail, Ministere du Com
merce, de ^Industrie, des Postes et des T616graphes. 1903, lv,
764 pp.; 1904-5, lviii, 804 pp.
In these volumes are presented the fourteenth and fifteenth annual
reports on trade, industrial, commercial, agricultural, and certain
professional associations or unions formed in France and her colonies
under the law of March 21, 1884. ( a) Local organizations {syndicats)
and federations of such bodies {unions des syndicats), as well as labor
exchanges {bourses du travail), are reported on. In the first group
are included employers’ associations; employees’ unions; mixt unions,
a For the provisions of this law see Bulletin No. 25, p. 838.
849
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— TRANCE.
composed of both employers and employees, and those agricultural
associations in which employers and employees are united to form
a special type of mixt organization. Agricultural bodies made up
exclusively of employers or employees are classed with other industrial
organizations under the proper headings. Federations are similarly
classified. A directory of these associations, federations, etc., by
departments, takes up the main portion of the volumes under consid
eration. The laws under which these organizations operate are
reproduced, together with the related orders, ministerial circulars,
and instructions. Current judgments and court decisions on questions
connected with the organizations, and lists of the unions, federations,
etc., classified under the general trades or industries, are also given.
In the report for 1903 is presented a list of the publications of the
various bodies.
Summarized data concerning the different classes of organizations
are also presented. The following table shows the number of local
organizations conforming to the law of 1884 which were in existence
on July 1 of each year from 1884 to 1896 and on January 1 of each
year from 1898 to 1905, inclusive, and the increase in numbers from
year to year:
INDU STRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND AGRICU LTU RAL ASSOCIATIONS IN EXISTENCE ON
JULY 1 OF EACH Y E A R , 1884 TO 1896, AND ON JAN U ARY 1 OF EACH Y E A R , 1898 TO 1905.
[Under “ Industrial, commercial, etc., associations” are included trade and professional associations
and those agricultural associations which are composed of employers and employees separately.]
Industrial, commercial, etc.,
associations.
Date.
1 EmEm
; ployers’ . ployees’ .
July 1, 1884................................................... i1
July 1, 1885................................................... 11
July 1, 1886...................................................
July 1, 1887...................................................i
July 1,1888...................................................
July 1, 1889................................................... :
July 1, 1890...................................................|
July 1, 1891...................................................;
July 1, 1892...................................................!
July 1, 1893...................................................
July 1, 1894...................................................
July 1, 1895...................................................
July 1, 1896...................................................
January 1,1898............................................
January 1, 1899............................................
January 1, 1900............................................
January 1,1901............................................ 1
January 1,1902............................................
January 1, 1903............................................j
January 1,1904............................................
January 1,1905............................................ .
101
285
359
598
859
877
1,004
1,127
1,212
1,397
1,518
1,622
1,731
1,894
1,965
2,157
2,382
2,609
2,757
2,947
3,102
68
221
28d
501
725
821
1,006
1,250
1,589
1,926
2,178
2,163
2,243
2,324
2,361
2,685
3,287
3,679
3,934
4,227
4,625
Mixt.
1
4
8
45
78
69
97
126
147
173
177
173
170
184
175
170
162
155
156
153
144
Agricul
tural
associa
!
Total.
tions
(mixt).
5
39
93
214
461
557
648
750
863
952
1,092
1,188
1,275
1,499
1,824
2,069
2,204
2,375
2,433
2,592
3,116
175
549
740
1,358
2,123
2,324
2,755
3,253
3,811
4,448
4,965
5,146
5,419
5,901
6,325
7,081
8,035
8,818
9,280
9,919
10,987
Increase
over
preceding
year.
374
191
618
765
201
431
498
558
637
517
181
273
482
424
756
954
783
462
639
1,068
The increase in the total number of organizations has been con*
stant, but far greater during the last five years than for any similar
period since the enactment of the law. The number of em ployed
associations has had a steady growth, as have the organizations of
employees, with the exception of one, year. Since 1890 the number
850
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
of organizations of the latter class has exceeded that of the former.
Mixt associations, except of persons engaged in agricultural pur
suits, have shown a marked falling off since 1898, while the second
and fourth groups shown in the table have practically doubled in
numbers within the same period.
The total membership of these organizations for each year, and
the annual increase, are shown in the following table:
MEMBERSHIP OF IN DU STRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
ON JU LY 1 OF EACH Y E A R , 1890 TO 1896, AND ON JA N U A R Y 1 OF EACH Y E A R , 1898
TO 1905.
Membership of associations.
Date.
July 1, 1890...............................
July 1, 1891...............................
July 1, 1892...............................
July 1, 1893...............................
July 1, 1894...............................
July 1, 1895...............................
July 1, 1896...............................
January 1,1898........................
January 1, 1899........................
January 1,1900........................
January 1,1901........................
January 1,1902........................
January 1,1903........................
January 1,1904........................
January 1,1905........................
Em
ployers’ .
93,411
106,157
102,549
114,176
121,914
131,031
141,877
189,514
151,624
158,300
170,030
185,099
205,463
236,830
252,036
Em
ployees’ .
139,692
205,152
288,770
402,125
403,440
419,781
422,777
437,793
419,761
491,647
588,832
614,173
643,757
715,576
781,344
Mixt.
14,096
15,773
18,561
30,052
29,124
31,126
30,333
33,963
34,236
28,519
29,044
34,446
33,431
35,984
25,863
Agricul
tural
(mixt).
234,234
269,298
313,800
353,883
378,750
403,261
423,492
448,395
491,692
512,794
533,454
592,613
598,834
620,048
659,953
Total.
481,433
596,380
723,680
900,236
933,228
985,199
1,018,479
1,109,665
1,097,313
1,191,260
1,321,360
1,426,331
1,481,485
1,608,438
1,719,196
Increase
over
preceding
year.
114,947
127,300
176,556
32,992
51,971
33,280
91,186
a 12,352
93,947
130,100
104,971
55,154
126,953
110,758
a Decrease.
The number of female members on January 1, 1905, was 92,722, of
whom 6,988 belonged to em ployed associations, 69,405 to those
of employees only, and 6,238 to mixt bodies. The number belonging
to agricultural associations was 10,091.
In the following table are presented by groups of industries the
number of employers’ and employees’ associations, the membership
of each class, and the percentage which such membership forms of
the total number of persons engaged in the industrial groups named.
The comparisons are based on the returns of the latest industrial
census.
851
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— FRANCE.
The number of federations, of associations federated, and the total
membership of such federations on January 1 of each year for the
five-year period, 1901 to 1905, are shown in the following table:
FEDERATION S OF IN DU STRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
IN EXISTENCE ON JAN U ARY 1 OF EACH Y E A R , 1901 TO 1905.
Industrial, commercial, etc.,
organizations.
Agricul
tural
organiza
tions.
Items.
Em
ployers’ .
Federations:
1901.........................................
1902........................... *............
1903........................................
1904.........................................
1905........................................
Associations federated:
1901........................................
1902.........................................
1903.........................................
1904.........................................
1905.........................................
Membership of federations:
1901.........................................
1902.........................................
1903.........................................
1904.........................................
1905.........................................
Em
ployees’ .
Mixt.
Total.
Increase
over
preceding
year.
60
71
78
95
97
95
120
138
156
158
9
9
14
8
10
38
36
43
43
47
202
236
273
302
312
29
34
37
29
10
1,060
1,286
1,434
1,687
1,902
1,533
2,010
2,236
2,519
3,176
43
50
49
34
47
1,481
1,720
2,433
2,617
3,0*30
4,117
5,066
6,152
6,857
8,155
616
949
1,086
705
1,298
137,562
134,594
144,494
170,862
186,058
533,575
672,422
683,366
590,223
681,863
1,829
1,841
1,959
2,753
4,508
529,541
539,566
598,834
685,868
725,305
1,202,507
1,348,423
1,428,653
1,449,706
1,597,734
173,524
145,916
80,230
21,053
148,028
NUMBER AND MEMBERSHIP OF ORGANIZATIONS IN 1905, B Y GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES
AND PER CENT OF MEMBERSHIP OF TOTAL NUMBER ENGAGED IN EACH GROUP.
Employers’ organizations.
Industries.
Num Member
ber.
ship.
Per cent
of mem
bership
of total
em
ployers.
1.14
48.48
2.39
2a 66
40.21
43.42
8.99
8.89
3.85
4.66
12.89
16.92
13.85
22.95
36.63
78.60
Agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and stock
raising ( a ) ........................................................
Mining..................................................................
Quarrying.
Food products (manufacture and sale)..........
Chemical products.............................................
Paper, printing and publishing........................
Hides and leather..............................................
Textiles proper..................................... : ...........
Clothing, cleaning, etc.......................................
Woodworking....................................................
Metal working....................................................
Stone, earthen ware, glass, etc........................
Building trades..................................................
Commerce, transportation, and handling___
Domestic and personal service........................
Professional (medicine, pharmacy, etc.).........
166
5
6
1,042
55
75
81
98
98
91
180
37
255
465
57
391
27,431
176
146
103,495
4,047
4,327
3,634
4,671
5,968
3,319
9,484
1,980
18,753
30,821
5,161
28,323
T otal.........................................................
3,102
252,036
Employees’ organizations.
Num Member
ber.
ship.
374
71
47
273
109
296
243
379
224
324
558
155
713
689
81
89
45,014
79,277
7,889
40,720
28,175
23,857
27,259
79,676
21,572
24,620
90,358
14,302
52,480
221,683
11,042
13,420
4,625
Per cent
of mem
bership
of total
em
ployees.
1.32
50.95
14.18
6.77
25.54
19.76
16.12
12.50
4.93
10.91
15.53
9.81
10.06
14.33
1.34
8.14
781,344
i
a Including only those agricultural organizations which are composed of employers only or of employ
ees only.
There were 114 labor exchanges on January 1, 1905, with 2,360
subsidiary organizations, representing a membership of 377,561.
Municipal and departmental subsidies were granted during the year
to the amount of 309,130 francs ($59,662). The labor exchanges
were successful in securing employment in 91,988 instances.
Auxiliary institutions and undertakings of various kinds were main
tained b y the different organizations, local and federated, amounting
852
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
in all to 6,458 on January 1, 1905. Among these were 1,366 employ
ment offices, 1,412 trade or professional libraries, 929 mutual-relief
funds, 718 funds for aiding unemployed members, 695 travel funds,
512 trade schools and courses, besides other forms of relief and insur
ance funds, cooperative societies, experimental laboratories, muse
ums, etc., and 415 publications issued annually or oftener.
Rapports sur VApplication des Lois Reglementant le Travail en 190
Direction du Travail, Ministere du Commerce, de YIndustrie, des
Postes et des T616graphes. 1905. cci, 458 pp.
In this volume are found the summary reports of the members of
the superior commission of labor and of the minister of commerce,
industry, posts and telegraphs, and the more detailed reports of the
division inspectors of labor on the subject of the enforcement of cer
tain laws of France affecting industrial conditions. These laws are
three in number and are referred to by the dates of their passage.
The law of September 9, 1848, relates to the hours of labor of male
adults only; that of June 12, 1893, amended by a law of July 11,
1903, is a general factory-inspection law, and contains provisions for
lighting, ventilation, and safety of employees in publicly-owned work
shops as well as in those under private control. The act of March
30, 1900, which is in reality an amendment or revision of the law of
November 2, 1892, has for its subject-matter the regulation of the
employment of women and children in industrial establishments.
This last law also controls the hours of labor of adult males at work
in establishments where women and children are employed.
The total number of establishments coming within the purview of
one or more of these laws in 1904 was 508,849, of which 251,417
employed adult males only, and 257,432 employed either females only
or a mixt working force. In 413,269, or 81.2 per cent of the total
number of establishments, there were from 1 to 5 employees; 70,222
had from 6 to 20 employees; 20,773 from 21 to 100; 4,136 from 101
to 500; and only 449 had more than 500 employees. Less than 1
per cent, or more exactly, nine-tenths of 1 per cent, of the total num
ber of establishments had more than 100 employees.
The total number of employees in all the establishments consid
ered was 3,662,167, of whom 301,066 were males under 18 years of
age, 266,339 females under 18 years of age, 2,293,725 males 18 years
of age or over, and 801,037 females 18 years of age or over.
The law of July 11, 1903, so increased the scope of the inspectors’
duties by including for the first time a large number of establish
ments not covered by the former law that the work of inspection
was quite incomplete, the total number of visits of inspection being
167,224. Altho the smallest establishments having employees are
subject to inspection, home industries are not, when conducted by
the father, mother, or guardian, and employing only members of the
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- FRANCE.
853
family, except where mechanical motors are used or the industry is
classed as dangerous or unhealthful. There is found to be a growing
abuse of the custom of breaking up the centralized establishment and
distributing for home manufacture such materials as are capable of
manipulation in this way. The cost of maintaining a shop is avoided,
as well as liability to inspection. The solidarity of coemployees,
which in factories forms something of a defense against excessively
low wages, is also prevented. At the homes excessively long hours
are worked in the effort to accomplish without sufficient equipment
the required task and so secure further employment, which the con
tractor can at any time withhold without feeling the loss that would
result from an unused plant if he were operating a factory. In one
case a central force of 6 or 7 employees was sufficient to give out
work in the manufacture of clothing to about 1,500 outside employees.
The employment of children under 13 years of age is prohibited,
except that children who have attained the age of 12 years and have
a proper medical certificate may be employed, on showing that they
have completed a prescribed course of study. The reported viola
tions of this law for the years 1.902, 1903, and 1904 were 621, 639,
and 511, respectively. More than one-fourth of these were in the
brick and tile industry, the next greatest offenders being benevolent
institutions of various kinds.
A gradual reduction of the hours of labor from 11 to 10§ and then
to 10 per day in establishments employing women and children in
whole or in part has been effected under the provisions of the law of
March 30, 1900, reaching its goal in the year 1903. The reduction of
the hours of labor from 10£ to 10 per day caused less friction than
had followed the cutting off of the first half hour, and the ten-hour
day is now reported as having been generally accepted. Its adoption
is not required where only male adults (18 years of age or over) are
employed, however, and some employers have discharged their female
and minor employees rather than accept the shortening of the work
ing period. Another practical result mentioned was the extension
of the night shift, on which only adult males are employed, so that
the total of the hours of operation of the machines is not affected.
The violations of the law regulating the hours of labor of women and
children numbered 5,357 in 1904, as against 6,121 in 1903. Men were
employed for a time in excess of the statutory limit in 2,670 cases in
1904, an increase over the previous year, in which 2,273 cases were
reported. Women and children were most frequently worked over
time in the garment-making industries, 1,382 violations being re
ported. The next highest number was in laundry work, where there
were 527 instances.
Night work— i. e., between the hours of 9 p. m. and 5 a. m.— is
forbidden, with provisional exceptions, in the cases of females and
of minors under 18. The violations of the law have steadily decreased
115b — No. 67— 06------12
854
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
from 1,534 in 1900 to 813 in 1904. Here, as above, the chief offend
ers are employers engaged in the clothing industry, 43.4 per cent of
all violations having occurred in such employment. This industry
also gives rise to the most frequent violations of the law prescribing a
weekly day of rest for women and young persons. Adult males are
not protected against a demand for continuous labor, tho they are
generally allowed one day of rest in seven. Cases are reported where
only half the day is allowed, and others where, on account of the law
forbidding employment of a mixt force for more than ten hours
daily, the adult males are kept at work on Sunday to make up for
the time lost during the week.
Accidents to employees are required to be reported to the mayors
of the communes, who in turn report to the inspectors. Three
classes of accidents are recognized— i. e., those resulting in death,
those producing permanent disability, and those producing temporary
disability continuing for more than four days. Those producing inca
pacity for shorter periods are not reported.
The following table shows the number and rate per thousand of
accidents occurring in each industrial group, according to their grav
ity. Mines and quarries are not included therein, since under the
French law accidents in these places are not reported to the labor
inspectors.
NUMBER OF ACCIDENTS OCCURRING AND R A TE PE R THOUSAND EM PLOYEES, IN
GROUPS OF IN DU STRIES, ACCORDING TO RESULTS, 1904.
Industry.
Fisheries (establishments having an in
dustrial character)....................................
Agriculture and forestry (establishments
having an industrial character)..............
Extractive industries (other than min
ing) ( b ) ........................................................
Food products..............................................
Chemical industries.....................................
Caoutchouc, paper, and pasteboard..........
Printing and publishing..............................
Textiles..........................................................
Clothing.........................................................
Straw, feather, and hair goods..................
Hides and leather.........................................
W ood working..............................................
Metallurgy.....................................................
Metal working, base....................................
Metal working, precious..............................
Lapidary work.............................................
Stone cutting and polishing.......................
Earth work and masonry...........................
Earthen and stone ware.............................
Transportation............................................
Commerce and banking...............................
Liberal professions......................................
Personal and domestic service...................
Public service...............................................
Disabilities.
Acci
Results
dents
Temporary unknown.
Deaths.
Perma
per
(exceeding
nent.
four days).
1,000
em
ploy
Rate
Rate
Rate
Rate
ees. Num per Num per Num per Num per
ber. 1,000. ber. 1,000. ber.
1,000. ber. 1,000.
(«)
(«)
88
(a)
162
(a)
(o)
42.9
96.8
50.6
25.7
22.7
4.6
9.7
24.7
54.4
213.1
97.9
16.3
18.4
50.6
108.9
55.9
(a)
35.9
2
100
52
13
7
(a)
0.3
.5
.2
.1
.1
(*)
7
81
55
92
1
.1
.3
.7
.2
.1
3
209
122
116
53
414
22
4
83
616
100
788
8
(a)
0.7
1.1
1.6
.7
.7
.1
.2
.7
2.2
1.2
1.7
.4
2
307
34
374
103
2
.1
1.2
.2
(a)
.2
(«)
(a)
(a)
18
638
136
513
196
5
1
36
.9
2.4
.9
(a)
(a)
(a)
5
S3
4
15
(?5
(a)
(a)
(a)
92
(°)
2,574
(a)
327 («)
12,809 41.1
10,120 93.7
3,430 48.1
1,975 24.7
13,921 21.8
4.5
1,659
161
9.0
2,954 23.6
14,564 50.9
17,174 209.6
44,215 94.8
292 15.3
32 17.3
958 48.5
27,466 103.0
8,256 53.9
(a)
32,788
14,702 34.6
75 (a)
127 (a)
(a)
2,216
108
(a)
14
256
172
49
21
113
33
5
58
279
137
593
9
2
23
619
138
655
283
2
9
39
(«)
0.8
1.6
.7
.3
.2
.1
.3
.5
1.0
1.7
1.3
.5
1.1
1.1
2.3
.9
(«)
.7
(a)
(a)
(a)
« Not reported.
6 Including employees of mining companies employed in offices for sale and shipment of product,
legal and financial offices, etc., only.
c Less than five one-hundredths of one per thousand.
855
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- FRANCE,
The following table shows the number and rate per thousand of
accidents reported in the various groups of industries, by sex and age
groups:
NUMBER OF ACCIDENTS OCCURRING AN D RA TE PER THOUSAND EM PLOYEES, IN
GROUPS OF IN D U STRIE S, B Y AGE AND SE X , 1904.
Eighteen years of age or over.
Under 18 years of age.
Males.
Females.
Females.
Males.
Industry.
Em Rate
Em Rate
Em Rate
Acci Em Rate
per Acci ploy per Acci ploy per Acci ploy- per
dents ploy
1,000.
ees. 1,000. dents ees. 1,000. dents ees. 1,000. dents
Fisheries (®).................
Agriculture ( « ) .............
Extractive industries
(other than minin g )(c)
..............
Food products.............
Chemical industries . . .
Caoutchouc, p a p e r ,
and pasteboard.........
Printing and publish
ing...............................
Textiles.........................
Clothing........................
Straw, feather, and
hair goods.................
Hides and leather........
W ood working.............
Metallurgy....................
Metal working, base...
Metal working, pre
cious ........................ .
Lapidary w ork............
Stone cutting and pol
ishing.........................
Earth work and ma
sonry........................ .
Earthen and stone
ware...........................
Commerce and bank
ing..............................
Liberal professions___
Personal and domes
tic service................
Public service.............
a Establishments
9
163
(&)
(b)
(&)
w
20
79
2,677
(b)
(b)
$
8
5 (b)
(b)
637 21,484
30
222 3,655
61
334
4
■ (b)
14 11,779 224,^13
149 10^10
28 9,631 80,789
63 2,260
372
106
4,943
561 12,943
1,752 44,776
104 7,471
922
15
293 12,334
988 30,770
1,761 7,301
5,793 57,920
75
7,148
15 2,800 36,014
43
48 14,701
39 1,053 254,162
14
127 202,992
3 1,309 47,018
4 9,129 256,814
1 1,122 48,551
16
24
32
241
100
23
72
87
5
287,
7,764
22,820
19,507
532
25,788
14
9
4,066
497
3
75 5,662
3 2,456 82,722
4
9,
11 38,835 374,599
%
119
14
9
10
57 8,344
281 23,715
240 21,327
24
599
773 26,077
7
12
4,244
5
20
13
30
62
212
103
31
12
18
1,400
13
1,088
981 17,101
57
2
472
30
19
13
20
10
2
62
17
925 16,449
56
6 28,072 249,520
55
170 16,712
10 6,929 109,145
63
278 16,724
604 37,057
9 (b)
16
(b)
27 23,126
1 14,247 281,695
73 (b)
51
406 89,38
8
5
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
108
2,123
8
8
11
40
30
484
1,187 21,749
(b)
2
V
113
5
27
15
26
330 23,230
2,479
163
3
(b)
136 15,000
28
36 2,547 254,778
23
368 209,717
78
200 10,801
13 1,019
3
809 55^285
550 21,386
76
2
3
18
8
8
2
23
156
5
(b
( b)
8
$
having an industrial character.
&Not reported.
c Including employees of mining companies employed in offices for sale and shipment of product,
legal and financial offices, etc., only.
In the table presented below are given the total number of employ
ees, by sex and age groups, and the distribution of accidents among
these groups according to results, during the year 1904:
TOTAL NUMBER OF EM PLOYEES IN IN DU STRIES RE PO RTIN G , B Y SEX AND AGE
GROUPS, AND D ISTR IB U TIO N OF ACCIDENTS B Y RESULTS, 1904.
Under 18 years of
age.
Items.
Males.
Number of employees...................................................
Per cent ( « ) .............................................................
Number of deaths.........................................................
Per cent ( « ) .............................................................
Number of permanent disabilities.............................
Per cent ( « ) .............................................................
Number of temporary disabilities (above 4 days)...
Per cent (a ).............................................................
Results unknown..........................................................
Per cent ( * ) .............................................................
301,066
8.22
64
4.65
330
7.78
15,096
7.09
196
5.42
Total accidents.............................................................
Per cent ( « ) .............................................................
15,686
7.06
a
Computed.
Females.
Eighteen years of
age or over.
Males.
266,339 2,293,725
7.27
62.63
3
1,292
.22
93.82
83
3,654
1.95
86.12
2,156
188,750
1.01
88.66
33
3,252
.91
89.91
2,275
1.02
196,948
88.67
Total.
Females.
801,037
21.88
18
1.31
176
4.15
6,885
£24
136
3.76
3,662,167
100.00
1,377
100.00
4,243
100.00
212,887
100.00
3,617
100.00
7,215
3.25
222,124
100.00
856
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOB.
From the above table it appears that the proportion of females
affected by accidents is far below the proportion of females employed,
while for each class of accidents the proportion of adult males injured
is much in excess of the proportion employed. In no other case does
the percentage of accidents approximate the percentage of employees
in the group, except in the classes of disabilities affecting male
employees under 18 years of age.
From the report to the mine office, it appears that of the#329,850
persons employed in and about mines and quarries, 31,161 were
affected by accidents. The results were: Deaths, 369; permanent
disability in 387 cases; temporary disability (exceeding four days)
in 29,995 cases, while results were unknown in 410 instances.
GREAT BRITAIN.
Fifteenth Report on Trade Unions in Great Britain and Ireland, 1902,
1908, and 1904. lxxx, 196 pp. (Published by the Labor Depart
ment of the British Board of Trade.)
This report presents information relative to the membership, by
sex, of all trade unions in the United Kingdom, to membership,
classified income and expenditure, and financial condition of 100
principal trade unions, to federations of trade unions, and to trade
councils, and is a continuation of the series of reports begun "in
1886. Comparative summary tables are given for the ten-year period,
1895 to 1904.
At the end of 1904 there were reported 1,148 trade unions, with a
total membership of 1,866,755. The number of trade unions reported
at the end of 1901 was 1,239, with a membership of 1,940,874,
showing for the three-year period a decrease of 91 in the number of
trade unions and of 74,119 in membership. During the period covered
by this report 93 unions were formed, 130 were dissolved, and 54 were
absorbed or amalgamated with other unions. Of the 1,074 unions
which were in existence at the end of 1901 and which remained in
existence at the end of 1904, 632 showed a decrease in membership,
393 showed an increase, and 49 reported the same membership. As
compared with 1901, with the exception of the textile group of indus. tries, all the main industries show a falling off in membership, being
in the metal, engineering, and shipbuilding trades a loss of 0.8 per cent,
in mining and quarrying a loss of 5.5 per cent, in transportation a loss
of 7 per cent, in the building trades a loss of 9.6 per cent, and in the
clothing trades a loss of 11 per cent. Of the minor unions, combined
under the head of “ other unions,” the printing and allied trades had
an increase of 7.1 per cent, the unions of employees of public authorities
an increase of 23.6 per cent, the shop assistants’ unions an increase of
60 per cent, while the general laborers’ unions sustained a loss of 15
per cent.
857
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GREAT BRITAIN.
The woodworking, chemical, glass, pottery, leather, food, tobacco,
and other miscellaneous trades a so sustained losses in union mem
bership.
As compared with 1901, there were increases both in the number
of -unions including women and girls as members and in the number
of such members. At the end of 1901 there were 144 unions with
120,078 female members, and at the end of 1904 there were 148
unions with 125,094 female members. Nearly 90 per cent of the
female members were employed in the textile trades, 77.4 per cent
being found in the cotton industry alone.
The following tables show the number and membership of trade
unions, b y groups of industries, for the ten-year period, 1895 to 1904:
NUMBER OF TRAD E UNIONS, B Y GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES, 1895 TO 1904.
[In this tabulation only those trade unions are considered which furnished returns for all of the ten
years included in this period.]
Year.
1895...........................
1896...........................
1897...........................
-1898...........................
1899...........................
1900...........................
1901...........................
1902...........................
1903...........................
1904...........................
Metal,
W ood
engi
Trans
Mining neer
porta Print work
ing
Miscel
and
Build
Cloth
tion
ing,
ing,
lane Total.
and
ing. quarry and Textile. ing.
(land paper,
ous.
fur
ing.
ship
etc.
and
nish
build
sea).
ing.
ing.
127
135
142
136
136
130
127
120
117
109
92
90
78
72
70
68
67
68
70
69
278
284
279
274
272
274
267
258
246
237
253
255
262
257
254
250
252
253
250
248
46
50
47
45
44
46
46
41
40
36
65
61
63
62
66
63
65
62
57
57
48
50
49
47
48
46
44
43
42
41
105
105
104
104
106
103
107
100
101
99
275
272
270
267
262
265
264
1,289
1,302
1,294
1,264
1,258
1,245
1,239
1,204
1,184
1,148
299
261
252
MEMBERSHIP OF TR AD E UNIONS, B Y GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES, 1895 TO 1904.
[In this tabulation only those trade unions are considered* which furnished returns for all of the ten
years included in this period.]
Year.
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
Build
ing.
Metal,
Mining engineer
and
ing,
and Textile.
quarry ship
ing. building
288,726
....................
180,519
....................
291,015
193,643
....................
293,805
215,632
....................
232,778
366,561
250,654
....................
445,527
....................
523,541
253,962
....................
530,683
249,507
....................
531,879
245,649
....................
528,775
238,445
....................
501,248
225,481
269,923
305,412
322,094
312,311
335,622
342,198
338,632
337,046
337,076
335,908
220,396
219,271
220,103
215,793
221,187
221,415
220,073
223,050
220,525
221,694
Cloth
ing.
78,059
76,457
75,316
70,640
66,785
67,174
65,776
64,101
61,726
58,525
Trans- • Print W ood
portaworking Miscel
ing,
tion
paper, and fur laneous.
(land
nishing.
etc.
and sea).
119,855
134,050
182,586
146,550
161,709
169,254
165,893
154,834
154,095
154,206
49,191
51,219
53,020
54,436
56,727
57,228
58,274
59,062
60,138
62,428
32,169
37,012
38,998
37.942
39,877
39.943
40,745
41,611
41,476
39,571
177,008
195,660
222,481
224,349
243,578
254,179
271,291
269,385
262,304
267,694
Total.
1,415,846
1,503,739
1,624,035
1,661,360
1,821,666
1,928,894
1,940,874
1,926,617
1,904,560
1,866,755
The mining and quarrying group of trade unions has held first
place continuously since 1898 as regards number of members, and
shows for the period a greater gain, both relative and actual, than
any other group. The groups ranked in order of membership at the
end of 1904 as follows: Mining and quarrying; metal, engineering,
858
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR*
and shipbuilding; building; textiles; transportation; printing, paper,
etc.; clothing; and woodworking and furnishing.
At the end of 1904, as in previous years, the great bulk of tradeunion membership was found embraced in a comparatively small
number of unions, and 68.8 per cent of the membership of all unions
was included in four groups of industries (building trades; mining
and quarrying; metal, engineering, and shipbuilding; and textiles).
Included in the 100 principal unions, at the end of 1904, were 1,127,529
members, or 60.4 per cent of the total membership of all unions.
The financial operations and benefit features of trade unions are
shown for 100 principal organizations only. The following table
shows the financial operations for the ten years, 1895 to 1904:
FINANCIAL OPERATIONS OF 100 PRIN CIPAL TR AD E UNIONS, 1895 TO 1904.
Year.
1895.................................
1896.................................
1897.................................
1898.................................
1899.................................
1900.................................
1901.................................
1902.................................
1903.................................
1904.................................
Members
at end of
year.
907,496
957,010
1,056,617
1,031,297
1,107,724
1,149,937
1,155,133
1,152,834
1,139,559
1,127,529
Income.
Amount.
$7,501,719
8,049,824
9,606,189.
9,251,757
8,896,200
9,426,610
9,884,226
10,110,835
10,154,093
10,207,338
Expenditures.
Per
member.
$8.27
8.41
9.09
8.97
8.03
8.20
8.56
8.77
8.91
9.05
Amount.
$6,702,884
5,919,567
9,262,113
7,227,862
6,108,421
7,066,625
7,940,245
8,715,780
9,273,529
9,938,196
Per
member.
$7.39
6.18
8.76
7.01
5.52
6.14
6.87
7.56
8.14
8.82
Funds at end of year.
Amount.
$8,330,149
10,460,405
10,804,482
12,828,376
15,616,156
17,976,140
19,920,122
21.315,178
22,195,742
22,464,883
Per
member.
$9.18
10.93
10.22
12.44
14.10
15.63
17.25
18.49
19.47
19.92
Comparing the figures for 1902, 1903, and 1904 with those for 1901
it is seen there has been a decrease in membership, while the income,
expenditures, and funds on hand at the end of the year, both in
amount and per member, have increased. When each of three later
years is compared with the year next preceding, a loss in member
ship appears, while all the other items reported show an increase
from year to year. Of every £1 ($4.87) spent by the 100 unions in
1904, 6s. 4d. ($1.54) was for unemployed benefit, Is. 3d. ($0.31) on
account of disputes, 8s. 4d. ($2.03) for sick, accident, superannuation,
funeral, and other benefits, and 4s. Id. ($0.99) for working and mis
cellaneous expenses. Unemployed benefits were paid by 81 of the 100
unions, 75 paid either sick or accident benefits, 40 paid superannuation
benefits, 87 paid funeral benefits, and 36 paid all four classes of benefits.
When necessary all trade unions pay dispute benefits, and in 1904,
out of the 100 unions, 80 are reported as having paid such benefits.
The following tables show the total expenditures and the expendi
tures per member for the various classes of benefits for each of the
years 1895 to 1904:
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GREAT BRITAIN.
859
E XP E N D IT U R E S OP 100 PRINCIPAL TR AD E UNIONS ON VARIOUS BENEFITS, ETC.,
1895 TO 1904.
Year.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
Unem
ployed,
etc.,
benefits.
$2,028,280
1,275,719
1,603,838
1,161,750
915,208
1,281,014
1,595,166
2,063,620
2,480,324
3,152,139
Sick and
accident
benefits.
Superan
nuation
benefits.
Funeral
benefits.
Other ben
efits and Working
grants to and other
mem
expenses.
bers, (o)
$959,849 $1,254,151
820,662 1,167,118
3,207,228 1,260,716
1,599,205 1,306,991
581,420 1,408,998
725,381 1.503.262
995,394 1,583,768
1,060,780 1,657,072
839,067 1,762,987
615,349 1.871.262
$628,951
680,254
726,997
782,674
855,078
907,748
971,319
1,066,231
1,166,665
1,301,283
$361,114
356,977
378.156
396,167
439,956
465,651
466,225
463,758
450.156
465,452
$236,351 $1,234,188
294,360 1,324,477
556,518 1,528,660
495,804 1,485,271
333,774 1,573,987
440,584 1,742,985
482,217 1,846,156
475,949 1,928,370
476,659 2,097,671
502,388 2,030,323
Dispute
benefits.
Total.
$6,702,884
5,919,567
9,262,113
7,227,862
6,108,421
7,066,625
7,940,245
8,715,780
9,273,529
9,938,196
a Includes grants to members, grants from one union to another, payments to federations, trade
councils, congresses, etc.
E XPE N D ITU R ES PE R MEMBER OF 100 PRIN CIPAL TR AD E UNIONS ON VARIOUS BEN
EFITS, ETC., 1895 TO 1904.
Year.
1895...............
1896...............
1897................
1898...............
1899...............
1900...............
1901...............
1902...............
1903...............
1904...............
Unem
ployed,
etc.,
benefits.
Dispute
benefits.
$2.24
1.33
1.51
1.13
.83
1.11
1.38
1.79
2.17
2.80
$1.06
.86
3.04
1.55
.53
.63
.86
.92
.74
.55
Sick and .Superan
accident
nuation
benefits. benefits.
$1.38
1.22
1.19
1.27
1.27
1.31
1.37
1.44
1.55
1.66
$0.69
.71
.69
.76
.77
.79
.84
.92
1.02
1.15
Funeral
benefits.
$0.40
.37
.36
.38
.40
.40
.40
.40
.40
.41
Other ben
efits and Working
grants to and other
mem
expenses.
bers. (a)
$0.26
.31
.53
.48
.30
.38
.42
.41
.42
.45
$1.36
1.38
1.44
1.44
1.42
1.52
1.60
1.68
1.84
1.80
Total.
$7.39
6.18
8.76
7.01
5.52
6.14
6.87
7.56
8.14
8.82
a Includes grants to members, grants from one union to another, payments to federations, trade
councils, congresses, etc.
A review of the items of expenditure during the ten-year period
shows a general increase in the expenditure per member for sick
and accident and superannuation benefits, and for working and
other expenses; unemployed and dispute benefits vary greatly from
year to year, while funeral and other benefits and grants vary slightly.
The large expenditure per member on dispute benefits in 1897 and
1898 was due to a great dispute in the engineering trade.
860
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.
Other forms of labor organizations considered in this report are
trade councils and federations of trade unions. The distribution
of federations of trade unions according to groups of industries,
and the aggregate membership of unions represented in the trade
councils, for the years 1900 to 1904, are shown in the table following:
FEDERATION S OF TRAD E UNIONS AND TRAD E COUNCILS, 1900 TO 1904.
[Many unions are affiliated to more than one federation, involving some duplications of membership
figures.]
1900.
Groups of indus
tries.
Num
ber.
General federation
of trade unions...
Federations of trade
unions:
Building trades.
Mining...............
Metal, engineer
ing, and ship
building.........
Textiles.............
Transportation
(land and sea)
Printing, and
allied trades..
W oodw orkin g
and furnishing
Enginemen.......
Other trades . . .
T otal..............
Trade councils.........
Mem
bers.
1901.
Num
ber.
Mem
bers.
1902.
Num
ber.
Mem
bers.
1903.
Num
ber.
Mem
bers.
1904.
Num
ber.
Mem
bers.
1
386,696
1
420,606
1
414,446
1
403,301
1-
396,226
32
10
97,694
576,936
31
10
100)654
561,430
28
10
100,699
561,316
29
10
106,122
557,640
27
10
121/266
546,460
14 261,553
16 281,184
14
17
264,843
297,137
14
18
276,900
291,851
12
17
269,569
248,801
12
17
374,034
249,026
5
30,581
5
35,181
3
23,368
3
26,237
3
23,187
10
56,982
10
69,524
2
50,370
2
48,988
2
55,130
8 • 9,433
4
15,182
8
52,201
8
4
9
11,943
15,283
59,121
8
3
9
14,262
18,392
56,847
7
3
8
13,736
10,935
56,839
8
3
10
14,475
6,607
64,967
108 1,768,442
184 761,493
109 1,835,722
189 796,093
96 1,808,451
194 815,716
92 1,742,168
210 850,978
93 1,851,378
228
874,959
The general federation of trade unions, with its 396,226 members
in 1904, was composed of 91 constituent unions. The membership has
fallen off since 1901, when it was 420,606; but it was greater at the
end of 1904 than it was in 1900. Of the 91 constituent unions, 64
were full-benefit unions; that is, paying for each member 6d. ($0.12)
per quarter, and receiving 5s. ($1.22) per week per member involved
in disputes approved b y the federation, while 27 unions were paying
half contributions and receiving half benefits.
In 1900 the number of federations was 108, while in 1904 the num
ber was 93, a decrease of 15. The aggregate membership, however,
shows an increase of 82,936 for the period 1900 to 1904. The
largest number of federations in any industry was found, thruout
the entire period, in the building trades. The greatest number of
members, however, was in the mining industry.
The number and aggregate membership of trade councils show an
increase from year to year, with a total increase of 44 in the number
of councils and of 113,466 in membership, during the period.
The report contains a list of the trade-union congresses which
have been held in the United Kingdom since 1866, with number of
delegates present, number of organizations and of members of organ
izations represented, and income of each congress.
DECISIONS OF COUNTS AFFECTING LABOR.
[Except in cases of special interest, the decisions here presented are restricted to
those rendered by the Federal courts and the higher courts of the States and Terri
tories. Only material portions of such decisions are reproduced, introductory and
explanatory matter being given in the words of the editor. Decisions under statutory
law are indexed under the proper headings in the cumulative index, page 919 etseq.]
DECISIONS UNDER STATUTORY LAW.
Co n tract
of
E m plo ym en t— A d van ce P a y m e n t s— F r a u d u le n t
o f S t a t u t e — State v. Murray, Supreme
Court o f Louisiana, If) Southern Reporter, page 930.— Butler Murray
was charged with a violation of a labor contract under the statute,
act No. 50, Acts of 1892. This act provides for fine or imprisonment
in cases where a laborer receives advances and fails or refuses to per
form the labor for which he contracted or to repay the money or the
value of the goods advanced. Murray’s defense was that the act was
unconstitutional as enforcing involuntary servitude and was in viola
tion of the so-called peonage laws, sections 1990 and 5526, United
States Rev. St. (U. S. Comp. St., 1901, pp. 1266, 3715). This view
was taken by the court of the fifth judicial district, Parish of Jackson,
and the indictment was quashed. The State then appealed to the
supreme court, where the statute was declared constitutional and a
trial ordered. The ruling is stated in the following syllabus, which
was prepared by the court:
B r e a c h — Co n s t it u t io n a l it y
No one has the right to money obtained in bad faith and through
willful and wanton methods. The act of one who imposes upon
another, and obtains an amount on representation that he will stay
and work, and immediately thereafter leaves, falls within the terms
of act No. 50, page 71, of 1892.
He can not be heard to complain of involuntary servitude, for the
indictment, the averment of which he does not controvert, shows that
he had not performed any work at all.
E m ployer
and
E m p l o y e e — R e l a t io n — E m p l o y e e
R id i n g
to
Shannon
v. Union Railroad Company, Supreme Court o f Rhode Island, 63 Atlan
tic Reporter, page Jf88.— In this case Cormack Shannon was refused
judgment for damages for injuries received while in the service of the
P lace
of
W
ork—
Su n d a y L a b o r
as
A f f e c t in g Co n t r a c t —
861
862
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Union Railroad Company and appealed. The judgment of the court
below was affirmed for reasons that appear in the opinion of the court
as delivered b y Judge Blodgett. The opinion also states the facts in
the case, and is as follows:
1. The record shows that on Sunday, the 29th of June, 1902, the
plaintiff, who was an employee of the defendant, had been engaged in
cleaning a switch on the road of the defendant, and then boarded a
car to proceed to another switch on the road to perform a similar task.
He gave to the conductor an employee’s ticket which had been furnished
by the defendant company, and before reaching his destination was
injured by a collision between the car on which he was riding and
another car of the defendant company. At the trial the plaintiff was
nonsuited, on the ground that the negligence of which he complained
was that of a fellow-servant, and to this ruling he duly excepted and
preferred his petition for a new trial in this court. The ruling of which
he complains was a correct ruling. He was traveling to perform his
customary work at the time of the accident, and clearly sustained the
relation of an employee rather than that of a passenger at the time.
(Ionnone v. N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. Co., 21 R. I. 452, 44 Atl. 592, 46
L. R. A. 730, 19 Am. St. Rep. 812, and cases cited.)
2. The plaintiff, however, contends that the act of the defendant
in running its cars on Sunday was an illegal act, because in violation of
the Sunday law of the State, viz (Gen. Laws 1896, c. 281, sec. 17):
“ Every person who shall do or exercise any labor or business or work
of his ordinary calling, or use any game, sport, play, or recreation on
the first day of the week, or suffer the same to be done or used by his
children, servants, or apprentices, works of necessity and charity only
excepted, shall be fined not exceeding five dollars for the first offense
and ten dollars for the second and every subsequent offense.” He
further contends that there could be no valid contract on his part to
perform work and labor of his ordinary calling on Sunday, and, conse
quently, that the relation of master and servant, as aforesaid, could
not exist for the purposes of this case on that day. The argument does
not convince us. If the operation of the cars on Sunday was lawful,
as being a work of necessity within the meaning of the statute, clearly
he is not entitled to recover for the negligence of a fellow-servant.
But even if the cars were being operated contrary to law at that time,
the plaintiff was admittedly traveling, on the very car so operated, for
the like illegal purpose of performing work and labor of his ordinary
calling on that day and for the express purpose of promoting ana
assisting in the like illegal running of other cars of the defendant on the
same day and in the same manner. To concede the plaintiff’s conten
tion would result in this absurdity, viz, that he might have an action
on the state of facts here shown to have existed on Sunday, although
he could have had no action if the same facts had existed on any one
of the six remaining days of the week; and it never has been held that
the purpose of the Sunday laws was to give an action which otherwise
could not be maintained. If the act of the defendant was illegal, the
act of the plaintiff was equally so; and the law leaves him where it
finds him, m accordance with the ancient maxim, “ In pari delicto
potior est conditio defendentis. ”
Plaintiff’s petition for a new trial denied, and case remitted to supe
rior court, with direction to enter judgment for the defendant.
863
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
E m p l o y e r s ' L ia b il it y — E m p l o y m e n t
of
Ch il d r e n
in
V
i o l a t io n
v. R. J. Rey
nolds Tobacco Company, Supreme Court o f North Carolina, 53 South
eastern Reporter, page 891.— Willis Rolin sued the above-named com
pany for injuries received while in its employment. Judgment was in
favor of the company in the superior court of Forsyth County, which
judgment was on this appeal reversed and a new trial ordered.
The principal point of interest was the construction of section one of
chapter 473, Acts of 1903, which prohibits the employment in factories
of any child under the age of 12 years, this law coming for the first
time before the supreme court. Only that portion of the opinion of
the court which contains the conclusion as to the effect of this section
of the act is reproduced. The opinion was handed down by Judge
Connor, and reads in part as follows:
of
St a tu t e
F ix in g A ge
L im it — N e g l ig e n c e — Bolin
The act is the result of the well-considered, and we think wise, con
clusion of the general assembly, reflecting and crystallizing into law
the will of the people of the State. It is therefore not only our duty,
but in entire harmony with our judgment, to give to the statute such a
construction and application as will effectuate the intention of the
general assembly, remedy and prevent the continuation of an evil
which threatens the welfare of the young children, and, thereby, the
best and highest interest of the State.
