The full text on this page is automatically extracted from the file linked above and may contain errors and inconsistencies.
58th Congress, ) HOUSE OF REPRESENT A T I V ES. j Doc. No. 386,
3d Session.
(
|
Part 6.
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR.
BULLETIN
OF THE
BUREAU OF LABOR.
NO. 6 1 -N O V E M B E R , 1905.
ISSUED EVERY OTHER MONTH.
W A SH IN G TO N :
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1905.
EDITOR,
CHAS. P. NEILL,
COM M ISSIONER.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS,
G.
W. W. HANGER,
OHAS. H. VERRILL, G. A. WEBER.
II
CONTENTS.
Page.
Labor conditions in P orto R ico, by W alter E. W eyl, Ph. D ...................
723-856
A docum entary history o f the early organizations o f printers, by Ethelbert Stewart.................................................................................................... 857-1033
Digest o f recent reports o f State bureaus o f labor statistics:
C olorado......................................... ......................................................... 1034,1035
O regon......................................................................................................... 1035,1036
Pennsylvania.................... .........................................................- ............ 1036-1039
W ash in gton ..........................................................
W est V irgin ia........................................................................................ __ 1041,1042
Statistics o f m anufactures in Massachusetts: Eighteenth Annual R eport- 1043-1046
Digest o f recent foreign statistical publications............... ........................ 1047-1053
Decisions o f courts affecting labor.................................................................. 1054-1074
Laws o f various States relating to labor enacted since January 1,1904. 1075-1095
Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions relating th e re to ............. 1096-1098
HI
BULLETIN
OF TH E
BUREAU
No. 61.
OF L A B O R
W ASH IN G TO N .
N ovem ber,
1905.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN POETO EICO.
B Y W A L T E R E. W E Y L , P H . D.
IN TRO D U CTIO N AND SU M M ARY.
Labor conditions in Porto Rico are inherently different from labor
conditions in the United States, or in any of the highly civilized
countries o f Europe. Porto Rico is a tropical island, and the strik
ing difference which one feels in coming from a country in the
temperate zone to the Tropics is reflected in an entire change in the
social, political, and economic conditions of the two regions. The
absence o f winter and the warm, equable climate reduce the necessities
o f the population, and have determined largely the housing, cloth
ing, food, earnings, and the manner of living and working o f the pop
ulation. The character o f the industries is also different. Tropical
agriculture is carried on in a manner entirely at variance with the
agriculture o f temperate zones, and the same is true o f all other
forms o f industrial life.
A study o f Porto Rican labor conditions is practically a study of
the economic and industrial conditions o f the island. This study
necessitates, therefore, a consideration o f the racial character o f the
population and o f the manner and rapidity with which the population
increases, as a result o f the excess o f births over deaths, or o f immi
gration over emigration.
The labor problem in Porto Rico, as compared with that in the
United States, is extremely simple. The island is not, as is the
United States, a vast complex o f agriculture, industry, and commerce,
mutually dependent and altogether self-sufficing. The country is
preponderatingly agricultural, and the great mass o f the working pop
ulation is engaged in agriculture. As a consequence, an overwhelm
ing proportion o f the workingmen belong to the unskilled or low
723
724
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
skilled class. There is little differentiation, little specialization, lit
tle subdivision o f labor. The workmen o f the country are upon a low
basis, as regards the character and the variety o f their work and
the amount o f their remuneration, and they are not yet sufficiently
advanced to be organized into great unions, as in the more highly
developed countries.
Just as there is no considerable differentiation among the working
men o f Porto Rico, so there has been but little change in conditions
during several centuries. Since the sixteenth century the population
has steadily increased, and what was once a sparsely settled country
has now attained a density o f population considerably in excess of
that o f our more populous Eastern States. Aside from this numerical
increase, the condition o f the population and o f the working classes
in particular has remained stationary. The people live now as they
lived one or two hundred years ago, close to the soil. They are still,
though to a less extent than formerly, dependent largely upon the im
mediate products o f the region, and it is still possible for a small
acreage to maintain life in the same manner as life was maintained in
the island two hundred years ago. The island, lying to the eastward
o f the American continent, seemed to be largely forgotten during the
centuries, and there was but little interference from without, and until
within recent years no sudden or great turn in the development from
within. It is probable that the condition o f the working class in Porto
Rico has changed less in three hundred years than the condition o f
the working class in the United States has changed in fifty years.
There are certain interesting phenomena in Porto Rico which
might be studied with advantage. One o f these is the influence of
slavery and o f emancipation. Like all tropical countries in America,
labor in Porto Rico was formerly in large part slave, and, as in these
countries, emancipation took place within the last century. African
slavery was introduced as early as 1513, and was extended grad
ually as the aboriginal population disappeared. From 1860 on, the
number o f slaves diminished, and since 1873, when emancipation took
place, there has been no slavery on the island. The long-continued
existence o f slavery, however, has had its effect on the industrial
character o f large sections o f the laboring population.
Labor conditions in Porto Rico have been largely affected by the
character o f the environment and by the nature of the population.
Upon this small island, without mineral resources and without large
harbors, a population o f 1,000,000 people is gathered. The island
consists o f a longitudinal ridge o f mountains gradually sloping to a
narrow plain extending around the coast. The atmosphere is humid
and somewhat enervating on the northern coast, but drier on the south
ern. The population consists largely o f descendants o f Spaniards and
of negroes, with a probable admixture o f Indian blood. The popula
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
725
tion is rapidly increasing, as it has in the past, and is practically un
affected by immigration and emigration, which are small. There is
but little race antagonism between the whites and the colored people.
The island remained for almost four hundred years under the rule of
the Spaniards, and during that period it had only a few months o f
autonomous government. The religion of the vast mass of the popu
lation is Roman Catholic.
The great majority of the population reside in the country, not more
than 8 per cent o f the entire population living in cities of 8,000 or
over. Until within recent years the sanitary conditions of the island
were execrable, and a vast amount of work will be required to make
the conditions even approximately good. The education of the people
o f the island has for centuries been neglected, and it is only since the
American occupation that substantial progress has been made.
The proportion which the workers bear to the entire population
o f Porto Rico is somewhat smaller than that prevailing in the United
States. This is due, however, to the large number of children on
the island. Considering the adult population, Porto Rico has almost
exactly the same proportion o f breadwinners and dependents as
the United States; but a far larger proportion of these workers are
engaged in agriculture and a much smaller proportion in manu
facturing, mining, commerce, and the professions. The proportion
o f women employed is very much smaller than in the United States,
and the employment o f women, so far as it goes, is very much
greater in the cities o f Porto Rico than in the country districts.
There is a large employment o f boy and girl labor, even below the
age o f 10 years.
The great mass of the labor of Porto Rico is unskilled, over fiveeighths o f all workmen being classed under the general head of
laborers, and a much larger percentage being directly classible as
unskilled. The largest class o f workers of all sorts is that o f agri
cultural laborers or field hands. Both- white and colored laborers
work as field hands. The whites, who form over three-fifths of the
population, are to be found in larger proportions in the uplands
than on the coast. The principal industry in which these white
people are engaged is that o f coffee raising, which is the most
important industry in the uplands. The corresponding industry in
the lowlands is sugar culture, which is rapidly growing in im
portance. .
Roughly speaking, the daily wages o f field hands in Porto Rico
range from 30 cents to 55 cents. The prevailing rate of wages in
the coffee region is from 25 cents a day, with a breakfast worth 5
cents, to 30 cents a day, with or without breakfast. The prevailing
rate o f wages in tobacco raising is slightly above 40 cents a day, and
the prevailing rate of wages in the sugar industry is about 50 or
726
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
slightly above 50 cents a day. These wages vary slightly from plan
tation to plantation or from year to year. To a very large extent
wages are fixed by custom rather than by the direct and obvious action
o f competition.
The principal disturbing element to wages, both o f agricultural
hands and of urban workers, was the change in the currency from
the provincial money existing in 1899 to the American currency. (a)
The sudden change from a dollar worth 60 cents in gold to a dollar
worth 100 cents in gold, or, in other words, an advance o f 66£ per
cent in the value of the circulating medium, could not but have a
considerable influence upon the wages o f the people. The effect o f
this change in the coffee district was obscured by a frightful hur
ricane which occurred at about the same time (1899) and which
crippled for a considerable time the coffee industry. The depression
which occurred not only as a result o f this hurricane, but also from
other causes, is not yet past, and has prevented the workmen from
obtaining the same pay in American currency as was formerly ob
tained in the provincial currency.
The net result o f the changes in wages and in the currency in the
coffee district was to leave the worker worse off than before. The
hardship inflicted upon the workers in the coffee district, however,
has been even greater than that entailed by these changes, because
o Prior to 1895 the currency of Porto Rico was Mexican, for which the pro
vincial currency was exchanged at the rate o f $95 of provincial money for
$100 o f Mexican money. At the time o f the American occupation the circulat
ing medium of the country was provincial silver that had been coined at the
mints of Madrid and Seville and exported to the island. These coins, together
with fractional currency, bore the date of 1895 or of 1896, and by the year
1898 there were about six and a half millions of provincial silver in the
country. As compared with the gold dollar, the Porto Rican peso was below
par. Its bullion value was less than that o f the American silver dollar, the
value of the silver being only 93.5 per cent of the value of the American silver
dollar. In 1898, and for a short, time previous, the dollar exchanged at a fixed,
arbitrary, official rate of 60 cents, the American gold dollar being at a premium
o f 66§ per cent, though this official rate was not observed in private commer
cial or banking transactions.
The following table shows the value o f the Porto Rican peso in American gold
for the years 1884 to 1899:
VA LU E OF PORTO RICAN PESOS IN A M ERICAN GOLD, 1884 to 1899.
$0,870
.888
.800
.781
.813
.781
.794
.813
$0,898
.909
.870
.833
.893
.855
.893
.840
Mean.
$0,882
.871
.835
.807
.853
.818
.844
.827
Year.
1892..........................
1893..........................
1894.........................
1895.........................
1896..........................
1897..........................
1898..........................
1899.........................
Lowest. Highest.
$0,763
.699
.625
.526
.625
.584
.584
.606
Mean.
a
1884..........................
1885..........................
1886..........................
1887..........................
1888..........................
1889..........................
1890.........................
1891..........................
Lowest. Highest.
15
Year.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
727
there has come a very great reduction in the total amount o f work to
be done and a consequent lessening of the regularity of employment.
The effect o f the change in the currency on wages has been
equally obscured in the sugar regions. While in the coffee districts
the change from a 60-cent dollar to a 100-cent dollar was synchro
nous with a great depression in the industry, on the other hand the
change in the sugar industry occurred along with a rapid increase
in the prosperity o f that industry. The declaration o f free trade
with the United States opened up to Porto Rican sugar producers a
free and practically unlimited market. As a consequence, the rais
ing o f sugar has become immensely profitable. Tens o f thousands
of acres are planted in cane, and the industry is being extended in
all directions. Land which formerly lay fallow or was used for pas
ture is now put into cane, with the result o f an increased demand for
labor. The peons, or agricultural workers, in sugar culture, appear
to be now receiving the same rate of pay in American currency as
they formerly received in the depreciated provincial currency, and,
as changes in prices have not been sufficient to offset this difference,
the condition o f the peons on the coast seems to have been materi
ally bettered.
The wages o f the manual laborers in the cities do not appear to
have remained at the same level in American currency as formerly
in the depreciated currency. There are, however, no trustworthy
comparative statistics upon this subject, and it is necessary to base
a judgment largely upon the statements made by employers and
workmen. There seems, upon the whole, to have been an increase in
the actual purchasing power of the wages in the cities. In San Juan
the present wages for some occupations are the same in gold as they
were in provincial currency in 1898, and while the gold prices of
commodities, .and especially rents, have risen, the condition o f a
large section o f the urban population appears to have improved.
On the other hand, there is to be noted in many trades a marked
retrogression in the condition o f the workers. The old system of
hand trades in Porto Rico, suffering as it did from local competition
in Spanish days, has now begun to decline rapidly as a result o f the
competition from American manufacturers. There are many handi
craftsmen who were formerly occupied in manufacturing articles
who are now limited entirely to doing repair work. This change has
come about from the fact that it is much cheaper to produce these
articles by machinery in large and well-equipped American fac
tories than to produce the same articles by hand labor in Porto Rico,
even though the rate of wages is much lower in Porto Rico. The
handicraftsmen o f Porto Rico complain o f the lack o f work and the
reduction both in the volume and in the remuneration o f their labor.
728
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
The rates o f wages for many urban occupations are given in detail in
the appendix to this report.
To a considerable extent the wages o f rural workers are supple
mented by additional remuneration in the form of free lodging, free
breakfasts or lunches, and in some cases free fuel. These supple
mentary earnings are much more common in some districts than in
others, and they appear to have been more common in former times
than at present. In many parts of the country it is usual to permit
the peon to “ squat ” upon the land o f the proprietor and to build a
hut from wood obtained upon the proprietor’s land. The entire value
o f one of these huts, as measured in labor, does not seem to average
more than $20, although this is admittedly an estimate. The rent
granted free is thus inconsiderable, and does not constitute an addi
tion to wages o f more than about a cent or two a day; nor is the
custom uniform or universal. On many of the plantations visited
there was accommodation for only a part o f the peons, and no
accommodations for others. The grant of breakfast, which is the
midday or 11 a. m. meal, is o f more consequence. This meal usually
consists o f about a quarter o f a pound of codfish, together with eight
or twelve plantains or bananas, and is supposed to amount in value
to about 5 cents a day. In some cases the right o f the peon to util
ize a small part o f the land and raise thereon his own fruits and
vegetables constitutes a considerable addition to his remuneration.
In the urban centers this system of supplementary wages does not
seem to prevail.
The labor of women is relatively less important in Porto Rico
than in the United States. Statistics are given for women’s wages in
the tables which form a part o f this report. As in all other countries,
the rate o f remuneration is considerably smaller than that for work
requiring approximately equal skill performed by men%
The principal cause of the low wages prevailing in Porto Rico ap
pears to be the large excess o f population. The statistics of births
and deaths in Porto Rico are defective and throw no direct light upon
the situation, but from other available statistics it is quite clear that
the population, already extremely dense, is increasing at a rapid
rate. The nature o f the industries o f the island and the manner in
which the working people live are such as to cause the population
to increase rapidly. The marriage relation in Porto Rico is extremely
loose. Many men and women are living together in permanent sexual
relationship who have not been married, either legally or by ecclesi
astical sanction, and there are many consensual unions which are
fluctuating in their character. In a number o f cases a man may live
alternately with several wives, and instances are not infrequent where
the present common-law wife and a former deserted wife live in
the same street. The unions, both legal and free, take place at
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
729
a very early age and result in large families. In the country districts
the cost o f raising children is extremely low, and the prevailing cus
tom o f making the children useful and a source of family income at
an early age encourages the rapid increase o f population. On the
other hand, there is a high mortality, especially among children, which
acts as a check upon the growing numbers. Notwithstanding this
fact the working-class population, already in excess of the demand
for labor under the present conditions of industry, is growing at a
rapid pace.
Another cause o f the low wages prevailing in Porto Rico is the
relative inefficiency o f the workers. This inefficiency is due in part
to a certain listlessness, unintelligence, carelessness, and lack of initi
ative, and may be in part traceable to the conditions o f work during
slave times as well as to the manner in which the work is directed
and controlled. The efficiency o f the worker may be also affected
indirectly by the contempt in which manual labor and the manual
laborer are held by the land-owning class of society. The work o f the
peon, both in the country districts and in the cities, is also rendered
less effective by the absence o f improved means of cultivation or
manufacture, and by the habit o f permitting things to be done in
the way in which they have been done for decades, instead of taking
advantage o f the progress in machinery and in the technical arts.
The principal cause o f the inefficiency of the worker, however, is his
illness and in many cases his malnutrition.
Statistics o f hours o f labor are given in considerable detail in the
appendix to this report. In all cases these statistics are based upon
verbal statements, either by manufacturers or by workingmen, and
have not been tested by reference to time books, owing to the fact that
such records are not kept.
The remuneration o f the laborer depends not only upon the amount
o f money which he receives, but also upon the cost o f the articles for
which this money must be expended. Detailed statements are pre
sented in this report, bearing upon wholesale and retail prices and
upon the cost o f living. This cost o f living is a very different factor
from that with which the American workingman has to deal. Life
in Porto Rico is much simpler and the requirements are very much
lower. The ordinary agricultural laborer lives, with his family, in
a single hut, which is built by his own labor, and which is prac
tically without furniture and entirely without decoration. Fuel for
heating is unnecessary, and fuel for cooking is either cheap or gath
ered entirely free o f money cost. O f his living expenditures, by far
the largest part is for food, which is small in variety, simple in
quality, and low in cost. The diet o f the Porto Rican peasants,
especially in the coffee districts, is below what is necessary to main
tain industrial efficiency. The cost o f living in the cities, and espe
730
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR.
cially in San Juan, is very much higher and the requirements are
much greater. The housing conditions in the cities o f Porto Rico,
especially in certain parts of San Juan, are very bad.
The sanitary condition o f the island, which was extremely bad
under Spanish domination, has steadily improved since the Amer
ican occupation, but there still remains much to be done to bring it
to the level o f American cities. In the cities ordinances have been
enacted requiring the establishment of water-closets and providing
for the conveying o f water to the houses, and conditions have been
improved. In the country districts the situation is much worse than
in the cities, and the primary dictates o f health and decency are fla
grantly disregarded, with the result that the health of the people is
seriously affected.
The worst scourge of the population of Porto Rico, and especially
o f the rural working-class population, is anemia. This disease, which
is caused by a minute hookworm which attacks the red corpuscles of
the blood, is almost universal throughout the upland districts of the
island. The consequence o f the widespread character o f the disease
is to permanently debilitate great masses o f the population and to
render them either partially or totally incapable of work. Much
o f the alleged laziness o f the Porto Rican is due to this disease, which
renders work extremely painful and wearisome. The disease is
spread chiefly by the feces o f the persons infected, and its widespread
character in Porto Rico is the result o f the custom, in the universal
absence o f water-closets, o f depositing excreta upon the ground,
where it serves as the basis o f future infection. The prevalent habit
o f the country people in going barefooted tends to facilitate the spread
o f the disease. A t the present time the problem o f anemia is being
vigorously attacked by a commission appointed by the insular gov
ernment. Thousands o f cures have been effected, and an effort is
being made to spread among the people a knowledge o f the means
necessary to combat the disease. The permanent cure o f the people of
Porto Rico would be of enormous influence in increasing the efficiency
o f the working population of the island.
An attempt is also being made to increase the efficiency of the
workers by spreading among them the benefits o f an elementary edu
cation. The vast majority o f the population o f Porto Rico, as is
shown by the statistics contained in this report, are illiterate. Con
siderable advance has been made since the American occupation of
the island, not only in ordinary elementary education but also in
industrial training.
The subject o f labor organizations and strikes is treated in this
report. It has not been feasible to obtain reliable statistics o f strikes.
Such replies as were made to inquiries were so palpably incorrect or
hopelessly vague as to render it inadvisable to continue the investiga
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
731
tion. The general conditions underlying labor organizations in the
island o f Porto Rico, however, are set forth, as well as a statement
concerning the status o f the labor unions and the history and present
position o f the Federation Libre, or the Free Federation, the Porto
Rican organization affiliated with the American Federation o f Labor.
In securing the original data contained in this report many difficul
ties were encountered. It was often extremely difficult to obtain re
liable statistics o f wages. The average establishment in Porto Rico
is small, and in many instances business has been directed for years
in a primitive manner. Many o f the employers interrogated claimed
that they had no pay rolls, and even where the pay roll was available
it was not always useful. It was often difficult and sometimes im
possible to learn from the pay rolls the nationality of the employee,
whether Porto Rican, Spanish, or a native of some other West Indian
island. In some cases it was even difficult to arrive at the sex o f the
employee, since many of the Spanish names might stand for either
male or female workers. Again, many o f the pay rolls are kept by
numbers instead o f by names. Another difficulty in obtaining sta
tistics o f wages arose from the fact that in many o f the industries
the occupation or special work of the employee was entirely different
from anything which we have in the United States, owing to the fact
that the industry in Porto Rico has not arrived at the same stage of
development as in the United States.
It was still more difficult to obtain data bearing upon the cost of
living. While retail prices have been given for a number o f the
articles o f consumption, there are others, such as bananas, yautias,
yams, plantains, etc., which are important, but for which statistics
o f general validity are difficult to obtain. Many shop people do
not keep books, and catalogues are, as a rule, issued only by large
firms, which do not cater to the working classes. Where catalogues
do exist the prices are likely to be in excess o f those actually charged.
Prices vary from town to town, from shop to shop, from customer to
customer, and from minute to minute. In the very small stores,
where the workingmen purchase, articles are sold not by weight or
measure, but by the cent’s worth. The clerks in these stores acquire
great dexterity in determining by the eye the proper amount of
beans or rice or soap to be sold for one cent, but there is nothing ac
curate or uniform in the determination o f the quantity. None of
the working class families keep accounts, and the uniform reply to
the question o f how much does it cost you to live is : “ I spend all I
earn; I spend all I have.”
One o f the difficulties encountered in obtaining information upon
labor conditions in Porto Rico is the fact that, except in a few cases,
it is not possible to obtain the statements o f the employers on ques
tions which are not a matter o f record. To a considerable extent the
732
BU LLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
statements made by employers on such matters have been compared
with similar statements by other employers and with the information
given by the trade-union leaders of the island. In some cases, how
ever, this has not been possible, especially where the labor has been per
formed, not as the result o f a direct contract with the employer, but
through a middleman or contractor. The ordinary unskilled work
ingman, or peon, is unable to give accurate information concerning
the conditions o f labor under which he works.
P H Y S IC A L . C H A R A C T E R O F T H E ISLAN D .
The industrial and labor conditions of Porto Rico have been
influenced primarily by the physical character o f the Territory and
the nature o f the population inhabiting it. Porto Rico, the smallest
o f the Greater Antilles, lies to the east o f Haiti, being separated
from that island by the Mona passage. It stretches from latitude
17° 50' to 18° 30' north; from longitude 65° 30' to 67° 15' west,
being thus the easternmost o f the Greater Antilles and entirely
within the Tropics. Its shape is rectangular, its length east and
west being slightly over 100 miles and its breadth north and south
about 36 miles. Its area, about 3,600 square miles, is three-fourths
o f that o f Connecticut and a little over a thousandth o f that of the
United States.
The island o f Porto Rico consists of a range o f mountains and hills
running east and west, with a maximum altitude slightly over 3,600
feet and sloping toward the coast. The slope o f the land is gradual
toward the north, but steep and difficult toward the south. The
greater portion o f the area is high, and from the range o f hills which
form the water divide o f the island hundreds o f small rivers and
streams flow northward and southward to the coast. These rivers are
not navigable except for a few miles near their mouths.
This island is, by its natural conditions, adapted for agriculture
but not for mining, manufacturing, or commerce. The climate o f the
island is remarkably equable. The temperature very rarely rises
to 100° Fahrenheit, and for a long period the average annual tem
perature has ranged on the northern coast from 78° to 82°. The
coolest month in the year is January, with a temperature averaging
about 75°, while in August, the hottest month, the average is about
82°. While the variation from month to month is but slight, there
is considerable difference according to altitude. The temperature
in the interior, especially on the higher levels o f Aibonito, Cayey,
and Utuado, is much lower than along the coast. The island has the
advantage o f a daily sea breeze, and the evenings are mostly cool.
During the summer season the temperature rises and there is much
rain. The humidity is also very high, averaging in San Juan about
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
733
80 per cent. The absence of cold weather and the high degree of
humidity render the climate somewhat debilitating. The rainfall is
heaviest on the northern coast, averaging about 60 inches in San Juan,
and o f this rain about 40 inches, or two-thirds, falls during the sum
mer and the autumn months.
The island is poor in mineral resources. Such minerals as were
discovered in Porto Rico were long since exhausted by the mining
operations o f the Spaniards, and at the present time no mining of
any extent is carried on.
Nor are there great opportunities for commerce. The coast is gen
erally low and level and there are few good harbors, the best being that
of San Juan, the capital of the island. Ponce, Guanica, and Jobos
are the only harbors on the southern coast where boats o f ordinary
draft can enter. Porto Rico may thus be described as a small island,
mountainous in the center and level along the coasts, with a climate
and soil adapted for tropical agriculture, but without mineral re
sources and without good harbors.
P O PU L A T IO N AN D RACE.
According to the census o f 1899 the population o f Porto Rico was
953,243, spread over an area o f only 3,606 square miles and giving a
density o f 264 to the square mile. This density is about the same as
that o f New Jersey in 1900, almost twice that o f Pennsylvania,
slightly over three times that o f Illinois, and over seven times that
o f Cuba.
The island o f Porto Rico is not only densely but evenly settled.
The density o f population o f the seven departments into which the
island is divided ranged in 1899*from 200 to the square mile to 415
to the square mile. The most thickly populated department is thus
only slightly over twice as densely settled as the most sparsely
settled department. Judged by a comparison of the last census with
former census enumerations this evenness o f settlement in Porto Rico
is increasing.
The island is more thickly settled in the west than in the east, and
more densely settled in the north than in the south. The coast lands
are more thickly settled than the interior. The most sparsely settled
o f the entire 69 municipal districts of the island has a population of
58 to the square mile—about the same density of population as
Indiana.
The original Indian population was conquered and practically
exterminated by the invading Spaniards, but there is evidence o f a
considerable intermixture between the Spaniards and the Indian
women. The population of the island, even at the present day,
retains traces o f the Carib or Indian physiognomy. Beginning with
734
BULLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR.
the early part o f the sixteenth century, large numbers of negroes
were introduced. There were probably many unions between the
whites and the remaining Indians, and between each o f these and the
newly arrived negroes. As a consequence, the present population o f
the island o f Porto Rico is made up, to a considerable extent, o f the
descendants o f these unions between whites and blacks, with a certain
admixture o f the descendants of unions between Indians and whites,
and between Indians and negroes.
O f the 953,243 inhabitants of Porto Rico enumerated in the census
o f 1899, 589,426, or 61.8 per cent, were returned as whites, and
363,817 as colored. O f the latter, an insignificant proportion (75 in
all) were Chinese, the remainder being negroes and persons o f mixed
white and negro blood. The proportion o f white persons in Porto
Rico is thus apparently greater than in any other of the West Indies
except Cuba. While the proportion o f whites was 66.9 per cent in
Cuba (1899) and 61.8 per cent in Porto Rico, only 38.4 per cent o f
the inhabitants o f the Bermudas, 25 per cent o f the inhabitants o f
the Bahamas, 8.6 per cent o f the inhabitants o f Barbados, 6 per
cent o f the inhabitants o f St. Vincent, 4 per cent o f the inhabitants
o f the Leeward Islands, and 2.3 per cent o f the inhabitants o f Jamaica
were o f white blood. According to the census, there was in 1899 a
larger proportion o f persons o f white blood in Porto Rico than there
was in Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, or South
Carolina in 1900, as is shown in the following table:
PERC E N TA G E OF W H ITE , COLORED, AND NEGRO PO PULA TIO N OF T O T A L POP
U LA TIO N IN CE R TA IN SELECTED STATES OF TH E U N IT E D STATES, 1900.
[F rom the T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900.]
State.
_______________
F lo r id a ______ . . . ______________________ ______ _
Alabam a
_ _______________________________________________ _____
G eorg ia _............................. .................................................................. .........
L ouisiana__________________________________________________________
Mississippi..................................................... ........... ....................................
South C arolina__ •................ ........... .........................................................
P orto R ico ( « ) .................................................................................................
W hite.
Colored.
56.3
54.7
53.3
53.8
41.3
41.6
61.8
43.7
45.3
46.7
47.2
58.7
58.4
38.2
N egro.
43.7
45.2
46.7
47.1
58.5
58.4
ft Census o f 1899.
As compared with former years, the percentage o f the white popu
lation o f Porto Rico appears to be growing larger. Until 1820,
when the colored inhabitants made up 55.6 per cent o f the population
o f the island, the negroes gained more rapidly than the whites, but
since the latter date there has been a steady and almost continuous
decline until, in 1899, the proportion o f colored was only 38.2 per
cent. O f this, it is claimed that 83.6 per cent are o f mixed blood,
which, i f true, would leave only about 6.3 per cent o f the entire
population o f pure negro blood.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
735
The proportion of whites is largest in the western departments
o f the island and decreases toward the east, and is somewhat greater
in the northern than in the southern districts. It is also larger in
the interior than on the coast. In 40 municipal districts touching on
the seacoast, the proportion of whites is 58.8 per cent, while in 29
interior districts, largely in the higher and cooler parts of the
island, the proportion is 66.3 per cent. The negroes are more largely
employed in the culture of sugar, and the whites more largely in
the culture of coffee. The colored population tends, also, to mass
itself in the cities.
There are some reasons for viewing these statistics of race with
considerable doubt. In Porto Eico, as elsewhere, it is frequently
impossible to distinguish persons of mixed blood from pure whites
or negroes. There is a constant temptation, moreover, for the indi
vidual to misrepresent his race, and to state that he is white, although
he may be o f pure negro or o f mixed blood. It is probable, therefore,
that the real proportion of colored persons, as of pure-blooded
negroes, is larger than the statistics seem to indicate.
OCCUPATIONS.
The number o f Porto Eicans reported by the census o f 1899 as
having gainful ocupations was 316,365, or 33.1 per cent.(a) This
would apparently indicate that the proportion o f the Porto Eican
population engaged in gainful occupations was smaller than in the
United States, where 38.3 per cent of the population were so engaged,
or in Cuba, where there were 39.6 per cent.
This discrepancy, however, is only apparent, and can be explained.
Porto Eico, as stated in another place, is said to have a larger per
centage o f children below the age of 10 years than the United States,
Cuba, or, in fact, any other country in the civilized world. As chil
dren under 10 years of age are, generally speaking, included among the
dependents, the large percentage of children in Porto Eico naturally
tends to make the percentage of dependents in that island unduly
large and the percentage o f wage-earners small.
a The statistics which follow concerning the occupations of the Porto Ricans
are from .the Census o f Porto Rico, 1899. The comparison with Cuba is for
the census year 1899, and that with the United States for the census year 1900.
Following the terminology of the census o f Porto Rico for 1899, the term
“ breadwinners,” or “ persons at work,” is occasionally used for the longer
phrase, “ persons in gainful occupations,” and the term “ dependents ” for “ per
sons not engaged in gainful occupations.”
276—No. 61—06 M------ 2
736
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
The following table gives the comparative figures for persons 10
years o f age or over in gainful occupations in Porto Rico and Cuba in
1899 and in the United States in 1900:
PERSONS 10 Y E A R S OF AGE OR OVER IN G AIN FU L OCCUPATIONS IN PORTO
RICO AN D CUBA IN 1899 AN D IN TH E U N ITED STATE S IN 1900.
[F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.]
Country.
Persons 10 years o f
Persons 10
age o r over in gain
years o f
fu l occupations.
age or
over.
N um ber. P er c e n t .
659,294
P orto R ic o ________________________________________ ____ ______
C u b a ................................................. j l .................................................. 1,215,810
United States ( a ) ................................................................................. 157,949,824
816,365
622,330
29,073,233
48.0
51.2
50.2
° T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900.
It appears from the table that o f the inhabitants o f the age o f 10
years or over 48 per cent were breadwinners in Porto Rico, as com
pared with 50.2 per cent in the United States and 51.2 per cent in
Cuba. The proportion o f breadwinners is thus 2.2 per cent less in
Porto Rico than in the United States and 3.2 per cent less in Porto
Rico than in Cuba.
In Porto Rico there is a slightly larger percentage o f breadwinners
among the colored population than among the white population.
The following table shows that while 32.1 per cent o f all white per
sons in Porto Rico are engaged in gainful occupations the percentage
for colored persons is 34.8 per cent:
NUM BER AN D PE R CENT OF W H IT E AND COLORED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS.
[F rom the Census o f P orto R ico, 1899.]
Race.
Popula
tion.
Persons in gainful
occupations.
N um ber.
P er cent.
W h ite.....................................................................................................
C olored
................. ........................... ................................. .............
589,426
363,817
189,762
126,603
32.1
34.8
T ota l.............................................................................................
953,243
316,365
33.1
This difference is due to the very large employment of colored
females. The percentage o f white males at work is slightly greater
than that o f colored males, being 57 per cent for the whites and 56.7
per cent for the colored males. The percentage o f colored females
employed is almost double that of white females, 13.7 per cent of
all colored females being engaged in gainful occupations as com
pared with 7.4 per cent for all white females.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN
737
PORTO RICO.
The following table gives the number and percentage of white
and colored males and females employed in Porto Eico in 1899:
NUM BER AND P E R CENT OF W H ITE AN D COLORED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS,
BY SEX.
[F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.]
R ace and sex.
Popula
tion.
Persons in gainful
occupations.
Num ber.
Per cent.
W hite m ales.........................................................................................
Colored m ales ....................................... ..............................................
W hite fem ales....................................... .............................................
Colored fem ales ...................................................................................
294,195
178,066
295,231
185,751
167,662
101,002
22,100
25,601
57.0
56.7
7.4
13.7
T ota l.............................................................................................
953,243
316,365
33.1
The great majority o f the white breadwinners in Porto Eico are
native born. O f 189,762 white persons engaged in gainful occupa
tions, only 8,422, or 4.4 per cent, were born outside o f Porto Eico.
This is manifestly due to the fact that the white, like the colored,
population is almost entirely native, less than 2 per cent of the
whites o f Porto Eico being of foreign birth. O f the whites in Porto
Eico a far larger percentage of the foreigners than of the natives
is engaged in gainful occupations. While 55.9 per cent of the native
white males are engaged in gainful occupations, the proportion for
the foreign-born white males is 92 per cent. The percentage of the
foreign-born white females in gainful occupations is also greater
than that o f the native white females.
The following table shows this relative employment:
N UM BER AN D P E R
CENT OF N A T IV E AND FOREIGN-BORN W H IT E
IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS, BY SEX.
PERSONS
[F rom the Census o f Porto Rico, 1899.]
N ativity and sex.
Popula
tion.
Persons in gainful
occupations.
N um ber.
P er cent.
m a le s............................................................................
w hite m a les................................................................
fem ales .............................................................. - ........
w hite fem ales_____________ ________ ___________
285,303
8,892
292,706
2,525
159,478
8,184
21,862
238
55.9
92.0
7.4
9.4
T ota l.............................................................................................
589,426
189,762
32.1
N ative w hite
Foreign-born
N ative white
Foreign-born
It should be stated in explanation o f this table that the large per
centage o f workers among the foreign born is due, primarily, if not
entirely, to the fact that this immigrant population is almost entirely
adult.
738
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
The following table shows for specified age groups the percent
age o f native white, foreign white, and colored males and females at
w ork:
PER CENT OF M ALES AND FE M ALES IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS,
SP E C IF IE D AGE GROUP, BY N A T IV IT Y .
IN EACH
[F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.]
Males.
A ge group.
Native
white.
Females.
Foreign Colored.
white.
N ative
white.
Foreign Colored.
white.
9 years or under.........................................
10-14 years...................................................
15-19 years...................................................
20-24 years...................................................
25-29 years...................................................
90-34 years...................................................
85-44 years...................................................
45-54 years...................................................
55-64 years...................................................
65 years or o v e r .........................................
0.4
33.6
85.6
96.5
97.3
97.5
97.2
96.1
94.3
86.9
0.9
38.0
93.9
98.1
97.9
98.3
96.0
93.8
92.5
76.8
0.8
38.4
89.6
97.6
97.7
98.0
97.9
96.7
95.2
87.3
0.8
6.5
13.7
13.1
11.2
10.8
10.9
9.9
8.1
5.5
0.9
7.0
18.1
11.1
13.0
9.2
10.9
9.2
4.7
0.8
10.5
22.3
22.2
19.7
21.5
22.7
22.0
18.9
12.0
T o t a l.................................................
55.9
92.0
56.7
7.4
9.4
13.7
The percentage o f persons employed of total population is nearly
uniform throughout the country. In Arecibo, which has the smallest
proportion of breadwinners, 31.6 per cent of the population are en
gaged in gainful occupations, while in Mayaguez, which has the
largest proportion, the percentage is only 35 per cent. The varia
tion in the proportion which the breadwinners bear to the population
is therefore inconsiderable, and the fluctuations among the seven de
partments o f the island are much less than among the provinces o f
Cuba, and very much less than among the States o f the United States.
On the other hand, the percentage o f persons employed is much
greater in the cities than in the country. In San Juan 43.7 per cent
o f the total population are engaged in gainful occupations, as com
pared with 30.3 per cent for the rest of the department in which San
Juan is situate; in Mayaguez 43.7 per cent, as compared with 33.8
per cent in the rest of the department, and in Ponce 46.2 per cent, as
compared with 32.4 per cent for the rest of the department. The
proportion o f persons employed for the three cities was 44.7 per cent,
as compared with 32.2 per cent for the remaining districts of the
three departments.
This larger employment in the cities is due in some measure to
the greater opportunities for work for men, but to a much larger
extent to the superior opportunities for women to obtain employ
ment. In the three cities mentioned the male breadwinners represent
65.3 per cent o f the entire male population, as compared with 56.1 per
cent for the rest o f the three departments, and in the same cities the
female breadwinners represent 26.6 per cent o f the entire female
population, as compared with 8.1 per cent for the rest o f the three
departments. While the percentage o f males employed was, there
739
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
fore, only about one-sixth greater in the cities than in the rest of the
three departments, the percentage of females employed in the cities
was considerably over three times as great as the percentage of females
employed in the remaining portions of the three departments.
3ike most countries which are preponderatingly agricultural,
Porto Rico employs but a small proportion of female workers. In
the United States 14.3 per cent of all females were engaged in gain
ful occupations; in Porto Rico only 9.9 per cent were so employed.
While in the United States there were 22 females employed for every
100 male employees, there were fewer than 18 females employed in
Porto Rico for every 100 male employees. Although the proportion
o f female workers was smaller than that of the United States, it
was greater in Porto Rico than in Cuba, where only 8.8 per cent of
all females were engaged in gainful occupations.
The following table shows the distribution of breadwinners in
Porto Rico, Cuba, and the United States, by sex:
NUMBER AND PE R CEN t V>F PERSONS IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS IN PORTO
RICO, CUBA, AN D TH E U N ITED STATES. B Y SEX.
[F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.]
Males.
Females.
Breadwinners.
Country.
Total.
Num ber. Per cent.
472,261
P orto R i c o ...................................
C u b a ..............................................
816,205
United States (u)......................... 88,816,448
268,664
555,974
23,758,836
56.9
68.2
61.2
Breadwinners.
Total.
480,982
757,592
37,178,127
Num ber. P er cent.
47,701
66,356
5,319,397
9.9
8.8
14.3
° T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900.
It is essential to remember in any discussion of labor conditions in
Porto Rico that the population of the island is preponderatingly
agricultural. While in the United States only 38.0 per cent of the
entire number o f breadwinners are engaged in agriculture, fishing,
and mining, in Cuba 48.1 per cent and in Porto Rico 62.8 per cent were
employed in that class. As the number of persons engaged in fishing
and mining in Porto Rico is extremely small, while the number in
the United States is large, the disproportion appears all the greater. (a)
While only 3 breadwinners in 8 in the United States are engaged in
agriculture, in fishing, and in mining, the proportion in Porto Rico
was 5 in 8, and o f those so engaged nearly all were employed almost
entirely in tilling the ground.
In the United States the proportion of breadwinners engaged in
domestic and personal service is 19.2 per cent; in Cuba, 22.8 per cent,
a The census of 1899 returns only 455 fishermen, or 15 out o f 10,000 o f all em
ployees, and only 48 miners and quarrymen, or less than 2 out o f 10,000 of all
employees. Doubtless some miners and fishermen were returned as “ laborers,”
but their entire number was probably very small.
740
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
and in Porto Eico 20.5 per cent. It results from this that the per
centage o f breadwinners employed in Porto Eico in trade and trans
portation, in the manufacturing and mechanical industries, and in
professional services is very much less than in the United States or
in other manufacturing and industrial communities. There are only
76 breadwinners out of every 1,000 employed in Porto Eico in trade
and transportation as compared with 164 in 1,000 in the United
States, the proportion being less than one-half as much in the island
as on the continent.