Before the passage of the statute the present chief justice, in Ward
v. O'Dell, 126 N. C. 946, 36 S. E. 194, speaking for two members of
this court, said that, notwithstanding there was no statute prescribing
the age within which children should not be employed in mills ana
factories, “ there is an aspect in which the matter is for the courts, that
is, whether it is negligence per se for a great factory to take children of
such immature development of mind and body and expose them for 12
hours per day to the dangers incident to a great building filled with
machinery constantly whirring at a great speed." The same line of
thought is expressed and sustained by numerous authorities, in Fitz
gerald v. Furniture Co., 131 N. C. 636, 42 S. E. 946. Certainly with
the positive prohibition imposed by the legislature against the employ
ment of a child under 12 years of age, there can be no question that
such employment is very strong, if not conclusive, evidence of
negligence. If the age is known to the defendant, the employment is
a positive defiance of the law; if the employment is without pursuing
the method prescribed, and so easily followed, to learn the truth, its
failure to do so gives it but little, if any, better status.
The fact that the statute was enacted, as we know, after several
ineffectual efforts, puts an employer upon notice that in the eye of the
law, based upon experience, it was dangerous to life and limb of chil
dren to be so employed and exposed to the very kind of danger by
which the plaintiff was injured. To permit the defendant to escape
liability for violating the statute, by saying that it did not anticipate
this particular condition, with its disastrous results, would be to nullify
the law. Of course, it did not anticipate this particular condition or
result. If it had done so, the employment would have been not negli
gent, but criminal. If the plaintiff be required to show that, in every
negligent act, the particular result was in fact anticipated, it would be
864
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
d fficult to maintain any action for injury sustained b y the negligence
of another. The State sa>fs to employers that they must not take the
children under 12 years of age into their mills and factories; that to do
so endangers their lives and limbs, dwarfs them mentally, morally,
and physically; that it is upon the children that the permanent power
and welfare of the State depend. They must not, below the tender
and immature age fixed by the statute, be brought into contact with
iron and steel machinery propelled by the powerful agencies of steam
or electricity. Considered from any point of view, the right of the
child to have the opportunity to grow to at least the age named in the
statute in a pure atmosphere, without danger of mutilation of body,
dwarfing of mind, and to attend the schools provided by the State, the
legislation is founded upon a wise and humane policy. Its violation
followed by injury gives a cause of action to the child.
E m p l o y e r s ’ L ia b il it y — M in e R e g u l a t io n s — B e n e f it
of
Stat
and Chicago Coal Company v. Neal,
Supreme Court o f Indiana, 77 Northeastern Reporter, page 850.— In
this case Neal had secured a judgment in the circuit court of Sullivan
County on account of injuries received by him while in the employ
ment of the coal company. The judgment of this court was, on
appeal, reversed and a new trial ordered. The facts in the case and
the statute involved are set forth in the opinion of the supreme court
as delivered by Judge Gillett, from which the following is quoted:
ute—
C o n s t r u c t i o n —Indiana
It appears that appellee [Neal], the plaintiff below, was injured
while driving with a carload of coal through a door opening in a coal
mine. The door was so constructed that it was self-closing, and
appellee was injured as he stood on the bumper and chain of the car,
and while engaged in the effort to keep the door open as the car passed
through, owing to the fact that he failed to stoop sufficiently to permit
his person to escape the lintel. Appellant was charged with negli
gence in three particulars: (1) In not affording a doorway of sufficient
height; (2) in furnishing a car that was too high; and (3) in failing to
designate a person to open and close the door, as required by section
18 of an act of the general assembly, approved March 2, 1891, entitled
‘ ‘ An act requiring the weighing of coal, providing for the safety of
employees, protecting persons and property injured, providing for the
ventilation of mines, prohibiting boys and females from working in
mines, conflicting acts repealed, and providing penalties for violation.”
(Acts 1891, p. 61, c. 49.)
The principal question in the case, which we shall consider upon the
evidence, is whether there can be a recovery under the third charge of
negligence above mentioned, and we proceed at once to a considera
tion of that question: Said section 18 (section 7478, Bum s’ Ann. St.
1901) is as follows: “ ‘ Breaks-through’ or airways shall be made in
every room at least every 45 feet, and all ‘ breaks-through’ or airways,
except those last made near the working faces of the mine, shall be
closed up and made air-tight. The doors used in assisting or directing
the ventilation of the mine when coal is being hauled through shall be
opened and closed by persons designated to do the same, so that the
driver or other persons may not cause the doors to stand open.”
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
865
As respects actions wherein a statute is relied on to create a duty,
the general rule has been thus declared by one of the older writers:
“ In every case where a statute enacts or prohibits a thing for the bene
fit of a person, he shall have a remedy upon the same statute for the
thing enacted for his advantage, or for the recompense of the wrong
done him contrary to said law.” (1 Comyn’s Digest, “ Action upon
the Statute.” F.) In O’Donnell v. Providence It. Co., 6 R. I. 211,
it is stated that the remedy for a violation of a statute is confined “ to
such things as are enacted for the benefit of the person suing.” So
it has been said that: “ However great the defendant’s negligence, if
it was committed without violating any duty which he owed either
directly to the plaintiff or to the public in a manner whereof he had a
right to avail himself, * * * there is nothing which the law will
redress.” (Bishop, Noncontract Law, sec. 446.) It is stated by
Judge Thompson: “ The violation of a statute or municipal ordinance
is not of itself a cause of action grounded upon negligence in favor
of an individual, unless the statute or ordinance was designed to
prevent such injuries as were suffered by the individual claiming the
damages, and often not then; the question depending upon judicial
theories and surmises.”
There can be no doubt, construing the section of the statute which
is in question in the light of section 2 of the act of 1885, regulating
coal mines (section 7443, Burns’ Ann. St. 1901), that the provision
relied on was solely designed to prevent an interference with the cir
culation of air, especially about the men who were employed at the
working faces of the mine. In other words, the purpose of the statute
was to keep such doors shut as far as possible, and it was not designed to
provide aid for drivers who were passing through such openings. The
enactment shows that the legislature has been at the pains expressly
to state its reason for requiring trappers, namely, “ so that the driver
or other person may not cause the doors to stand open.” It was
declared, in Perkins v. Thornburgh, 10 Cal. 189, 191, that, where a
statute assumes to specify the effects of a certain provision, it will be
presumed that all the effects intended by the lawmaker are stated.
An apposite precedent upon the question in hand is found in the
recent case or Allen v. Kmgston Coal Co. (Pa.) 61 Atl. 572 [Bulletin
62, page 318], where reliance was placed upon a similar statute as hav
ing created a duty in favor of an employee who had been found dead
at a mine door under circumstances indicating that he had been
crushed between the frame of the door and the loaded car. The court
said: “ Appellant’s case can get no assistance from the mining act of
June 2, 1891 (P. L. 176). The requirement of section 10 of tnat act,
amended by the act of April 20, 1899 (P. L. 65), that all main doors
shall have an attendant, 1whose constant duty it shall be to open
them for transportation and travel, and prevent them from standing
open longer than is necessary for persons or cars to pass through,’ has
reference solely to ventilation, not to the safety of persons using the
gangways. The object was to keep the doors closed.”
It is clear upon the authorities that appellee can not recover by
virtue of the provisions of the statute upon which he relies, but in
announcing this conclusion we deem it proper to state that we have
not been unmindful of the provisions of section 13 (page 59) of the
same act (section 7473, Bums’ Ann. St. 1901) that ror “ any injury
to person or persons occasioned by any violation of this act” a right
866
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
of action shall accrue. It is true that the word “ any” may be taken
distributively as including all, but,it is common in statutory con
struction so to restrain a universal word, as “ all” or “ every,” as to
make it comport with the general scheme of the statute in which it is
found.” * * * To quote from Sir Frederick Pollock: “ There is
no cause of action where the damage complained of ‘ is something
wholly apart from the object of the act of Parliament ’ as being evi
dently outside of the mischiefs which it was intended to prevent.”
(Webb’s Pollock on Torts, p. 25.) If this were a case in which the
trespasser sought to invoke the provision requiring trappers, it would
not admit of question that it would be the duty of the court so to
restrain the general provisions of the section granting the remedy as
to exclude him, and so here, since it is evident that some exception
should be made, the general grant of a remedy should, in accordance
with the maxim of Lord Bacon, “ be restrained unto the fitness of the
matter or person.”
We have serious doubt as to the sufficiency of the complaint in
respect to the charge that the lintel was constructed too low, and also
as to the charge that the car was too high, but it appears unnecessary
to pass on the complaint, for the reason that appellee, if he has any
case, has not made out one, and we assume will be unable to make
out one, within the averments of his complaint. So far as appears he
could readily have stooped sufficiently to pass through the door, had
he been advised that it was necessary, and therefore the charges referred
to are not sustained by the evidence. Whether, since the car was a
new one and the bumpers thereof were higher than on the cars which
had been in use, he has a cause of action for a failure to warn him, we
leave undetermined.
E m ployer’s
M in e
L ia b il it y — M in e
M anagers
and
R e g u l a t io n s — E m p l o y m e n t
E x a m i n e r s — V ic e
of
P r in c i p a l s — C o n s t r u c
S t a t u t e — Henrietta Coal Company v. Martin, Supreme Court
o f Illinois, 77 Northeastern Reporter, page 902.— In this case a judg
ment against the coal company, on account of injuries received by
Martin while in its service, had been affirmed b y the appellate court
of the fourth district, and was brought, on further appeal, to the
supreme court. This court also affirmed the judgment of the court
below.
The action was based on the provisions of the mining law of the
State (pp. 300 et seq., Laws of 1899), which require the appointment
of mine managers and examiners having certificates of competency,
and which prescribe the duties of such persons. That portion of the
opinion which construes these provisions is here reproduced, the case
turning on the proved negligence of the employees indicated.
Judge Scott, speaking for the court, said:
t io n o f
Appellant first contends that as it had in its employ and on duty
in its mine a certified mine manager and a certified mine examiner
at the time appellee was injured, it discharged its duty to appellee
in relation to those duties which the statute prescribes shall be per
DECISIONS OF COTJETS AFFECTING LABOB.
867
formed b y the mine manager and mine examiner, and that it is not
liable for injuries to the appellee arising from a willful failure of the
mine manager to deliver props, or for a willful failure of the mine
examiner to perform any duty required of him b y the mining act.
This is on the theory that the legislature has prescribed the duties
which the operator owes to the miner in so far as examination and
management of the mine is concerned, and that all that is required
of the operator is that he should employ a manager and an examiner
holding certificates from the State mining board, as provided b y sec
tion 8 (page 307) of the act in question, and that if he does so, and
he has no notice and the circumstances are not such as to put him on
notice that the employees are incompetent, negligent, or otherwise
unfit to perform their duties, he is not liable for any injuries occa
sioned by any willful violation of the mining act, or any willful failure
to comply with its provisions on the part of the examiner or manager.
In support of this position appellant relies principally upon the case
of Durkin v. Kingston Coal Co., 171 Pa. 193, 33 Atl. 237, 29 L. It. A.
808, 50 Am. St. Rep. 801 [Bulletin No. 2, p. 207], and the case of
Williams v. Thacker Coal & Coke Co., 44 W. Va. 599, 30 S. E. 107,
40 L. R. A. 812. [Bulletin No. 19, p. 879.] In both Pennsylvania
and West Virginia, statutes were enacted which, in their general pur
poses, were similar to our own. The Pennsylvania statute was
determined by the supreme court of that State, in the case above
cited, to be unconstitutional; and it was also there said that the
mining boss or foreman is a fellow-servant of the other employees of
the same master, engaged in a common business; that the duty of
the mine owner is to employ competent bosses or foremen to direct
his operations, and that when he does this he discharges the full
measure of his duty to his employees, and is not liable for an injury
arising from the negligence of the foreman. The West Virginia case
follows the Pennsylvania case, and the conclusion there reached is,
that as the duties of the manager are prescribed b y the statute, and
not delegated to him b y his employer, and that as he is a fellowservant of the miner, the master is not responsible for his negligence.
Under the law of this State the mine manager and mine examiner,
while in the performance of the duties prescribed by statute, are not
fellow-servants of the miner. We think the effect of the statute is
to require of the owner of the mine the performance of those duties
which the statute prescribes for the mine examiner and the mine
manager. The proprietor, if an individual, may himself act in either
capacity if he possesses the necessary certificate, otherwise he is
required to perform such duties through the manager and through the
examiner. They stand for him and are vice principals, and perform
those duties, which he may not delegate to others in such manner as
to relieve himself of responsibility. For any willful violation of the
statute by either of them, or for any willful failure b y either of them
to observe its provisions, he is liable. Such has heretofore been
assumed to be the law by this court. [Cases cited.]
The fact that the proprietor, if he employs men to act in these
capacities, is required to employ those who have obtained the certifi
cate from the State mining board is without significance. The pur
pose of that provision was, so far as possible, to guard against the
possibility of the proprietor employing incompetent, intemperate,
negligent, or disreputable persons, and not to enable the operator to
868
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
shift to his employees his responsibility for the management of the
mine. The object of the mining act, as we gather from its various
provisions, is to protect, so far as legislative enactment may, the
health and persons of men employed in the mines of the State while
they are in the mines. The principal measures prescribed for this
purpose require the exercise of greater precaution and care on the
part of the mine owner for the safety of the miners than was required
by the common law. To hold that he may shift his liability to any
person employed b y him as examiner or manager who holds the cer
tificate of the State mining board is to lessen his responsibility and
defeat in great part the beneficent purposes of the act. To hold him
liable for a willful violation of the act or a willful failure to comply
with its provisions on the part of his examiner or manager, is to give
force and effect to the statute according to the intent of its makers
and to prolong the lives and promote the safety and well-being of
the miners.
E m p l o y e r s ’ L i a b i l i t y — R a il r o a d C o m p a n ie s — D
epartm ents—
Kane
v. Erie Railroad Company, United States Circuit Court o f Appeals,
Sixth Circuit, 11$ Federal Reporter, page 682.— Thomas M. Kane was
a fireman on one of two trains which were being switched in the
yards of the Erie Railroad Company at Niles, Ohio, and was killed
in a collision caused by the alleged negligence of one Bowker, the
engineer on the other train. The conductor of Bowker’s train was,
at the time of the accident, in the telegraph office. The suit could
not have been maintained at common law, but was based on an act
of April 2, 1890 (sec. 3365-22, Bates' An. Stat.), the essential portions
of which are quoted in the opinion.
The case had previously been twice before the circuit court of
appeals. On the first trial a judgment in-favor of the plaintiff was
reversed on the ground that, on the record, Kane appeared to be
guilty of contributory negligence. On retrial the circuit court denied
recovery, holding that the statute in question was unconstitutional.
(See Bulletin 56, p. 297.) On appeal this ruling was reversed b y the
circuit court of appeals and the statute was declared valid. (See
Bulletin 57, p. 690.) On the third trial in the court below a verdict
was directed for the defendant company on two grounds: First, that
the section referred to does not apply, because Bowker, the negligent
engineer, tho in control of his fireman, was not in charge of all the
employees on the train, since there was a conductor; and second,
because Kane was guilty of contributory negligence in putting him
self in a dangerous place on the engine.
On this third appeal the circuit court of appeals reviewed these
two rulings and took the contrary position on both points, remanding
the case for new trial.
S u p e r io r s
and
S u b o r d in a t e s — Co n s t r u c t io n
of
St a t u t e —
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
869
The opinion of Judge Richards, who spoke for the court, included
a sufficient statement of the facts, together with a construction of the
statute, and is reproduced practically in full.
Prior to the passage of the act of April 2, 1890, the general rule
that a railroad company is not responsible to an employee for the
negligence of a fellow-servant was subject in Ohio to the modifica
tion, first announced in the Stevens case, 20 Ohio, 416, and confirmed
in the Keary case, 3 Ohio St. 201, that, where one employee is put
under control of another, and the subordinate, without fault on
his part, is injured through the negligence of the superior, while both
are acting in the common service, the company is liable. Thus the
actual relation of the negligent to the injured employee was held to
determine the liability or the company. If the negligent employee
was in control of the injured one, the company was deemed liable,
because then the two were not properly fellow-servants, but one the
superior of the other, and as Judge Ranney said in the Keary case,
3 Ohio St. 211:
“ No service is common that does not admit a common participa
tion, and no servants are fellow-servants when one is placed in control
over the other.”
Recognizing the relation of superior and subordinate as a source
of liability, the act under consideration not only gives it statutory
force, but broadens the liability of the company bv creating as
between separate branches or departments a class of constructive
superiors and subordinates, who are no longer to be deemed fellowservants. It provides (section 3, p. 150) that in all actions against
a railroad company for personal injury or wrongful death, it shall be
held, “ in addition to the liability now existing by law :”
“ (1) That every person in the employ of sucn company, actually
having power or authority to direct or control any other employee of
such company, is not a fellow-servant but superior of such other
employee; and
“ (2) Also, that every person in the employ of such company hav
ing charge or control of employees in any separate branch or depart
ment, shall be held to be the superior and not fellow-servant of
employees in any other branch or department, who have no power to
direct or control in the branch or department in which they are
enmloyed.”
In sustaining the constitutionality of this act, we commented upon
the ground of classification thus adopted by the legislature, and said
(133 Fed. 681, 67 C. C. A. 657, 68 L. R. A. 788):
“ The exercise of authority by one employee over another is thus
made the test. A n y employee who exercises authority over another
is ‘ not the fellow-servant, but superior/ of such other, and every
employee who exercises authority over another in his own branch or
department is ‘the superior, and not fellow-servant/ of an employee
in a separate branch or department who exercises no authority there.
If the negligent employee is, by virtue of this enactment, the superior
and not fellow-servant of the injured employee, the latter did not
assume the risk of his negligence, and the company is responsible. It
is to be observed that the basis of the new classification made by the
legislature is none other than that of the old made by the supreme
115b — No. 67— 06----- 13
870
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
court of Ohio. The class is merely broadened by a logical extension
of the rule. Under the old, the company was liable for the negligence
of one who exercised authority over the employee injured through his
negligence (B. & O. R. R. Co. v. Camp, 65 Fed. 952, 13 C. C. A. 233,
243); under the new, it is liable not only for the negligence of one
who exercises authority over the employee injured, but of one who,
exercising authority in one branch or department, by his negligence
causes the injury of an employee in another who exercises no authority
there.”
But the court below, after a careful analysis of the act and the cases
under it, reached the conclusion that the constructive class of superiors
created by the second clause is limited to employees in charge and
control of separate branches and departments; in other words, to be
a superior under this clause, the employee must be in charge and con
trol of all employees in his separate branch or department. The
possibility of this construction was suggested in the ^opinion of this
court, delivered by Judge Cochran, when the case was first before it,
but the question was left undecided. (118 Fed. 223, 55 C. C. A. 134.)
The question is a nice one, and we regret it has not been directly
determined b y the supreme court of Ohio, the proper tribunal to con
strue an Ohio statute. W e shall give it, however, our best judgment.
The Ohio rule laid down in the Stevens and Keary cases contem
plated a common employment wherein the superior was in charge or
control of the subordinate. The rule obviously could not apply in
the case of separate branches or departments, whatever the relative
position of the employees in such branches or departments. Counting
separate trains as separate branches or departments, a brakeman on
one train could not be held the subordinate of a conductor on another
train, or the latter the superior of the former. Through this resulted
what was charged in the dissent to be the injustice o f the holding in
P., Ft. W. & C. Ry. Co. v. Devinney, 17 Ohio St. 198, where a brakeman, injured by the negligence of the conductor of a separate train,
was held to have no right to recover, although he might have main
tained an action if he had been hurt through the negligence of the
conductor of his own train. The framers or the act may have had
in mind this decision.
Coming to the act itself, the meaning of the first clause is plain. It
states the Ohio doctrine of superior and subordinate. Every employee
actually having authority to direct or control any other employee
is not the fellow-servant, but superior, of such other employee.
To be such superior, it is not necessary that the employee shall have
authority to direct or control more than the one employee who is made
his subordinate. He does not have to be in control of a branch or
department, or represent the company as a vice principal. The simple
relation of superior and subordinate between the two is all that is
required; but that is required, and, if absent, the rule does not apply.
Thus, an engineer is not the superior of a brakeman, when both are
employed on the same train, although the engineer is the superior of
his fireman, and the brakeman is the superior of no one. (Railway
Co. v. Lewis, 33 Ohio St. 196; Railway Co. v. Shanower, 70 Ohio St.
166,71 N. E. 279.)
Coming to the second clause, three things are involved, a separate
branch or department, a superior therein, and a subordinate in
another branch or department. A “ branch” or “ department” is not
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
871
defined, but, as held in theMargrat case, 51 Ohio St. 130,144,37 N. E.
11, the terms evidently refer to the small divisions which separate the
employees from one another while at work, and in this sense a train is
a separate branch or department. A subordinate is an employee
who has no power to direct or control in the branch or department in
which he is employed. A superior in a separate branch or depart
ment, for whose negligence the company is liable,- is an employee
“ having charge or control of employees in any separate branch or
department.” The statute does not provide, as it easily might have
done, that to be a superior the employee must have charge or control
of the separate branch or department, or of all the employees therein,
but simply of employees therein; that is, as construed in the Margrat
case, of any employee therein. (51 Ohio St. 144, 37 N. E. 11.)
Thus the legislature divided all the employees of a railway company,
working in separate branches and departments, into superiors and
subordinates; superiors being all those having some authority, and
subordinates those having none. The line of distinction is clear. As
between separate branches or departments, the company is only liable
for the negligence of superiors, and only responsible for injuries done
to subordinates. If a subordinate is given charge or control of a
coemployee, he ceases to be a subordinate; but, according to the
court below, he does not become a “ superior,” unless he is given
charge or control of all the employees in the particular branch or
department. Certainly, under the first clause, he becomes the actual
superior of the employee under him, and the company is liable if the
latter is injured through his negligence, and we think he also becomes
the constructive superior of all employees in separate branches or
departments who exercise no authority there. If one of them is hurt
through his negligence, in our opinion the company is liable. In this
connection, it is to be noted that, while an employee may be the con
structive superior of all the subordinates in separate branches and
departments, he is not the constructive superior of any subordinate
in his own department, and is the actual superior only of those he
really directs and controls.
This construction seems to us to be sustained by the cases decided,
although the precise point was not'raised. In the Margrat case, 51 Ohio
St. 130, 37 N. E. 11, a brakeman was injured by the negligence of the
engineer of another train. It is true it is not stated there was a con
ductor on that train. Probably there was not. The court apparently
ave no consideration to the question whether there was or was not.
t did not consider whether the engineer was or was not in charge of the
train. It did consider and determine that the train was a separate
branch or department, and then took up the question whether the engi
neer had charge or control of any employee in such separate branch or
department. It was conceded the engineer had charge of the engine and
of the fireman thereon, and the court held this was sufficient. It was
not necessary that he should have control of more than one employee.
To have control of “ any coemployee whatever” (page 144, 51 Ohio
St., page 11, 37 N. E.) was enough. Respecting the relation of
superior and subordinate, created by the statute, the court says (page
144, 51 Ohio St., page 14, 37 N. E .):
“ But the statute, we think, declares that relation to exist, as a
matter of law for the purpose of charging the company, if the engineer
f
872
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
was the superior of— that is, was authorized to command or direct—
any coemployee whatever, and Margrat was without such authority/7
And the syllabus, which is authoritative in Ohio, holds:
" 1. An engineer, in charge of a locomotive on one train of cars of
a railroad company, is in a branch or department of its service sepa
rate from that of a brakeman on another train of the same company,
within the meaning of the terms 'separate branch or department/
as those terms are employed in section 3 of the act of April 2, 1890
(87 Ohio Laws, p. 150).
"2 . An engineer in charge of a locomotive, who has authority to
direct or control a fireman serving on the same locomotive is a
'superior/ within the meaning of the above-named section/7
According to the court below, what the supreme court held in this
case was that an engineer, who, in the absence of a conductor, is in
charge of a train of cars, whether consisting of an engine running
light, or an engine and cars, is a "superior/7 within the meaning of
the act. If the court meant this, why not say so? The syllabus
does not describe the engineer as being in charge of the train, but of
the locomotive, with authority to direct or control the fireman serving
thereon. This makes him a superior. Obviously, the court had in
mind not the control of the train, but only of the fireman. It was
not the control of a department, but of some employee therein, which
was determinative. Just as, under the old Ohio rule, an employee in
charge of another was held to be his superior, for whose negligence
the company was responsible, regardless of whether or not he was in
charge of a department or otherwise a vice principal.
In the case of L. S. & M. S. Ry. v. Pero, 22 Ohio Cir. Ct. R. 130,
the plaintiff7s intestate was a switchman* at work in the Toledo yards
of the railroad company. He was run down and killed by a yard
engine, carrying both an engineer and conductor. It was charged
that both the conductor and the engineer were negligent in failing to
give proper signals. Suit was brought under this act. It was con
ceded tnat Pero was a subordinate, and it was claimed that the
engineer and conductor were superiors, within the meaning of the
statute. The question of negligence was submitted to the jury, and
there was a verdict and judgment against the railway company.
The circuit court affirmed the judgment in an opinion delivered by
Judge Haynes. In this opinion, after discussing the evidence tend
ing to show that Pero was in a separate department, the court says
that for any negligence of the conductor the company would be liable,
and for any negligence of the engineer on the engine the company
would be liable. "W e think the facts tend to snow very strongly
that there was negligence, both on the part of the conductor and of
the engineer. At any rate this was the question that was submitted
to the jury.77 (Page 134.) This case was carried to the supreme
court, and the judgment affirmed. (Railway Co. v. Pero, 65 Ohio
St. 608, 63 N. E. 1132.) But it is said that, since the ju iy could have
based their verdict on the negligence of the conductor, we are at
liberty to say the supreme court affirmed it for that reason. With
this we disagree. The rule is quite different. If the jury under the
instructions might have based its verdict upon the negligence of the
engineer, then, before affirming the judgment, it was necessary to
hold that the company was liable for the negligence of the engineer.
Such was the holding in Railroad Co. v. Keary, 3 Ohio St, 202, where
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
873
Judge Ranney, speaking for the court, and referring to the Stevens
case, 20 Ohio, 416, said (page 204):
“ In that case, as in this, it was left in doubt whether the negligence
complained of, and upon which the jury found their verdict, was that
of the superintendent or conductor. In this case as in that, it is
necessary to find the company liable for the negligence or careless
ness of both the superintendent and conductor, before the judgment
can be affirmed, as the instruction covered both, and it can not now
be told upon which the carelessness and negligence was fixed by the
evidence.”
W e are satisfied, from the action of the supreme court of Ohio in
these two cases, that it would construe the statute as we do, not as
requiring an employee to be in charge or control of a separate branch
or department, ana of all the employees therein, in order to consti
tute a constructive “ superior” witliin the meaning of the statute,
but only to be in charge or control of another employee, or as the
court put it, “ any coemployee whatever,” in such branch or depart
ment. This construction, we think, not only simplifies the act and
contributes to its coherence, but will facilitate its proper enforcement
by making plain its requirements. It is much easier to prove that
an emplovee is in control of another employee than that he is in con
trol o f all the employees in a particular branch or department, for it
is not necessary to place a branch or department in control of a single
employee. Take the case of a train. The control of the employees
thereon might by rule be readily distributed among several employees,
so that, wmle each might have control of one or more, neither would
have control of all, and so the train could be put in the singular situa
tion of having several actual but no constructive superiors aboard.
Kane was nurt while cleaning his locomotive. It was then about
half past 6 o ’clock in the morning. He had gone on duty at 6. The
locomotive was backing slowly, drawing after it 10 or 12 cars; that
next the engine being a gondola. The engineer stated that the train
was “ just merely going,” it had “ just about come to a stop.” A
witness for the defense estimated its speed at about 3 miles an hour.
When the collision occurred, Kane was standing on the front part of
the engine, wiping the number plate or the headlight with a piece of
waste, which he held in his left hand. The engine had no pilot, but
what is called a bunting beam, having underneath a footboard, and
on top a hand rail. There was also a hand rail running around the
boiler from the cab on one side to the cab on the other, high enough
above the running board to afford a good hold. The evidence was
conflicting as to precisely where Kane was standing when the collision
occurred. Baldwin, a witness for the defendant, put him on the
bunting beam directly in front of the boiler, and says he was wiping
the headlight. Rhiel, a witness for the plaintiff, says he was stand
ing on one end of the bunting beam holding to the hand rail along the
boiler with his right hand, while his left was wiping either the end of
the boiler or the headlight; he was facing the engine. Other wit
nesses testified that he could not stand directly in front of the head
light without standing on the round hand rail above the bunting
beam; that the natural place for him to stand was to one side, holding
to the hand rail along the boiler. Bowker’s train was running at a
speed of about 10 miles an hour when it struck the tender o f the
engine on which Kane was working. The tender and engine was
874
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
forced back, and the body of the gondola was torn from the draft
timbers and shot up against the front of the engine, breaking the num
ber plate and headlight. In some way Kane was thrown off or caught.
He was found dead lying on the draft timbers of the gondola, crossways of the track. A bolt had apparently been driven through his
back.
On the first trial, the following rule respecting firemen was in
evidence:
“ They must report for duty at the appointed times; attend to
the fires of the locomotive when on the road, and to taking water
and oiling the machinery; assist engineman in watching for signals
and obstructions, clean and polish their locomotives at the end of
each trip, and assist in making repairs when necessary.”
The reversal of the judgment on the first trial, and the holding
that the record showed a case of contributory negligence, was based
not simply on the fact that the evidence showed that Kane was in a
dangerous place, but was there in violation of the above rule in two
respects: He was cleaning the locomotive, not at the end of the
trip, but while it was in motion, and he was not assisting the engineer
in watching for signals and obstructions, a thing he ought to have
been doing. The court held that he was guilty of contributory
negligence m being in a dangerous place in violation of a rule of the
company; that, if he had been at his post of duty, in the cab of
the engine, watching for signals and obstructions, the collision would
not have caught him.
The court below could see no substantial difference in the case
presented on the last trial from that on the first, and therefore natu
rally felt bound by the former ruling. But we find a material dif
ference resulting from the elimination of the rule. On the last trial,
there was evidence to justify a finding that the rule in question, so
far as it required the locomotive to be cleaned only at the end of
each trip, had been abrogated in accordance with the doctrine of
Railway Co. v. Craig, 73 Fed. 642, 19 C. C. A. 631; Id., 80 Fed. 488,
25 C. C. A. 585. The evidence was overwhelming to the effect that
the firemen of this company at the time of the accident worked from
6 in the morning to 6 at night, and always cleaned their engines
during the day, sometimes while they were standing still and some
times while in motion; and that this custom was known to and sanc
tioned by the company. In cleaning his engine at the time he did,
Kane was therefore only doing his work under the modified rule.
Being in the discharge of his duty, he was where he had a right to be,
and was not violating the rule requiring him to look out for signals
and obstructions. That part of the rule had no more application to
him when at work cleaning the engine than when at work shoveling
coal into the fire box. Besides, it may be said in this connection
there was testimony tending to show that Kane was standing on the
end of the bunting beam facing the cab window, through which he had
a view of the track ahead and could thus assist the engineer in watch
ing for signals and obstructions. Moreover, the collision did not
result from any failure to watch for or observe either a signal or an
obstruction. It resulted from the sudden and unexpected negli
gence of Bowker— a thing which could neither have been foreseen nor
prevented.
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
875
With the rule out of the way, the Jones case, 95 U. S. 439, 24 L.
Ed. 506, and Kresanowski case (C. C.) 18 Fed. 229, cease to apply.
In those cases the injured persons seated themselves on the pilots of
the engines which were running head on— an extremely dangerous
place under the circumstances. And they did this without reason
able cause or excuse. When Kane went out on the running board
to clean the engine, it had almost stopped. He was in no more danger
than he would nave been on the rear of the tender if the gondola had
been coupled to it, or than a brakeman, standing on the front end of
the gondola, would have been. Any place where there is a coupling
is dangerous in case of a collision, but how dangerous, and whether
a fireman or brakeman of ordinary prudence should and would
avoid such a place while his train was moving slowly and just about
to stop, is, we think, a question for the jury under all the circumstances
of the particular case. With the rule practically out of the way, it
seems to us, in view of the conflict or evidence, that the question
whether Kane was or was not guilty of negligence in being where he
was, and doing what he did, should.have been submitted to the jury
under proper mstructions. It was peculiarly a question for such a
body to pass on.
It it be said that, in our first opinion, we stated that, irrespective of
the rule, Kane was in a dangerous position, and therefore was negli
gent, it will be seen, upon a careful reading, that we held the Jones
and Kresanowski cases applicable, because Kane had no reasonable
occasion for being where he was. We said (118 Fed. 223, 55 C. C. A.
138) :
“ It would seem it was negligence for the defendant to be where he
was, because of the great danger of that position, and the absence of
reasonable occasion for his being there.”
And on page 139, 55 C. C. A., page 232, 118 Fed.:
“ But, as we have seen, the work was not required or even author
ized, and .his being there was therefore entirety without reasonable
occasion for it.”
But, under the modified rule, the work of cleaning the engine was
authorized, and there was therefore reasonable occasion for his being
where he was. It does not seem to us just that the railroad company,
while it sanctions the practice of its firemen in cleaning their engines
under such circumstances as existed here, should be permitted to say
it was necessarily dangerous, and that a fireman m pursuing that
practice is, as matter o f law, guilty of contributory negligence.
The judgment is reversed, and the case remanded, for further pro
ceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.
E x a m in a t io n
and
L i c e n s in g
of
P l u m b e r s — P o l ic e
Pow er—
C o n s t it u t i o n a l i t y
of
S t a t u t e — State ex rel. Richey v. Smithy
Supreme Court o f Washington, 84 Pacific Reporter, page 85L — A. J.
Richey was convicted in the superior court of King County of a
violation of chapter 66, Laws of 1905, which forbids engaging in busi
ness as a journeyman plumber without having procured a license, and
was committed to jail. A writ of habeas corpus was sued out on the
ground that his restraint and imprisonment were illegal, the act
876
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
under which he was held being unconstitutional. The supreme court
supported this contention, and ordered Richey discharged.
The opinion of the court was delivered by Judge Rudkin, from
which the following is quoted:
The power of the legislature to make all needful rules and regula
tions for the health, comfort and well-being of society can not be
questioned, but there are certain limits beyond which the legislature
can not go, without trenching upon liberty and property rights
which are safeguarded by the State and Federal constitutions. As
said by the court In re Jacobs, 98 N. Y. 108, 50 Am. Rep. 636: “ The
limit of the power can not be accurately defined, and the courts have
not been able or willing definitely to circumscribe it. But the power,
however broad and extensive, is not above the constitution. * * *
Generally it is for the legislature to determine what laws and regu
lations are needed to protect the public health and secure the public
comfort and safety, and while its measures are calculated, intended,
convenient, and appropriate to accomplish these ends, the exercise of
its discretion is not subject to review by the courts. But they must
have some relation to these ends. Under the mere guise or police
regulations, personal rights and private property can not be arbitrarily
invaded.” And In re Aubrey, 36 Wash. 308, 78 Pac. 900, 104 Am.
St. Rep. 952 [see Bulletin No. 58, p. 994], this court said: “ It may be
stated as a general principle of law, that it is the province of the leg
islature to determine whether the conditions exist which warrant the
exercise of this power; but the question, what are the subjects of its
exercise, is clearly a judicial question. One may be deprived of his
liberty, and his constitutional rights thereto may be violated, with
out the actual imprisonment or restraint of his person. ‘ Libertyy in
its broad sense, as understood in this country, means the right, not
only of freedom from actual servitude, imprisonment or restraint,
but the right of one to use his faculties in all lawful ways, to live and
work when he will, to earn his livelihood in any lawful calling, and
to pursue any lawful trade or avocation. All laws, therefore, which
impair or trammel these rights— which limit him in his choice of a
trade or profession— are infringements upon his fundamental rights
of liberty, which are under constitutional protection.”
We can not close our eyes to the fact that legislation of this kind is
on the increase. Like begets like, and every legislative session brings
forth some new act in the interest of some new trade or occupation.
The doctor, the lawyer, the druggist, the dentist, the barber, the
horseshoer, and the plumber have already received favorable con
sideration at the hands of our legislature, and the end is not yet, for
the nurse and the undertaker are m ocking at the door. It will not do
to say that any occupation which may remotely affect the public
health is subject to this kind of legislation and control. Our health,
our comfort, and our well-being are materially affected by all our
surroundings— by the houses we live in, the clothes we wear, and the
food we eat. The safety of the traveling public depends in no small
degree on the skill and capacity of the section crews that build and
repair our railroads, yet are we on this account to add the architect,
the carpenter, the tailor, the shoemaker, those who produce and pre
pare our food, and all the rest to the ever-growing list? If so, it
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
877
will be but a short time until a man can not engage in honest toil to
earn his daily bread without first purchasing a license or permit from
some board or commission. The public health is entitled to con
sideration at the hands of the legislative department of the Govern
ment, but it must be remembered that liberty does not occupy a
secondary place in our fundamental law. Under some of the acts to
which we have referred members of the board of health form part of
the examining board, but our act has not even this saving grace. E y
its terms two master plumbers and one journeyman plumber are
constituted the guardians of the public health and welfare. We are
not permitted to inquire into the motive of the legislature, and yet, why
should a court blindly declare that the public health is involved, when
all the rest of mankind know full well that the control of the plumbing
business by the board and its licensees is the sole end in view. We are
satisfied that the act has no such relation to the public health as will
sustain it as a police or sanitary measure, and that its interference
with the liberty of the citizen brings it in direct conflict with the
Constitution of the United States.
The judgment should be reversed, and the prisoner discharged; and
it is so ordered.
Judge Root, concurring, said:
To the foregoing may be added this thought: The liberty and
natural rights of a citizen— such as his privilege to engage in a lawful
vocation for a livelihood— can be denied him by the legislature only
where such deprivation is necessary to accomplish a given result
essential to the welfare of the public. If that result can be attained
in a practicable manner without interference with such liberty and
rights, there is an absence of that necessity which is an essential and
prerequisite to the validity of such a statute.
In the case at bar the only justification urged in behalf of the statute
is that good plumbing is necessary to the health of people in cities
having over 10,000 inhabitants. Avowedly it is sought to insure
good plumbing by means of this statute. It is self-evident that the
same, or a better, result can be obtained by means of statutes or
ordinances requiring good plumbing, and insuring it by means of
adequate inspection. Such a statute or ordinance would not interfere
with the liberty or natural rights of any person, and would safeguard
the health of the public as fully as, or more so than, the statute now in
question. It therefore follows that the liberty and natural rights of
the individual are infringed by this statute unnecessarily and, con
sequently, unconstitutionally.
H
ours
of
L abor
of
F em ale
E m p l o y e e s — P o l ic e
of
S t a t u t e — State
Pow er—
v. Muller, Supreme Court o f
Oregon, 85 Pacific Reporter, page 855.— Curt Muller was convicted in
the circuit court of Multnomah County of a violation of an act of the
Oregon legislature, page 148, Acts of 1903, which limits to ten per day
the number of hours of employment of females in factories. Muller
appealed on the question of the constitutionality of the act referred to.
The statute was held to be valid and the judgment of the lower court
Co n s t it u t io n a l it y
878
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
was affirmed, as appears from the following quotation from the opinion
of the court as delivered by Judge Bean :
The right to labor and to contract for labor, like all rights, is itself
subject to such reasonable limitations as are essential to the peace,
health, welfare, and good order of the community, and, as said by the
Supreme Court of the United States: “ A large discretion is neces
sarily vested in the legislature to determine, not only what the interests
of the public require, but what measures are necessary for the protec
tion of such interests.” (Lawton v. Steele, 152 U. S. 133, 14 Sup. Ct.
499, 38 L. Ed. 385.) In Holden v. Hardy, 169 U. S. 366, 18 Sup.
Ct. 383 [see Bulletin No. 17, p. 625], the court, referring to the limita
tions placed by a State upon the hours of workmen in underground
mines, said: “ These employments, when too long pursued, the legis
lature has judged to be detrimental to the health of the employees,
and, so long as there are reasonable grounds for believing that this is
so, its decision upon this subject can not be reviewed b y the Federal
courts.” And in the subsequent case of Gundling v. Chicago, 177
U. S. 183, 20 Sup. Ct. 633, 44 L. Ed. 725, the court uses this language:
“ Regulations respecting the pursuit of a lawful trade or business are
of very frequent occurrence in the various cities of the country, and
what such regulations shall be and to what particular trade, business,
or occupation they shall apply, are questions for the State to determine,
and their determination comes within the proper exercise of the
police power by the State, and unless the regulations are so utterly
unreasonable and extravagant in their nature and purpose that the
property and personal rights of the citizen are unnecessarily, and in
a manner wholly arbitrary, interfered with or destroyed witnout due
process of law, they do not extend beyond the power of the State to
pass, and they form no subject for Federal interference.” The legisla
ture may not, therefore, unduly interfere with the liberty of contract,
or arbitrarily limit the right of a citizen to enter into such contracts
as to him may seem expedient or desirable; but it may prescribe
reasonable regulations in reference thereto and limitations thereon
to promote the general welfare and guard the public health, and the
power of the courts to review such regulations exists only “ when that
which the legislature has done comes within the rule that if a statute,
purporting to have been enacted to protect the public health, the
public morals, or the public safety, has no real or substantial relation
to those objects, or is beyond all question a plain, palpable invasion of
rights secured by the fundamental law.” (Jacobson v. Massachusetts,
197 U. S. 11, 31, 25 Sup. Ct. 358, 49 L. Ed. 643.)
Now, the statute in question was plainly enacted, although not so
declared therein, in order to conserve the public health and welfare by
protecting the physical well-being of females who work in mechanical
establishments, factories, and laundries. Such legislation must be
taken as expressing the belief of the legislature, ana through it of the
people, that the labor of females in such establishments in excess of
ten hours in any one day is detrimental to health and injuriously
affects the public welfare. The only question for the court is whether
such a regulation or limitation has any real or substantial relation to
the object sought to be accomplished, or whether it is “ so utterly
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
879
unreasonable and extravagant” as to amount to a mere arbitrary
interference with the right to contract. On this question we are not
without authority. Legislation limiting the hours during which
women may be employed is in force in several of the States of the
Union, and, so far as we are advised, such legislation has everywhere
been upheld, except in the State of Illinois.
Judge Bean then reviewed a number of cases, and continuing said:
The case of Ritchie People, 155 111. 98,40 N. E. 454, 29 L. R. A. 79,
46 Am. St. Rep. 315 [see Bulletin No. 2, p. 203], is the onlv decision to
which our attention has been called, or which we have been able to
find, in which an act of the kind under consideration has been held
unconstitutional and void. The case is well considered and ably pre
sented, but is, we think, borne down by the weight of authority and
sound reason.
We are of the opinion, therefore, that the act in question is not void
because an arbitrary and unwarranted limitation of the right of con
tract, but is within the police power of the State. Nor can we con
cur with counsel that it is an arbitrary and unwarrantable discrimina
tion against persons engaged in the particular businesses or employ
ments specified, because persons in otner businesses or callings are not
prohibited from requiring or permitting their female employees to
work more than ten hours a day. Nearly all legislation is special in
the objects sought to be obtained or in its application, and the general
rule is that such legislation does not infringe the constitutional right
to equal protection of the laws when all persons subject thereto are
treated alike under like circumstances and conditions.
The judgment is affirmed.
L abor
O r g a n iz a t io n s — D a m a g e s — L ia b il it y
of
M em bers—
F. R. Patch Manufacturing Company v.
Capeless et al., Supreme Court o f Vermont, 68 Atlantic Reporter, page
988.— The company above named had secured judgment for damages
in an action against Protection Lodge, No. 215, International Associa
tion of Machinists, on account of injuries caused by a boycott by the
association, and other interference with the business of the company.
(See Bulletin No. 59, p. 367.) This judgment remaining unsatisfied,
the company sued Capeless and others, associates and members of
Protection Lodge, No. 215, to recover from them personally the
amount due on the judgment against the association.
The action was brought in the Rutland County court. Capeless
and his codefendants demurred to the declaration and denied their
individual liability on a judgment against the association. This
demurrer was overruled and the declaration was held to be sufficient.
The case was then taken to the supreme court on exceptions to these
rulings, which were, however, sustained, and the case was remanded
for further proceedings in the court below.
D ue
P rocess
of
Law —
880
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The opinion of the court, as delivered by Judge Watson, is repro
duced in full. After stating briefly the history of the case, Judge
Watson said:
Section 1099, V. S., under the provisions of which Protection
Lodge, No. 215, was thus sued in its associate name and service of
process made upon its president, reads as follows: “ A partnership, or
an unincorporated association or joint stock company, consisting of
five or more persons having a president, other principal officer, clerk or
treasurer may sue and be sued in its firm, associate or company name,
and service of process against such partnership association, or com
pany, made upon either of such officers shall have the same force and
effect as regards the joint rights, property, and effects of the partner
ship, association, or company as if served upon all the partners, asso
ciates, or shareholders.” The present suit, which may be regarded
as supplementary, is brought against alleged associates and members
of Protection Lodge, No. 215, for the amount unpaid on that judg
ment, upon section 1183, V. S., which reads: “ If execution on a
judgment obtained against a partnership, association, or company in
its firm, associate or company name is returned unsatisfied in whole
or in part, a suit for the amount unpaid may be brought against any
or all of the partners, associates, or shareholders upon their original
liability, provided that only one such suit shall be brought and main
tained at the same time, and if the execution issued in tne last-named
suit is returned unsatisfied in whole or in part, subsequent actions may
in like manner be maintained for the amount unpaid.”