The difference between the proportion o f workers engaged in
manufacturing and mechanical industries in the United States and
Porto Eico is still greater, and that between persons engaged in pro
fessional service much greater still. In Porto Eico only 84 out of
every 1,000 breadwinners are engaged in manufacturing and me
chanical industries, as compared with 221 in the United States, the
proportion in Porto Eico being not much greater than 1 in 8 to that
o f the United States. Again, for every 1,000 ^breadwinners in Porto
Eico there are but 7 persons engaged in professional service, as com
pared with 48 in 1,000 in the United States.
The following table shows the distribution by large groups o f
industries o f the breadwinners in Porto Eico and Cuba in 1899, and
in the United States in 1900:
P E R CENT OF PERSONS IN G AIN FU L OCCUPATIONS IN PORTO RICO, CUBA,
AN D T H E U N ITED STATES, B Y CLASS OF OCCUPATION.
[F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.]
Class o f occupation.
N um ber
in P orto
Rico.
P er cent in—
P orto
Rico.
Cuba.
United
States, (a)
A griculture, fisheries, and m in in g ....... ............................
Dom estic and personal service............................................
M anufacturing and m echanical in d u strie s.....................
Trade and transportation.....................................................
Professional s e r v ice ....... .......................................................
198,761
64,819
26,615
24,076
2,194
62.8
20.5
8.4
7.6
.7
48.1
22.8
14.9
12.8
1.4
38.0
19.2
22.1
16.4
4.3
T o t a l................................................................................
316,865
100.0
100.0
100.0
® T w elfth Census o f the U nited States, 1900.
These comparisons are still more striking i f taken in connection
with the figures relating to the sexes o f the breadwinners in the vari
ous groups o f occupations. While 42.3 per cent o f the employed
males in the United States are engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and
mining, the proportion o f males in Porto Eico employed in the same
group is as high as 73.3 per cent. In other words, almost threefourths o f all men and boys engaged in any occupation in Porto
Eico are employed directly in agriculture. The males employed in
domestic and personal service in Porto Eico represent 10.2 per cent of
the total breadwinners; in the United States, 14.7 per cent. Males
741
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
engaged in trade and transportation in Porto Rico represent 8.3 per
cent, as against 17.9 per cent in the United States. In the latter
country those engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits
represent 21.6 per cent, while in the former only 7.5 per cent are em
ployed in such occupations; and those engaged in professional service
represent 0.7 per cent in Porto Rico and 3.5 per cent in the United
States.
While the male employees in Porto Rico are preponderatingly
engaged in agriculture, the women and girls are employed mostly in
domestic and personal service. In the United States 18.4 per cent of
all females employed are in agriculture, fishing, and mining, and 39.4
per cent in domestic and personal service; in Porto Rico the proportions
of women engaged in these groups o f occupations, as compared with the
total number o f women employed, are 3.9 per cent and 78.4 per cent,
respectively. In other words, while there are fewer than 2J American
women and girls employed in domestic and personal service to
every woman or girl employed in agriculture, fishing, and mining,
there are in Porto Rico over 20 females employed in the first group
o f occupations for every female employed in the second. The per
centage o f women engaged in professional service is also smaller, as
has already been stated. In proportion to the total number of
females, 14.3 per cent women are employed in the United States, as
against 9.9 per cent in Porto Rico, a difference of 4.4 per cent in
favor o f the United States. O f those employed, moreover, there is
over 11 times as large a proportion in the United States engaged in
professional service as there is in Porto Rico. Out o f every 1,000
females in gainful occupations in the United States 81 are employed
in the professions, and of every 1,000 females employed in Porto Rico
there are only 7 so engaged. Out of every 10,000 females, both bread
winners and dependents, in the United States, 116 are engaged in
the professions, while in Porto Rico, of every 10,000 females in the
country, only 6.4 are so employed.
The following table shows the percentage of breadwinners, by sex,
in Porto Rico, as compared with Cuba and the United States:
PE R CENT OF M ALES AND FEM ALES IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS IN PORTO
RICO, CUBA, AND TH E U N ITED STATES, BY CLASS OF OCCUPATION.
[F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.]
P orto Rico.
Cuba.
United States, (a)
Class o f occupation.
Males.
Females.
Males.
Females.
Males.
Females.
A griculture, fisheries, and m in in g ___
Dom estic and personal service..............
M anufacturing and m echanical pur
suits..........................................................
Trade and transportation......................
Professional s e r v ic e ................................
73.8
10.2
3.9
78.4
52.6
17.2
10.3
69.6
42.3
14.7
18.4
39.4
7.5
8.3
.7
13.4
3.6
.7
14.7
14.2
1.8
16.6
1.0
2.5
21.6
17.9
3.5
24.7
9.4
8.1
T o t a l .................................................
ioo. e
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
a
T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900.
742
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
The great majority of breadwinners in Porto Rico belong to the
unskilled classes. O f every 1,000 breadwinners 682 were classed as
laborers and 82 were classed as servants. In other words, 76.4 per
cent, or over three-fourths of all men, women, boys, and girls em
ployed on the island, were laborers or servants. The proportion of
males is still greater, 78.8 per cent of all males employed, or almost
four-fifths, being reported as laborers.
The following table shows the percentage of breadwinners of both
sexes in 9 specified occupations, including, as may be seen, 92 per
cent o f all breadwinners:
P E R CENT OF PERSONS IN PORTO RICO IN 9 SP E C IF IE D OCCUPATIONS OF
TO T AL PERSONS EM PLOYED.
[F rom the Census o f P orto R ico, 1899.]
Occupation.
L a b o r e r s...................................................
S e rv a n ts................... ..............................
L a u n d e re rs..............................................
M erch a n ts
Dressmakers and seamstresses............
C arpenters...............................................
P er cent
o f all
bread
winners
engaged.
68.2
8.2
5.4
2.8
1.8
1.6
Occupation.
P er cent
o f all
bread
winners
engaged.
Salesmen and salesw om en...................
A g e n ts....... ...... ......... ..............................
Operatives in cigar factories...............
1.5
1.3
1.2
T o ta l...............................................
92.0
The laboring population o f Porto Rico is extremely homogeneous.
The census o f 1899 divided all breadwinners into 82 special classes
of occupations, but 68.2 per cent are employed in the single cate
gory o f unclassed laborers and 92 per cent in 9 classes. The other
73 classes thus included only 8 per cent o f all workers.
O f the 82 classes above mentioned, moreover, 52 classes are made
up o f special occupations, each employing less than 0.1 per cent of
all employees, or less than 1 in 1,000 employees.
The classes of actors, architects and draftsmen, artists, book
binders, bookkeepers, brickmakers, builders and contractors, butchers,
cabinetmakers, charcoal burners, clergymen, commercial travelers,
confectioners, dairymen, dentists, engineers (civil) and surveyors,
engineers and firemen (stationary engines), foremen and overseers,
gardeners and florists, gold and silver workers, gunsmiths, harnessmakers, hostlers, janitors and sextons, journalists, lawyers, literary
and scientific persons, livery-stable keepers, machinists, mechanics,
miners and quarrymen, musicians, nurses, government officials, offi
cials of manufacturing companies, photographers, physicians and
surgeons, planters, potters, restaurant and boarding-house keepers,
shirtmakers, steam-railway employees, stock raisers, stonecutters,
straw workers, street-railway employees, sugar makers, tanners,
telegraph and telephone operators, tinners, watch and clock makers,
wood choppers, include in each case less than 0.1 per cent o f all
workers, or fewer than 316 in each group.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
743
There are 17 other classes, including apprentices, barbers and
hairdressers, blacksmiths, clerks and copyists, coopers, draymen and
hackmen, fishermen, hat and cap makers, hucksters and peddlers,
masons, messengers and office boys, painters, policemen and watch
men, printers, lithographers, etc., soldiers, tailors, and teachers, each
of which had over 0.1 per cent but less than 0.5 per cent o f all
employees. There thus remains only 13 classes of occupations, in
each of which there are as many as 0.5 per cent o f all employees.
O f the 80 occupations in which, according to the census of 1899,
the Porto Rican males are engaged, there are 52 in each o f which
are employed less than 0.1 per cent o f all male workers, or fewer than
268 workers, and o f the 19 employments in which females are engaged,
there are 8 in each o f which are employed less than 0.1 per cent. O f
the 47,701 women and girls employed in Porto Rico, 46,159, or almost
97 per cent o f all, are engaged in 5 classes, viz (in the order of their
importance), servants, laundresses, dressmakers and seamstresses,
laborers, and merchants.
E M PLO YM EN T OF FO REIG N ERS.
The employment o f foreign born in Porto Rico is not o f great
importance, owing to the small number of the nonnative population.
In 1899, for every foreign born white male in a gainful occupation
there were 19 native white males so employed. As a general fact, how
ever, it may be stated that foreign bom whites are and always have
been engaged in the specialized occupations, and in the higher and
better-paid trades. There are 19 times as many native white males
as foreign born white males engaged in gainful occupations, while of
laborers, which is the great unspecialized class, there are over 54 times,
as many native white males as foreign born white males.
D EPEN D EN TS IN PO RTO RICO.
In Porto Rico there is a larger proportion o f dependents to workers
than in the United States or in Cuba. This is due to the very great
proportion o f children in the population. According to the census
o f 1899, 30.9 per cent o f the entire population o f Porto Rico were
below the age o f 10, as compared with 22.7 per cent in Cuba, while
the percentage for the United States in 1900 was only 23.8 per cent.
The proportion o f children under 10 to the entire population is
thus very much higher in Porto Rico than in Cuba or in the United
States, and also higher than in any single State of the United States
or in any advanced country in Europe.
The following table shows the percentage of the population o f
Porto Rico, o f Cuba, and of the United States, respectively, within
various age groups. From this table it may be seen that there are
744
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
many more children in Porto Rico in proportion to the population
than in Cuba or in the United States, and there is a much smaller
proportion o f adults in the former island than on this continent.
In Porto Rico 43.9 per cent of the entire population are below the age
o f 15, while in the United States only 34.5 per cent are below that age.
On the other hand, 47.1 per cent of the population of Porto Rico are
between the ages of 15 and 49, while the percentage for the United
States is 52.1 per cent. Thus a considerably larger percentage of
the inhabitants o f the United States are between the ages of 15 and
50, during which most work is done, and a smaller percentage of the
inhabitants of the United States are either too young or too old to
work. It must be noted, however, that in Porto Rico the excess in
population is to be found in babies and children, and not in persons
who have attained the age o f 50 or over, in which age groups the
proportion o f the population is less than in the United States.
P E R CENT OF POPU LATION OF PORTO RICO IN EACH S P E C IF IE D AGE GROUP
AS COM PARED W IT H CUBA AN D TH E U N ITED STATES.
[F rom the Census o f P orto R ico, 1899.]
A ge group.
P orto
Rico.
4 years or under.
5-9 y e a r s ..............
10-14 y e a r s......... .
15-19 y e a r s..........
20-24 y e a rs...........
25-29 y e a r s..........
90-84 y e a r s......... .
85-39 y e a rs......... .
40-44 y e a r s......... .
45-49 y e a r s......... .
50-54 y e a rs..........
55-59 y e a r s ..........
60-64 y e a r s..........
65-69 y e a rs.........
70-74 y e a r s..........
75-79 y e a rs......... .
80-84 y e a r s ..........
85-89 y e a r s .........
90-94 y e a rs.........
T o ta l.........
a
Cuba.
United
States, (a)
15.8
15.1
13.0
9.8
9.3
8.8
6.8
5.0
4.6
2.8
3.5
1.6
1.9
.7
.6
.2
.3
.1
.1
8.3
14.4
14.0
11.3
9.7
8.7
7.6
6.3
5.4
3.8
3.7
2.2
2.2
.9
.7
.3
.3
.1
.1
12.1
11.7
10.7
9.9
9.7
8.6
7.3
6.5
5.6
4.5
3.9
2.9
2.4
1.7
1.2
.7
.4
.2
100.0
106.0
100.0
T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900.
AG E OF B R E AD W IN N ERS.
Not only has Porto Rico an unduly large percentage o f children
as compared with adults, but the percentage of children employed
in gainful occupations of the total number of children is high. A c
cording to the statistics o f the census o f 1899, 1,670 children below the
age o f 10 were employed in the island. Moreover, while only 14.8
per cent o f the children from the age of 10 to 14, inclusive, are en
gaged in gainful occupations in the United States, in Porto Rico 22.4
per cent and in Cuba 24.6 per cent are so engaged. In other words,
between one-fourth and one-fifth of the Porto Rican children from
745
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
the age o f 10 to 14, inclusive, are engaged in gainful occupations.
The percentage o f boys and girls from 15 to 19, inclusive, at work
is also greater than in the United States, constituting in Porto Rico
almost one-half (49.3 per cent) o f the entire number o f persons be
tween those ages. For the remaining ages, up to and including 54
years, the percentage o f persons employed in Porto Rico is less than
that in the United States. Above that age the percentage which
the workers o f Porto Rico are of the entire population of that age
is greater than a like percentage for the United States. The impor
tant fact, however, as shown by the table, is the large percentage
o f children below the age of 15 years reported as employed.
PER CENT OF PERSONS IN G AIN FU L OCCUPATIONS OF T O T A L PERSONS IN
EACH S P E C IF IE D AGE GROUP IN PORTO RICO, AS COM PARED W IT H CUBA
AND T H E U N ITED STATES.
[F rom the Census o f Porto R ico, 1899.]
A ge group.
N um ber
em
Popula ployed
in
tion.
P orto
Rico.
P er cent in—
P orto
Rico.
Cuba.
United
States, (a)
9 years o r u n d e r ......... ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _____
10-14 y e a r s..................................................................
15-19 y e a r s ..................................................................
20-94 y e a r s ..................................................................
25-29 y e a r s ..................................................................
30-34 y e a r s .................................. ...............................
35-44 y e a r s ..................................................................
45-54 y e a r s ..................................................................
55-64 y e a r s ..................................................................
65 years or o v e r ........................................................
293,949
124,353
93,148
88,475
84,265
64,317
91,802
59,268
33,716
19,950
1,670
27,939
45,990
48,195
45,008
35,598
52,267
32,859
17,951
8,893
0.5
22.4
49.3
54.4
53.4
55.3
56.9
55.4
53.2
44.5
0.6
24.6
48.8
56.2
57.7
59.3 }
60.4
60.3
59.5
52.0
T ota l..................................................................
953,243
316,365
33.1
39.6
14.8
*>42.9
*>61.4
59.3
58.4
57.7
52.8
39.1
38.4
• T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900.
6 Eleventh Census o f the United States, 1890.
It must be noted in this connection that much of this child labor
is agricultural and is not continuous throughout the year. A large
proportion o f the children who help their parents by doing chores
are probably returned as child laborers. It is rather difficult, there
fore, to determine to what extent the work o f these children is
permanent throughout the year and to what extent it is merely
sporadic and temporary. The large amount of child labor may be
due in part to the lack of school facilities and in part to the fact
that there is no general effective control of these children.
The proportion of females engaged in gainful labor in Porto Rico
is less than in the United States. This small percentage of female
workers, however, is distributed more evenly throughout the life of
the worker. In other words, the women employed in Porto Rico ap
pear to work more regularly throughout their lives, and to be em
ployed not only before what is customarily the marriage age, but also
during the period following marriage.
This tendency may be attributed to several causes. In the first
746
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB.
place, there is not in Porto Rico, as in the United States, the great
demand for young unmarried girls and women in offices and stores.
The nature o f the work is largely such as can be carried on by
women throughout their entire lives, and especially by women who
are loosely married or who, after marriage, are thrown upon their
own resources. The low wages which prevail in Porto Rico may
perhaps be considered as one of the causes for the large continued
employment of women after their marriage.
It is also to be noted that many of the women employed are
engaged only during the crop season. To a large extent women are
employed in picking the coffee crop and during the picking season
work either alone or with their husbands and children. They are
often employed by the husband, who receives the pay for the entire
family. Women are also employed in the tobacco districts in the
lighter tasks and are also used to a very limited extent in picking cot
ton. The opportunities of women to work in the sugar fields are
much more restricted.
A very large number o f women are employed in the stripping of
tobacco, the making of paper boxes, and in other work in connection
with the tobacco industry. They are also engaged to a large extent
in hat making, sewing, tailoring, and embroidering. The drawn
work of the Porto Ricans, while not so famous as that of the Mexi
cans, is rapidly achieving a reputation, and women and girls may
be seen working at it in many of the towns and often in villages and
isolated rural cabins.
Many women engage also in washing. This washing is usually
done on the banks of a river. Near almost every town and village
o f Porto Rico dozens of barefooted women may be seen squatting
upon the flat stones of a stream washing and rinsing clothes during
the entire day. These women usually work directly for customers,
and appear to average from 20 to 50 cents a day; but it is impossible
to secure exact data concerning their earnings, which vary from week
to week.
The chief occupation o f Porto Rican women is in the household.
A large number o f them cook, and others are employed as nurses and
servants. Except in a few of the leading hotels and restaurants,
cooking is done almost entirely by women. The rate of pay varies
greatly.
The following table shows the number and per cent of persons
according to sex and age engaged in gainful occupations, and includes
for comparison the corresponding percentages for Cuba and the
United States.
747
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO,
This table shows that a larger proportion o f males above the age of
10 are employed in Porto Rico than is the case in the United States.
P E R CENT OF M ALES AN D OF FEM ALES IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS IN EACH
SPEC IF IE D AGE GROUP IN PORTO RICO, AS COM PARED W IT H CUBA AND
TH E U N ITED STATES.
[F rom the Census o f P orto R ico, 1899.]
Males in gainful occupations.
Females in gainful occupations.
P er cent in—
A ge group.
N um ber
in P orto P orto
Rico.
R ico.
P er cent in—
N um ber
in P orto P orto
United
United
Cuba. States, (a) Rico.
Rico. Cuba. States. («)
9 years or u n d e r ..............
10-14 y e a r s ........................
15-19 y e a r s ........................
20-24 y e a r s ........................
25-29 y e a r s ........................
30-34 y e a r s ........................
35-44 y e a r s ........................
45-54 y e a r s ........................
55-64 y e a r s ........................
65 years or o v e r................
900
23,155
37,453
40,408
38,497
30,665
45,228
28,468
15,857
8,033
0.6
35.5
87.2
96.9
97.5
97.7
97.4
96.2
94.6
86.6
0.9
44.0
91.6
98.1 }
98.5
98.6 }
98.3
97.5
96.2
90.2
21.4
80.5 1f
96.3 /t
96.6
95.5
90.0
68.4
T o ta l........................
268,664
56.8
68.2
60.0
770
4,784
8,537
7,787
6,511
4,928
7,039
4,391
2,094
860
0.5
8.0
17.0
16.6
14.5
14.9
15.5
14.7
12.3
8.0
47,701
9.9
0.2
4.5
10.3 }
11.4
12.0 \
13.4
14.6
15.6
15.8
13.3
8.1
30.6
19.9
15.6
14.7
13.2
9.1
8.8
14.3
° T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900.
The following table shows the per cent o f persons engaged in gain
ful occupations in urban and rural districts according to age and sex.
It shows that by far the larger proportion of female laborers are
engaged in the urban districts, while of the boys below the age of 15
the larger proportion are employed in the country.
P E R CENT OF M ALES A N D OF FE M A LE S IN G A IN F U L OCCUPATIONS IN EACH
SPECIFIED A G E G ROU P CLASSIFIED A S U R B A N A N D R U R A L .
[F rom the Census o f Porto Rico, 1899.]
P er cent o f breadwinners.
Total.
A ge group.
Urban.
Male.
Rural.
Urban.
Female.
Rural.
Urban.
Rural.
9 years or u n d e r.......................................
10-14 y e a r s .................................................
15-19 y e a r s .................................................
20-24 y e a r s .................................................
25-29 y e a r s .................................................
30-34 yeaV s.................................................
35-44 y e a r s .................................................
45-54 y e a r s .................................................
55-64 y e a r s .................................................
65 years or o v e r .........................................
1.1
21.5
58.3
65.2
65.7
67.7
64.5
59.5
53.7
35.5
0.5
22.5
48.6
53.4
52.3
54.3
56.3
55.1
53.2
45.1
0.9
27.7
86.4
97.0
97.5
96.9
95.7
91.5
87.0
73.2
0.5
35.9
87.3
96.9
97.5
97.8
97.5
96.5
95.0
87.2
1.3
15.6
34.3
36.1
35.4
40.4
37.1
35.6
31.0
17.9
0.4
7.6
15.5
14.8
12.8
12.8
13.6
12.9
10.6
7.2
T o ta l.................................................
44.9
32.4
65.6
56.3
26.4
8.7
A G R IC U L T U R A L LABO R.
As has been stated, the great mass of persons engaged in gainful
occupations are employed in tilling the soil, and the welfare o f the
island, and in particular of its working population, depends pri
marily upon the agricultural conditions and possibilities.
748
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
O f the total area of Porto Rico (8,606 square miles), 76 per cent,
or 2,748 square miles, are included within farms. The area under
cultivation amounted in 1899 to 747 square miles, or to almost 21 per
cent o f the entire area of the country. These figures indicate to
how much greater an extent the island of Porto Rico is settled and
occupied than is Cuba, in which country only 29.9 per cent o f the
total area o f the island is included in farms and only 8 per cent of
the entire area under cultivation. The figures for Porto Rico cor
respond more closely with those for the United States in 1890, when
16 per cent o f the entire area o f the country (including the arid
regions o f the West) was under cultivation. (a)
The census o f 1899 gives the total number o f farms in Porto Rico
as 89,021 and the total area as 1,757,774 cuerdas, the average farm
thus having an area o f only 45 acres or cuerdas. ( *&) O f this land, only
477,987 cuerdas were cultivated, giving a cultivated area o f slightly
over 12 cuerdas, or acres, per farm. In the United States in 1900 the
average farm contained 147 acres, of which 72 acres were improved,
while in Cuba in 1899 the average farm had an area o f 142 acres, o f
which 18 acres were under cultivation. The following table shows
these returns for the various departments o f the island:
C U L TIV A T E D A R E A AND AV E R AG E SIZE OF FARM S, B Y D E PA RTM E N TS, 1899.
[F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.]
Departm ent.
Total Cultivated P rop or
A verage
A verage
area
area
tion culti
size o f
amount
(square
(square
vated
fa rm
cultivated
m iles).
m iles). (per cent). (cuerdas). (cuerdas).
A guadilla ...................... .................................
A r e cib o ..........................................................
B a y a m o n _______________________________
G u ayam a....... ............. ...... ............................
H um acao ............................ ............... ..........
M a y a g u e z ......................................................
P o n c e ...............................................................
240
621
542
561
829
895
821
83
158
68
78
49
123
183
85
25
13
14
15
♦31
22
28
50
45
57
33
36
53
9
15
8
13
10
13
17
T ota l......................................................
8,509
742
21
45
12
These statistics, however, present averages which in many instances
are misleading. The census o f Porto Rico apparently included under
a The census figures for agriculture in Porto Rico can not o f course be con
sidered as exact. Agricultural data are necessarily defective in a country in
which the population is not used to investigations o f this nature, in which
ignorance and illiteracy prevail, and in which even the limits o f plantations
are not fixed. The fiscal authorities o f the island have themselves been unable
to determine the limitations o f many of the properties, owing to the lack of satis
factory departmental maps, and the returns made to the census enumerators in
the absence o f such information must have been, therefore, merely approximate.
&For small areas it is sufficiently exact to use the terms acre and euerda
interchangeably. The euerda has an area o f 1.008 acres. A farm o f 45 cuerdas
would therefore contain about 45.4 acres.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
749
“ farms ” little patches of ground which were located near houses and
can not be classified as farms in the ordinary sense o f the word, since
o f the 39,021 farms reported, 22,327, or 57.2 per cent, were under 5
cuerdas in extent. In other words, 5 out of every 9 so-called farms
in Porto Rico were 5-acre patches or still smaller. O f the remaining
farms, 7,417, or 19 per cent, had an area of from 5 to 9 cuerdas;
4,503, or’ 11.6 per cent, had an area of from 10 to 19 cuerdas, and
2,927, or 7.5 per cent, had an area o f from 20 to 49 cuerdas. It thus
follows that only 4.7 per cent o f all the farms o f Porto Rico had an
area o f 50 cuerdas or over. Only 851 farms, or 2.2 per cent, had
an area o f 100 cuerdas or over.
COFFEE.
A t the time o f the census in 1899 coffee was by far the most impor
tant of all the crops cultivated in Porto Rico. The census authori
ties state that “ the only measure o f agricultural products which was
obtained by the census consisted in the area cultivated in each
crop.” (a) Measured by this standard, coffee was by far the most im
portant crop. According to the census figures, 41 per cent of all the
cultivated land was devoted to coffee, 15 per cent to sugar cane, 14
per cent to bananas, 8 per cent to sweet potatoes, 4 per cent to Indian
corn, 2 per cent to malangas, 2 per cent to rice, 1 per cent to cocoanuts, and only 1 per cent to tobacco. ( *&)
Approximately this same relation between the amounts o f land
devoted to the three great money crops—coffee, sugar, and tobacco—
reappeared in the values o f the crops as given for 1897 by Senor Coll
y Toste, civil secretary o f Porto Rico under the Spanish Government.
In that year the value o f the coffee crop was estimated at $12,222,599,
that o f the sugar crop at $4,007,992, and of the tobacco crop at
$1,194,318, all o f these sums being in provincial currency. Thus
the value o f the coffee orop was given as three times that of the sugar
crop, just as the acreage two years later (1899) was given as about
three times as great as that devoted to sugar.
Since 1898, however, a complete revolution has taken place in Porto
Rican agriculture, with the result that the coffee industry has greatly
diminished in volume and the price of the product has fallen, while,
in the other hand, the sugar industry has grown rapidly. The value
i f the coffee crop, the exports of which during the three years 1895
to 1897, inclusive, formed 70 per cent of the value o f all the exports
from the island, sank rapidly, both absolutely and in relation to other
3rops and other exports. This decline in the coffee industry was due
-ii part to the phenomenally large production in Brazil and other
®Census of Porto Rico, 1899, p. 152.
6 These figures account for only 88 per cent o f the cultivated area.
750
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
coffee-producing countries, which tended to reduce the price and to a
certain extent to close the markets of the world to Porto Rico.
An equally severe blow came as the result o f the acquisition of
Porto Rico by the United States. This acquisition of territory did
not in any way benefit the Porto Rican coffee planters, since even
under Spanish rule they enjoyed the benefits o f free importation of
their product into this country. On the other hand, the turning over
o f Porto Rico to the United States resulted in a great diminution of
the island’s coffee exportation to Spain and Cuba, in which countries
Porto Rican coffee had hitherto received preferential treatment as a
product o f a Spanish colony. TJie consequence was that the Porto
Rican planters were not only obliged to meet the severe competition
o f the Brazilian coffee, but were deprived o f the advantages and pref
erential tariffs under which they had formerly prospered.
A still greater injury to the Porto Rican coffee industry was
inflicted by the hurricane o f 1899. This hurricane, which swept over
the greater part o f the island, was especially disastrous in the coffee
district. Not only were the trees, which require five years o f growth,
ruined, but entire plantations and houses and everything necessary
to the conduct o f the industry, including even the soil itself in some
instances, were swept away. The destruction of life, the washing
away o f houses and bridges and o f whole plantations were only inci
dents o f the hurricane. The immediate effect was a great reduction
in the size o f the crop. The already impoverished planters were un
able to secure sufficient capital to reestablish their plantations upon a
paying basis, and even at the present time, six years after the date o f
the hurricane, the coffee industry in Porto Rico is still suffering from
its dreadful effects.
The crop, the larger part of which is exported, was valued in pro
vincial currency in 1850 at $700,000; in 1870 at $1,000,000; in 1880
at $8,000,000; in 1890 at $5,600,000, and in 1897 at $12,200,000.
Since that time the crop has declined greatly in amount and value,
and in 1904 the value o f the coffee exported was $3,900,000 in Ameri
can currency, equal to $6,500,000 in the provincial currency o f 1897.
As a consequence coffee is no longer the most important crop in the
island o f Porto Rico. In 1904, o f the entire exports of the island,
amounting to $16,013,390, sugar constituted 54 per cent, coffee 24 per
cent, and tobacco 11 per cent. In other words, while less than ten
years ago the exports of coffee were more than three times as great
as the exports o f sugar, at the present time the exports o f sugar are
two and one-fourth times as great as the exports of coffee. The fol
lowing table shows the quantity and value in American currency o f
the exports o f sugar, coffee, and tobacco during recent years:
751
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
EXPORTS
(IN CLU DIN G SH IPM EN TS TO TH E U N ITED S T A T E S )
SUGAR, AND TOBACCO, 1901 TO 1905.
Year ending
June 30—
1901......................
1903......................
1903......................
1904......................
1905......................
Coffee.
Pounds.
Value.
13,157,240
36,906,399
35,127,685
34,329,972
16,849,739
$1,678,765
3,195,662
3,970,574
3,903,257
2,141,009
Sugar, brow n.
Pounds.
137,817,470
183,822,636
226,215,132
259,294,060
271,325,118
Value.
OF
L eaf tobacco.
Pounds.
$4,715,111 04,990,237
5,890,302 0 2,052,973
7,470,122
2,174,078
8,690,814
3,104,754
11,925,804
2,513,271
Value.
o $375,527
o212,768
194,857
286,106
437,882
COFFEE,
M anufac
tures of
tobacco.
$308,8641,578,748
1,763,207
1,466,425
2,161,411
° Including stems and trimmings.
Generally speaking, it may be stated that apart from domestic con
sumption on the island the coffee is raised for foreign markets and
tobacco and sugar for American markets.
The prevailing rate o f wages throughout the coffee district of
Porto Eico is 30 cents a day. There is little fluctuation from this
wage, although in a considerable portion o f the territory 25 cents
with free breakfast is paid and considered as approximately the same.
These wages do not, however, apply to the picking season. The
system which prevails, and which has prevailed for many decades, is
to pay the workmen by the day, except during the crop gathering,
when payment is made by weight or measure, the almud being the
customary standard. The pay for the almud varies from day to day
and from plantation to plantation. In the early part of the season
the rate o f pay for the almud is higher than later on, owing to the
fact that ripe berries are scarcer and the quantity which a man can
pick in a day correspondingly less. As the season advances and the
fruit ripens more rapidly the rate per almud decreases, although the
amount which the pickers can earn increases. Toward the close of the
season the earnings o f the men, women, and children engaged in pick
ing again decline.
It has not been possible to secure correct data covering the annual
earnings o f the workmen in the coffee plantations. The regularity
o f employment, however, is not great and there are many interrup
tions, necessitated both by the nature o f the industry and the frequent
rains, which often make work in the afternoon impossible. The
labor needed in the coffee district during the greater part o f the year
is less than that required to keep busy the entire available body of
workers, consequently there are many persons unemployed except
during the picking season. From data obtained from the books of
the planters and from other available testimony it appears that the
average worker on the coffee plantation is not employed over four
days a week during the greater part of the year. The workmen are
not paid at all during the time when it rains, and in the coffee regions
it rains on a large proportion of the days in the year.
On one plantation 13 men were employed at the time it was visited.
276—No. 61—06 m-----3
752
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
O f this number 2 men worked 5\ days; 2 worked 5 days; 1 worked 6
days; 1 worked 4 days; 2 worked 3£ days; 1 worked 3£ days; 1
worked 3 days, and 3 worked 2 days. The average for the 13 men
amounted to 3.9 days o f work during the week. On this estate the
peons work only half a day on Saturday.
On another estate 2 men worked 6 days; 1 worked from 5 to 6
days; 2 worked 4 days; 5 worked 3 days; 13 worked 2 days or less
than 3 days; 4 worked 1 day or less than 2 days, and 1 worked
less than 1 day; whereas 4 men carried on the roll did not work at all.
The average amount worked during this week appears to have been
about 3 days.
Upon the basis of 4 days a week, the rate of remuneration of the
workers in the coffee district would not be over $1.20 per week, except
during the picking season, and this figure is in excess of that earned
by those who are less fortunate in securing even this regular employ
ment.
On one plantation on November 23, 1904, the following amounts of
coffee were picked: 3 men picked 1 almud each; 10 picked between
1 and 2 almuds each; 5 picked between 2 and 3 almuds each; 3 picked
3 almuds each, and 1 man picked 4 almuds. The price o f the almud
on this day was 8 cents.
The rate o f pay as measured in provincial currency was greater
during Spanish days than the rate o f pay in American money at the
present time. On a typical plantation in the interior o f the island the
daily rate o f pay for peons, which prior to 1899 was 44 cents in provin
cial currency (somewhat over 26 cents gold in 1899) fell in that year to
25 cents American currency. The rate o f 44 cents was maintained
during the previous twenty years despite the fact that the value of
the currency as measured in gold decreased greatly during that
period. The fall to 25 cents in American money represented a real
loss to the peons, owing to the fact that the prices of the commod
ities which they purchased did not fall to an equal extent.
The decline in the rate o f pay upon this particular plantation was
accompanied by a decrease in the regularity of employment and a
lessening o f the total amount of work done. When visited, the plan
tation was employing only about one-fourth as many peons as it
employed a number o f years before, and this lessening o f the working
force was shown to be general throughout the island.
There is during the picking season a great demand for labor, a
demand which is supplied by drafting all available workmen into
the service and by obtaining the assistance o f the wives and children
o f the workers.
In a large group of plantations it was found that there were em
ployed on the average from 350 to 400 men throughout the year, these
men being employed, however, with considerable irregularity. Dur
753
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
ing the period when the crop was being gathered the number o f men
at work was increased about 50 per cent; in other words, instead of
400 men being at work, 600 would work. Moreover, there was an
average o f about 180 women and 360 children aiding the 600 men, so
that counting women and children equal to men the labor force was
almost trebled in these plantations. These figures are approxima
tions only, but they indicate the fluctuations in the labor force and the
very considerable reduction o f the force at the end of the crop season.
SUGAR.
Sugar was first introduced into Cuba in 1548. Its production,
however, was inconsiderable until the nineteenth century. According
to Colonel Flinter the production in Porto Rico in 1775 amounted to
only 273,750 pounds; in 1803 to only 176,344 pounds; in 1810 to
2,544,923 pounds; in 1828 to 12,251,662 pounds, and in 1830 to
31,514,388 pounds.
The following table shows the quantity and value o f the sugar
crop in Porto Rico from 1850 to 1897 by decennial periods:
Q U A N TITY AND VA LU E OF SUGAR PRODUCTION, 1850 TO 1897.
[F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.]
Year.
Quantity
(pounds).
1850........................................................................................................................
1880....... : ..............................................................................................................
1870........................................................................................................................
1880........................................................................................................................
1890............................................................................................................... ........
1897 .
................................................................................. .....................
112,129,483
116,015,181
191,649,670
221,220,894
128,021,904
126,827,472
Value
(pesos).
3,910,167.88
3,480,455.33
5,749,492.10
3,016,948.55
3,782,465.50
4,007,992.08
Since the American occupation, and especially since the free admis
sion o f Porto Rican products into the United States, there has been
a great boom in the sugar industry. Until the year 1879 the sugar
crop always exceeded in value that of coffee. During the 48 years
from 1850 to 1897, inclusive, the sugar crop was worth $118,000,000
in provincial currency, while the coffee crop was worth only
$98,000,000 and the tobacco crop only $12,000,000. (®) The year 1879
was the greatest year o f sugar raising during the period of Spanish
dominion, after which the crop o f sugar became less and less impor
tant, while that o f coffee became more and more important. A t the
present time, however, this state o f affairs is being changed and there
is a rapid reversal to the conditions o f the former period. A ll the
seacoast lands which by any possibility can be put into sugar are
being made use o f in this w ay; and lands which for many years had
lain fallow have since been planted in cane. The pasture lands
©Second Annual Report o f the Governor o f Porto Rico.
page 19.
Washington, 1902,
754
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOK.
are being pressed back into the mountains in order that every avail
able acre o f land may be devoted to sugar.
With the increase in the output o f sugar and the rise in price there
has come a change of method. The old-fashioned process of manu
facturing sugar has been practically abandoned and the modern
scientific methods used in Hawaii and other places substituted.
Everywhere throughout the sugar district one sees abandoned mills
which it no longer pays to operate. Under the present system it is
possible to extract about 10 or 11 per cent of sugar from the cane
instead o f from 5 to 7 per cent under the former process. To install
a modern plant, however, it is necessary, for the sake of economy,
to have machinery capable o f producing a minimum o f 5,000 tons
annually, and to equip and operate such a plant hundreds o f thou
sands o f dollars are necessary. To secure the necessary output the
product o f several thousands o f acres is required.
Rates o f wages on sugar plantations are given in detail in tables
accompanying this report. These tables show that the rates of wages
prevailing in the sugar plantations are considerably higher than
are those in the coffee districts. The demand for labor has been
very great— in fact, the coast sugar lands have drawn largely upon
the mountain districts for their labor supply— and wages have been
high in proportion. The rates of wages for ordinary unskilled work
on the sugar plantations, as may be seen from the tables, average
from 50 to 55 cents per day. Wages which appear in the tables as
considerably below this figure are paid to boys and striplings, and
wages which exceed this amount are given to men who are employed
on work requiring a certain amount of skill.
In a number o f cases statistics are presented separately for men
engaged in special occupations, such as cane cutters, loaders, canehole diggers, cane planters, cultivators, ditchers, fence men, grass
cutters, land clearers, etc., but in all these cases the division is not
according to the grade o f the workman, but merely according to the
specific occupation at which he is temporarily engaged. There is no
permanent division of labor along these lines, but each o f these d if
ferent offices is performed consecutively by one field hand or laborer.
In a number o f instances the wages o f laborers engaged in special
occupations can not be given, since for many tasks a special piece rate
is paid, instead o f day or time wages. This substitution o f piece rates
for time rates is taking place very rapidly and extensively. It is to
be assumed, however, and the conclusion is borne out by the testimony
o f the employers, that the remuneration of the men under the piece
system is not much greater than under the time system. The same
men are usually employed alternately at piece rates and time rates,,
and in view o f this fact it is not to be supposed that the actual daily
remuneration will vary much between the two kinds o f employment
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
755
at which the same men are put. In many cases the amounts received
by the individual workmen engaged at piece rates are not known,
since the custom is to pay a lump sum to the foreman for the whole
piece o f work and permit him to divide this money among the men
under him in any manner or proportion that may be agreed upon
between him and his men.
The higher wages paid in the sugar districts temporarily attract
considerable bodies o f men from the coffee districts, where laborers
are abundant and poorly paid. There is, however, a considerable
opposition on the part o f the men in the coffee districts to migrating,
even temporarily, to the lower sugar districts. They consider the
coast lands unhealthy, and it is doubtless true that they feel the
debilitating effects o f the warm and often moist climate to a much
greater extent than do the coast people, who are accustomed to it.
Moreover, the work upon the sugar estates is extremely arduous.
The men work under a broiling sun, usually for 10 hours a day, and
this working in the sun is especially difficult for the coffee laborers,
who are accustomed to the shade of the uplands. Finally, it is diffi
cult to attract the coffee workers, owing to the fact that many of
them suffer from anemia and find not only the work but the long
walk to the place where the work is to be found too great an exer
tion for their strength. Notwithstanding these facts, a considerable
migration takes place annually, the uplander remaining until it is
necessary for him to return to cultivate his little patch in the hills,
or until the end o f the sugar season.
The sugar industry has been the one to bear the brunt o f most of
the agricultural strikes which have taken place in Porto Rico. This
has apparently been due to the prosperity of the industry and the
rapid extension o f cane culture which has created a greater demand for
labor. The strikes have been o f short duration, and the employees
are not permanently organized. While the rate of wages is higher
than that prevailing in the coffee districts, the work is more arduous,
and the custom o f giving bonuses or free grants in the form o f lodg
ing, breakfast, etc., is not so prevalent in the sugar districts as in the
coffee districts. Moreover, in the regions devoted to sugar-cane cul
tivation it is not so customary for the worker to have a little patch
o f ground which he can cultivate for himself.