At common law an unincorporated association, as regards its rights
and liabilities, is fundamentally a large partnership. The relation of
the members composing it is to each other and to the outside world,
that of partners. (Walker v. Wait et al., 50 Vt. 668; Burnes v. Pen
nell, 2 H. L. Cas. 497.) Partnership debts are the debts of each part
ner in solido (3 Kent’s Com. 32; Cutler v. Estate of Thomas, 25 Yt.
73), and at law both separate and joint creditors may attach either
separate or joint property and sell it on execution in satisfaction of
their judgments without regard to equities existing between their
debtors. But in equity partnership effects must be applied in satis
faction of partnership debts and liabilities in preference to debts due
creditors of the individual partners; and to the extent that partner
ship debts and liabilities are not fully paid by the joint property, they
stand the same as other debts against each partner’ s separate estate.
(Bardwell v. Perry, 19 Vt. 292, 47 Am. Dec. 687; Washburn v. Bank
of Bellows Falls, 19 Yt. 278; Barton National Bank v. Atkins, 72 Vt.
33, 47 Atl. 176.) It is also a well-established rule that a firm or unin
corporated company must sue and be sued in the names of its indi
vidual members, however numerous they may be. (Dicey on Parties,
147, 266.) Yet as we have seen, by section 1099, V. S., any partner
ship, unincorporated association, and joint-stock company falling
within its provisions, may sue and be sued in its firm, associate, or
company name, and that service of process made upon either of its
officers named in that section shall have the same force and effect as
regards the joint rights, property, and effects of the partnership, asso
ciation, or company as if served on all the members. That section of
the statute and the section upon which this action is brought, in their
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
881
original form, were parts of the same act No. 71, p. 71, Laws of 1882,
and must be construed together.
Such partnerships, associations, and joint-stock companies may be,
and often are, not only composed of many different members, resi
dents of different States and countries, but constantly changing by
some dropping out and others coming in. Manifestly this statute
was enacted for the practical convenience and benefit of the partner
ship, associations, and companies to which it relates, as well as for the
convenience and benefit of creditors, in bringing and prosecuting
suits. In operation it inures also to the more substantial benefit oi
the individual partners, associates, and shareholders. We do not con
sider whether or not the procedure therein provided is exclusive.
But surely when the statute is invoked to enforce liabilities against
partnerships, associations, or companies, the members have the bene
fit of equity principles in that the joint property must first be taken
to satisfy judgment, and it is only for the amount unpaid when execu
tions against such property are returned wholly or in part unsatisfied
that suits can be brought against the individual members and their
separate property taken. In the first instance the obligation of each
partner to the others and to creditors is in nature contractual at com
mon law. By section 1183, partners, associates, and shareholders
are made individually liable to execution creditors for the amount of
a judgment unpaid after an execution against the joint property has
been returned unsatisfied in whole or in part, with the further limita
tion that only one suit against members shall be brought and main
tained at the same time, and if the execution in the last suit is not
returned fully satisfied, subsequent actions can be had in like manner
for so much as remains unpaid. Here the liability of the individual
members in its modified form is contractual in nature by operation of
the statute. In legal effect each member when he becomes such
thereby obligates himself to the other members and to all persons who
may hold liabilities against the firm, association, or .company of
which he becomes a member, for the payment of the amount unpaid
on judgments against it after the joint property has been taken in
execution and applied thereon, and this obligation is in law as much a
part of every contract and liability against the partnership, associa
tion, or company as it would be if it had been directly entered into by
the members in connection therewith. The statutory liability here
imposed is analogous to the statutory liability of individual stock
holders for the debts of a corporation. In cases involving the latter
it is held that the stockholders by availing themselves of the
benefits to be derived from the corporate organization impliedly
agree to be responsible for the debts of the corporation; that credi
tors contract with reference to it; that it becomes a part of the law of
their contracts; and that when a person becomes a stockholder this
liability rests upon him as an incident to his stock. (Barton National
Bank v. Atkins, before cited; King v. Cochran, 76 Vt. 141, 56 Atl. 667,
104 Am. St. Rep. 922; Whitman v. National Bank, 176 U. S. 559, 20
Sup. Ct. 477, 44 L. Ed. 587.)
It is strenuously urged, however, that the action under the pro
visions of section 1183 must be based upon the “ original liability/’
and that this action is not of that character. The statute provides
that “ a suit for the amount unpaid may be brought against any or
882
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
all of the partners, associates, or shareholders upon their original
liability.” It is evident from the section as a whole that the remedy
there given is statutory, consequently that the actions must be
based upon the statute, and brought to recover the amount unpaid
on the judgment, rather than for the sum due or for damages on the
liability merged in the judgment. The amount to be recovered is
fixed by the judgment, which is inconsistent with the idea that the
supplemental suit against a member must be upon the same cause
of action as that upon which the judgment was obtained. And such
inconsistency is the more noticeable when we consider that the judg
ment may have been recovered in an action ex delicto, where the
damages were unliquidated. We think the words “ original lia
bility” as used in that section, have reference to the liability conse
quent on membership in the partnership, association, or company
at the time of the creation of the liability upon which the judgment
was recovered. As to the partnership, association, or company,
the judgment is conclusive. It is also conclusive in respect to all
matters involved in the suit upon all persons who were members
when the liability merged in the judgment was created. All such
persons had an “ original liability” within the meaning of section
1183, while persons whose membership had then ceased or did not
commence until subsequent thereto, had no such “ original liability”
as makes them responsible in supplemental proceedings under the
statute. It may happen that the original action was based upon
several distinct contracts and that the defendants in the supple
mental suit were members when some of the contracts only were
made, in which event their liability under the statute would be lim
ited accordingly. Thus “ upon their original liability” as it may
be made to appear depends their statutory liability for the amount
unpaid on the judgment. In the original action against Protection
Lodge, No. 215, the question whether the defendants in this supple
mental suit were members of that association at the time when, etc.,
was not tried or decided, nor involved in the judgment recovered. It
follows that whether they were such members is an open question in
this suit and one upon which they are entitled to be heard. (Wilson
v. Seligman, 144 tJ. S. 41, 12 Sup. Ct. 541, 36 L. Ed. 338; Clark v.
Cullen, 9 Q. B. Div. 355.)
It is further contended that since in the original suit against the
association no personal service of process was made upon the indi
vidual members, they can not be bound by the judgment, and that
to hold otherwise would be to take their property without due proc
ess of law and in violation of the fourteenth amendment of the Con
stitution of the United States. At common law, in a partnership
the members do not form a collective whole distinct from the indi
viduals composing it. The rights and liabilities of a partnership
are the rights and liabilities of the partners, and are enforceable by
and against them individually. The association of which the
defendants are alleged to have been members is composed of more
than five members, has an associate name, a president, other prin
cipal officer, clerk or treasurer. *The associate name is nothing more
than the collective name for all the members. (Taff Vale Railway
Co. v . Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, L. R. 1901, App.
Cas. 426; Lewis & Co. v. Locke, 41 Vt. 11.) In providing that suits
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
883
may be brought by or against such partnerships, associations, or
companies in their firm, associate, or company name, the statute
recognizes an entity separate and distinct from the members and
specifies in what manner service of process may be made upon it.
Yet with this recognition the individual members are none the less
concluded by the judgment; for, first, considered as such entity
the relation of the members thereto is analogous to the relation of
stockholders to a corporate entity. They are so far an integral part
of it that in the view of the law they are privy to the proceedings
touching the body of which they are members. (King v. Cochran
and Whitman v. National Bank, before cited.) And, secondly, as
we have before seen, in becoming members they impliedly contracted
with reference to these provisions of the statute and are bound b y
them. The implied agreement in this respect covered not only the
liability but the method in which the extent of that liability shall be
determined. This doctrine was laid down and applied in King v.
Cochran .where the liability of a stockholder in a corporation was
involved, and it is equally applicable here. Regarding this principle
it is said in Freeman on Judgments, vol. 1, sec. 176: “ In many
instances, the relation of the nominal parties to the suit to other
persons is such that the latter are conclusively bound b y a judgment
against the former, in the absence of fraud or collusion, although they
are not notified of the pendency of the suit, and are not called upon
to conduct its prosecution or defense. In respect to the question,
Who are these parties whose interests are thus inseparably asso
ciated? the decisions are often inconsistent; but undoubtedly the
general principle sanctioned by a vast preponderance of authority
is, that every person who has made an unqualified agreement to
become responsible for the results of a litigation, or upon whom such
responsibility is cast by operation of law in the absence of any agree
ment, is conclusively bound by the judgment.” It follows that the
defendants' property is not being taken without due process of law,
for no fundamental rights secured by the fourteenth amendment
are denied, and the forms of procedure in the State courts are not
controlled thereby. (Louisville & N. R. Co. v. Schmidt, 177 U. S.
230, 20 Sup. Ct. 620, 44 L. Ed. 747.)
One of the defendants moved to dismiss the suit for that the
alleged cause of action set forth in the declaration is not founded on
contract, express or implied, hence it being brought by trustee proc
ess the court is without jurisdiction. We have already seen that
the liability of the members under the statute upon which the action
is based is contractual in nature. The action is, therefore, founded
on an implied contract and properly brought by trustee process.
(Y. S. 1304.) The exception b y the Delaware and Hudson Company
to the overruling of the motion to quash the return of service upon
it is not relied upon here.
The pro forma judgment overruling the motion to dismiss, over
ruling the motion to quash, overruling the demurrer, and adjudging
the declaration sufficient, is affirmed, and cause remanded.
884
L abor
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
O r g a n iz a t io n s — E n f o r c e m e n t
E x t o r t io n —
of
B oycott
O rders—
March v. Bricklayers and Plasterers’ Union No. 1 et al.,
Supreme Court o f Errors o f Connecticut, 63 Atlantic Reporter, page
291.— George L. March was a manufacturer of bricks at Hartford,
Conn., and disposed of his output to various “ boss masons” and
contractors. The union named had adopted an agreement that
none of its members should work for a “ boss mason” who employed
other than union men and also penalized any employer who should
buy bricks of a manufacturer who sold to “ unfair” contractors.
March had sold bricks to a “ boss mason” who was classed by the
union as “ unfair,” and subsequently sold some to one Flynn a “ fair”
contractor. The business agent of the union called on March and
Flynn and told them that unless Flynn would agree to become
March’s surety for the payment of a fine of $100 assessed against him
by the union, Flynn’s men would be called out. After considerable
effort to make other adjustments, Flynn paid the sum for March and
held it out of the amount due the latter for bricks. March then
sued in the court of common pleas of Hartford County to recover
from the union the sum named, alleging that it was secured by a
conspiracy to extort the payment, and further that the defendants
had conspired and combined to injure him in his business and property
unless the sum was paid. March secured a judgment ordering the
money to be repaid, whereupon the union appealed, the appeal
resulting in an affirmance of the findings of the lower court.
The views held by the supreme court of errors are indicated in the
following extracts from its opinion as delivered by Judge Prentice:
The contention between the parties becomes primarily resolved
into one as to whether the conceded confederation of the defendants
through which the payment was obtained was an unlawful one by reason
of the unlawful character of either its object or the means employed.
The defendants say that the object was the ultimate object of the
union, to wit, among other things, the promotion of the welfare of
its members and the advancement of their rights and privileges as
laboring men, or, if not that, the freeing of themselves from the
competition of those not members of the union, or, if not that, and
the object is to be brought into closer relation to the matters in con
troversy, the compelling of “ unfair” bosses to become “ fair.” The
plaintiff finds the object sought in the immediate injury attempted
to be inflicted upon him— the extortion of the one hundred dollars
from him as the price of his freedom from harassment in the marketing
of his product. The question before us thus becomes narrowed
down to the single inquiry as to whether or not the defendants in tie
pursuit of their object, whether it be regarded as their general welfare
as laboring men, or the diminution of outside competition, or the
enlargement of their field of opportunity by increasmg the number
of employers of union labor only, used unlawful means.
The sal’ent facts in the story spread upon the record are that this
defendant assoc:ation through the’r representative, the defendant
Butler, demanded of the plaintiff the payment to them of a sum of
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
885
money upon the threatened alternative that, if payment was refused,
he would by their action in refusing to handle his product in their
work then in progress be annoyed ana harassed in the enjoyment of the
benefit of the market for that product which he had obtained, and
in all probability be wholly deprived of that market. The action
thus threatened was within the power of the defendants to take.
The consequences which would flow to the plaintiff from it, if taken,
were such as might well excite in him a reasonable apprehension of
serious injury. To the pressure thus brought to bear upon him he
yielded and paid the sum exacted. There is nothing in the record to.
relieve this picture. It does not improve it to say that the defendants
were seeking to enforce a penalty or to collect damages assessed.
They had no right to inflict a penalty upon or assess damages against
this man, who owed them no duty through association in the member
ship of the union, by contract or otherwise. The plaintiff owed them
nothing. To overawe him into the payment of something by means
of threats of injury in their power to inflict and of such a character
as to naturally arouse a reasonable apprehension of serious con
sequences to him, in the event of his refusal, was an act of the purest
extortion, using that word in its widest meaning, by means of threats
and intimidation, and in the plainest violation of our statute (Gen.
St. 1902, sec. 1296), our decisions, and the universally accepted
principles of the common law. (State v. Glidden, 55 Conn. 46, 8 Atl.
890, 3 Am. St. Rep. 23; State v. Stockford, 77 Conn. 227, 58 Atl. 769.)
[See Bulletin No. 57, p. 681.] The statement of what the defendants
undertook to do easily discloses that this is not the ordinary case
found in the books involving the exercise by trade, capital, or labor
combinations of claimed powers in their struggles for success. These
cases have not infrequently called for the determination of nice legal
questions, and the application of doctrines which, while they might
be pertinent to the present situation, are wholly unnecessary for the
decision of the simpler question before us. The most elemental
principles of justice and right which have by universal consent been
adopted into the common law suffice for a conclusion that money
can not be lawfully exacted of a man in the manner here successful.
We are aware of no case where in the progress of a labor or trade
controversy a similar attempt to extort money as the price of for
bearance from threatened injurious action has ever come before the
courts, save that of Carew v. Rutherford, 106 Mass. 1, 8 Am. Rep. 287,
where the attempt is characterized as a species of annoyance and
extortion which the common law has never tolerated.
It is attempted to justify the action of the union in its money
demand upon the proposition that, as its members had the right to
decline to handle the plaintiffs brick, they had the right to waive the
exercise of that right upon such conditions as they might impose.
The proposition is that money demanded and obtained as the price
of forbearance from the commission of an act of injury, even when
the commission of that act is held over the man to coerce and intim
idate him into compliance with the demand, is lawfully obtained, if
the threatened act was one which the threatener might lawfully do.
Such a proposition could oftentimes be used to justify the vilest black
mailer, and is palpably unsound, in that it ignores certain elements
which may be present to convert the proceeding into a wrong or a
crime.
115b — No. 67— 06------14
886
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
It is further said that the action of the defendants was justified in
the exercise of the rights of fair trade competition. If it be assumed
that these journeymen, bricklayers, and this brick manufacturer
whose business touched each other, only in that the latter sold brick
to persons for whom the former worked, are to be regarded as trade
competitors, so that the recognized doctrines applicable to such com
petitors are applicable to them, it yet remains that the means resorted
to in this case would not be permitted.
P aym ent
P enalty
of
for
W
ages—
B iw e e k l y
P ay D ay— L aw ful M oney—
N o n p a y m e n t — A t t o r n e y ' s F e e — C o n s t it u t io n a l it y
o f S t a t u t e — Seeleyville Coal and Mining Company v. McGlosson,
Supreme Court of Indiana, 77 Northeastern Reporter, page 1044•—Jacob
McGlosson sued in the circuit court of Vermilion County for wages
due, penalty, and attorney's fee, and from a judgment in his favor the
defendant company appealed. The action was based on sections 1
and 4 of an act, page 13, Acts of 1887 (sections 7065, 7068, Bums' A n n .
St., 1901), which provide for payment every two weeks, in lawful
money of the United States, of wages due employees in mines and
factories, with the further provision that if such payment is not made
within ten days after demand a penalty of one dollar for each succeed
ing day shall accrue, not, however, in excess of double the original
debt, which, together with a reasonable attorney's fee, shall be recov
erable in a civil action.
Judgment was for an admitted sum due as wages, for twice that sum
as penalty, and for an attorney's fee of $50. The company contended
that the provisions relative to the penalty and fee were unconstitu
tional, which contention was denied by the supreme court, and the
ruling of the court below was affirmed.
From the opinion of Judge Jordan, who spoke for the court, the fol
lowing quotations are presented as setting forth the conclusions on
each point involved:
Counsel for appellant argue that, if this action is founded on the act
of 1887, supra (sections 7065 and 7068, Burns' Ann. St. 1901), which
we have hereinbefore set out, then they contend that it can not be
maintained, for the reason asserted that all the laws fixing the time of
payment of wages due to laborers are in conflict with the constitution
of this State. It is contended that the invalidity of the provisions of
the act of 1887 herein involved is settled by the decisions of this court
in Republic Iron, etc., Co. v. State, 160 Ind. 379, 66 N. E. 1005,
62 L. R. A. 136. [See Bulletin No. 48, p. 1118.] The argument
is further advanced that the act of 1887, providing for bimonthly
[biweekly] payment of wages by the corporations, associations, etc.,
therein mentioned, is a violation of section 23 of our bill of rights,
which declares that “ the general assembly shall not grant to any
citizen, or class of citizens, privileges or immunities which, upon the
same terms, shall not equally belong to all citizens." The case at bar
can not, as insisted by counsel for appellant, be ruled by the decision
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
887
in Republic Iron, etc., Co. v. State, supra. The statute in contro
versy in this latter case and the one herein involved are materially
different. The distinction between the two acts is palpable. The
invalidity of the statute involved in Republic Iron, etc., Co. v. State,
supra, was, by this court attributed to the fact that the act deprived
both the employer and the employee in all lines of labor of the right to
contract for employment, except upon the condition that the wages
earned b y the employee should be paid weekly. The right of the
legislature to reasonably, or to a limited extent, regulate the payment
of wages, as is done under the statute in the case at bar, was not in
that appeal denied by the court. It will be observed that the act of
1887 does not profess to restrict or abridge the right of contract, except
as against its express requirement that the amount due the employee
for labor shall be paid in lawful money of the United States. This is
the only express provision thereof which prohibits the right to contract.
The constitutional validity of this provision of the act was fully sus
tained b y this court in Hancock v. Yaden, 121 Ind. 366, 23 N. E. 253,
6 L. R. A. 576,16 Am. St. Rep. 396. * * * The statute is general
and uniform, and operates upon all persons who come within the class
to which it applies. Under the circumstances it can not in reason be
asserted that the act in question, in violation of section 23 of the bill
of rights, either directly or indirectly, grants privileges or immunities
to any citizen or class of citizens which upon the same terms do not
belong to all.
Under the provisions of section 1 of this statute the employers
therein mentioned are required to pay each of their employees the
amount due him for labor at least semimonthly. This requirement
to pay at the time prescribed by the statute only becomes mandatory
upon the employer on the demand of the employee to whom the wages
are due and owing. His right under the law to semimonthly demand
the amount of wages then due him is a matter wholly optional with
him. It is a right which he may exercise or not as he chooses. In no
manner does the statute require him to exercise this right against his
own free volition. The laws enacted by the legislatures of several of
our sister States, requiring a certain class of employers of laborers to
pay them at stated times and prohibiting the payment in anything
other than lawful money, have been assailed in the courts as unconsti
tutional with varying success.
As to the provision for a penalty and attorney’s fee, Judge Jordan
said:
The statute in this respect is reasonable and the amount of the exem
plary damages assessed can neither be said to be excessive nor oppres
sive. It is manifest that, if the delay in paying after the expiration
of the ten days allowed is short, then, consequently, the damages to be
assessed will be small. The employer is in a position to prevent the
assessment of these damages by either paying or tendering the amount
actually due the employee before the expiration of the prescribed
limit. The essential purpose of the legislature, under the circum
stances, in providing for the assessment of these damages, was to
enforce the performance of the duty enjoined upon the employer to
pay his employee the amount of his earnings, or wages, within ten days
after demand is made for the payment thereof.
888
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
According to the statute the additional amount of damages author
ized to be assessed over and above the actual amount of wages due is
regulated or measured at the rate of $1 for each day which the
employer allows his default in payment to continue beyond the pre
scribed limit. The power of the legislature, under the circumstances,
as mentioned in the statute, to allow damages of the character and
nature -of those in question, is fully sustained by the decisions of the
higher courts. [Cases cited.] The validity of the provision of section
4, authorizing the assessment of a reasonable attorney’s fee as a part
of the damages in the action instituted by the employee to recover
the wages due him, is fully sustained.
We mid no error, and the judgment of the lower court is therefore
affirmed.
P r o t e c t io n
of
E m ployees
as
M em bers
of
L a b o r O r g a n iz a
People v. Marcus, Court
o f Appeals o f New York, 77 Northeastern Reporter, page 1078.—
Harry Marcus was convicted of compelling an employee to agree not
to join or become a member of a labor organization as a condition of
securing employment, in violation of section 171a of the penal code.
On appeal, the appellate division of the supreme court overruled the
judgment of the court below, on the ground that the section named is
unconstitutional. This judgment was, on further appeal, sustained
by the court of appeals, Judge Bartlett dissenting.
The reasons of the court for holding this section unconstitutional
appear in the following extract, quoted from the opinion of Judge
Chase, who spoke for the court:
In the case now before us the mandate of the statute is the substan
tial equivalent of an enactment that a person shall not make the
employment or the continuance of an employment of a person con
ditional upon the employee not joining or becoming a member of a
labor organization. There is nothing in the information upon which
the warrant against the defendant was issued to show that there was
any interference with the freedom of Scheinbaum in deciding whether
he would enter into the contract with the corporation. The courts of
this State recognize the right of employees and employers to organize
and cooperate for any lawful purpose. Contracts for labor may be
freely made with individuals or a combination of individuals, and so
long as they do not interfere with public safety, health or morals they
are not illegal. The views of this court as to what constitutes freedom
to contract in relation to the purchase and sale of labor and as to what
contracts relating thereto are lawful and enforceable, were stated
with much detail and ability by the members of the court when the
cases of National Protective Association v. Cumming, 170 N. Y. 315,
63 N. E. 369, 58 L. R. A. 135, 88 Am. St. Rep. 648 [See Bulletin No. 42,
p. 1118], and Jacobs v, Cohen, 183 N. Y . 207, 76 N. E. 5 [See Bulletin
No. 64, p. 896], were decided, and the decisions in those cases are
substantially controlling in the determination of this appeal.
In National Protective Association v. Cumming, supra, it was said
that a person may refuse to work for another on any ground that he
may regard as sufficient, and the employer has no right to demand a
t io n s —
C o n s t it u t io n a l it y
of
St a t u t e —
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
889
reason for it, but even if the reason is that the employee refuses to
work with another who is not a member of his organization, it does
not affect his right to stop work or to refuse to enter upon an employ
ment. The converse of this statement must be true, and an employer
of labor may refuse to employ a person who is a member of any labor
organization or he may make an employment conditional upon the
n employed refraining from joining or becoming a member of a
organization. It is a well-known fact that combinations of
employees and also of employers require their members to do or
refrain from doing many things which they deem to their individual
and combined advantage, while a person not a member of such an
organization can act in accordance with the terms of such agreement
as he may choose to make. A person employing labor may decide
that it is to his advantage to employ only union labor, and be willing
to enter into an agreement necessary to procure such labor or he may
decide that it is to his advantage to employ nonunion labor, in which
case he may also decide that it is to his advantage to make the
employment conditional upon an agreement that such employee will
not join or become a member of a labor organization.
That freedom to contract which entitles an employer to make by
agreement his place of business wholly within the control of a labor
union entitles him, if he so desire, to require of his employees that
they be wholly independent of any labor union.
The order of the appellate division should be affirmed.
E
T r a d e -M a r k s
of
T rade U
n io n s —
Co n s t r u c t io n
of
Statu te—
Lawlor v. Charles H. Merritt and Son, Supreme Court o f Errors o f
Connecticut, 68 Atlantic Reporter, page 689.— Martin Lawlor, as
secretary of the United Hatters of America, an unincorporated
association of workingmen, brought action against Merritt & Son,
manufacturers of hats, to obtain an injunction and damages for
attaching to the hats made by them an imitation of a union label.
General Statutes of Connecticut, sections 4907 et seq., provide that
labor unions may adopt and register a label or trade-mark announcing
that the goods to which the label is attached were made by a member
or by members of such unions. Penalties are fixt for wrongful use,
imitation, etc., and provision is made for the recovery of damages and
the awarding of injunctions to prevent further violations of rights.
Under this statute the superior court of Fairfield County had granted
the injunction prayed for, over the defendant company’s demurrer,
from which the company appealed and procured a reversal.
The label offered in evidence by the plaintiff, Lawlor, as being the
one that was infringed upon or counterfeited, besides a small repro
duction of the label of the allied printing trades, bore only the words,
“ The United Hatters of North America. Union Made. Registered.”
One of the points in the demurrer filed by Merritt was that the label
“ does not announce that the goods to which such label or trade-mark
is attached were manufactured by a member or members of the
890
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
United Hatters of North America.” On this point Judge Baldwin,
speaking for the court, said:
The plaintiff has no right of action except by virtue of the statute
on which he professes to sue. It was therefore necessary to bring his
case within the terms of the statute. That statute protects in favor
of such an association as the United Hatters of North America a label
announcing that goods to which it may be attached were manufac
tured by a member or members of the association. The label in
respect to which protection is sought by this action contains no such
announcement. If it could be construed as announcing in any way
who manufactured the hats to which it might be attached, the
announcement would be that they were manufactured by the United
Hatters of North America. The complaint, however, shows that
such was not the intended meaning of the words used, for the recital
of the objects for which the association was formed discloses that they
do not include the manufacture of hats, and it is alleged that the label
was adopted “ for the purpose of announcing to the public that hats
bearing said label were made b y the members of the association,” and
is issued for the use of certain hat manufacturers who employ its
members in making and finishing hats.
Judge Baldwin then continued as follows:
It appears that the association is not, and never was, a manufac
turer of hats; that its members do not own the hats made by them;
that its label was originally adopted and registered by the Cooperative
Hat Company, which was at that time engaged in the manufacture of
hats in this State; that it was assigned to the United Hatters of North
America; that the latter allows its use only by manufacturers employ
ing exclusively union labor; that it has extensively advertised and
represented to the public that this label is used only on hats manu
factured in union factories conducted under certain rules prescribed
by the association, calculated to insure good sanitary conditions and
good work; that in a few cases its use has been allowed on hats'made
m nonunion factories not conducted under those rules, when, before
the hats went out of the factory, it had become a union factory; and
that the defendants, in adopting and using their labels, had no inten
tion of deceiving or defrauding the public or the association or its
members, nor of counterfeiting its label, and have never represented
hats, to which they were affixed, to be hats containing the label of the
association. So far as the facts found vary from the facts alleged,
they tend to weaken the plaintiffs case, by showing that the associa
tion has sometimes allowed the label to be used in hats not even made
by its members, although sold by a union manufacturer, and that the
defendants have been guilty of no fraud. That the label of the
United Hatters of North America has never been used nor intended
for use on hats manufactured by the association remains clear.
The statute on which the plaintiff sues was designed to create both
a new right of action and a new cause of action. (Tracy v. Banker,
170 Mass. 266, 49 N. E. 308, 39 L. R. A. 508.) Neither at common
law nor by the general principles of equity was a man entitled, at least
in the absence of actual fraud, to protection in the exclusive use of a
label for goods, unless it were one which he was using to distinguish
some visible commodity owned or traded in by him. This was equally
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
891
true of an association of men. When, therefore, a voluntary associa
tion of workingmen calling itself the “ Cigar Makers’ International
Union of America” adopted a label for use on cigar boxes by manu
facturers employing its members to make cigars, announcing that the
cigars within were “ made by a first-class workman, a member of the
Cigar Makers’ International Union of America, an organization
opposed to inferior, rat-shop, cooly, prison, or filthy tenement-house
workmanship,” it was held by the courts that its fraudulent imitation
could not be enjoined at the suit of a member of the association,
neither he nor it being a cigar manufacturer. (Weener v. Brayton,
152 Mass. 101, 25 N. E. 46, 8 L. R. A. 640.) In a suit by a member of
that association who was a cigar manufacturer, an injunction was
awarded against a defendant guilty of actual fraud. (Carson v. Ury
(C. C.) 39 Fed. 777, 5 L. R. A. 614.) Under Gen. St. 1902, section
4907, a label of such a kind became the proper subject of equitable
protection, and any member of the association owning it (although
neither he nor the association might be a manufacturer or owner of the
goods to which it was attached, nor a dealer in them) was invested
with a right of action. But the label on which the plaintiff relies
in this action is one of a very different character. Instead of announc
ing that the hat to which it may be affixed has been manufactured
b y a member or members of the United Hatters of North America, if
it announces anything as to its origin, it is that it was manufactured
by the association itself. It was not, therefore, such a label as can
support his action. His complaint should have been held to be
insufficient.
DECISIONS UNDER COMMON LAW.
B o y c o t t — I n j u n c t io n — V io l a t i o n — E v i d e n c e — Huttig Sash and
Door Company v. Fuelle et al., United States Circuit Court, Eastern
District o f Missouri, Eastern Division, US Federal Reporter, page 868.—
The Huttig Sash and Door Company was a corporation in the city of
St. Louis, engaged in the manufacture of woodwork for interior fur
nishings of houses, and had employed a considerable number of men,
some of whom were members of labor unions, while others were not.
Fuelle and others, defendants in the present case, were members of
the Carpenters’ District Council of St. Louis, and business agents and
representatives of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners.
The effort was made by the unions to compel all woodworking firms in
the city and county of St. Louis to unionize their shops, those that
refused to do so being classed as unfair and notices to that effect
distributed.
Contractors were informed that unless they restricted their dealings
to the so-called fair shops, the union men in their service would be
called off, and contracts were entered into with a number of con
tractors and builders by which they agreed to purchase materials
of indicated “ fair” establishments only. The Huttig Company
refused to unionize their factory, and secured a temporary restraining
order enjoining the defendants from boycotting it, and from giving
892
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
notice, verbally or written, either in person or thru the agency of
others, to any person, firm, or corporation to decline to purchase
materials of any sort from it, under threats that if such purchases
were made they would cause the employees of the persons thus
notified to withdraw from service. Interference with the employees
of such contractors was also enjoined, together with other modes of
enforcing the boycott.
On complaint that the injunction was being disregarded, a master
in chancery was instructed to take testimony, and report facts and
conclusions. B y this means it was ascertained that the defendants
had procured one Bohnen to come from New York to aid in unionizing
shops; and that, beginning with August, 1905, lists were regularly
issued showing what establishments were fair, and urging contractors
to avoid trouble by patronizing only the enumerated establishments.
Solicitations of contracts, and threats of difficulty unless they were
signed, were shown to have continued, all of which was construed
by the master in chancery as being in violation of the injunction.
Judge Trieber, speaking for the United States circuit court, approved
this finding, as appears from the following quotation from his opinion:
The granting of the restraining order, and thereafter the refusal of
the court to dissolve it, were judicial .determinations that the con
certed action of this organization in attempting to compel manufac
turers to “ unionize” their business, and to effect such purpose by
sending out circulars threatening parties who purchase the products
of complainant with strikes, is unlawful and should be enjoined. As
long as the injunction is in force, it is the duty of everyone to obey
it implicitly, and any violation thereof by direct or indirect methods
is a violation of the order of the court, which must be promptly put
an end to, or it will bring the courts into contempt. These principles
of law are elementary and require no citation of authorities. What
would be the object of appealing to the courts for redress if its orders
could, without fear of punishment, be disregarded ? It is a mistaken
idea to suppose that parties can resort to subterfuges and thereby
successfully evade the orders of a court of justice.
As found by the master, as well as the court, defendants, for more
than fifteen months after the granting of the restraining order,
abstained from sending out any circulars threatening contractors
and builders who should use materials bought from mills not on these
lists and therefore to be classed as “ unfair to labor” with strikes or
refusals on the part of its members to handle such material. This
compliance and obedience to the order of the court shows conclusively
that the defendants understood and knew the meaning and object of
the restraining order. Evidently some of the members of the council
were dissatisfied with this condition, but, instead of appealing to the
court for a modification of its order, or appealing to a higher court,
which, under the acts of Congress, might have been done without
waiting for a final decree, and upon such appeal eould have secured a
speedy hearing, as the act specially provides that such appeals “ shall
take precedence in the appellate court” (Act Feb. 18, 1895, c. 96,
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
893
28 Stat., 666, [U. S. Comp. St. 1901, p. 550]), they applied to the chief
officers of their organization for aid and advice to enable them to carry
out the objects which this court had restrained them from seeking to
accomplish. It was for that purpose that Bohnen, one of the national
organizers, came from New York to St. Louis in June, 1905. After
remaining a few days he left the city, returning in July, and almost
immediately thereafter the August booklet was circulated among the
contractors and builders of St. Louis. No one will contend tor a
moment that these booklets were not for all practical purposes the
same as the circulars sent out by the defendants prior to the institu
tion of this action, and the circulation of which was restrained by the
court. These booklets contained a list of the firms and dealers who
were working under an agreement with the district council and a
notice that any material not constructed under strict union conditions
would not be handled by members of that union. As the lists in these
booklets comprise all the firms whose materials may be handled with
out danger or a strike, it follows as of course that all firms engaged in
the manufacture of these articles in St. Louis whose names are not
therein mentioned are “ unfair,” and that their products will not be
handled by union artisans.
All of the respondents participated, not only in publishing and cir
culating these booklets, but in attempting to induce contractors and
builders to comply with their requests by entering into solemn con
tracts not to use any material from any but union firms, which, of
course, excluded complainant, as its name did not appear on any of the
lists.
The only defense attempted is that verbal notice was always given
by the respondents to the contractors and builders that, owing to the
injunction issued in this cause, complainant was not included among
the “ unfair” firms, and dealings with it would not be punished with a
refusal to handle its material by union men. But the evidence estab
lishes beyond a reasonable doubt that this fact was never mentioned
to any contractor or builder unless he made special inquiry on the
subject. Is it reasonable to suppose that every one of the several
hundred contractors, builders, owners, and architects to whom these
booklets were sent would make such inquiry about this particular
firm, when there are many others engaged in the same business whose
names did not appear on the council's lists and for this reason are sup
posed to be “ unfair?” If any of the contractors, builders, architects,
or owners to whom these booklets were sent had been advised that com
plainant was not included, without their making special inquiry on
the subject, it would have been an easy matter to have produced them
as witnesses. If the intention of respondents was to obey the man
date of the court—not only its letter, but its spirit— it would have
been a very easy matter to have inserted the facts relating to com
plainant in their circulars or booklets. Their failure to do so must
satisfy any reasonable person that the respondents violated the order
of the court, and did it after calm and due deliberation.
For these reasons, the findings of the master that all of the respond
ents are guilty of violating the restraining order issued in this case
must be affirmed.
894
L abor
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
O r g a n iz a t io n s — B o y c o t t — L a w f u l
P e r s u a s io n —
I n
j u n c t io n — Bender
v. Local Union No. 118, Baker and Confectionery
Workers’ Union, et al., Supreme Court o f the District o f Columbia, 84
Washington Law Reporter, page 574•— This case was before the court
on the complaint of John Bender, a baker, who sought to secure an
injunction against the defendants to restrain them from interfering
with his business, and particularly from instituting and maintaining
a boycott against him. Bender had for some years previously con
ducted a union shop, but in April, 1905, decided to employ workmen
without regard to their membership in labor organizations— in other
words, to conduct an “ open shop.” Efforts were made to get Bender
to come before a committee of the union, on the failure of which he
was declared “ unfair to organized labor,” this action being indorsed
.by the Central Labor Union of the District of Columbia, one of the
defendants in the case. Circulars were subsequently issued by the
Bakery Workers’ Union, calling on all friends of organized labor to
withhold their patronage from Bender; also giving a partial list of his
patrons and calling on their friends to refuse to deal with them so long
as they should continue to buy goods of Bender. In this action the
Central Labor Union claimed it had no part. Bender claimed that
the distribution of the circulars and other forms of boycott were
injurious to him and were unlawful, and asked for the injunction as
stated, which was refused.
Judge Stafford, who announced the rulings of the court, first set
forth in brief the contentions of the parties, and continued in part as
follows:
It is evident from the answers themselves that there is here a com
bination between the defendants to accomplish a certain purpose.
What is that purpose ? The plaintiff says it is to compel him to
employ only union men by injuring his business and by keeping before
his eyes the prospect of ruin to his business as the alternative to his
complying with the defendants’ demands. He says this is the immedi
ate purpose of the combination although it may have a remote and
ultimate purpose in the expectation of improving the condition of
union men. Consequently; he says the purpose is unlawful. On the
other hand, the defendants say that such is not their purpose. They
fail, however, to state what the purpose of the combination is. They
assert their right to combine to divert patronage from the plaintiff to
the friends of organized labor, but they nowhere state what the object
and purpose is. What can it be except to demonstrate to the plaintiff
that he can not conduct a profitable business with nonunion help,
and thereby compel him to employ union help instead? No other
rational explanation of the conduct of the defendants can be found.
The plaintiff had an acknowledged right to employ nonunion men if
he chose. The defendants are attempting to compel him to give up
that right and submit to employ only union men. Is that a lawful
purpose? The interest which the defendants have in the question is
that if only union men can be employed union men can insist on
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
895
higher wages than they could insist upon if nonunion men as well as
union men could be employed. They have an interest to keep up the
rate of wages. If one manufactures a certain brand of flour it will be
for his interest to convince dealers in flour that they can not afford to
be without his brand. It might even be for his interest to convince
dealers in flour that they could not afford to deal in any other brand.
If he could persuade all consumers of flour to buy only his brand he
could compel dealers to buy only his brand for sale, however much
the dealers might prefer to sell some other brand. Now, if instead of
there being one controller of this brand there were several, and they
should all combine to compel dealers in flour to buy only their brand,
that would be a perfectly lawful purpose, provided they should accom
plish it only by lawful means. For instance, they might call upon
all who had occasion to purchase flour from the dealers to assist them
by declining to purchase any other flour, and, if their appeal proved
effectual, the end would be accomplished without transgressmg the
law. Now, if a union has labor to sell and wishes to compel employers
of labor to use no other, why may it not lawfully entertain the purpose
of compelling employers of labor to employ only union labor, provided
it can accomplish its purpose by lawful means? For instance, why
may it not call upon all who have occasion to purchase the products
of labor to refuse to purchase the product of any other labor? If it
can persuade the purchasing public not to purchase the product of
any other labor it will certainly compel employers of labor to employ
no other labor however much they may wish to do so. And how does
labor in the instance now given differ from flour in the instance given
a moment ago ? What is there unlawful either in the purpose to be
accomplished or in the means taken to accomplish it ? The course
of competition is full of instances of lawful compulsion. Men are
being constantly compelled to do what they do not wish to do, and
what they have a perfect right to refuse to do, because they find that
they can not otherwise conduct their business to a profit. Now, when
John Bender refused to employ the union on its terms, was there any
thing unlawful in the union calling upon the purchasing public to
refuse to purchase the product of any labor except that of tne union ?
The whole effect of the appeal depended on the good will of the public.
Was it anything more than calling public opinion to its aid? Up to
the point which we have now reached there was no intimidation.
There was no threat, unless it be a “ threat” to refuse to bestow
patronage and to call upon one’s friends to do the like by way of
assisting the one who makes the appeal. If the public believed that
the cause of organized labor deserved encouragement it would prob
ably respond. It might respond in order to secure the good will and
patronage of those who made the appeal. If so, it would only be one
of countless instances occurring daily where A patronizes B in the
hope that B will patronize A.
But in the case at bar the union went a step further. It undertook
to convince the plaintiff’s customers that it would be more profitable
for them to acquire or retain the patronage of union men and union
sympathizers than to deal with the plaintiff. Accordingly, it called
upon the public to refrain from dealing with the plaintiff’s customers.
This, of course, was directed to the accomplishment of the same pur
pose, namely, to compel the plaintiff to employ only union men; that
896
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
is, to convince him that his course in employing nonunion men would
be commercially unprofitable. The purpose was to convince him that
union men and union sympathizers were so numerous and so strongly
attached to the cause of organized labor that his customers would
leave him for those who were in sympathy with the union. What is
there here beyond an appeal to the self-interest of the plaintiff and
the self-interest of his customers? There is no attempt to coerce
either unless it be “ coercion” to convince one that his financial
interest will not permit him to do what he desires to do. We some
times hear it said that one in business has a right to have business
flow to him without interruption, but that certainly can not be true
in its broad and sweeping terms. It can only mean that he has a
right to have it flow to him without unlawful interruption, and the
question still remains what is unlawful. The principles governing
the question may, perhaps, be more easily apprehended by simplify
ing the situation. Suppose A to be the baker, the manufacturer and
employer. Suppose B to be his workman, and suppose him to have
but one. Suppose C to be one who desires to be employed by A in
place of B. Suppose D to be a customer of A, and suppose that A
has only this one customer. Now, suppose that C, wishing to be
employed by A in place of B, says to A : “ If you will not employ me
in place of B, I will buy none of your goods.” Is there anything
unlawful about that? i f C is a labor union consisting of 20 men, is
the principle different? Suppose further that C says to D : “ If you
continue to trade with A, I shall withdraw my patronage from you.”
And suppose C does this knowing that T> is A ’s only customer, and
that the result will be financial ruin to A, and that the purpose of C
is thereby to bring A to terms, and compel him to employ C instead
of B, has he not a right to do this? Are not just such transactions
every day occurrences, and is there ever any question about their
legality? In all such cases the party upon whom the pressure is
brought to bear weighs the commercial advantage of the different
courses of action, and decides according to his own interest. Such
is the whole course of trade. Now, does it make any difference in
principle that B, C, and D instead of being single individuals each
represents a hundred individuals? The purpose to be accomplished
not being in itself unlawful, the means used not being unlawful when
employed by one person alone, does the transaction become unlawful
by reason of the bare fact that instead of one person acting alone two or
more persons are acting in concert ? It is said that there is a power in
numbers which does not exist in the individual, and that consequently
the same thing may be unlawful when done by a combination which
would be lawml when done by an individual, and that consequently
it is the combination itself which constitutes the unlawful element/
But is this quite correct? It is easy to see that a great number of
persons acting together may give an appearance of force and power
which would have the effect to intimidate when one person acting
alone would not be able to intimidate. But in that case there is
intimidation by force of numbers, and wherever there is intimidation
the law is overstepped. But does it make any difference, where the
purpose to be accomplished is legal and the means employed are
legal, that many persons, instead of one, are seeking to accomplish
the legal act by legal means?
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
897
It may be true that in the case at bar the defendants expected to
accomplish their purpose of unionizing the plaintiffs shop by making
it manifest to him that he must umonize it in order to make it a
financial success. That was the means by which they expected to
accomplish their purpose, but they had a legitimate personal motive
for their action in the desire to secure employment for themselves
and their fellow-members with whom they were making common
cause. It can not be said that only those individual members cf
the union who might hope to be employed by the plaintiff had a
proper motive in what was done. The union as a whole made con
tracts for its members and settled the terms of employment with
employers, and each one of the members of the union had an interest
in the terms upon which the •plaintiff should employ members of the
union. They were all acting together for their common interest.
Judge Stafford then referred to the lack of harmony in the various
decisions examined by him and, continuing, said:
After all, it is a question of individual liberty. It is such a
principle that the plaintiff invokes, and it is upon such a principle
that the defendants rely for their defense. The plaintiff has a right
to conduct his business in his own way without coercion, without
intimidation, exactly as he shall conclude it is for his own interest
to act. The defendants jointly and severally are entitled to the
same privilege. They have a right to sell their labor to whom they
will and to withhold it from whom they will. They have a right to
patronize whom they will and to withhold their patronage from
whom they will. It seems to the court that they have a right to
call on their friends and sympathizers to withhold their patronage
from one who refuses to employ them, their friends and sympathizers
being left free to answer the appeal as they believe their own interests
to dictate. So long as all parties concerned are left free to follow
their own choice as they decide their self-interest dictates, it seems
to the court that there has been no infringement upon the personal
liberty of anyone. Apparently, the question here to be decided has
not been passed upon in any reported case in this jurisdiction, and
the authorities elsewhere being in conflict this court has felt at liberty
to adopt the view which seems to it fundamentally correct. Enter
taining these views, it will be necessary to refuse the temporary
injunction upon the case made by the pleadings.
L a b o r O r g a n iz a t io n s — C o n s p ir a c y — C o e r c io n — I n t e r f e r e n c e
P r o p e r t y R ig h t s — I n j u n c t io n — D a m a g e s — Purvis et al, v.
Local No. 500, United Brotherhood o f Carpenters and Joiners et al,,
Supreme Court o f Pennsylvania, 68 Atlantic Reporter, page 585.— J. L.
Purvis and L. O. Purvis, manufacturers of millwork for buildings,
had procured from the court of common pleas of Butler County a
decree of injunction and an award of $1,770 damages against the
labor union above named and others in privity therewith. The
defendants appealed, with the result that the action of the court below
was affirmed. The facts are not stated except as they appear in the
w it h
808
BULLETIN OE THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
opinion or are indicated in the injunction. The injunction was in
part as follows:
That the defendants (not including L. C. Wick) and each and every
of them, their officers, committees, agents, employees, servants, mem
bers, associates, and all others that may act in concert with them, or
by their direction, each and every one, be restrained and strictly
enjoined from interfering and from combining, conspiring, or attempt
ing to interfere, for the purpose of doing injury to plaintiffs in their
business, with the sale or contract for sale by the plaintiffs of building
materials by representing or causing to be represented in express or
implied terms to any customer of the plaintiffs, or to any person or
persons or corporation who might become customers of the plaintiffs,
that such customers will suffer or are likfelv to suffer loss or trouble in
their business for purchasing or continuing to purchase or contracting
for the purchase of building materials from the plaintiffs; * * *
or from sending out to any person or persons or corporation who are
now customers or who may hereafter become or desire to become cus
tomers of the plaintiffs, through the mails, or delivering to them
otherwise, any written or printed card, letter, circular, or other notice,
stating that members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and
Joiners will not handle or work mill work or materials coming from
mills which fail to comply with regulations of the Carpenters’ District
Council and that the plaintiffs had failed to comply with an agreement
of the Planing Mill Association of Western Pennsylvania with the
Carpenters’ District Council, or an agreement adopted by the Master
Builders’ Association and said council, and requesting such customers
or prospective customers of the plaintiffs to have their millwork done
by mills that operate under said agreement so that no controversy can
arise on account of nonunion millwork, or from sending out to such cus
tomers or prospective customers of the plaintiffs any card, circular, or
'Other notice of similar character or purpose, directly or indirectly,
or from writing or sending through the mails or otherwise, any written
or printed card, circular, letter, or other communication, conveying or
intending to convey, to any customers or prospective customers of the
plaintiffs that the plaintiffs are under the ban of local No. 500, United
Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, or the Carpenters’
District Council of Pittsburg, Allegheny, and Vicinity, United Brother
hood of Carpenters and Joiners or America, or other trade unions, or
of similar import; * * * or from interfering and from combin
ing, conspiring, or attempting to interfere, for said .purpose, with the
business of the plaintiffs, by the enforcement, under pam of penalties
and forfeitures, of rule 7 of the working rules adopted for the govern
ment of local unions under the jurisdiction of the Carpenters’ District
Council of Pittsburg, Allegheny, and Vicinity, United Brotherhood of
Carpenters and Joiners of America, which provides that: “ No mem
ber shall be allowed to work any material coming from any nonunion
mill and shall comply with this rule when the local unions are so
informed and instructed by the district council,” or by other like
coercive rules, the natural and necessary effect of which would be to
deter the members of said trades unions or others from working upon
buildings or other constructions to which the plaintiffs were furnish
ing materials, or contractors, builders, or owners of said buildings or
other constructions, or others, from purchasing materials from the
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
899
plaintiffs; or from interfering, combining, conspiring, or attempting
to interfere with the business of the plaintiffs for the purpose of injur
ing them in their business, by the enforcement of fines or forfeitures,
suspension or expulsion from membership in any of the locals within
the jurisdiction of the Carpenters’ District Council of Pittsburg,
Allegheny, and Vicinity, United Brotherhood of Carpenters and
Joiners or America, for failure to observe rule 7 of the working rules
adopted for the government of local unions under the jurisdiction of
said Carpenters’ District Council of Pittsburg, Allegheny, and Vicinity,
United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, or for fail
ure to observe any of the rules adopted and in force in that union, or
that may hereafter be adopted, which would b y coercion of said mem
bers interfere with the business of the plaintiffs, or from otherwise
restraining, coercing, or intimidating any one or more of the members
of said union for said purpose from working for any contractors,
builders, owners, or other persons because they are doing or desire to
do business with the plaintiffs; or from interfering ana from com
bining, conspiring, or attempting to interfere with the business of the
plaintiffs by the issue of union labels to any mill within the jurisdiction
of the Carpenters’ District Council of Pittsburg, Allegheny, and
Vicinity, United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America;
such issue of labels being made for the purpose of interfering with the
business of the plaintiffs.
The opinion of the supreme court was delivered by Judge Brown,
from whose remarks the following is quoted:
The zeal of counsel may account for, but can hardly excuse, the
statement in appellants’ paper book of the questions involved on this
appeal. They are there stated to b e : “ Is the dissemination by means
or printed notices by a lawfully constituted lodge of union laborers to
its members and employers of labor, of its adopted rules by virtue of
its constitution forbidding its members to work nonunion material,
an unlawful conspiracy? Is it lawful by peaceful means to make
effective such rules?” From an examination of the averments of
plaintiffs’ bill, the ample proofs submitted in support of them, and of
the facts found by the court below, it is most manifest that the only
question before us is whether the appellants were properly enjoined
from injuring and destroying the busmess of the appellees, in pursu
ance of a conspiracy to do so, as a penalty for their refusal to unionize
their mill. This would mean to the appellees, as they aver, that they
would be compelled to employ only union workmen and to yield their
free and unrestricted right to select their own employees in the con
duct of their business; that they would be compelled to submit them
selves to the control of the union, and to put themselves within its
power to dictate to them the number of hours to constitute a day’s
work in their mill, the compensation to be paid therefor, the time of
payment thereof, and the selection of their employees. It would be a
recognition of the power of the agents of the union to practically
control their business.
The opinion of the court below is learned and exhaustive, and upon
it the decree mighf well be affirmed. The briefs on each side are most
elaborate; but, after all, the question involved is a very simple one
and calls for no lengthy discussion by us. The rights of mechanics
and laborers, and of labor organizations and unions, as recognized in
900
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
innumerable cases, are not affected by the decree, and need not, there
fore, be considered here. The question is the unlawfulness of the
conspiracy of the appellants to injure and destroy the property of
others, if their demands as to the employment of workmen are not
complied with. The question is not as to the unlawfulness of the
demands which they make, but is as to their conduct upon learning
that these demands are ignored by the appellees. The demands in
themselves can do no harm to the latter; it results from the means
employed to coerce compliance with them. The appellants contend
that they seek only to persuade, and not to coerce; but their means
of persuasion are the destruction of property of those whom they
would persuade. As well might it be said that the sight of the club
or gun of the highwayman without actual violence simply persuades.
No violence was used by the appellants, and it does not appear that
any was contemplated or threatened; but coercion m a y b e accom
plished without threats or violence, and the attempt to so accomplish
it was made in this case.
After reciting the material facts found, the court below thus sum
marizes the situation: “ These things all point to a combined purpose
on the part of Local No. 500 and tne District Council to compel the
plaintiffs to unionize their mill b y working injury to their business.
To accomplish this the whole power of the union was brought to
bear upon them, both in the Pittsburg district and the home com
munity. The members of Local No. 500 who were found working
material from their mill were coerced by the compelling power of
the union to quit work on pain of trial, fine, or expulsion, with its
attendant annoyances and possible ostracism, in case of their refusal.
By the same power, owners, former customers, and contractors were
coerced through the urgency of their circumstances to withhold their
patronage, while through the conditions thus created the public was
deterred, as the evidence indicates, from placing orders with the
plaintiffs, which would otherwise have gone to them. Along these
converging ways the whole power of the union was brought to bear
upon the plaintiffs to coerce them into submission. The right of
each— employer and employee— is an absolute one, inherent and
indefeasible, of which neither can be deprived, not even by the legis
lature itself. A person's business is property, entitled under the
Constitution to protection from unlawful interference. Every per
son has a right, as between his fellow-citizens and himself, to carry on
his business within legal limits, according to his own discretion and
choice, with any means which are safe and heathful, and to employ
therein such persons as he may select. (Barr v. Essex Trades Coun
cil, 53 N. J. Eq. 101,30 Atl. 881.) With the absolute right of the appel
lees in their property, the appellants assumed to interfere, and would
injure, if not destroy it, ir their demands are not complied with.
This no court will tolerate.
As already stated, of the demands in themselves the appellees
could not be heard to complain. The appellants contend that they
are made for the benefit of the members of their union. This is
undoubtedly so, and, if the injury resulting from a disregard of them is
confined to its members, they alone can complain; *and even if injury
incidentally results to outsiders, through compliance by the mem
bers of the union with its rules and orders, there may be no remedy
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
901
for it. An agreement by those to be benefited by it, that they will
themselves observe its terms in accepting employment, even if
employers be incidentally embarrassed thereby, can occasion no
injury to employers which the law will recognize, for workmen,
whetner bound by a compact among themselves or not, have the
absolute right to give their services to whom they please, or to with
hold them from whom they please, without responsibility for conse
quences to employers or to anyone else. But this is not the case
when the primary purpose is to unlawfully coerce others that, as a
result of the coercion, benefits may accrue to those who coerce. The
attempt to coerce by unlawful means, by conspiring to injure
and destroy property, is in itself an unlawful act, no matter what
end is to be accomplished, and the concern of the law is only for the
protection of those who are to be wronged. Benefits wmch it is
alleged will result to the wrongdoers can not be considered without
Sanctioning the wrong, without justifying the unlawful means for the
accomphsmnent of an end. B y no specious reasoning can the con
duct of the appellants be construed into anything else than a con
spiracy to perpetrate wrong for the accomplishment of beneficial
results to themselves.
Judge Brown then quoted from the opinion of the judge in the
court below, as follows:
“ It is unnecessary to multiply authorities to establish the unlaw
fulness of defendants7 purpose as expressed b y their agents and indi
cated b y their acts. In reaching this conclusion I do not ignore, but
gladly recognize, the right of workmen and others to combine for
the worthy purpose of bettering their condition. In their efforts to
attain this end they may inflict more or less inconvenience and
damage on others. But these results should be incidental damage
and inconvenience consequent on the operation of general rules, law
ful in themselves, rather than those which follow a specific intent and
immediate purpose of injury to others in order that good may ulti
mately come to themselves. The doctrine that the end sanctifies
the means has no place in a condition of society where law prevails.
Even a good purpose must abide its time and follow the path marked
out by law rather than hasten its accomplishment oy ignoring
the equal rights of others. A patient recognition of these safeguards
which the law has thrown about every lawful possession, and of
those limitations and restraints within which every lawful endeavor
must be advanced, is the only sure way of helping on any worthy cause.
“ Turning from a consideration of the nature of the purpose of
defendants as indicated by their words and deeds, I desire to briefly
consider the means used to effect that purpose. On part of plaintiffs
it is alleged that the means used are a boycott of their business. The
defendants contend that their methods were persuasive and were
not accompanied with violence, threats, or intimidation. No vio
lence was used, nor does any seem to have been contemplated or
threatened. But acts may be coercive in character without threats
or commission of violence or personal injury. When the District
Council with its 7,000 members in the Pittsburg district gave notice
to practically all the building contractors of that district that the
plaintiffs refused to run their mill in accordance with union rules,
115b— No. 67—0£----15
902
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
and calling attention to the working rule which forbids union work
men to work material from any nonunion mill, the contractors under
stood what the request not to patronize plaintiffs’ mill meant. When
the members of Local No. 500, who were willingly working materia)
from plaintiffs’ mill, were visited by the business agent of the union,
who called them off, they doubtless knew that it meant trial, fine,
or expulsion and ostracism if they continued to work. When the
owner of the Central Hotel was required, in the urgency of his situ
ation, to sign a contract with the business agent of the union not to
purchase any more material from plaintiffs as the condition of having
work continued on his building, it can scarcely be said that his free
dom of action was not interfered with; when the business agents of
the District Council declared that they had come to Butler prepared
to drive Purvis & Co. into the union, when they stated to plaintiffs
there was going to be trouble if the mill was not unionized, and gave
them to understand that they must unionize their mill or quit GUsiness, all parties well understood what that meant. In all these
things the attitude of the defendants was threatening and coercive
rather than persuasive.”
Concluding, Judge Brown said:
In attempting to justify their conduct the appellants allege
authority for it m the act or June 16, 1891 (P. L. 300). While that
act provides that they may devise and adopt ways and means to
make rules, regulations, by-laws, and resolutions of their order
effective, it sanctions no rules, regulations, by-laws, or resolutions
to commit wrong, and, if it attempted to do so b y authorizing the
appellants to interfere with the absolute rights of the appellees, the
legislation would be a dead letter, for the legislature can not abolish
the declaration of rights. To do that the whole people of the Com
monwealth must be directly consulted, and they must give assent.
(Erdman v. Mitchell, supra.)
In assessing the damages sustained by the plaintiffs and directing
their payment no error was committed by the court. All of the
assignments [of error] are dismissed, and the decree is affirmed at
the cost of the appellants.
L abor
O r g a n i z a t i o n s — O b l i g a t io n s
of
M e m b e r s — Su s p e n
—Schneider et al.
v . Local Union No. 60, United Association o f Journeymen Plumbers,
Gas Fitters, Steam Fitters, and Steam Fitters’ Helpers of the United
States and Canada, Supreme Court of Louisiana, Jfi Southern Reporter,
page 700.— The civil district court of the Parish of Orleans had
s io n —
B
e in s t a t e m e n t —
D a m a g e s — P u b l ic D u t ie s
awarded a judgment of damages against the union named above,
together with an injunction restraining the union from interfering
with the employment of the plaintiffs at their trade, and directing
their reinstatement as members of the union, with a remission of their
fines. From this judgment an appeal was taken, which resulted in
its affirmance in all points.
The legislature of Louisiana had past a law (act No. 194, Acts of
1902) providing for a board of examiners of plumbers for cities hav
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
903
ing a population of 30,000 or more. This board was to be appointed,
by the mayor, and at least two of its members were to be journeymen
plumbers. The duty of selecting a plumbing inspector for the city
was, in the present instance, left with this board. Local Union No.
60 met in July, 1902, soon after the law became effective, and by
secret ballot selected certain nominees for each of the positions to be
filled in the city of New Orleans, submitting the same to the mayor
and council of the city. The latter were not willing to approve the
appointments suggested, however, and selected two other members
as examiners. These members declined to serve, and subsequently,
either by request of the mayor or on its own motion, the union for
warded its roster, omitting the four members indicated above, that
the mayor might make his own choice therefrom. This the mayor
did, selecting Stevens Schneider and Edward Schekeler, the plaintiffs
in this case, as the two journeymen members of the examining board.
When the question of choosing an inspector came before the board
neither Schneider nor Schekeler voted for McGilvray, the nominee of
the union for that position, altho formally instructed by the union to
do so. The union then imposed,upon each of the plaintiffs a fine of
$25 and, contingently, of $150 if they should not vote for McGilvray.
A like fine, besides expulsion from the union, was threatened against
any other member than McGilvray who should accept the place of
inspector.
The plaintiffs continued to ignore these acts and the union ordered
their suspension, and that a penalty be assessed against any member
of the union who should work on the same job with the plaintiffs.
This action led to the discharge of Schneider and Schekeler by their
employers and continuous loss of employment. The union was not
united in this course, but efforts at a rehearing as well as an appeal
by the plaintiffs to the United Association failed, and the men
brought suit for damages. The loss of wages, the value of member
ship in the union, and the injury to feelings and reputation which
they had suffered were alleged as injuries for which damages were
sought. An injunction against the continuance of this boycott,
remission of the fines assessed, and restoration to membership were
also prayed for.
Judge Monroe stated the above facts, and said:
In addition to the facts thus stated it may be said, upon the author
ity of their constitution, by-laws, etc., that the declared purpose of
the members of the union in effecting their organization is to protect
themselves from unjust and injurious competition, and to secure,
through the power of organization a steady demand and fair compen
sation for their labor and a position in society to which as wealth pro
ducers and citizens they are entitled. The pledge required o f all
initiates, and taken by the plaintiffs, is as follows:
I , ------ , in the presence o f the members of this association, do truly
promise and pledge my word of honor that I will yield obedience to
904
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
all laws and legal summons that may be sent, said, or handed to me.
I will not do any act in any way prejudicial to the best interest of
this association, but will at all times endeavor to promote its prosper
ity and usefulness. I will at all times assist members of this associa
tion to the extent of my ability, defend them when unjustly treated
or slandered, and cultivate for each and every member the warm
est friendship and brotherly love. I will assist unfortunate or dis
tressed members to procure employment and to secure just remuner
ation. I do further promise that I will never reveal any of the signs
or workings of this association that may be now or hereafter confided
to me, except in a lawful and authorized manner. I take this obliga
tion voluntarily, without any mental reservation, and bind myself
until death or honorable withdrawal, under the penalty of the scorn
due to moral perjury and violated honor, as one unworthy of trust or
assistance.
Upon the facts thus stated (and possibly a few others which may
be hereafter referred to), the judge a quo gave judgment in favor of
the plaintiffs, respectively, and against the defendants, Local Union
No. 60 and various named officers of said association who participated
in the action complained of, maintaining the preliminary injunction
which had been issued, ordering that the plaintiffs be reinstated in
said Local Union No. 60, and the fines imposed upon them set aside,
and condemning said defendants in solido, in favor of the plaintiff
Schekeler in the sum of $482, with interest from the rendition of the
judgment, and in favor of the plaintiff Schneider in the sum of $466,
with interest. And from the judgment so rendered the defendants
have appealed.
The opinion of the court was then given, from which the following
is quoted:
The obligation which initiates of Local Union No. 60 are required
to take is to be construed with reference to the declared purposes of
the organization, and is binding on the initiate only in so far as those
purposes are lawful and are to be attained by lawful means. When
the union attempts the accomplishment of an object which is foreign
to those purposes, or attempts the accomplishment of those purposes
by unlawful means, the initiate may properly say: “ I entered into no
such contract.” The union’s rules of order specifically provide that
“ partizan politics or sectarian discussion shall not be permitted in
the meetings under any circumstances.” The introduction of a reso:
lution committing the organization to the support of a particular
political party or a particular dogma of religion would therefore be a
violation of a fundamental law of the union, as construed by the union,
and its adoption would impose no obligation on its members, and it
must be read into those rules that the introduction of a resolution
which is violative of the fundamental law of the land has no better
foundation and its passage no greater effect. “ The courts will not
enforce an agreement the object of which is forbidden b y law or is
opposed to the policy of the law. * * * The following are the
leading classes of agreements contrary to the policy of the law:
Agreements which tend to injure the public service. Of this char
acter is an agreement to use one’s influence to secure the election or
appointment of a person to a public office. [Cases cited.]” Princi
ples of Contracts (Benjamin), pp. 89, 90.
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
905
This elementary doctrine is more fully stated in the brief of the
counsel for the plaintiffs in the form of excerpts from what we take
to be a recent work on Public Policy (Greenhood), as follow s:
“ Any contract which contemplates conduct which will amount to
an imposition upon a public officer in the exercise of his discretion is
void. * * * Any contract by one acting in a representative
capacity, which restricts the free exercise of a discretion vested in
him for the public good, is void. * * * Any contract to appoint
to a public office, or involving the sale of a public office, or quasi pub
lic office, or to do anything in consideration of the promisee exchang
ing offices, or securing an office for the promisor, or recommending
him for such office, dr resigning any office, is void. * * * It is
the duty of the officer, having a power of appointment, to make the
best appointment in his power, at the time when he makes the appoint
ment. The public have a right to demand this, and it is against public
policy that he should be deprived of the exercise of his best judgment
by a contract previously made.”
T
Referring to Greenhood on Public Policy, pp. 336-339, 387.
If, therefore, the appointment of McGiivray, rather than of some
other and perhaps more competent man, to the position of inspector,
could be considered as furthering the purposes for which the defendant
herein was established, nevertheless the attempt to secure that appoint
ment, by threatening and imposing fine and suspension, in their
capacity hs members of the union, upon public officials charged with
such appointment, was a violation of law; and this, whether those
officials, as members of the union, had committed themselves to
McGilvray’s candidacy or not. But we are unable to concur in the
view, relied on by the learned counsel for the defendant, that the
plaintiffs had so committed themselves.
We infer that, as the ultimate result of its action, in July, 1902, the
union suggested the appointment of Correjolles and Robinson as
members of the board of examiners, and the record shows that the
mayor declined to appoint them and tendered the appointments to
Patterson and Ybos, who were compelled by the union to decline
them. Some seven or eight months later (in March, 1903) the union
sent to the mayor its roster in order to enable him to select from it,
for himself, the two appointees for whom he was looking. * * *
It is quite certain that the union understood that the mayor would
make his own selection, and that all he needed from it was the names
of its members. Under these circumstances, there was nothing for
the union to do but send a correct roster, or none, since to have sent
an incorrect one would have been to have practiced a fraud. The
plaintiffs were therefore under no obligation to the union in that con
nection, as their names were on the roster as a matter of right, and
not of favor, and the union in sending the roster did no more for
them than it did for those members, constituting the large majority,
whom the mayor did not select and could not have selected. It
seems to us, then, to be illogical to argue that the plaintiffs are in the
attitude of having secured their appointments as members of the
board by holding out that, if appointed, they would vote for McGii
vray for inspector, since it is not pretended that they so held out to
the mayor, who appointed them, and the union, to wnom the holding
out is (erroneously, as we think), said to have been made, neither
appointed them nor controlled the appointments.
906
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Defendants’ counsel earnestly contends that plaintiffs should have
exhausted their remedy within the organization of which they are
members. Conceding, arguendo, that the general rule to that effect
is applicable to a case in which the organization is acting in violation
not only of the law of its being, but of the law of the State, we are
nevertheless of the opinion that the plaintiffs have brought them
selves fairly within that rule. We find no provision for the trial of
such matters as this either in the constitution or by-laws of Local
Union No. 60, nor in those of the United Association, and the efforts
of the plaintiffs to induce those organizations to make the necessary
provision and in some way give them a trial resulted in nothing but
futile correspondence and vexatious delay, with no prospect of relief
from a situation which, to men dependent for themselves and their
families upon their daily earnings, had become little short of desperate.
As to tne damages, counsel for defendant, calculating them from
the evidence, reaches the conclusion that Schneider lost in wages $96,
and Schekeler $192, and, as the judgment appealed from awards the
one defendant a total of $466, with interest from its rendition, and
the other $482, with interest, it is said that the judgment should be
amended in that respect.
The amounts thus awarded represent, however, not only the dam
ages sustained by reason of loss of wages, but also those resulting
from mental suffering and injury to reputation, and likewise included
$200 awarded to each plaintiff as punitory damages. We a'gree with
the trial judge that his estimates are conservative, and find no suffi
cient reason for reducing the totals as thus allowed.
It is therefore ordered, adjudged, and decreed that the judgment
rendered in the consolidated cases of Stevens Schneider v. Local union
No. 60, United Association Journeymen Plumbers’, etc., et al. and
Edward Schekeler v. Same Defendants, and herein appealed from, be,
and the same is hereby affirmed, at the cost of the defendants.
LAWS OF VARIOUS STATES RELATING TO LABOR, ENACTED
SINCE JANUARY 1, 1904.
[The Tenth Special Report of this Bureau contains all laws of the various States and Territories
and of the United States relating to labor, in force January 1,1904. Later enactments are reproduced
in successive issues of the Bulletin from time to time as published, beginning with Bulletin No. 57,
the issue of March, 1905. In the cumulative index, page 919 et seq., are indexed all laws found in the
Tenth Special Report, together with those enacted in 1904 and 1905, and published in Bulletin Nos.
57 to 67, inclusive^
WASHINGTON.
ACTS OF 1905.
C h a p t e r 66. — Examination, etc., o f plumbers.(a)
S e c t io n 1. A ny person, firm or corporation that is now or hereafter may be engaged
in the business of plumbing in any city having a population of ten thousand inhab
itants or more, either as master plumber or as a journeyman plumber, shall secure
and hold a license therefor in accordance with the provisions of this act, and it shall
be unlawful for any person to work at the trade of plumbing or to carry on the business
of plumbing in any such city without complying with the provisions of this act.
S e c . 2. Within thirty days after this act shall take effect the governor shall appoint
a board of plumbing examiners consisting of three members. The members o f said
board shall be practical plumbers well versed in m odem sanitary plumbing, sanita
tion and sewerage. The board shall consist of two master plumbers and one journey
man plumber, and the members of said board shall serve for a period of three years
each from the date of their appointment: Provided however, The first board shall serve
as follows: One member for one year, one member for two years, and one member
for three years, and the governor in making the appointment shall designate the time
that each member constituting the first board shall serve. Thereafter upon the expi
ration of the term of office of each member of the board, or when a vacancy occurs,
the governor shall make a new appointment for the full period of three years. The
members of said board shall be entitled to a compensation of five dollars per diem each,
for each and every day while actually engaged in the work of the board, together
with their traveling expenses from city to city on business connected with their offices;
the compensation, however, to be paid from the revenues realized under the provi
sions of this act, but not otherwise. The time and method of payment of such com
pensation shall be in accordance with the rules and regulations established b y said
board of plumbing examiners. Said board of plumbing examiners shall meet once
each year in each of said cities, and notice of such meeting shall be given b y publish
ing in each of said cities, in a daily newspaper published therein, a statement of the
time and place of holding such meeting, at least ten days prior to the holding of such
meeting. Said board may call special meetings in any of said cities for the purpose
of holding examinations or for other business purposes as hereinafter provided when
ever in its judgment it is deemed advisable. At all regular and special meetings of
said board as herein provided, it shall be the duty of said board to examine each
applicant for a license as provided for b y this act, to determine his qualifications and
fitness for carrying on his business of master plumber or journeyman plumber, and if
the applicant successfully pass the examination as prescribed b y the said board, then
a license shall be issued to such applicant for such license, authorizing him to engage
in the business and occupation of a master plumber or journeyman plumber, as the
case may be, w hich license, when issued, shall authorize the holder thereof to carry
on the business of master plumber or journeyman plumber in any of said cities.
S e c . 3. A ny person, firm or corporation desiring to engage in or work at the business
of plumbing either as a master plumber or as a journeyman plumber in any of said
cities, shall apply to the said board of plumbing examiners b y filing a written appli
cation with the secretary of the board, stating his place of residence, age, experience
a For decision declaring this law unconstitutional, see pp. 875-877, above.
907
908
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
and the place where he has acquired his experience, and shall at such time and place
as may he designated by said board, as herein provided for, be examined as to his
qualifications for a license. In the case of a firm or corporation, the examination and
issuing of a license to any one member of the firm or to the manager of the corporation
shall satisfy the requirements of this act as to master plumbers, but not as to journey
man plumbers: Provided however, That no person shall do the work of a master plumber
unless licensed as provided in this act: Provided further, That any duly licensed
journeyman plumber may engage in the business of a master plumber without further
examination, upon payment of the fee for a master plumber’s license and complying
with the other provisions of this act with respect to master plumbers.
Sec . 4. Said board of plumbing examiners shall within thirty days after the appoint
ment of the members thereof meet and organize and elect a president, secretary and
treasurer, and make rules and regulations that are just and reasonable and fair in
the matter of time, place and method of examining applicants desiring to engage
in or to work at the business or trade of plumbing in any of said cities, and for the
issuing of licenses and granting of temporary permits from time of the filing of the
application until the applicant has an opportunity to submit to the examination to
be prescribed b y the said board. Said board shall examine all applicants as to their
knowledge of and experience in plumbing, house draining and ventilation, and all
other subjects that in its judgment are deemed necessary and requisite to test the
fitness, knowledge and experience of the applicant, and if the applicant has suffi
cient knowledge and experience in the matters inquired about and in the opinion of
said board is competent to engage in such work or business or trade, said board shall
thereupon issue a license to the applicant which shall authorize and permit him to
engage in the business or trade specified in said license in any of the said cities, for
the time specified in said license.
S ec . 5. N o applicant for a master plumber’s license shall be entitled to submit to
the examination prescribed b y the said board of plumbing examiners until he shall
have deposited with the treasurer of said board the sum of ten dollars, and no appli
cant for a journeyman plumber’s license shall be entitled to submit to the examina
tion to be prescribed b y said board until he shall have deposited with the treasurer
of said board the sum of two dollars and fifty cents; each license when issued shall
expire one year after the date of its issuance and snail have no force or effect after
the expiration of one year from the date of its issuance. Any license, however,
issued to a master plumber or a journeyman plumber, may be renewed annually
without examination at any time prior to its expiration, b y a written request for its
renewal directed to the secretary of said board and the payment of the sum of ten
dollars for a renewal of a master plumber’s license or the sum of two dollars and fifty
cents for the renewal of a journeyman plumber’s license, and any such renewal shall
also be for the period of one year.
Sec. 6. Nothing in this act shall prohibit any person from working as an apprentice
in said trade of plumbing with a plumber duly licensed by said board as herein pro
vided for, and under such rules and regulations as may be prescribed from time to
time by said board of plumbing examiners: Provided, The name and residence of each
apprentice and the name and residence of their employers shall be duly filed with
said board, and a record in a suitable book to be provided by said board shall be kept
by said board, showing the names and residences of such apprentices.
Sec. 7. Sufficient of the moneys derived from license fees, examination fees and
the renewal of licenses, under the provisions of this act, shall be used b y said board
to defray the expenses of holding examinations in connection with the carrying out
of the provisions of this act, including their own compensation and traveling expenses,
and any surplus remaining shall be turned over to the State treasurer on the first day
of July, 1907, and annually thereafter.
Sec. 8. The license and permit granted as herein provided may be at any time
revoked for incompetency, dereliction of duty or other sufficient cause, after a full
and fair hearing by said board.
Sec. 9. A majority of said board of plumbing examiners shall constitute a quorum
for the purpose of transacting any and all business that may come before the board.
Sec. 10. All competent master plumbers and competent journeyman plumbers now
engaged in the business or actually and regularly working at the trade of plumbing
shall be entitled to a license to be issued b y said board of plumbing examiners imme
diately after its organization as provided for b y this act, without submitting or being
required to submit to any examination whatsoever, upon the payment b y each of the
applicants for such license of the sum of ten dollars m the case of a master plumber
and two dollars and fifty cents in the case of a journeyman plumber, and such license
when issued shall be renewed from time to time annually as hereinbefore provided.
LABOR LAWS---- WASHINGTON---- ACTS OF 1905.
909
Sec. 11. If any section or provisions of this act be held b y the courts of this State to
be unconstitutional, it is hereby declared to be the legislative intent that the remain
ing sections or provisions of this act shall remain in full force and effect, to the same
extent as though such unconstitutional portion had not been enacted, and the declar
ing of one section or provision void shall in no way affect the validity of the sections
or provisions remaining.
S e c . 12. A ny person violating any of the provisions of this act shall be deemed
guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punished by a fine of not more than fifty dollars
or less than ten dollars for each and every violation thereof.
Sec. 13. Any person making an application for a license as herein provided for who
deems himself aggrieved by reason of the refusal of said board of plumbing examiners
to grant a license to him shall have the right to appeal from the decision of said board
to the superior court of the county in which he shall submit to his examination for a
license.
Approved by the governor March 4, 1905.
Chapter 84.— Inspection o f factories.
Section 1. A ny person, firm, corporation or association operating a factory, mill or
workshop where machinery is used shall provide and maintain in use, belt shifters or
other mechanical contrivances for the purpose of throwing on or off belts on pulleys
while running, where the same are practicable with due regard to the nature and pur
pose of said belts and the dangers to employees therefrom; also reasonable safeguards
for all vats, pans, trimmers, cut-off, gang edger, and other saws, planers, cogs, gearings,
belting, shafting, coupling, set screw, live rollers, conveyors, mangles in laundries
and machinery of other or similar description, which it is practicable to guard, and
which can be effectively guarded with due regard to the ordinary use of such machin
ery and appliances, and the dangers to employees therefrom, and with which theemployees of any such factory, m ill or workshop are liable to come in contact while
in the performance of their duties; and if any machine or any part thereof, is in a
defective condition, and its operation would be extra hazardous because of such defect,
or if any machine is not safeguarded as provided in this act, the use thereof is prohib
ited, and a notice to that effect shall be attached thereto b y the employer immedi
ately on receiving notice of such defect or lack of safeguard, and such notice shall not
be removed until said defect has been remedied or the machine safeguarded as herein
provided.
Sec. 2. Every factory, mill or workshop where machinery is used and manual labor
is exercised by the way of trade for the purposes of gain within an enclosed room (pri
vate houses in w hich the employees live, excepted) shall be provided in each work
room thereof with good and sufficient ventilation and kept in a cleanly and sanitary
state, and shall be so ventilated as to render harmless, so far as practicable, all gases,
vapors, dust or other impurities, generated in the course of the manufacturing or labor
ing processes carried on therein; and if in any factory, m ill or workshop, any process
is carried on in any inclosed room thereof, by which dust is generated and inhaled to
an injurious extent by the persons employed therein, conveyors, receptacles or exhaust
fans, or other mechanical means, shall be provided and maintained for the purpose
of carrying off or receiving and collecting such dust.
Sec. 3. The openings of all hoistways, hatchways, elevators and wellholes and stair
ways in factories, mills, workshops, storehouses, warerooms or stores, shall be protected
where practicable, by good and sufficient trapdoors, hatches, fences, gates or other
safeguards, and all due diligence shall be used to keep all such means of protection
closed, except when it is necessary to have the same open that the same may be used.
Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of the commissioner of labor, b y himself or his duly
appointed deputy, to examine as soon as may be after the passage of this act, ana
thereafter annually and from time to time, all factories, mills, workshops, storehouses,
warerooms, stores and buildings and the machinery and appliances therein contained
to which the provisions of this act are applicable for the purpose of determining
whether they do conform to such provisions, and of granting or refusing certificates
of approval, as hereinafter provided.
Sec. 5. Any person, firm, corporation or association carrying on a business to which
the provisions of this act are applicable, shall have the right to make written request
to said commissioner of labor to inspect any factory, mill or workshop, and the machin
ery therein used, and any storehouse, wareroom or store, which said applicant is oper
ating, occupying or using, and to issue his certificate of approval thereof; and said
commissioner of labor by himself, or his deputy, shall forthwith make said inspection.
Upon receiving such application the commissioner of labor shall issue to the person
910
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
making the same, an acknowledgment that such certificate has been applied for, and
thirty days after such acknowledgment, by said commissioner of labor, and pending
the granting of such certificate, such acknowledgment shall have the same effect as
such certificate, till the granting of such certificate b y said commissioner of labor.
Sec. 6. Any employee of any person, firm, corporation or association shall notify
his employer of any defect in, or failure to guard the machinery, appliances, ways,
works and plants, with which or in about which he is working, when any such defect
or failure to guard shall come to the knowledge of any saia employee, and if said
employer shall fail to remedy such defects then said employee may complain in writ
ing to the commissioner of labor of any such alleged defects in or failure to guard the
machinery appliances, ways, works and plants, or any alleged violation by such person,
firm, corporation or association, of any of the provisions of this act, in the machinery
and appliances and premises used by such person, firm, corporation or association, and
with or about which such employee is working, and upon receiving such complaint,
it shall be the duty of the commissioner of labor, by himself or his deputy,to forthwith
make an inspection of the machinery and appliances complained of.
Sec. 7. Whenever upon any examination or reexamination of any factory, mill or
workshop, store or building, or the machinery or appliances therein to which the pro
visions of this act are applicable, the property so examined and the machinery and
appliances therein conform in the judgment of said commissioner of labor to the
requirements of this act, he shall thereupon issue to the owner, lessee or operator of
such factory, mill or workshop, or to the owner, lessee or occupant of any such store
house, wareroom or store, a certificate to that effect, and such certificate shall be
prima facie evidence as long as it continues in force, of compliance on the part of the
person, firm, corporation, or association to whom it is issued, with the provisions of this
act. Such certificate may be revoked b y said commissioner of labor at any time upon
written notice to the person, firm, corporation or association holding the same, when
ever in his opinion after reexamination, conditions and circumstances have so changed
as to justify the revocation thereof. A copy of said certificate shall be kept posted
in a conspicuous place on every floor of all factories, mills, workshops, storehouses,
warerooms or store to which the provisions of this act are applicable. If, in the judg
ment of said commissioner of labor, such factory, mill or workshop, or the machinery
and appliances therein contained, or such storehouse, wareroom or store does not
conform to the requirements of this act, he shall forthwith, personally or by mail,
serve on the person, firm, corporation or association operating or using such machin
ery or appliances, or occupying such premises, a written statement of the requirements
of said commissioner of labor, before he will issue a certificate as hereinbefore pro
vided for; and upon said requirements being complied with, within a period of thirty
days after said requirements have been served as aforesaid, the said commissioner of
labor shall forthwith issue such certificate; but if the person, firm or corporation
operating or using said machinery and appliances or occupying such premises shall
consider the requirements of said commissioner of labor unreasonable and impracti
cable or unnecessarily expensive, he may within ten days after the requirements of
said commissioner of labor have been served upon him, appeal therefrom or from any
part thereof, to three arbitrators to whom shall be submitted the matter and things in
dispute, and their findings shall be binding upon said applicant and upon the com
missioner of labor. Such appeal shall be in writing, addressed to the commissioner of
labor and shall set forth the objection to his requirements, or any part thereof, and
shall mention the name of one person who w ill serve as the representative of said appli
cant calling for arbitration. Immediately upon the receipt of such notice of appeal,
it shall be the duty of the commissioner of labor to appoint a competent person as
arbitrator resident m the county from which such appeal comes, and to notify such
person so selected, and also the party appealing, stating the cause of the arbitration,
and the place, date and time of meeting. These two arbitrators shall select the third,
and as soon thereafter as practicable, give a hearing on the matters of said appeal,
and the findings of these arbitrators b y a majority vote, shall be reported to the com
missioner of labor, and to the applicant, and shall be binding upon each. The expense
of such arbitration shall be borne b y the party calling for the arbitration; and if said
arbitrators sustain the requirements of said commissioner of labor or any part thereof,
said applicant shall within thirty days, com ply with the findings of said arbitrators,
and thereupon the said commissioner of labor shall issue his certificate as hereinbe
fore provided (in section four of this act); but if said arbitrators shall sustain such
appeal or any part thereof, the same shall be binding upon said commissioner of labor;
ana any such person, firm, corporation or association shall within thirty days, after
the finding of the board of arbitrators, comply with the requirements of the commis
sioner of labor, as amended by said arbitrators, if so amended as herein provided for,
and thereupon said commissioner of labor shall forthwith issue to any such person,
LABOR LAWS---- WASHINGTON---- ACTS OF 1905.
911
firm, corporation or association, his certificate as provided for in section four cf this
act: Provided however, That before any certificate shall be issued by said commis
sioner of labor as provided for in this act, the person, firm, corporation or association
which has complied with the provisions of this act, shall pay to the treasurer of the
State of Washington, an annual fee of ten dollars, and take his receipt therefor. Upon
presentation of said receipt to said commissioner of labor, he shall forthwith issue
said certificate as in this act provided. Said fee shall entitle the person, firm, corpo
ration or association paying the same, to any and every inspection of any factory,
mill, workshop, storehouse, wareroom, or store, and the machinery and appliances
contained in any such premises, owned and operated b y the party paying said fee,
that may be necessary, for a period of one year subsequent to its payment; and all
moneys collected for licenses and fines, under the provisions of this act, shall be paid
into the State treasury and be converted into a special factory inspection fund, from
which special fund shall be paid the deputy labor commissioners required to enforce
the provisions of this act. Said deputy labor commissioners shall be paid from the
special factory inspection fund, upon the presentation of vouchers properly signed
by the labor commissioner in the same manner in which other employees of the State
are paid.
S e c . 8. Any person, firm, corporation or association who violates or omits to com ply
with any of the foregoing requirements or provisions of this act, and such violation or
omission shall be the proximate cause of any injury to any employee, shall be liable
in damages to any employee who sustains injuries b y reason thereof: Provided, The
amount of damages which any one person may recover in an action for or on account
of injuries received b y reason of any alleged violation of any of the provisions of this
act, is hereby expressly limited to the sum of seven thousand five nundred dollars.
S e c . 9. No action for the recovery of compensation for injury under this act shall
be maintained unless notice of the time, place and cause of injury is given to the
employer within six months, and the action is commenced within one year, from the
occurrence of the accident causing the injury. The notice required b y this section
shall be in writing, signed b y the person injured, or by some one in his behalf; but if
from mental or physical incapacity it is impossible for the person injured to give the
notice within the time provided in this section he may give the same within ninety
(90) days after such incapacity is removed, and in case of his death without having
given the notice because of mental or physical incapacity, his executor, or adminis
trator may give such notice within thirty days after his appointment.
Sec. 10. Nothing in this act contained shall prevent any person from bringing an
action under any other statute or act or at common law for any personal injuries
received by him; and in that event the certificate provided for herein shall not be
admitted in evidence in such suit or action.
Sec. 11. Any person, firm, corporation or association who violates or fails to comply
with any of the provisions of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and
upon conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than twenty-five dol
lars nor more than one hundred dollars.
Sec. 12. A copy of this act, together with the name and address of the commis
sioner of labor, printed in a legible manner, shall be kept posted in a conspicuous
place on each floor of every factory, mill, workshop, storehouse, wareroom or store,
and at the office of every public and private work to which the provisions of this act
are applicable, upon the same being supplied to the operators, owners, lessee, or occu
pants, of such places with sufficient copies thereof b y the commissioner of labor.
Approved b y the governor March 6, 1905.
C h a p t e r 112. — Payment o f wages in scrip— Settlement.
S e c t io n 1. Section one of “ An act to provide for the payment of wages of labor in
lawful money of the United States and to punish violations of the same,” approved
February 2, 1888, is hereby amended to read as follows: Section 1. It shall not be law
ful for any corporation, person or firm engaged in manufacturing of any kind in this
State, mining, railroading, constructing railroads, or any business or enterprise of
whatsoever kind in this State, to issue, pay out or circulate for payment of wages, of
any labor, any order, check, memorandum, token or evidence of indebtedness, paya
ble in whole or in part otherwise than in lawful money of the United States, unless
the same is negotiable and redeemable at its face value, without discount, in cash or
on demand, at the store or other place of business of such firm, person, or corporation
when [where] the same is issued, and the person who, or company which may issue any
such order, check, memorandum, token or other evidence of indebtedness shall upon
presentation and demand redeem the same in lawful money of the United States. And
when any laborer performing work or labor as above shall cease to work whether b y
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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
discharge or b y voluntary withdrawal the wages due shall be forthwith paid either in
cash or b y order redeemable in cash at its face value on presentment at bank, store,
commissary, or other place in the county whore the labor was performed: Provided,
Such order may be given payable in another county when the place of employment
is more convenient of access to the employee.
Approved b y the governor March 9, 1905.
C h a p t e r 158.—Bribery, etc., o f employees.
S e c t io n 1. A ny agent, employee or factor of any firm, person, association or corpo
ration, or any agent employee or officer of any corporation or municipality, who shall
receive or accept any gift, bonus, gratuity, commission or thing of value from any per
son, firm, association or corporation with whom he shall contract for, or from whom he
shall purchase any chattels, goods, wares, merchandise or material for his principal,
employer, corporation or municipality, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor.
Approved b y the governor March 11, 1905.
C h a p t e r 162.— Employment o f children— Certificates.
(See Bulletin No. 62, page 279.)
WEST VIRGINIA.
ACTS OF 1905.
C h a p t e r 46.—Department o f mines.
S e c t io n 1. There is hereby created an executive department to be known as the
“ Department of Mines,” which shall have for its purpose the execution and enforce
ment of all State laws pertaining to the inspection of mines, heretofore and hereafter
enacted for the safety of persons employed within or at the mines within this State,
and the said department of mines shall be in charge of an official to be known as the
chief mine inspector, who shall have full charge of said department, and who shall
superintend and direct the inspection of mines as herein provided and as provided by
any other State law not in conflict with this act.
The chief mine inspector shall keep a record of all inspections made b y himself and
the district mine inspectors, which shall be a permanent record properly indexed.
The records of the department of mines shall at all times be open to the inspection by
any citizen of this State, and upon request of the governor of the State the chief mine
inspector shall lay said records before said officer, also maps of mines furnished the
chief mine inspector b y the district mine inspectors. Any chief mine inspector who
shall violate any of the provisions of this act shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined
not less than twenty-five nor more than two hundred dollars, and may in the discre
tion of the court be imprisoned in the county jail not exceeding one year.