TOBACCO CULTURE.
The rates o f wages in the tobacco fields are somewhat lower than
in the sugar districts but considerably higher than in the coffee
districts. In the tobacco fields wages average slightly over 40 cents
per day, the rates for men averaging between 40 and 45 cents per
day. On certain plantations employing over 2,000 men and women
756
BULLETIN
OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
the rates o f pay range from 40 to 45 cents and average a trifle over
41 cents. These wages are fairly uniform throughout the island with
those planters employing a considerable number of men. A large
part of the tobacco of the country is raised by small cultivators,
who themselves do all the necessary work. These men not only raise
the tobacco, but take it to market, and pay no wages, either in the
cultivation or transportation o f the product.
FRUIT CULTURE.
A t the present time only a small proportion of the agricultural
workers of Porto Eico are engaged in fruit culture. Porto Eico
is admirably adapted for the growing of fruits and it is to be antici
pated that a large amount o f capital will be invested in this industry.
A considerable amount o f capital has already been put into orange
culture, but cultivation is still in its earlier stages. The trees do not
bear until the fourth or fifth year, and most o f the groves have been
planted within that time. Several thousand acres, however, have
been put into oranges and “ the indications are that these plantings
will be largely increased in the near future.” (a) Land is cheap,
as compared with orange lands elsewhere, as are also labor and
freight transportation, while the American tariff favors the Porto
Eican product as it does that of Florida and California. The cli
matic conditions are perfect, since frost is unknown on the island, and
the conditions as regards diseases and insect pests are no worse, if not
better, than they are in Florida. What is required is better transpor
tation within the island and from its ports to the American cities.
Eefrigerator facilities are especially necessary.
The wages paid in the growing of oranges average about 40 cents
a day. It was possible to secure reports for only one plantation,
which, however, is one o f the largest on the island. The price of un
skilled labor on this plantation is 40 cents a day and there is no
difficulty in obtaining a plentiful supply.
It is considered probable that grapes of some European or Cali
fornian variety might be raised on the island. These grapes would
probably ripen in May or June, or considerably before the California
grapes are put on the market. There is at present, however, prac
tically no cultivation of grapes on the island.
The island also offers opportunities for the cultivation and expor
tation o f pineapples, bananas, mangoes, and cocoanuts. As yet the
« See Report on Observation in Porto Rico, by Prof. F. S. Earle, in Annual
Report o f the Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903, reprinted
in Annual Report of the Office of Experiment Stations for the year ending
June 30, 1903, page 455. For the general conditions o f orange culture in Porto
Rico, see Bulletin No. 4 of the Porto Rican Agricultural Experiment Station,
Propagation and Marketing o f Oranges in Porto Rico, by H. C. Henricksen.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
757
amount o f labor upon plantations producing these fruits and nuts is
entirely too inconsiderable to warrant investigation. The fruit and
vegetable situation of Porto Rico may be summed up by stating that,
while the island is admirably adapted for the cultivation o f many
tropical fruits and vegetables, their cultivation upon a large scale
has not yet been undertaken. The only exception is oranges, and
even for this fruit cultivation has been too recent and the employment
o f labor too small to permit it to be considered one o f the leading
agricultural industries o f the island.
U RBAN W AGES.
The population o f Porto Rico is overwhelmingly rural. There is
no large city in the island, and but four cities with a population
of 8,000 or over. These are San Juan, with a population of 82,048;
Ponce, with a population of 27,952 (including its p o r t ); Mayaguez,
with a population o f 15,187, and Arecibo, with a population of 8,008.
The total urban population in cities of 8,000 or over was only 8.7 per
cent o f the total, as compared with 82.3 per cent in Cuba and 33.1
per cent for the United States (1900).
There were, however, in Porto Rico 53 small towns with a popula
tion o f 1,000 or more, but less than 8,000. These small towns, together
with the cities o f 8,000 or over, had a population, in 1899, o f 203,792,
or 21.4 per cent o f the total inhabitants o f the island.
In the island
o f Cuba, which has a far less dense population than Porto Rico, the
percentage o f people living in towns of 1,000 or more is 47.1 per cent,
or more than twice as large a percentage as in Porto Rico.
The wages paid urban workers in a number of occupations are
given in the appendix to this article (p. 820 et seq.). A brief state
ment o f the conditions prevailing in some of these urban occupations
will help to a better understanding of labor conditions in the island.
BARBERS.
This occupation in Porto Rico is of slight importance. There are
a few establishments in the larger cities which are fairly well
equipped and charge American prices. The smaller shops in the
cities usually consist o f a proprietor or of a proprietor with one
apprentice.
BOARDING-HOUSE SERVICE.
In the boarding-house and hotel service there is a great variation in
the rates o f wages. These wages include board and lodging, esti
mated by the proprietors at $12 per month; but this is a very evident
overestimate. The wages o f persons employed in this service, as in
domestic service, are much lower than in the United States. The
758
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
efficiency o f these employees is also much less. It is customary and
is considered necessary for families to maintain a larger number
o f servants than families of the same income would maintain in the
United States. Both of the boarding houses from which wage re
ports were obtained catered largely to Americans, and the wages are
higher, on the whole, than in similar native establishments. No sta
tistics are presented for restaurants or hotels, since the wages o f em
ployees in these establishments are to a large extent in the form of
tips, and all restaurant keepers of whom inquiry was made claimed
that they kept no books or pay rolls.
BUILDING TRADES.
The vast majority o f the habitations of the Porto Ricans are huts
constructed by themselves. The construction o f dwellings in the
country districts is, therefore, not a special trade. Even in the cities
the building trades do not employ any considerable number.
The walls o f the ordinary house in the city are built of native
brick and then covered with cement. The bricks used are long and
wide, but not thick, and are coarse and slightly burned. The price
ranges generally from $7 to $10 per thousand. The work of brick
laying is carried on in a leisurely manner, and on most of the opera
tions the hours o f labor are about 54 per week. The three establish
ments treated in this report were engaged upon the construction of
churches. The contractors in each case stated that the work was
done by picked men. The wages range from $1.80 to $2.50 for car
penters; $2.25 for foremen of carpenters; $2.50 for foremen of
masons; from $1.80 to $2.25 for masons, and from $1.80 to $2 for
painters. The wages for unskilled workmen range lower, but were
considerably higher than ordinary wages for unskilled labor in other
industries in the cities. Mortar mixers receive 90 cents per day, and
the prevailing rate o f pay for common labor was 72 cents per day.
Less than 10 per cent of the laborers, or 2 out of 26, receive the rate
o f 90 cents per day. The establishments from which the reports
were obtained were in San Juan, Rio Piedras, a suburb of San Juan,
and in Yieques Island. Wages in the latter region were the highest;
labor, and especially skilled labor, being scarcer in that island than
in other parts o f Porto Rico.
CIGAR MAKING.
The making o f cigars is one of the most important i f not the most
important manufacturing industry in the island. The industry has
grown very rapidly since the American occupation o f Porto Rico.
The legislation permitting the importation o f cigars from Porto Rico
into the United States without any duty and without any impost
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
759
save the internal-revenue taxes allowed the Porto Rican cigar to com
pete on favorable terms both with the native American and the Cuban
cigar. The effect was a great increase in the trade in Porto Rican
cigars, which was followed by a temporary setback owing to the fact
that inferior grades were thrown upon the market. The industry
has since grown rapidly, although during the present year it has been
somewhat handicapped by a large increase in the cost o f leaf tobacco.
The manufacture o f cigars in Porto Rico is carried on under con
ditions similar to those prevailing in the United States. American
capital is practically in control of the industry, the largest estab
lishment being in the hands of a company affiliated with the Ameri
can Tobacco Company. Nearly all of the workers are Porto Ricans,
except classers (men who grade the finished product), who, to a
large extent, have come from Cuba. The employees in most estab
lishments are organized into a trade union, affiliated with the cigar
makers’ union in the United States. The rates of wages, as may be
seen from the table in the appendix, are lower than those paid in the
United States. The wages are higher in San Juan than in the
smaller towns in which many of the cigar factories are situated.
Some o f the manufacturers have factories in more than one district.
Some of the establishments are overcrowded, but on the whole the
work is carried on in fairly commodious and suitable quarters.
The cigars manufactured are principally for American consump
tion. The cigarettes are largely consumed locally.
A ll the cigars made in Porto Rico are manufactured by hand,
although, of course, molds are used.
The following statement shows the earnings o f various workers in
a large tobacco establishment in Porto Rico:
The leaf strippers in the manufacture of cigars receive 2J cents
per pound o f leaf stripped, and 141 girls working at this earned
together $373 during a week, or an average o f $2.65 apiece. O f these,
13 earned $3 or over, 120 earned $2 or over, but less than $3, and 8
earned less than $2 per week.
The cigar classers, working on the cheaper grade, averaged almost
$9 per week. During the week under observation 15 men earned
$130, or an average of $8.67. O f these men, 8 earned from $10 to
$12 and 7 men earned less than $10, but more than $5.
The high-grade classers earned high wages. During the week
under observation 9 men earned $30 or less than $35, 10 men earned
$20 or less than $30, and 3 men earned less than $20. The total
payment during the week to these 22 men was $590, or an average o f
$26.82 per man. This is the highest grade work in the establishment.
A t bundling cigars 5 men earned during the same week $17.20, or
an average o f $3.44 per man.
760
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
At wrapping and packing 5 men earned $21, or an average of $4.20
per man for the week.
For the work o f drying the leaf the ordinary pay is 60 cents per
day. O f 30 men so employed, 23 earned 60 cents per day, 3 earned
70 cents, 2 earned 75 cents, 1 earned 80 cents, and 1 earned $1 per day.
The average for these 30 men was thus 64 cents per day. The fore
man received $14 per week.
For the work o f wetting the leaf the ordinary pay is 80 cents per
day and the average pay is 74 cents. O f the men engaged in this
work, 7 earned 80 cents, 1 man earned 60 cents, and 1 man earned 50
cents per day. The pay o f the foreman was $12 per week.
The pay o f the cigar makers varies with their skill and with the
quality o f the cigar made. On a $7.50 brand 10 men, working 5 days
in the week, earned $61.49, which is equivalent to a weekly pay of
$6.15 and a daily pay of $1.23. O f 235 men making a $4.50 brand,
100, or 43 per cent, earned less than $5 per week and 135, or 57 per
cent, earned from $5 to $10 per week. The average time worked
during the week was about 40 hours. Two foremen earned together
$27.50 for the week. On the $12 brand 30 men working 48 hours
during the week earned $294.60, or an average o f $9.82 per week and
an average of 20J cents per hour. O f these men, 18 earned $10 or
over per week, and 30 men earned more than $5, but less than $10.
The earnings o f 30 men making an $8 brand amounted to $124, an
average o f $4.13 per week. On a $7 brand the earnings o f 40 men
working an average of 48 hours a week were $306.45, or an average
o f $7.66 per week per man or of 16 cents per hour. The weekly
earnings ranged from $6 to $9. The earnings of 20 men working 3
days were $41.30, an average of $2.07 per week or o f 69 cents per day.
The earnings o f 60 men working 4 days in the week were $332, or an
average o f $5.53 per week or o f $1.38 per day. On a $5 brand the
earnings o f 127 men working 4 days in the week were $415, or $3.27
per week or 82 cents per day. In these cases the average daily and
hourly earnings appear lower owing to the fact that in many
instances the men did not do their full complement o f work.
In the manufacture o f cigars the wages o f 54 girls working as strip
pers for 48 hours in the week ranged between $2 and $3. The average
earnings o f the 54 were $2.31 per week or somewhat less than 5 cents
per hour.
Twenty-one men were employed at $2 per day as leaf classers
(selectors o f wrappers for the cigars). The total earnings of these
during the week were $215, amounting thus to $5.18 per week per
man. Two foremen together earned $29.50 per week and 2 clerks
earned together $29.50 per week.
On the cigarette machines 8 men earned $99.59 for 48 hours’ work,
an average o f $12.45 per week, or 26 cents per hour.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
761
In making cigarette shells 17 men, paid at the rate of 15 cents per
thousand, working about 40 hours per week, earned $81.18. These
aggregate earnings, however, like many of those previously men
tioned, give a lower average than the true one, since in some cases
men who are carried on the rolls work only a day or a fraction o f a
day. Thus, o f the 17 men working at a uniform rate and earning
$81.18 in all, 15 made $80, or an average o f $5.33, while the remain
ing 2 made only $1.18, or an average of 59 cents for the week.
A t the work o f packing cigarettes 34 men, working an average of
40 hours, earned $243.80, an average of $7.17 per week.
At the leaf process 3 men earned 90 cents per day, 1 earned $1.25
per day, and 4 men earned 50 cents per day. The average for these 8
men was thus 74f cents for each day worked. The average earnings
of the 8 men for the week were $4.49.
In warehouse labor 13 men, working at $1 a day, earned during the
week $62.25, or an average of $4.79 each.
An average o f $1.59 each per day was earned by 3 carpenters work
ing 2| days.
The foreman o f the warehouse earned $20 per week; the foreman
o f the boiler room, $20 per week; the fireman, $12 per week; the
foreman o f the cigarette department, $12 per week, and the cart
driver and the watchman each $7 per week.
COTTON GINNING.
This is a new industry and is o f no great importance. Wage data
were obtained for the only establishment in operation. The rates of
wages for the laborers range from 40 to 60 cents, the average wages
being under 50 cents a day for an 8-hour day.
There is probably a considerable future in store for the industry of
cotton growing. While cotton as yet has not been grown to any ex
tent, that which has been produced is of an extremely good quality,
equaling, it is claimed, the famous Sea Island cotton o f the United
States. The cotton which has been raised so far has been shipped to
Manchester, England.
DRESSMAKING.
In the small establishment from which a wage report was obtained
the work was performed for American customers. The rate of pay
was 25 cents per day, with two meals o f an estimated value of 20
cents per day. Dressmaking, especially for native customers, is fre
quently done in the houses of the customers. Many of the dress
makers work alone, and most o f those who work in common share
profits. Much o f the dressmaking and o f the general needlework of
the Porto Ricans is excellent.
762
BULLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR.
FOUNDRIES AND MACHINE SHOPS.
The foundries and machine shops of the island are few in number
and small in size. They do practically no direct manufacturing and
are largely confined to the repair of machinery. These machine shops
are extremely primitive, although the character o f the work they turn
out is not o f a low grade.
FRUIT CANNING.
A t the present time two fruit-canning establishments exist on the
island, as the result o f the development of pineapple culture. Both
o f these were investigated, but wage data were obtained for only one.
These canneries are in operation only during the season, which does
not last over five months. About 95 per cent o f the labor is unskilled.
In the fruit-canning establishment in the city of Mayaguez the labor
ers (not counting those engaged in specialized occupations) included
50 men, 6 boys, and 80 women and girls. The daily wages o f the men
ranged from 30 to 50 cents and averaged 44 cents, while the wages of
the boys and women were uniformly 25 cents per day. In view of
the fact that this employment lasted only five months and that the
wages were paid for 10 hours o f intense and rapid labor, the wages
paid furnish a fair indication of the rates received by unskilled
workers in Mayaguez. There was no difficulty experienced by the
manager in obtaining a sufficient number of workmen and workwomen
at this price.
Both the men and the women employed in the canning o f pine
apples showed great rapidity and expertness in the operation. The
work was carried on quite as well as in an American establishment.
This was true o f both of the establishments o f the island. On account
o f the difficulty o f securing the necessary pineapples the establishment
for which no report was secured was working only part o f the time.
LAUNDRY* WORK.
Most o f the laundry work is done by women
of rivers or streams or in their own houses.
laundries in San Juan, but both are small.
hands in the San Juan establishment for which
received 5 cents an hour for 10 hours a day.
washing on the banks
There are two steam
The female machine
a report was obtained
MACARONI MANUFACTURING.
A report was obtained for one macaroni factory, situated in San
Juan. The factory works 6 days a week and 8 hours a day. Threefourths o f the employees were women, earning 40 cents a day.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
763
MUNICIPAL WORE.
The municipalities o f Porto Rico employ a small number o f work
men for public work. These positions are eagerly sought, but the
wages do not appear to be higher than in ordinary private work.
Thus the municipality o f San Juan pays the majority o f its carpen
ters $1.75; its carpenters’ helpers 50 to 75 cents, the average rate for
carpenters’ helpers being about 73 cents a day. The masons receive
$1.75 and the masons’ helpers 50 cents a day. The largest group o f
employees is that o f the street sweepers, who are paid only 50 cents
a day for an 8-hour day.
PLANING MILLS.
The wages o f carpenters in the planing mills range from $1.25 to
$1.75 per day. Unskilled labor is paid from 60 cents to 90 cents per
day. The lumber used is Georgia and Florida pine. No native
woods are used in the planing mills.
PRINTING AND PUBLISHING.
The printing and publishing establishments o f the island are
small. The rates of pay for newspaper compositors range from $3
to $9 per week, the average rate being under $6. There are a few
engravers employed earning from $16 to $18 per week.
SHOEMAKING.
Most o f the shoemakers work individually and make their con
tracts directly with the customers. When the proprietor employs
assistants he usually does the cutting and leaves the rest o f the work
to be done by his assistants. A ll the establishments were small. No
machinery is used, the work being carried on by the simplest tools.
Where the establishment is relatively large, as in a shop in Ponce
which employs 14 shoemakers, the pay is by the pair o f completed
shoes.
STREET RAILWAYS AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING.
There are only three small street-car lines in the island—one in
San Juan, one in Ponce, and a very small line in Mayaguez. Re
ports were obtained for those using electricity, these lines being sit
uated in San Juan and Ponce. The number of men employed was
extremely small. The pay o f conductors ranged from 91 cents to
$1.23-J per day, and the motormen received from 82 cents to $1.15
per day.
ROAD REPAIRING.
In June, 1905, 166 employees, including 2 boys, were employed by
the insular board o f public works. O f these 164 are classified as
laborers. The wages of 154 men reported as employed by the board
764
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
o f public works in the repairing of works varied from 40 cents to 75
cents a day. The average rate was 46 cents per day. The men work
8 hours per day and 6 days per week when there is sufficient work
for them.
A considerable portion of the road repairing is done by contract.
The prices paid to the laborers are, as a rule, not above the current
rates prevailing in the region. Wages paid are somewhat lower in
the mountain districts than near the coast, and it is, moreover, easier
to obtain laborers in these regions than in the lowlands, owing to
the great surplus of labor.
TAILORS.
Like the shoemakers and seamstresses, the tailors usually work for
individual customers and do not receive their pay in day wages.
There are, however, a few small establishments in which the men are
paid by the day.
TELEGRAPH.
The telegraph service of the island is under the insular government.
This department has grown considerably since the arrival of the
Americans. New lines have been built to various parts o f the country
and at the present time the island is covered with a network of wires.
There are 9 American operators, including a chief operator, whose
salaries range from $900 to $1,080 per year, and there are employed
48 native operators whose salaries range from $480 to $900. The
average pay for the Porto Rican operators is $598, and for all opera
tors is $642. Other employees are 14 messengers and 10 linemen.
O f the linemen 9 receive $480 a year and 1 receives $720.
CAUSES OF L O W W A G E S IN PO RTO RICO.
The chief cause of the low wages in Porto Rico is the excessive
population o f the island. The supply of labor appears to be in
excess o f the demand, and while in certain places, for limited periods,
it may be difficult to obtain labor at low wages, the normal condition
is one o f a body o f workmen attempting to secure positions which
are insufficient in number. The rapid growth o f the population
has tended constantly to force wages down, and under present con
ditions o f increase there seems little probability o f any great perma
nent improvement in the conditions o f the working classes. (®)
a The density of population (264 per square mile) is greater in Porto Rico
than in Jamaica and much greater than in Cuba or Haiti. It is, however, much
smaller than in some of the crowded little islands o f the West Indies. Thus
Barbados, with an area of 166 square miles, has a population o f 197,792, or a
density o f 1,192 per square mile, and the Windward Islands, with an area o f
499 square miles, have a density of 385 to the square mile. The density o f
population of Jamaica (and Turks Island) is 183, the area being 4,373 square
miles and the population 800,685. (See Statesman’s Yearbook, 1905, p. xxvi.)
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
765
This increase, which still continues despite the present density of
the population, has been marked during the entire period of 140
years for which official statistics are available. In 1765 the popu
lation was only 45,000; by 1800 it had increased to 155,000; by
1832, to 330,000; by 1860, to 583,000, and by 1899, to 953,000. The
decennial rate o f increase, while large, appears to be declining.
From a perhaps apocryphal, though officially noted, increase of 57
per cent from 1765 to 1775, the rate of increase has declined with
more or less regularity to a decennial increase o f 16 per cent in
the period from 1887 to 1899. This latter increase, which is
slightly greater than that for the quarter of a century immediately
preceding, may be due, to a certain extent, to a more careful enumera
tion at the last census. But this rate o f increase is smaller than that
in the United States during the period from 1890 to 1900. This
increase in Porto Rico, however, took place despite a very high death
rate, and is all the more remarkable in view o f the fact that the popu
lation is already very dense.
This rapid increase, moreover, unlike that in the United States, is
to be attributed almost entirely to an excess of births over deaths and
not, as in the United States, to an excess o f immigrants over emi
grants. As is shown later, the immigration to Porto Rico is incon
siderable. The census of 1899 showed that only 1.5 per cent o f the
population were born outside o f the island, and o f this number 55
per cent were Spanish and 11 per cent were from Spanish America.
This proportion o f foreign born is much less than in the United
States and only one-seventh as great as in Cuba.
The rapid increase in the population may better be understood
when the marital and sexual relations o f the population are studied.
The marital relation in large sections of the Porto Rican population
is transitory and unsteady. A considerable portion of the people
live in what may be called sexual promiscuity, while another large
number o f men and women live together by mutual consent, without
legally binding ties and often only for a short period.
These facts are brought out clearly, though not exactly, by the
census enumeration o f 1899. The census of that year shows that of
the entire population 69.7 per cent were single, 16.6 per cent were
married, 8.8 per cent were living together in more or less permanent
sexual relations by mutual consent, and 4.9 per cent were widowed.
This proportion o f single persons, even excluding those living
together by mutual consent but unmarried, is enormous. O f the
population 15 years o f age or over, 45.9 per cent were single persons
(excluding those living together by mutual consent, but unmarried),
while including persons living together by mutual consent the pro
portion was 61.7 per cent. When it is recalled that the percentage
for Hungary, Mexico, France, Italy, Denmark, the United States,
766
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
Germany, England and Wales, Austria, Sweden, the Netherlands,
Switzerland, and Belgium varied between 23.2 and 43.9 per cent (a)
the exceedingly large number o f single persons in the island will
be appreciated. It seems probable, indeed, that the percentage of
those living together by mutual consent is even greater than that
actually given above and that many of the persons reported as mar
ried are actually merely joined together in more or less permanent
extramarital relationships.
Even on the face o f these statistics there are 53 people in these
loose unions for every 100 persons who are married. The proportion
o f consensual unions to marriages appears to be rather greater in
the cities than in the rest o f the country, and greater also in the less
settled regions o f the eastern than in the more highly developed
western part o f the island. Thus, while in Aguadilla there were only
26 persons living together by mutual consent to every 100 persons
legally married, in Humacao, which represents the less-developed
regions o f the east, there are 91 people living together by mutual
consent to every 100 legally married. These loose consensual unions
are also more common among the colored than among the native
white population. For every 100 native white married persons there
are 37 persons living together by mutual consent; while for every 100
married colored persons there are 98 colored persons living together
by mutual consent, or almost an equal number.
This state o f affairs is reflected largely in the percentage o f ille
gitimate children. The census of 1899 gives a total illegitimate popu
lation o f 148,605. These figures, however, are probably less than the
actual number. The illegitimate population among the colored peo
ple is very much larger than among the whites, only slightly over 11
per cent o f the native whites being returned as illegitimate, as com
pared with over 22 per cent o f the colored people.
It must not be supposed that all, or even the majority o f the con
sensual unions, or unions of persons living together without the
sanction o f the State, are necessarily temporary. Many o f these
loose unions resulted, as in Cuba and in other Spanish-American
countries, from the fact that formerly the expenses attaching to a re
ligious marriage, while not excessive according to an American stand
ard, were sufficiently great to cause many persons to dispense with the
ceremony. These unions were not considered legally binding, nor the
issue from them legitimate, but in very many cases the peons were
literally unable to raise the money required to pay for the marriage.
There can be no doubt, however, that a very large percentage o f
these unions were and still are temporary. There are still many peons
« These figures for other countries are only approximate, since they do not
always refer to the same year nor always to exactly the same age.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
767
in Porto Eico who change from wife to wife with cheerful alacrity.
In many cases a woman in one part of the town may be supporting
three or four or five children, while the children’s father, with whom
she was formerly joined, is living in consensual union with some
other woman. The effect o f these unions is to render the man enter
ing into them reckless, both as to the union itself, the number o f re
sulting children, and the frequency with which he changes wives.
Since the American occupation, these conditions have very materi
ally improved. It is now possible to marry civilly without any relig
ious sanction, and the fees demanded by the church for the religious
ceremony have been reduced to such a point that they no longer con
stitute a serious obstacle to marriage. Moreover, and more important
still, the mere fact o f a man entering into a consensual union with
a woman now gives to her the right to demand support both for her
self and her children, and to insist upon his entering upon a fixed
marriage relation. So great, however, is the poverty o f the popula
tion that the legal fee of $1, which is ordinarily required, still acts
as an effective hindrance to marriage with many people who are liv
ing together in extramarital relations.
The percentage o f marriages is probably increasing, and the rela
tionship between the sexes is gradually being placed upon a better
basis, upon a basis, moreover, which safeguards to a great extent the
position o f the woman. It can not be expected that in a country in
which the standard o f living is as low as in Porto Eico any serious
restraint will, for a considerable time, be placed upon many of those
entering into conjugal or quasi-conjugal relations. The relations in
this respect are extremely primitive and naive, and this fact is re
flected in the very high birth rate which prevails. (a)
The extremely low cost of living, especially in the rural districts,
makes the expenses attendant upon rearing children up to the time
when they are able to work so low that sexual relationships are
entered into without the most casual consideration o f the ability of
the newly joined couples to support the offspring of the union.
When it is recalled that many families enter into this informal,
although often permanent, wedlock without the dollar necessary to
pay for the marriage certificate, it can readily be understood that
the rearing o f a family is a responsibility which does not weigh
heavily.
The conclusion ‘that the birth rate in Porto Eico is extremely high
is borne out by an analysis of the statistics presented in the Census
a This high birth rate is perfectly evident from a consideration o f certain
factors, including the imperfect mortality statistics and the increase o f popu
lation between successive census enumerations. It is thoroughly concealed,
however, by official statistics o f births, which are admittedly defective.
276—No. 61—06
M-------- 1
768
BU LLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
Report for 1899. The estimate o f the census is that the annual death
rate is not much less than 40 per thousand and that the birth rate
is considerably in excess o f this; and it seems to be borne out by the
facts as well as by an intelligent interpretation o f the official figures. (a)
The increase in the laboring population o f Porto Rico is but little
affected, either by immigration or emigration. The population of
foreign birth is small, amounting to only 1.5 per cent of the total.
O f these immigrants, the largest percentage are from Spain and
Spanish America. Upon the conclusion o f peace, a certain number
o f Spaniards left the island and a certain number o f Americans
entered it; but since that time the immigration o f Spaniards has
more than made up for the exodus after 1898.
The emigration is also slight. The population o f Porto Rico is
singularly immobile, and there is comparatively slight movement even
from village to village, to say nothing o f from the island to foreign
countries. The standard o f living is so low that sentimental attrac
tions and sheer inertia tend to hold the population in their native
villages even when the opportunities for work are better a dozen
miles away. There appears to be no prospect whatever of any con
siderable migration, either now or hereafter, from the island to the
continent o f America.
After the hurricane o f 1899 there was great distress, and in conse
quence a certain migration from Porto Rico to Hawaii and Cuba was
induced by agents. There was demand for labor in the sugar fields
o f Hawaii and in the iron mines o f Cuba. Several thousand emi
grants were shipped to Hawaii, many o f them without any property
whatever, except the clothes on their backs. The success o f this
experiment was by no means great. A large proportion o f the
emigrants arrived in too enfeebled a condition and were found to
be too unused to their new work to insure success. The change in
their environment and the resulting homesickness caused much dis
content among them, and many o f them found means to return to
Porto Rico.
E F F IC IE N C Y AN D COST O F LABO R.
While the wages o f Porto Rican labor are low as compared with
wages in the United States, or even in most o f the western countries
of Europe, the efficiency o f the workman is so much less that the
cost o f performing any particular piece of work is not always lower
there than in the United States. No statistics have been collected
by which the difference can be accurately gauged, and the testimony
of many o f the employers is so vague as to be entirely inconclusive.
a For an analysis of these figures see the Report on the Census o f Porto
Rico, 1899, pp. 112 to 117, inclusive.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
769
It is commonly stated that the unskilled workers on the plantations
are so much below the agricultural laborers in the United States in
efficiency that it actually costs more to perform a certain amount of
work .than it would in the United States. The general testimony,
however, is to the effect that the labor, while less efficient than corre
sponding unskilled labor in the United States, is nevertheless cheaper,
owing to the extremely low rates o f wages. In certain industries
this can be clearly shown. In the manufacture o f cigars, for in
stance, the somewhat smaller efficiency o f the Porto Bican workman
is more than counterbalanced by the lower wages, with the result
that it costs less to manufacture cigars on the island and import
them to the United States than to manufacture them here.
Much o f the inefficiency o f the Porto Bican workman is due to the
climate. While the heat is never as great as on the most sultry and
sweltering days in the cities o f our Atlantic coast, still the warm,
humid atmosphere o f Porto Bico is enervating. Americans who ar
rive in Porto Bico from the United States find that their ability to
work is very much less than it was at home. The conditions appear
to be somewhat better on the southern coast o f the island, where the
atmosphere is less humid. Even there, however, it is by no means as
easy to do a full day’s work as in the more temperate parts o f the
United States.
Another cause o f the comparative inefficiency, o f the Porto Bican
workingman is the disease o f anemia. A very large proportion o f
the rural population o f Porto Bico suffers from this disease, which
attacks the red corpuscles o f the blood and renders breathing diffi
cult, and continued and severe labor almost impossible. Many o f
these anemics work—when they do work—in an extremely listless
manner and after two or three hours o f exertion are completely
exhausted.
The average Porto Bican is o f shorter stature and of slighter build
than the average American, and his strength is considerably less.
Despite his small stature the Porto Bican workingman seems to
possess a fair amount o f endurance. Many of the plantation owners
agree in stating that the men work with a very fair degree of
perseverance and endurance. This is more to be wondered at in
view o f the climate, the prevalence o f anemia, and the general under
feeding o f the population. It is perhaps to be accounted for partly
by the temperance o f the Porto Bican.
The negroes appear to be considerably stronger than the persons o f
white or mixed blood, and their endurance and capacity for con
tinued work are considerably in excess o f those o f the white popula
tion. The inhabitants o f the coast lands also appear to be stronger
than the highlanders, who consist, to a large extent, o f white persons
770
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
and o f anemics. The stevedores in San Juan, Ponce, and other cities,
working by the piece, are very energetic men and certainly accomplish
feats o f great strength. In some o f the sugar mills the men, mostly
blacks, carry on the head bags o f sugar weighing 300 pounds.
Despite the weight and the excessive rapidity of the work these
men do not appear to suffer unduly from it. The work on the sugar
plantations, lasting as it does from sunrise to sunset, and performed
in the full glare o f the sun, requires great strength and endurance.
The great mass o f Porto Rican labor is unskilled. Even in these
occupations, however, the Porto Rican displays far less skill and
intelligence than the ordinary unskilled worker in the United States.
There is frequently a listlessness about his work and a lack o f interest
and forethought which precludes the possibility o f intelligent appli
cation. It is the common complaint o f landowners that they can not
trust their employees to display any intelligence or skill in carrying
out orders. They also show a great lack of ingenuity and resource
fulness. They work largely as their fathers before them worked and
as before them their grandfathers and great-grandfathers.
It is this fact, among others, that tends to make Porto Rican
unskilled labor, like unskilled labor in all countries, expensive. It
is necessary, except in the smallest forms o f piecework, to have con
stantly present an overseer or foreman to direct the work and pre
vent idling and soldiering. There has resulted from this a tendency,
especially since the American occupation, to give out work‘under the
contract system and to give up as far as possible the payment o f
day wages. The general *system now prevailing on sugar planta
tions is to pay a small contractor a certain sum for ditching, for
planting, or for any of the other agricultural processes and allow him
to employ the peons on such terms as he thinks proper.
General listlessness is perhaps the most characteristic feature o f
Porto Rican labor. The general relation between the employer and
employee in Porto Rico is one of a blind, unthinking, and unreasoning
submissiveness on the part o f the peon, who is ordered about at will
by a foreman. Under such conditions there is no call for and little
evidence o f initiative on the part of the individual workingman, who
simply does as he is told to the extent o f his somewhat limited
capacity.
The Porto Rican laborer has the reputation of being extremely
lazy, but it is probable that his reputation in this respect is somewhat
worse than he deserves. It is frequently alleged by large planters
that they do not pay their workmen any higher wages, because i f they
did the men would work a fewer number o f days. It is claimed that
the men who earn 50 cents a day for 6 days would not work over 4
days i f the rate was raised to 75 cents a day. This assertion, which
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
771
is made by the Porto Rican employer, as it was made by the English
employer two centuries ago, must be taken for what it is worth,
although it might be suggested that the experiment has not often
been tried. What does appear to be true is that the Porto Rican is
fairly constant in his employment and works with a fair degree of
regularity. On many o f the plantations the testimony is that workmen
return with a fair degree of regularity to their work and accept all
the employment offered to them. In a majority o f cases, on the
other hand, the failure to work regularly throughout the week is
attributed to the conditions of the industry and to the fact that the
employer can not use the men. In the coffee districts, for instance,
large numbers o f men are left unemployed at the end o f each crop,
and during the season there is no work for the men when it rains. It
is quite the truth that when the ordinary peon earns more than usual
he is likely to spend it in gambling, but it has not been demonstrated
that in Porto Rico an increase in wages would mean a proportional
reduction in the number o f working days.
SU PE R V ISIO N OF LABO R.
Much o f the alleged inefficiency of Porto Rican labor has been due
to the unintelligent manner in which it has been directed. The prod
uct o f the work o f a given number of men has not been as great in
some industries in Porto Rico as it would be in the United States,
owing to the fact that the workingmen have not been organized by
their employers in the proper manner. The planters, as a rule, are
not scientific agriculturists. The contempt for work o f any sort
which prevailed during Spanish times caused the plantations to fall
into the hands o f men who were not particularly interested in the
administration o f their estates. They did not study the best methods
of culture and they failed to fertilize their land and to keep pace with
advances in agricultural chemistry and the manufacture o f agri
cultural machinery. Moreover, the planters as a rule were not wise
enough to reinvest a portion o f their profits in improved machinery
and appliances. In good times there was a tendency to spend the
large profits for purposes unconnected with the improvement o f the
business, and in bad times it was necessary to borrow money at high
rates o f interest for the purpose o f carrying on the estates. Money
lending in Porto Rico is almost entirely in the hands of the Spanish or
“ Peninsulars.” The rate of interest for first mortgages has ranged
from 8 to 12 per cent and even more, and for second mortgages it has
been as high a$ 2 per cent a month. Many o f the estates are hope
lessly mortgaged and many o f the coffee properties, especially since
the cyclone o f 1899, are mortgaged for an amount in excess o f
772
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
their present selling value. In fact, in Porto Rico we find the anom
alous situation o f many planters cultivating in a more or less half
hearted way properties in which they have long since ceased to have
any equity whatever, while on the other hand the real owners, the
men who have advanced the money, do not foreclose because they do
not want to be burdened with the control. On many estates prac
tically the entire profits are diverted from the cultivator to the Span
ish money lender, who may reside on the island but who usually lives
in Spain.
To this state o f affairs is partly due the low wages and the irregular
employment in many parts o f the coffee districts. The small equity
which the planter holds in the estate which he cultivates does not per
mit him to pay any higher wages, and the poverty o f the planter
frequently prevents him from making the outlays necessary for the
proper cultivation of his land. It is not unusual to find coffee estates
in the hands o f Porto Ricans employing only one-third as many men
as they employed a dozen years ago.
A t the present time the passing o f lands from native to American
control has tended to increase both wages and the demand for labor.
The practically unlimited demand in the United States for certain
Porto Rican products, especially sugar, tobacco, and fruits, would
mean a far better utilization o f the land and a far more effective
organization o f the workers if the necessary capital and the requisite
intelligent direction o f labor were present.
The increased effectiveness o f labor as a result o f the investment of
capital and the more intelligent direction and economy o f labor is evi
denced by the change from the small obsolescent sugar mills o f Span
ish days to the great centrals o f the present time, with their improved
machinery, their more thorough division of labor, their rigid economy
o f work, and their far more effective organization. The output of
sugar, both per ton o f cane and per workman employed, has largely
increased as a result o f this improvement. The large mills, while
paying higher wages than the smaller mills, are able to save a consid
erable amount o f labor and make a profit far greater than was possi
ble under the old conditions. Since the American occupation there
are certain indications o f a more scientific and better adjustment of
the work o f the employers, due largely to the incoming o f new blood
and new ideas. In the sugar industry, in the cultivation o f fruits,
and in the manufacture o f cigars, the opportunities for labor have
increased and the labor employed has, on the whole, been somewhat
better organized. Moreover, there is a tendency, which is small but
perceptible, for Porto Ricans to learn American methods o f business.
The majority o f Porto Rican youths sent to America to secure an edu
cation still devote themselves to law and medicine, but as time goes on
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
773
it is probable that a constantly increasing number will devote them
selves to the study o f agriculture, technology, and business methods.
Moreover, under American domination, it appears that the former
prejudice o f the planters against labor or even the personal super
vision o f labor is weakening.
C O M PE TITIO N OF PO RTO R IC A N W IT H FO REIG N
LABOR.
The competition o f the labor o f one country with that o f another
may be either direct or indirect. Direct competition takes place in
the form o f direct importation or exportation of workmen. Thus
the London waiters are in direct competition with persons o f the
same occupation in Germany, Switzerland, and France, since Ger
man, French, and Swiss waiters can be and are directly imported into
England and there is a constant importation and exportation of for
eign and English waiters. The more usual form of competition be
tween workmen is, however, that o f products.
Porto Rican labor is less directly in competition with that o f other
countries than is usually the case. The direct competition is compara
tively slight. The immigration laws o f the United States are en
forced for Porto Rico, and these laws, especially as regards the im
portation o f contract laborers, are maintained rigidly. Despite the
fact that the wages in some o f the neighboring islands, notably in St.
Thomas, are even lower than in Porto Rico, there is very little immi
gration. The emigration is also slight. The movement of Porto
Rican workmen to the United States may be practically disregarded.
It is doubtful whether such workingmen, ignorant o f the language
and unused to temperate climes, would be successful in their competi
tion with immigrants from Italy, Poland, and other countries of
Europe. Moreover, the poverty o f the island is such that only a very
small proportion o f the workingmen would be able to raise the $20
necessary to pay for a steerage passage to New York. There is a
slight movement from the western part of the island to the planta
tions of Santo Domingo, which is separated from Porto Rico by a
strait only 60 or 70 miles in width. This emigration, however, is
so slight that it may be assumed for all practical purposes that the
laboring population o f the island is constant, without immigration
or emigration, and that there is no direct competition of labor with
foreign countries.
Indirect competition o f Porto Rico with foreign countries is also
small. The island is under the American protective tariff, and while
the revenues derived from direct importation go to the insular in
stead o f the Federal treasury, the competition, as regards the exclu
sion o f products o f foreign manufacture, is exactly the same as
774
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
in the United States. Most of the industries o f Porto Rico are not
strictly competitive. The competition of the Porto Rican sugar
growers with the growers of Cuba, Haiti, Java, and continental
countries does not affect in any direct manner the wages or conditions
o f work o f the mass of sugar laborers. The inclusion of Porto Rico
within the American customs union gives to Porto Rican sugar
a substantial advantage over foreign sugar, which must pay a customs
duty. The same is true of Porto Rican tobacco and fruits in the
markets o f the United States. The workmen employed in trans
portation, both railroad and street railway, the dock laborers, and
others are beyond the reach of any possible competition. The coffee
industry is in constant and direct competition with the same industry
in Brazil and other countries, and it is probable that this competition
is felt in a measurable degree by the workingman through the pros
perity or decadence o f the industry. In none of these industries
is there any appreciable competition between the laborer o f Porto Rico
and the laborer o f the United States.
In certain forms o f manufacturing which, however, are not o f great
importance to the island the competition is more severe. There is a
clear case o f competition between the products o f the cigar makers of
Porto Rico and o f the cigar makers of the continent of America, to
the disadvantage, on the whole, o f the latter. The cigars manufac
tured by the Porto Ricans are for the American market, and the
transference o f factories from the United States to Porto Rico or
the starting o f factories in Porto Rico for the American trade con
stitutes naturally a direct competition between the cigar makers of
the two countries.
In the smaller manufacturing industries there is also competition
between the labor of the two countries based on a competition between
the products. A number of small trades formerly existing in Porto
Rico have suffered considerably from the competition with the United
States, and seem doomed to disappearance. The carpenters of Porto
Rico formerly manufactured tables and other articles o f furniture.
They manufactured them by processes elsewhere obsolete, and the
products were both crude and expensive. The free introduction of
articles made with dearer labor, but by more advanced and finished
methods has largely destroyed the Porto Rican industry. The same
is true to a considerable extent o f other smaller trades. The manu
facture o f hats and o f shoes, and the work o f blacksmiths, etc., have
suffered in this manner. This competition, with its ruinous effect on
the primitive industries o f Porto Rico, existed before the American
invasion, but the conditions have been accentuated and aggravated
since that event. What has occurred is similar to the development o f
these industries in alh parts of the world where direct competition
with the factory has destroyed the former manufacture under crude
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
775
hand methods. In these industries there has been a growing inability
to secure work, a reduction in the earning power o f the workmen, a
practical destruction of a slowly acquired efficiency, and a limitation
o f the work o f the men who formerly manufactured to the mere do
ing o f repair work.
W A G E S AN D SAYIN G.
'I he amount o f saving among the workmen of Porto Rico may be
practically disregarded. In the first place, wages are too low to
admit o f any extensive saving. With the wages prevailing, espe
cially in the coffee districts, it is more wise to spend than to save.
In some parts o f the island in recent years the earnings of the family
have not been sufficient to maintain the workingman in a state o f
industrial efficiency. The best investment of the meager earnings
of the workman in these districts is in food and drink, and anything
like saving would be unwise and almost criminal, if it were not
impossible. In the sugar districts on the coast it might be possible
to save small sums o f money, but under present conditions the habit
of the Porto Rican o f not saving seems perfectly justified in view
o f the narrow margin between wages and the cost o f mere subsistence.
Even i f wages were higher, it is doubtful whether for many years
to come there would be any extensive saving. The cost of maintain
ing the working population in a state of industrial efficiency, not to
say o f establishing a reasonable or high standard o f living, is so far
above the normal rate of wages existing in the island that it may be
said, broadly, that the need of the workingman is not saving but
spending upon articles o f consumption that will benefit him. The
expenditure o f the meager earnings of the workman, however, is
often extremely injudicious. While, as has been before stated, there
is no large expenditure o f money for spirituous liquors, and but little
drunkenness, an unduly large part o f the earnings of the workman in
many parts o f the island goes to a wasteful form of expenditure,
namely, gambling.
Even if there were a possibility of saving, there are at present no
adequate facilities for taking care of the earnings o f the working
man. While a few savings banks exist in some of the towns, their
clients are not primarily the working classes, and in the country no
facilities whatever are to be found for investing or safeguarding
earnings which are saved. In occasional instances where the work
ingmen do acquire a small sum in advance, the custom appears to be
to leave it with the foreman of the plantation until some feast day,
when it is drawn out and expended.
776
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
PR IC E S AN D T H E COST OF L IV IN G .
The cost o f living of the Porto Rican workingman can not be
given in statistical form. It was found impossible to secure family
budgets o f any sort or description. Even the more intelligent o f
the Porto Rican workingmen do not keep anything faintly resembling
household accounts. Expenditure in practically all cases exactly
balances income. The great mass of the working class—certainly
not less than 99 per cent— consume every month the earnings for
that month.
It can be said with approximate, i f not exact, truth that the work
ing classes o f Porto Rico do not save at all. There is no cold weather
for which preparation in the form of saving must be made, and there
are no extraordinary expenses which must be met. According to the
opinion o f the ordinary peon, there is nothing to save for.
The expenditure is very largely concentrated upon food. The
expenditure for housing, except in the large cities, is comparatively
small, and in the country districts it may be practically disregarded.
The expenditure for clothing forms only an inconsiderable element
in the cost o f living o f the country peon. No fuel is required for
heating, and the cost o f fuel for cooking does not constitute a con
siderable element in the budget. There are no expenditures for
direct taxes. The amount of money devoted to the maintenance of
religious, charitable, and other societies may be entirely disregarded.
No money is expended on books, since the great mass o f the popula
tion are illiterate; and even newspapers, which cost only 1 or 2
cents, are not bought to any extent by the rural population. The
expenditure, therefore, is practically narrowed down to a wasteful
spending for gambling and an economical spending for food and
drink.
The impoverishing effect o f gambling among the Porto Ricans
has perhaps been somewhat exaggerated. The gambling spirit is
rampant, and the Porto Rican peon is, in the great majority of cases,
an ardent gambler. Formerly a large part o f this gambling took
place about the cockpits, and although cockfighting is now contrary
to law and has been largely banished from the cities, the practice
still prevails, more or less surreptitiously, in the country districts.
So widespread is the spirit of gambling that it may almost be said
to take the place which in other countries is taken by saving. The
Porto Rican gambles with what he saves from his food and eats what
remains after gambling. It is, of course, impossible to gauge with
any measure o f accuracy the extent o f this expenditure for gambling,
but from personal observation and from the testimony of many capa
ble observers gambling in some degree is almost universal.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
777
A disproportionately large fraction of the small earnings o f the
Porto Rican workingman goes to food and drink. The latter item is
not very important. The Porto Rican is singularly temperate and
his consumption o f alcoholic beverages is small. While the juice of
the sugar cane, in the form of a drink called “ guarapo,” and also
rum are drunk, the quantities consumed do not appear to be very
great. It is extremely unusual to see a drunken Porto Rican upon
the streets or highways, and during this investigation only one native
was seen who was obviously under the influence of liquor. When
one compares the drinking of the Porto Rican with that o f the Mex
ican the temperance of the former appears extraordinary. This
holds equally true when the temperance of the Porto Rican is com
pared with that o f the Englishman, the German, or the American.
The selection o f foods by the Porto Rican is determined greatly by
relative cheapness. The peon attempts instinctively to satisfy his
physiological needs by such articles, native and foreign, as will give
the elements required at the least possible cost. The warmer climate
probably necessitates a smaller consumption of food. It seems prob
able that the earnings of the majority of the workers throughout the
coffee districts during the last few years have amounted to consider
ably less than $100 per year per family. With such a restricted
income the greatest amount of economy is essential in order to secure
sufficient nutritive food.
A large proportion of the food consumed by the poor of Porto
Rico is o f foreign origin. The place ordinarily taken by meat in the
diet o f the European workingman is in Porto Rico very largely occu
pied by dry, salt codfish. This codfish, which is one o f the principal
articles o f import, is obtained from Nova Scotia, and is consumed
every day in small quantities by the great mass o f the Porto Rican
population. Rice, which is consumed in large quantities, is imported
from the United States; probably most of the beans consumed are
o f Porto Rican growth. The bread in Porto Rico is made from
American flour. It can therefore be stated that a considerable por
tion o f the articles entering into the daily consumption of a Porto
Rican workingman comes from foreign countries.
This dependence upon foreign countries for many of the chief
articles o f food, which at first appears striking in view o f the fact
that the island is essentially agricultural, is to be explained by the
nature o f its agriculture. The Porto Ricans are principally engaged
in the raising o f money crops, such as sugar, coffee, and tobacco.
The condition o f the island as regards both the raising o f money
crops and the indebtedness o f the planters to merchants demanding
money payments is not unlike that of the Southern cotton-raising
States, especially before the civil war, when these States drew upon
the West for huge quantities of corn, although they themselves were
778
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
capable o f raising it. The declaration o f free trade between, the
United States and Porto Rico renders the leading articles imported
for consumption comparatively cheap in the island.
The articles entering into the usual Porto Rican diet differ largely
in the city and in the country and differ also as between the coast and
the highlands. In the cities the diet seems to be made up chiefly o f
dried, salt codfish, beans of various sorts, rice, bread, etc. Milk is
scarce and is seldom used. Butter, which is imported principally
from Denmark and sells for 30 cents a half pound, is far beyond
the reach o f the Porto Rican workingman. Bread, which is made
from American flour, retails for about 5 cents a pound and forms
a large part of the diet of the workingman. Beans and rice are
used in especially large quantities and are cooked together with
the codfish, making a not unsavory mess. Coffee is in very general
use, and the lower grades o f sugar are also consumed. Bananas and
plantains are consumed in large quantities, although not nearly to
the same extent as in the country districts. Sweet potatoes, which
are rather large and coarse, are used, as is also the yautia, a tuber
not unlike the potato, but with a rather sweetish taste not usually
appreciated by the nonresident. Peas are eaten, and a number of
other vegetables also, though in limited quantities. The principal
fruit eaten is a small banana called the “ guineo ” and sometimes
“ lady finger.” Mangoes are also eaten in many parts o f the island.
Oranges and pineapples, although cheap, do not appear to be largely
consumed by the working classes, the banana being far cheaper than
either o f these. Yams are also eaten in considerable quantities.
The consumption of meat seems to be quite small. The cattle
are lean, and in killing and preparing the flesh is stripped o f every
ounce o f outside fat. The meat is eaten very shortly after the
animal is killed, since in the absence o f refrigerating facilities it
would spoil within two or three days. As a consequence the beef is
stringy and tough and, to Americans, unpalatable. The native Porto
Ricans o f the wealthier classes eat large quantities o f meat, apparently
more than the character o f the climate and the nature of their work
would warrant. To the poor workingman, however, meat is a rare
luxury, so that it may be stated broadly that in Porto Rico the
eating o f meat is a distinct sign of a higher social position and
greater wealth and is the hall-mark of economic superiority.
In the very small stores, which the working people patronize,
articles o f food are sold in very small quantities and not by weight
or measure, but by the cent’s worth. In order to ascertain accu
rately the prices paid in the case o f such purchases, all the articles
o f food purchased by a workingman in the market in Ponce during
a period o f eight days were weighed and a careful record kept o f
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
779
weight and price. The average prices paid per pound on these
purchases are shown in the following table:
AV E R AG E P R ICE S OF FOOD IN T H E M A RK ET IN PONCE AS PUR CH A SE D IN
SM ALL Q U A N TITIE S B Y TH E W ORKINGM AN, JUNE, 1905.
A rticle.
Aguacate (alligator p ea rs).... ..............
A p ia __________ ______________________
Bananas (s m a ll).....................................
Beans, re d ........................... .....................
Beans, strin g...................... ....................
B e e f...........................................................
B read.........................................................
C aim itos.................................. ................
Carrots__ ____ _________ ___ __________
Cheese_____ ____ ________ ____ ________
C hickens...................................................
C odfish......................................................
C o ffe e __________ ______ _____________
C orn................... ....................... ................
Corn, ea r...................................................
Corn, g r e e n ..............................................
C u c u m b e r s............................................
E g g p la n t................. .................................
E ggs (m a rk e t).........................................
G a r lic .......................................................
G u m b o .......................... ............................
Habas ................. .....................................
H a m ..........................................................
Cost per
pound.
$0,084
.024
.084
.060
.082
.101
.064
.017
.084
.320
.194
.082
.160
.019
.018
.017
.028
.025
o.l92
o.240
.107
.055
.052
.160
A rticle.
H e rb s........................................................
M afafas....................................................
M a m e y ....................................................
M utton ................................ ....................
M utton c h o p s..........................................
Onions . .........- ..................... .........- ........
P a lm illa ........... ......................................
Papaya, g r e e n .______________________
Pineapple....... .........................................
P lan tain ...........- ......................................
Potatoes, sw eet.......................................
Potatoes, w h ite.......................................
R ice ___________ ____ ________________
Spinach....... .............................................
Sugar, b r o w n .........................................
Sweet peppers______________________
T allote......................................................
T om atoes............ ..................... ...... ........
V erm icelli....... ........................................
W atercress . ........................... ................
Y a m s ....... .............. .................................
Yautia, y e l l o w _____________________
Yautia, w h ite_______________________
Y u c c a .............. ............. - ____ _________
Cost per
pound.
$0,014
.005
.007
.116
.150
.069
.042
.011
.021
.018
.012
.020
.040
.021
.060
.036
.010
.042
.160
.086
.080
.023
.019
.009
a P er dozen.
In the country districts the imported articles are somewhat more
expensive and are used to a less extent. On the other hand, the
native products here form a larger part o f the dietary o f the peasant.
To an almost unbelievable extent the masses o f the rural population,
especially in the mountainous districts, live on the banana. The
banana is probably the most economical plant in the world, and in
proportion to the land and labor required for its production gives
the largest amount o f nutriment.
With a little knowledge of the proper method of cultivating their
land the Porto Ricans could live very much better without increased
cost. An acre or two, or even the half acre around the peon’s hut,
which in many instances he is permitted to cultivate, would provide
him with an amount of food of a varied character sufficient to round
out his diet. A t the present time corn is not consumed by the inhabit
ants to any considerable extent, and what is raised in the island has
an unusually small ear and is hard and not liked. It is used almost
entirely for feeding animals and not as food for persons. It would
be quite possible to cultivate com in large sections o f the country,
and a great number of vegetables could be raised in the neighborhood
o f the homes o f the peons. What is needed more than anything else
is to teach the natives the elements of agriculture. Without an impe
tus from the outside they will continue indefinitely to cultivate their
patches in the present wasteful and unproductive way instead of
780
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OP LABOR.
improving their diet list and general condition by the raising o f
other food products.
The situation with respect to the dietary o f the Porto Eican may
be summed up in the words o f Dr. Azel Ames in his report on labor
conditions in Porto Eico, published by the Department o f Labor in
its Bulletin o f May, 1901. He says:
The food list of the rural wageworkers in Porto Eico is probably
poorer than that of any equal body o f people under so enlightened
a government and located so near to the great granary and provi
sion supply o f the world. It barely includes the essential components
to meet the physiological demands o f the human system; but it is
often interesting to observe how these demands will assert themselves
and the individual seek food o f a kind which, not especially liked,
attractive, or cheap, he buys in response to the craving and claims
o f his physiological requirements.
Practically all observers have agreed that the diet o f the Porto
Eican peasant is insufficient. It has been demonstrated, says Dr.
Francisco del Yalle Atiles, in his book on E l Campesino Puer.torriquenor that in the Tropics the people naturally prefer a simple diet,
and can depend for their alimentation more largely upon vegetable
foods than would be possible in the temperate zone. There is, how
ever, no doubt in his mind that the jibaro (rustic) is ill fed. His food
consists chiefly o f rice, plantains, codfish, to some extent corn, to a
slight extent milk, and a few native vegetables and fruits. His bread
is almost invariably prepared badly, and meat is seldom eaten. As
a result o f defective alimentation, the general health o f the pop
ulation is extremely poor. Dr. del Yalle Atiles goes in detail into
the physiological and pathological consequences o f the lack o f nour
ishment o f the Porto Eican peasant, and intimates that the industrial
efficiency o f the Porto Eican workman is materially and disadvanta
geous^ affected by this lack o f nourishment.^)
The cost o f clothing in Porto Eico is very slight. Prices range
about the same as in the United States, or perhaps a trifle higher,
but the needs o f the working people are extremely simple. The ab
sence o f cold precludes the use of overcoats and usually o f coats
and vests, and renders the wearing of outer or inner woolen garments
not only useless but inadvisable. The well-to-do classes in the Porto
Eican cities dress largely as they do in towns o f the same size in the
United States, though in lighter fabrics, and the skilled workmen also
dress well though cheaply. The chief material used is cotton, which
is imported from the United States and sold for a price slightly above
that paid here. The prevailing color is white. Shoes and socks are
almost universally worn by the skilled and even by many o f the un
skilled workers in the cities, as are also coats and straw hats.
a Francisco
del Valle Atiles.
El Campesino Puertorriquefio.
San Juan, 1889.
LABOB CONDITIONS IN POKTO BICO.
781
The great mass o f the unskilled workers, however, dress with the
utmost cheapness. This is especially true in the country districts,
where the chief and often exclusive articles o f apparel are a cotton
shirt and a pair o f cotton-duck trousers. As a rule no under-garment
is worn and no coats are used, while shoes and socks are very unusual.
Even where shoes are worn, socks are usually absent. There appears
to be o f late a considerable increase in the number o f shoes used, and
the time appears to be approaching when the possession and use o f
this article o f apparel will become the mark of decency. This
has already come to pass in the cities. The children even in the
poorest districts o f the cities hesitate to go to school unless they have
shoes. In the country districts, however, this is not yet the case, and
shoes for men and women, as for boys and girls, are the exception.
Even where used their possession is considered a luxury rather than
a comfort. It is not unusual to see a peon trudging along a dusty
road carrying under his arm his precious pair o f shoes, not to be put
on until he has reached the outskirts of the town. The shoes are
largely o f American manufacture and o f the cheapest grades, al
though a considerable number of shoes are made by hand on the
island.
In many parts o f the island, especially in the sugar districts and in
the cities and towns, the habit o f wearing an outer cotton coat is
becoming more general. This is, however, still unusual, especially
in the country districts and among the poorer classes o f workingmen.
The wardrobe o f the poorer classes o f Porto Ricans is as limited in
extent as in variety. While the skilled workingmen as a rule possess
several changes o f garments, many of the unskilled workmen appear
to own nothing but a week-day suit o f shirt and trousers and a
somewhat more elaborate Sunday suit. Many o f them even dispense
with the latter. A large section o f the .more unskilled workers live in
the one suit o f shirt and trousers day and night until it literally falls
to pieces. The suits appear to last for a shorter time in the rain and
heat o f Porto Rico than they would in a drier and more temperate
climate, and the numerous stores dealing in cotton duck appear to do
a thriving business.
The hats o f the poorer classes o f the workmen o f Porto Rico are
made o f the cheaper forms o f straw or palm leaf. They are inex
pensive and lasting.
W H O L E S A L E AN D R E T A IL PRICES.
In the following tables wholesale prices in Porto Rico are given
'tor a series o f articles, and an attempt has also been made to show
wholesale prices in former years. A comparison of these former
wholesale prices with present wholesale prices is difficult, owing to
782
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
the fact that not only has the currency changed, but the method o f
making sales. Formerly goods were sold to a larger extent on long
credit than at the present time. The former system o f selling goods
to the planter contemplated paying for them either three or four
months after the delivery o f the goods, or upon the 31st of January,
or at the close o f the coffee season; but present wholesale prices are
either upon thirty days’ credit or for cash. Prior to the establish
ment o f the gold standard, moreover, the value of the Porto Rican dol
lar or peso fluctuated violently, as is shown by the table on page 726.
The following table shows the wholesale cash prices in American
currency in June, 1905:
W HOLESALE CASH PRICES OF COMMODITIES, JUNE, 1905.
Article.
Baking powder..........................................
Beef, jerked (itasajo) .................................
Beer, Bohemia...........................................
Beer, P abst................................................
Candles, paraffin........................................
Candles, tallow..........................................
Cement, Portland, Dragon......................
Codfish, superior.......................................
Cooking pots, cast-iron (1, 2, and 5 gal.)
Crackers, p ilot...........................................
Crackers, soda, Harris..............................
Epsom salts...............................................
Flour, Perfecta..........................................
Garlic..........................................................
Grindstones................................................
Ham. ordinary...........................................
Herring, smoked........................................
H ops............................................................
Iron, galvanized, corrugated American.
Iron, galvanized, corrugated E nglish...
Iron, galvanized, plain English...............
Kerosene, Diamante.................................
Kerosene, ordinary....................................
Lard, Unica................................................
Lard, Unica................................................
Lard, Unica................................................
Lard, Vencedora........................................
Lard, Volcan..............................................
Macaroni.....................................................
Matches, safety..........................................
Oil, olive, Conradi.....................................
Oil, olive, Conradi.....................................
Peas.............................................................
Pork, salt, short cuts, in brine................
Potatoes, Irish...........................................
Rice, broken...............................................
Rice, good quality.....................................
Rice, Japanese, white................................
Rice, Japanese, yellow..............................
Rice, large grain........................................
R ope............................................................
Salt, native, rock.......................................
Sausage, Competitor.................................
Soap, blue, Fairbanks...............................
Soap, blue, Fairbanks...............................
Soap, Fairy................................................
Soap, Rocamora........................................
Sugar, granulated......................................
Sugar, native, first class...........................
Sugar, native, second class.......................
<*In cases of 20 one-pound packages.
» In packages of one pound each.
e In tierces.
d in cases of 4 to 10 cans.
Country of
production.
United States___
Argentina...........
Umted States...
United States. . .
United States___
United States___
United States___
Nova S cotia...
Germany......... .
United States___
United States. . .
Germany.............
United States. . .
Spain...................
United S tates___
United States___
United States___
United S tates___
United S tates___
England..........
England..............
Umted States___
United States. . .
United States___
United States___
United States___
United States___
United States___
Porto R ico...........
Porto R ico...........
Spain.....................
Spain.....................
United States___
United S tates___
United States___
United States___
United States___
United States___
United States___
United States___
United States___
Porto R ico...........
United States___
United States___
United States___
United States___
Spain.....................
United States___
Porto R ico...........
Porto R ico...........
Unit of quantity.
100lbs. («).
100 lbs........
Barrel........
Barrel.......
100 lbs.......
100 lbs.......
Barrel.......
100 lbs.......
100 lbs........
B o x ...........
B o x ...........
100 lbs........
Bunch (100 bulbs)
100 lbs...................
100 lbs...................
B ox (6 to 8 lb s .)..
100 lbs. (i>).......
100 lbs..............
100 lb s..............
100 lbs..............
Case (10 gal.). .
Case (10 gal.). .
100 lbs. ( e ) .......
Case ( d ) ...........
Case ( « ) ...........
100 lbs. ( c ) .......
100 lbs. (c ).......
100 lbs..............
Case (1,440 boxes).
B ox(801bs.net)(/)
Box(80 lbs. net) ( o )
100 lbs...................
Barrel (200 lbs.) ..
100 lbs...................
100 lbs...................
100 lbs...................
100 lbs...................
100 lbs...................
100 lbs...................
100 lbs...................
100 lbs...................
100 lbs...................
Case (100 lbs. net)
Case (50 lbs. n e t ).
Case (100 cakes) ..
Case (100 lbs. net)
100 lbs...................
100 lb s...................
100 lbs...................
< In cases of 20 cans.
/ In cases of 4 cans each.
9 In cases of 8 cans each.
Price.
16.75
9.00
9.00
13.00
7.50
14.00
2.75
7.50
4.50
.85
.90
3.50
5.90
.30
2.00
9.00
.18
25.00
3.75
5.00
4.75
2.10
1.40
8.50
8.75
9.00
5.80
6.00
4.40
5.70
12.00
12.25
2.50
14.50
2.25
2.75
3.00
3.50
3.25
3.25
10.00
.45
11.50
4.30
2.15
4.00
4.90
6.75
4.40
4.25
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
783
In April, 1893, the following were the wholesale prices in provin
cial currency (about 70 per cent of American currency), with eight
months’ credit:
American flour, $8.25 to $8.75 per barrel.
Rice, $4.75 per quintal. (The higher grade o f rice ; at that time low-grade rice
similar to the cheaper American grades was not im ported.)
Spanish soap, $0.05f per pound.
Oil, Spanish, $0,111 per pound.
Codfish, $7.25 to $7.50 per 100 pounds.
Lard, common, $0.16 per pound (now $0.07).
Salt, $0,621 per 100 pounds.
Native sugar, muscovado, $0,041 per pound.
Habana cigarettes, $3.25 per 1,000.
Porto Rican cigarettes, $1.75 to $2 per 1,000.
Potatoes, $3 per 100 pounds.
Macaroni, Spanish, $0,081 per pound.
Ham, American, $0.23 per pound.
Rice, Japanese, $0,051 per pound.
Onions, $0,051 per pound.
Kerosene, $0.30 per gallon.
Sardines, Spanish, $0.85 per dozen tins.
Sausage, German, fancy, $0.40 per pound.
Pork, American, $0.16 per pound.
Chick peas, $0,061 per pound.
Candles, $0.16 per pound.
In December, 1894, the wholesale prices in provincial currency
(worth about 65 per cent of American currency) were as follows:
Codfish, $O.07f per pound.
Rice, $0,047 per pound.
Onions, $0.03 per pound.
Sugar, $0.04 per pound.
Pork, $0,181 per pound.
Potatoes, $0.04 per pound.
Kerosene oil, refined, $0.45 per gallon.
Macaroni, $0.10 per pound.
American flour, $11.50 per sack.
Potatoes, $3.75 per 100 pounds.
In November, 1897, the following wholesale prices prevailed in the
seacoast towns o f Porto Rico. These prices are in provincial cur
rency, which at that time was worth about 60 per cent of American
money. The prices are also credit prices, and involved on the
average the payment about six months subsequent to the delivery of
the goods,
Wheat flour, $14.25 per barrel.
Cuban cigarettes, 270 for $1.
Baking powder from the United States, $0,121 per pound. •
Hams from the United States, $0,181 per pound.
Rice, $0.0485 per pound.
Pork, $0.14 per pound, in quantities less than a barrel.
Pork, $0.13 per pound, in barrels o f 200 pounds.
276—No. 61—06 M----- 5
784
BULLETIN
OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
Codfish, $0.06£ cents per pound.
Rice, Spanish, $0.05£ per pound.
Lard, pure, American, $0.14 per pound.
American sausage, $0.36 per pound.
Sugar, muscovado, $0.03£ per pound.
Galvanized iron, English, $0.06 per pound.
Spanish wine, $0.65 per gallon.
Spanish candles, $0.16i per pound.
Olive oil, Spanish, $13 a case o f 100 pounds.
Onions, $0.05 per pound.
The retail prices of various commodities in several Porto Rican
towns in 1905 are given in the following table:
R E T A IL PRICES OF COMMODITIES, 1905.
Retail price in—
Article.
Unit.
Adjuntas,
Carolina, Ponce,
Estab. Aguirre,
Estab. Estab.
No. 1 Estab.
No. 4
No. 3
No. 2
(May
(Jan.
to (Jan. to
(May).
and
May).
May).
June).
San
Ponce, Ponce, Juan,
Estab. Estab. Estab.
No. 5 No. 6 No. 7
(Jan.
(Jan.
(Jan.
to
to
to
Apr.). A pr.). Mar.).
FOOD.
Apples, evaporated, fancy Pound.........
Baking powder, R oyal___ Pound.........
Bananas (guineos), small. 5................... $0.01
.08
Bananas (mafafas), large, 100...............
coarse, for cooking.
Beans,canned, kidney,red. 2 lb. can___
Beans, dry, lima, Califor Pound.........
nia.
$0.07
Beans, dry, white and red, Pound.........
American.
.02*
$0.06 fl.04- .05
Beans, dry, white and red, Pound.........
Porto Rican.
Beef, canned, corned, Lib- 1 lb. can___
bey’ s.
Beef, canned, dried, Ar 1 lb. can. . . .
mour’s.
Beef, canned, dried, Lib- * lb. can___
*
bey’s.
.25
Beef, canned, Irish stew, 1 lb. can___
American.
Beef, canned, roast, Ar 1 lb. can___
mour’ s best.
Beef, dried ( t a s a j o ), Ar Pound.........
.09
gentina.
Beef, fresh, ribs................. Pound.........
Beef, fresh, sirloin steak... Pound.........
Beets, canned, best........... 2* lb. can __
Butter, creamery, fresh, Pound.........
Armour’s.
Carrots, canned, second 2 lb. can___
grade.
Cheese, American.............. Pound.........
.20
Chickens, roasters............. Pound.........
Coffee, first grade, green, Pound.........
Porto Rican.
Coffee, good, green, Porto Pound.........
.15
Rican.
Coffee, second
grade, Pound.........
green, Porto Rican.
Com, canned, American. . 1 lb. can___
.10 t o . 15
Com, canned, best............ 2 lb. can___
2
lb.
c
a
n
..
.
.
Com, canned, medium___
Com meal, white or yellow 3* lb s...........
fancy.
.10
Crackers, soda, American . Pound.........
Crackers, soda, Zephyr, 1 Pound.........
2*-lb. lot.
a Price, January and February, 1905.
b 40 cents in January and March and 45 cents in February, 1905.
c 15 cents in January, 16 cents in February, and 17 cents in March, 1905.
d 13 cents in January, 14 cents in February, and 15 cents in March, 1905.
$0.15
.50
.15
.10
.15
.30
.15
.15
.20
.24
.18
&.43*
.12
.22
.25
c.16
d .
14
.15
.12
.15
.12
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO,
785
R E T A IL PRICES OF COMMODITIES, 1905—Continued.
Retail price in
AdjunSan
Ponce, Juan,
tas,
Carolina, Ponce, Ponce,
Estab. Estab. Estab.
Estab.
Estab.
Estab. Aguirre,
6 No. 7
No. 4 No. 5 No.
No. 1 Estab.
No. 3
(Jan.
No. 2
(May
to (Jan. to (Jan.
(Jan.
(May). (Jan.
to
to
and
May).
May). Apr.).
to
Apr.). Mar.).
June).
Article.
Unit.
Crackers, Uneeda biscu it .
Thinks, dressed.................
Fish,canned, salmon, best .
Fish, canned, salmon, sec
ond grade.
Fish, canned, sardines,
American, good.
Fish, canned, sardines,
American, in oil.
Fish, salt, cod, best..........
Fish, saltj cod, American,
first grade.
Fish, salt, cod, American,
second grade.
Fish,salt,cod,Nova Scotia
Fish, salt, mackerel, silver
back.
Flour, Hecker’s, sold in 7
lb. lots.
Flour, Pillsbury’s best,
sold in 25 lb. sacks.
Flour, X X X X best, Amer
ican.
Flour, X X X X , Minnesota
Garlic, Spanish..................
Lard. American ............................
Lard, compound, Ameri
can.
Lard, silver leaf, sold in 5
lb. pails.
Lard, silver leaf, sold in 10
lb. pails.
Macaroni, vermicelli, or
spaghetti.
Macaroni, vermicelli, or
spaghetti, Porto Rican.
Milk, condensed, Eagle
brand.
Milk, condensed, Eagle
brand, sold in 1 doz. can
lots.
Mutton, fresh ..................................
Olive oil, American ...................
Olive oil, French, best, sold
by the qt.
Onions, American ......................
Onions, Spanish ...........................
Peaches,
evaporated,
fancy, in bulk.
Pork, bacon, in glass.........
Pork, fresh, loins...............
Pork, ham, canned, sliced,
Armour’s.
Pork, “ ham” (shoulders),
sugar cured, American.
Pork, salt, American.........
Pork, salt, American, best
Potatoes, Irish, American
Prunes, evaporated, sec
ond grade.
Raisins, fa n c y ...............................
Rice,
American, first
grade.
Rice, American, second
grade.
Rice, American, third
grade.
Rice, fancy ..........................................
Salt, fine white table
Salt, small rock, Porto
Rican.
Sausage, Bologna .......................
Sausage, canned, Vienna..
Sausage, p ork .................................
Package. . . .
Pound".____
1 lb. can___
1 lh. Ofl.n __
$0.06
.25
.20
.12
f lb. can___
.15
£ lh. nan___
.08
Pound.........
Pound.........
a .09
Pound.........
Pound.........
Fish .....................
.12
a $0.10
$0.08
.08
.15
Pound _ __
.05
Pound ...............
.04}
Pound
Pound
100..........................
Pound ...............
Pound ...............
.04
($0.03} to
.08
.07
.40
.08
\ .................
/
Pound.........
.14
Pound.........
.13}
.10
Pound ...............
Pound.........
.08
1 lb. Qfl-n
.08
.14
.12}
1 lb. can
.23
3.25
3.40
Pound ...............
Gallon.........
Gallon ...............
Pound ...............
Pound .
Pound.........
.08
.04
.07
.18
.30
.22
.25
1 lb. ja r.......
Pound.........
1 lb. can___
.11
P o u n d...........
Pound ...............
Pound ...............
Pound ...............
Pound ...............
.08
.03}
Pound ...............
Pound ...............
.04
6 .04
.03
5.03
.08
.12
Pound ...............
Pound ...............
Pound.........
1 lb. can
Pound ...............
<*Price from January to May, 1905.
.25
6.02}
.02}
.06
.12
Pound ...............
5 lb s .....................
3 lb s .....................
.03
.02
.17
.15
.is
5 Price January to April, 1905.
786
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
R E T A IL PRICES OF COMMODITIES, 1905—Continued.
Retail price in-
Article.
Unit.
Succotash, canned, best. . . 2 lb. can___
Sugar, brown, Porto Ri Pound.........
can.
Pound.........
Sugar, second
grade, Pound.........
Porto Rican.
Sugar, w h it ft ; r,nbfvn ...... Pound.........
Tea, English' breakfast... Pound.........
Tomatoes, canned, stand 3 lb. can___
ard.
Tongue, canned, Libbey’s . 1 lb. can___
Tripe, canned, American... 1 lb. can___
Pound.........
Vinegar, cider, Monarch... Gallon.........
Ad jun
San
Ponce, Ponce, Juan,
tas,
Carolina, Ponce, Estab.
Estab. Estab.
Estab;
Estab.
Estab. Aguirre,
6
7
No. 3
No. 4 No. 5 No.
No. 1 Estab.
No. 2
(Jan. No.
(Jan.
(Jan. to (Jan. to (Jan.
(May
to
to
(May).
May).
to
and
May). Apr.). A pr.).
M ar.).
June).
$0.15
$0.05
$0.04*
$0.07
a . 07
.07
.09
.65
.12
.35
.18
.25
.26
CLOTHS AND CLOTHING.
Calico, American, best___
Calico, American, cheap
grade.
Cotton duck, American,
best.
Cotton duck, American,
cheap grade.
Cotton thread, Clark’s, 150
yard spool.
Ginghams, A. F. C., Amer
ican.
Ginghams, Everett, Amer
ican.
Lawns, National, Ameri
can.
Shirtings, 27 in., American
Shirtings, white, Fruit of
the Loom, American.
Shirtings, white, Ameriican, cheap grade.
Shoes, men’s, American__
Shoes, men’s, American,
best.
Shoes, men’s, American,
cheap grade.
Shoes, women’s, Ameri
can.
Shoes, women’s, Ameri
can, best.
Shoes, women’s, Ameri
can, cheap grade.
Socks, men’s, American,
best.
Socks, men’s, American,
cheap grade.
Stockings,
women’s,
American, best.
Stockings,
women’s,
American, cheap grade.
Blanket____
Y ard ...........
Y ard ...........
.40 t o . 50
$0.11
.05
Y ard ...........
.20
Y a rd ...........
.10
Spool...........
.04
Y a rd ...........
.10
Y ard ...........
.08
Y ard ...........
.05
Y ard ...........
Y ard ...........
.05
.10
Y ard ...........
Pair.............
Pair.............
.05
(*0
3.00
Pair.............
Pair.............
1.25
(c)
Pair.............
Pair.............
Pair.............
Pair.............
1
*'* ' 1__
3.00
1
............I..........
!
1.25
.25
.10
Pair.............
.25
Pair.............
.10
FUEL AND LIGHTING.
i
Kerosene oil, Aladdin, S. Gallon.........
O. Co., sold in 5 gal. cans.
.05
Kerosene oil, American, Liter (<*)....
red, inferior grade.
|
/.04
Kerosene oil, American, Cuartillo (e)
second grade.
.06
Kerosene oil, American, Liter ( d ) ___
white, good.
.24
Kerosene oil, S. O. Co., Gallon.........
first grade.
i
a 6£ cents in January. 7 cents in February, and 7£ cents in March, 1905.
&From $1 to $4. Greater demand lor the $1.50 grade.
c From $0.50 to $2.50.
Greater demand for the $1.25 to $1.50 grades.
d Liter equals 1.0567 quarts.
e Cuartilfo equals $ gallon.
f Price in April and May, 1905.
0.23
787
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO,
R E T A IL PRICES OF COMMODITIES, 1905—Concluded.
Retail price in—
Adjuntas,
Carolina, Ponce,
Estab. Aguirre,
Estab. Estab.
No. 4
No. 1 Estab.
No. 0
No. 2
(Jan. to (Jan. to
(May
(May).
and
May).
May).
June).
Article.
Unit.
Kerosene oil, S. 0 . Co.,
second grade.
Kerosene oil, S. 0 . Co.,
third grade.
Gallon.........
$0.22
Gallon.........
.20
San
Ponce, Ponce,
Estab. Estab. Juan,
Estab.
No.
6
No. 5
No. 7
(Jan.
(Jan.
(Jan.
to
to
to
Apr.). Apr.). Mar.).
METALS AND IMPLEMENTS.
Nails, wire, American.......
Plows, No! 4, Hall's pat
ent.
$0.05
30.00
Pound.........
P low ............
LUMBER AND BUILDING
M ATERIAL.
$25.00
34.00
Spruce, boards, Canadian. M f t .............
White pine, boards, Amer M f t .............
ican.
Yellow pine, boards and F o o t............
plank, American.
.03
FURNITURE AND UTEN
SILS.
Coflee pots, tin and enam
eled, American.
Dippers, enameled, Englisn, pints.
Sewing machines, hand,
Singer (cash).
Sewing machines, hand,
Singer (installment).
Sewing machines, Singer
No. 28,1 drawer (cash).
Sewing machines, Singer
No. 28, 1 drawer (in
stallment) .
1 coffee pot
1 dipper____
.30t o . 35
.18
$20.70
1 machine...
1 machine...
24.30
1 machine
30.60
1 machine...
39.60
MISCELLANEOUS.
Soap, Babbitt's Best.
Soap, Fairbanks’ Blue
Cloud, American.
Soap, Ivory, large size___
Soap, Spanish, long bars..
Soap, washing, American.
Soap, toilet, scented or
unscented, American,
best.
Soap, toilet, scented or
unscented, American,
cheap grade.
Starch, American..............
Cake............
Pound.........
Cake............
Pound.........
Pound.........
Cake............
.06
.10
.06
.25
.05
Cake............
Pound.........
$0.05
$0.06
.05
!............
788
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
Retail prices of a series of commodities in the city of Ponce during
the years 1898 to 1905, inclusive, are given in the following table.
The prices are in American currency throughout the entire period.
R E T A IL PRICES OP COMMODITIES IN PONCE, 1898 TO 1905.
Price during—
Article.
Unit.
1898
(Sept.
to
Dec.).
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905
(Jan.
to
A pr.).
$0.10 °$0.10£ $0.11
.04 ft .04§
.05
c.23|
.30
.20
.12 d.lO f
.10
$0.11
.05
.20
.10
$0.11
.05
.20
.10
$0.11
.05
.20
.10
$0.11
.05
.20
.10
1899.
1900.
CLOTHS AND CLOTHING.
Calico, American, best............
Calico, American, cheap grade
Cotton duck, American, nest.
Cotton duck, American, cheap
grade.
Cotton thread, Clark’s 150-yd.
spool.
Ginghams, A. F. C., American.
Ginghams, Everett, American
Lawns, National, American..
Shirtings, 27 in., American. . .
Shirtings, white, Fruit»of the
Loom, American.
Shirtings, white, American,
cheap grade.
Shoes, men’s, American, best.
Shoes, men’s, American,
cheap grade.
Shoes, women’s, American,
best.
Shoes, women’s, American,
cheap grade.
Socks, men’s, American, best.
Socks, men’s, American,
cheap grade.
Stockings, women’s, Ameri
can, best.
Stockings, women’s, Ameri
can, cheap grade.