The chief mine inspector shall be a male citizen of West Virginia, and shall be a
competent person, having had at least eight years’ experience in the working, venti
lation and drainage of coal mines in this State, and having a practical and scientific
knowledge of all noxious and dangerous gases found in such mines; and to enable the
said chief mine inspector to perform his duties he shall have the same authority to
visit, enter and examine the mines as is conferred upon the district mine inspector,
and he shall have the authority to call the assistance of any one of the district mine
inspectors to any district in the State.
Within thirty days after this act becomes a law, and every four years thereafter, the
governor of the State shall, with the consent of the senate, appoint a chief mine
inspector whose term of office shall begin July 1, 1905, and shall be four years, or until
his successor-shall be duly appointed and qualified.
The salary of the chief mine inspector shall be eighteen hundred dollars per annum,
and five hundred dollars for expenses, which shall be paid monthly out of the State
treasury upon a requisition upon the State auditor, properly certified b y the chief
mine inspector.
S e c . 2. Within thirty days after this act becomes a law, and every four years there
after, the governor of the State shall appoint one district mine inspector for each mining
district within the State as hereinafter provided, whose term of office shall begin July
1, 1905, and shall be four years, or until his successor shall be duly appointed and
qualified.
.
LABOR LAWS---- WEST VIRGINIA---- ACTS OF 1905.
913
The salary of each district mine inspector shall be twelve hundred dollars per annum,
and not more than five hundred dollars for expenses. Such salary and expenses shall
be paid monthly out of the State treasury upon the approval of the chief mine
inspector: Provided, That before payment of traveling expenses shall be made to the
inspector he shall file an account of such expenses, verified b y his affidavit, showing
that they accrued in the discharge of his official duties. Every person so appointed
district mine inspector must be a citizen of West Virginia, having a practical knowledge
of mining and the proper ventilation and drainage of mines and a knowledge of the
gases met with in coal mines, and must be a miner of at least six years’ experience in
coal mines, or having otherwise been engaged as an employee for six years within the
mines of this State, and he shall not, while in office, be interested as owner, operator,
agent, stockholder, superintendent or engineer of any coal mine, and he shall be of
good moral character and temperate habits. An inspector of mines shall be removed
from office b y the chief mine inspector of this State for incompetency, neglect of duty,
drunkenness, malfeasance and for other good causes.
Each of the district mine inspectors shall report in writing monthly to the chief mine
inspector the number and condition of all mines inspected b y him during each month,
and shall deliver to the operator or operators of each mine inspected a certificate of
inspection, and he shall visit each mine in his district at least once in every three
months, or oftener if called upon in writing b y twenty men engaged in any one mine,
and make a personal examination of the interior of all mines, and outside of the mine
where any danger may exist to the workmen, in their respective districts, and shall
particularly examine into the condition of the mines as to ventilation, drainage and
general safety, and shall make a record of all such examinations, and he shall see that
all the provisions of the mining statutes are strictly carried out; and it shall be unlawful
for any district mine inspector to appoint any deputy or other person to do and perform
any work required of such inspector. A ny mine inspector tailing to com ply with the
requirements of this act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor; and upon conviction thereof
shall be fined not less than one hundred dollars nor more than five hundred dollars, and
be dismissed from office. The chief mine inspector and the district mine inspector
shall, each, before entering upon the discharge of his duties, take the oath of office pre
scribed by the constitution and shall furnish bond in the sum of two thousand dollars,
with security to be approved by the governor, conditioned upon the faithful discharge
of his duty, a certificate of which oath and bond shall be filed in the office of the secre
tary of state. Vacancies in the office of chief mine inspector or district mine inspectors
shall be filled by appointment for the unexpired term.
S e c . 3. Each district mine inspector shall, for each year ending with the thirtieth
day of June, make a written report to the chief mine inspector of his proceedings,
stating therein the number of mines in his district, the improvements made in and at
the mines, the extent to which this act is obeyed or violated, and such other informa
tion in relation to mines and mining as he may deem of pu blic interest, or as may be
required of him by the chief mine inspector. He shall also suggest or recommend
such legislation on the subject of mining as he may think necessary. Such report
shall be filed with the chief mine inspector on or before the thirtieth day of September
next succeeding the year for which it is made. The chief mine inspector shall annu
ally make a full and complete written report of his proceedings as such chief mine
inspector to the governor of the State for the year ending the thirtieth of June. Such
report shall include the reports of the district mine inspectors, the number of visits
and inspections made in the State b y the district inspectors, the quantity of coal and
coke produced in the State, the number of men employed, number of mines operated,
ovens in and out of blast, improvements made, prosecutions, etc., and such other
information in relation to the subject of mines, mining, inspection and needed legis
lation as he may deem of public interest and beneficial to the mining interests of the
State. Such report shall be filed with the governor on or before the thirtieth day of
December next succeeding the year for which it was made, and such report shall be
printed upon the requisition of the governor, and in order that the report may be
annually printed and distributed among the operators, miners and citizens of the
State, the sum of fifteen hundred dollars shall annually be allowed out of the State
treasury for this special purpose.
Sec . 4. The chief mine inspector, by and with the approval of the governor, shall
divide the State into seven mining districts, in such a manner as to equalize as far as
practicable the work of each district inspector.
Approved February 25, 1905.
914
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
C h a p t e r 75.— Employment o f children.
(See Bulletin 62, page 280.)
C h a p t e r 76.— Fire escapes on factories.
S e c t io n 1. E very building or structure in this State of three or more stories in
height, used as a factory or workshop, and in which ten or more persons are employed
above the first story, or any hotel three or more stories in height’, or any other building
of more than three stories in height occupied or used as a tenement house, shall be
provided with one or more suitable and substantial metallic fire escapes or ladders,
reaching from the top of the first story to the cornice, and placed on the outside of the
building. A t each story above the first there shall be one or more metallic balconies
substantially attached to the building and to the fire escape. Such fire escapes and
balconies shall be in number, size, capacity, design and location as shall be necessary
to furnish reasonable means of escape to all persons employed in the building in case
of fire.
S e c . 2. It shall be the duty of the owner of every such building to equip the same
as hereinbefore provided, within six months after the passage of this act. And there
after no building as is described in the first section shall be used as a factory or work
shop in which ten or more persons are employed above the first story, or a hotel three
or more stories in height, until the same is so equipped. The word “ owner” as used
in this section shall include the person in whom is vested the legal title to the building.
S e c . 3. It shall be the duty of the mayor, the sergeant or chief of police, and the
fire marshal of every city, town or village, annually to inspect every such building
therein as described in the first section. They shall make inspection of any such
building at any other time that they deem proper, and shall promptly make inspection
of any such building whenever complaint thereof may be made to them in writing by
any person. They shall serve written notice upon the owner, or his agent, of every
such building not so provided with adequate fire escapes to provide the same within
thirty days thereafter. It shall be the duty of the owner of such building to comply
with such notice and to provide such adequate fire escapes within thirty days thereafter.
S e c . 4. A ny such owner violating any of the provisions of this act shall be subject
to a fine of not less than one hundred dollars ($100), nor more than two hundred dollars,
($200), which may be recovered before any justice or court having jurisdiction. Each
week of failure to com ply with the notice mentioned in section three shall be deemed
a separate and distinct offense. And in addition, if any such owner shall fail for the
space of sixty days after the receipt of such notice to provide adequate fire escapes,
the building may be declared a nuisance in the manner prescribed m section twentyeight of chapter forty-seven of the code of West Yiiginia. If any officer shall fail to
perform any duty required of him b y this act, or shall violate any of its provisions, he
shall be fined not less than twenty-five dollars, ($25), nor more than fifty dollars, ($50),
to be recovered before any justice or court having jurisdiction.
Approved February 25, 1905.
WISCONSIN.
ACTS OF 1905.
C h a p t e r 129.— Bribery, etc., o f employees.
1. Whoever corruptly gives, offers or promises to an agent, employee or
servant, any gift or gratuity whatever, with intent to influence his action in relation to
his principal’s, employer’s or master’s business; or an agent, employee or servant who
corruptly requests or accepts a gift or gratuity or a promise to make a gift or to do an
act beneficial to himself, under an agreement or with an understanding that he shall
act in any particular manner in relation to his principal’s, employer’s or master’s
business; or an agent, employee or servant, who, being authorized to procure mate
rials, supplies or other articles either by purchase or contract for his principal, employer
or master, or to employ service or labor for his principal, employer or master,
receives directly or indirectly, for himself or for another, a commission, discount
or bonus from the person who makes such sale or contract, or furnishes such materials,
supplies or other articles, or from a person who renders such service or labor; and any
person who gives or offers such an agent, employee or servant such commission, dis
count or bonus, shall be punished by a fine of not less than ten dollars nor more than five
hundred dollars, or by such fine and by imprisonment for not more than one year.
Sec. 2. No person shall be excused from attending, testifying or producing books,
papers, contracts, agreements and documents before any court or in obedience to the
subpoena of any court having jurisdiction of the misdemeanor on the ground or for the
S e c t io n
LABOR LAWS— WISCONSIN— ACTS OF 1905.
915
reason that the testimony or evidence, documentary or otherwise, required of him may
tend to criminate him or subject him to a penalty or forfeiture. But no person shall
be liable to any suit or prosecution, civil or criminal, for or on account of any transac
tion, matter or thing concerning which he may testify or produce evidence, docu
mentary or otherwise, before said court or in obedience to its subpoena or in any such
case or proceeding: Provided, That no person so testifying or producing any such
books, papers, contracts, agreements or documents shall be exempted from prosecu
tion and punishment for perjury committed in so testifying.
Approved April 29, 1905.
C h a p t e r 147.— Inspection o f factories—Blowers on emery wheels.
S e c t io n 1. Section 1 of chapter 189 of the Laws of 1899 is hereby amended
* * *
so that said section, when amended, shall read as follows: Section 1. All persons, com
panies or corporations operating any factory or workshop where emery wheels or emery
belts of any description are used for polishing, either solid emery, leather, leather cov
ered, felt, canvas, linen, paper, cotton or wheels or belts rolled or coated with emery
or corundum, or cotton wheels used as buff, shall, when deemed necessary, b y the
factory inspector, assistant factory inspector or any officer of the bureau of labor, pro
vide such polishing wheels or belts with blowers or similar apparatus, which shall be
placed over' beside or under such wheels or belts in such manner as to protect the
person or persons using the same from the particles of the dust produced and caused
thereby, and to carry away the dust arising from or thrown off b y such wheels or belts
while in operation, directly to the outside of the building or to some receptacle placed
so as to receive and confine such dust: Provided, That grinding machines upon which
water is used at the point of the grinding contact shall be exempt from the provisions
of this act : And provided further, That this act shall not embrace nor apply to such
wheels or belts as can not be so equipped without impairing the convenient or necessary
use thereof.
Approved May 3, 1905.
C h a p t e r 148.— Assignments o f wages.
S e c t io n 1. There is hereby created and added to the Statutes of 1898 a new section
to read as follows: Section 2313a. No assignment of the salary or wages of any married
man, then or at the accruing thereof exempt b y law from garnishment, shall be valid
for any purpose unless such assignment shall be in writing signed b y the wife, if she
at the time be a member of his family, and unless her signature be witnessed b y two
disinterested witnesses: nor shall any such assignment be valid as to any such salary
or wages to accrue more than two months after the date of the making of such assign
ment.
Approved May 3, 1905.
C h a p t e r 226.— Earnings o f minors.
(See Bulletin 62, page 281.)
C h a p t e r 246.— Employment o f children—School attendance.
(See Bulletin 62, page 284.)
C h a p t e r 250.—Protection o f employees on buildings.
S e c t io n 1. Section 2 of chapter 257 of the Laws of 1901, is hereby amended so as to
read, when so amended, as follows: Section 2. Whenever complaint is made to the com
missioner of labor, State factory inspector, any assistant factory inspector, or the chief
officer charged with the enforcement of the building laws in the city where the work is
being performed, that the scaffolding, slings, hangers, blocks, pulleys, stays, braces,
ladders, irons or ropes of any swinging or stationary scaffolding used in the construc
tion, alteration, repairing, cleaning or painting of buildings, are unsafe or liable to
prove dangerous to the life or lim b of a person, such commissioner of labor, State fac
tory inspector, any assistant factory inspector or the officer charged with the enforce
ment of the building laws in such city, shall immediately cause an inspection to be
made of such scaffolding, slings, hangers, blocks, pulleys, stays, braces, ladders, irons
or other parts connected therewith. If, after examination such scaffolding, or any
part thereof, is found to be dangerous to life or limb, the above person so authorized
to inspect shall prohibit the use thereof, and require the same to be altered and recon
structed so as to avoid such danger. The commissioner of labor, State factory inspector,
any assistant factory inspector, or the chief officer charged with the enforcement of
916
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
the building laws in such city, making the examination, shall attach a certificate to
the scaffolding, slings, hangers, irons, ropes, or other parts thereof or connected there
with, so examined b y him, stating that he has made such examination and found it
safe or unsafe as the case may be. If he declares it unsafe, he shall at once, in writing,
notify the person responsible for its erection of the fact, and warn him against the use
thereof. Such notice shall be served personally or b y mail upon the person responsi
ble for its erection, and b y conspicuously affixing it to such scaffolding, slings, hangers,
blocks, pulleys, stays, braces, ladders, irons or ropes, or any part thereof so declared
to be unsafe. After such notice shall have been so served and affixed, the person
responsible therefor shall immediately remove such scaffolding or other part so declared
to be unsafe, and alter or strengthen it in such manner as to render it safe in the
discretion of the officer who examined it or of his superiors. The commissioner of
labor, State factory inspector, any assistant factory inspector and the chief officer
charged with the enforcement of the building laws of such city, shall have free access
at all reasonable hours, to any building or premises containing any scaffolding or
part thereof. A ll swinging and stationary scaffolding shall be so constructed as to
bear four times the maximum weight required to be dependent therefrom or placed
thereon, when in use, and not more than four men shall be allowed on any swinging
scaffolding at any one time.
Sec. 2. Section 3, chapter 257 of the Laws of 1901, is hereby amended, so as to read
when so amended, *as follows: Section 3. All contractors and owners, when construct
ing buildings in cities, where the plans and specifications require the floors to be
arched between the beams thereof, or where the floors or filling in between the floors
are of fireproof material or brick work, shall complete the flooring; or filling in as the
building progresses to not less than within three tiers of beams below that on which
the iron work is being erected. If the plans and specifications of such buildings do
not require filling in between the beams of floors with brick or fire-proof material, all
contractors for carpenter work, in the course of construction, shall lay the under flooring
thereof on each story as the building progresses, to not less than within two stories
below the one to which such building has been erected. Where double floors are not
to be used, such contractor shall keep planked over the floor two stories below the story
where the work is being performed. If the floor beams are of iron or steel, the con
tractors for the iron and steel work of such buildings, in the course of construction, or
the owners of siich buildings, shall thoroughly plank over the entire tier of iron or steel
beams on which the structural iron or steel work is being erected, except such spaces
as may be reasonably required for the proper construction of such iron or steel work,
and for the raising and lowering of materials to be used in the construction of such
building, or such spaces as may be designated b y the plans and specifications for stair
ways and elevator shafts. If elevating machines or hoisting apparatus are used
within a building in the course of construction, for the purpose of lifting materials to
be used in such construction, the contractors or owners shall cause the shafts or open
ings in each floor to be enclosed or fenced in on all sides b y a barrier of at least eight
feet in height. If a building in course of construction is five stories or more in height,
no lumber or timber needed for such construction shall be hoisted or lifted on the outside
of such building.
Sec. 3. A new section is hereby enacted to be known as section 3a of chapter 257
of the Laws of 1901, which shall read as follows: Section 3a. The commissioner of labor,
State factory inspector, assistant factory inspector and the chief officer charged with
the enforcement of the building laws in such city are hereby charged with the
enforcement of the provisions of this act.
Sec. 4. Section 4 of chapter 257 of the Laws of 1901 is hereby amended so as to read,
when so amended, as follows: Section 4. A ny owner, contractor* subcontractor, fore
man or other person having charge of any work subject to the provisions of this act,
if found guilty of violation of any of the provisions thereof, shall be subject to a fine of
not less man twenty-five dollars nor more than one hundred dollars, or imprisonment
of not less than three months nor more than one year b y any court having competent
jurisdiction.
Approved May 25, 1905.
Chapter 296.— Guards on corn buskers and shredders.
Section 1. No person, firm, or corporation shall offer or expose for sale any machine
to be ope:*ated b y steam or other power, for the purpose of husking or shredding com
or com stalks unless the said machine shall be provided with reasonable safety devices
for the protection from accidents from the snapping rollers, and shall be so guarded
that the person feeding said machine shall be compelled to stand at a reasonably safe
distance from the snapping rollers.
LABOR LAWS— WISCONSIN— ACTS OF 1905.
917
Sec. 2. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation owning such machine
to use, operate or permit to be used or operated any such machine while the safety
devices or guards are detached.
Sec. 3. No such machine shall be sold or offered or exposed for sale unless the said
machine shall have plainly marked upon it the name and location of the person, firm
or corporation manufacturing the same.
Sec. 4. Any such person, firm or corporation who shall violate any of the provisions
of this act shall be punished by a fine of not less than twenty dollars nor more than
one hundred dollars for each offense.
Sec. 5. It shall be the duty of the commissioner of labor, the factory inspector, or
any assistant factory inspector to enforce the provisions of this act: Provided, That
nothing herein contained shall be construed to authorize such commissioner, inspector
or assistant inspector to select or compel the adoption of any particular or special
safety device, and that the question of the reasonable safety of any such device used
b y any manufacturer shall be subject to judicial determination.
Approved June 3, 1905.
C h a p t e r 303.— Inspection o f factories— Failure to guard machinery— Assum ption o f risk.
Section 1. A new section is hereby added to the Statutes of 1898, to be numbered
and to read as follows:
Section 1636jj. In any action brought by an employee or his legal representative to
recover for personal injuries, if it appear that the injury was caused b y the negligent
omission of nis employer to guard or protect his machinery or appliances, or the prem
ises or place where said employee was employed, in the manner required in the fore
going section, the fact that such employee continued in said employment with knowl
edge of such omission shall not operate as a defense.
Approved June 5, 1905.
C h a p t e r 338.— Inspection o f factories— Assistant inspectors— Certificates.
Section 1. Section 1 of chapter 152 of the Laws of 1899, is hereby amended so as to
read as follows Section 1. The commissioner of labor and industrial statistics shall
have power to appoint ten suitable persons as assistant factory inspectors who shall
perform theii duties under his direction and who may be removed b y him for cause.
Sec. 2. The factory inspector or assistant factory inspector having inspected any
factory or mercantile establishment under his jurisdiction shall, at the time such
inspection is made, issue a certificate or statement as to how the factory laws were
complied with at the time of his inspection.
Approved June 10, 1905.
Ch a p t e r
348.—Safety appliances on railroads— Telltales.
S e c t io n 1. Whenever in the State of Wisconsin there shall be over, above or across
any of the tracks of any railroad a bridge, crossing, viaduct, or other obstruction of a
height of less than seven feet above the roof of any freight car used or hauled over said
road, or wherever there shall be upon any railroad in the State of Wisconsin any bridge
or other structure that shall have over or above any track of said road a transverse
beam, girder, rod or other obstruction at a height of less than that above mentioned,
it shall be the duty of the officers of such railroad, to erect and keep in repair at or near
such bridge, crossing, viaduct, or other obstruction telltales made and placed as pro
vided for in section 2 of this act.
S e c . 2. The telltales mentioned in section 1 of this act shall consist of a transverse
rod, beam or timber placed across the track or tracks of said railroad at such a height
and at such distance from the bridge or other obstruction as the railroad commissioner
shall direct, and from said rod or beam shall be suspended straps, ropes or cords of such
size and of such length and of such material as the railroad commissioner shall direct;
the said straps, ropes or cords shall be attached to said transverse rod or beam at a
distance not greater than nine (9) inches from each other for a space of eight feet
directly over the track; said telltales shall be placed upon both sides of such bridge,
viaduct or other obstruction.
Sec. 3. Any railroad company, lessee or other person or persons operating any
railroad that shall refuse or neglect to erect the telltales required b y this act for the
space of sixty days after notice from the railroad commissioner requiring erection of
such telltales shail be liable to a penalty of not less than fifty nor more than one hun
dred dollars, to be recovered in an action to be brought b y the attorney-general in the
name of the State of Wisconsin in the county wherein such bridge or obstruction may
be situated, and for every twenty days’ delay thereafter in erecting such telltales,
115b— No. 67—06------16
918
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
such company or person shall be liable to the same penalty to be collected as above
provided.
Sec. 4. Within sixty days from the passage of this act, every railroad or other com
pany operating a line of railroad within the State shall file with the railroad commis
sioner at his office in Madison a verified statement showing the location of each bridge,
crossing, viaduct, or other obstruction across any track or tracks of said road at a
height of less than seven feet abo^ve the roof of any car used on or hauled over said
road, and on or before the 30th day of June in each >ear it shall be the duty of such
railroad or other company operating a line of railroad within this State to file with the
railroad commissioner a like verified report together with a statement showing whether
or not the provisions of this act have been fully complied with.
Sec. 5. An employee of a railroad corporation who is injured b y or because of the
existence of any bridge, viaduct or other obstruction over, above or across any of the
tracks of said railroad at a height less than that provided in this act which has not
been protected by the erection of telltales, as provided in this act, shall not be con
sidered to have assumed the risk of such injury, although he continues in the em ploy
of such corporation after the existence of such unguarded bridge, viaduct, or other
obstruction has been brought to his knowledge.
Approved June 12, 1905.
C h a p t e r 363.—State civil service—Labor class.
S e c t io n 2. After the passage of this act, appointments to, and promotions in the
civil service of this State shall be made only according to merit and fitness, to be
ascertained as far as practicable b y examinations, which so far as practicable, shall
be competitive. After the expiration of six months from the passage of this act, no
person shall be appointed, transferred, removed, reinstated, promoted or reduced as
an officer, clerk, employee or laborer in the civil service under the government of
this State, in any manner or b y any means, other than those prescribed in this act.
Sec. 11. The civil service commission shall require persons applying for admission to
any examination provided for under this act, or under the rules and regulations of
said commission, to file in its office a reasonable time prior to the proposed examination
a formal application, in which the applicant shall state under oath or affirmation:
1. His full name, residence and post-office address.
2. His nationality, age, and the place and date of his birth.
3. His health and his physical capacity for public service.
4. His business and employments and residences for at least the five previous years.
5. Such other information as may reasonably be required touching the applicant’s
merit and fitness for the public service. * * * Applicants for positions in the
recognized mechanical trades must have had practical experience for such periods as
the commission may prescribe. * * *
Sec. 12. The offices, positions and employments in the classified service of the State
shall be arranged b y the civil service commission in five classes to be designated as
the exempt class, the competitive class, the noncompetitive class, the labor class and
legislative employees.
Sec. 21. The labor class shall include ordinary unskilled laborers. Vacancies in
the labor class shall be filled b y appointment from lists of applicants registered in
their respective localities b y the civil service commission according to rules and
regulations determined b y said commission except in cases of temporary employment.
There may be separate lists of applicants for different kinds of labor or employments
and the commission may establish separate labor lists for various localities, institutions
and departments. Where the labor service of any institution or department extends
to separate localities the commission may provide separate registration lists for each
district or locality. The commission shall require an applicant for registration for
the labor service before he can be registered to furnish such evidence or to pass such
examination as they may deem proper with respect to his age, residence, physical con
dition, ability to labor, sobriety, industry, capacity and experience in the employ
ment for which he applies.
Sec. 22. No subordinate or employee in the competitive class, noncompetitive class,
or the labor class of the civil service of the State, who shall have been appointed under
the provisions of this act or the rules made pursuant thereto, shall be removed, sus
pended for more than fifteen days, discharged, or reduced in pay or position, except
for just cause, which shall not be religious or political. In all cases of removal the
appointing officer shall, at the time of such action, furnish to the subordinate his rea
sons for the same and allow him a reasonable time in which to make an explanation.
The reasons for removal and the answer thereto shall be filed in writing with the
commission.
Approved June 14, 1905.
CUMULATIVE INDEX OE LABOR LAWS AND DECISIONS
RELATING THERETO.
[This index covers the Tenth Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, which is a compilation of
the labor laws, both Federal and State, in force at the close of the year 1903; it also covers the labor laws
enacted in 1904 and 1905 published in Bulletin Nos. 57 to 67 of this office.
Many of the laws contained
in the Tenth Special Report are briefly annotated. Decisions reproduced in the Bulletin since the publi
cation of the Tenth Special Report are indexed under the appropriate headings, and are indicated by
the letter “ D ” in parenthesis following the name of the State.]
Tenth
special.
Page.
No.
Page.
Page.
A.
Abandonment of em
ployment. (S e e Con
tracts of employ
ment.)
Abandonment of loco
motives, etc.:
196
Connecticut.............
216,217
Delaware.................
290,291
Illinois.....................
Kansas....................
Maine.......................
782
New Jersey.............
971
Pennsylvania..........
(S e e also Strikes
of railroad em
ployees.)
A b a n d o n m e n t of
steamboats:
437
Louisiana................
Absence, leave of. (S ee
Leave of absence.)
A c c i d e n t insurance.
(S ee Insurance, acci
dent.)
Accidents in factories:
346
Indiana....................
515
Massachusetts........
592
Minnesota...............
Missouri..................
647
761 58
New Jersey.............
815
New Y ork ...............
891,892
Ohio.........................
Pennsylvania.......... 974,1044 65
Rhode Island.......... 1084,1085
1132
Tennessee................
(S e e also Inspection
of factories, etc.)
Accidents in mines:
101,104
Alabama..................
122
Arkansas.................
161,194
Colorado..................
261,262
Idaho.......................
311,312
Illinois.....................
Indiana....................
355,356
Iow a........................
374
Kansas....................
397
Maryland................
479
Missouri..................
Montana..................
761
New Jersey.............
819,820
New Y ork...............
North Carolina.......
856,857
879,882 }59
Ohio.................. .
883
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
Accidents in mines—
Concluded.
Pennsylvania.
1015
359
379
1
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
992,1001
1002,1019
1020,1022
1025,1026
1054,1055
1115
11130-1132
1
1151 iJ 1186,1190
1218,1220
1250-1252
/1309-13U t . . .
\
1319 r
1383
South Dakota.........
Tennessee................
Utah........................
Washington............
West Virginia.........
W yoming................
United States.........
(S e e also M i n e
regulations.)
Accidents on railroads:
Alabama..................
106
200
Connecticut.............
Massachusetts........
530,532
Michigan..................
544
Minnesota..................................
631
837
South Carolina.
1102,1103
Verm ont........
1197
United States.
1371
Actions for injuries.
(S ee Injuries.)
Actions for w a g e s .
(S ee Suits for wages.)
Advances made by em
ployers. (S ee Em
ployers’
advances,
etc.)
Age not ground for dis
charge:
190,191
Colorado.
Age of employment of
children. (S e e Chil
dren, employment of,
age limit for.)
Age of employment of
telegraph operators
on railroads. (S ee
Telegraph operators,
etc.)
Agents, e m i g r a n t .
(S e e
Em igrant
agents.)
Aid s o c i e t i e s . (S ee
Benefit societies.)
63
581
65
360
919
920
CU M ULATIVE
IN D E X
OF LABOR LA W S,
Cum ulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Alien contract labor:
Hawaii.....................
Indiana....................
Virginia...................
W yom ing................
252,263
342
1200
1304
(1324-1326
1384
United States......... \
11388-1392
( S ee also C o o l i e
labor.)
Alien laborers, protec
tion of:
204
Connecticut.............
W yoming................
1304
Aliens, employers of,
to deduct taxes from
wages:
1068
Pennsylvania..........
Aliens, employment of,
on public works:
129,151
California................
257,258
Hawaii.....................
258,270
Idaho....................... L
273
Massachusetts.........
515
Nevada....................
729
New Jersey.............
780,781
805,806
New Y ork ...............
Pennsylvania..........
1060
W yoming................
1301
United States......... 1330,1385
( S ee also
Public
works, preference
of resident labor
ers on.)
Antitrust act:
T6X ES
1170-1172
United States......... 1371-1373
Antitrust act, labor or
ganizations not in
cluded under:
Louisiana................
435
563
Michigan.................
623
Minnesota...............
704
Montana..................
722
Nebraska................
860
North Carolina.......
Wisconsin...............
1272
Appliances, safety, in
factories. (S e e In
spection of factories,
etc.)
Appliances, safety, on
railroads. (S e e Rail
roads, safety appli
ances on.)
Apprentice laws, digest
13-30
Arbitration of labor
disputes:
144,145
California.............
177-180
Colorado.................
209,210
Connecticut............
259
Idaho.......................
266-270
282-284
Illinois.....................
334-337
Indiana...................
Kansas....................
384-386
432-434
Louisiana................
460,461
Maryland................
511,513
Massachusetts.......
539-541
M ic h ig a n .................
607-610
Minnesota...............
671-673
Missouri..................
Montana.................
745-748
New Jersey.............
802
New Y ork...............
821-823
916-919
Ohio........................
956-962
Pennsylvania.........
Tentn
special.
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
r1
I -
.
Page.
Arbitration of labor
disputes—Concluded.
Texas.......................
Utah........................
Washington..
Wisconsin................
W yom ing................
United States.........
Arkansas, 1905...............
Armed guards, hiring:
Illinois.....................
M assachusetts___
Tennessee................
Wisconsin................
Assignment of wages:
California................
Connecticut.............
Illinois.....................
Indiana....................
Maine.......................
Massachusetts.........
Minnesota...............
New Hampshire___
New Jersey..............
New Y ork................
Pennsylvania..........
Rhode Island..........
Tennessee................
Wisconsin................
( S ee a lso Payment
of wages.)
Assignments of claims
to avoid exemption
laws. ( S e e Exemp
tion of wages assign
ments to avoid.)
Associations, coopera
tive. (S e e Coopera
tive associations.)
Associations of em
ployees. (S e e Bene
fit societies.)
Attachment of wages:
Connecticut...........
Pennsylvania.......
Attorneys’ fees in suits
for wages. •(S e e Suits
for wages.)
57
57
1 J
707,708
708-710
No.
1156-1159
/
1172
\1183-1185 11 1240
1269-1271
1301
1373-1377
65
Page.
350-355
296
529
1141
1280
150
195
339,352
458
523
738
760,761
805
1041
1093,1094
1141
195
1040,1041
B.
1
r -
Bulletin.
Badges, etc., of labor
organizations. (S ee
Labor organizations,
etc.)
Bakeries, hours of labor
of employees in. (S ee
Hours of labor.)
Bakeries, inspection,
etc., of. (S e e Inspec
tion, etc.)
Bankruptcy:
United States......... 1379,1380
Barbers, examination,
etc., of. (S e e Exam
ination, etc.)
Barrooms, payment of
wages in:
California................
139
Benefit societies:
534
Massachusetts........
Michigan..................
560
877
Ohio.........................
Philippine Islands.. 1070-1072
1112
South Carolina____
Benefit societies, forced
contribu t i o n s for.
(S e e Forced contri
butions.)
62
61
331
1075
61
63
1087
584
57
712
67
915
CUM ULATIVE
IN D E X
921
OF LABOR LA W S,
Cum ulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Blacklisting:
I ll
Alabama..................
Arkansas.................
155
Colorado..................
196
Connecticut.............
233,234
Florida.....................
279
Illinois.....................
341,342
Indiana....................
383
Iow a........................
388
Kansas....................
612,613
Minnesota...............
626
Missouri..................
636,637
695,706
Montana..................
728,729
Nevada....................
862,872
North Dakota.........
873
Oklahoma...............
933
Oregon.....................
948,949
Texas....................... 1168,1170
Utah........................ 1173,1175
1204
Virginia...................
Washington............
1230
Wisconsin...............
1279
1377
United States.........
( S ee also Interfer
ence with em
p l o y m e n t , and
cross references.)
Board of arbitration,
etc. (S e e Arbitration
of labor disputes.)
Boardinghouses. (S e e
Lodging houses.)
Boatmen. (S e e S e a men.)
Boilers, creating an un
safe amount of steam
in. (S e e Negligence
of operators, etc.)
Boilers, steam, inspec
tion of. (S e e Inspec
tion, etc.)
Bonds,
contractors’ .
(S ee Protection of
wages.)
Bonds of employees:
Massachusetts........
515
New Mexico............
783,784
Boycotting:
Alabama.................
111
Colorado..................
157
Illinois.....................
279
Indiana...................
328,329
Texas.......................
1171
(S e e also Interfer
ence with employ
ment, and cross
references.)
Bra kronen,
sufficient
number of.
(S ee
Railroad trains, suf
ficient crew required
on.)
Brakes on railroad
trains.
(S ee Rail
roads, safety appli
ances on.)
Bribery, etc., of em
ployees:
Connecticut............
Massachusetts........
Michigan.................
New Y ork...............
Rhode Island..........
South Carolina.......
Washington............
Wisconsin................
Bulletin.
No.
65
62
Page.
351
330,331
}•
"(
}■
588,589
330,331
62
57
62
64
64
65
67
67
Tenth
special.
332
710
581
905,906
908,909
360
912
914,915
Bulletin.
No.
Bribery of representa
tives of labor organ
izations:
New Y ork ...............
Brickyards, hours of
labor of employees in:
804,827
New Y ork ...............
828
Bridges over railroads,
height of. (S ee Railr o a d s , h e i g h t of
bridges, etc., over.)
Building associations
of organized labor:
748,749
New Jersey..............
791
New Y ork ...............
Buildings, protection of
employees on. (S ee
Protection of em
ployees, etc.)
Bureau of Corpora
tions:
United States......... 1386,1387
Bureau of Labor:
140,141
California................
155,156
Colorado..................
171
204
Connecticut.............
258,262
Idaho.......................
263
Illinois.....................
286
Indiana....................
358-360
370-373
Iow a.........................
Kansas.....................
407-410
416-419
Kentucky................
428,429
Louisiana................
447
Maine.......................
452
Maryland................
474,475
Massachusetts........
527,528
Michigan.................
542-544
Minnesota...............
581-583
Missouri..................
663-665
680,686
Montana.................. J
\
687
Nebraska.................
718,719
New Hampshire___
740,741
New Jersey.............. f 753,778
\ 780,781
801,802
New Y ork ............... \I 808,809
North Carolina.......
859,860
862-864
North Dakota........
Ohio.........................
885-887
Oregon.....................
951-953
Pennsylvania.'........ 1033,1034
1086
Rhode Island..........
Tennessee................ 1131,1132
Utah........................ 1182,1183
Virginia................... J1199,1207
\
1208
Washington............ 1234-1236
West Virginia......... 1254,1255
Wisconsin............... /1265,1266
\
1296
United States......... J1321,1322
\1383,1385
Bureau of Manufac
tures:
United States.........
1386
Bureau of mines:
Colorado.................
174-177
Missouri..................
658
Pennsylvania......... 1049-1052
West Virginia........
(S ee also Mine em
ployees, associa
tions of.)
57
Page.
718
}■
62
1....
J !
328
I ...
60
712
I ...
1
H
►58 1 1018,1019
i
/
1
} 57
719
67
912,913
922
CUMULATIVE INDEX OF LABOR LAWS
C u m u la tiv e in d ex o f la bor la w s a n d d ecisio n s — Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page-
No.j
Page.
Bureau of public print
ing:
’hilippine Islands.. 1069,1070
C.
62
California, 1905..............
Candidates for office,
protection of employW yom ing................
Cause of discharge.
( S ee Discharge, state
ment of cause of.)
Certificates, employers’.
( S ee Employers’ cer
tificates.)
Charges, false, against
railroad employees.
{S e e Railroad em
ployees, etc.)
Check weighmen. {S ee
W e i g h i n g coal at
mines.)
Checks, payment of
wages in. {S e e Pay
ment of wages in
scrip.)
Children and women,
d e d u c t i o n s from
wages of:
Massachusetts........
Children and women,
employment of, gen
eral provisions:
Colorado..................
Louisiana................
Maine.......................
Massachusetts........ /
i
Missouri.................. 1f
Nebraska.................
New Hampshire___
New Jersey.............
328-330
1304
524
191
438,439
453-455
517-521
524
647,648
666,667
724,725
737
761-765
[ 814-816
New Y ork................ \ 823-825
l
828
Pennsylvania.......... 1043,1044
Rhode Island.......... /1083-1085
11092,1093
Children and women,
employment of, in
mines:
Alabama.................
104
Arkansas.................
122
Colorado..................
155,161
Illinois.....................
310
Indiana....................
357
Maryland................
485
Missouri..................
657
Pennsylvania..........
979,994
Utah........................ 1172,1174
Washington............
1218
West Virginia.........
1251
W yom ing................ 1300,1303
{S ee also Children,
etc.; Women,etc.)
Childfen and women,
hours of labor of:
191
Colorado..................
207
Connecticut.............
439
Louisiana................
453,454
Maine.......................
475
Maryland.................
516,517
Massachusetts........
737
New Hampshire—
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
t
\. . .
f
l „
1
i
r
61
63
1077
576
61
1093
57
711
Page.
Children and women,
hours of labor of—
Concluded.
New Jersey.............
New Y ork................
North Dakota........
Oklahoma................
Pennsylvania..........
Rhode Island..........
South Dakota.........
Viiginia...................
Wisconsin................
Children and women,
wages of:
Massachusetts........
( S ee also Earnings
of married wo
men; Earnings of
minors; Women’s
Children, corporal pun
ishment or, by em
ployers:
Georgia....................
Children, earnings of.
{S ee Earnings of mi
nors.)
Children, employment
of, age limit for:
Alabama..................
Arkansas.................
California................
Colorado..................
Connecticut.............
Delaware.................
Idaho.......................
Illinois.....................
Illinois (D ).............
Indiana....................
Iow a........................
Kansas....................
Kentucky................
Louisiana................
Maine.......................
Maryland................
Massachusetts........
Michigan.................
Michigan (D )..........
Minnesota...............
Missouri..................
Nebraska.................
New Hampshire—
New Jersey.............
New Y ork...............
North Carolina.......
North Carolina (D ).
North Dakota.........
Ohio.........................
Oregon.....................
Pennsylvania..........
Rhode Island..........
South Carolina.......
South Dakota.........
Tennessee................
Texas.......................
Vermont..................
Virginia...................
Washington............
Washington ( D ) . . .
West Virginia.........
United States.........
{S ee also Children
and women, em
ployment of, in
mines.)
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
764
823
874
931
1043
1092
1126
1203
1268
524
244
110
127,128
151
191
198,208
258
315
325,345
376,381
397
417,428
438
454
476
517,536
546,572
62
200
62
207,208
59
335-337
62
217,218
62
62
64
226
231
881,882
61
62
1054,1055
280
610,611
237
637,638 62
724
735
753 62
243
796,811
823,825 /
857,861
863,864
67
862,864
f 883,903 I . . .
\
924 r
947 62
258-260
263
f 979,991 }62 f
i 266-268
\
1043
269-271
1083,1084 62
1112-1114
1115,1116
1133
1198
1210,1211
1241,1242
1252
1382,1383
923
CUMULATIVE INDEX OP LABOR LAWS,
C u m u la tiv e in d ex o f la b or la w s a n d d ecisio n s — Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Page.
No.
Children, employment
.......
^Sabama!
Arkansas.................
California................
Colorado..................
Connecticut.............
Delaware.................
Florida....................
Illinois.....................
Indiana...................
Louisiana................
Maine.......................
Maryland................
Massachusetts........
110,111
127,128
151
156,157
183,184
197,198
232
315-319
344-346
438,439
453-455
472-474
498
517-521
572,573
579,580
610-612
628
Michigan.................
Minnesota...............
Mississippi..............
Missouri..................
Montana..................
New Hampshire___
New Jersey.............
North Carolina.
North Dakota.
Ohio
Oregon.....................
Pennsylvania..........
Pennsylvania ( D ) ..
Porto R ico ..............
Rhode Isla n d .........
South Carolina.......
South Dakota.........
Texas.......................
Vermont..................
Washington............
West Virginia.........
Wisconsin...............
( S ee also Children
and women.)
Children, employment
of, in barrooms:
Connecticut............
District of Alaska..
Georgia....................
Hawaii....................
Maryland................
Massachusetts........
New Hampshire___
South Dakota.........
Verm ont.................
Children, employment
of, in certain occupa
tions, forbidden:
California................
Colorado.................
Connecticut............
Delaware.................
District of Columbia
Georgia...................
Hlinios.....................
Indiana...................
Iow a ........................
Kansas....................
Kentucky................
Louisiana................
Maine.......................
Maryland................
1076
1083-1085
1112-1114
1116
1169
1195
1231,1232
206
207,208
224-226
62
•236,237
243,244
/
\
245-248
250,251
255,257
258
258-260
266-268
887-889
62
269-271
276,277
279
280
284
1268,1269
,1285-1287
199
224
248
257
468,471
501,502
200-202
62
687,688
734,735
753,754
762,767
796
811-813
823-826
828
853,861
864
883,894
903,904
907,908
924,925
947,948
978,979
1043
New York.
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
62
205
209
210
223
241
274
276
1117
1199
199,200
137
167
196
218
225
249
280,318
325
381
387
419
62
222
Bulletin.
Page.
Children, employment
of, in certain occupa
tions,
forbidden—
Concluded.
Massachusetts........
Michigan.................
Minnesota...............
Missouri..................
Montana..................
New Hampshire.. . .
New Jersey.............
New Y ork...............
Ohio.........................
Pennsylvania..........
Porto R ico..............
Rhode Island..........
Virginia...................
West Virginia.........
Wisconsin...............
W yom ing................
Children, employment
of, in mines:
Illinois.....................
Indiana...................
Missouri..................
Montana..................
Oregon.....................
Pennsylvania..........
West Virginia.........
Children, employment
of, in street trades:
New Y o rk .. .........
Children, hiring out, to
support parents in
idleness:
Alabama..................
Georgia....................
Louisiana................
Mississippi..............
North Carolina.___
Children, hours of labor
of:
Alabama.................
Arkansas.................
California................
Delaware.................
Georgia...................
Illinois.....................
Indiana...................
Maryland................
Massachusetts........
Michigan___ %..........
Minnesota...............
New Hampshire.. . .
New Jersey.............
New Y ork...............
North Carolina.___
Ohio.........................
Oregon....................
Pennsylvania..........
Porto R ico ..............
Vermont..................
Wisconsin...............
(S e e also Children
and women.)
Children, night work
by:
Alabama.................
Arkansas.................
California................
Georgia....................
Illinois.....................
Massachusetts........
Michigan.................
Minnesota...............
Missouri..................
New Jersey.............
520,521
552,553
602
637
704
739
779
/ 792,793
\
825
924
978,979
1080
1090,1091
1205,1206
1260,1261
J1280,1288
\
1298
1302,1303
>.
Page.
}
}
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
211
216
236
237-239
258
263-266
280
251
209
220
235
253
908
110,111
128
151
243
315,318
344
466
546,572
589,602
62
62
200
207
62
216
62
225,226
62
62
241
244
62
266,267
812,823
861
924,925
947
1076
1198
1281,1286
110
128
315,318
517
572
610
665
764,772
200
62
62
226
231
64
905
924
CUMULATIVE INDEX OF LABOR LAWS,
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Children, night work
by—Concluded.
New Y ork..............
812,823
Ohio.........................i 924,925
Oregon.....................
947
1041
Pennsylvania..........;
Rhode Island..........'
South Carolina.......i 1112,1113
Texas.......................i
1169
Vermont..................j
Virginia...................I 1210,1211
Washington . . . .
1241
Wisconsin.. .
'
1286
Chinese, employment |
of:
;
California. , ............ 1
129
Montana..................1
713
Nevada.....................
729
United States.........j
1385
Chinese, exclusion, reg- 1
istration, etc., of:
District of Alaska..
225
Hawaii.....................
252,253
1/1069,1072
Philippine Islands..
\
1073
11323,1324
United States......... <1326-1330
11384,1387
Chinese labor, products
of, not to be bought
by State officials:
California_____ . . . .
131
Cigar factories, regula
tion of:
Wisconsin.........: __
1281
Citizens to be em
ployed. (S e e Aliens,
employment o f; Pub
lic works, preference
of resident laborers
on.)
Civil service:
Louisiana................
448
Massachusetts........
497,498
Minnesota...............
607
New Y ork...............
795
Ohio..........................
888,889
Wisconsin...............
C o a l m i n e d within
State, use of, in pub
lic buildings.
(S ee
Public supplies.)
Coal mines, ventilation
of. (S e e Mine regula
tions.)
Coal, weighing. (S ee
Weighing coal.)
Coercion of employees
in trading, etc.:
Arkansas.................
127
Colorado..................
186
F lo rid a ...................
237
340,341
Indiana...................
Iow a........................
378
Kentucky................
427
Maryland................
476
Massachusetts........
514,515
Michigan......... .......