Y ard ........... $0.10
.04
Y ard ...........
.30
Yard...........
.12
Y ard ...........
Spool...........
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
Y ard...........
Y ard ...........
Y ard...........
Y ard...........
Y ard...........
.10
.08
.06
«.07
.12
.10
.08
.06
.07
.12
.10
.08
.06
/.0 6 f
d . lOf
.10
.08
.06
.06
.10
.10
.08
.06
.06
.10
.10
.08
.06
.06
.10
.10
.08
.05
.055
.10
.10
.08
.05
.05
.10
.04
.05
Y ard...........
.04
.05
.05
.05
.05
.05
Pair.............
Pair.............
3.50
1.50
3.50 0 3.16§
1.50 ft 1.33$
3.00
1.25
3.00
1.25
3.00
1.25
3.00
1.25
3.00
1.25
Pair.............
3.50
3.50 0 3.16§
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
Pair.............
1.50
1.50 ft 1.33|
Pair.............
Pair.............
.50
.15
.50
.15
Pair.............
.50
.50
Pair.............
.15
.15
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
33J
/.11§
.25
.10
.25
.10
.25
.10
.25
.10
.25
.10
33$
.25
.25
.25
.25
.25
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
20.70
i .
*.
i.lll
FURNITURE AND UTENSILS.
Sewing
machines,
hand,
Singer (cash).
Sewing
machines,
hand,
Singer (installment).
Sewing machines, Singer No.
28.1 drawer (cash).
Sewing machines, Smger No.
28.1 drawer (installment).
1 machine...
20.70
20.70
1 machine...
24.30
24.30
24.30
1 machine...
30.60
30.60
30.60
1 machine...
39.60
39.60
39.60
MISCELLANEOUS.
Soap, toilet, scented or un
scented, American, best.
Soap, toilet, scented or un
scented, American, cheap
grade.
Cake............
.30
.30
ft.26§
.25
.25
.25
.25
.25
Cake............
.06
.06
*.05*
.05
.05
.05
.05
.05
Plows, No. 4, Hall’ s patent... lp lo w ......... «24.00
24.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
METALS AND IMPLEMENTS.
26.00
Price changed from 10 to 11 cents in May.
5 Price changed from 4 to 5 cents in May.
c Price changed from 30 to 20 cents in May, import duty reduced,
d Price changed from 12 to 10 cents in May, import duty reduced.
« April to December.
/P rice changed from 7 to 6 cents in May, import duty reduced.
0 Price changed from $3.50 to $3.00 in May, import duty reduced,
ft Price changed from $1.50 to $1.25 ip May, import duty reduced.
1 Price changed from 50 to 25 cents in May, import duty reduced.
/P rice changed from 15 to 10 cents in May, import-duty reduced,
ft Price changed from 30 to 25 cents in May, import duty reduced.
I Price changed from 6 to 5 cents in May, import duty reduced.
a
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
789
HOUSING CONDITIONS.
The housing conditions in the rural districts of Porto Kico are
extremely primitive. There is no necessity for the house to be
warmed, since the temperature, except in the higher altitudes, is
never sufficiently low to cause discomfort. The houses of the major
ity of rural workers are merely a framework of poles, covered with
the bark of palm trees and with dried leaves, and thatched with palm
leaves or a tough grass which is found all over the island. These
houses are sometimes built on the ground, but more frequently
they have a board floor made of palm. This floor is raised from the
ground so as to permit the rain water to flow under the house, and
often the house is built on a slight incline. The house invariably
is one story in height, and usually consists of one large room, vary
ing from about 10 to 20 feet square. This room, especially if it is
large, is sometimes divided by a partition into two freely communi
cating rooms. Even where there is a partition, there is, as a rule,
no division of the sexes, since in such cases all the family live, and
often work, in one of these rooms during the day and sleep in the
other at night. The influence of these conditions upon the sexual
impulses of adolescent children is not favorable.
Despite their flimsy appearance these houses are fairly firm and
have sufficiently resistant qualities for the ordinary purposes of shelter.
In many parts of the island the houses are grouped in little clusters,
but in other places they are isolated and found on every hilltop. The
Porto Rican on the coast appears to be quite gregarious, and in this
region one finds many hamlets throughout the entire territory.
In the wider areas on the uplands the huts of the peons are scattered
everywhere, and many are located in places difficult of access and are
separated so far from one another that social intercourse, coordi
nated labor, and the procuring of medical assistance are extremely
difficult.
During the hurricane of 1899 many of these huts upon the moun
tain sides were swept away as though they were bits of wood, but
for the ordinary contingencies of the climate they appear to do fairly
well. There are usually a door and a window and sometimes a small
communicating shed in the rear in which is done the family cooking.
To the average agricultural worker, his house costs nothing. Many
receive their huts free so long as they work, and in some cases they
are permitted to cultivate a small plot of ground, sometimes free and
at other times on shares. Where free huts are not granted the peon
is usually permitted to construct a hut on the land of the proprietor,
although this is becoming somewhat less general. Practically all the
hut owners are squatters and few hold legal title to the lands they
occupy. The land costs nothing and the hut is put up by the labor
790
BULLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB.
of the peon. The materials also cost nothing, since the peon is usually
allowed to cut down the trees which are necessary. Probably the
entire cost of constructing a hut under these conditions is from $10
to $20 or $30 worth of labor, and, on the assumption of a rent of 20
per cent of the real value, the annual cost of the unfurnished house
could not be estimated at more than $6 per year.
The furnishing of the house is equally simple. A hammock is
indispensable and there are as a rule a bench or two, a few pots or
jars, but usually no chairs and no bed. The clothes are hung upon
nails, and there is no such thing as a bureau or washstand. There
are also no tables and no carpet or matting. The benches are often
nothing but a solid log upon which the people sit. It may be stated
as a rule that the cost of all the articles in an ordinary peon’s hut is
not above $10.
Practically the only decoration ever seen consists of the colored litho
graphs of American advertisers, sometimes in Spanish, but usually
in English. In one room visited the decoration consisted of 50 or 60
copies of a small colored lithograph issued by an American manu
facturer of soap.
One of the greatest advances which could be made in the standard
of living of the Porto Rican workingman would be the improvement
of his house and his clothing. It would be of great advantage to
have the house made larger and with more rooms and it would be
equally advantageous to have certain articles of household furniture.
Some small progress has been made along these lines, but as yet the
standard of living is extremely low. The Porto Rican, in so far as
his house goes, lives as his ancestors did 300 years ago.
In the cities the housing conditions are probably worse upon the
whole than they are in the country. The inhabitants of the country
have at least the advantage of fresh air. In view of the aversion of
the average Porto Rican peon to currents of air, and especially the
night air, the lack of completeness with which his house shuts out
the air is perhaps a blessing in disguise.
San Juan, with a population of 35,000, suffers from natural condi
tions not dissimilar to those in New York. The city is built on a
small island and its topographical limitations have in the past encour
aged an excessive crowding. The great mass of the population live
in close proximity to their work, with the consequence that the
crowding is more intense than would otherwise be the case.
The housing conditions in the worst section of San Juan are almost
indescribably bad. While a considerable reform has been effected
since the American occupation, especially in the matter of sanitation,
the conditions even now are extremely evil, and in some respects
worse than in the worst habitations in our American cities. In a
number of houses, which were visited in the course of this investiga
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
791
tion, it was noticed that habitations which had originally been
intended for two or three families had subsequently been converted
into rude tenement houses. The available space was poorly utilized,
the halls being wide, the buildings low, and much expensive ground
partially wasted. Nevertheless, these houses, by reason of exorbitant
rents, which have increased greatly during the last six or seven years,
bring in as much as $200 or even $300 a month, and this money is
usually sent to Spain, where as a rule the absentee landlord resides.
It is not unusual for four, five, or six people to live in a single room.
The custom is one family in a room, irrespective of the size of the
family or of the room. Many of the rooms have uneven brick floors
and whitewashed brick walls. Many of the rooms visited were
extremely damp and very dark with no windows whatever, and no
ventilation, except through the open door. The rooms of these
houses open upon courts, which are often thronged with men, women,
and children. Much of the washing, both for the family and out
siders, is done in the courts. In many of the courts dogs and chickens
are in evidence, and despite the efforts of the sanitary inspector to
maintain a state of cleanliness, the courts are dirty and have a bad
odor.
In many houses in the poorer quarters there is insufficient watercloset accommodations, although in this respect the conditions have
greatly improved since the American occupation. Some of the
houses are crowded from roof to foundation; thus there can be no
sufficient separation of the sexes, the most intimate of domestic
relations being necessarily carried on in the view of the entire
population of the room. While the population of these houses per
square foot of area is very much less than in many a New York
six-story tenement, and while the air space per inhabitant is often
greater in the San Juan dwelling than in that of New York City,
the housing conditions of the poorest people in Porto Rico appear
to be almost, if not quite, as bad in respect to light, air, crowding,
and sanitary conditions as the worst conditions in the city of New
York.
In many of the houses which are excessively crowded on the ground
floor, the upper stories are far more habitable. In a number of cases
a dozen families live on the ground floor, and a single family on the
floor above. The higher floors are more aristocratic and bring higher
rents. The conditions in this respect are similar to those of some of
the continental cities. The mild climate of Porto Rico renders the
overcrowding more bearable than it would be in an American city.
Many of the people sleep in their houses but spend their waking
hours outside. The rooms are often vacant while the streets and the
open courts, or patios, are thronged. Some domestic operations are
carried on in the rooms, but even more are done in the courts. While
792
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
most of the workingmen of San Juan wear shoes on the street,
their wives and they themselves are barefooted or wear loose slip
pers in the open courts and in their houses.
As a result of improved sanitary inspection, the healthfulness of
the houses in the cities has been increased. The obligation to put in
water-closets and the establishment of an adequate system of sewers
has led to the banishment of yellow fever and to the removal of con
ditions which under Spanish times were almost intolerable. An
important reform which has been instituted by the Americans has
been the abolition of cisterns. These cisterns collected rain water
and were sometimes made receptacles for refuse and garbage. The
cisterns have been closed by an order of the local board of health.
Rents in Porto Rico have risen even more rapidly than accommo
dations have improved. The Porto Rican workingman, as well as the
man of greater means, is now obliged to pay a higher rent in Amer
ican money than he paid in 1898 in provincial money. A t the time
of the change of the currency the same rents, or almost the same
rents, were exacted in American money as were formerly obtained
in provincial money, and since that time there has been an advance
which has been variously estimated at from 10 to 25 per cent. In
other words, the man who formerly paid $4 a month for his room
in provincial money (valued at $2.40 gold) is now obliged to pay
from $4.50 to $5 in American money. As far as the single item of
house rent is concerned, the price in San Juan seems to have mounted
more rapidly than wages.
While further improvement may not improbably be anticipated in
the housing conditions of San Juan and other Porto Rican cities, it is
not to be anticipated that such progress will be rapid or easy. There
is a tenacious opposition on the part of the landlords to any consider
able improvement in the conditions, since improvements cost money.
The landlords, residing as a rule in foreign countries, have no interest
in their houses other than securing a high rent, and the tenants them
selves, while dissatisfied with present conditions, are not clamqrous
for any sanitary improvements that will involve more care or clean
liness on their part. The topographical peculiarities of San Juan
will tend to continue for some time the overcrowded conditions.
An excellent line of trolley cars now runs from the city to the
suburbs, but a 5-cent fare is a large element in the calculation of a
worker earning only 50 or 75 cents a day. Therefore it will probably
be some time before the poorer classes of the city population will be
able to escape from their crowded quarters.
LABOB CONDITIONS IN POBTO BICO.
793
SANITARY CONDITIONS.
Porto Rico is naturally one of the most healthful of all countries in
the torrid zone. “ Its whole contour is so interspersed with hill and
dale, mountain stream, and playa that the copious rains which freshen
the atmosphere every month in the year at the same time cleanse the
surface of the earth from all impurities. ” (a) Y et at the time of the
American occupation the sanitary conditions in Porto Rico were
extremely bad. Nothing had been done to utilize the natural advan
tages. The water supply was bad. Most of the country people drank
the river water as it flowed in its natural channels, and many of these
streams, according to the testimony of Dr. William Fawcett Smith,
were used “ not only as public laundries, but as common sewers for
the surrounding country. ” The wells in the cities and towns were
not unusually found in the courtyards and quite frequently in close
proximity to the cesspools. The cisterns from which 55,093 houses
drew their water supply were polluted in this manner, as well as by
the filth which accumulated on the roofs of the houses. Except in
the cities of Ponce, San Juan, and Mayaguez, there were no waterworks
or aqueducts in any of the towns, and even in these cities the water
works were in extremely poor condition.
Another cause leading to a considerable amount of sickness was the
former customs observed in the burial of the dead. Owing to there
being insufficient provision for the interment of the dead, the
cemeteries were greatly crowded. Burials were conducted in an
insanitary manner, and huge piles of human skulls and bones were
heaped up in public view. The military government caused new
cemeteries to be opened and gave to the municipalities the power to
condemn land for this purpose. Branch cemeteries 'were established
in remote districts, and acts were passed by the insular legislative
assembly permitting free burial to the poor. As a consequence, con
siderable improvement has been effected in this direction.
Much of the disease, and especially the anemia, in Porto Rico is due
to these insanitary conditions, which are an unwelcome heritage from
Spanish administration. The unhealthy conditions are not confined
to the cities alone, by reason of the fact that the conditions under
which the rural population live are insanitary and that the isolated
dwellings of the Porto Rican peasants do not encourage advanced
sanitation.
In 1899, at the time of the taking of the census, 54 per cent of all the
dwellings in Porto Rico secured their drinking water from running
streams, many of which were polluted by the disposition of excreta and
other filth. Thirty-five per cent of the dwellings obtained their water
a First Annual Report of the Governor of Porto Rico. Washington, 1901, pages 32
and 33.
794
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
from cisterns constructed for the collection of rain water, and which
in many cases were the receptacles for garbage and refuse. Only 6
per cent of the dwellings, mostly in the cities of Ponce and Mayaguez,
were supplied with water from aqueducts, while only 5 per cent of all
houses secured their water from springs or wells.
More serious even than the question of the source of the drinking
water is that of the disposition of excreta in Porto Rican houses. In
1899,76 per cent of all the dwellings in Porto Rico had no form what
ever of water-closet or privy. No provision at all was made for the dis
position of excreta, the demands of nature being fulfilled in the fields or
in the gardens near the houses. Of those dwellings which had any pro
vision whatsoever for the disposition of excreta, constituting less than
one-fourth of the whole number, 96.7 per cent had an extremely
archaic method in the form of the so-called pozo. (a)
Less than 1 per cent of all the dwellings could be said to have a
water-closet or any other form of receptacle for excreta intended to
destroy the foul odors. Only 1,181 out of a total of 158,305 dwellings
had a water-closet or inodoro. This number has largely increased,
however, since the American occupation.^)
One of the most important of all the factors influencing the condi
tion of the laboring classes of the island is the disease of anemia.
This disease, which mainly attacks the poor of the island, more, per
haps, than any other single factor, impairs the industrial efficiency of
the great mass of Porto Rican laborers. It affects the vast majority
of the inhabitants of the rural districts of Porto Rico and contributes
seriously to the sickness, weakness, and poverty of the laboring
population.
This disease, which was formerly attributed solely to bad and insuffi
cient food, to hardship, and to the unpropitious character of the cli
mate, is now known to be caused by parasitic worms called “ uncinaria.” The worm, which is usually called the “ hook worm,” on
account of its hook-like appearance, is about one-third of an inch in
length and is developed through a larva from an ovum. This ovum,
when deposited on the earth, is hatched out under favorable circum
stances of heat, shade, and humidity in about twenty-four hours.
The worm, however, is never hatched out within the body of man.
As a consequence there can be fortunately no reproduction or multi
plication of hook worms within the body, and the number of worms in
an infected person can be increased only by reinfection.
This worm, which is found in, probably, over one-half of the entire
population of the island, attacks the red corpuscles of the blood.
®There is no exact English equivalent for the word pozo, which includes all receptacles
for excreta, except those which are intended to diminish or entirely destroy foul odors
rising from it. The nearest word in English would probably be privy.
&Of the entire number of dwellings, almost 1 per cent are returned without any speci
fication as to the method employed in connection with the disposing of excreta.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
795
Whether it enters the body by the mouth, or, as is more usual, through
the skin, it makes its way to the intestines and attacks there the blood
in the capillaries. The resulting disease is a profound anemia and a
degeneration of the vital organs of the body, resulting in a chronic
invalidism and frequently in death.
This disease gives to the population, and especially the poorer or
laboring population of the island, its specific appearance. According
to the Report of the Commission for the Study and Treatment of
Anemia in Porto Rico, less than 10 per cent of the rural inhabitants of
the island are entirely free from this disease. Even in light cases,
where only a few worms are present in the intestines, the color of the
skin changes. In the case of whites there is, in such cases, often a
slight pallor, and in mulattoes a pastiness of appearance. The appe
tite becomes irregular, shortness of breath results, the muscles become
flabby and weak, and chronic indisposition to work results. Severe
headache, dizziness, and an occasional palpitation of the heart also
mark the incipient stage of the disease. In the moderate cases of the
disease, which may be said to be the prevailing type in Porto Rico,
the effects are much more apparent. In these cases there is a con
siderable pallor, the skin becomes dry, sweating insufficient and irregu
lar, and the mucous membranes become pale. The appetite is exag
gerated or perverted. There is nausea, vomiting, coating of the
tongue, abdominal pains, breathlessness, palpitation of the heart,
rapid and weak pulsation, pain in the chest, dizziness, weakness in the
knees and legs, noises in the ear, and frequent headache. The patient
becomes dull and depressed and loses all ambition. The muscles
become flabby and weak, and the persons so affected find it extremely
difficult to work. In marked cases the pallor is extreme, and all the
symptoms of the moderate cases are frightfully exaggerated. The
patient is extremely dull, anxious, and melancholy. The muscles are
flabby, sore, and painful, and the weakness is such that work is
entirely impossible. In children and young persons the disease
retards both the mental and physical growth and delays puberty.
The disease in mothers leads to frequent deaths from childbirth and
results often in the birth of weak and rachitic children.
The vast extent of this disease in Porto Rico is due to the ease with
which the inhabitants, and especially the poor ones, are infected. The
disease is carried entirely by the larva of the worm, which leaves the
body in the feces, and enters it again either by ingestion through the
mouth or by penetration of the skin. It was formerly supposed that
infection by penetration of the skin was impossible, but it has now
been well established by a series of experiments and observations
that such infection is possible. In Porto Rico practically all of the
infection appears to result in this way. The great majority of the
sufferers are those who can not afford to wear shoes, and are not
796
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OP LABOR.
accustomed to them, and most of the cases occur during the rainy
season when the ground is wet or damp and when acute exacerbations
of the skin occur. An enormous number of persons contracted this dis
ease during the period immediately following the cyclone, when thou
sands were exposed to unusual privations. The peon attributes the
anemia to dampness of the soil, and persons who ordinarily wear shoes
frequently trace it to a time when they were, perhaps, paddling about
on the banks of a stream while taking a bath.
Since the vast majority of Porto Ricans suffering from anemia
belong to the poorer classes, the proportion of persons affected is
larger among the workers than in any other class. The disease is
largely, if not entirely, rural, the infection being slight in the city.
Poor food, insanitary conditions, an ill-balanced diet, the humidity
of the climate, and a generally weak condition are, perhaps, all con
tributing causes, in so far as they lessen the resisting power of the
body. The most exposed of all laborers in the island are the coffee
pickers and other workers on the coffee estates. These men, like
most rural workers, labor barefooted and in the most heavily infected
districts, principally in the rainy season, when all the conditions are
propitious for infection. In the sugar plantations there is much less
infection, but many sugar workers are infected in banana groves, and
a large number of infections are contracted while washing clothes,
which is usually done upon the banks of streams.
Ajieinia, or, as it is called, uncinariasis, is preeminently “ a filth
disease.” The infection of the soil by the evacuation of the bowels
is indicative of the personal habits of the rural worker in Porto Rico.
Almost all of the patients examined and cured by the anemia com
mission were accustomed in their homes to deposit their feces in the
open country, considerably over five-sixths of all persons examined
having no privies whatever.
It is impossible to exaggerate the effect of the habit of going about
barefooted in Porto Rico, because nearly all the cases of anemia can
be traced to this habit. Since the worms do not propagate within
the body, their numbers tend to decrease through accident or natural
death of the parasites when the patient is removed from the source of
infection, as, for instance, when he goes to the city to live. In the
rural districts of Porto Rico, however, the custom of going barefooted
tends to reinfect patients continually. Persons who have once been
cured of anemia contract the disease again. The disease, moreover,
is one which requires cleanliness on the part of the patient, as well as
of the whole community in which he lives. To escape reinfection,
therefore, the habits of the people in defecation must be altered.
Anemia in Porto Rico attacks persons of all ages. The greatest
amount of sickness appears to occur between the ages of 10 and 30,
but cases occur in infancy and in extreme old age.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
797
The economic importance of the disease can not be overestimated.
While women, owing to their being less exposed, are somewhat less
subject to it than are the men, and while full-blooded negroes appear
to have a partial immunity from its worst forms, the disease is so
widespread as to be considered practically universal. The statement
of the anemia commission that 90 per cent of the rural population is
more or less affected is, at best, an estimate, but there can be no doubt
as to the widespread character of the infection. The disease accounts
in large measure for the well-known indolence of many of the Porto
Rican peasants and for their improvidence and thoughtlessness of
the future.
The feeling of hopelessness which the disease inspires is heightened in
many cases by the isolation of the peon, and by the practical impos
sibility of his being reached by medical aid. His weakness is increased
by the poor character of his food, and the weakness arising from anemia
tends to discourage any effort to earn more or to live better. The disease
becomes such a curse, and has resulted in so large a percentage of
all the deaths in the country th a t‘ ‘it is known by the jibaro as ‘la
muerte natural’ (the natural death).” According to the commission,
the number of deaths from anemia is even much larger than official
reports indicate, and it goes so far as to state that ‘ ‘our own estimate
of it is that it causes about 30 per cent of all deaths.” The commis
sion concludes by saying: “ So, until a determined effort to educate,
direct, coax, or compel the use of some form of latrine, and a general
intelligent crusade is begun, in which the infected are treated,
uncinariasis, or ‘ anemia/ as it is popularly known, will continue to
reduce the white and mixed inhabitants form ing the country class o f the
island to a lower and lower grade, mentally, morally, and physically,
until the very existence o f the class will be threatened.” (a)
The worst feature of anemia is not that it causes so large a number
of deaths, but that it so thoroughly incapacitates the sufferer and so
completely destroys the qualities necessary to industrial success.
The disease of the father, even if not directly conveyed to the wife
and children, as is usual and probable, affects them indirectly in the
resulting incapacity and inefficiency of the principal breadwinner of
the family. The disease thus extends both directly and through its
indirect effects to ever-widening circles, and affects fundamentally
and disastrously the welfare of the entire laboring population.
The importance of the scourge of anemia has now become appar
ent to all in Porto Rico. The complaint about the laziness of the
working population becomes less reasonable when it is realized that
this population is sick, and it is now recognized that to secure better
and more efficient workmen the population must be cured of this
enfeebling disease. “ In order to get better food, people have to
0 Report on Anemia in Porto Rico, p. 88. The italics are from the report.
798
BULLETIN OF TH E BUEEAU OF LABOE.
work for it, and these people are not usually capable of such labor in
their present condition.” (a)
The first steps toward doing away with this scourge were taken in
1904, when the legislative assembly of Porto Rico passed a bill pro
viding for an appropriation of $5,000 for the study and treatment of
anemia. The commission appointed in conformity with this law
consisted of Dr. Bailey K. Ashford, Dr. W. W. King, and Dr. Pedro
Gutierrez Igaravidez. The treatment of patients was carried on in
Bayamon and in Utuado, and was continued until August 5, 1904.
During the present year the commission is continuing its work at
Arbonito, having been enabled to do so by the appropriation of
$15,000 by the Porto Rican Government.
The method of treating the disease consists of the curing of existing
cases and the preventing of the pollution of the soil. Every person
harboring a parasite is a focus of infection, and it therefore becomes
essential to cure all existing cases. The treatment consists of an
expulsion of the worms by thymol or other drugs. The treatment
usually takes about 5 or 6 weeks.
To cure all existing cases, however, a much greater force will be
required than that provided by the commission. The absence of
satisfactory municipal hospitals and the poverty of the cities make
this impossible; and to even approach the gigantic task of curing
what is almost the entire rural population would require a national
organization with a large number of able physicians in a number of
centers scattered all over the island. So great is the desire of the
sufferers from anemia to be cured that many of them walk to the
place where they may be treated, dragging themselves slowly for 8 or
10 hours, leaving their homes one evening and arriving at the tempo
rary hospital the next morning.
The prevention of soil pollution is necessary to any permanent
eradication of the disease. So long as the soil remains polluted with
eggs and larvae no cures can be considered final. Any attempt at
chemical disinfection of the soil is of course out of the question, and
the only means of curing the people and thereby increasing the
industrial efficiency of the great mass of rural workers is by teaching
them habits of personal cleanliness with regard to the disposition of
their feces. Some work of this nature, viz, in the direction of the con
struction of water-closets of however primitive a nature, has already
been attempted by the anemia commission with success, and many
small villages now have numerous latrines, where two years before
these were unknown. The" institution of latrines could be encour
aged and the people could be taught habits of cleanliness in the dis
position of their excreta, both at home and on the plantation, by
talks to the people, by teaching cleanliness to the children in the
a Report on Anemia in Porto Rico, p. 88.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
799
schools, by personal activity on the part of the owners of plantations,
and by means of leaflets and pamphlets written in plain, simple lan
guage, and describing how the disease is propagated. (a) Whether
or not the time is yet ripe for a law compelling the building of
latrines and making carelessness or uncleanliness in the disposition
of excreta a misdemeanor is perhaps a question, but sooner or later
the people must be induced or compelled to put an end to the dis
ease by increasing their personal cleanliness.
The effect upon the conditions of the laboring classes of Porto Rico
of completely obliterating the disease of anemia would be almost
incalculable. Many persons who are now too sick and weak to work
would then be enabled to do so, and the industrial efficiency, as it is
affected by the muscular strength, the nervous energy, the physical
endurance, and the intelligent direction of work of the people would
be vastly increased. An energetic movement with a view to the
obliteration of the disease is probably the greatest single step which
can be taken at the present time toward improving the industrial
efficiency of the laboring classes of Porto Rico.
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES OF TH E PORTO RICAN
WORKMAN.
The industrial capacity of the Porto Rican workman is to a certain
extent influenced by and reflected in his education. The system of
public instruction during Spanish days was antiquated, and in many
respects inefficient and insufficient. The general administration of
the schools was in the hands of the provincial authorities, and just
prior to the American invasion the administration was by a bureau
of the department of the interior. The expenses of the administra
tion were provided by the provincial budget, but the principal
expenses— the lighting of the buildings, the remuneration of the
teachers, and the cost of school supplies— were met by the impover
ished municipalities. The schools were seldom in buildings used
alone for educational purposes, but were to be found usually in rented
rooms with inadequate space, light, and ventilation, and with insuffi
cient furniture, school appliances, and supplies. The schools were
poor in the cities and poorer in the rural districts. The children of
the working classes seldom attended before the age of 8, and in many
cases, owing to their inability to secure decent clothes, did not attend
at all. The teachers were very poorly paid, and under the Spanish
a Such a pamphlet has already been issued by the anemia commission, but the great
majority of patients are, of course, unable to read it. The pamphlet is called La Anemia
de Puerto Rico. Su causa y modos de evitarla. San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1905. This little
pamphlet, containing about 1,200 words, is written in an extremely clear manner, and
has been as widely distributed as the literacy of patients has permitted.
276—No. 61—06 M ----- 6
800
BULLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OP LABOK.
system received fees from the children of well-to-do parents. Pupils
from poor families were, therefore, often neglected entirely, in order
that the teacher might give his whole attention to those who paid
him for his services. It was believed that about 25,000 or 26,000
pupils were enrolled in the public and private schools of Porto Rico
at the close of the period of Spanish dominion. Of these almost twothirds were boys.
As a result of these conditions the percentage of illiteracy is very
great. According to the census of 1860 only 51,259 persons, or less
than 9 per cent, out of a total of 583,181, including children under 10
years of age, were literate. At the census of 1899 this condition had
somewhat improved. In that year, of the population 10 years or
over 22.7 per cent were literate.
The extent of illiteracy is very much greater in the country than
in the urban districts. The isolated situation of the Porto Rican
peon renders his education difficult, and the care and attention
given to rural schools has always been much less than that given in
the cities. W e thus find that while the percentage of literates of
the age of 10 or over was only 22.7 per cent for the whole island, and
as low as 10 to 12 per cent in a number of country districts, the per
centage was as high as 55.5 per cent in the city of Ponce, 61.3 per
cent in the city of Mayaguez, and 63.7 per cent in San Juan.
The literacy is less for the interior than for the coast districts,
owing no doubt in large part to the greater concentration of popula
tion in the latter regions. The percentage of literates of the age of
10 or over was 17.3 per cent for 29 inland districts and 20.5 per cent
for 37 coast districts, the three containing large cities being excluded.
This higher percentage of literacy in the coast districts prevails
despite the fact that these coast districts have a 7.5 per cent higher
percentage of colored persons than the interior, and these colored
persons have a considerably higher percentage of illiteracy. Of
every 1,000 whites of the age of 10 or over 271 were able to read, while
of every 1,000 colored persons of the age of 10 or over only 156 could
read. The illiteracy, therefore, of the whites on the uplands is
much greater than the illiteracy of the negroes or of the mixed popu
lation of the uplands and is much greater than the illiteracy of the
same population on the coast.
As in most other backward countries, the percentage of illiteracy
was much greater among females than among males. Of every 1,000
Porto Rican females of the age of 10 or over only 199 could read, while
of every 1,000 males of the same age 257 could read.
The small foreign-born white population of Porto Rico was largely
literate, 87.5 per cent of the foreign-bom whites of the age of 10 or
over being able to read.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
801
Since the American occupation a very considerable advance has
been made in the development of education. The number of schools
has been increased, the organization has been bettered, the equip
ment of the schools and the training of the teachers improved, and
a more or less regular and reasonable system of promotion has taken
the place of the former system of favoritism existing upon the island.
Some of this advance was made by the military government, which
improved the position of the teacher and the equipment of the school
room, but the greater part has been achieved under the civil adminis
tration of the island.
This improvement was rendered possible by the devotion to the
purposes of education of a large part of the round $2,000,000 con
tributed by the American Government from duties collected upon
Porto Rican products. B y the end of the first school year after the
establishment of the civil administration in Porto Rico the number
of schools upon the island had increased to 800, as compared with 500
in Spanish times. For the maintenance of these schools an annual
expenditure of $500,000 was necessary. By the next year 1,000
schools, necessitating the annual expenditure of $600,000, were in
operation, and 1,200 schools, involving an annual expenditure of
$700,000, were in operation at the beginning of the school year
1903-4. Under present fiscal arrangements, the maximum expendi
ture for schools appears to have been reached.
The result of this increased expenditure of money and of this
improvement in the organization of the system has been reflected in
an increased attendance. There were in operation on June 30, 1904,
1,113 common schools and 51 special schools. In common schools
were included all graded and rural schools, and by special schools
were meant high schools, industrial schools, night schools, agri
cultural schools, and kindergartens. The number of teachers
employed in the common schools during the year 1904 was 1,204, of
whom 743 were males and 461 were females; 1,075 were whites and
129 were colored. While the colored population formed 38.2 per cent
of the entire population of the island, the enrollment of colored
pupils was only 25.9 per cent of the entire enrollment. There were
61 teachers employed in the special schools, making a total of 1,265
teachers in all the schools, of whom 139 were Americans. Of these
latter, 47, or approximately a third, were men.
The enrollment of pupils in all the schools, including both common
and special schools, and including reenrollments or duplicates, was
63,556; of these, 47,089 were whites, and 16,467 were colored. The
number of boys exceeded the number of girls, 37,394 pupils being
males and 26,162 being females. The total number of different
pupils actually enrolled, deducting duplicates, was 61,168.
The average daily attendance of these schools during the year was
802
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
41,798, the average enrollment per school was 58, and the average
attendance 38. The school year consisted of 35 weeks of 5 days
each, making a total, excluding legal holidays, of 170 days.
Upon the basis of an increase of population since 1899, at the same
annual rate as the increase from 1883 to 1899, the population of
Porto Rico on June 30, 1904, according to the estimate of the Com
missioner of Education, was 1,012,775, and the total school popula
tion between the ages of 5 and 18 was 393,786. Upon this basis the
entire number of pupils enrolled in the public schools was only 6.3
per cent of the entire estimated population and only 16.1 per cent
of the entire estimated school population, while the daily attendance
was only 4.1 per cent of the entire population and 10.6 per cent of
the estimated school population. This number must be increased
b y the number of children enrolled in the private schools of the island,
but as the total number of pupils so enrolled amounted to only
4,841, the inclusion of these pupils does not seriously affect the
result. The children enrolled in private schools formed only 0.5
per cent of the estimated total population in 1904 and only 1.2 per
cent of the estimated school population for that year. It may thus
be seen that only 6.8 per cent of the entire estimated population and
only 17.4 per cent of the entire estimated school population was
enrolled in the public and private schools, while the percentage of
attendance for both amounted probably to about 4.4 per cent and
11.3 per cent respectively. In other words, only a trifle over onesixth of all the children between the ages of 5 and 18 were enrolled
in any school, either public or private, common or special, in the
island of Porto Rico, while the average attendance was equivalent to
a regular attendance of only one-ninth of the boys and girls of the
island during the year 1904. (a)
It may be seen from the above summary that, while great improve
ment has been made in the school system over the conditions that
prevailed prior to the American occupation, very much still remains
to be done. Even at the present time only 1 boy or girl out of 6 is
enrolled in school. Most of the pupils are to be found in the less
advanced classes. The great majority, especially in the rural
schools, leave after one, two, or three years, and the percentage
of pupils in the sixth, seventh, and eighth years is, therefore, ex
tremely small. One of the main causes of this early leaving of
a The salaries of the teachers are fixed by law, and during the year 1904-5 were as fol
lows: For rural teachers, $30 and $25 per month; for graded teachers and teachers of
English, $50 and $45 per month, and for principal teachers, $75 and $70 per month. To
these were added allowances for house rent, which for rural teachers were never less than
$3 nor more than $8 per month, and for graded, principal, and special teachers were never
less than $10 and never more than $15 a month. There is provision made, however, for
the hiring of special teachers by special contract.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
803
the school is the widespread poverty, and the desire and necessity
of the parents to avail themselves of the services and the earnings of
their children. But even if all the children were able to attend, it
would not be possible for them to do so, since the seating capacity of
the schools is still inadequate to even the present needs of the popu
lation.
It is essential to the industrial advance of Porto Rico that the
children be accorded ah education. While the advance made since
the American invasion has been very rapid as compared with the
progress in Spanish times, it has not been sufficient to meet the neces
sities of the case. Unless the rate at which schools are opened and
equipped is rapidly increased it will be many years before the
majority of the inhabitants of Porto Rico are able even to read and
write. The problem of educating the people in at least the rudi
ments of learning is facilitated by the density of the population in
the greater part of the island, by the smallness of the area, by the
universality of the dominant Spanish language, and by the common
origin and traditions of the population. On the other hand, the
educational problem is rendered more difficult by the wide disper
sion of the inhabitants of the mountainous districts, and by the
separation and difference in ideals and ideas between the population
to be taught and of the Americans who dominate the school system.
At the present moment there appears to be a marked lessening of
the rate at which school facilities are being extended to the Porto
Rican population, and especially to the large number of laborers in the
island. This has resulted partly from the exhaustion of the special
fund of about $2,000,000, which had been set aside for the purposes
of public improvement and of education. The revenues of the
country have not in the past been sufficient to defray the ordinary
expenses of the Government plus the considerable expenditures for
public works and education, and the rate at which the revenue has
increased has by no means been sufficient to make up for the exhaus
tion of the special fund. The expenditures for education consti
tute a very large percentage of the gross revenues of the island, and
it is claimed that this percentage can not be increased without
increasing the revenues, and further that the increase in revenue
must be made up not from increased taxation but from an insular
loan. On the other hand, if any great number of the boys and girls
of Porto Rico are to receive even a rudimentary education, it will be
essential that the appropriations be largely increased. A former
commissioner of education (°) declared, in 1904, that in addition to
the outlay of $700,000 a year, there would be necessary an addi
tional appropriation of from $1,000,000 to $3,000,000 a year, even
o Dr. Samuel McCune Lindsay. See Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto
Rico, 1904, page 34.
804
BULLETIN OF TH E BUKEAU OF LABOR.
with the most economical administration, to insure the education of
the children. This money, it was recognized, could not be obtained
b y increased taxation, but must be secured in the form of a public
loan.
In the discussion of the laboring conditions in Porto Rico it is as
essential to understand the currents of opinion as to realize the
economic and political conditions which form their basis. The
reproduction of such opinions is of course more difficult and more
liable to error than is the statement of facts which may be capable
of statistical or other demonstration. It is important to know
that in certain sections an opinion is making itself felt that the
education of the Porto Rican workingman is not essential, or even
important. It is argued that it is the destiny of the island to be
exploited, as it has been in the past, by outside capitalists, and that
the condition to be foreseen is that of a large, densely-settled, lowgrade, unskilled, ignorant, native population without real self gov
ernment.
It is argued also that, given a population doomed to ordinary
unskilled agricultural labor, it is unwise and even impossible to educate
the children. It is claimed that two or three years of instruction in
reading and writing will not have an appreciable permanent effect
upon the children, who immediately go back to work in the cane field
or on the tobacco plantation, and that under such circumstances it
is impossible to educate the great mass of the people or to improve
permanently their intellectual condition. If the future of the Porto
Rican workman is to be a peon, what, it is asked, will be the benefit
to him of any education, let alone that of an advanced education?
While this opinion is held by a considerable number of people, it
can not as yet be stated to be the dominant or prevailing opinion. It
is held, however, by many people, who view Porto Rico as a field for
exploitation without regard to the interests of the native population,
and who are perfectly satisfied that the peon be uneducated so long
as he fulfills the primary qualification of being a cheap laborer. It is
claimed by these people that the demand for education is at present
merely the desire of the unskilled workers to escape from their
usual occupations and secure clerical positions in the Government
service or elsewhere, and that with the filling up of these positions the
demand for education will diminish. The attitude of the Govern
ment, however, appears to be one of a strong desire to educate the
native population, both in the ordinary school courses and in indus
trial training. There has been a considerable extension of industrial
training in the island, and a number of industrial schools with some
specialization along trade lines have been started. Besides public
schools, there are a number of free schools founded by charitable
societies.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
805
Despite the limited extent to which they have as yet been applied,
the changes in educational methods and the increased educational
opportunities afforded by the American occupation have already
begun to affect the attitude of the entire laboring population. There
is an avid desire on the part of large sections of the population for
education, a desire at once inspiring and pathetic. Little rural
schools, housed in small buildings, as well as the more pretentious
schools in the cities, attract children in great numbers, and the spell
ing book and the reader are found in huts and thatches which do not
suggest the idea of education. During the course of this investiga
tion there were met many illiterate men whose children were going to
school, acquiring there a knowledge of reading and writing Spanish,
as well as a smattering of English. The opportunity to educate his
children is regarded as an enormous boon to the average worker,
whether urban or rural, since it seems to open to them a gate which
has been closed to him.
ATTITU DE OF EMPLOYERS TO EMPLOYEES.
In the island of Porto Rico, as in other Latin-American countries,
the laborer is not held in high esteem. The feudal traditions which
the Spanish adventurers and conquerors brought with them in the
sixteenth century; the enslavement of the Indians, and the subse
quent introduction of negro slavery; the preponderance from the
first of unskilled over skilled labor; the absence of a strong middle
class, together with the dearth of cities, all tended to create and
deepen a chasm between the people who held the estates and the
peons who worked upon them. The conditions prevailing in Porto
Rico until the abolition of slavery in 1873 and even, to a less extent,
up to and beyond the American invasion were those of a more or
less benevolent and more or less responsible despotism. The people
of Porto Rico were the large landowners, and the great mass of
field workers were not so much as counted. The wealth, education,
refinement, leisure, and all that wealth and leisure bring, were the
property of a single class and of the children and grandchildren of
that class. There was little opportunity for individuals from the
lowest or peon class to rise to a higher level.
Even at the present time the condition of the Porto Rican peon is
but little changed. His work is unskilled, he is easily replaced, and
there is no monopoly value attached to his labor. Between this
illiterate, though not necessarily unintelligent peon, working bare
legged in his only suit of cotton shirt and trousers, living with a large
family in a leaky one-roomed hut, earning an average of 50 cents for
each day that he works, on the one hand and his employer, a man of
property and education, on the other hand, there is nothing in com
806
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
mon. There are no steps of gradation by which the one class could
merge into or approach the other.
The invasion of Porto Rico by the Americans and the infusion of
American ideals into the life of the people have led to some slight change
in the attitude of the people toward work and toward the worker.
The sons of rich plantation owners are becoming more willing to
enter lucrative careers, though the professions are still unduly pre
ferred over agriculture and business. The Americans have, more
over, tended to strengthen somewhat the position of the workingman
b y giving him a vote, by defining his position before the law, and by
recognizing to a less extent than did the Spanish the difference
between the employer and employed. Nevertheless, even at the
present moment it is quite clear that the social and economic position
of the Porto Rican worker is low, that he is held in small esteem, that
there is a contempt for his work (a contempt not even disguised by
conventional phrases), and finally that the economic power and the
political influence of the workingman are extremely small.
To a considerable extent the former relationship between employer
and employee was conventional rather than contractual, being upon
the basis of a patriarchal and more or less benevolent despotism
on the part of the employer rather than a free relation entered into
by a contract between approximately equal parties. Wages were
fixed largely by custom and were fairly uniform in any given district
for the same industry. These wages, moreover, were only partly in
money, being supplemented by the grant of free lodging and often by
other gifts or grants.
This condition exists to a greater or less extent in the island at the
present time, although within recent years, and especially since the
agricultural strikes, the patriarchal attitude of employer to working
man is giving way and is being displaced b y a very different attitude
based on a more purely contractual relation. The attitude of the
employer at the present time is to secure labor as cheaply as possible
and of the workingman to obtain all the wages which he can possibly
secure. It is still customary, however, to permit or encourage agricul
tural laborers to live in huts or shacks upon the employer’s land. A
part of the wages are paid in kind, and usually the plantation owners
consider themselves more or less in the relation of masters rather than
employers, a state of feeling which, perhaps, prevails to a greater
extent among the Porto Rican than among the American employers
who have gone into the country. Many American plantation owners
have contributed to a slight extent to the welfare of their employees,
giving them somewhat better huts, and securing for them at times a
better supply of water. One American plantation owner regularly
has two policemen present when paying off in order to prevent his
men from immediately losing their wages to professional gamblers.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
807
There is still an attitude of surprise on the part of the landowners
when strikes occur on their plantations. The strike is regarded not
as a desire to contract collectively, not as a justifiable or even legal
attempt to alter the conditions of employment, but rather as a breach
of trust, and as a manifestation of ingratitude on the part of the
beneficiaries of the employer’s favor.
The lax conditions prevailing in agriculture are also to be found
surviving in industrial concerns. As a rule the high speed of the
American workingman does not prevail in the factories or the shops
of Porto Rico. Old men are retained in employment even when their
efficiency is considerably impaired. In a number of establishments
wages tend to remain fixed, and in some concerns the workingman
continues to be paid, even when sick for a few days. Except in a
very few concerns there is no rigid or exact calculation of labor and
other manufacturing costs, such as prevails in factories in the United
States.
LABOR ORGANIZATIONS.
The history of the working population of Porto Rico has been
such as to render it very difficult to organize it into labor unions.
So long as slavery existed it was manifestly impossible to build up
an organization of the workingmen of the island, and even after
the abolition of this institution the rigor of the law prevented any
considerable labor movement from coming into existence. The
character and traditions of the population make labor organization
difficult even now. The great mass of the workingmen belong to the
unskilled class, which even in countries like England and the United
States it has been found difficult to organize. In Porto Rico these
difficulties have been even greater. To the unskilled nature of the
work, and therefore to the ease with which striking workers could
be replaced, were added the additional difficulties of the extreme
poverty of the peons. To a peon earning a maximum of 50 cents
a day the payment of even moderate dues to a labor organization
involves a great sacrifice. A union composed of extremely poor
members can not be stronger than the material out of which it is
composed permits, and the worker’s very need of protection makes
it more difficult to protect him.
Moreover, the lack of education, and to a certain extent of intel
ligence, among the workers of Porto Rico tends to accentuate the
difficulties of organization. Being unable to read or write, the major
ity of workers can not be reached by means of pamphlets or printed
material of any sort, and owing to the cost of travel they are
unacquainted with their fellow workingmen in other parts of the
island. They are also unaccustomed to form unions, and are unfa
miliar with the methods in which unions of workingmen can best be
carried on.
808
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
A final difficulty in the way of the creation of trade unions was the
opposition of the former Government of the island. During Spanish
times formation of trade unions was of, at least, doubtful legality,
and any organized effort to effect this was looked upon as a plot or
conspiracy to increase wages, and was declared illegal. When in
the early part of 1902 an organizer of the American Federation of
Labor, Mr. Santiago Iglesias, attempted to organize unions in the
island and to affiliate them with similar organizations in the United
States he was arrested, together with seven other labor leaders, and
was tried by the San Juan district court for “ plotting to alter the
price of labor” and, together with his associates, was convicted.
The sentence of Santiago Iglesias was for four years and three
months, and that of each of the other labor leaders was for four
months. The court also declared the Federacion Libre, or Free
Federation, the Porto Rican branch of the American Federation
of Labor, illegal, and ordered it to be closed within twenty-four
hours. The decision called forth many protests, especially from
labor organizations, both in the United States and Porto Rico.
The decision was subsequently reversed b y the supreme court of
Porto Rico.
The following extract from the annual message of Governor Hunt
to the insular legislative assembly discusses the sentence imposed
upon the labor leaders, and summarizes the attitude of the Amer
ican administration toward the organization of labor:
The time seems ripe for the introduction of many changes in the
present laws. The full benefits of American system can only be
realized through legislation sweeping away un-American principles
and substituting American. A recent conviction under the present
penal code has brought into prominence several old laws. The
man was convicted o f the violation of the laws of “ Plots to alter
the price .of things.” The English translation of the Spanish Code
provides that “ those who wrongfully combine to enhance or lower
the price of labor or regulate its conditions wrongfully, provided
such combination has begun to be carried into effect, shall be pun
ished with the penalty of arresto mayor. This penalty shall be
imposed in its maximum degree on the leaders and promoters of
the combination, and on those who shall employ violence or threats
to insure its success, unless they deserve a higher penalty by reason
thereof.” It is said that this English translation is not correct, but
should read “ those who conspire to enhance or lower the price of
labor or regulate its conditions abusively ” etc. Whether the trans
lation is quite correct or not there is a difference of opinion as to the
scope of the law, one construction being that any combination to
raise or lower the price of labor or regulate its conditions, even if
only calculated to disturb market prices, is criminal, while the.other
view is that a combination becomes penal only when accompanied
by an attempt on the part of those who combine to prevent others
than themselves from working. It seems certain that as long as
the law stands as it is ambiguities as to its intent will exist, and
judges in the conscientious performance of judicial duty may pro
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
809
nounce judgments which are harsh and incompatible with American
statutes. The remedy lies with the lawmakers. There is no room
for lawlessness in Porto Rico, but the right to organize to secure
better wages by peaceable measures is perfectly lawful and con
sistent with good government. Ambition to better one’s condition
is intensely American, and oftentimes only gratified through organ
ized effort; and where the purpose of an organization is merely to
increase the profit of labor, or dignify its worth through peaceful
ways, a law which is susceptible of a construction forbidding the
execution of such purpose is unworthy of an American government
and should be abrogated.
According to the revised statutes and codes of Porto Rico labor
combinations are not in themselves unlawful. Section 553 of the
revised statutes says: “ The orderly and peaceable assembling or
cooperation of persons employed in any calling, trade, or handicraft
for the purpose of obtaining an advance in the rate of wages or com
pensation, or of maintaining such rate, shall not be unlawful, nor
shall it be unlawful for such persons to organize trade or labor
assemblies or unions for the purpose of bettering the mental and
material condition of the members thereof by lawful peaceable
means.” It is, moreover, made unlawful by section 465 of the
penal code to compel a workman to enter into an agreement not to
join a union as a condition of employment.
The trade unions of Porto Rico are organized on a basis similar
to that in the United States. The “ Federacidn Libre de los Trabajadores de Puerto Rico,” or, as it will henceforth be called, the
“ Federation” or the “ Porto Rican Federation,” is the central
organization in Porto Rico. It has as its object the uniting of
workmen of all classes and of all branches of manufacturing pro
duction, of arts and trades, of useful and liberal professions, of
agriculture, and the workmen and day laborers generally, as well
as proletarian employees of the State, and all others who in the
opinion of the workmen deserve to belong to the Federation. This
Federation, according to its constitution, recognizes that only by
organizing the workmen of the island into unions and then combining
their forces will it be possible to obtain naturally and rapidly their
economic and social emancipation and destroy forever the ignor
ance, the slavery of low wages, the tyranny of employers, the usury,
the corruption, the unjust and inhuman laws, and the other evils
which they consider as obstacles to the endeavors of the working
man. (a)
a The statement of these objects, as well as of the means by which they are to be
attained, is taken from the constitution of the Porto Rican Federation. The endeavor
has been made, as far as possible, to give a free translation of the constitution and rules
which are founded more or less obviously upon similar constitutions of trade unions in
the United States. The reader is referred to “ Reglamento de la Federacidn Libre de
los Trabajadores de Puerto Rico,” included in the pamphlet Federacidn Libre de los
Trabajadores de Puerto Rico. Su programa, leyes y cooperativas. San Juan, P. R,, 1903.
810
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR.
The Federation endeavors to form a reserve fund in every union
in order to struggle successfully for the legal objects of the Federa
tion, said objects being to secure from the capitalists the best possible
conditions with respect to the remuneration of labor as well as
the best treatment of the workingman in the factories, to regulate the
hours of labor until such time as the working-day shall not exceed
eight hours in all forms of work, and to create and sustain common
fraternal centers in all towns of the island for the purpose of exchang
ing ideas and impressions. The Federation also has the object of
raising the moral and intellectual level of the present and of future
generations of workingmen by securing from the State and munici
palities sufficient aid, including night schools, to enable the work
ingmen and their children to acquire the elemental knowledge which
will serve as a basis of their intellectual development. The Federa
tion also desires to establish cooperation, solidarity, and mutual
help, and to install workshops belonging to the Federation as a
means of improving the material conditions of the workingman. It
is the object of the Federation, following the policy of the American
Federation of Labor, to unite all workingmen not included in a
special trade union in the so-called federal or general unions, called
in Porto Rico “ Oficios Varios.”
The direction and administration of the Porto Rican Federation
is in charge of a central committee of delegates of all the unions.
The delegates are nominated or elected every six months in the
general meetings in all parts of the island.
The administrative body of the organization is divided into sec
tions, one of which takes charge of the internal organization of the
Federation, another of “ Instruction and Fine Arts,” another of finan
cial arrangements, and another of propaganda and troubles arising
between labor and capital. These sections or committees do not
decide finally but refer all matters for adjustment to the central com
mittee, whose actions are subject to the final decision of the assembly
o f all affiliated unions. The central committee is responsible to the
general assembly.
Every union composing the Federation is declared to be autonomous
in so far as matters pertaining to that union or to its members are
concerned.
The constitution provides that there shall be elected by every
union a directing council, which shall have charge of the administra
tion and direction of the material and moral interests of the organiza
tion. Eacn such union shall have its constitution, defining the duties
of its officials and the contributions and duties of its members.
These constitutions shall be submitted to the approval of the
unions in general congress, in the same manner as the constitu
tion of the Federation is submitted to its membership. Each of
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
811
these autonomous unions is supposed to defend and improve the
conditions of labor in the particular trade to which its members
belong, and to perform the duties and carry out the purposes common
to trade unions in general. Each union shall meet at least once
each month.
When any union requires the assistance of the other unions affiliated
with the Federation, it shall petition the central committee of the
organization to convoke immediately a general assembly of the
unions, with the purpose that this assembly take action in the interest
of the petitioning union. Where the decision is adverse to it, the
petitioning union reserves its liberty of action in reference to the
question or controversy in which it is engaged. It is provided that
each union shall maintain a reserve fund to* relieve the distress of its
members in the event of contests, as well as for the creation of the
spirit of solidarity among all of the unions. The constitution of the
Federation defines exactly the powers and duties of the treasurer, the
secretary, and the central committee. These powers and duties are
not dissimilar from those usually attached to the offices in question.
The constitution also provides for periodical meetings of the unions
and of the Federation, and provides for the question of extraordinary
expenses, and for the right of appeal to the central committee, and for
other questions which may arise among the unions.
The constitution of the Federation was discussed by the assembly
of unions in San Juan in November, 1898, and was certified to by the
insular government of Porto Rico on August 24, 1900.
The Federation is formed upon a basis in many respects similar to
that of the American Federation of Labor. Like the latter, it is a
federation of unions which are autonomous, and it is directed by a
general assembly elected by the unions composing it. The ultimate
source of authority in the Federation, as in the American Federation
of Labor, is thus the unions themselves, and, according to the theory
of government, the entire policy of the organization is directed, not
b y a central body, but by the several unions, with powers of selfgovernment for themselves, and jointly controlling the central body.
There is, however, one point of difference between the Federation
and the American Federation of Labor. The latter organization
arose as a result of a joint action of unions already existing, whereas
in Porto Rico the Federation was created at the same time, or before,
the unions which were to form its component parts. In other words,
the development in Porto Rico may be said to have begun with the
Federation instead of, as in the United States, with the various
unions desiring to form a federation.
In Porto Rico there are seven general districts for the unions, cor
responding to the seven governmental districts. The organizations
in the island are of three classes— the local unions, comprising the
812
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
members of a single trade in a single locality; the central unions,
corresponding on a small scale to our national organizations, including
the local unions of a given trade in the entire island; and, finally,
the Federacion Libre, comprising the central unions of all trades in
the entire island.
In March, 1905, there were 123 unions in Porto Rico affiliated with
the Federation, and through it with the American Federation of
Labor. Sixteen of these unions were in Bayamon, 10 being in San
Juan, 1 in Manati, 1 in Vega Baja, 3 in Carolina, and 1 in Rio Grande;
20 were in the department of Ponce, 15 being in the city of Ponce, 1 in
Penuelas, 2 in Juana Diaz, 1 in Santa Isabel, and 1 in Yauco; 11
were in the department of Mayaguez, 10 being in Mayaguez proper
and 1 in San German; 34 were in the department of Arecibo, 28 in
Arecibo proper, and 6 in Utuado. In the department of Guayama
there were 18,8 being in the city of Guayama, 3 in Arroyo, 3 in Salinas,
1 in Caguas, and 3 in San Lorenzo. There were 8 in the department of
Aguadilla; of which number 5 were in Aguadilla itself, 1 in Aguada,
1 in San Sebastian, and 1 in Lares. There were finally 16 in the depart
ment of Humacao, of which 2 were in Humacao, 7 in Yabucoa, 1 in
Fajardo, 3 in Patillas, and 3 in Maunabo. These unions include
organizations of carpenters, tobacco workers, cooks, women workers,
masons, day laborers, bakers, sailors, bricklayers, coachmen, black
smiths, coopers, tailors, cutters, dock workers, shoemakers, barbers,
agricultural laborers, coffee sorters, painters, etc., as well as miscel
laneous unions composed of workmen of various trades, and compar
able with the federal unions of the United States.
The Federacion Libre issues a monthly journal, published in
Spanish and English, called the “ Porto Rico Workingmen’s Journal.”
The union of carpenters and joiners in Porto Rico is affiliated with
the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners in the United
States, which is in turn affiliated with the American Federation of
Labor. The constitution of the Porto Rican union is printed in
Spanish and in English. It has 86 members, has an initiation fee of
$5, and monthly dues fluctuating between 30 cents and 40 cents.
The membership of the union consists of regular members, between
the ages of 21 and 50, half members ol the age of 50 or upwards, and
apprentices between the ages of 18 and 21. The regular members
earn $1.50 and $1.75 per day. The older men earn from 75 cents to
$1.25 per day. Some of the members are paid by the piece and some
by the day or week. Frequently members are paid fortnightly, and
sometimes, though very seldom, by the month. Payment to union
members is always made in American money. It is claimed by the
union that on plantations in various parts of the island, carpenters
are given chips of wood, metal checks, or pieces of pasteboard, which
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
813
are redeemable in merchandise at the plantation stores; but no such
payment is ever made in San Juan or to members of the local organi
zations. No deductions are made from payments, and there are no
bonuses or extra payments. The wages now paid are $1.50 to $1.75
per day, American money. The work day at the present time fluctu
ates between 8 and 10 hours. In the Government shops the working
day is 8 hours.
During the last five years there have been two strikes. One of
these took place for a reduction in the hours of work, and another
occurred in consequence of the change in the currency. (a)
The Porto Rican local of the International Typographical Union
was formed at the close of 1901, as a result of the work of the organizer
of the American Federation of Labor, Mr. Santiago Iglesias. There
was a preliminary meeting held on December 26, 1901, at which the
principles and methods of the American labor movement were
explained. A second meeting was held on January 2, 1902, at
which all the printers of San Juan were present. A few days later
over 20 printers signified their intention to become members of the
International Union and a charter was asked for and subsequently
obtained. The first report of the Porto Rican local union to the
International Typographical Union was made in July, 1904.
The San Juan local of the International Longshoremen, Marine
and Transport Workers’ Association claims a membership of 60.
It follows the constitution of the American organization, with which
it is affiliated. According to a report made to the author by the local
secretary of the organization, the general dues during the last year
amounted to $38.05 for the entire union. The workmen are divided
according to several grades; the foreman is paid by the piece and the
manual workers are paid an average of 15 cents an hour. There are
no deductions for fines or otherwise and the men are paid in money.
There are no extra payments or bonuses. The wages 12 years ago
were stated to have been $2 in Spanish money a day. The hours
of work are 11 per day. It is claimed that there is a great lack of
work among the unions, and it is even stated that the members of
the unions receive but one or two days’ work per week. No esti
mate could be made of the number of weeks’ work per year, but it is
generally stated that there is little work and especially for the union
members. There has been (June, 1905) no strike in this organi
zation for five years. (b)
«'Verbal and written statements by Zoilo Betancourt, secretary.
&This information, given by Roman Tuentas, the secretary of the organization, was
obtained verbally, and was subsequently reduced to writing.
814
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OP LABOR.
PRESENT TENDENCIES.
The immediate influence of the American occupation upon the con
dition of the Porto Rican workingman is, upon the whole, a beneficial
one. The declaration of free trade between the United States and
Porto Rico, and the consequent granting to the island of a preferred
position, with regard to its exports, meant an increased prosperity
to the new insular possession of the United States. This prosperity
has come largely to the sugar and tobacco industries, and will, proba
bly, to an equal extent benefit those who are engaged or who will be
engaged in the production and shipment of fruits. In the coffee
industry, the depression which already existed in 1898, has been
deepened by the American occupation. The acquisition of Porto
Rico by the United States did not mean the opening of any new
market for Porto Rican coffee, since even before that time coffee was
admitted free to the United States; on the contrary, it meant a short
ening of the European market, with the result of a further deteriora
tion in the condition of the coffee planter. As coffee was in 1898
the principal crop of the island, this deterioration has tended to
offset the beneficent influence of American occupation upon the sugar
and tobacco industries.
There can be no doubt, however, despite the present adverse con
ditions that the general trend in Porto Rico, in so far as it affects the
real owners of property, is upward. Exports are increasing, capital
is flowing into the country at a fairly rapid rate, and new industries
are being started. The price of land, especially in the sugar and
fruit districts, has rapidly advanced and will no doubt continue to
do so. To what extent, however, this improvement has filtered
down to the laboring population is somewhat problematical. Upon
the whole, wages seem to have risen along the coast lands— that is,
if we compare present wages in American money with former wages
in provincial money reduced to the American gold standard. But
since prices (measured in the same way) have also risen, the increase
in money wages is largely apparent and the real benefit accruing to
the working classes even in the coast lands is less than might appear
upon the surface. The labor conditions in the coffee district are
much worse than they were prior to the American occupation,
although most of this deterioration has been due to causes other
than the American occupation itself.
Outside of the effect upon wages, there are other indications of an
improvement in the conditions of the working classes of the island.
There can be no doubt that upon the whole the American adminis
tration of the island is more directly aimed at the advancement of
the people than was the Spanish administration even at its best.
The sanitation of the island is being improved and education is
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
815
being extended to at least a considerable minority of the Porto
Ricans. Moreover, for the first time an effort is being made to root
out the disease of anemia and to increase thereby the industrial
efficiency of the population.
When, however, we look at the deeper influences at work at the
present time, it is difficult to be very optimistic concerning the future
labor conditions in Porto Rico. The fundamental conditions under
which the workmen live have not been and could not have been
materially altered, and it is doubtful whether the tendencies now at
work will ever permit of a rapid and continuous progression of the
workingman, or of a steady and permanent bettering of his standard
of living.
There are many reasons for not anticipating a rapid and radical
improvement. In the first place, Porto Rico is essentially an agri
cultural country. Its natural resources are all agricultural, and
it has neither the geographical position nor the resources of iron and
coal to permit it ever to become a great manufacturing country.
The small manufacturing industries which formerly existed on the
island have tended rather to diminish than to increase as a result of
the American occupation. Free trade with the United States means
the importation of articles manufactured more economically upon a
large scale to take the place of articles formerly manufactured by
hand or by simple tools on a small scale. While it is possible, and
even probable, that a considerable industry will grow up in the mak
ing of cigars and in the canning of fruits, it seems reasonable to think
that the country will remain permanently in an agricultural state.
It is moreover practically inevitable, from the tendencies now
observable, that a large proportion of the laboring population will
belong for many decades, if not permanently, to the peon class.
There is no room in the industry of the island for large numbers of
skilled men. Most of the work to be performed upon the sugar,
coffee, and tobacco plantations is the rudest agricultural labor, and
the great mass of the population will necessarily be employed at
these tasks. Conditions as they now exist tend rather to lessen the
hold of the peon upon his land. The enormously increased pros
perity in sugar culture, as well as the growth of larger estates and
the increasing custom of grinding sugar in huge central factories,
causes the real unit of production rapidly to increase. To be eco
nomically operated, a sugar mill requires the output of several thou
sands of acres; and while the ownership of these acres may for a
considerable time remain in the hands of separate owners, the lands
must be cultivated in a joint manner and practically as a single
operation.
It is obviously impossible that a peon earning 50 to 60 cents a day
during the season can ever secure a sugar plantation or an interest
276—No. 61—06
M -----7
816
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR
in a sugar plantation. The rise in the value of land, moreover, will
tend, both in the sugar districts and elsewhere, to separate the peon
more completely from the soil. The former system of permitting
the peon workman to squat upon his employer’s land and to culti
vate an acre or two for himself seems now to be giving way with
the increase in the value of the land and the necessity for its better
utilization. It can not too often be repeated that Porto Rico is not a
new country with valuable virgin fields, but a thickly populated
region, where land brings higher prices than in most parts of the
eastern States of the United States. W ith the rise in the value of
the land, therefore, it is extremely probable that the peons who have
no land will be unable to secure it, and those who now possess small
patches will be persuaded to sell.
There can be no doubt that the demand for labor on the island
of Porto Rico will increase for some time, and that with an
increased demand for labor wages will tend for the time being to
rise. This increased demand for labor has already shown itself in
the sugar and tobacco industries, and there is even in the coffee
industry a demand for labor larger than that of a few years ago.
I f the Porto Rican planters succeed in securing a large market for
their coffee in the United States, either b y convincing Americans of
the excellence of their product or b y obtaining a more favored treat
ment in the shape of a duty upon coffee grown in countries not under
American jurisdiction, the result will be a larger product, a fuller
utilization of the land, a greater demand for labor, and larger annual
earnings for the workmen of that district. Even without a marked
improvement in the coffee industry, there are evidences that for
some years the demand for labor will continue to increase and to
absorb a certain proportion of the oversupply of labor existing on
the island.
Not only do the present tendencies indicate the permanency of an
agricultural population without ownership of land, but it also seems
probable that the oversupply of labor which now obtains, and which
depresses wages to so low a point, will continue to e^ist, unless
fundamental changes occur in the conditions of the Porto Rican’s
life and in the character of the population.
The low standard of living of the Porto Rican workingman, and the
consequent ability of a huge population to live in the cheapest con
ceivable manner, permits the great mass of the rural workers to propa
gate without thought of consequences. The population lives close to
the soil, and tends to increase with the naturalness and rapidity of a
people with no demands upon life except to live. Sexual unions
take place at an early age and are very fruitful. Throughout the
country districts little restraint is put upon marriage, either legal
or natural. In spite of the high death rate among children, and with
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
817
little immigration from other countries, the population which in 1887
amounted to 221 per square mile increased by 1899 to 264 per square
mile.
There is no reason to believe that this rapid increase of the popula
tion, which has grown from 70,250 in 1775 to 953,243 in 1899, will not
continue. The country is already overpopulated according to Amer
ican standards, but in comparison with certain West Indian posses
sions it is still almost an unsettled district. The population of Bar
bados, for instance, amounts to 1,207 inhabitants per square mile.
While Porto Rico is much more thickly populated than either Haiti
or Cuba, it has not yet reached the limit of increase, nor has the ulti
mate pressure which will be exerted by these multitudes been yet
attained. (a)
In the past Porto Rico has been a country of absentee ownership.
A large part of the property of the island was owned by Spaniards
residing in Spain, and the island was exploited in the interest of these
owners. The present tendencies do not lead one to expect any funda
mental change in these conditions. Even at the present time a large
part of the property of the island belongs to absentee Spaniards. “ It
is probably true,” says ex-Governor Hunt, “ that Spaniards own the
greater part of the taxable property of the island; hence they consti
tute a powerful and influential portion of the community.” “ A t
present,” he continues, “ Porto Rico suffers the disadvantages of
absenteeism with landlords who willfully impede the success of the
Government which protects their property.” (6)
While there is no means of verifying the estimate of Governor Hunt
that more than one-half of the taxable property of the island is in the
hands of Spaniards, there can be no doubt that a considerable portion
of it is thus owned. The whole tendency, moreover, is for the
Spaniards, and latterly the Americans, to acquire the property of
the country. Americans are investing largely in sugar plantations,
fruit plantations, street railways, etc., and the real owners remain in
the United States, although the foremen are Americans resident in
the island. As a consequence, it seems probable that the increase
in wealth which may come to the island in the shape of preferential
tariff rates will not to a great extent remain in the island, but will
be paid out to nonresidents.
a The population of Porto Rico is still less dense than that of several European countries.
As compared with a density of 264 inhabitants to the square mile for Porto Rico in 1899, the
German Empire has a population of 270 to the square mile; Italy, 293; the United King
dom, 343; Holland,429, and Belgium,589. China with a population of 266 to the square mile
and Japan with a density of 317, also have a more thickly settled territory. It must be noted,
however, that the European countries herein compared are largely manufacturing communi
ties, which draw upon other less densely settled countries for much of their food and raw
materials.
&Fourth Annual Report of the Governor of Porto Rico from July 1,1903, to June 30,1904,
pages 10 and 11.
818
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
This tendency toward nonresident ownership seems, upon the
whole, to be upon the increase. Even many of the Porto Ricans who
own large estates spend large portions of their money and leisure in
the United States or in Europe, while the profits upon Spanish and
American enterprises go to Spain and the United States. W ith the
low rates of wages, caused largely by the excessive and ever-increasing
population and by the unskilled character of the work, the conditions
of the workingmen and other residents are not improved in a com
mensurate degree by an increase of the prosperity of land owners who
do not reinvest their earnings in the island.
In attempting to improve the conditions of the majority of the
Porto Rican population, the American people will meet with many
difficulties and much discouragement. Absentee ownership must
inevitably create a body of influential men who will look upon the
native population merely as cheap labor and will stand in the way of
any effort to educate them or improve their status. On the other
hand, an aggressive and progressive educational policy may meet with
listlessness and inertia, if not with active opposition on the part of
large numbers of the native population.
If the idea of raising the Porto Rican to a higher standard of living
and thought is to succeed, it will be only by persistent effort in the face
of these difficulties. The naive conception of a' decade ago, the
belief that civilization would immediately follow the flag and that
the poverty, the misery, and all the inheritance of centuries of mis
rule, would pass away with the Spanish domination, must give place to
a fixed determination to carry out a difficult progressive programme.
Even a lack of appreciation of such efforts by the Porto Rican peon
should not deter from persistent effort, since it will be necessary not
only to improve material conditions, but equally to create a demand
in the minds of the laboring classes of Porto Rico for such improve
ment. The very lack of appreciation on the part of large numbers of
the Porto Ricans would be the strongest argument for the necessity
of such work.
Such a policy of improving the conditions of the Porto Rican popu
lation, or what is almost the same thing, of the great mass of the Porto
Rican laborers, will necessarily rim counter to the interests of many
individuals— Spanish and American— financially interested in the
island. While it is necessary to encourage the investment of foreign
capital in the industries of Porto Rico, this policy ought not to be
carried out to the extent of depriving the native population of its
chance of material and moral progress. Many of the absentee owners
of Porto Rican properties and many of their agents resident in Porto
Rico consider the island and its population as equally fit for the
crassest exploitation, and are as contemptuous of the people as they
are enthusiastic about the island. The current use by many Ameri
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
819
cans of an opprobrious epithet for Porto Ricans, bespeaks an attitude
which takes no account of the human phase of the problem, but con
siders the population as composed merely of so many laborers willing
to work for such and such a price.
The programme which the American people must carry out in order
to live up to the theory under which the island was acquired and to
improve the conditions of the laboring and other population of the
island, is necessarily an extensive one. If the condition of the
people is ever to be raised to a standard at all comparable with that
prevailing in the United States, the people must be educated and the
sanitary conditions improved, civil and political rights guaranteed
and extended, and the condition of the workingman amply protected
by law. The American people should recognize that they owe a duty
to the Porto Ricans, and that they can not permit the welfare of the
population for which they have accepted responsibility to be deter
mined b y accident or by conflicts of interests. The American people
must, if they are to raise the standard of the Porto Rican peons,
continue to prosecute the work of education upon the island, no
matter how severe the financial drain. It is equally essential to
carry out a programme of sanitation which will guarantee to every
Porto Rican infant the chance to five its allotted life.
The power of the Porto Rican peons to insist upon fair and reason
able conditions of labor is, and for decades if not generations will con
tinue to be, far less than that of the workmen of the United States,
or of the countries of western Europe. It is not probable, under
present conditions and without the benefit of progressive education,
that the peons of the country will be able to obtain more favorable
terms of employment and more reasonable conditions of labor with
out the intervention in some way of governmental authority. The
demands of the peons for better conditions of labor will be in direct
opposition to the interests of those who may insist that they are of a
low type, just as their demands for education may be opposed on the
ground that their work must remain unskilled.
If, by means of education, by means of improved means of communi
cation, by means of a free press, and of assemblages and meetings and
conventions, and of fairs and entertainments that will bring the
people together, the standard of living of the men, and especially of
the women of Porto Rico, is once raised; if the demands on life made
by this people become sufficiently great to prevent the population
from assuming marital responsibilities with its present recklessness;
if, moreover, the resources of the country are exploited more wisely
and the peon himself be assured of the ownership of at least a patch of
land and be taught to utilize it economically, the conditions of life and
labor of the great mass of the Porto Rican population may be per
manently improved. Such an improvement, however, will be difficult
820
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
and slow, and will be evident only as measured by decades or genera
tions, and not by years. If, however, the island be utilized merely or
primarily as a means of providing opportunities for investment and
commercial exploitation by American citizens; if the policy of edu
cating the people be held up on account of its expense and alleged
uselessness; if the standard of living of the people be not raised, the
condition of Porto Rico and of the Porto Rican laboring class after
one hundred or two hundred years will be no better than it was in
the year 1898, when the sovereignty of Spain gave way to the domin
ion of the United States of America.
APPEN D IX.
The tables following give respectively the wages and hours of labor
of males employed in railroad transportation in 1897,1902, and 1905,
and the wages and hours of labor of employees in various industries,
in 1905, by occupations and localities. The data which went to make
up these tables were collected in Porto Rico during the progress of the
investigation for this report. These tables are followed by the laws
relating to labor in Porto Rico.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF MALES EMPLOYED IN RAILROAD
TRANSPORTATION, 1897, 1902, AND 1905.
Occupation.
Number of
employees.
Days per week.
Hours per week.
1897. 1902. 1905. 1897. 1902. 1905. 1897. 1902. j 1905.
Agents, station...................................................
Blacksmiths.......................... .............................
B oilermakers......................................................
Carpenters...........................................................
Clerks...................................................................
Conductors.........................................................
Engineers............................................................
Firemen...............................................................
Fitters.................................................................
Flagmen..............................................................
Freight handlers................................................
Hostlers, locomotive.........................................
Inspectors...........................................................
Laborers..............................................................
Machinists...........................................................
Mechanic’s apprentices......................................
Mechanic’ s helpers.............................................
Painters...............................................................
Switchmen.................................................. ; ___
Turners................................................................
W atchmen...........................................................
Water station tenders.......................................
22
10
2
14
32
5
10
10
6
9
3
1
23
5
15
5
6
13
3
4
2
24
4
3
13
30
6
15
16
14
1
19
4
1
25
3
3
5
2
10
3
8
6
34
14
4
16
59
25
27
40
18
4
19
6
2
42
7
17
19
3
19
5
16
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6'
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
(0>7
7
7
6
7
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
7
7
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
84
60
60
60
84
84
60
84
84
84
60
60
60
60
60
60
84
60
84
84
« Twenty-one persons work 6 days and 38 persons work 7 days per week.
b Thirteen persons work 48 hours, 8 persons work 60 hours, ana 38 persons work 84 hours per week.
821
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO,
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF MALES EMPLOYED IN RAILROAD
TRANSPORTATION, 1897, 1902, AND 1905—Concluded.
Wages per day.
Per cent of
increase (+ ) or
decrease ( —) in
1905 as com
1902
1905
Equiva (United
(United pared with 1897
lent in
equivalent
in
States
States
United money).
money). United States
States
money.
money.
1897.
Occupation.
Agents, station..................................................
Blacksmiths........................................................
Boilermakers......................................................
Carpenters..........................................................
Clerks...................................................................
Conductors.........................................................
Engineers............................................................
Firemen...............................................................
Fitters.................................................................
Flagmen..............................................................
Freight handlers................................................
Hostlers, locom otive.........................................
Inspectors...........................................................
Laborers..............................................................
Machinists...........................................................
Mechanic’s apprentices.....................................
Mechanic’ s helpers.............................................
Painters..............................................................
Switchmen.......................................................... !
Turners................................................................ '
Watchmen...........................................................j|
Water station tenders.......................................
Provin
cial
money
(silver
pesos).
30.00 ®$21.60
2.00
1.44
2.50
1.80
1.50
1.08
a 25.16 ®18.12
®40.00 a 28.80
a 50.00 a 36.00
a 35.00 ®25.20
2.50
1.80
a
a 16.00
a 30.00
a 38.00
.75
2.50
.15
.80
c. 10
®15.00
1:25
®21.75
® 16.00
®$30.00
2.15
&$40.00
1.75
1.60
«29.67
o 40.00
o40.00
o 30.00
1.75
0 8 .OO
O20.00
c. 16
a36.86
<235.00
« 50.00
*35.00
1.75
O20.00
o25.00
o 75.00
.60
/60.00
.75
2.00
®11.52
®21.60
o27.36
.54
1.80
1.20
2.00
.20
.11
.58
c.072
0 10.80
.90
ol5.66
0 11.52
.60
1.00
01 6.00
1.50
ol5.81
01 6 .00
2.00
1.20
2.20
.40
.60
1.75
9 30.00
1.75
0 24.29
o25.00
+ 85.2
+ 21.5
+ 11.1
+ 48.1
+103.4
+ 21.5
+ 38.9
+ 38.9
- 2.8
+117.0
+ 44.9
+119.3
+ 38.9
+ 22.2
+263.6
+ 3.4
+143.1
+177.8
+ 94.4
+ 55.1
+117.0
Wages per hour.
Per cent of
increase ( + ) or
decrease ( —) in
1905 as com
1902
1905
Equiva (United
(United pared with 1897
lent in
equivalent
in
States
States
United money).
money). United States
States
money.
money.
1
1897.
Occupation.
Agents, station..................................................
Blacksmiths........................................................
Boilermakers......................................................
Carpenters..........................................................
Clerks...................................................................
Conductors.........................................................
Engineers............................................................
Firemen...............................................................
Fitters.................................................................
Flagmen..............................................................
Freight handlers................................................
Hostlers, locomotive.........................................
Inspectors...........................................................
Laborers..............................................................
Machinists..........................................................
Mechanic’ s apprentices.....................................
Mechanic’ s helpers.............................................
Painters...............................................................
Switchmen..........................................................
Turners...............................................................
Watchmen..........................................................
Water station tenders.......................................
Provin
cial
money
(silver
pesos).
0.1150
.2000
.2500
.1500
.0964
.1534
.1917
.1342
.2500
.0613
.1150
.1457
.0750
.2500
.0150
.0800
.1000
.0575
.1250
.0834
.0613
$0.0828
.1440
.1800
.1080
.0695
.1104
.1380
.0966
.1800
.0442
.0828
.1049
.0540
.1800
.0110
.0580
.0720
.0414
.0900
.0600
.0442
$0.1150 A$0.1096
.2150
.1750
.2000
.1600
.1138
.1534
.1534
.1150
.1750
.0307
.0767
.1200
.2875
.0600
.2000
.0200
.2000
.1600
.1318
. 0959
i . 1370
L0959
.1750
.0548
.0685
i
.1000
*.2300
.0750
.2200
.0600
.1000
.0613
.1500
.0606
.0613
l
.0400
.0600
.1750
.0822
.1750
.0691
.0685
+ 32.4
+ 21.5
+ 11.1
+ 48.1
+ 89.6
- 13.1
— .7
— .7
- 2.8
+ 55.0
+ 20.8
+119.3
+ 38.9
+ 22.2
+263.6
+ 3.4
+143.1
+ 98.6
+ 94.4
+ 15.2
+ 55.0
® Per month.
6 Per month, and house rent; in San Juan, Mayaguez, Arecibo, and Ponce estimated at $20 per month;
in other sections at $8 to $10 per month.
c Per hour.
d Per month* and while on the road, allowance of 50 cents per day for food, averaging $8 per month.
« Per month; including bonus of 10 per cent of wages, paid for saving fuel.
/ Per month; and while on the road, allowance of 75 cents per day for food, averaging $10 per month.
9 Per month; and house rent, estimated at $2 per month.
* And house rent; in San Juan, Mayaguez, Arecibo, and Ponce estimated at $ 2 0 per month; in other
sections at $8 to $10 per month.
i And while on the road, allowance of 50 cents per day for food, averaging $8 per month.
i Including bonus of 10 per cent of wages, paid for saving fuel.
* And while on the road, allowance of 75 cents per day for food, averaging $10 per month.
i And house rent, estimated at $2 per month.
822
BULLETIN OF T H E BUBEAU OF LABOR.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES.
BAKERIES.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Establish- Emment ploynumber.
Apprentices:
Ponce....................
San Juan..............
Bakers, first hand:
Ponce....................
3
San Juan..............
2
Bakers, second hand:
Ponce....................
San Juan.
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
2
2
2
2
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Porto Rican.
4
1
1
1
M.
2
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
4
1
M.
Spanish........
1
4
1
6
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
4
1
1
1
2
2
4
Confectioner’s assist
ant:
San Juan................
Deliverymen:
San Juan................
Pastry cook:
San Juan................
Salesmen:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Nationality.