560,561
712,713
Montana..................
734
Nevada....................
New Jersey.............
760
786
New Mexico............
925
Ohio.........................
Tennessee................ | 1129-1131
Texas.......................
1170
U tah........................ i
1181
1222
W ashington. •......... !
W est Virginia......... 1255,1256
(S e e also Company
stores.)
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
62
62
62
259
267
269
62
276,277
}...
I67
67
719,720
918
Tenth
special.
Page.
Coercion. (S e e Intimi
dation; Protection of
employees, etc.)
Collection of statistics.
(S ee Bureau of labor;
Statistics, collection
of.)
Colorado, 1905
Color blindness of rail
road employees. (S ee
Examination, etc., of
railroad employees.)
Combination, light of.
(S ee Conspiracy, la
bor agreements not;
Protection of em
ployees as members
of labor organiza
tions.)
Combinations to fix
wages:
Louisiana................
Commerce'and Labor,
Department of:
United States......... 1385-1387
Commission, l a b o r .
(S ee Labor commis
sion.)
Commissioner of labor.
(S ee Bureau of labor.)
Company doctors:
1131
Tennessee................
Company stores:
Arkansas.................
127
186
Colorado..................
Connecticut.............
208
339,340
Indiana....................
464,496
Maryland................
760
New Jersey..............
Pennsylvania.......... 981,1030
Virginia................... 1202.1203
(S ee also Coercion
of employees in
trading; ' P a y
ment of wages in
scrip.)
Complaints by railroad
employees:
Massachusetts........
530
Conciliation. (S ee Ar
bitration.)
Connecticut, 1905..........
Conspiracy a g a i n s t
workingmen:
111
Alabama..................
232,233
Florida.....................
246,247
Georgia....................
388
Kansas.....................
Minnesota................j 600,601
626
Mississippi..............
628
New Y ork................
796,797
872
North Dakota.........i
(S ee also Interfer- ;
ence with employ-i
mcnt, and cross
references.)
1
Conspiracy, l a b o r
agreements not:
154
California................
157
Colorado..................
464
Maryland................
Minnesota................ ' 601,603
760
New Jersey...............!
797
New Y ork ...............
872
North Dakota..
jf
970,971
Pennsylvania......... H1034-1037
Porto R ico ............
1079
Contract labor, alien.
(S ee Alien contract
labor).
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
330,331
57
704
331-3: 3
|
!i"
!/-
CUM ULATIVE
IN D E X
925
OF LABOR LA W S,
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
!No.
Contract, violation of,
endangeiing life:
New Y ork ...............
830 I
Contract work on pub
lic buildings:
130
California................
Contractors’ b o n d s .
(S ee
Protection of
wage's.)
Contractors’ d e b t s .
(S ee Liability of rail
road companies, etc.;
Protection of wages.)
Contracts limiting lia
bility of employers.
(S ee Liability o f em
ployers for injuries,
etc.*)
Contracts of employees
waiving r i g h t t o
damages:
154
Colorado.................
243
Georgia....................
342-344
Indiana....................
Massachusetts........
515
Montana................. f1 680,608
707
W yom ing................ 1301,1304
United States.........
1377
(S ee also Liability
of employers for
injuries, etc.)
Contracts of employ
ment involving re
moval from home
locality:
Michigan.................
579,580
Contracts of employ
ment, regulation, etc.,
of:
Arkansas.................
119,120
246
Georgia...................
252,253
Hawaii....................
266
Idaho.......................
440,444
Louisiana................
Louisiana (D).
67
Michigan.
New Yor]
Porto Rico
South Carolina
Contracts of employ
ment with intent to
defraud:
Alabama.................
106,107
Georgia....................
252
Michigan.................
580
Minnesota...............
623
North Carolina.......
853
South Carolina.......
1109
Contracts of employ
ment. (S e e also Em
ployment of labor,
and cross references.)
Contributions, forced.
(S ee Forced contribu
tions.)
Convict labor, digest of
laws relating to. .*___
30-50
Coolie labor:
California................
129
Nevada....................
728
United States......... 1323,1324
Cooperative
associa
tions:
California................
146-149
201,202
Connecticut.............
Illinois.....................
275-279
Kansas..................
386
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
Page.
Page.
Cooperative associa
tions—Concluded.
Maryland................
461
Massachusetts........
529
Michigan.................
557-559
597
Minnesota...............
Montana..................
Nevada....................
729-731
New Jersey..............
749-751
Ohio.........................
902,903
Pennsylvania..........
962-969
Wisconsin...............
1273
W yom ing................
1301
Cooperative insurance.
(S ee Insurance, coop
erative.)
Copyrights:
United States......... 1378,1379
Corooral punishment
o f minor employees:
Georgia....................
244
Corporations, Bureau
861
United States......... 1386,1387
C oloration s, liability
o f stockholders in.
(S ee
Liability
of
stockholders, etc.)
Corporations, pensions
for employees of:
Pennsylvania..........
970
Corporations, p r o f i t
sharing by.
(S ee
Profit sharing.)
Corporations, restric
tion of powers of:
Pennsylvania.......... 981,1030
Corporations, special
stock for employees
of:
Massachusetts........
529,530
Costs in suits for wa
ges. (S ee Suits for
wages.)
Couplers, safety. (S ee
Railroads, safety ap
pliances on.)
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
i
!
1 ).
60
714
Damages for injuries.
(S ee
Injuries. Lia
bility of employers.)
Damages, waiver of
right to. (S ee Con
tracts of employees
waiving right to
damages.)
Day
of
rest. (S ee
Weekly day of rest.)
Death. (S ee Injuries
causing death- Neg
ligence, etc.)
Deceased
employees,
payment of wages
due. (S e e Payment
of wages due deceased
employees.)
Deception in employ
ment of labor. (S ee
Employment of lalabor, deception in.)
Delaware, 19‘05...............
: 62
333
Department of Com
merce and Labor:
|
United States......... 1385-1387
I............
Department of Labor.
(S ee Bureau of la
bor.)
926
CU M ULATIVE
IN D E X
OF LABOR L A W S
C u m u la tiv e in d ex o f la b or la w s a n d d ecisio n s — Continued.
1
Tenth
special.
Page.
Bulletin.
No.
Discharge, etc., of em
ployees of public-serv
ice corporations:
Massachusetts.........
537
Discharge, notice of in
tention to. {S e e Em
ployment, termina
tion of, notice of.)
Discharge of employees
on account of age:
190,191
Colorado..................
Discharge, statement
of cause of:
233,234
Florida.....................
341,342
Indiana....................
Missouri...................
61
Montana..................
695
Ohio..........................
899
Wisconsin................ 1279,1280
( S ee a lso
Black
listing; Employ
ment of labor.)
Discharged employees,
payment of wages
due. ( S e e Payment
of wages due, etc.)
Discounting of wages.
{S e e Payment of wa
ges, modes and times
of.)
I
Divorce, etc., statistics
of, to be procured:
62
California.................
Domestic
products,
preference of, for
public
use. {S ee
Public supplies.)
Drinking water for em
ployees in factories:
536 1
Massachusetts.........
I
Drug clerks, hours of
labor of. {S e e Hours
of labor of drug
clerks.)
E.
Earnings of married
women:
Alabama..................
Arkansas.................
Colorado..................
Connecticut.............
Delaware.................
District qf Alaska..
District of Colum
bia.........................
Florida.....................
Georgia....................
Hawaii.....................
Illinois.....................
Indiana....................
Iow a........................
Kansas.....................
Maine.......................
Maryland................
Massachusetts........
Missouri...................
Montana..................
Nebraska.................
Nevada....................
New Hampshire.. . .
New Jersey.............
New Y ork...............
North Dakota.........
Oklahoma...............
Oregon.....................
Pennsylvania..........
Porto R ico..............
Rhode Island..........
South Carolina.......
99
120
158
204
214 i
224
226
231
239,242
253
287
333
379
393
456
469
535
641
606
720
726
737
756
799
866
931
935
981
1082
1092
1104
Page.
1092
328
Tenth
special.
Page.
Bulletin.
No.|
Page.
Earnings of married
women—Concluded.
South Dakota.
1114,1118
1174
Utah.............. .
V
Vermont.........
1195
1208
Virginia......... .
!
1226
Washington...
1243
West Virginia.
Wisconsin___
1275
W yoming____
1313
Earnings of minors:
California...........
132
Idaho................
271
Iow a..................
379
Minnesota.........
590
Montana......... .
696
New Y ork.........
799
North Dakota..
Ohio...................
907,908
Oklahoma.........
931
1081,1082
Porto R ico.......
1104
South Carolina.
1118
South Dakota..
Utah.................
1177
Washington___
1226
Wisconsin.........
*62
281
Eight-hour day:
116
Arizona...................
Arkansas.................
125
129,131 j-62
California.................
329,330
139,153
Colorado........„........
331
154,172 62
Connecticut.........
207
Delaware.................
223,224
District of Colum
bia.........................
225,226
Hawaii....................
258
258,264
Idaho..................... .
Illinois................... .
281,291
Indiana...................
338
Iow a........................
Kansas....................
486
Maryland............... .
515,516
Massachusetts........
624,625
Minnesota...............
650,652
Missouri.................
1092,1093
653,663
677
708,711
585,586
Montana.............
713 }63
722.725
Nebraska...........
725.726 j-63
586
Nevada...............
731,732
59
334,335
Nevada (D ).......
New Mexico.......
788
800,801 i „
New Y ork..........
803,845
687,688
New Y ork (D )...
57
Ohio....................
Oklahoma..........
Oregon................
945
980,1068 i . „
Pennsylvania.. . .
1069 1
Porto R ico.........
385
1079 59
South D akota...
1116
Tennessee...........
1139
Texas..................
1163
Utah...................
117^ 1174
1231,1239
Washington.......
Washington (D)
685-687
57
West Virginia...
1257
Wisconsin..........
1267-1269
1301,1302
W yom ing...........
1312
1331-1333
United States.
1385
Electric
companies,
protection or em
ployees of:
Massachusetts.......
533
CU M ULATIVE
IN D E X
927
OF LABOR L A W S
C u m u la tiv e in d ex o f la bor la w s a n d d ec isio n s — Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Elevators,
examina
tion, etc., of opera
tors of:
Minnesota...............
Elevators.
{S ee In
spection of factories,
etc.)
Emigrant agents:
Alabama..................
Florida.....................
Georgia....................
Hawaii.....................
North Carolina.......
North Carolina(D).
South Carolina.......
( S e e also Employ
ment offices.)
Employees’
bonds.
( S e e Bonds of em
ployees.)
Employees,
bribery,
etc., of.
(S e e Brib
ery of employees.)
Employees, deceased,
payment of wages
due. ( S e e Payment
of wages, etc.)
Employees, discharge
of. ( S e e Discharge,
statement of cause
of; Employment of
labor.)
Employees, discharged,
payment of wages
due. ( S e e Payment
of wages, etc.)
Employees, enticement
of. (See Enticing em
ployees.)
Employees, examina
tion of. (See Exam
ination, etc.)
Employees,
false
charges against. (See
Railroad employees,
false charges against.)
Employees, forced con
tributions from. (See
Forced
contribu
tions.)
Employees, intimida
tion of. (See Intimi
dation.)
Employees, intoxica
tion of. (See Intoxi
cation, etc.)
Employees not to be
discharged on ac
count of age:
Colorado..................
Employees, protection
of. (See Protection
of employees, etc.)
Employees, railroad.
(See Railroad em
ployees.)
Employees, sale of
liquor to.
(See
Liquor, sale of, to
employees.)
Employees, soliciting
money from.
(See
Employment, fore
men, etc., accepting
fees for furnishing.)
Employees, taxes of.
(See Liability of em
ployers for taxes, etc.)
Employees, time for,
to vote. (See Time
to vote, etc.)
No.
Page.
623,624
111,112
239
248,252
861
’iiii
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
59
62
378
334
57
688
Page.
Employer and em
ployee, obligations of.
(See Employment of
labor.)
Employers’ advances,
repayment of:
Alabama..................
Florida.....................
Louisiana................
Louisiana (D ).........
Michigan..................
Minnesota...............
New Mexico............
South Carolina.......
(See also Contracts
of employment
with intent to de
fraud.)
Employers’ certificates,
forgery of:
Georgia....................
Pennsylvania.........
Wisconsin...............
Employers’ liability.
(See Liability of em
ployers for injuries,
etc.)
Employers to furnish
names of employees
to officials of county,
Arkansas.................
New Mexico............
South Carolina.......
W yoming................
Employment,
aban
donment of.
(See
Contracts of em
ployment.)
Employment agents.
(See Employment of-
190,191
Employment,
con
tracts of. (See Con
tracts of employ
ment; Employment
of labor.)
Employment, foremen,
etc., accepting fees
for furnishing:
Connecticut.............
Pennsylvania.........
Employment,
inter
ference with.
(See
Interference with em
ployment.)
Employment, notice of
termination of. (See
Employment, termi
nation of, etc.)
Employment, obtain
ing under false pre
tenses.
(See Con
tracts of employment
with intent to de
fraud;
Employers’
certificates, forgery
of.)
Employment of aliens.
(See Aliens.)
Employment of chil
dren and women.
(See Children and
women, etc.)
Employment of chil
dren*. (See Children,
employment of.)
Employment of Chi
nese. (See Chinese
employment of.)
109
238,239
440
580
623
1109
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
67
'
861
61
60
1093,1094
714
61
1094
250
1046
1285
128
ii02
208
1055
6i* *i694,*i695
928
CUM ULATIVE
IN D E X
OF LABOR LAW S,
C u m u la tive in d ex o f la b or la w s a n d d ecisio n s — Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Employment of intem
perate drivers, etc.
(S e e Intemperate em
ployees, etc.)
Employment of labor
by public-service cor
porations:
Massachusetts.......
Employment of labor,
deception in:
California................
Illinois.....................
Montana..................
New Jersey..............
Oregon.....................
Tennessee................
Employment of labor,
general provisions:
Arkansas.................
California................
Connecticut.............
Georgia....................
Illinois.....................
Indiana...................
Louisiana................
Massachusetts.
Minnesota...............
Missouri...................
Montana..................
New Y ork...............
North Dakota........
Porto R ico..............
South Carolina.......
South Dakota.........
U tah........................
W yoming................
(S ee also Contracts
of employment;
Discharge, state
ment of cause of;
Employers’ ad
vances; Employ
ment, termina
tion of; Exami
nation, etc.; In
spection of facto
ries; Wages, etc.)
Employment of police
men as laborers:
Maryland................
Employment of women
(S e e
Women, em
ployment of.)
Employment offices:
California................
California (D ).........
Colorado..................
Connecticut...........
District of Colum
bia.......................
Idaho.....................
Illinois...................
Kansas...................
K e n tu ck y ...: .......
Louisiana..............
Maine.....................
Maryland...............
Massachusetts___
Michigan................
Minnesota..............
Missouri.................
Montana................
Nebraska...............
Nevada..................
New Hampshire. .
New Jersey............
Bulletin.
|No.
Page.
154
296,297
711,712
779
950,951
1140,1141
152,153
f
62
57
329
693-696
212 62
333
168-170
204,205
230
270,274
319-321
391,392
426
440
450,451
475
502
63
588,589 63
623
636,665 61
687,696
719
726
744
779 i
Page.
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
Employment offices—
Concluded.
809,810 }57
New Y ork...............
713-715
828
64
New York (D )........
890,891
885,886
f 379,380
Ohio.........................
896 }59 1 382,383
979,980
Pennsylvania..........
!
1083
Rhode Island..........
1139
Tennessee................
1210 60
Virginia...................
716
1261
West Virginia.........
1283,1284
Wisconsin............... 1298-1300
/
(S ee also Emigrant
agents; Lodging
houses, sailors’ .)
Employment, preven
tion of. (S e e Inter
ference with employ
ment, $nd cross refer
ences.)
Employment, sex no
disqualification for.
(S e e Sex no disquali
fication, etc.)
Employment, termina
tion of, notice of:
454
Maine.......................
514
Massachusetts........
765
New Jersey.............
1037
Pennsylvania..........
1093
Rhode Island..........
1287
Wisconsin...............
(S e e a lso Employ
ment of labor,
general
provi
sions.)
Engineers,
examina
tion, etc., of. (S ee
Examination, etc.)
Engineers,
illiterate,
employment of, on
railroads. (S ee Rail
roads, illiterate em
ployees on.)
Engineers, unlicensed,
employment of, on
steamboats:
107
Alabama.................
Enticing
employees,
537
119,120
132-136
207-209
243-245
296,2»7
323,347
443,444
\ 513-515
t
537
612,626
633,634
698-701
802,805
866-870
1082,1083
1104,1105
1119-1123
1172,1173
1300
Tenth
special.
577
584,585
1090
Alabama.................
108,109
Arkansas................
119 65
Florida....................
231
Georgia...................
247
421
Kentucky................
Louisiana................
440
Mississippi..............
North Carolina.......
851
1110
South Carolina.......
Tennessee................ 1128,1129
West Virginia (D )..
65
(S e e also Interfer
ence, etc.)
Examination, etc., of
barbers:
Connecticut............. /1 206,207
213 }62
Delaware.................
221-223
Kansas....................
411-414 61
Kentucky................
429-431
Maryland................
57
Maryland (D ).........
59
Michigan..................
569,570
Minnesota...............
619-621
Missouri..................
641-644
New Y ork ...............
847-850
354
339-342
332,333
1080
705-707
338-340
CUM ULATIVE
IN D E X
929
OF LABOR LAW S,
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Examination* etc., of
barbers—Concluded.
Oregon.....................
Oregon (D1.............
TTtflh _____ _____
Washington............
Wisconsin...............
Examination, etc., of
engineers of vessels.
(S e e
Examination,
etc., of steam engi
neers.)
Examination, etc., of
horseshoers:
874-876
941-944
1097-1101
1192-1195
1236-1238
No
Ohio
...................
Washington (D )__
Examination, etc., of
miners, mine foremen,
etc.:
696-698
58
992-994
1293-1295
181,182
495,496
571,572
618,619
826-828
927-929
1233,1234
58
100
f
294
Illinois
_____ \ 302-304 i
/
357,358
Indiana
______
376,377
Iowa
...............
/ 661,662 l
\ 677-680 / —
694
Montans
_____
( 992,993
11012,1020- [
Pennsylvania. . . . . . 11022,1051l
1054 r
Tennessee................ 1147,1148
Utah
................. 1190,1191
W yom ing__ _____ 1310,1311
Examination, etc., of
operators of eleva
tors:
Minnesota...............
623,624
Examination, etc., of
plumbers:
California................
139
172-174
Colorado..................
District of Colum
229
bia.........................
295,296
Illinois.....................
415,416
Kansas.....................
448
Louisiana................
61
Maine.......................
488,489
Maryland................
Massachusetts........
504,505
576-579
Michigan..................
621-623
Minnesota...............
Minnesota (D )____
62
675-677
Missouri...................
713-715
Nebraska.................
New Hampshire. . .
742,743
793-795
New Y ork................
949,950
Oregon.....................
J1046,1047
Pennsylvania.......... [1UOi"1UDU
J
Porto R ico..............
1080
Texas....................... 1165,1166
Virginia................... 1209,1210
Washington..........
1232,1233 67
Washington (D)
67
Wisconsin...............
1264
Examination, etc., of
railroad employees:
105-107
Alabama..................
Massachusetts........
531
Ohio.........................
897,898
Page.
57
62
Maryland................
Michigan..................
Minnesota...............
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
334
994,995
1085
322,*323
907-909
875-877
Page.
Examination, etc., of
stationary firemen:
Massaeh nsetts
Montana
New Ynrlr
Examination, etc., of
steam engineers:
Alabama
District of Colum
bia___
Florida....................
Illinois...........
Indiana..
Iow a........
Maine.......................
Maryland . .
___
Massachusetts........
Minnesota
Missouri
Montana.
Nevada....................
i
New Hampshire. . .
,
New Jersey
New Y ork
O h io ...
Pennsylvania..........
Philippine Islands..
United States
Examination, etc., of
street-railway
em
ployees:
New Y ork
Washington............
Examination, etc., of
telegraph operators
on railroads:
Georgia....................
Execution, exemption
from. (S e e Exemp
tion, etc.)
Executions in suits for
wages. (S ee Suits for
wages.)
Exemption of mechan
ics, etc., from license
tax.
(S e e License
tax, etc.)
Exemption of wages,
assignments to avoid:
Georgia
Illinois
Indiana ._
Tows,
Minnesota..
Nebraska.
Ohio..................
Pennsylvania..
Virginia.
West Virginia
Wisconsin..........
Wyoming.
Exemption of wages
from execution, etc.:
Alabama..............
Alabama (D )..........
Arizona...................
Arkansas.................
P qHfATMlO
Colorado.................
Connecticut.............
Delaware.................
District of Alaska..
District of Columbia
Florida....................
Georgia ...........
Hawaii...................
Idaho.......................
Illinois.....................
Indiana...................
502-504
682-684
843,844
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
61
1087,1088
105-107
228
238
303
357,358
376,377
456
486-488
502-504 61
586,587
662
f 682-684 1
\ 704,705
63
736,737 63
768,769
832,843
914-916 59
11056,1057 |65
l
1066
1074-1076
1342
834
1236
1087,1088
587,588
590,591
378,379
356,357
!...............
241
249,250
286,287
325,326
380
615,616
723
925
973
1204,1205
1242,1243
1278
1303,1304
99,106
112,113
118
136
158
212
215,216
225
226
230,231
246
257
272
287,322
324
63
552,553
930
CUMULATIVE IN D E X OF LABOR LAWS
C u m u la tiv e in d ex o f la b or la w s a n d d ecision s--— Continued.
i
Tenth
special.
Page.
No.
Exemption of wages
from execution, etc.—
Concluded.
380 60
Iow a........................
405 61
Kansas....................
422,428
Kentucky................
445 57
Louisiana................
457
Maine.......................
461
Maryland................
535,536
Massachusetts........
541,542 l
Michigan.................
561 /
{
598,599
Minnesota...............
630
Mississippi..............
633,640 \ . . .
Missouri..................
641 f
{
702
Montana..................
723
Nebraska.................
726
Nevada....................
New Hampshire___
748
New Jersey.............
783
New Mexico............
801
New Y ork................
871
North Dakota........
920-923
Ohio.........................
931,932
Oklahoma...............
935
Oregon.....................
Pennsylvania.......... 973,1040
59
Porto E ico..............
1094
Rhode Island..........
1107
South Carolina.......
South Dakota......... 1123,1124
1128,1133
1134,1137 65
1156
T e x a s ........................... 1156,1159
{
1160
U tah........................
1179
Vermont..................
1195
Virginia................... 1201,1207
Washington............ 1226,1227
Wisconsin...............
1276
W yom ing................
1315
Exemption of wages,
set-offs not to defeat:
Alabama.................
106
Extortion:
Minnesota...............
603
New Y ork...............
800
(S e e also Intimida
tion.)
F.
Factories, accidents in.
(S e e Accidents, etc.)
Factories, fire escapes
on.
( S e e Fire es
capes, etc.)
Factories, etc., inspec
tion of. (S ee Inspec
tion, etc.)
Factories, pure drink
ing water to be sup
plied in:
Massachusetts........
Factories, smoking in:
Minnesota...............
Factory in s p e c to r s .
(S e e Inspectors, fac
tory.)
Factory regulations.
(S e e Inspection of
factories, etc.)
False charges against
railroad employees.
(S e e Railroad em
ployees, etc.)
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
Page.
712
1083
704
*
385
362
Page.
False credentials, etc.,
of labor organiza
tions.
(S e e Labor
organizations, using
false cards of.)
False labels on manu
factured articles:
California................
False pretenses. (S e e
Contracts of employ
ment with intent to
defraud; Employers’
certificates, forgery
of; Employment of
labor, deception in.)
Fees for furnishing em
ployment. (S e e Em
ployment, foremen,
etc., accepting fees for
furnishing.)
Fellow-servant, negli
gent, to be named in
verdict:
Minnesota...............
Fellow-servants:
Arizona...................
Arkansas.................
California................
Colorado..................
Texas.......................
Utah........................
(S e e also Employ
ment of labor;
Liability of em
ployers for inju
ries to employ
ees.)*
F e m a l e employees,
seats for. ( S e e Seats
for female employees.)
Female
employees.
(S e e
Women, em
ployment of.)
Fines for imperfect
work:
Massachusetts........
Fire escapes on facto
ries, etc.:
Connecticut.............
Delaware.................
District of Columbia
Georgia....................
Idaho.......................
Illinois.....................
Indiana...........
Iow a................ .
Kansas............ .
Louisiana........
Maine..............
Maryland.........
Massachusetts..
Michigan.........
Minnesota....... .
Missouri...........
Nebraska.........
New Jersey___
New Y ork.......
North Dakota.
Ohio................
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
138
615
113
125
132,133
172
1167
1175
523
198,199
217,218
227,228
244
274
297,298
327,328
365,366
382
414,415
441,442
450
507
552,573
590,591
606,607
647,674
675
716,717
752
814
865
889,892
893,895
976-978
1030,1031
1045,1058
1059
1086-1089
60
712,713
j 58 1016-1018
(....
....
’
CUM ULATIVE IN D E X
931
OF LABOR LA W S,
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Bulletin.
!!
|
Tenth
special.
Page.
|
Page.
No.
Fire escapes on facto
ries, etc.—Concluded.
South Dakota.........
1117
Vermont.................. 1197,1198
Virginia................... 1203,1204
West Virginia.........
67
0277,1278
W isconsin............... \1292,1293
1
J Fire, safeguards against
in factories. {S e e In
spection of factories,
etc.)
Firemen, stationary,
examination, etc., of.
(S e e
Examination,
etc.)
Forced contributions
from employees:
Indiana....................
326
Maryland................
464
Michigan.................
563
Nevada....................
732,733
New Jersey.............
759
Ohio.........*1..............
899
United States.........
1377
Forgery of cards, etc.,
of labor organiza
tions. (S e e Labor or
ganizations,
using
false cards, etc., of.)
Forgery of employers’
certificates. (See Em
ployers’ certificates.)
Fraudulent contracts
of employees.
(See
Contracts of employ
ment with intent to
defraud.)
Free public e m p l o y
ment offices. (S ee
Employment offices.)
Freedom to trade. (S ee
Coercion, etc.)
G.
Garnishment, exemp* tion of wages from.
(See Exemption of
wages from execu
tion, etc.)
Garnishment of wages:
Arkansas.................
125,126
Utah........................
65
Virginia................... ! 1206-1208
Gfiorgi ft. 1Q04
59
Goods, etc., of local pro
duction preferred for
public use. (See Pub
lic supplies, etc.)
Government Printing
Office. (See Public
printing.)
i
Guaranty companies:
j
New Mexico............
783,784
Guards, armed. (See
Armed guards.)
Guards on thrashing
machines, etc.:
Illinois
288
Tr»wa
383
W isconsin...............
1278 67
H.
Half holidays for em
ployees on public
works:
Massachusetts........
498
914
364
*378
916,917
Hawaii, 1904 (U. S .) . . . .................
Hawaii, 1905...................
Highways, hours of la
bor on. (See Hours
of labor on public
roads.)
Hiring. (See Employ
ment of labor.)
Holidays for per diem
employees o f Govern
ment:
J1322,1323
United States......... \
1332
Holidays in the differ
ent States and Terri
92-94
tories, list o f...............
Horseshoers, examina
tion, etc., of. (S ee
Examination, etc.)
Hospital fees.
(See
Forced contributions,
etc.)
Hospital for miners.
(See Miners’ hospi
tals.)
Hospital (pesthouse),
erection of, for em
ployees:
New Mexico -_
788
Hospitals for seamen:
United States......... 1377,1378
Hours of labor in gen
eral employments:
A rkansas................
California. . .
131
207
Connecticut.............
231
Florida.....................
243
Georgia....................
281
Illinois.....................
338
Indiana....................
457
M aine.."...................
475
|
Maryland.................
M ic h ig a n _________ .
547,548
589
Minnesota...............
Missouri.
650
Montana..................
700
722
Nebraska.................
738
New Hampshire----New Jersey.............. ij 764,770
771
New Y ork................ /1 803,804
827,828
Ohio.........................
907
Pennsylvania..........
980
Rhode Island..........
1093
South Carolina....... 1107,1108
Wisconsin...............
1269
Hours of labor of chil
dren and women.
(S ee Children, etc.)
Hours of labor of drug
clerks:
California................
New Y ork ...............
833
Hours of labor of em
ployees in bakeries:
New Jersey..............
770,771
New Y ork ...............
818
New York (D )........
1041
Pennsylvania..........
Hours of labor of em
ployees in brickyards:
New Y o rk ............... / 804,827
i
828
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
57
62
702
333-335
}...
1
65
350
i
..............
1
l
/
62
328
64
904,905
f57
\59
698-700
340-355
} -
932
CU M ULATIVE IN D E X
OF LABOR LA W S,
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Hours of labor of em
ployees in Govern
ment Printing Office:
1332
United States.........
Hours of labor of em
ployees in mines,
smelters, etc.:
116,117
Arizona...................
154
Colorado..................
477
Maryland.................
J 652,653
Missouri................... \
677
708,711
Montana..................
731,732
Nevada.....................
Nevada (D )............
1174
U t a h . . . . . . ..............
W yom ing................ 1301,1312
Hours of labor of emplovees on railroads:
117
Arizona....................
Arizona (D )............
Arkansas.................
128,129
Colorado..................
188
233
Florida.....................
241
Georgia....................
363
Indiana....................
Kansas.....................
Michigan..................
548
606,625
Minnesota................ J
\
626
Missouri...................
722
Nebraska.................
New Y ork ................
804,828
Ohio..........................
898
Texas....................;.
1169
Hours of labor of em
ployees on street rail
ways:
131
California................
Louisiana................
442,443
493
Maryland................
Massachusetts........
516
New Jersey..............
755
804,827
New Y ork ...............
1033
Pennsylvania..........
109r
Rhode Island..........
South Carolina.......
1108
1223
Washington............
Hours of labor of letter
carriers:
1333
United States.........
Hours of labor of wo
men. {S ee Women,
etc.)
Hours of labor on pub
lic roads:
Arkansas.................
125
29i
Illinois..................... :
Indiana...................
Iow a........................
663
Missouri..................
711
Montana................ .
722
Nebraska................
725,726
Nevada............... ...
788
New Mexico............
800,801
New Y ork ...............
932
Oklahoma...............
Oregon....................
945
South Carolina___
101
1116
South Dakota........
1139
Tennessee...............
1163
Texas.......................
Wisconsin...............
1267
1302
W yom ing................
Hours of labor on pub
lic works:
129,139
California................
153
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
No.
i Page.
1
Page.
62
331
h
63
1092,1093
585,586
59
334,335
60
694,695
63
61
577
1082,1083
Hours of labor on pub
lic works—Concluded.
Colorado..................
Delaware.................
District of Columbia
Hawaii.....................
Idaho.......................
Indiana....................
Kansas....................
Maryland................
Massachusetts........
Minnesota...............
Montana................ .*
Nebraska.................
Nevada.....................
New Y ork...............
Pennsylvania..........
Porto R ico..............
U tah........................
W fl.ahirigt.mi............
West Virginia.........
W yom ing................
United States.........
172
223,224
225,226
258
258,264
338
390
486,490
515,516
624,625
713
725
732
803,845
1068,1069
1079
1173,1174
1231,1239
1257
1301
1331,1385
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
63
585,586
63
64
586
905
59
385
I.
i
61
63
|62
61 1075-1080
Illinois, 1905...................
Illiterate employees on
railroads. (S e e Rail
roads, illiterate em
1089
ployees on.)
Immigration:
1Tvti4*/\y1 C|4a^ao
1387-1392 57
720
(S e e a lso Alien con
tract labor.)
Importing
workmen
from outside the
State:
n
951
v vckctfwt
LCgUU................
I n c l o s e d platforms.
( S ee Protection of
employees on street
railways.)
Incorporation of labor
organizations,
etc.
{S ee Labor organiza
tions, etc.)
63
569-577
Indiana, 1905.................
. Injuries causing death,
right of action for:
97,99
Alabama..................
Alfl.bfl.mfl. (D )..........
995-998
58
113,114
Arizona...................
143
California................
157,158
Colorado..................
• 213
Connecticut.............
215
Delaware.................
226
District of Columbia
577
245 l
|
Georgia....................
271 j___ 1
!
Idaho.......................
287,288 1
Illinois.....................
Tndifl.rm....................
323,324
417 !. ...
Kentucky................
457 i
Maine.......................
471
Maryland................
526
Massachusetts........
Mi
phicrQ
i ....... ......... f 554-556 i
ilLlCilig
CT
lIL
\
561 r**
Minnesota...............
599
Mississippi..............
627,628
Missouri..................
638,639 61 1090,1091
701,702
Montana..................
716
Nebraska.................
728 63
588
Nevada.....................
New Hampshire... .
738
751,752
New Jersey.............
329,330
787 . . . 1 ...............
New M exico............
CUM ULATIVE
IN D E X
933
OE LABOR LAW S,
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
No.
791,798
799
850
870,871
921,922
935
1077,1078
1093
11101,1106
\
1107
1123
1128,1156
1/1156,1161
\1162,1165
J1173,1178
Utah........................ \
1179
1201
Virginia.................
1226
Washington..........
1243
West Virginia.......
Wisconsin............... 1276,1277
Wisconsin (D ).......
W yom ing................ \fl300,1301
1314
Injuries, personal, ac
t i o n s f o r , t o be
brought within Ter
ritory:
New Mexico............
789-791
I n j u r i e s , personal,
right of action for:
114
Arizona................. .
195
Connecticut...........
220
Delaware...............
239
Florida...................
245
Georgia...................
289
Illinois...................
324
Indiana...................
380
Iow a......................
443,444
Louisiana..............
Massachusetts____
525
Michigan.................
567
701,702
Montana.................
Nevada....................
New Jersey........... .
766
New Mexico............
789-791
Pennsylvania.........
1047
South Carolina....... 1101,1103
Tennessee...............
1129
Texas...................... 1162,1165
W yom ing................ 1300,1301
Injuries to employees,
liability of employers
for. ( S e e Liability
of employers.)
Inspection, etc., of bak
eries:
Connecticut............
197,198
Indiana...................
332,333
Massachusetts........
500
Minnesota...............
613-615
Missouri...................
665,666
762
New Jersey..
770-772
New Y ork............... ‘ 818,819
828
Ohio.........................
909,910
Pennsylvania......... 1041-1043
Tennessee................
Washington............ 1240,1241
Wisconsin............... 1295-1297
Inspection of factories
and workshops:
California................
143,144
202-204
Connecticut............
Delaware.................
218-220
District of Columbia
227-229
115b — No. 67— 06------17
Page.
Page.
Inspection of factories ;
and w o r k s h o p s — !
Concluded.
,
Georgia.....................
Hawaii.................... I
Injuries causing death,
right of action ior—
Concluded.
New Y ork..............
North Carolina___
North Dakota.......
Ohio........................
Oregon...................
Porto R ico............
Rhode Island........
South Carolina----South Dakota.
Tennessee.......
Texas..............
Bulletin.
Bulletin.
;No.
Page.
244
256,257
lulnois..................... |{ 293^294
Indiana.................... . 344-349
Indiana (D )............ ................... C5
Iowa.....................:{ 371’ | g
Kansas.................... |{
Kentucky................|
Maine.......................
J
Maryland..........
V
Maryland ( D ) ..
f
\
Massachusetts.
1
64
891
409’ £ |
428,429
450
466-4C8
486,494
342-344
!}•■•:..........
|58 | 999-1002
505-510
505-5
521-5:
-523 •57 I
711
s538
;
546,547
......... \\ jg£$j
Minnesota..
Mississippi.
Missouri___
579
581-583
590-594
630,631
646-649
662,663
666-668
687
718
732
761-765 58
810-818 57
827,828
865
889-895
Ohio. ...
904
910-914
Oregon.
952 )
973-975
Pennsylvania..........71043-1046 |e5
j 11058,1059
Rhode Island..........
‘ i\1089,1090 }60
South Dakota.
1117
fll34,1135 i
Tennessee.
\1138,1139
U tah.........
1173 ’
111213,1223
Washington............ 71224,1238 flo7
|I
1239
Washington (D) . . . j................. |/58
j\62
West Virginia.........I 1261,1262 I
1265-1267
Montana......... .
Nebraska.........
Nevada........... .
New Jersey___
New Y ork ....... .
North Dakota..
; 1013-1019
f 712,713
\ \ 715-718
L.i.........
63
588
65
360
1
1277
1281-1283 ljo7
1297
904,905
358,359
362
62
332
(See also Fire es
capes;
Inspec
tion, etc., of bak
eries; I n s p e c
tors, f a c t o r y ;
Laundries; Seats
for female em
ployees; Sweat
ing system.)
Inspection, e t c . , o f
mines. (S ee
Mine
regulations.)
Inspection of steam
boilers:
Colorado..................
Connecticut............
Florida....................
Indiana...................
Iowa.....................
165-167
210,211
ooo
366,367
383
i
1
357-360
713,714
J...................
!................
909-911
990-992
321,322
915,917
934
C U M ULATIVE
IN U E X
OF LABOR L A W S
C u m u la tiv e in d ex o f labor la w s a n d d ecision s — Continued.
i
Tenth
special.
Tage.
Inspection of steam
boilers—Concluded.
Maine.......................
Maryland................
Massachusetts........
Michigan.................
Minnesota...............
449,450
490-492
510,511
569
583-588
J 681-684
1
706
815,816
New Y ork............... \f 842,843
Ohio............. ........... /\ 895,896
914
11031,1032
11045,1046
Vermont..................
1197
Inspection of steam
boilers in mines. (S ee
Mine regulations.)
Inspection of steam
vessels:
362,363
Indiana....................
456
Maine.......................
584,585
Minnesota...............
736,737
New Hampshire___
767-769
New Jersey.............
830-832
New Y ork...............
Pennsylvania.......... 1064-1067
11336-1343
United States......... t
1387
Inspectors, factory:
144
California................
202,212
Connecticut.............
219,220
Delaware.................
285,286
Illinois.....................
348,349
Indiana...................
Iow a.........................
409
Kansas....................
Kentucky................
428,429
Maine .....................
453
Maryland_..............
468
Massachusetts........ \1 505,506
528,529
574,575
Michigan..................
Minnesota .
. _ 581-583
Missouri____ _____ \1 646-649
673,674
f 753,754
New Jersey.............. 1 781,782
J
802
New York
\ 810-818
889-892
Ohio.........................
/ 973-975
Pennsylvania.......... i
1046
Rhode Island.......... 1084-1086
11132,1138
Tennessee _ .
\
1139
Washington............ 1234-1236
West. Virginia......... 1254,1255
11265,1282
Wisconsin............... \
1293
Inspectors, mine:
99-105
Alabama..................
122-124
Arkansas.................
Colorado.................. 1 162-164
\ 174,175
259-262
Idaho.......................
Illinois.....................
301-306
352,353
Indiana....................
37^-375
Iow a........................
f
Kansas..................... \ 395,396
404,405
422-426
Kentucky................
453
Maine.......................
f 478-480
Maryland................ \
486
549,550
Michigan.................. \1 565,566
Minnesota...............
Tenth
special.
B u lle tin .
No. | Page.
!
* !
61
1089
l .
J
|64
907
r **
1 .
J
63
590,591
|c>0
718-720
60
712
ii 1-.j
}58 1018,1019
1...
59
l ..
64
1
383,384
908
)
i J
65
\
r
352,353
61
63
1076
574-576
1
1 i . ..
1
W
63
578
582-584
Bulletin.
Page.
Page.
I n s p e c t o r s , mine—
Concluded.
Missouri..................
658-660
Montana................ 1f 684-686
i
708,709 f
New Jersey............
754,755
New Y ork..............
819-821
North Carolina----854-858
Ohio.......................
877-879
f
983-986
Pennsylvania......... <1016-1020
South Dakota....... .
Tennessee...............
Utah........................
Washington.......... .
West Virginia....... .
W yoming................
United States....... .
Inspectors, railroad:
Illinois................
Massachusetts..
Michigan.............
Ohio....................
Washington.......
Insulation of poles for
electric wires:
Massachusetts........
Insurance, accident:
Illinois.....................
Michigan..................
South Carolina.......
Insurance, cooperative:
Maryland.................
Maryland (D ).........
Intelligence o f f i c e s .
(S e e Employment of
fices.)
Intemperate employees
on public carriers:
Illinois.....................
Michigan.................
Missouri..................
Nebraska.................
New Jersey.............
New York................
North Dakota.........
Ohio.........................
Verm ont..................
W isconsin................
(S ee also Intoxica
tion, etc.)
Interference with em
ployment:
Alabama..................
Arkansas.................
Delaware.................
Georgia....................
Illinois.....................
Illinois (D )..............
Kansas.....................
Kentucky................
Louisiana................
Minnesota...............
New Jersey.............
New Y ork................
North Dakota.........
Pennsylvania.........
Rhode Island..........
Utah........................
West Virginia.........
Wisconsin................
I
1050
'1114-1116
J
1132
\1141-1155
1185
11213,1214
\1234-1236
1244-1246
J1300,1301
\1315-1318
1381
L.
J
i...
r
i
1
67
912,913
l ..
i
61
1078
61
1075,1076
57
689,680
532
544
900,901
1234-1236
533
560,561
1112
J
\
461-463
477,478
314
542,554
635,636
722
767
801,830
864,865
898
1197
1267
....
....
....
....
.....
. ..
....
....
...
....
108,109
119
216,217
246,247 l . .
251 J
291
63
387,388
420 ..
440 ..
603 I..
782
838 ..
861,862 ..
r 970,971 1
(.1036,1037 /
1004 ..
1172 ..
1251 ..
1279,1280 ..
553-558
CU M ULATIVE IN D E X
C u m u la tiv e in d e x o f la bor la w s a n d d ecision s —
Tenth
special.
Page.
Interference with em
ployment—Cone’ d.
57
Wisconsin (D )........
0See also Blacklist
ing; Boycotting;
C onspiracy
against working
men; E n t i c i n g
employees;
In
timidation: Pro
tection of em
ployees.)
Intimidation:
I
103,109
Alabama.................
111
196
Connecticut............
Connecticut (D )---280,281
Illinois.....................
437
Louisiana................
458,459
Maine.......................
514
Massachusetts........
562
Michigan.................
632
Mississippi..............
636
Missouri..................
New Hampshire---739
f
795-797
New Y ork ............... l
800
873,874
North Dakota.........
Oklahoma...............
930,931
Oregon....................
939
Porto R ico..............
1079
1094
Rhode Island..........
South Dakota......... 1125,1126
1164
Texas..................
65
U tah........................
Vermont..................
1198
Washington............ 1219,1220
CSee also Interfer
ence with em
ployment, a n d
cross references.)
In to x i c a*t i n g liquor.
( S ee Liquor.)
Intoxication, etc., in or j
about mines or smelt
ers:
61
W yoming................
Intoxication of em
ployees on railroads,
etc.:
Arizona...................
116
Arkansas.................
124
California................
138
Connecticut.............
196
Florida....................
232
Idaho.......................
273
Maine.......................
455
554
Michigan.................
Minnesota...............
602
Mississippi..............
630
Missouri...................
635,636
Montana..................
706
Nebraska.................
716
Nevada....................
726
New Jersey..............
766
New Mexico............
788
New Y ork...............
838
North Carolina.......
851
North Dakota........
873
Oklahoma...............
930
Porto R ico..............
1081
South Dakota.........
1125
Utah........................
1180
Vermont..................
1197
West Virginia.........
1243
(S ee also Intem
perate employees.;
60
Iowa, 1904......................
J.
Judgments for wages.
(S ee Suits for wages.)
Page.
Page.
678-680
681-684
884-886
364
1095
712,713
Continued.
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
N o.
935
OF LABOR LAW S,
Kansas, 1905..........
Knights of Labor:
Nebraska.........
W yom ing........
Bulletin.
iNoJ
Page
Cl , 1080-1084
716 '
1318,1314 I
Labels, false, on manu
factured articles:
138
California................
Labels. (S ee Trade
marks.)
Labor
agents. ( S ee
Employment offices.)
Labor agreements not
c o n s p i r a c y . (S ee
C o n s p i r a c y , labor
agreements not.)
Labor and industry,
society of:
407-410
Kansas....................
Labor, Bureau of. (S ee
Bureau of Labor, etc.)
Labor commission:
254,255
Hawaii.....................
f 263,264
Idaho.
\ 266-270
334-337
Indiana....................
Labor, Commissioner
of. (S ee Bureau of
Labor, etc.;
Labor contracts. (S ee
Contracts of employ
ment.)
Labor day:
57
Mississippi..............
(S ee also Holidays,
etc.)
Labor, employment of.
(S ee Employment of
labor.)
Labor, etc., local or
special laws regulat
ing. (S ee Local or
special laws, etc.)