4
4
3
Days Hours Hours
per
er per
week.
week.
ly.
7
7
7
7
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
8
8
$0.25 per day........ $0.25
$3 per month (&).. &.11*
(a )
fa)
fa)
fa)
fa)
$3 per d a y ...
$1.50 per day.
$1AO per day.
$2.25 per day.
3.00
1.50
1.50
2.25
$1.50 per day..
$1 per d ay----$0.62$ per day.
$1 per d ay----$0.75 per day..
$1 per d ay ___
1.50
1.00
(a)
$16 per month (c) .
c .52$
$
$
$11 per m onth............. 36
$14 per month fa) . d . 46
<«)
fa)
(a)
(<*)
(a)
<°)
$25 per month (c) .
.75
1.00
c.82
$0.50 per day................50
$10 per month fa) . d .33
$
BARBER SHOP.
Barbers:
San Juan................
5
5
5
1
1
1
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6$
6$
6i
12
12
12
78
78
78
$25 per month.
$15 per month.
$12 per month.
$0.
BOARDING-HOUSE SERVICE.
Cook, chief:
San Juan................
Cooks:
San Juan................
Dishwasher:
San Juan................
Housemaid:
San Juan................
Laundresses:
San Juan................
Scrubber:
San Juan................
Waiter:
San Juan................
7
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
13$
94$ $45 per month («). «$1.48
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
7
13$
13
94$ $16 per month (/) .
91 $12 per month fa) .
/ . 52$
«.39$
/.16$
7
6
2
1
M.
P.
6
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
13
91
$5 per month ( / ) . .
6
1
F.
Porto Rican.
7
13
91
$7 per monthfa) ..
e
7
3
F.
Porto Rican.
7
10
70
$5 per month (/) ..
/.16$
6
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
13
91
$4 per month (/) ..
/.1 3
6
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
13
91
$8 per m onth(/) ..
/ .26$
9
9
9
9
9
54
54
54
54
54
11,8ft par day
$1.80
1.80
1.50
2.50
1.80
.23
BUILDING TRADES.
Carpenters:
R io Piedras............
San Juan................
Vieques Isla n d ___
Foreman, carpenters:
San Juan................
8
9
9
10
10
9
1
11
3
1
3
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
11.80 p er d a y
$1.50 per day........
$2.50 per day........
$1.80 per day........
1 M. Porto Rican.
6
9
54 $2.25 per day........
a Irregular.
6 And board, estimated by employer at $6 per month,
c And board, estimated by employer at $10 per month.
& And board and lodging, estimated b y employer at $12 per month.
« And board.
/A n d board and lodging.
2.25
823
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
BUILDING- TRADES—Concluded.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
day. week.
num
ber.
Foreman, general:
Vieques Islan d ___
Foreman, masons:
Rio Piedras............
Laborers:
Rio Pedras.............
San Juan................
Vieques Island____
Masons:
Rio Piedras...........
San Juan................
Vieques Island.......
Mortar mixers:
R io Piedras............
Vieques Island.___
Painters:
Vieques Island.___
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
10
1
M.
American___
6
9
54
$5 per d ay ............. $5.00
8
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$2.50 per d ay........
2.50
8
9
10
10
12
3
2
11
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
54
54
54
54
$0.72 per d ay........
$0.72 per day........
$0.90 per day........
$0.72 per d ay........
.72
.72
.90
.72
8
8
9
9
10
10
10
4
10
1
2
3
4
2
M.
M.
M.
M
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
$2.00 per d ay........
$1.80 per day........
$2 per d ay.............
$1.8) per d ay........
$2.25 per day.........
$2 per d ay.............
$1.80 per d ay........
2.00
1.80
2.00
1.80
2.25
2.00
1.80
8
10
2
2
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
9
9
54
54
$0.90 per day........
$0.90 per day........
.90
.90
10
10
1
2
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
9
9
54
54
$2 per d ay.............
$1.80 per d ay........
2.00
1.80
CIGAR MAKING.
Banders:
Areeibo...
Bookkeepers:
Areeibo...
San Juan...........
Bookkeeper, assistant:
San Juan................
B ox stampers, ciga
rettes:
San Juan...........
Bundlers, cigars:
San Juan...........
Carpenters:
Ban Juan...........
Casers:
San Juan...........
Cashier:
San Juan...........
Cigarette
machine
cleaners:
San Juan...........
Cigarette machine op
erators:
San Juan...........
Cigar makers:
Areeibo..............
Bayamon.
Ponce.—
11
8
F.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$0.25 per day........ $0.25
$75 per m onth___
$20 per week.........
2.87J
3.334
11
14
1
1
M.
M.
Spanish.........
Porto Rican.
6
6
9
9
54
54
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$15 per week.........
2.50
14
6
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$0.01 per 1,000.......
a . 40
14
6
M.
(*)
6
8
48
$0.05 per 1,000.......
( c)
14
3
M.
Porto Rican.
3
8
24
$1.50 per day.........
1.50
14
14
8
11
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
(6)
6
6
9
8
54
48
$1 per d ay.............
$0.80 per day........
1.00
.80
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$15 per week.........
2.50
14
3
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10.50 per d ay........
.50
(d )
(d )
14
8
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$0.05 per 1,000....... a 2.084
11
11
11
11
11
12
12
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
15
24
15
22
67
290
10
1
1
2
5
2
1
1
1
5
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
(*0
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
54
54
54
54
54
$13 per 1,000..........
$8 per 1,000............
$7 per 1,000............
$4.50 per 1,000.......
$5 per 1,000...........
$4.50 per 1,000.......
$7.50 per 1,000.......
$22.50 per 1,000....
$17 per 1,000..........
$14 per 1,000..........
$8 per 1,000...........
$12.50 per 1,000___
$7.50 per 1,000.......
$6.50 per 1,000.......
$6 per 1,000______
$4 per 1,000...........
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
(d )
<*)
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
(d )
(d )
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
• Estimated.
b Principally Porto Ricans.
« N ot reported.
<*Irregular.
* Earnings vary from $0.64 to $1 per day, according to speed.
a 1.95
®1.20
a 1.05
a . 90
a . 80
a 1.20
<*1.20
o2.814
0 2.124
ol.40
ol.36
ol.25
o 1.20
ol.04
o.96
(«)
824
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES-Continued.
C I G A R M A K I N G —Continued.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Cigar makers—Cont’d.
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Classers, wrappers:
Arecibo...................
San Juan................
Clerks:
Arecibo...................
San Juan................
Driers:
Arecibo...................
San Juan................
Elevator boy:
San Juan................
Engineer:
San Juan................
Fireman:
San Juan................
Foreman,
cigarette
machine operators:
San Juan................
Foremen, factory:
Arecibo...................
Bayam on...............
San Juan................
Foreman, factory, as
sistant:
Arecibo...................
Foreman, laborers:
A recibo...................
Foreman, leaf classers:
San Juan................
Foreman, packers, cig
arettes :
San Juan................
Foreman, packing and
shipping dept.:
Arecibo...................
Foreman, sorters, ci
gars:
San Juan................
Foremen, strippers:
San Juan................
Foreman, warehouse:
San Juan................
Laborers:
Arecibo...................
Bayam on...............
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Manager:
Arecibo...................
Messengers:
San Juan................
Office boy:
San Juan................
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
day. week.
num
ber.
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
13
13
14
6
69
300
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
«
6
6
(<0
9
9
9
54
54
(0
11
11
14
2
2
20
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
(<*)
6
6
6
9
9
g
54
54
48
$8 per week........... $1.33$
$6 per week........... 1.00
$2 per day ........... 2.00
11
14
14
14
1
2
1
2
M.
M.
M.
M.
French..........
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
54
54
48
54
$12 per week.........
$15 per week.........
$12.50 per w eek ...
$10 per week.........
2.00
2.50
2.08$
1. 66$
11
14
1
20
M.
M.
Spanish........
6
6
9
8
54
48
$8 per week...........
$0.70 per day(ft) . .
1.33$
ft. 70
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$1 per d ay .............
1.00
14
1
M.
American___
6
8
48
$20 per week.........
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$12 per week.........
2.00
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$30 per week.........
5.00
11
12
14
1
2
2
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
9
9
9
54
54
54
$20 per week.........
$15 per week.........
$15 per week.........
3.33$
2.50
2.50
1.33$
(d )
8
$3.50 per 1,000.......
$2.50 per 1,000.......
(0
a
w
11
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$8 per week...........
11
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$8 per week...........
1.33$
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$16 per week.........
2. 66$
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$12 per week.........
2.00
11
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$27 per week.........
4.50
14
1
M.
Spanish.........
6
8
48
$30 per week.........
5.00
14
4
M.
(*)
6
8
48
$12 per week.........
2.00
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$20 per week......... '3.33$
11
12
13
13
13
13
14
14
14
8
10
4
2
1
2
13
21
8
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
8
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
9
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
54
54
54
54
54
54
48
48
48
$0A0 per day........
$0.70 per d ay........
$0.75 per d ay........
$0.50 per day........
$0.40 per day........
$0.25 per day........
$1 per d ay.............
$0.75 per day(ft) . .
$0.50 per day(ft) . .
.50
.70
.75
.50
.40
.25
1.00
ft.75
ft.50
$175 per m on th ...
6.71
$1.13 per day........
1.13
£
Itican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
11
1
M.
Cuban...........
6
14
2
M.
Porto Rican.
6
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
9
9
9
9
8
8
8
(*)
9
(«)
54
54 $5 per week...........
9
« Earnings vary from $0.56 to $0.91 per day, according to speed.
6 Boys.
c Earnings vary from $0.25 to $0.62$ per day, according to speed.
d Principally Porto Ricans.
« Irregular.
/ Pay varies from $7 to $25 per 1,000.
?N o t reported,
ft Average.
*Males and females.
.83$
825
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO,
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
C I G A R M A K I N G —Concluded.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Packers:
Arecibo...............
San Juan............
Packers, cigarettes:
San Juan............
Shell makers, hand,
cigarettes*
San Juan...........
Shell maker, machine,
cigarettes:
San Juan...........
Shipping clerk:
San Juan...........
Sorters cigars:
Arecibo..............
Ponce.................
San Juan...........
Stenographer:
San Juan...........
Stock keeper.
Ponce.................
Strippers.
Arecibo..............
Ponce.................
San Juan................
Teamster:
San Juan................
Timekeeper:
San Juan................
Tobacco distributers:
Bayam on...............
Watchmen:
Arecibo...................
San Juan................
Weighers:
San Juan................
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week.
num
ber.
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
11
11
14
1
5
10
M.
M.
M.
Spanish.........
Porto Rican.
(6)
6
6
6
9
9
8
54
54
48
(«)
(«)
$0.05 per 1,000.......
14
34
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$0.40 per 1,000....... <*$1.33*
14
17
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$0.15 per 1,000....... <*1.33*
(a )
h
(<0
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$0.04 per 1,000....... <*1.00
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$7.50 per week___
1.25
11
11
13
14
14
3
3
2
20
16
M.
M.
M.
M.
M„
Porto Rican.
Spanish.........
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
<*>
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
8
8
54
54
54
48
48
(«)
W
(/)
$0.40 per 1,000___
$1.25 per 1,000.......
( c)
(<0
(/)
(«)
W
14
1
P.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$25 per week.........
4.16*
13
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$1.25 per day........
1.25
11
11
13
13
13
14
14
15
10
2
3
5
210
50
M,
F.
F.
F.
F.
F.
F.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
(6)
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
8
8
54
54
54
54
54
48
48
$0.02 per p ou n d ... (*)
$0.05 per p ou n d ... <*.30
$0.05 per p o u n d ... <*.60
$0.03 per p ou n d ... <*.30
$0.02 per p ou n d ... <*.20
$0.02* per p ou n d .. <*.50
$0.02* per pound.. («)
14
1
M.
Spanish.........
6
8
48
$1 per d ay.............
1.00
14
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1 per d ay.............
1.00
12
4
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$0.75 per day.........
.75
11
14
2
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Spanish.........
7
7
12
10
84
70
$4 per week...........
$0.10 per hour.___
.57
1.00
14
10
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1 per d ay.............
1.00
COFFEE PLANTATIONS.
Care takers:
Arecibo dept
Carpenter:
Ponce department.
Carpenter’s helper:
Ponce department.
Cultivators:
Arecibo dept..........
17
17
17
1
1
1
7
7
7
15
1
15
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
11
66
$0.75 per day........
.75
M.
Porto Rican.
6
11
66
$0.35 per day........
17
17
17
17
17
17
2
6
337
1
1
29
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
.35
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
6
6
6
6
6
6
12
12
12
12
12
12
72
72
72
72
72
72
$0.40 per day........
$0.35 per d ay.......
$0.30 per d ay........
$0.28 per day........
$0.26 per d ay........
$0.25 per day........
.40
.35
.30
.28
.26
.25
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
(0)
(0)
W
(0)
$0.30 per day......... $0.30
$1.50 per week (*) . *.21*
$1.20 per week(*) . *.17
Porto Rican.
P orto Rican.
Porto Rican.
M.
M.
M.
(g )
(0)
a Earnings vary from $2.40 to $3 AO per day, according to size of box.
Rate of pay varies from $0.60
to $0.87* per 1,000.
6 Principally Porto Ricans.
cN ot reported.
& Estimated.
e Rate of pay varies from $0.75 to $1.25 per 1,000, according to class of cigars.
/Earnings vary from $1.25 to $2 per day, according to class of cigars. Rate of pay varies from
$0.50 to $1.75 per 1,000.
ff Irregular.
* Employed all the year and also is furnished plot of ground on which to cultivate vegetables, etc.,
on halves.
826
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LO CALITIE^-Continued.
COFFEE PLANTATIONS—Concluded.
Occupation and lo
cality.
EstabEm
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
day. week.
num
ber.
Cultivators—Conc’d.
Arecibo d e p t .........
Mayaguez dept—
Ponce department.
Overseers:
Arecibo d ept..........
Mayaguez dept—
Ponce department.
Pickers:
Arecibo dept..........
Mayaguez dept—
Ponce department.
Water b o y :
Arecibo dept..........
W ood chopper:
Mayaguez dept___
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
16
15
16
«5
a 13
a 15
a1
a 12
a2
13
14
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
10
11
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
60
66
$0.20 per day......... $0.20
.18
$0.18 per d ay........
.16
$0.16 per d ay........
$0.15 per d ay........
.15
$0.13 per day........
.13
$0.12 per day........
.12
$0.10 per day........
.10
$0.30 per day........
.30
$0.25 per day(*>)... 5.25
17
17
17
17
17
17
16
15
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
7
7
6
6
7
12
12
12
12
12
12
10
11
72
72
72
84
84
72
60
77
$3.75 per week (« ).
$2.50 per week ( c ) .
$0.40 per day........
$2.25 per week___
$2.10 per w eek___
$1.50 per week(o) .
$2.50 per week___
$0.30 per d ay........
0.62*
17 <2600
16 <*36
15 <*22
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
6
7
(*)
10
(e)
(*)
60
(<0
(/)
(/)
9.26
(0
9.26
17
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
12
72
$0.06 per d ay........
.06
16
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$0.25 per ca rt........
9.41*
.40
.32
.30
0.25
.41*
.30
COFFEE SORTING AND POLISHING.
Engineer:
Ponce...................... ' 18
Laborers:
Ponce......................
18
Polisher:
Ponce......................
18
Sorters:
Ponce......................
18
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$1 per d a v (c )........ c$1.00
4
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$1.12* per day.. . . .
1.12*
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$2 per d ay.............
2.00
200
F.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
(i)
*.35
$0.08*
COPPERSHITHING.
Apprentices:
Ponce......................
Coppersmiths:
Ponce......................
19
6
M.
Porto Rican.
6
19
19
1
3
M.
M.
Spanish........
Porto Rican.
6
6
8*
51
$0.50 per week___
8*
8*
51
51
$1.50 per d ay(l) . . *1.50
$1.40 per day......... 1.40
COTTON GINNING.
Engineer:
San Juan................
Foreman:
San Juan................
Ginners:
San Juan................
Laborers:
San Juan................
20
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1 per d ay............. $1.00
20
1
M.
American___
6
8
48
$80 per m onth___
3.06*
20
20
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
8
8
48
48
$0.75 per day........
$0.60 per d ay........
.75
.60
20
20
2
3
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
8
8
48
48
$0.50 per d ay........
$0.40 per day........
.50
.40
Boys.
5 And breakfast of codfish and plantains, estimated at 5 cents.
e Employed all the year.
<*Not including women and children.
« Irregular.
/ 8 cents per almud (about 10 pounds) of cleaned coflee.
0 Estimated.
*12 cents per almud (about 10 pounds) of cleaned coflee.
<Not reported.
j 5 cents per basket of about 20 pounds.
* Estimated.
1 And board and lodging, estimated at 50 cents per day.
a
827
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
DRESSJMK1N6.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Dressmakers: («)
San Juan................
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week
day. week.
num
ber.
21
3
F.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
10.26 per day (&) . . &I0.25
FOUNDRY AND MACHINE SHOP.
Blacksmiths:
San Juan................
Machinists:
San Juan................
Machinist’ s appren
tices :
San Juan................
Molders:
San Juan................
Molder’ s apprentices:
San Juan................
Pattern maker:
San Juan................
22
22
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
9
9
54
54
$2 per day............. $2.00
$1 per day............. 1.00
22
22
22
22
1
2
2
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Cuban...........
Spanish........
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
54
54
54
54
$2 per d ay.............
$25 per m onth___
$25 per m onth___
$0.75 per d ay........
2.00
.96
.96
.75
22
22
22
4
2
2
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
9
9
9
54
54
54
$0.25 per day
$0.15 per day........
$0.10 per day........
.25
.15
.10
22
22
22
1
1
2
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
9
9
9
54
54
54
$2 per day.............
11.25 per d ay........
$1 per d ay.............
2.00
1.25
1.00
22
2
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$0.25 per day
22
1
M.
Spanish........
6
9
54
$2 per day.............
.25
2.00
FRUIT CANNING, PINEAPPLES.
Corer:
Mayaguez...............
Engineer:
Mayaguez...............
Engineer’s helper:
Mayaguez...............
Laborers:
Mayaguez...............
Machinists:
Mayaguez...............
Peelers, machine:
Mayaguez...............
Processer:
Mayaguez...............
Slicer:
Mayaguez...............
23
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
23
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
<*)
(<0
$4 per week...........
.t>b}
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(<0
(°)
$2 per week...........
.33}
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
6
6
b
6
6
10
10
10
10
10
60
60
60
60
60
$0.50 po*
$0.40 per
$0.30 per
$0.25 per
$0.25 per
day........
day........
day........
day........
day........
.50
.40
.30
.25
.25
2.50
23
<n
23
23
23
23
23
30
10
10
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
10
60
$0.40 per d ay........ $0.40
80
M.
M.
M.
M.
F.
23
3
M.
American—
6
10
60
$2.50 per day........
23
2
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$0.50 per day........
.50
23
1
M.
American—
6
10
60
$6 per week...........
1.00
23
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$0.40 per day........
.40
$0.40 per day........ $0.40
* 6
FRUIT CULTURE, CITRUS.( e )
Cultivators:
Bayamon dept—
Foreman, cultivators:
Bayamon dept—
Foremen, gang:
Bayamon dept___
Manager:
Bayamon dept___
24
75
M.
Porto Rican.
7
10
70
24
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
10
70
$0.65per day ( / ) . .
/ . 65
24
14
M;
Porto Rican.
7
10
70
$0.50 per day ( / ) . .
/.s o
24
1
M.
American___
7
10
70
$100 per m on th .. .
3.29
a Proprietress does all cutting and fitting.
A nd two meals, estimated at 20 cents.
Irregular.
dBoys.
« No fruit has been marketed.
f And house rent, estimated at $1 per month.
b
c
828
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
HATS, STRAW.
EstabHours Hours
lish- Em Sex. Nationality. Bays
per per per
ment ploy
week.
ees.
day. week.
num
ber.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Blockers:
San Juan,
Blocker’ s apprentices:
San Juan...............
Bookkeeper:
San Juan.............. .
Carpenter:
Bonce.....................
Engineer and fireman:
Ponce....................
Finishers:
Ponce.................... .
San Juan.
Finisher’ s apprentices:
Ponce.
Pressers:
Ponce.
San Juan,
Sewers:
Ponce.
San Juan............
Sewer’ s apprentices:
Ponce..................
Sizers:
Ponce..................
Sizer’ s apprentices:
Ponce................
26
26
26
1
5
1
26
26
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
2
M.
Porto Rican.
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
8
8
8
48
48
48
$9 per week........... $1.50
$8.50 per week___
1.41*
1.25
$7.50 per week___
6
8
48
$3 per week...........
.50
6
8
48
$45 per m onth___
1.72*
25
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1.25 per d ay........
1.25
25
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
SI per d ay.............
1.00
25
25
26
26
26
26
1
1
1
1
2
10
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
F.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
6
6
6 .
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
8
48
48
48
48
48
48
$7.50 per week___ *1.25
$3.50 per week___
.58*
$9 per week........... 1.50
$6 per week........... 1.00
.75
$4.50 per week___
.66*
$4 per week...........
25
25
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
8
8
48
48
S3 per week...........
$2 per week...........
.50
.33*
25
25
25
25
26
26
26
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
$9 per week...........
$7.50 per week___
$6 per week...........
$4.50 per week___
$9 per week...........
$7.50 per week___
$5 per week...........
1.50
1.25
1.00
.75
1.50
1.25
.83*
25
25
25
25
25
26
1
1
2
14
1
7
M.
M.
F.
F.
M.
F.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
8
48
48
48
48
48
48
$7.50 per week___
$6 per week...........
$5 per week...........
$0.24 per h at.........
$3.50 per week___
$5.50 per week___
1.25
1.00
.83*
25
25
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
8
8
48
48
$2 per week...........
$1 per week...........
25
25
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
8
8
48
48
$6 per week...........
$4.50 per week___
25
4
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1 per week...........
.16*
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
(a )
.58*
.91*
.33*
.16*
1.00
.75
ICE MANUFACTURE.
Clerks:
San Juan................
Engineer:
San Juan................
Firemen:
San Juan................
Laborers:
San Juan................
Superintendent:
San Juan................
27
27
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
7
8
8
56
56
$50 per m onth___
$25 per m onth___
$1.64*
.82
27
1
M.
Spanish........
7
12
84
S900 per y e a r .......
2.46*
27
3
M.
Porto Rican.
7
8
56
S8 per week...........
1.14*
27
4
M.
Porto Rican.
7
12
84
S6 per week...........
27
1
M.
American___
7
12
84 >$1,500 per year___
LAUNDRY, STEAM.
Clerk:
San Juan................
Deliveryman:
San Juan................
28
1
F.
English.........
28
1
M.
American___
6
(P )
10
(*)
60
(»)
S5 per week...........
$1.50 per day(«) . .
«N o t reported.
&Irregular.
e Estimated earnings; receives commission on deliveries.
.85*
4.11
829
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO,
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
LAUNDRY, STEAM!—Concluded.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
Sex. Nationality. per per per
ment
week. day. week.
num ees.
ber.
Fireman:
San Juan................
Helper:
San Juan................
Machine hands:
San Juan................
Marker:
San Juan................
Wagon boy:
San Juan................
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
28
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$1 per d a y ............. $1.00
28
*1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$1 per week...........
.16|
28
11
F.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$0.05 per hour.___
.50
28
1
F.
Porto R ican.
6
10
60
$2.50 per week___
.41*
28
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$2 per week..........
.33*
MACARONI MANUFACTURE.
Fireman:
San Juan................
Foreman:
San Juan................
Laborers:
San Juan................
Modelers:
San Juan................
29
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1 per d a y ............. $1.00
29
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1.50 per day........
1.50
29
5
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1 per d ay.............
1.00
29
22
F.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$0.40 per day........
.40
MUNICIPAL WORK.
Blacksmith:
San Juan............
Blacksmith's helper:
San Juan............
Carpenters:
San Juan............
Carpenter's helpers:
San Juan.............
Cart drivers, street
cleaning:
San Juan................
Draftsman:
San Juan................
Inspector, street clean
ing:
San Juan................
Masons:
San Juan................
Mason’ s helpers:
San Juan................
Overseer, building re
pairs:
San Juan................
Overseers, street cleanSan Juan.
Overseers,
street
sweeping:
San Juan................
Overseers,
street
sweeping, assistant:
San Juan................
Paver, street repairla n Juan................
Paver's helpers:
San Juan................
Street sweepers:
San Juan................
Watchman, corral:
San Juan...............
o Boy,
30
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1.75 per day........ $1.75
30
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$0.75 per day........
.75
30
30
4
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
8
8
48
48
$1.75 per d ay........
$1.12* per d ay.___
1.75
1.12*
30
30
30
18
1
1
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
8
8
8
48
48
48
$0.75 per day........
$0.62* per day.___
$0.50 per day........
.75
.62*
.50
30
8
M.
Porto Rican.
6*
8
52
$240 per year........
.66
30
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1.50 per d ay........
1.50
30
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6*
8
52
$900 per year........
2.46*
$1.75 per day........
1.75
.50
30
5
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
30
5
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$0.50 per d ay........
30
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1.25 per day(6) . . &1.25
30
30
1
2
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6*
6*
8
8
52
52
$480 per year........
$360 per year........
1.31*
.98*
30
30
2
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6*
6*
8
8
52
52
$0.87 per day.........
$0.75 per day.........
.87
.75
30
30
2
2
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6*
6*
8
8
52
52
$0.75 per day........
$0.50 per day.........
.75
.50
30
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1 per d ay .............
1.00
30
4
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$0.75 per day........
.75
30
33
M.
Porto Rican.
6*
8
52
$0.50 per day.........
.50
30
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
8
56
$0.75 per day........
.75
6 Employed all the year.
830
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES-Continued.
PLANING MILL.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Blacksmith:
Ponce.....................
Carpenters:
Ponce.....................
San Juan...............
Carpenter’ s appren
tices:
San Juan................
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
day. week.
num
ber.
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
31
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$7.50 per week___
$1.25
31
31
32
1
2
5
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
10
10
(«)
60
60
48
$9 per week...........
$7.50 per week___
$0.21* per hour___
1.50
1.25
1.75
32
32
32
32
2
1
1
2
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
6
6
6
6
Vv
(°)
48
48
48
48
$0.12* per hour.. . .
$0.09§ per h ou r....
$0.06| per h ou r....
$0.03* per hour.. . .
1.00
.75
.50
.25
Engineer:
Ponce.....................
Fireman:
San Juan................
Fireman’ s helper:
San Juan................
Foreman, carpenters:
San Juan................
Foreman, mill:
San Juan................
Laborers:
Ponce.....................
San Juan................
Lumber marker:
Ponce.....................
Machine hands:
San Juan................
Molder’ s apprentice:
San Juan...............
Planer hand:
San Juan................
Planer hand’ s appren
tice:
San Juan................
Sawyer, jig :
San Juan................
Sawyer, rip:
San Juan...............
Turner:
San Juan...............
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
31
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
60
$7.50 per week___
1.25
32
1
M.
Spanish.........
6
(a)
48
$8 per week...........
1.33*
32
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(«)
48
$1.50 per week___
.25
32
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
<«)
48
$0.31*per h ou r....
2.50
32
1
M.
American___
6
(a)
48
$27 per week.........
4.50
31
32
32
4
3
5
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
10
(«)
60
48
48
$3 per week...........
$5.75 per week___
$0.10 per hour.___
.50
.96
.80
1.00
10
W
31
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
60
$6 per week...........
32
2
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(«)
48
$4 per week...........
32
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
<a)
48
$0.08* per h o u r....
.66*
32
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(°)
48
$10 per week.........
1.66*
10
.66*
32
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(“)
48
$0.06* per h ou r....
.50
32
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(«)
48
$2 per week...........
.33*
32
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(°)
48
$9.50 per week___
1.58*
32
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(•>
48
$0.25 per hour.___
2.00
PRINTING AND PUBLISHING*
Bookbinder, job work:
San Jqan................
Chief of bureau, gov’t
office:
San Juan................
Compositors, book and
job:
San Juan................
33
1
M.
American___
5*
8
44
$900 per year........ 12.87*
36
9
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
$1 per week...........
.16*
34
1
M.
Porto Rican).
6
9
54
$3 per week...........
.50
36
6
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$3 per week...........
.50
35
35
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
8
8
48
48
$0.75 per week___
$0.25 per week___
34
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$5 per week...........
33
1
M.
American___
5*
8
44
$1,400 per year___
4.47
36
36
36
1
2
10
M.
M.
M.
German........
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
8
8
8
48
48
48
$9 per week...........
$8 per week...........
$3 per week...........
1.50
1.33*
.50
6
« Monday to Friday, 8|; Saturday, 4*.
& £&
Accountant,
gov’t
office:
San Juan................
Apprentices:
San Juan................
Apprentice, job work:
San Juan................
Apprentices,
litho
graphing:
San Juan................
Apprentices,
newsT
\O
Id3l**
Pcb
JT
LH
I•
Ponce......................
831
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
PRINTING AND PUBLISHING—Concluded.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Es
tab
Days Hours Hours
lish- Em
Sex. Nationality. per per per
ment ploy
week.
ees.
day. week.
num
ber.
Compositors,
gov't
office:
San Juan................
Compositors, job work:
San Juan................
Compositors,
paper:
Ponce___
news-
San Juan.
Engravers, lithograph
ing:
San Juan................
Folders:
Ponce......................
Foreman, job work:
San Juan................
Foreman, newspaper:
Ponce......................
Foreman, pressman,
lithographing:
San Juan................
Laborer:
Ponce......................
Manager, lithog. dept.:
San Juan................
Manager, printing de
partment:
San Juan................
Press feeders, newsPonce.
Pressmen, govt, office:
San Juan................
Pressman, job work:
San Juan................
Pressmen, lithographSan Juan.
Pressmen, newspaper:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Pressman's appren
tices, govt, office:
San Juan................
Pressman's appren
tices, newspaper:
San Juan...............
Public printer, govt,
office:
San Juan...............
Public printer, asst.,
govt, office:
San Juan................
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
33
33
33
1
2
7
M.
M.
M.
American___
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
5}
5|
8
8
8
44
44
44
60.40 per hour.___ 63.20
60.30 per hour.___ 2.40
60.25 per hour.___ 2.00
34
34
1
1
M.
M.
Danish.........
Porto Rican.
6
6
9
9
54
54
612 per week.........
69 per week...........
35
35
35j
35
35
36
36
36
36
36
1
3
2
1
1
2
7
4
2
4
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
48 66 per week...........
48 65 per week..........
48 64 per week...........
48 63.50 per week___
48 63 per week...........
48 69 per week...........
48 67 per week...........
48 66.50 per week.......
48 66 per week...........
48 64.50 per week___
1.00
.83}
. 66§
,5g}
.50
1.50
1.16}
1.08}
1.00
.75
36
36
2
1
M.
M.
German........
German........
6
6
9
9
54
54
618 per week.........
616 per week.........
3.00
2.66}
2.00
1.50
35
«3
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
60.50 per week___
.08}
34
1
M.
American___
6
9
54
625 per week.........
4.16}
35
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
67 per week...........
1.16}
2.58}
36
1
M.
German........
6
9
54
615.50 per week. . .
35
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
63 per week...........
.50
36
1
M.
German........
6
9
54
6100 per m onth. . .
3.83}
36
1
M.
Spanish.........
6
8
48
685 per m onth___
3.26
35
35
1
2
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
8
8
48
48
62 per week...........
61 per week...........
33
33
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
5}
5j
8
8
44
44
60.25 per hour___
60.20 per hour___
2.00
1.60
34
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
66 per week...........
1.00
36
36
2
2
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
9
9
54
54
610 per week.........
66 per week...........
1.66}
1.00
35
36
1
3
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
8
8
48
48
65 per week...........
69 per week...........
.83}
1.50
33
33
1
2
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
5}
5}
8
8
44
44
60.10 per hour___
60.07 per hour___
.80
.56
36
2
M.
Porto Rican.
6
8
48
63.50 per week___
.58}
33
1
M.
American—
5}
8
44
61,400 per year.....
4.47
33
1
M.
Porto Rican.
5*
8
44
61,000 per year___
3.19
a
276—No. 61—06
Rates of wages.
Boys.
.33}
.16}
832
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
SHOEMAKING.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
day. week.
num
ber.
Shoemakers: («)
Ponce.....................
San Juan................
37
37
38
38
2
12
1
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
Spanish........
Porto Rican.
Italian..........
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
54
54
54
54
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
(c)
(6)
(&)
( c)
$0.80 per pair....... <*$0.80
$0.80 per pair.......
<*.80
STREET RAILWAIT AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING.
Advertising agent:
San Juan................
Boiler hands:
San Juan................
Bookkeepers:
P once......................
San Juan................
Car cleaner: («)
P once......................
Carpenter:
P once......................
Cashier:
San Juan................
Clerk:
P once......................
Coal passers:
P once......................
San Juan................
Collectors:
P once......................
San Juan................
Conductors:
P once......................
San Juan................
Electrician:
Ponce......................
Engineers:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Engineers, assistant:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Firemen:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Foreman,
machine
shop:
San Juan................
Foreman, track:
San Juan................
Hostler:
P once......................
Inspector, lighting:
San Juan................
Inspector, transporta
tion:
San Juan................
Interpreter:
San Juan................
Laborers:
Ponce......................
40
1
M.
Scotch..........
6
8
48
$80 per m onth___ $3.06*
40
40
1
2
M.
M.
American___
Porto Rican.
6
6
10
10
60
60
$1 per d ay.............
$1 per d ay.............
1.00
1.00
39
40
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
10
9
60
54
$65 per m onth___
$65 per m onth___
2.49
2.49
39
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
12
84
$30 per m onth___
39
1
M.
Porto Rican.
2
10
20
$1.50 per day........
1.50
40
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$135 per m on th .. .
5.17*
39
1
M.
Negro...........
6
10
60
$20 per m onth___
.76*
39
40
1
3
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
7
12
8
84
56
$22.50 per month..
$0.75 per d ay........
.74
.75
39
40
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
10
9
60
54
$50 per m onth___
$45 per m onth___
1.91*
1.72*
39
39
40
2
3
18
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
7
7
Hi
9
10
80* $37.50 per month..
63 $27.60 per m onth..
70 $0.11 per hou r___
1.23*
.91
1.10
39
1
M.
American___
7
10
70
$83.33 per month..
2.74
39
40
1
1
M.
M.
American___
American—
7
7
10
10
70
70
$83.33 per month..
$100 per m onth. . .
2.74
3.29
39
39
40
40
1
1
2
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
Negro...........
N egro...........
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
7
7
7
12
12
8
8
84
84
56
56
$64 per m onth___
$55 per m onth___
$1.75 per d ay........
$1.25 per d ay........
2.10*
1.81
1.75
1.25
39
39
40
1
1
3
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
7
7
12
12
8
84
84
56
$45 per m onth___
$30 per m onth___
$1.50 per d ay........
1.48
.98*
1.50
40
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$2.25 per day........
2.25
40
40
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
American___
6
6
9
9
54
54
$50 per m onth___
$45 per m onth___
1.91*
1.72*
39
1
M.
Negro...........
7
10
70
$18 per m onth___
.59
40
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$30 per m onth___
1.15
40
40
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
7
16
16
112
112
$35 per m onth___
$30 per m onth___
1.15
.98*
40
1
M.
American___
6
8
48
$110 per m on th ...
4.21*
39
39
1
6
M.
M.
Negro...........
Porto Rican.
6
/ 2*
10
10
60
/2 5
$20 per m onth___
$0.60 per d a y ........
.76*
.60
<*Proprietors do all cutting.
b Earn from 14.50 to 15 per week, pay varying from $0.40 to $1.12 per pair,
c From $0.75 to $0.83*.
d Estimated.
« Also acts as pitman.
Average.
.98*
833
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
S T R E E T R A IL W A Y AND E L E C T R IC LIG H T IN G —Concluded.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
day. week.
num
ber.
Laborers, track:
San Juan................
Linemen:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Machinists:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Machinist's helpers:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Messengers:
San Juan................
Motormen:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Oilers:
Ponce......................
Oilers, power house:
San Juan................
Receiving teller:
San Juan................
Stenographer:
San Juan................
Stock-room boy:
Ponce......................
Storekeepers:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Superintendents, gen’l:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Superintendents, as
sistant:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Switch-board men:
San Juan................
Track greasers:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Track sanders:
San Juan................
Track walker:
San Juan................
Treasurer, assistant:
P once......................
Trolley tender,freight:
San Juan................
Watchman:
Ponce......................
Watchman, bam :
San Juan................
Watchman, machine
shop:
San Juan................
Watchman, office:
San Juan................
Wiremen:
Ponce......................
San Juan................
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
40
19
M.
Portor Rican.
6
9
54
$0.06 per hour....... $0.54
39
40
40
40
2
1
3
2
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Swedish........
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
60
60
60
60
$30 per m onth___
$40 per m onth___
$28 per m onth___
$24 per m onth-----
1.15
1.53*
1.07*
.92
39
40
40
40
40
40
1
1
1
2
1
3
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
American—
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
6
6
6
6
6
10
9
10
9
9
9
70
54
60
54
54
54
$100 per m o n th ...
$2 per d a y .............
$1.75 per day........
$1.50 per day........
$1.25 per day........
$1 per d ay .............
3.29
2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
39
40
1
2
M.
M.
Negro...........
Porto Rican.
7
6
10
9
70
54
$45 per m onth___
$0.75 per day........
1.48
.75
54
$16 per month___
40
2
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
39
39
40
3
2
18
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto R ican.
7
7
7
10*
8
10
73* $35 per m onth___
56 $25 per m onth___
70 $0.11 per hour.......
1.15
.82
1.10
39
39
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Japanese___
7
7
12
12
84
84
$22.50 per m onth..
$22.50 per month..
.74
.74
40
3
M.
Porto Rican.
7
8
56
$0.75 per d a y ........
40
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6*
9
58* $65 per m onth-----
2.13*
2.87*
.61*
.75
40
1
M.
English.........
6
9
54
$75 per m onth-----
39
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$10.50 per month..
.44
39
40
1
1
M.
M.
American___
French.........
6
7
10
10
60
70
$65 per m onth___
$30 per m onth___
2.49
.98*
39
40
1
1
M.
M.
American___
American___
7
7
10
16
70
112
$125 per m o n th ...
$125 per m on th .. .
4.11
4.11
39
39
40
40
1
1
2
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
American___
American___
American___
American___
7
7
6
7
10
10
10
16
70
70
60
112
$75'per m onth___
$60 per m onth___
$75 per m onth___
$85 per m onth___
2.46*
1.97*
2.87*
2.79*
40
40
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
9
9
54
54
$1 per d ay.............
$0.06 per hour.......
1.00
.54
39
40
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
7
10
10
70
70
$22.50 per month..
$0.75 per d ay........
.74
.75
40
2
M.
Porto Rican.
7
10
70
$0.06 per hour___
.60
40
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
10
70
$0.10 per hour___
1.00
39
1
M.
American___
6
10
60
$100 per m o n th ...
3.83*
40
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$0.06 per hour___
.60
39
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
12
84
$25 per m onth___
.82
40
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
10
70
$50 per m onth___
1.64*
1.64*
40
1
M.
American___
7
10
70
$50 per m onth-----
40
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
10
70
$39 per m onth___
1.28
39
39
39
40
40
1
2
2
1
3
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
American___
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6*
7
6
6
10
Hi
Hi
10
10
60
74f
80*
60
60
$60 per m onth___
$30 per m onth___
$21 per month —
$30 per m onth___
$1 per d ay.............
2.30
.98*
.69
1.15
1.00
834
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
SUGAR
Occupation and lo
cality.
EstabDays Hours Hours
lish- Em Sex.
Nationality. per per per
ment ploy
ees.
week.
day. week.
num
ber.
Rates of wages.
alent
rate
per
day.
d e p t...
41
4
M.
Porto Rican;
6
d e p t...
41
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
61.20 per day.........
d e p t...
41
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
6
36
61 per d ay .............
1.00
d e p t...
41
7
M.
Porto Rican.
60.07 per t on .........
6.75
dept...
41
41
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
10
10
60
60
61.25 per d ay........