Labor organizations,
bribery of represen
tatives of:
New Y ork...............
Labor
organizations
excluding members
of National Guard:
New Y ork...............
798
Labor organizations,
incorporation, regu
lation, etc., of:
Colorado..................
157
Georgia....................
250
Iow a........................
368
Kansas....................
390
Louisiana................
434,435
Maryland................
461
Massachusetts........ f 515,533
\ 534,537
l 556,557
Michigan................. { 559,560
563
Minnesota...............
603
Mississippi..............
631
Nebraska................
716
New Hampshire___
63
New Jersey.............. / 748,749
\
760
New Y ork................
791,798
Ohio.........................
877
j 970,971
Pennsylvania.......... •{1034-1037
l
1043
Pennsylvania ( D ) ..
61
71a
710
589
1064,1065
936
CUM ULATIVE
IN D E X
OE LABOR LA W S,
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Labor organizations,
incorporation, regu
lation, et-*.,of—Conc’d.
1079
Porto R ico..............
Texas....................... 1160,1167
W yom ing................ I 1313,1314
! 11373,1376
United States......... 1
1377
Labor organizations,
protection of em
ployees as members
of. (S e e Protection
of employees as mem
bers of labor organi
zations.)
Labor organizations,
using false cards, etc.,
of:
250
Georgia....................
537
Massachusetts........
829
New Y ork....... .......
1043
Pennsylvania..........
Wisconsin............... 1284,1285
Labor organizations.
(S e e
also
Antitrust
act; Conspiracy, la
bor agreements not;
T r a d e - m a r k s of
trade unions.)
Labor, Sunday. (S ee
Sunday labor.)
Laborers, alien. (S ee
Alien laborers.)
Laborers, exemption
of, from license tax.
(S ee License tax.)
Laborers’ l o d g i n g
houses. (See Lodging
houses.)
Laborers. (S ee Em
ployees.)
Laundries, regulation
of:
256,257
Hawaii.....................
816
New Y ork...............
Leave of absence for
employees in public
service:
858
North Carolina.......
1322
United States......... 1332-1334
Letter carriers, hours of
labor of:
1333
United States.........
Letters of recommen
dation.
(S ee
Em
ployers' certificates.)
Liability of corpora
tions for debts of
contractors for labor.
(S ee
Liability
of
railroad companies
for debts, etc.)
Liability of employees
for negligence. (S ee
Negligence.)
Liability of employers
for injuries to em
ployees:
98,99
Alabama.................
113
Arizona...................
Arizona (D )...........
125,129
Arkansas.................
132,133
California................
J 171,172
Colorado................ . t
188
208
Connecticut.............
232
Florida....................
/ 241-243
Georgia.................... \
245
Bulletin.
N o .j
Page.
j
i
i .....................
ij
60
i
/
i
J
694,695
’
Tenth
special.
|
Page.
Liability of employers
for injuries to em
ployees—Concluded .
Illinois.....................
f
Indiana....................! \
Indiana (D )............
Iow a........................
Iowa (D ).................
Kansas....................
Kentucky (D )........
/
Maryland................ \
J
Massachusetts........ \
Michigan.................
J
Minnesota....... .
\
Minnesota (D )........
Mississippi..............
Missouri..................
Montana.................
New Mexico............
New Y ork...............
New York (D )........
North Carolina.......
North Carolina (D)
/
North Dakota........ 1
J
Ohio......................... \
Bulletin.
jNo.
313,314 61
324,331 ,
342-344 IJ 58
368-370
J61
\63
405,406 61
461-463
477,478
525-527
532
554-556
595,612
615
627
639,640
698,712
787,788
845-847
858
Page.
1075,1076
988,989
1061-1064
547-549
1082
883-887
l64.
r
l
f
64
882,883
61
63
1090,1091
585
61 /1055,i056
1.1059-1061
63
549,550
866,867 l
877
899,900 }59
384
926
(56
297-299
157
690-C93
Ohio (D ).................
007
165
167
868-875
Oregon.....................
947
Porto R ico.............. 1077-1079
South Carolina....... 1101,1112
South Dakota.........
1119
Tennessee (D )___ j
65
334-337
Texas....................... 1166,1167 65
363
(60
692-C94
| 61 1056-1058
T e x a s(D )...............
163
551
1.65
338,339
11199,1200
Virginia................... \1208,1209
J '"
Virginia (D )...........
985,986
58
Washington ( D ) . ..
990-992
58
Wisconsin............... 1274,1275
Wisconsin (D )........
58
986-988
United States.........
909
64
(S e e also Employ
ment of labor;
Fellow-servants;
I n j u r i e s , etc.;
Insurance, coop
erative.)
Liability of employers
for taxes of em
ployees:
Georgia....................
239
Idaho.......................
270,271
448,449
Loui-iana................
726
Nevada....................
Pennsylvania..........
1068
Liability of railroad
companies for debts
of contractors:
Connecticut............. !
199
|
406
Kansas....................
i
Louisiana................
432
455
Maine.......................
Massachusetts . . .
530
Minnesota................
595,596
634
Missouri..................
766
New Jersey..............
c u m u l a t iv e
in d e x
of
labor
law s
937
Cumulative index of labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Liability of railroad
companies for debts
of contractors—Con.
New Y ork ...............
.North Carolina.......
Vermont..................
Wisconsin...............
{S ee also Liability
of stockholders;
Protection
of
wages.)
Liability of railroad
companies for inju
ries to employees.
{S ee Liability of em
ployers.)
Liability of railroad
companies for wages
due
from prede
cessors:
Wisconsin...............
Liability of railroad
companies to work
men not employees:
Pennsylvania.........
Liability
of
stock
holders of corpora
tions for wage debts:
Indiana...................
Massachusetts........
Michigan.................
New Jersey.......... ..
New Y ork ...............
North Carolina.
North D akota..
Oklahoma.........
Pennsylvania..........
South Dakota.........
Tennessee................
W i consin................
{S ee also Liability
of railroad com
panies for debts,
etc.)
License tax, exemption
of mechanics, etc.,
from:
Iow a........................
Louisiana................
Massachusetts.........
Michigan..................
New Hampshire___
North Carolina.......
Pennsylvania..........
Licensing, etc.
{S ee
Examination, etc.)
Liens, digest of laws re
lating t o ......................
Liquor, sale of, to em
ployees:
Hawaii.....................
Iow a........................
Massachusetts.........
New Hampshire___
Ohio.........................
South Dakota.........
Vermont..................
Local or special laws
regulating labor, etc.:
Kentucky................
Louisiana................
Pennsylvania..........
Texas.......................
Virginia...................
Locomotive boilers, in
spection of:
New Y ork................
Bulletin.
|No.
Page.
I
833,834
850,851
1196
1274
1274
1032,1033
330
538
539,559
752,757
r 837,840
L
841
850
866
930
f 969,970
I 980,1029
1119
1127
1272,1273
368
432
499
545
742
860
1060
57
703
51-92
334,335
370
502
589,590
905
1117
1198,1199
.....7\h
416
432
955
1156
1199
L o c o m o t i v e s , etc., ,
a b a n d o n m e n t of. j
{S ee Abandonment.) •
Lodging houses, la- \
borers’ :
j
Connecticut............. j
Hawaii...................
Lodging
houses,
sailors’ :
839,840
New Y ork...............
953-955
Oregon
J1103,1104
South Carolina
!\
1111
United States....... |
1365
{S ee also Seamen.)
Louisiana, 1904
702,703
Lunch, time fbr. {S ee
Time for meals.)
M.
Mail, obstructing:
United States.........
1333
Mail service, ocean,
American vessels and
crews for:
1334
United States.........
61 ; 1084,1085
Maine, 1905.....................
|
Manufactured articles,
marking:
.62 1
330
California................
Manufactures, bureau
of:
1386
United States.........
Marriage, etc., statis
tics of, to be pro
cured:
California................
Married women, earn
ings of. {S ee Earn
ings
of
married
women.)
Maryland, 1904..............
57
704-708
Massachusetts, 1904---57 j 708-711
1905....
61 I 1085-1089
Master and servant.
{S ee Employment of
labor; .Liability of
employers, and cross
references under each.)
Meals, time for. {S ee
Time for meals.)
Mechanics, exemption
of, from license tax.
(S e e License tax.)
Mechanics, exemption
of, from manufactur
ers’ taxes:
385
59 !
Philippine Islands..
Mechanics’ liens, digest
51-92
of laws relating to—
Mediation. {S e e Arbi- 1
tration.)
Medical attendance for
employees in smelting
works:
784
New Mexico.
63
577-581
Michigan, 1905................
Mine employees, asso- I
ciations of:
|
403-405
Kansas.....................i
559,560 i
Michigan..................j
Mine inspectors. {S ee j
Inspectors, mines.) |
Mine regulations:
j
99-105
Alabama.................. !j 108,109
352-354
120-124 65
Arkansas.................
142,143
California................. i< 145,146
J
64
907
938
CUM ULATIVE
IN D E X
OF LABOB
LAW S
C u m u la tiv e in d e x o f la bor la w s a n d d ecision s — Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Mine regulations—Con.
f 158-165
174-177
jI 191-194
J 259-212
Idaho.......................
273
f 275,289
I
290,294
Illinois
298-314
\[ 322,323
Illinois ( D ) . . .
Colorado..................
\
(
Indiana...........
{
l
Indiana ( D ) ...
Iow a..............
Kansas.......... .
Kentucky____
Kentucky (D)
Maryland........
Michigan........
Missouri..........
Montana..................
Nevada....................
New Jersey..............
New Mexico............
New Y ork...............
North Carolina----Ohio.........................
Ohio (D ).................
Oregon.....................
Pennsylvania..........
Pennsylvania ( D ) ..
South Dakota.........
|n o .
1 1
i
b
373-379
393-403
422-426
866-868
569-577
864-866
1080-1082
64
883-887
j>63
578-580
}61
1093
I...
587
J
j-59
379
65
337
62
318,319
L..
.
65
1170
I185-11Q2 65
1213-1222
11244^1252
1
1263
(1300,1301
W yoming................ <1306-1313
[1316-1321 61
United States......... 1381-1383
(,S ee a lso Accidents
in mines; Inspec
tors,
mine;
Weighing coal.)
Miners, examination,
etc., of. (S e e Exam
ination, etc.)
Miners’ home:
Pennsylvania.......... 1047-1049
Miners’ hospital:
143
California................
New Mexico............
788,789
U tah........................ 1177,1178
West Virginia......... 1256,1257
1302
W yom ing................
Mines, accidents in.
CS ee Accidents in
mines.)
Mines, bureau of. (S ee
Bureau of mines.)
Mines, department of.
( S e e Bureau of mines )
Mines, etc., hours of
labor in. (S e e Hours
of labor, etc.)
I67
I
Page.
Mines, etc., intoxica
tion in or about:
W yom ing................
Mines, inspection of.
(-See
Mine regula
tions.)
Mines, inspectors of.
( S ee I n s p e c t o r s ,
mine.)
Mines, weighing coal at.
(S ee Weighing coal at
mines.)
Minnesota, 1905.............
Minors, earnings of.
(S e e
Earnings of
minors.)
Misdemeanors, penalty
for:
Georgia....................
U tah........................
Mississippi, 1904............
Missouri, 1905................
Montana, 1905...............
Bulletin.
No.
' 61
Page.
1095
63
249
1179
712
1089-1093
585,586
N.
L.
11114-1117
\1126,U27 /
(
1129 i
Tennessee................ \1138-1155
f
1076-1078
61
944,945
/ 981-1029 l
\1052-1055 f
Tennessee (D )........
Texas.......................
U tah........................
Washington............
West Virginia.........
Page.
i
67
326,327
333,334 j-63
349-358
67
478-486
549,550
5G5,566
651-662
677-680
684-686
691-696
706-712
725
754,755
762
{ 784-786
819-821
854-858
f 877-885
\ 923,924
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
334-337
364
912,913
1095
Names of employees to
be furnished. (S ee
Employers to furnish
names, etc.)
National Guard, mem
bers of, not to be ex
cluded from labor or
ganizations:
798
New Y ork...............
National Guard, pro
tection of employees
as members of. ( S ee
Protection of em
ployees as members
of National Guard.)
National trade unions:
(1373,1376
United States.
1377
63
Nebraska, 1905..............
Negligence of drivers of
public carriages:
536
Massachusetts........
N e g l i g e n c e of em
ployees in salt works:
New Y ork...............
N e g l i g e n c e of em
ployees on railroads,
etc.:
107
Alabama.................
116
Arizona...................
196
Connecticut........... .
246
Georgia..................
273
Idaho.....................
280
Illinois...................
456,458
Maine.....................
459
Massachusetts..
532
554
Michigan............
€03
Minnesota..........
Mississippi........
630
Missouri............
635
706
Montana........... .
766,782
New Jersey........
801,840
New Y ork.........
873
North D akota..
930
Oklahoma.........
972
Pennsylvania...
1080
Porto R ico.......
1110
South Carolina.
1125
South D akota..
1180
U tah..................
1197
Vermont...........
586
CUM ULATIVE
IN D E X
939
OF LABOR LAW S,
Cumulative index o f labor laivs and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
N e g l i g e n c e of em
p l o y e e s on steam
boats, etc.:
Alabama.................
Kansas....................
Maine......................
Massachusetts.......
Minnesota...............
Mississippi..............
Missouri..........-.......
New York..
Oregon....................
Porto R ico.............
South Carolina.......
South Dakota........
Utah........................
Washington.......... .
West Virginia........
United States....... .
N e g l i g e n c e of em
ployees on street rail
ways:
Louisiana.............. .
Negligence of operators
of steam boilers:
Arizona...................
California..............
Idaho..................... .
Minnesota..............
Montana................ .
New Y ork...............
North Dakota____
Pennsylvania.........
Porto R ico............ .
South Dakota........
Negligent fellow-serv
ant to be named in
verdict:
Minnesota..............
Nevada, 1905................
New Hampshire, 1905.
New Jersey, 1904..........
1905.........
New Mexico, 1905........
Newsboy law:
New Y ork..............
New York, 1904...........
1905...........
Night work. (S e e Chil
dren, night work by:
Women, night work
by.)
Nonresidents, employ
ment of, as armed
guards. (S e e Armed
guards.)
North Carolina, 1905...
Notice of intention to
terminate e m p l o y
ment. (S e e Employ
ment, termination of,
notice of.)
Notice of reduction of
wages. (S e e Wages,
reduction of, notice
of.)
No.
Page.
107
380,387
458
536
602
629
635,645
801,832
833
936
1080
1107
1125
1180
1229
1243
1380
435
115
138
272
601,602
704-706
801,840
843
873
1066
1080
1125
615
586-589
589-591
1012-1019
904,905
1093,1094
251
712-718
905-907
64
O.
Obligations of employ
ers, etc. ( S e e Em
ployment of labor.)
Obstructing mail:
United States.........
Ocean mail service,
American vessels and
crews for;
United States.........
Bulletin.
1333
1334
Tenth
special.
Pago.
Bulletin.
No.
Offenses. (S e e Negli
gence.)
Ohio, 1904.......................
59
Ore, weighing, at mines:
108
Alabama.................
. 62
Oregon, 1905..........
Overtime labor, pay
ment for:
131
California................
547
Michigan.................
804
New Y ork ...............
1033
Pennsylvania..........
Oystermen:
471,472
Maryland................
861
North Carolina.......
P.
Payment of wages due
deceased employees:
Alabama.................
250,251
Georgia....................
632
Mississippi..............
Payment o f wages due
discharged employ
ees:
116
Arizona...................
124
Arkansas.................
60
Arkansas (D ).........
187
Colorado..................
386
Kansas....................
765
New Jersey.............
1105
South Carolina.......
Payment of wages in
bar rooms:
139
California................
Payment of wages in
scrip:
117
Arizona...................
Arkansas.................
127 65
Colorado..................
186,187
240
Georgia....................
Illinois.....................
290
339,340
Indiana - ..
352,365 }63
Iow a.........
377,378
Kansas___
391
436
Louisiana.
476,477 i
Maryland..........
494 /
Michigan............
548,549
Missouri (D )___
56
Montana........... .
710,711
Nevada...............
63
New Jersey........
759,760
786
New Mexico___
New Y ork..........
804
853,854
North Carolina.
1067,1068
Pennsylvania.. .
(1105,1109 } 60
South Carolina.,
L
1110
[1133,1136
Tennessee......... .
1
1137
Texas.....................
1168,1169 65
Vermont................
1199
Virginia.................
1202
Washington..........
1222 67
West Virginia.......
1255
Wisconsin..............
1284
Payment of wages,
modes and times of:
Arizona..................
116
Arkansas...............
127
California...............
150.151
Colorado................
187;188
Connecticut...........
207,208
Hawaii...................
257
Illinois....................
295,322
Indiana..................
338-340
Indiana (D )..........
67
Iow a.......................
377,378
Page.
378-384
258-260
9,700
350,351
576
309-311
587
714,715
363
911,912
886-888
940
CUM ULATIVE
IN D E X
OF LABOR LAW S,
C u m u la tiv e in d e x o f labor la w s a n d d ecision s — Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Payment of wages,
inodes and times 01— ,
Concluded.
i
Kansas.....................
Kentucky.
Maine........
M aryland.,
Massachusetts.
Minnesota.........
Missouri..............
New Hampshire.
New Jersey........ .
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
386
417,421
427
455
464,476
704,705
477
493-495 I
523-525
1086,1087
597,598
633,652
674,677
738
760,761
1019
779,780 •58
804,805
827,828
925,926
1041
1091
1105
1132,1133
1202,1203
1256
1269
1312
New York..........
Ohio..........................
Pennsylvania..........
Rhode Island..........
South Carolina.......
Tennessee................
Virginia...................
West Virginia.........
Wisconsin................
W yom ing................
Payment of wages of
seamen.
(S e e Sea
men.)
Payment of wages, re
fusal of:
Minnesota...............
603
(S e e a lso Suits for
wages.)
Peddlers’ license. (S ee
License tax.)
Penalty for misde
meanors. ( S e e Mis
demeanors.)
Pennsylvania, 1905........
65
Pensions for employees
of corporations:
Pennsylvania..........
970
Peonage: ‘
Nevada.....................
728
United States......... 1323,1381
United States (D )..
60
Pesthouse, erection of,
for employees:
New Mexico............
788
Philippine Islands, 1904
Picketing:
Alabama..................
111
Colorado..................
CS ee also Interfer
ence with employ
ment.)
Plumbers,
examina
tion, etc., of. (S e e
Examination, etc.)
Police
officers. (S e e
Armed guards.)
Policemen,
employ
ment of, as laborers:
Maryland.................
492,493
Poll tax of employees,
liability of employers
for. (S e e Liability of
employers for taxes
of employees.)
Porto Rico, 1904..........
59
Powers of corporations,
restriction of:
981,1030
Pennsylvania.........
Preference of wages.
(S e e Wages as pre
ferred claims.)
356-360
1,696
385
*330
1
i
Tenth
special.
Page.
Bulletin.
No.
Printing, public. (S ee
Public printing.)
Profit sharing by cor
porations:
199
Connecticut.............
529,530
Massachusetts........
Protection of alien la
borers.
(S ee Alien
laborers.)
Protection of employ
ees as candidates for
office:
1304
W yoming................
Protection of employ
ees as members of la
bor organizations:
139
California................
180,181
Colorado..................
196
Connecticut.............
273
Idaho.......................
326
Indiana...................
414
Kansas....................
Kansas (TU _ _____
56
514
Massachusetts........
612,613
Minnesota...............
733,734
Nevada....................
756
New Jersey.............
New Y ork...............
797,798
New York (D )........
67
908
Ohio.........................
949
Oregon.....................
Pennsylvania.......... 1063,1064
1081
Porto R ico..............
1279
Wisconsin...............
United States
1377
Protection of employ
ees as members of Na
tional Guard:
393
Kansas....................
New Y ork ...............
798
Washington............ 1213,1214
Protection of employ
ees as traders. (S ee
Coercion of employ
ees.)
Protection of employ
ees as voters:
112
Alabama..................
114,115
Arizona...................
118
Arkansas.................
California_________
137
Colorado ................
168
197
Connecticut.............
"Delaware.................
214
Florida .................
237,238
272
Idaho.......................
327'
Indiana....................
368
Iow a........................
Kansas .................
388
Kentucky................
427,428
Louisiana.................
435
Maryland................
4C9
497
Massachusetts........
563
Michigan..................
f 580,581
Minnesota................ i 605,606
626
Mississippi.
Missouri...................
649,650
703,704
Montana..................
733
Nevada....................
New Jersey..............
778,779
783
New Mexico............
800
New Y ork...............
North Carolina........
860
896,897
Ohio.........................
Oregon
..............
938,939
Pennsylvania. _ __
970
Porto Rico
____ 1077,1080
1107
South Carolina.......
/i
385
Page.
311
888,889
CUM ULATIVE IN D E X
941
OF LABOR L A W S
Cumulative index of labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Protection of employ
ees as voters—Conc’d.
1124
South Dakota.........
Tennessee................ J1127,1130
\
1134
Utah........................ 1173,1174
1242
West Virginia.........
1288
Wisconsin...............
W yom ing................
1301
(S ee also Time to
vote.)
Protection of employ
ees of electric com
panies:
533
Massachusetts........
Protection of employ
ees on buildings:
138,141
California................
363,364
Indiana....................
Kansas....................
Maryland................
470,471
509
Massachusetts........
Minnesota...............
626
Missouri..................
648
J 806-808
New Y ork............... \
827
New York (D )........
Ohio.........................
904,905
Pennsylvania..........
9C0
Wisconsin............... 1291,1292
Protection of employ
ees on street railways:
Colorado..................
189,190
Connecticut............
200,201
District of Columbia
Illinois.....................
323
331
Indiana....................
Iow a........................
367
Kansas....................
406
Louisiana................
Maine.......................
Massachusetts........
532,533
Michigan.................
551,552
Minnesota...............
598,597
Missouri..................
638
Nebraska................
721
New Hampshire . ..
743,744
New Jersey.............
773
New Y ork................
836,837
North Carolina___
860
902
Ohio.........................
Oregon.....................
940,941
South Carolina.......
1106
Tennessee................
1139
Texas.......................
1172
U tah........................ 1181,1182
1206
Virginia...................
W ashington............
1223
West Virginia......... 1259,1260
W isconsin...............
1275
Protection of employ
ees. (S e e a lso Fire
escapes on factories;
Guards on thrashing
machines;
Inspec
tion of factories, etc.;
M i n e regulations;
Railroads, safety ap
pliances on.)
Protection of wages:
132,139
California................ /\ 149,150
Colorado..................
182,183
Connecticut.............
199
District of Columbia
230
Georgia....................
242
Idaho.......................
266,274
Indiana....................
329-332
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
I ...
J
................
61
1083,1084
i„.
1
62
319,320
67
915,916
60
718
57
61
703,704
1084,1085
64
906,907
60
714
i ..
J
| Tenth
: special.
Page.
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
Protection of wages—
Concluded.
Kansas....................
405
Louisiana................ , 432,441
492
Maryland................
Massachusetts........
497,498
711
f
544,545
Michigan................. l\
562
616,617
Minnesota............... 1/
i\
C21
'( 635,640
Missouri..................
it
649
Nebraska................ I 720,721
New Jersey............. 1
757
New York*............... / 792,829
1
830
North Carolina----852,853
r
North Dakota........
877
Oregon.....................
955
South Carolina.......
1109
Tennessee................
1137
Texas.......................
1156
Vermont..................
1196
Virginia...................
1205
W ashington............ 1227,1228
Wisconsin...............
1287
United States......... 1331,1332 60 i 717,718
(S ee also Exemp
tion of wages;
Forced contribu
tions; Liability of
railroad compa
nies for debts of
contractors for
labor; Liability
of stockholders of
corporations for
wage d e b t s ;
Wages as pre
ferred claims.)
Public buildings, con
tract work on:
California................
130
Public carriers, intem
perate employees on.
(S ee
intemperate
employees;
Intoxi
cation.)
Public employment of
fices.
(S ee Employ
ment offices.)
Public printing, bureau
of:
Philippine Islands.. 1069,1070
Public printing office,
employees in:
California................
130
Kansas....................
1083
61
Philippine Islands.. 1069,1070
United States......... 1332,1333
Public printing to be
done within t h e
State:
Alabama.................
105
Arkansas................
65
354
Idaho.......................
264
Illinois.....................
291
Kansas.....................
384
North D ak ota........
862,865
Texas......................
1162
Public printing, union
label to be used on:
707
Montana..................
Nevada....................
726
Public service corpora
tions,
employment
by:
537
Massachusetts.......
942
CUM ULATIVE
IN D E X
OF LABOR L A W S .
Cumulative index of labor laws- and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page,
Public supplies, pref
erence o f domestic
products for:
•
!1
California................ j 131,132
864
North D akota........ 1
United States......... 1321,1323
Public works, employ
ment of aliens on.
(S ee Aliens, employ
ment of, etc.)
Public works, hours of
labor on. (S ee Hours
of labor.)
Public works, labor on :
New Y o rk ...............
Public works, prefer
ence of domestic ma
terials for:
Minnesota...............
615
M issouri..................
670,671
Missouri (D )...........
New Mexico............
United States.........
1330
Public works, prefer
ence of resident la
borers on:
Louisiana......... .
446,447
Massachusetts.......
New Mexico............
New Y ork...............
805,806
Porto R ico..............
1079
(S e e a lso Aliens,
employment of.)
Public works, rates of
wages of employees
on. (S ee Rates of
wages, etc.)
Public works, retention
, of wages of employ
ees on:
California................
Public works, vaccina
tion of employees on :
Virginia...................
Page.
j
i
1
64
905
1094
708
1094
|
i
62
330
717
R.
Railroad bridges, etc:
Vermont.................
Railroad cars, refusal
to mo ve .
(S ee
Strikes of railroad
employees.)
Railroad companies, li
ability of, for debts
of contractors for
labor. (S e e Liabil
ity of railroad com
panies.)
Railroad companies, li
ability of, for inju
ries to employees.
(S ee Liability of em
ployers.)
Railroad companies, li
ability of, to work
men not employees:
Pennsylvania......... 1032,1033
Railroad
employees,
complaints by:
530
Massachusetts......
R a i lroad employees,
d i s o b e d i e n c e of.
(S e e N egligence, etc.)
R a i lroad employees,
examination, etc., of.
(S ee
Examination,
etc.)
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
715
Page.
R a i lroad employees,
false
charges
against:
Arkansas.................
M issouri..................
R a i lroad employees,
forced contributions
from. (S ee Forced
contributions.)
R a i l r o a d employees,
hours of labor of.
( S e e Hours of labor,
etc.)
R a i l r o a d employees,
influencing, not to
wear uniforms:
New Y ork ................
R a i l r o a d employees,
etc., intoxication of.
(S ee Intoxication.)
R a r lroad employees,
negligence of. (S ee
Negligence, etc.)
R a i l r o a d employees,
protection of. (S ee
Railroads, s a f e t y
appliances on.)
R a i lroad employees,
q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of.
(S ee
Examination,
etc., of railroad em
ployees.)
R a i l r o a d employees,
rules for.
(S ee
Rules, etc.)
R a i l r o a d employees,
s t r i k e s o f . (S ee
Strikes, etc.)
Railroad employees to
be paid when dis
charged. (S ee Pay
ment of wages due
discharged employ
ees.)
Railroad
employees,
voting by:
Kansas....................
Railroad in sp e ctors.
(S ee Inspectors, rail
road. )
Railroad relief societies.
(S ee Benefit societies.)
Railroad trains, suffi
cient crew required
on:
Arizona...................
Connecticut.............
Maine.......................
North Dakota.........
Ohio..........................
South Carolina.......
Texas.......................
Railroads, accidents on.
(S ee Accidents.)
Railroads, competent
men to be employed
on. (S ee Examina
tion, etc., of railroad
employees; Railroads,
illiterate employees
on.)
Railroads, height of
bridges etc., over:
Arkansas.................
Connecticut............
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
125
117
200
455
866
6,927
929
1102
1162
65
351
CUM ULATIVE IN D E X
943
OF LABOR L A W S
C u m u la tiv e in d ex o f la bor la w s a n d d ecisio n s — Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Railroads, height of
bridges, etc., over—
Concluded.
Kansas....................
Kentucky................
Michigan.................
New Hampshire___
O h i o . ....'...............
Rhode Island.........
Verm ont.................
W yom ing................
Railroads, hours of la
bor of employees on.
(S ee Hours of labor.)
Railroads, illiterate em
ployees on:
Minnesota...............
New Y ork ...............
Ohio.........................
Railroads in hands of
Federal r e c e i v e r s ,
rights of employees
United States.........
Railroads, obstructing,
hindering operation
of, etc.:
Delaware.................
Kentucky................
Mississippi..............
( S ee also Abandon
ment of locomo
tives; Strikes of
railroad em
ployees.)
Railroads, rules for em
ployees on.
(S ee
Rules, etc.)
Railroads, safety appli
ances o n :
Colorado.................
Connecticut............
Delaware.................
Illinois.....................
Indiana....................
Io w a ............ ...........
Kentucky...............
Louisiana...............
Maine......................
Massachusetts.......
Michigan.
Minnesota..............
Mississippi............
Missouri.................
Nebraska...............
New Hampshire...
New Y ork..............
Ohio........................
Philippine Islands.
Rhode Island.......
South Carolina___
T exas.....................
Verm ont...............
Virginia.................
Washington..........
Wisconsin..............
United States.......
420
555,556
740
902
1092
1196
Bulletin.
No.
61
602
837,838
59
1377
217
420
629
182
199,200
223
290 61
364,365
369,870
420
442
456
530,531
544
550,551
553-555
594,595
631
634,635
715
737
f 834-836
1
838
898-902 59
1073,1074
.1091,1092
1102
1162
1196
1208
1230,1231
1274 67
J1369-1371
\13S7,1388
United States (D)..
Railroads, shelters for
workmen on:
Arkansas.................
Railroads, structures
near tracks of:
Ohio.........................
65
59
Page.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Bulletin.
!No.
Rates of wages for over
time on street rail
ways:
1083
California...............
Rates of wages of em
ployees of public
printing offices:
California..............
130 ,.
Kansas....................
715
Philippine Islands..
1070 '
1095
United States....... . 1332,1333 ;.
Rates of wages of em
ployees on public
works:
California...............
149
Delaware............... .
223,224
Indiana................. .
333
Nebraska............... .
713,725
379
New Y ork ...............
803 64
Rates of wages of weav
ers, etc., to be posted:
Massachusetts____
524
Receivers of railroads,
rights of employees of:
United States....... .
1377
Recommendation, let
ters of. ( S e e Em
ployers’ certificates.)
Reduction of wages, no
tice of. ( S e e Wages,
reduction of, notice
of.)
Registration. (S e e Ex
amination.)
Relief societies. (S ee
Benefit societies.)
Repayment of e m
ployers’
advances.
(S e e E m p l o y e r s ’
advances.)
Resident laborers, pref
erence of, on public
works. (S e e Public
works.)
Restriction of em
ployees in trading.
(S e e Coercion.)
Rhode Island, 1904.......
1905.......
Right of action for in
juries. (S e e Injuries.)
Rights of labor. (S ee
Employment of la
bor.)
Rules for railroad em
ployees:
Michigan.................
554
Philippine Islands..
1074
S.
384 Safety appliances. (S ee
Fire escapes on fac
tories; Guards on
thrashing macnines,
etc.; Inspection of
363
factories; Railroads,
715
safety appliances on.)
Safety
lamps. (S ee
Mine regulations.)
917,918
Sailors. (S e e Seamen.)
Sailors’ b o a r d i n g
houses. (S e e Lodg299-309
359-361
inghouses, sailors’.)
Salt works, negligence
of employees in:
New Y ork ...............
354
838,8
Scaffolding, etc. (S ee
Protection of em
330,381
ployees on buildings.)
Page,
1083
905
713,714
908,909
944
CUM ULATIVE IN D E X
OF LABOR L A W S
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Screening coal.
( S ee
Weighing coal, etc.)
Scrip, payment of wages
in. {S ee Payment of
wages iff scrip.)
Seamen:
Alabama................
California..............
Florida.
Georgia. . .
Louisiana.
Maine...............
Maryland.........
Missouri............
North Dakota..
Oregon..............
South Carolina.
South D akota..
T exas................
Washington___
United States.
Seamen, American, for
ocean mail service:
United States....... .
S e a m e n . {S e e also
Lodging houses, sail
ors’ .)
Seamen’s hospitals:
United States....... .
Seats for employees in
stores, etc.:
Florida....................
Seats for female em
ployees:
Alabama.................
California...............
Colorado............... .
Connecticut.......... .
Delaware............... .
District of Columbia
Georgia..............
Indiana..............
Iow a ...................
Kansas...............
Louisiana...........
Maryland...........
Massachusetts..
Michigan............
Minnesota..........
Missouri.............
Nebraska...........
New Hampshire___
New Jersey........
New Y ork..........
Ohio....................
Oregon................
Pennsylvania. . .
Khode Island. . .
South Carolina..
Tennessee...........
Utah...................
Virginia*..............
Washington.......
West Virginia...
Wisconsin..........
W yom ing................
Seats for horse-car driv
ers:
New Jersey.............
Security
for wages.
{S ee
Protection of
wages.)
No.
105
135
230.232
234.233
239
243,249
436-438
443
459
474
644-646
869,870
939,940
/1107,1111
\
1112
1122,1123
1165
1230
(
1322
11334-1336
11343-1369 •57
113S0,1381
719
1377,1378
235
57
707
Q4Q
975,1044
1035
1103,1109
1174,1175
1206
1229,1234
1262
1281
1315
769
Page.
Page.
1334
109
144
165
208
218,219
228,229
247
325,346
381
392
439,447
466,483
520
547
589
635,648
724
741
752,753
806,824
828
903,909
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
357
*362
Service. {S ee Employ
ment of labor.)
Services, compensation
for:
Indiana...................
Set-offs not to defeat
exemptions of wages:
Alabama..................
Sex no disqualification
for employment:
California................
Illinois.....................
Washington............
Shipping masters. {S ee
Lodging houses, sail
ors’ ; Seamen.)
Slave labor:
Nevada....................
Philiopine Islands..
Smelting works, hours
of labor in. {S ee
Hours of labor in
mines, smelters, etc.)
Smelting works, medi
cal attendance for
employees in:
New Mexico............
Smoking in factories:
Minnesota...............
Society of labor and
industry:
Kansas.....................
Soliciting money from
employees. {S ee Em
ployment, foremen,
etc., accepting fees
for furnishing.)
South Carolina, 1904---1905....
Special stock for em
ployees of corpora
tions:
Massachusetts........
Statistics, collection of:
Hawaii.....................
Minnesota...............
Missouri..................
Montana..................
Ohio.........................
{S e e also Bureau of
labor.)
Stay of execution in
suits for wages. {S ee
Suits for wages.)
Steam boilers, inspec
tion of. (S ee Inspec
tion, etc.)
Steam boilers, negli
gence of operators of.
{S ee Negligence,etc.)
Steamboats, employees
on. ( S e e Seamen.)
Steamboats, employ
ment of unlicensed
engineers on:
Alabama.................
Steamboats, inspection
of. {S e e Inspection,
etc.)
Steamboats, negligence
of employees on.
{S e e Negligence,etc.)
Steam engineers, exam
ination, etc., of. {S ee
Examination, etc.)
Stevedores:
Maryland................
North Carolina.......
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
323
106
129
281
1224
728
1069
784
603
407-410
714,715
360
529,530
253
581
664,665
688,689
887,888
107
492
852,853
703
CUM ULATIVE IN D E X
945
OF LABOR LAW S,
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
i Tenth
I special.
j
Stock, special, for em
ployees of corpora
tions:
Massachusetts........
Stockholders, liability
of. ( S e e Liability of
stockholders, etc.)
Stone worked within
the State preferred
for use on public
buildings. (S e e Pub
lic works, preference
of domestic materials
for.)
Street railways, exami-nation, etc., of em
ployees on. (S e e Ex
amination, etc.)
Street railways, hours
of labor of employees
on. (S e e Hours of
labor, etc.)
Street railways, negli
gence of employees
on:
Louisiana................
Street railways, pay for
overtime labor on:
California................
Street railways, protec
tion of employees on.
(S e e
Protection of
employees.)
Street railways, rights
and remedies of em
ployees on:
South Carolina.......
Street railways, seats
for drivers on:
New Jersey..............
Strike, notice of, in ad
vertisements for la
borers:
Illinois.....................
Montana..................
Oregon.....................
Tennessee................
Strikes of railroad em
ployees:
Delaware.................
Illinois.....................
Kansas....................
Kentucky................
Maine.......................
Mississippi..............
New Jersey.............
Pennsylvania.........
(S e e also Abandon
ment of locomo
tives; Railroads,
obstructing, etc.)
Strikes, participation
in not to be bar to
employment:
Minnesota...............
Strikes. (S e e also Ar
bitration of labor
disputes; Conspiracy,
l a b o r agreements
not; I n t e r f e r e n c e
with employment.)
Suits for injuries. (S ee
Injuries, etc.)
Suits for wages:
Idaho.......................
Illinois.....................
Page.
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
i
Suits for wages—Conc’d
Iow a..............
529,530
Minnesota.
M issouri...
North Dakota..
Texas........
U tah......... .
Wisconsin.
435
131
1106
769
296,297
711,712
950,951
1140
216,217
290,291
387,388
420
458,459
629
782
971,972
626
Page.
Bulletin.
No.J
1 i
380
!
440,441
541,562
i
'
598,599
635
h ::::::::::
,f 792,844 I
906
i
845 j|64 |
i
872
f 920,921
i
923 i.J..........
f
l
932,933
1 1038,1043
i
1163
!
1176
i
1
1276
1314,1315
1335
United States.
(S e e also Payment
of wages; Protec
tion of wages;
Wages as pre
ferred claims.)
Sunday labor:
109
Alabama.................
Arkansas................
118
171
Colorado.
Connecticut.............'{
j[
Delaware................. . 218,220
224
District of Alaska..;
District of Columbia! 226,227
231,239
Florida.
Georgia......................1 247,248
Hawaii.......................I 255,256 62
Illinois.......................! 280,281
Indiana......................1 324,325
383
Iow a.......................... !
Kansas.....................
387
!
Kentucky.................. \
421
Louisiana..................} 435,436 !__
Maine.........................j
459 j ___
Maryland.................. !
468 !__
Massachusetts........1
501 I 57
Michigan................. i
553 ___
Minnesota................. i
601 I__
Mississippi................ 1
630
Missouri.................... !
638
Montana....................'
704
Nebraska.................. ! 723,724
New Hampshire____ !
739
New Jersey................! 769,770
New M exico.............. i
783
New Y ork ................. i 841,842
North Carolina.____! 851,852
North Dakota...........1 872,876
Ohio...........................!
926
Oklahoma...............
930
Oregon.................... | 939,940
Pennsylvania.
1034
1081
Porto R ico............
Rhode Island........ 1094,1095
Rhode Island ( D ) .
67
South Carolina___ 11102,1110
i
1111
South Dakota.......
1124
Tennessee.............. /1127,1128
1
1131
Texas....................... 1163,1164
Utah........................ 1179,1180
Vermont..................
1198
Virginia................... 1201-1203
Washington............ 1229,1239
West Virginia.........
1244
Wisconsin............... I 1280,1281
W yom ing................i
1313
CO
272
281,282
286
Page.
333,334
861,862
716,717
946
CU M ULATIVE
IN D E X
OF LABOR
LAW S,
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
! Tenth
| special.
Page.
Sunday labor—Conc’d. j
CS ee also Weekly I
day of rest.)
;
Sweating system:
203 ,20 4
Connecticut........
284r-286
Illinois................
347
Indiana-.............
467,468
Maryland...........
Maryland ( D ) . . .
5 22,523
Massachusetts. .
5 75,576
Michigan.............
666
Missouri.............
765
New Jersey........
' 816-818
New Y ork ..........
i
833
Ohio................
910,911
1060-1062
Pennsylvania.
1288-1290
Wisconsin___
Bulletin.
|No.
Page.
999-1002
1086
1015,1016
715 -7 18
65
358
T.
Taxes of employees,
liability of employers
for. (S e e Liability
of employers, etc.)
Telegraph operators,
age of employment of,
on railroads:
Colorado..................
Georgia....................
New Y ork ...............
Telegraph operators,
examination, etc., of:
Georgia....................
Telegraph, etc., wires
crossing
railroads,
height of:
Ohio.........................
Telegraph poles, size,
height, etc., of:
W yom ing................
Tenement
manufac
tures. (S ee Sweating
system.)
Tennessee, 1905..............
Termination of employ
ment. (S ee Employ
ment of labor; Em
ployment, termina
tion of, notice of.)
Texas, 1905.....................
Threats. (S e e Intim
idation.)
Time for meals to be
allowed employees:
California................
Indiana....................
Louisiana................
Massachusetts........
Michigan..................
New Y ork................
Pennsylvania..........
Time to vote to be al
lowed employees:
Arizona...................
California................
Colorado..................
Hawaii.....................
Illinois.....................
Indiana....................
Iow a.........................
Kansas.....................
Kentucky.........
Maryland.........
Massachusetts.
Minnesota........
Missouri...........
170
241
837,838
241
902
61
1095
65
3 61,362
65
151
347
439,447
519
574
815 ,82 3
974,1045
363
57
704
65
357
112
130
167
255
281
332
3 67,368
388
417,421
422
469
497
580
649,650
57
710
j Tenth
! special.
| Page.
Bulletin.
No.
Time to vote to be al j
lowed employees— |
Concluded.
New Y ork................ | 799,800
Ohio......................... 1
920 5 9
935Oklahoma................
1116
South Dakota.........
Tennessee................
1127
U tah.........................
1174
1242
West Virginia.........
(S ee also Protection
of employees as
voters.)
Trade-marks of me
chanics:
New Jersey.............
779
Trade-marks of trade
unions, etc.:
Alabama..................
110
115,116
Arizona....................
Arkansas.................
65
130 62
California................
184-186
Colorado..................
Connecticut.............
211,212
Connecticut ( D ) . . .
67
220,221
Delaware.................
235-237
Florida.....................
240
Georgia....................
/ 265,266
Idaho....................... \
274 /i „ .
291-293
Illinois.....................
Indiana....................
360-362
383,384
Iow a........................
Kansas....................
410,411
Kentucky................
426,427
Louisiana................
445,446
M a in e .......................
451,452
M a r y la n d ................
464,465
Massachusetts........
499,500
Michigan..................
563-565
603-605
Minnesota................
M is s o u r i ...................
668-670
705,706
Montana..................
719,720 63
Nebraska............
741,742
New Hampshire__
N ’f iw J e r s e y _______
773-778
61
New Jersey (D )___
806 57
New Y ork ...............
905-907
Ohio.........................
933,934
Oklahoma...............
936-938
Oregon.....................
1062,1063
Pennsylvania______
Rhode Island.......... 1995-1097
1118
South Dakota_____
Tennessee................ 1135,1136 65
11159,1160 l
Texas....................... \1164,1165
r
Utah........................ \fll78,1180
1181 )1. . .
Virginia................... 1211,1212
W ashin gton.......... 1224-1226
West Virginia......... 1257-1259
fl27I,1272 i j
Wisconsin................ \1278,1279
W yom ing................ 1304-1306 r
(S ee
also
Public
printing, union
label to be used
on.)
Trade unions.
(S ee
Labor organizations.)
Trading, coercion of
employees in. (S ee
Coercion.)
Trains for workingmen:
532
Massachusetts........
Truck system.
(S ee
Company stores.)
Page.
|
380
354,355
330
889-891
586
1066,1067
715
361,362
i
.....................
i
CUM ULATIVE IN D E X
947
OF LABOR L A W S
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions— Continued.
Tenth
special.
Page.
No.
Indiana...................
Iow a........................
Kansas....................
838
725
364
207
449
60
715,716
1334
716,717
97,1 10
113,114
117,118.
126
136
190
195
214,215
223
225
242
271,272
2 75,288
289
327
337-339
380,381
390,392
Bulletin.
No.
Page.
Wages as preferred
claims—Concluded.
Louisiana...............
Maine......................
Maryland.............. .
Massachusetts........
Michigan............
Minnesota..........
Missouri..............
Montana.............
Nebraska............
Nevada...............
New Hampshire___I
U.
389
Page.
Page.
Trustee process,exemp
tion of wages from.
( S ee Exemption of
wages from execu
tion, etc.)
Uniforms, influencing
railroad employees
not to wear:
New Y ork ..............•.
Union label.
(S ee
Public printing, union
label to be used on;
Trade-marks of trade
unions.)
Union labor to be em
ployed on p u b 1 i c
works:
Nebraska................
Utah, 1905......................
V.
Vaccination of em
ployees in paper mills:
Connecticut...........
Maine.....................
Vaccination of em
ployees on public
works:
Virginia.................
Ventilation, etc., of
mines.
(S e e Mine
regulations.)
Vermont, 1904..............
Vessels, inspection of.
( S ee Inspection, etc.)
Vessels of American
construction for ocean
mail service:
United States....... .
Violation of contract.
(S ee Employment of
labor.)
Virginia, 1904...............
V olur teer
servants.
(S ee Employment of
labor.)
Voters, protection of
employees as.
(S ee
Protection of em
ployees, etc.)
Voting by railroad em
ployees:
Kansas....................
Voting, time for. (S ee
Time to vote.)
W.
W ages as preferred
claims:
Alabama.................
Arizona...................
Arkansas....
California...
Colorado___
Connecticut.
Delaware.................
District of A laska..
Georgia....................
Idaho.......................
Illinois.....................
Tenth
special.
Bulletin.
456,457
469,470
534,535
561,566
567
598,600
633,640
701-703
713,722
727,728
733
738
748
New Jersey.............. \ 757-759
jl 767,773
New Mexico............ 1..................
New Y ork............... '{ 791, |q|
North Carolina....... ;
860
North Dakota........ |
871
Ohio......................... I 921,922
Ore*™
lI
935,936
Ureg0n.....................945,946
If 972,973
Pennsylvania..........'<1038-1040
jl
1047
Rhode Island ....... |
1094
South Dakota.........I
1123
Texas.......................!
1160
TTtoh
/1173,1175
Ulan........................ ,11176,1179
1195
Vermont..................
Washington............ ]{1228’ S1240
Wisconsin............... '1268,1276
W yom ing................ 1303,1315
United States......... 1379,1380
Wages, assignment of.
(S ee Assignment of
wages.)
Wages, attachment of.
(S e e Attachment of
wages.)
Wages, combinations
to fix:
Louisiana................
Wages, deducting from,
for benefit societies.
(S ee Forced contribu
tions.)
W a g e s , discounting,
(S e e
Payment of
wages, modes and
times of.)
Wages due deceased
employees. (See Pay
ment of wages due,
etc.)
Wages due from con
tractors. (S ee Lia
bility of railroad com
panies for debts,etc.)
Wages due from prede
cessors, liability of
railroad companies
for:
Wisconsin...............
1274
Wages, exemption of.
(S ee Exemption of
wages.)
Wages, garnishment
of.
(S e e Garnish
ment of wages.)
Wages, liability of
stockholders f o r .
(See
Liability of
stockholders, etc.)
61
1094
704
948
CUMULATIVE INDEX OF LABOR LAWS.
C u m u la tiv e in d e x o f la bor la w s a n d d ecision s — Concluded.
Tenth
special.
Page.
Bulletin.
No.
Wages of employees on
public works, reten
tion of:
62
California................
Wages, payment of.
{S e e P a y m e n t o f
wages.)
Wages, preference of.
(S e e W a g e s as pre
ferred claims.)
Wages, protection of.
(S e e
Protection of
wages.)
Wages, rates of. (S ee
Rates of wages.)
Wages, r e c o v e r y of.
(S e e Suits for wages.)
Wages, reduction of,
notice of:
633,634
Missouri..................
Texas....................... 1162,1163
1377
United States.........
Wages, refusing to pay:
603
Minnesota...............
Wages, security for.
(S e e Protection
of
wages.)
Wages, suits for. (S ee
Suits for wages.)
Wages, withholding.
(S e e Forced contribu
tions, etc.)
W aiver of right to dam
ages. (S e e Contracts
of employees waiving
right to damages.)
Washington, 1905..........
67
W ater for employees in
factories:
536
Massachusetts........
Water-closets for work
men on buildings:
Michigan.................
568,569
Weekly day of rest:
138,139
California................
665
Missouri........... .s...
1041
Pennsylvania.........
Weighing coal at mines:
100,101
Alabama.................
108
123,124
Arkansas.................
126
180,188
Colorado..................
189
311
Illinois..’ .................
353,354
Indiana...................
377,378
Iow a........................
402
Kansas....................
480,481
Maryland................
651,652
Missouri........... .
709,710
Montana..................
785,786
New Mexico............
879,880
Ohio.........................
884,919
920,982
983
Pennsylvania,.
[1005,1055
j l 129,1130
Tennessee.......
\
1138
1176', 1177
Utah...............
1221
W ashington...
(1253,1254
West Virginia.
\
1262
1312,1313
W yom ing____
Page.
330
907-912
351
Tenth
special.
Page.
Bulletin.
Page.
West Virginia, 1905.__
67 . 912-914
Wife’s earnings. (S ee
Earnings of married
women.)
Wisconsin, 1905.............
67
914-918
Women and children.
(S ee Children
and
women.)
Women, employment
of, general provisions:
Delaware.................
218-220
Indiana...................
346
Louisiana................
447
Michigan.................
63
581
Ohio.........................
908,909
Tennessee................ 1134,1135
Women, employment
of, in bar rooms, etc.:
District of Alaska..
224
Iow a........................
370
Louisiana................
435 !
Maryland................
469
Michigan.................
545,546
Missouri..................
637
New Hampshire....
744 63
589
New Y ork...............
847
Vermont..................
1199 60
715
Washington............
1229
Women, employment
of, in coal mines:
Pennsylvania.........
975,976
Women, emp loyment
of. (S ee also Chil
dren and women;
Seats for female em
ployees; Sex no dis
qualification for em
ployment.)
Women, hours of labor
of:
191
Colorado.................
724
Nebraska................
Oregon....................
949
Oregon (D ).............
67
877-879
1234
Washington............
(S ee also Children
and women.)
W omen, married, earn
ings of. (S ee Earn
ings of married wo
men.)
W omen, night work b y :
345
Indiana...................
517
Massachusetts.......
724
Nebraska................
812
New Y ork...............
W omen’ s exchanges,
incorporation of:
330
Indiana...................
773
New Jersey.............
Women’s wages, col
lection, etc., of:
524
Massachusetts........
541
Michigan.................
792,845
New Y ork...............
Workingmen’s trains:
532
Massachusetts.. . . .
61 1094,1095
Wyoming, 1905..............
719,720
57
United States, 1903-4. ..
717-720
eo
1904-5...
909
04
1905-6...
IN D E X TO VOLUM E 13.
Page.
Conditions of entrance to the principal trades................................................................................... 681-780
Cost of industrial insurance in the District of Columbia.................................................................. 781-822
Decisions of courts affecting labor:
Boycotts. (S e e Labor organizations.)
Contract of employment—advance payments—fraudulent breach—constitutionality of
statute................................................................................................................................................
861
Employer and employee—relation—employee riding to place of work—Sunday labor.......... 861,862
Employers’ liability—
employment of children—age limit—construction of statute.............................................. 863,864
fellow-servant law—railroad companies—operation of road............................................... 338,339
mine regulations—benefit of statute—construction.............................................................. 864-806
mine regulations—employment of managers and examiners—vice-principals—construc
tion of statute......................................................................................................................... 866-868
mine regulations—practicability as test....................................................................................
337
nondelegable duties—mine boss—construction of statute................................................... 334-337
practicability as affecting application of statute—mine regulations.....................................
337
railroad companies—departments—superiors and subordinates—construction of statute 868-875
railroad companies—operation of road................................................................................... 338,339
railway relief associations—acceptance of benefits—right to sue........................................ 344-346
Enticing employees—liability—construction of statute.............................................................. 339-342
Examination and licensing of plumbers—police power—constitutionality of statute........... 875-877
Hours of labor of female employees—police power—constitutionality of statute................... 877-879
Injunctions. (S e e Labor organizations.)
Inspection of factories and workshops—street railway repair shop—construction of statute. 342-344
Interference with employment—intimidation—bribery—benefits of trade unions................. 346,347
Labor organizations—
boycott—extortion.................................................................................................................... 884-886
boycott—injunction—violation—evidence.............................................................................. 891-893
boycott—lawful persuasion—injunction................................................................................. 894-897
conspiracy—coercion—interference with property rights—damages................................... 897-902
injunction—contempt—levy of fine......................................................................................... 347-349
interference with employment—enticement of employees.................................................... 339-342
interference with employment—intimidation—benefits as bribery.................................... 346,347
liability of members for damages............................................................................... 879-883,897-906
obligations and rights of members—public duties—reinstatement of suspended members—
damages.................................................................................................................................... 902-906
protection of employees as members—constitutionality of statute.................................. 888,889
Payment of wages—biweekly pay day—lawful money—penalty for nonpayment—attorney’ s
fee—constitutionality of statute................................................................................................. 886-888
Sunday labor as affecting contracts of employment................................................................... 861,862
Trade-marks of trade unions—construction of statute.............................................................. 889-891
Digest of recent foreign statistical publications:
Austria—
Bleivergiftungen in Hiittenmannischen und Gewerblichen Betrieben. Ursachen und
Bekampfung............................................................................................................................ 842-848
B elgium Fab rication des Produits Chimiques proprement dits. 1905.............................................. 323,324
Filature M^canique du Coton, du Lin, du Chanvre et du Jute. 1902 ....................................
323
Les Salaires dans l’ lndustrie Gantoise: II. Industrie de la Filature du Lin.......................
324
France—
Annuaire des Syndicats Professionnels Industries, Commerciaux et Agricoles constitues
conform&nent a la Loi du 21 Mars 1884, en France et aux Colonies............................... 848-852
Rapports sur 1’Application des Lois reglementant le Travail en 1904................................. 852-856
Great B rita in Eleventh and Twelfth Annual Reports on Changes in Rates of Wages and Hours of Labor
in the United Kingdom, 1903 and 1904 ................................................................................. 324-329
Fifteenth Report on Trade Unions in Great Britain and Ireland, 1902,1903, and 1904... 856-860
Report of the Departmental Committee on Workmen’ s Compensation, 1904................... 329-332
Prussia—
Festschrift des Konigiich-Preussischen Statistischen Bureaus zur Jahrhundertfeier seines
Bestehens..............................................................., ............................................................... 332,333
Digest of recent reports of State bureaus of labor statistics:
Massachusetts................................................................................................................................... 823-831
Michigan............................................................................................................................................. 831-834
Nebraska..................................... .•........................................................................................................
835
New Y o rk ..........................................................-............................................................................... 836-841
Pennsylvania.......................................................................................................................................317-321
Rhode Island..................................................................................................................................... 321,322
Enforcement of certain labor laws in France, 1904 ............................................................................. 852-856
Flax-spinning industry in Ghent..............................................................................................................
324
Food, retail prices of, in the United States, 1890 to 1905................................................................... 171-316
115b — N o . 6 7 -0 6 ------ 18
949
950
INDEX TO VOLUME 13.
Hawaii:
Page.
Agriculture and live-stock products, value of, in 1890....................................................................
jjm
Analysis of tables............................................................................................................................. 512 515
Arrivals of Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans, July 1 , 1900, to December 31, 1905..................... 371,372
Arrivals. ( S ee also Immigrants; Immigration.)
Asiatic character of labor in the sugar industry......................................................................... 357,353
Asiatics—
births of, in Honolulu, 1901 to 1904 .............................................................................................
410
competition of local and Pacific coast industries with sugar industry for labor o f ......... 378-380
control of plantation-labor situation b y ................................................................................ 380-383
cost of living o f.......................................................................................................................... 474-476
departures of, to the mainland, January 1,1902, to December 31,1905 .............................. 378,379
efforts of merchants and mechanics to resist competition o f.............................................. 402-404
extent of property interests o f................................................................................................ 406-409
increasing proportion of, in population.................................................................................. 368-377
invasion of small farming b y ................................................................................................... 394-397
invasion of the building trades b y .......................................................................................... 384-381
invasion of trade and skilled occupations b y ........................................................................ 383-394
males 10 years of age or over engaged in gainful occupations in 1900, by kind of occupation.. 377
pupils, effect of, upon school system....................................................................................... 414-416
(See also Orientalization; Chinese; Japanese; Koreans.)
Assessed valuation of real and personal property, 1901 and 1904 ..................................................
407
Benefit societies, functions and work o f....................................................................................... 483-487
Births, registered, in Honolulu, by race or nationality, 1901 to 1904........................................ 410,411
Board, prices paid fo r ...................................................................................................................... 467-470
Building trades—
cost of white and Asiatic labor in the, compared................................................................. 386,387
invasion of the, by Asiatics...................................................................................................... 384-388
number of white mechanics in each occupation in 7 identical establishments in the, 19001901,1902, and 1905, compared..................................................................................................
385
occupations, average wages and hours of labor, and nationality of employees in, 1900-1901,
1902, and 1905 ........................................................................................................................... 594-598
occupations, rates of wages, hours of labor, and nationality of employees in, 1905......... 518-523
P a 11/>o cm o n C —
births of, in Honolulu, 1901 to 1904 .............................................................................................
410
cost of living o f.......................................................................................................................... 467-474
married females, proportion of, to total Caucasians............................................................ 373,374
number and per cent of males, 18 years of age Or over, in 1900 ...............................................
370
number and per cent of, on sugar plantations, 1892 to 1905 ....................................................
368
number of, in public schools, 1902 to 1905..................................................................................
482
number of, in the islands, by sex, 1900 .......................................................................................
369
number of, on sugar plantations, by groups of occupations, 1902 and 1905 ..........................
381
per cent of total, in specified age groups................................................................................ 373,374
taxpayers, number of, and assessed valuation of real and personal property, 1901 and 1904. 407
territorial board of immigration to promote settlement of, consideration o f.................. 421-425
Central Japanese League, functions and work o f...................................................... .
398-401,485-487
Children and women. ( S ee Women and children.)
Chinese—
admission of, as laborers, consideration o f........................................................... : .............. 416-421
admission of, proposed, as plantation laborers, consideration o f...................................... 404-406
arrivals of, July 1,1900, to December 31,1905 ........................................................................ 371,372
births of, in Honolulu, 1901 to 1904.............................................................................................
410
departures of, June 14,1900, to December 31,1905 ....................................................................
372
married females, proportion of, to total Chinese.................................................................. 373,374
number and per cent of, at census periods, 1853 to 1900.. * ....................................................
369
number and per cent of males, 18 years of age or over, in 1900 ...............................................
370
number and per cent of, on sugar plantations, 1892 to 1905....................................................
368
number of, holding trade licenses, 1885 to 1904 .........................................................................
389
number of, in public schools, 1902 to 1905............................................................................... 409,482
number of, in the islands, by sex, 19C0.......................................................................................
3C9
number of, on sugar plantations, by groups of occupations, 1902 and 1905..........................
381
per cent of total, in specified age groups...................................................................................
373
restrictions placed on immigration of, in 1887 and 1888 ...........................................................
405
taxpayers, number of, and assessed valuation of real and personal property, 1901 and 1904. 407
(S e e also Asiatics; Orientalization.)
Chinese and J apanese labor compared.................................................................................... 402.405,406
Chinese and J apanese males 10 years of age or over engaged in gainful occupations in 1900, by
kind of occupation............................................................................................................................
377
C offeecultivation of, account o f............................................................................................ 395,396,460,461
production of, amount of, 1903 ....................................................................................................
461
Colonization, attempt at, account o f ............................................................................................. 444,445
Commercial pursuits, invasion of, by Asiatics............................................................................. 388-393
Corporations, domestic and foreign, number and capitalization o f.......................................... 451,452
Cost of living of—
Chinese, J apanese, and Korean workingmen........................................................................... 474-476
Portuguese and Porto Rican workirgmen’s families.......................................................... 471-473
skilled Caucasian workingmen’ s families................................................................................. 467-470
workingmen’s families, consideration and statistics o f........................................................ 467-476
Cost of production per acre of sugar cane in a 10-acre tract.......................................................
446
Death rate per 1,000 inhabitants in 1904...........................................................................................
478
Departures of—
Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans, June 14,1900, to December 31,1905 ..................................
372
Japanese to the mainland, efforts to lessen, account o f...................................................... 397-399
Japanese to the mainland, May to December, 1905 ..................................................................
399
Japanese women and children, July 1,1902, to December 31,1905 ........................................... 410
Orientals to the mainland, January 1,1902, to December 31,1905...................................... 378,379
Education in the islands, account and statistics o f .................................................................... 480-483
Emigrant agents, act licensing........................................................................................................
397
Emigrants. ( S ee Departures.)
IN DE X TO VOLUME 13.
951
Hawaii—Continued.
Page.
Employees—
nationality of, occupations, and average wages and hours of labor in each industry, 19001901, 1902, and 1905 ................................................................................................... 513,514,592-662
nationality of, occupations, rates of wages, and hours of labor in each industry, 1905.......... 512,
513,516-591
number of, covered by the investigation, b y industries.......................................................... 512
number of, on sugar plantations, 1892 to 1905 ..........................................................................
368
Employments, urban, account o f ................................................................................................. 464-467
Establishments, number of, covered b y the investigation, by industries...................................
512
Exports, value of, for fiscal year ending June 30,1905 .................................................................... 367
Farming, sm a llexperiments in, account o f ....................................................................................................... 441-447
invasion of, by A siatics............................................................................................................ 394-397
Federation of Allied Trades of Hilo—
citizenship, literacy, and occupations of members o f........................................................... 489,490
efforts of, to resist competition of Orientals.................................................................. 404,488-491
Females, married, proportion of, to total population................................................................ 373,374
Food, prices of. (S e e Prices.)
Fruit cultivation, account o f................................................................................................... 396,461,462
Government work, employment of white and native labor upon, consideration o f............... 393,394
Hawaiians—
births of, in Honolulu, 1901 to 1904 .............................................................................................
410
decadence of, as a race............................................................................................................... 372,373
married females, proportion of, to total Hawaiians........................................................... . 373,374
number and per cent of, at census periods, 1853 to 1900..........................................................
369
number and per cent of males, 18 years of age or over, in 1900...............................................
370
number and per cent of, on sugar plantations, 1892 to 1905 ...................................................
368
number of, in public schools, 1902 to 1905............................................................................... 409,482
number of, in the islands, bjr sex, 1900.......................................................................................
369
number of, on sugar plantations, by groups of occupations,1902 and 1905............................
381
per cent of total, in specified age g roups...................................................................................
373
taxpayers, number of, and assessed valuation of real and personal property, 1901 and 1904 407
Health and sanitation, consideration o f....................................................................................... 476-480
Hours of labor, average, occupations, average wages, and nationality of employees in each
industry, 1900-1901, 1902, and 1905 ................................................................................. 513,514,592-662
Hours of labor, occupations, rates of wages, and nationality of employees in each indus
try, 1905............................................................................................................................ 512,513,516-591
Immigran ts, alien (excepting Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans), 1901 to 1905, by race or people. 370,371
Immigrants. ( S e e also Arrivals.)
Immigration—
Japanese, account and statistics o f.................................... „.................................................. 502-511
territorial board of, to promote settlement of whites, consideration o f ........................... 422-425
Industrial and technical schools, account of................................................................................ 481,482
Japanese—
arrivals of, July 1, 1900, to December 31, 1905........................................................................ 371,372
benefit societies among, functions and work o f.................................................................... 484-487
births of, in Honolulu, 1901 to 1904 ............................................................................................
410
departures of, June 14,1900, to December 31,1905 .................................................................... 372
departures of, to the mainland, efforts to lessen, account o f .............................................. 397-399
departures of, to the mainland, May to December, 1905 .........................................................
399
immigration of, account and statistics o f ............................................................................. 502-511
immigration of, as contract laborers, stipulations regarding............................................. 503,504
leasing of plantations by, account o f...................................................................................... 395,396
married females, proportion of, to total Japanese................................................................ 373,374
369
number and per cent of, at census periods, 1853 to 1900 ..........................................................
number and per cent of males, 18 years of age or over, in 1900 ..............................................
370
number and per cent of, on sugar plantations, 1892 to 1905...................................................
368
number of, holding trade licenses, 1898 to 1904.........................................................................
389
number of, in public schools, 1902 to 1905............................................................................... 409,482
number of, in the islands, by sex, 1900 .....................................................................................
369
number of, on sugar plantations, by groups of occupations, 1902 and 1905 ..........................
381
per cent of total, in specified age g r o u p s.............................................................................. 373,374
schools of, account of....................................................................................................................
483
strikes by, on sugar plantations....................................................................................... 332,493-501
taxpayers, number of, and assessed valuation of real and personal property, 1901 and 1904 407
women and children, departures of, July 1,1902, to December 31,1905.................................
410
( S ee also Asiatics; Orientalization.)
Japanese and Chinese labor compared................................................................................... 402,405,406
Japanese and Chinese males 10 years of age or over engaged in gainful occupations in 1900,
by kind of occupation......................................................................................................................
377
Koreans—
arrivals of, July 1,1900, to December 31,1905......................................................................... 371,372
departures of, June 14,1900, to December 31,1905 ....................................................................
372
employment of, as plantation laborers to break up Japanese control............................... 401,402
number and per cent of, on sugar plantations, 1892 to 1905....................................................
368
number of, on sugar plantations, by groups of occupations, 1902 and 1905 ..........................
381
(S ee also Asiatics; Orientalization.)
Labor—
Chinese, admission of, consideration o f.................................................................................. 416-421
Chinese and Japanese, compared...................................................................................... 402,405,406
cost of white and Asiatic, in the building trades, compared............................................... 386,387
employment of white and native, upon Government work................................................. 393,394
for the mainland, specimen advertisements calling fo r ........................................................ 379,380
on sugar plantations, distribution of, by groups of occupations and nationality, 1902
and 1905 ................................................................................................................................... 381,382
resident and imported, advantages of the former over the latter...................................... 435,436
resident and imported, competitive relations of, to each other.........................................430
952
IN DE X TO VOLUME 13
Hawaii—Continued.
Page.
Labor—Concluded.
resident and imported, consideration of the problem o f...................................................... 425-437
resident, fundamental principles to be considered in reference t o ...................................... 431,432
resident, measures required to establish................................................................................ 432-435
substitution of Caucasian for Asiatic, consideration o f....................................................... 422-425
Labor and industry, general conditions o f................................................................................... 366-511
Labor disputes, work of Central Japanese League in adjusting................................................ 400,401
Labor disputes. (S e e also Strikes.)
Labor organizations. (S e e Trade unions.)
Labor problems in the islands, consideration o f.......................................................................... 374-376
Laborers—
condition of, on coffee plantations..............................................................................................
461
condition of, on rice plantations.............................................................................................. 459,460
condition of, on stock ranges.......................................................................................................
457
condition of, on sugar plantations.......................................................................................... 455,456
cost of living o f........................................................................................................................... 467-476
wages and hours of labor of, in urban employments........................................................... 465-467
Laboring population, Orientalization of, and its results............................................................ 366-416
Land and settlement, account o f............................ ...................................................................... 437-440
Lands, public—
administration o f..........................................................................................................................
440
extent o f.........................................................................................................................................
437
method of acquiring............................................................................................................. : . . 437-439
price o f............................................................................................................................................
437
revenue derived from leases o f................................................................................................. 439,440
Laws relating to labor:
Alien labor.....................................................................................................................................
672
Assessors, employers to furnish names of employees t o .........................................................
674
Chinese laborers, exclusion o f.................................................................................................. 678,679
Chinese, registration o f................................................................................................................
672
Conspiracy.....................................................................................................................................
675
Contracts of employment............................................................................................................
672
Earnings of married women...................................................................................................... .• 675
Emigrant agents...........................................................................................................................
678
Employment, contracts o f...........................................................................................................
672
Employment, contracts of, stamp duties o n ............................................................................
674
Employment of labor on public works......................................................................................
673
Exemption of wages from execution, e tc ................................... : .............................................
674
Garnishment of wages of public employees........................................................................... 674,675
Highways, pay days of employees o n ........................................................................................
673
Horseshoers, examination and licensing o f............................................................................ 677,678
Labor, alien, contracts of employment relating t o ..................................................................
672
Labor, Chinese, exclusion of..................................................................................................... 678,679
Labor commission, duties, etc., o f........................................... .............................................. 676,677
Labor on public works, employment o f.....................................................................................
673
Labor, Sunday........................................................................................................................... 675,676
Laundries, regulation o f........................................................................................................... 673,674
Liquor, sale of, to employees.......................................................................................................
678
Lodging and tenement houses, inspection, etc., o f...................................................................
673
Married women, earnings o f........................................................................................................
675
Minors, employment of, in saloons.............................................................................................
678
Pay days of employees on highways..........................................................................................
673
Payment of wages, deductions, offsets, etc., from ....................................................................
675
Public employees, garnishment of wages o f........................................................................... 674,675
Public works, employment of labor on ......................................................................................
673
Saloons, employment of minors in .............................................................................................
678
Stamp duties on contracts of employment...............................................................................
674
Statistics, collection o f.................................................................................................................
672
Sunday labor....................................................................................... - ..................................... 675,676
Tenement and lodging houses, inspection, etc., o f...................................................................
673
Wages, exemption of, from execution, etc.................................................................................
674
Wages of employees on highways, payment o f.........................................................................
673
Wages of public employees, garnishment o f........................................................................... 674,675
Wages, payment of deductions, offsets, etc., from ...................................................................
675
Males 10 years of age or over engaged in gainful occupations in 1900, by race and kind of occup ation ................................................................................................................................................
377
Manufacturing and mechanical industries, capital invested in, in 1900 .................................... 366,367
Mechanical trades, invasion of the, by Asiatics........................................................................... 384-388
Mercantile pursuits, invasion of, by Asiatics............................................................................... 390-393
Merchants and mechanics, efforts of, to resist competition of Orientals, account o f............. 402-404
Nationalitv, occupations, and average wages and hours of labor of employees in each indus
try, 1900-1901, 1902, and 1905 ............................................................................................ 513,514,592-662
Nationalitv, occupations, rates of wages, and hours of labor of employees in each industry,
1 9 0 5 ....;..........
512,513,516-591
Negro males 10 years of age or over engaged in gainful occupations in 1900, by kind of occupation 377
Negroes and South Sea Islanders, number of, on sugar plantations, by groups of occupations,
1902 and 1905 ......................................................................................................................................
381
Negroes, number and per cent of, males, 18 years of age or over, in 1900....................................
370
Negroes, South Sea Islanders, and others, number and per cent of, on sugar plantations,
1892-1905..................................................................................
368
Occupations—
average wages and hours of labor, and nationality of employees in each industry, 19001901,1902, and 1905 ..................................................................................................... 513,514,592-662
citizenship, and literacy of the members of the Federation of Allied Trades of H ilo----- 489,490
gainful, males 10 years of age or over engaged in, in 1900, by race.......................................
377
nonurban and urban, wages, conditions of labor, etc., in .................................................... 463-467
rates of wages, hours of labor, and nationalityof employees in each industry, 1905. 512,513,516-591
skilled, and trade, invasion of, by Asiatics............................................................................ 383-394
INDEX TO VOLUME 13,
953
Hawaii—Continued.
Oriental population and political control, consideration o f....................................................... 409-413
Orientalization of laboring population and its results............................................................... 366-416
Orientalization of population, effect of, upon character of citizenship.................................... 413,414
Orientals. (S e e Asiatics; Chinese; Japanese; Koreans.)
Plantation la b o r control of, situation by Asiatics............................................................................................. 380-383
efforts to control, account o f.................................................................................................... 397-402
Plantation laborers—
employment of Koreans as, to break up Japanese control.................................................. 401,402
number of, 1892 to 1905.................................................................................................................
368
number of, 1897 and 1905 ..............................................................................................................
375
present supply o f........................................................................................................... - .......... 375,376
proposed admission of Chinese as, consideration o f............................................................. 404-406
wages, hours of labor, etc., of, account o f............................................................................... 452-456
Plantation stores, account o f.........................................................................................................
454
Plantations—
leasing of, by Japanese.............................................................................................................. 395,396
sanitary conditions on .............................................................................................................. 478,479
Population—
at census periods from 1853 to 1900, by color or race..............................................................
369
effect of Orientalization of, upon character of citizenship................................................... 413,414
in 1900, by sex and color or race..................................................................................................
369
per square mile of Hawaii and of other sugar-producing islands compared..................... 436,437
Population and political control, Oriental, consideration o f..................... 1.............................. 409-413
Porto Ricans—
characteristics o f.........................................................................................................................
428
number and per cent of, on sugar plantations, 1892 to 1905 ....................................................
368
number of, in public schools, 1902 to 1905..................................................................................
482
number of, on sugar plantations, by groups of occupations, 1602 and 1905 ..........................
381
Portuguese—
benefit societies among, functions and work of..................................................................... 483,484
characteristics o f........................................................................................................................ 426-428
number and per cent of, on sugar plantations, 1892 to 1905....................................................
368
number of, in public schools..................................................................................................... 426,482
number of, on sugar plantations, by groups of occupations, 1902 and 1905 ..........................
381
Prices_
relative retail, of food, 1860 to 1905.....................................................................................*----515
retail, of commodities, 1890 to 1905 ............................................................................ 514,515,663-671
Production, cost of. (S e e Cost of production.)
Property owners—
by nationality, 1901 and 1604.......................................................................................................
407
white, native, and Asiatic, relative holdings of, compared................................................. 408,409
Property, personal and real, assessed valuation of, 1901 and 1904.....................t.........................
407
Pupils in schools, number and nationality of, 1902 to 1905 ............................................................
482
Real estate, assessed valuation of, 1901 and 1904.............................................................................
407
Rent, prices paid fo r ................................................................................................................. 468,469,473
R ic e area cultivated and tons produced, year ending June 30,1904................................................
458
cultivation of, account o f......................................................................................................... 458-460
estimated cost of raising a 5-acre crop of..................................................................................
459
Salaries of public school-teachers......................................................................................................
481
Sanitary conditions on plantations............................................................................................... 478,479
Sanitation and health, consideration o f................................................................ ...................... 476-480
School system, effect of Asiatic pupils upon................................................................................ 414-416
Schools—
industrial and technical, account o f........................................................................................ 481,482
Japanese, account o f.....................................................................................................................
483
number and nationality of pupils in, 1902 to 1905 .....................................................................
482
salaries of teachers in...................................................................................................................
481
(S e e also Education.)
Small farming, experiments in, account o f................................................................................... 441-447
Societies, benefit, functions and work o f...................................................................................... 483-487
South Sea Islanders and negroes, number of, on sugar plantations, bv groups of occupations,
1902 and 1905.........................................
381
South Sea Islanders, negroes, and others, number and percent of, on sugar plantations, 1892
to 1905................................................................................................................................................
368
South Sea Islanders, number and per cent of males, 18 years of age or over, in 1600................
370
South Sea Islanders, number of, in the islands, by sex, 1900.........................................................
369
Stock raising, consideration o f....................................................................................................... 456,457
Stores, plantation, account of...........................................................................................................
454
• Strikes—
account and statistics o f............................................................................................. 382,401,493-501
on sugar plantations, 1903 to 1905..................................................................................... 494-497,501
Sugar cane, cost of production and receipts per acre of, for a two-year crop on a 10-acre tract.
446
Sugar industry—
account of the growth o f..............................................................................................................
367
Asiatic character of labor in..................................................................................................... 367.368
capitalization of, 1902,1903, and 1904...................................................................................... 448,449
competition of local and Pacific coast industries with, for Asiatic la b o r........................ 378-380
dominant position o f................................................................................................................. 366,367
financial standing and profits of, 1902,1903, and 1904........................................................... 448-451
Sugar plantations—
distribution of labor on, by groups of occupations and nationality, 1802 and 1905 ........ 381,382
expense of operating.................................................................................................................. 454,455
strikes on, 1803 to 1905........................................................................................................ 494-497,501
Sugar p rod u ction acres of cane cut and yield of sugar per acre, 1602 and 1903....................................................
448
amount of, 1895 to 1904.................................................................................................................
447
954
IN DE X TO VOLUME 13,
Hawaii—Concluded.
Pago.
Sugar production—Concluded.
hours of labor, average, occupations, average wages, and nationality of employees en
gaged in, 1800-1901, 1802, and? 1905 ......................................................................................... 630-061
hours of labor, occupations, rates of wages, and nationality of employees engaged in, 1805. 556-591
occupations, average wages and hours of labor, and nationality of employees engaged in,
1900-1901,1902, and 1905.......................................................................................................... 630-661
occupations, rates of wages, hours of labor,and nationality of employees engaged in, 1905. 556-591
wages, average, occupations, average hours of labor, and nationality of employees engaged
in, 1900-1901,1902, and 1905.............................................................................................. . . . 630-661
wages, rates of,occupations, hours of labor,and nationality of employees engaged in, 1605. 556-591
Sugar, value of export of, for fiscal year ending June 30,1905.......................................................
367
Taxation, proportion of, paid by Orientals and by Caucasians................................................ 408,409
Taxpayers, number and nationality of, and assessed valuation of real and personal property,
1901 and 1904......................................................................................................................................
407
Teachers in schools, number and salaries o f................................................................................. 480,481
Trade unions, account and statistics o f........................................................................................ 487-492
Transportation facilities, consideration o f................................................................................... 462,463
Valuation, assessed, of real and personal property, 1901 and 1904................................................
407
Voters, consideration and statistics o f.......................................................................................... 411-413
Wages—
average, occupations, average hours of labor, and nationality of employees in each indus
try, 1900-1901, 1902, and 1905 ................................................................................... 513,514,592-662
in various nonurban and urban occupations......................................................................... 464-467
on coffee plantations.....................................................................................................................
461
on fruit farms................................................................................................................................
462
on rice plantations..................................................................................................................... 459,460
on stock ranches............................................................................................................................
457
on sugar plantations.....................................................................................................................
452
rates of, occupations, hours of labor, and nationality of'employees in each industry, 1905 512,
513,516-591
White males 10 years of age or over engaged in gainful occupations in 1800, by kind of occu
pation.................................................................................................................................................
377
Women and children, Japanese, departures of, July 1,1902, to December 31,1905.....................
410
Workingmen’s families, cost of living o f....................................................................................... 467-476
Hours of labor and wages in manufacturing industries in the United States, 1890 to 1905............ 1-170
Industrial insurance, cost of, in the District of Columbia............... '............................................... 781-822
Labor conditions in Austrian lead and zinc works............................................................................ 842-848
Labor laws, enforcement of certain, in France, 1904.......................................................................... 852-856
Laws relating to labor. (S e e Cumulative index of labor laws and decisions relating thereto, pages
919 to 948.)
Lead and zinc works, labor conditions in, in Austria........................................................................ 842-848
Manufacture of chemical products in Belgium .................................................................................. 323,324
Manufactures, statistics of, in Massachusetts.................................................................................... 823-828
Manufacturing industries in the United States, wages and hours of labor in, 1880 to 1905.............. 1-170
Prices, retail. (S e e Retail prices.)
Principal trades, conditions of entrance t o ......................................................................................... 681-780
Prussian statistical bureau, history and outline o f........................................................................... 332,333
Rate of wages and hours of labor, changes in, in the United Kingdom, 1803 and 1904................... 324-329
Retail prices of food in the United States, 1890 to 1905..................................................................... 171-316
Statistics of manufactures in Massachusetts..................................................................................... 823-828
Textile industries in Belgium...................................................................................................................
323
Trade, industrial, commercial, agricultural, and professional associations, in France................ 848-852
Trade unions in Great Britain and Ireland, 1902,1903, and 1904...................................................... 856-860
Wages and hours of labor in manufacturing industries in the United States, 1890 to 1905............ 1-170
Workmen’s compensation, report of the departmental committee on, in Great Britain, 1904... 329-332
LEADING ARTICLES IN PAST NUMBERS OF THE BULLETIN.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
...
1. Private and public debt in the United States, b y Geoige K . Holmes.
Employer and employee under the common law, by V. H. Olmsted and S. D.
Fessenden.
2. The poor colonies of Holland, b y J. Howard Gore, Ph. D.
The industrial revolution in Japan, b y William Eleroy Curtis.
Notes concerning the money of the U. S. and other countries, b y W. C. Hunt.
The wealth and receipts and expenses of the U. S., b y W. M. Steuart.
3. Industrial communities: Coal Mining Co. of Anzin, b y W. F. Willoughby.
4. Industrial communities: Coal Mining Co. of Blanzy, by W. F. Willoughby.
The sweating system, by Henry White.
5. Convict labor.
Industrial communities: Krupp Iron and Steel Works, by W. F. Willoughby.
6. Industrial communities: Familistere Society of Guise, by W. F. Willoughby.
Cooperative distribution, by Edward W. Bemis, Ph. D.
7. Industrial communities: Various communities, by W. F. Willoughby.
Rates of wages paid under public and private contract, by Ethelbert Stewart.
8. Conciliation and arbitration in the boot and shoe industry, by T. A. Carroll.
Railway relief departments, by Emory R. Johnson, Ph. D.
9. The padrone system and padrone banks, b y John Koren.
The Dutch Society for General Welfare, by J. Howard Gore, Ph. D.
10. Condition of the Negro in various cities.(«)
Building and loan associations.^)
11. Workers at gainful occupations at censuses of 1870, 1880, and 1890, by W. C.
Hunt.
Public baths in Europe, by Edward Mussey Hartwell, Ph. D ., M. D.
12. The inspection of factories and workshops in the U. S., by W. F. Willoughby.
Mutual rights and duties of parents and children, guardianship, etc., under
the law, by F. J. Stimson.
The municipal or cooperative restaurant of Grenoble, France, b y C. CX. Ward.
13. The anthracite mine laborers, by G. O. Virtue, Ph. D.
14. The Negroes of Farmville, Va.: A social study, b y W. E. B. Du Bois, Ph. D.
Incomes, wages, and rents in Montreal, by Herbert Brown Ames, B. A.
15. Boarding homes and clubs for working women, by Mary S. Fergusson.(«)
The trade-union label, by John Graham Brooks.(a)
16. Alaskan gold fields and opportunities for capital and labor, by S. C. Dunham.
17. Brotherhood relief and insurance of railway employees, by E. R. Johnson,
Ph. D.
The nations of Antwerp, by J. Howard Gore, Ph. D.
18. Wages in the United States and Europe, 1870 to 1898.
19. Alaskan gold fields and opportunities for capital and labor, b y S. C. Dun
ham. («)
Mutual relief and benefit associations in the printing trade, b y W. S. Waud-
by ( a)
No. 20. Condition of railway labor in Europe, by Walter E. W eyl, Ph. D.
No. 21. Pawnbroking in Europe and the United States, by W. R. Patterson, Ph. D.
No. 22. Benefit features of American trade unions, by Edward W. Bemis, Ph. D .(«)
The Negro in the black belt: Some social sketches, by W. E. B. Du Bois,
Ph. D .(«)
Wages in Lyon, France, 1870 to 1896.(«)
No. 23. Attitude of women’s clubs, etc., toward social economics, by Ellen-M. Henrotin.
The production of paper and pulp in the U. S. from January 1 to June 30,1898.
No. 24. Statistics of cities.
No. 25. Foreign labor laws: Great Britain and France, by W. F. Willoughby.
No. 26. Protection of workmen in their employment, b y Stephen D. Fessenden.
Foreign labor laws: Belgium and Switzerland, by W. F. Willoughby.
« Bulletin out of print.
No. 27. Wholesale prices: 1890 to 1899, by Roland P. Falkner, PL. D.
Foreign labor laws: Germany, b y W. F. Willoughby.
No. 28.- Voluntary conciliation and arbitration in Great Britain, b y J. B. McPherson,
System of adjusting wages, etc., in certain rolling mills, by J. H. Nutt.
Foreign labor laws: Austria, b y W. F. W illoughby.
No. 29. Trusts and industrial combinations, b y J. W. Jenks, Ph. D.
The Yukon and Nome gold regions, b y S. 0. Dunham.
Labor Day, b y Miss M. C. de Graffenried.
No. 30. Trend of wages from 1891 to 1900.
Statistics of cities.
Foreign labor laws: Various European countries, by W. F. Willoughby.
No. 31. Betterment of industrial conditions, by V. H. Olmsted.
Present status of employers’ liability in the U. S., b y S. D. Fessenden.
Condition of railway labor in Italy, by Dr. Luigi Einaudi.
No. 32. Accidents to labor as regulated by law in the U. S., by W. F. Willoughby.
Prices of commodities and rates of wages in Manila.
The Negroes of Sandy Spring, M d.: A social study, by W. T. Thom, Ph. D.
The British workmen’s compensation* act and its operation, b y A. M. Low.
No. 33. Foreign labor laws: Australasia and Canada, by W. F. W illoughby.
The British conspiracy and protection of property act and its operation, b y
A. M. Low.
No. 34. Labor conditions in Porto Rico, b y Azel Ames, M. D.
Social economics at the Paris Exposition, by Prof. N. P. Gilman.
The workmen’s compensation act of Holland.
No. 35. Cooperative communities in the United States, b y Rev. Alexander Kent.
The Negro landholder of Georgia, by W. E. B. Du Bois, Ph. D.
No. 36. Statistics of cities.
Statistics of Honolulu, H. I.
No. 37. Railway employees in the United States, by Samuel McCune Lindsay, Ph. D.
The Negroes of Litwalton, Va.: A social study of the “ Oyster Negro,” by W il
liam Taylor Thom, Ph. D.
No. 38. Labor conditions in Mexico, by Walter E. W eyl, Ph. D.
The Negroes of Cinclare Central Factory and Calumet Plantation, La., by
J. Bradford Laws.
No. 39. Course of wholesale prices, 1890 to 1901.
No. 40. Present condition of the hand-working and domestic industries of Germany,
by Henry J. Harris, Ph. D.
Workmen’s compensation acts of foreign countries, by Adna F. Weber.
No. 41. Labor conditions in Cuba, by Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
Beef prices, by Fred C. Croxton.
No. 42. Statistics of cities.
Labor conditions of Cuba.
No. 43. Report to the President on anthracite coal strike, b y Carroll D. Wright.
No. 44. Factory sanitation and labor protection, by C. F. W. Doehring, Ph. D.
No. 45. Course of wholesale prices, 1890 to 1902.
No. 46. Report of Anthracite Coal Strike Commission.
No. 4 7 ..Report of the Commissioner of Labor on Hawaii.
No. 48. Farm colonies of the Salvation Army, b y Commander Booth Tucker.
The Negroes of Xenia, Ohio, b y Richard R. Wright, jr., B. D.
No. 49. Cost of living.
Labor conditions in New Zealand, by Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
No. 50. Labor unions and British industry, by A. Maurice Low.
Land values and ownership in Philadelphia, by A. F. Davies.
No. 51. Course of wholesale prices, 1890 to 1903.
The union movement among coal-mine workers, by Frank J. Warne, Ph. D.
No. 52. Child labor in the United States, by Hannah R. Sewall, Ph. D.
No. 53. Wages and cost of living.
No. 54. The working of the United States Bureau of Labor, b y Carroll D. Wright.
Bureaus of statistics of labor in the United States, b y G. W. W. Hanger.
Bureaus of statistics of labor in foreign countries, b y G. W. W. Hanger.
The value and influence of labor statistics, by Carroll D. Wright.
Strikes and lockouts in the United States, 1881 to 1900, b y G. W. W. Hanger.
Wages in the United States and Europe, 1890 to 1903, b y G. W. W. Hanger.
Cost of living and retail prices in the U. S., 1890 to 1903, by G. W. W . Hanger.
Wholesale prices in the United States, 1890 to 1903, b y G. W. W. Hanger.
Housing of the working people in the U. S. b y employers, b y G. W. W. Hanger.
No. 54. Public baths in the United States, by G. W. W. Hanger.
Trade and technical education in the United States.
Hand and machine labor in the United States.
Labor legislation in the United States, b y G. A. Weber.
Labor conditions in Hawaii.
No. 55. Building and loan associations in the U. S., b y G. W. W. Hanger.
Revival of handicrafts in America, b y Max West, Ph. D.
No. 56. Influence of trade unions on immigrants, b y Carroll D. Wright.
Labor conditions in Australia, b y Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
No. 57. Course of wholesale prices, 1890 to 1904.
Street railway employment in the United States, b y Walter E. W eyl, Ph. D.
No. 58. Labor conditions m the Philippines, b y Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
Labor conditions in Java, b y Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
The new Russian workingmen’s compensation act, b y I. M. Rubinow.
No. 59. Wages and hours of labor in manufacturing industries, 1890 to 1904.
Retail prices of food, 1890 to 1904.
Laws relating to child labor in European countries.
No. 60. Government industrial arbitration, b y Leonard W. Hatch, A. M.
No. 61. Labor conditions in Porto Rico, by Walter E. Weyl, Ph. D.
Early organizations of printers, b y Ethelbert Stewart.
No 62. Municipal ownership in Great Britain, b y Frederic C. Howe, Ph. D.
Conciliation in the stove industry, b y John P. Frey and John R. Commons.
Laws relating to the employment of children in the United States.
No. 63. Course of wholesale prices, 1890 to 1905.
No. 64. Conditions of living among the poor, b y S. E. Forman.
Benefit features of British trade unions, b y Walter E. Weyl, Ph. D.
No. 65. Wages and hours of labor in manufacturing industries, 1890 to 1905.
Retail prices of food, 1890 to 1905.
No. 66. Third report of the Commissioner of Labor on Hawaii.
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