60.80 per d ay........
1.
41
41
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
10
10
60
60
60.40 per d ay........
60.25 per day.........
41
41
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
3
3
18
18
60.63 per d ay........
60.50 per d ay........
41
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
12
72
60.90 per d ay........
41
41
41
41
1
1
1
3
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
60
60
60
60
61.50 per d ay........
61.25 per day........
61.12 per day........
61 per d ay .............
41
41
4
3
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
10
10
60
60
60.60 per d ay........
60.50 per day.........
41
1
M.
Porto Rican.
41
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
60.70 per d ay........
41
41
2
3
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
12
12
72
72
61 per d ay .............
60.90 per d ay........
Carpenter’s helpers:
Bayamon dept___
Cooper:
Bayamon dept___
Coopers helper:
Bayamon dept___
Engineers, locomotive:
Bayamon dept___
Engineers, mill:
Bayamon dept___
Engineers, mill, asst.:
Bayamon dept___
Firemen:
Bayamon dept___
Foreman, laborers:
Bayamon d e p t...
Foreman, teamsters:
Bayamon d e p t...
Laborers, general:
Bayamon d e p t...
Laborers, mill:
Bayamon d e p t...
Laborers, railroad:
Bayamon dept___
_ hands:
ayamon dept___
« Irregular.
<°)
(a)
(a)
63 per day ( c ) -----
8 88
88
88
1.20
c3.
8 g 8 8 3 8 SS 8 S 8 g
Cane weigher:
Bayamon d e p t...
Carpenters:
Bayamon d e p t...
(«)
60.07 per ton ......... &60.80
41
3
M.
Porto Rican.
6
12
72
60.85 per d ay........
41
4
M.
Porto Rican.
6
12
72
60.60 per d ay........
41
41
41
1
1
4
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
12
12
12
72
72
72
60.95 per d ay........
60.80 per d ay........
60.60 per d ay........
41
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
12
72
61.40 per d ay........
41
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
12
72
60.75 per day........
41
41
1
2
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
10
10
60
60
60.60 per d ay........
60.50 per day.........
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
2
2
17
2
27
3
13
1
d2
d 1
d2
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
F.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
9
12
12
12
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
54
72
72
72
60.80 per d ay........
60.75 per day.........
60.70 per d ay........
60.65 per day........
60.60 per d ay........
60.55 per d ay........
60.50 per day.........
60.40 per d ay........
60.40 per d ay........
60.35 per day........
60.30 per day........
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
1
1
5
1
20
d1
d2
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican;
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
60.80 per d ay........
60.70 per d ay........
60.60 per day.........
60.55 per d ay........
60.50 per day........
60.37 per d ay........
60.25 per d ay........
.37
.25
41
7
M.
Porto Rican.
60.14 per to n .........
6.80
(«)
(a)
(*)
8 8 888
Boiler cleaners:
Bayamon d e p t...
(a)
<*)
gS
Blacksmith’s helpers:
Bayamon d e p t...
(a)
(a)
ISS83S 8 8 8 8 S S 8 8 3 8 8
Bag fillers:
Bayamon
Bag marker:
Bayamon
Bag sewer:
Bayamon
Bag stowers:
Bayamon
Blacksmiths:
Bayamon
:.
m a n u f a c t u r e
835
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
SU G AR M A N U FA C T U R E —Concluded.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
aay. week.
num
ber.
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
Sugar boiler:
Bayamon dept___
Sugar boiler’s assts.:
Bayamon dept___
41
1
M.
West Indian.
6
12
72
$100 per m on th ... $3.83}
41
41
Teamsters:
Bayamon dept___
Watchmen:
Bayamon dept___
2
1
M.
M.
West Indian.
West Indian.
6
6
12
12
72
72
$90 per m onth___
$70 per m onth___
3.45
2.68}
41
07
M.
Porto Rican.
6
12
72
$0.35 per d ay........
.35
41
41
41
1
1
1
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Spanish.........
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
12
12
12
72 , $0.65 per day.........
72 $0.65 per d ay........
72 $0.55 per day........
.65
.65
.55
SU G AR PLAN TATIO N S.
Bayamon dept___
Guayama dept___
Ponce department.
Blacksmith’s helpers:
Arecibo dept..........
Bayamon dept___
Ponce department.
Boiler hands:
Bayamon dept___
Bookkeepers:
Arecibo dept..........
Bayamon dept___
Ponce department.
Cane cutters:
Arecibo dept..........
Bayamon dept___
Ponce department.
12
13 per 100 bags (c).
10.50 per day......... $0.50
Porto R ican.!
6
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9}
43
44
45
42
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
5}
6
6
6
6
6
12
10
9}
10
8
8
8
8
9
8
8
8
8
12
12
72 $1.62$ per day..
60 $1 per d ay........
57 $1.50 per day...
60 $2.75 per d ay...
48 $1.75 per day (d )..
48 $1.50 per day ( « ) ..
48 $1.25 per day (d )..
48 $1.12$ per day..
54 $1.12$ per day..
44 $lp er d ay ........
48 $1 per day (« )..
48 $1 per day (d)..
48 $0.60 per day ( « ) ..
72 $1.40 per day ( / ) . .
72 $1.20 per day ( / ) . .
43
44
45
46
46
46
47
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
12
10
9}
8
8
8
12
72
60
57
48
48
48
72
$0.55 per
$0.50 per
$0.75 per
$0.87 per
$0.75 per
$0.40 per
$0.45 per
45
45
45
1
6
ol
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
9}
9}
9}
57
57
57
$0.56 per day.
$0.50 per day.
$0.25 per day.
43
44
45
46
46
1
1
1
1
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Spanish........
Porto Rican.
American___
French..........
French..........
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
9}
9
9
60
60
57
54
54
$100 per m onth. . .
$20 per week.........
44
44
44
44
44
45
46
47
47
47
47
47
1
23
10
19
2
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
9
9
9
9
9
54
54
54
54
54
47
(P )
s1
2
1
7
3
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
(<>
6
6
6
6
6
12
12
12
12
12
%
72
72
72
72
72
day.
day..
day..
day (d).
day r '
day (
day (
(*)
1.62}
1.00
1.50
2.75
dl.75
d 1.50
d 1.25
1. 12}
el.OO
d 1.00
«.60
/1.40
/1.20
.55
d.8 7
d.75
«.40
/.4 5
.56
.50
.25
3.33}
$50 per month (*). *1.91}
$40 per month (*). * 1.53}
$1 per d ay.............
$0.60 per day........
$0.55 per day........
$0.50 per d ay........
$0.45 per d ay........
$0.02$per lOOlbs. («)
$0.42 per to n (c )...
$0.60 per day........
$0.50 per day........
$0.45 per day........
$0.40 per day........
$0.35 per day........
°B oy s.
5 N ot reported.
c Contract work.
d Employed at setting up machinery in new mill.
« Ana house rent for one employee.
/A n d house rent, estimated at $2 per month.
0 For 5 months, $78 per month; remainder of year, $48 per month.
h And board and lodging, estimated at $15 per month.
1 Irregular.
(*)
72
57
M.
45
33
Bag fillers:
Ponce department.
Bag marker:
Bayamon dept___
Blacksmiths:
Arecibo dept..........
1.00
.60
.55
.50
.45
<*)
(*>)
.50
.45
.40
.35
836
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES— Continued.
S U G A R P L A N T A T I O N S —Continued.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
Sex. Nationality. per per per
ment
week. day. week.
num ees.
ber.
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
Cane cutters and haulPonce department.
Cane cutters and load-
46
(«)
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(ft)
(ft)
$0 .65p erton (c)...
(a)
Arecibo d e p t .........
43
(«)
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(ft)
(ft)
46
46
46
(a)
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
(ft)
6
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
$0.02* per 100
pounds, (c)
$0.55 per ton ( c) . . .
$0.37 per ton ( c ) .. .
$0.35 per ton ( c ) .. .
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
46
(a)
M.
Porto Rican.
(6)
(ft)
(ft)
$0.40 per ca r(c). . .
(a)
46
46
(®)
(°)
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
(ft)
6
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
$0.25 per 100(c)...
$0.20 per acre(c)..
(a )
46
(«)
M.
Porto Rican.
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
$0.40 per acre(c)..
(*)
45
(«)
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(ft)
(ft)
$0.08 per c a rt(c)..
(a)
45
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
(ft)
6
(ft)
6
(ft)
(ft)
6
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
$8 per acre(c)........
$5per acre(c)........
$4peracre(c)........
$2.75 per acre(c)..
$2.25 per acre(c)..
$1.50per acre(c)..
$0.01* per vara (d ).
$0.01 per vara(d) .
$5 per aere(c).......
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(ft)
12
9}
10
10
9
(ft)
72
57
60
60
54
$50 per m onth___
$8 per week...........
$1 per d ay.............
$60 per month ( c ) .
$60 per month (e) .
$40 per month (/) .
$1.91*
1.33*
1.00
C2.30
C2.30
/1.53*
Ponce department.
Cane cutters, seed:
Ponce department.
Cane hole diggers:
Ponce department.
Cane hole markers:
Ponce department.
Bayamon dept___
Cane planters*
Bayamon dept___
Ponce department.
Cane weighers:
Arecibo d e p t .........
Bayamon dept___
Guayama dept___
Ponce department.
v«UO WcigUpi o Ruipui •
Bayamon dept___
Carpenters:
Arecibo d e p t .........
Bayamon dept___
Guayama dept___
Ponce department.
Carpenters helpers:
Bayam on dept___
Ponce department.
(a )
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(«)
(a)
(a )
43
44
45
42
42
46
1
1
1
1
1
2
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
American___
Norwegian...
French..........
6
6
6
6
6
6
45
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9*
57
$0.75 per d ay ........
.75
43
43
44
44
45
42
1
1
1
1
1
4
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
6
6
6
6
6
6
12
12
10
10
9*
10
72
72
60
60
57
60
$1.12* per d ay___
$0.75 per d ay........
$1.50 per d ay___
$0.75 per d ay........
$1.75 per d ay___
$2.50 per d ay ........
1.12*
.75
1.50
.75
1.75
2.50
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
1
2
3
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
3
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
British West
Indian.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
5*
6
6
6
6
5*
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
8
8
12
12
48
48
48
44
48
48
$2.50 per day (a)
$1.62 per day ( » ) . .
$1.50 per day (9 )..
$1.50 per d a y ........
$1.25 per day (ft) ..
$1.12* per day (&).
$1.12* per d a y ___
$0.70 per d ay........
$0.50 per d a y ........
$1.75 per d ay (< )..
$1.20 per day(<) ..
92.50
91.62
91.50
1.50
* 1.25
h 1.12*
1.12*
.70
.50
<1.75
<1.20
54
48
44
72
72
2 M. Porto Rican.
6
9}
57 $1 per d ay.............
1 M. Porto Rican.
8
6
48 $0.75 per day (9) ..
1 M. Porto Rican.
6
48 $0.46 per day (A )..
8
1 M. Porto Rican.
48 $0.35 per d ay........
6
8
1 M. Porto Rican.
44 $0.25 per d ay ........
8
5*
1 M. Porto Rican.
12
72 $0.75 per day(<) ..
6
©Not reported.
^ Irregular,
c Contract work.
d Contract work: a vara=about 33 inches,
e And board and lodging, estimated at 14 per week.
/ And board and lodging, estimated at $15 per month.
o Employed at setting up machinery in new mill.
AAnd house.
< And house rent, estimated at $2 per month.
(a )
45
46
46
46
46
47
1.00
9.75
5 .46
.35
.25
<.75
837
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
S U G A R P L A N T A T I O N S —Continued.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Cashier:
Guayama dept___
Centrifugal tenders:
Arecibo dept.........
Ponce department.
Chemists:
Arecibo dept ____
Guayama d e p t___
Ponce department.
Chemist’ s assistants:
Ponce department.
Chemist, distillery:
Ponce department.
Clerks:
Guayama dept___
Clerk, disbursing:
Ponce department.
Clerks, distillery:
Ponce department.
Clerks, mill:
Ponce department.
Coachmen:
Ponce department.
Conductors, railroad:
Guayama dept___
Cooks:
Ponce department.
Cook’ s helpers:
Ponce department .
Cooper:
Bayamon dept___
Cultivators:
Ponce department .
Distiller:
Bayamon dept___
Ditch cleaners:
Ponce department.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
Sex. Nationality. per per per
ment
week. day. week.
num ees.
ber.
43
1
M.
American___
6
43
46
47
47
(&)
(&)
5
4
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6}
6
6
6
43
42
42
42
46
1
1
1
1
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
D utch...........
Russian........
German........
Russian........
F r e n c h ........
6
6
6
6
6
46
4
M.
French..........
46
1
M.
Spanish........
42
42
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
46
1
M.
French..........
6
46
46
1
1
M.
M.
French..........
French..........
6
6
46
46
1
1
M.
M.
French..........
Spanish........
6
6
46
46
46
1
2
1
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
10
( c)
9
12
12
60
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
Rates of wages.
$175 per month («) «$6.71
$0.06 per bag ( d ) ..
%
$0.05 per bag(<0 ..
72 $2.50 pr. 100 bags (<*)
72 $8 per 100 bags(d).
( 6)
«.77}
*.73}
12
10
10
10
9
72
60
60
60
54
$100 per month ( /) . /3.83}
$250 per month ( 9 ) . 9 9.58}
$125 per month ( 9 ) . 9 4.79
$125 per month ( 9 ). 9 4.79
$160 per month (ft). ft 6.13}
6
9
54
$30 per month (ft )
6
10
60
$50 per m onth___
10
10
60
60
$75 per month ( 9 ) .
$40 per month ( 9 ) .
9
54
$60 per m onth___
2.30
10
10
60
60
$60 per m onth___
$30 per m onth___
2.30
1.15
9
9
54
54
$40 per month ( f t ) . ft 1.53}
$30 per month ( f t ) . ft 1.15
7
7
7
12
12
12
84
84
84
$5.50 per week(*j.
$0.60 per day(*> . .
$0.25 per day ( j ) . .
6
6
. ft
1.15
1.91}
9
9
2.87}
1.53}
*.78}
*.60
i .25
42
4
M.
Porto Rican.
6
10
60
$1.25 per d a y . . . . .
1.25
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
P.
M.
F.
F.
F.
M.
F.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
12
12
12
12
84
84
84
84
84
$0.40 per d a y (i) . .
$0.40 per day (i) . .
$2 per week ( ; ) ___
$1.87 per weefcfi) .
$0.20 per d a y (/) . .
$0.20 per d a y (j) . .
$0.36£ per d a y ( i) .
i.40
i.40
i .28}
i 26}
i .20
i.20
L 36}
46
46
46
2
1
1
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
7
7
84
84
84
$0.40 per day ( j ) . .
$0.23 per d ay(i) . .
$0.20 per day ( J ) . .
J.
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
57
$1.37} per d a y ....
1.37}
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
6
6
6
6
$1.70 per acre(<*). .
$1.50 per acre(d) . .
$1.40 per acre(d) . .
$1.20 per acre(d) . .
$1 per acre(d)..........
$0.50 per acre ( < * )..
$0.40 per acre (< * )..
$0.37} per acre ( & ) .
$0.30 per acre (<*) ..
$0.20 per acre (< * )..
(& )
(6 )
(6 )
(6 )
(6 )
(6 )
to
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
i
M.
Porto Rican.
45
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
45
(ft)
h
(& )
( &)
(* o
(&>
?&)
?&)
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
( c)
( c)
6
(c )
6
6
6
(* )
( c)
(« )
h
12
12
12
9}
( c)
(<0
(4
( c)
(c )
(c )
fc)
(c )
( c)
( c)
9*
(« )
\c )
(c )
(c )
( c)
(c )
( c)
(c )
( c)
( c)
57
$0.87} per day.___
46 ( &)
6 («)
$1.86 per acre (< * )..
M. Porto Rican.
46 ( &> M. Porto Rican.
6 (« )
(4 $0.40 per acre (< * )..
46 ( &)
6 (<0
M. Porto Rican.
(4 $0.20 per acre (< * )..
46 h
6 (4
M. Porto Rican.
(c) $0.15 per acre (<*) ..
<*And house rent, estimated at $10 per month.
&N ot reported,
c Irregular,
d Contract work.
« Estimated.
/A n d bonus of 1} cents per bag of 240 pounds of sugar.
9 With board ana lodging, estimated at $4 per week.
* And board and lodging, estimated at |15 per month.
* And house.
i And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week.
i. 40
i . 23
20
(b)
(P )
( &)
( 6)
.87}
(6 )
(6 )
(b)
(6 )
838
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES-Continued.
SU G A R PLA N T A T IO N S—Continued.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
day. week.
num
ber.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Ditchers:
Arecibo dept.
Bayamon dept.
Ponce department.
Ditch men:
Ponce department.
Electrician:
Ponce department..
Electrician, assistant:
Ponce department..
Electrician’s helper:
Ponce department..
Engineers:
Bayamon d e p t.. . .
Ponce department..
Engineer, distillery:
Ponce department..
Engineer’ s
helpers,
mill:
Ponce department..
Engineers, locomotive:
Guayama d e p t.. . ’.
Ponce department..
Engineers, mill:
Guayama d e p t.. . .
Engineers,mill, assist
ant:
Arecibo dept
Ponce department
Engineers, mill, chief:
Arecibo dept___ _
Ponce department
Engineer, pump:
Guayama d e p t...
Engineer, steam plow:
Guayama d e p t.. .
Rates of wages.
44
44
45
46
46
46
2
2
3
(O)
(°)
(«)
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
1
8
30
19
13
15
10
12
3
7
2
4
3
01
8
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
46
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
46
1
M.
Porto Rican.
6
46
1
M.
Porto Rican.
45
45
45
47
2
1
1
2
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
46
1
M.
French..........
46
2
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$0.65 per d ay........
42
42
2
2
M.
M.
6
6
10
10
60
60
$3 per day(<)........ <3.00
$3 per day............. 3.00
46
1
M.
American___
British West
Indian.
American___
6
9
54
$100 per month (i)
42
42
1
1
M.
M.
American___
Porto Rican.
6
6
10
10
60
60
$200 per month (<) <7.67
$100 per month (A) A3.832
43
46
46
1
2
2
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
French..........
French..........
62 (*)
6
9
6
9
<»)
54
54
$75 per m onth___ 2.652
$60 per month (i) . >2.30
$60 per month (<) . <2.30
43
46
1
1
M.
M.
English.........
French..........
62
6*
(b \
$135 per month ( « ) i»4.78
$100 per month ( i ) >3.832
42
1
M.
American___
6
10
60
$141.50 per mo. (*). A5.422
42
1
M.
American___
6
10
60
$100 per month(n) »3.832
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
9
9
92
<»)
(&)
(*)
54
54
57
(6)
(fr)
$0.60 per day........ $0.60
$0.50 per d ay........
.50
$0,622 per day.___
.622
$0.80 per a cre(c). .
(a)
$0.40 per acre(c). .
(a)
$0.02 per vara (<*). (a)
10
10
9
9
9
10
(*)
10
9
9
9
10
9
9
12
60
60
58§
492
492
55
(*)
60
582
492
582
55
492
582
84
$0.63 per day(« )...
$0.50 per d a y («)...
$0.50 per day........
$0.50 per d a y («)...
$0.50 per d a y ( A . ..
$0.50 per day(«)--$0.50 per day........
$0.46 per day(« )...
$0.45 per day........
$0.40 per d a y (/)...
$0.40 per day........
$0.40 per d a y («)...
$0.30 per day( / ) . . .
$0.20 per day........
$0.50 per day........
«.63
«.50
.50
«.50
/.5 0
«.50
.50
«.46
.45
/.4 0
.40
«.40
/.3 0
.20
.50
9
54
$1.75 per day........
1.75
9
54
$1.25 per d ay........
1.25
6
9
54
$0.75 per d ay........
.75
6
6
6
7
92
92
92
12
57
57
57
84
$0.80 per d ay........
$0.75 per day........
$0,622 per day.___
$0.80 per day.........
.80
.75
.622
.80
6
6
6
6
6
(*)
6
6
62
52
52
52
7
6
6*
52
6*
5}
5*
6£
7
(»)
(*)
(b )
9
K
(b )
(*)
M
$200 per month (A) A6.572
« N ot reported.
6 Irregular,
c Contract work.
d Contract work; a vara= about 33 inches.
« And house.
/A n d breakfast of bread and coflee, estimated at 5 cents.
0B oy.
AAnd house rent, estimated at $25 per month.
<And board and lodging, estimated at $4 per week.
1 And board and lodging, estimated at $15 per month.
AAnd house rent, estimated at $5 per month.
l And house rent, estimated at $12 per month.
» And bonus of 1 cent per 100 pounds of sugar.
» And lodging, estimated at $3 per month.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
.65
S3.832
839
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
S U G A R P L A N T A T I O N S —Continued.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Fence men:
Ponce department.
Fertilizers:
Bayamon dept----Ponce department.
Field hands:
Arecibo d e p t.........
Bayamon d ept-----
Guayama d ept___
Ponce department.
Estab- Em
D ays Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
day. week.
num
ber.
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
1
1
3
1
1
1
2
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
5$
5$
5$
5$
5$
5$
6
6
5$
45
46
(*)
W
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
43
43
43
44
44
44
44
44
44
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
42
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
4
376
<20
5
9
10
1
1
«2
1
1
1
1
27
3
1
2
11
(«)
Ce )
F.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
F.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
(/)
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
(/)
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
(f)
1
4
2
2
2
1
1
15
24
3
7
1
8
7
2
<1
<2
<1
3
1
17
14
1
1
<6
1
20
(6)
(b)
(6)
(6)
8
9
10
8
9
10
12
(<0
(<0
44
49$
55
44
49$
55
72
(«)
(«)
66
6
11
66
6
11
66
6
11
54
6
9
54
6
9
54
9
6
60
6
10
54
6
9
54
9
6
57
6
9$
57
6
9$
57
6
9*
57
6
57
9$
6
9$
57
6
57
6
9$
94
57
6
57
6
9*
27
9
3
57
6
9$
(/)
(/)
(/)
55
10
5$
49$
9
5$
55
10
5*
6
60
10
55
10
58$
9
6$
66
6
11
49$
9
5$
49$
9
5$
55
5$
10
58$
9
6*
49$
9
5$
49$
9
5*
49$
9
5$
66
6
11
58$
9
6$
49$
9
5$
66
6
11
72
6
12
84
12
7
72
6
12
72
6
12
84
7
12
72
12
6
72
6
12
72
6
12
72
6
12
6 00
00
(c\
6
fci
6
(cj
(c)
6 U
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
10.50 per d a y (o)... <*30.50
10.50 per d ay........
.50
30.50 per day.........
.50
$0.40 per day(« )... a . 4 0
30.40 per day........
.40
30.40 per day........
.40
30.50 per d ay........
.50
30.50 per acre(d). .
30.80 per acre(d). .
30.55 per d ay........
30.55 per day........
30.30 per d ay........
30.60 per day........
30.55 per d ay........
30.50 per day........
30.50 per day........
30.45 per day.........
30.35 per day........
30.69 per day........
30.62$ per day.___
30.56$ per day.—
30.56 per day........
30.50 per day........
30.40 per day........
30.35 per day........
30.30 per day........
30.25 per day........
30.20 per d ay........
30.15 per d ay........
_
(f)
30.63 per d ay(« )...
30.50 per day( 0 ) . ..
30.50 per d ay(<»)...
$n.50 ppr day
30.46 per d ay........
30.45 per d ay(o)...
30.45 per d ay........
30.40 per day ( o ) . . .
30.40 per day........
30.40 per day (a)...
30.40 per day (« )...
30.35 per d ay(0)...
30.35 per d ay........
30.30 per d ay ( 0 ) . . .
30.30 per day........
30.25 per day.........
30.20 per day (a )...
30.15 per d ay........
30.60 per day........
30.55 per d ay........
30.50 per day........
30.40 per day........
30.40 per day........
30.35 per d ay........
30.20 per day........
30.15 per day........
30.12$ per d ay.___
30.70 per acre(b)..
30.60 per acre m ..
31.20 per acre ( i ) ..
31.20 per acre(«) ..
(*)
(6)
.55
.55
.30
.60
.55
.50
.50
.45
.35
.69
.62$
.56$
.56
.50
.40
.35
.30
.25
.20
.15
(/)
a . 63
9 .5 0
a . 50
.50
.46
o.45
.45
9 .40
.40
a.40
o.40
9 . 35
.35
0.30
.30
.25
0.20
.15
.60
.55
.50
.40
.40
.35
.20
.15
.12$
(6)
(6)
*>)
a And house.
6 N ot reported.
c Irregular.
d Contract work.
« Boys.
/A ll field work on this plantation is done by contract, there being about 600 men and boys and 30
females so employed. Men hired by the day earn from 50 to 60 cents, women 35 cents.
9 And breakfast of bread and coffee, estimated at 5 cents.
h Heaping cane leaves.
i Lining cane leaves.
i Leveling land.
* Weeding cane.
840
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES— Continued.
S U G A R P L A N T A T I O N S — Continued.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. per per per
week.
day. week.
num
ber.
Firemen:
Areeibo dept.'.
6
2
8
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
13
18
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
46
1
M.
42
3
46
1
43
44
44
44
44
44
44
45
45
46
46
47
Bayamon dept —
Ponce department.
Fireman, locomotive:
Ponce department.
Foremen,
laborers,
railroad:
Guayama dept___
Foreman,
laborers,
yard:
Ponce department.
Furrow markers:
Ponce department.
Gardener:
Ponce department.
Grass cutters:
Ponce department.
46
a
a
(»)
1
47
Grass cutters and
plowmen:
Ponce department.
Harrowers:
Bayamon d ept___
Ponce department.
Housekeeper:
Ponce department.
Housemaids:
Ponce department.
Laborers, distillery:
Bayamon d ept___
Ponce department.
Laborers, general:
Areeibo dept..........
Ponce department.
6*
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
12
10
10
10
10
10
10
Porto Rican.
6
M.
Porto Rican.
6
M.
Porto Rican.
M.
Porto Rican.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
(<0
7
Rates of wages.
6
78
60
60
60
60
60
60
57
57
54
54
36
10.70 per day......... $0.70
10.65 per day.........
.65
10.55 per day.........
.55
10.50 per day........
.50
10.45 per day........
.45
10.25 per day........
.25
10.20 per day........
.20
10.80 per day........
.80
.624
10.624 per day.......
$0.75 per day.........
.75
$0.55 per day.........
.55
$0.65 per day........
.65
9
54
$0.62 per day........
.62
10
60
$2 per d ay.............
2.00
54
$0.70 per day.........
94
<4
9
9
9
<«)
12
(*)
$0.45 per day(«)
e.45
$1 per acre(d).......
$0.90 per acre(d)..
$0.80 per acrefa)..
$0.60 per a crefa)..
$0.50 per acre(d)..
( 6)
(b)
( 6)
( 6)
(»)
(«)
$1.40 per acre(<*) ..
$1,124 per acre(d) .
$0,624 per acre(d) .
( 6)
W
(«)
(cl
(c)
$1 per acre(d)........
$4 per acre(d).......
$0,374 per acre(d) .
$0.35 per acre(a) ..
( 6)
( 6)
( 6)
( 6)
84
46
46
46
46
46
( 6)
( 6)
( 6)
( 6)
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
46
46
46
( 6)
( 6)
( 6)
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
(<0
W
6
(cl
( Cl
(c)
45
46
46
46
( 6)
( 6)
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
(<0
( c)
6
(cl
(Cl
(c)
(c)
46
1
F.
French..........
7
12
84
$20 per month( / ) . /.6 6
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
1
1
F.
F.
F.
F.
F.
F.
F.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
84
84
84
84
84
84
84
$0.30 per d a y (/) . . /.3 0
$1.75 per week(/) . /.2 5
$0.25 per d ay( 7 )
/ . 25
$1.50 per week ( f ) . /.2 1 4
$0.20 per d a y m
/ . 20
$0.35 per d a y (/) . . / . 35
$0,174 per d a y (/). . /.174
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
57
57
60
60
60
60
60
$0.50 per day........
$0.25 per day........
$0,624 per day.......
$0.60 per day........
$0.50 per day........
$0.46 per day........
$0.40 per day.........
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
84
84
54
78
54
$3.50 per week___
$0.75 per day(fl') . .
$0.60 per day.........
$0.55 per d a y (/) . .
$0.50 per day.........
h )
h )
( 6)
4
1
1
2
1
45
45
46
46
46
46
46
4
ol
43
46
46
46
46
1
1
1
1
2
2
5
7
4
7
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
(«)
6
6
6
6
7
7
64
6
(cl
1 Cl
(cl
(Cl
(c)
94
9*
10
10
10
10
10
12
12
9
12
9
(c)
( Cl
(Cl
(Cl
(c)
(«)
w
(c)
Contract work.
And house rent, estimated at $2 per month.
/ And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week.
if And house.
e
.70
$1,124 per acre(d) .
(«)
o Boys.
b N ot reported.
d
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
(&)
.50
.25
.62,
.60*
.50
.46
.40
.50
if . 7 5
.60
/.5 5
.50
841
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
SU G AR PLA N T A T IO N S—Continued.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
aay. week.
num
ber.
Laborers,
general—
Concluded.
Ponce department.
Laborers,
general,
farming:
Ponce department.
Laborer, laboratory:
Ponce department.
Laborers, mul:
Guayama dept —
Arecibo dept.
Bayamon d e p t___
Ponce department.
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
• C3
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
46
10
M.
46
1
M.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
84
84
54
55
84
84
84
84
54
Rates of wages.
10.50 per day(«) .. <*$0.50
$0.50 per day(6) -- 6.50
10.40 per day........
.40
10.40 per day(o) . . a.40
10.40 per day («) .. a . 40
$0.40 per day(&) .. 6.40
$0.37 per day(6) . . 6.37
$0.25 per day (<*) .. o.25
.15
$0.15 per day.........
7
7
6
5§
7
7
7
7
6
12
12
9
10
12
12
12
12
9
Porto Rican.
6
12
72
$0.50 per day........
.50
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$0.60 per day........
.60
42
6
40 M. Porto Rican.
10
60 $0.75 per day........
42
6
10
60 $0.60 per day........
110 M. Porto Rican.
42
6
10
60 $0.50 per day........
50 M. Porto Rican.
42
6
10
60 $0.35 per day........
20 M. Porto Rican.
Q1
2 M. Porto Rican.
12
78 $0.85 per day........
43
6£
12
78 $0.60 per day........
43
10 M. Porto Rican.
6£
12
12 M. Porto Rican.
78 $0.55 per day........
43
6§
12
2 M. Porto Rican.
78 $0.40 per d ay........
43
6£
12
78 $0.30 per day........
43
c6 M. Porto Rican.
2 M. Porto Rican.
6
10
60 $0.60 per d ay........
44
6
44
10
60 $0.55 per day........
59 M. Porto Rican.
6
10
60 $0.50 per day........
44
17 M. Porto Rican.
22 M. Porto Rican.
6
10
60 $0.45 per day........
44
6
10
60 $0.40 per day........
33 M. Porto Rican.
44
6
10
60 $0.35 per day........
44
«6 M. Porto Rican.
6
60 $0.25 per day........
44 e ll M. Porto Rican.
10
e
l
l
Porto
Rican.
6
60 $0.20 per day........
44
M.
10
6
57 $0.87§ per day.......
2 M. Porto Rican.
45
9£
45
57 I0.62J per day.......
7 M. Porto Rican.
6
9f
6
57 $0.62 per day........
45
8 M. Porto Rican.
9£
57 $0.56£ per day.......
6
45
3 M. Porto Rican.
6
45
9& 57 $0.56 per day........
15 M. Porto Rican.
9£
57 $0.50 per day........
6
45
28 M. Porto Rican.
57 $0.45 per day........
6
45
1 M. Porto Rican.
9h
57 $0.40 per day........
6
45
9£
3 M. Porto Rican.
57 $0.25 per day........
6
45
c6 M. Porto Rican.
9§
9
2 M. Porto Rican.
6
54 $1 per d a y .............
46
48 $0.87 per day(d) . .
8
2 M. Porto Rican.
6
46
54 $0.85 per day........
9
6
46
1 M. Porto Rican.
48 $0.75 per day(d) ..
6
8
46
13 M. Porto Rican.
6
9
54 $0.65 per d ay........
46
2 M. Porto Rican.
48 $0.62 per day(d) . .
6
8
21 M. Porto Rican.
46
6
9
54 $0.62 per day........
46
1 M. Porto Rican.
8
48 $0.60 per day(<*) ..
6
46
8 M. Porto Rican.
54 $0.60 per day........
9
6
46
7 M. Porto Rican.
54 $0.55 per day........
6
9
46
30 M. Porto Rican.
8
48 $0.50 per day(<*) ..
6
46
36 M. Porto Rican.
54 $0.50 per day........
6
9
62 M. Porto Rican.
46
6
9
54 $0.45 per day........
46
6 M. Porto Rican.
54 $0.40 per day........
6
9
46
3 M. Porto Rican.
54 $0.35 per day........
6
9
1 M
Porto Rican.
46
12
72 $0.85 per day........
Porto Rican.
6
1 M
47
12
72 $0.80 per day........
Porto
Rican.
6
47
1 M.
72 $0.70 per day........
12
6
1 M. Porto Rican.
47
12
72 $0.65 per day........
47
13 M. Porto Rican. - 6
12
72 $0.60 per day........
6
47
13 M. Porto Rican.
12
72 $0.50 per day........
6
36 M. Porto Rican.
47
72 $0.45 per day........
12
6
47
11 M. Porto Rican.
72 $0.40 per day........
6
12
47
5 M. Porto Rican.
12
72 $0.35 per day........
6
47
1 M. Porto Rican.
72 $0.30 per day........
12
6
47
«3 M. Porto Rican.
72 $0.25 per day.........
12
c l M. Porto Rican.
6
47
12
72 $0.20 per day.........
6
c2 M. Porto Rican.
47
a And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week.
6 And bouse.
cBoys.
<*Employed at setting up machinery in new mill.
c Boys and old men.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
.75
.60
.50
.35
.85
.60
.55
.40
.30
.60
.55
.50
.45
.40
.35
.25
.20
•S3
.62*
.62
.56*
.56
.50
.45
.40
.25
1.00
d .87
.85
<*. 7 5
.65
d .62
.62
<*.60
.60
.55
<*.50
.50
.45
.40
.35
.85
.80
.70
.65
.60
.50
.45
.40
.35
.30
.25
.20
842
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
S U G A R P L A N T A T IO N S —Continued.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Laborers, pump:
Bayamon dept___
Ponce department.
Laborers, railroad:
Quayama dept___
Laborers, skilled, mill:
Guayama dept___
Laborers, tramway:
Arecibo dept..........
Ponce department.
Laborers, yard:
Ponce department.
Land dearers:
Arecibo d ept..........
Ponce department.
Land preparers:
Ponce department.
Lime burners:
Ponce department.
Machinists:
Arecibo dept..........
Guayama d ept___
Ponce department.
Estab- Em
Bays Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per
per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week.
num
ber.
45
45
46
2
1
2
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
42
42
20
20
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
3
4
3
4
14
10
25
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
44
44
44
45
46
47
1
3
62
4
2
2
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
46
46
46
46
8
7
61
69
M.
M.
M.
M.
44
44
44
44
46
1
4
13
61
(*)
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
U )
f Cl
f c)
1Cl
f Cl
f Cl
rci
(c)
(°)
(c)
(°)
47
43
43
43
43
44
44
44
44
42
42
42
42
46
46
46
46
46
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
57
57
54
$0.62} per d a y ___ $0.62}
10.50 per d a y ........
.50
10.90 per d a y ........
.90
10
10
60
60
$1.25 per d a y ........
$0.75 per d a y ........
1.25
.75
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
$2.75 per day ( « ) ...
$2.50 per day (o ) ...
$2.00 per day( « ) ...
$1.75 per day( « )...
$1.50 per day (a). . .
$1.25 per day (a )...
$1 per day (a )........
o2.75
o 2.50
o2.00
ol.75
ol.50
ol.25
a 1.00
Rican
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
5}
6
10
10
10
9*
10
12
60
60
60
57
55
72
$0.65 per day.........
$0.60 per day........
$0.35 per day.........
$0.62} per day.___
$0.50 per day........
$0.50 per day........
.65
.60
.35
.62}
.50
.50
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
54
54
54
54
$0.50 per day........
$0.45 per day........
$0.20 per day........
$0.15 per day........
.50
.45
.20
.15
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
9
9
9
9
(<*)
54
54
54
54
$0.60 per d ay........
$0.55 per day.........
$0.50 per d ay........
$0.30 per d ay........
$0.18f per acre(e)..
.60
.55
.50
.30
( c)
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
(d>
(d)
)d )
(d )
(d )
$1.22per acre( « ) . .
$1 per acre(«).......
$0.90 per aere(«). .
$0.80 per acre(«). .
$0.75 per acre(«)..
$0.73 per acre(«). .
$0.60 per acre(«)..
$0.50 per acre(<)..
$0.40 per acre(e)..
$0.37} per acre(«).
$0.25 per acre(«). .
( c)
(c)
CCI
1C1
(c)
4
M.
Porto Rican.
6
1
3
3
2
1
/I
/12
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
American___
American___
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6}
6}
6}
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
(d)
?di
vV
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d )
(d )
9}
9*
9
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
72
(C )
I c)
( c)
(ci
( c)
(c)
$0.50 per day........
.50
12
72 $0.85 per day
12
78 $0.80 per day........
12
78 $0.70 per d ay........
12
78 $0.60 per day........
11
66 $15 per week..........
10
60 $7.50 per week___
10
60 $0.65 per day.........
n
60 $0.55 per day........
10
i
60 $150 per month (0 )
10
i
10
60 $3 per day ( o ) ........
2
60 $2.75 per day (a )...
10
2
10
60 $2.50 per day(<*)...
2
8
48 $3.50 per day (ft). . .
2
8
48 $3 per day(ft)........
1
9
54 $2.90 per day.........
1
48 $2.25 per day(ft). . .
8
7
8
48 $2 per day(ft)........
a And lodging, estimated at 13 per month.
&Boys.
cN ot reported.
d Irregular.
« Contract work.
/ Also act as engineers.
Q And board and lodging, estimated at $4 per week,
ft Employed at setting up machinery in new mill.
.85
.80
.70
.60
2.50
1.25
.65
.55
if 5.75
03.00
02.75
0 2.50
ft 3.50
ft 3.00
2.90
ft 2.25
ft 2.00
12
«
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
vv
(d)
(d )
(d)
(<*)
843
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
S U G A R P LA N T A T IO N S —Continued.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Machinists—Conc’d.
Ponce department.
Machinist’ s helpers:
Ponce department.
Messenger:
Arecibo dept..........
Overseers:
Bayamon d ep t___
Ponce department.
Overseers, field:
Arecibo d ept..........
Guayama d ep t___
Overseers, field, asst.:
Arecibo d ept..........
Guyama d ep t........
Overseer, gang:
Arecibo dept..........
Overseers,
general
farming:
Ponce department.
Overseers, mill:
Arecibo d ept..........
Guayama d e p t___
Ponce department.
Ox feeders:
Ponce department.
Plowmen:
Arecibo d ept..........
Bayamon d ep t___
Ponce department.
Plumber:
Ponce department.
R attoon cultivator:
Bayamon d ept___
Roller tenders:
Ponce department.
EstabHours Hours
lish- Em Sex. Nationality. Days
per per per
ment ploy
week.
day. week.
ees.
num
ber.
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
46
46
1
1
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
8
8
48
48
$1.25 per day(<*)... a$1.25
$1 per day ( « ) ........ <*1.00
46
46
46
1
1
2
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
9
9
9
54
54
54
$0.90 per day........
$0.85 per day........
$0.75 per d ay........
.90
.85
.75
43
1
M.
Porto Rican.
7
8
56
$3 per week...........
.43
45
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
5
3
2
3
1
5
1
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto R ican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
94
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
664
84
84
84
84
84
84
84
$30 per month (&) . 6.984
$0.80 per d a y (c)... c.80
$0.75 per d ay(<*}... <*.75
$0.70 per day(« )... «.70
$0.50 per day(« )... «.50
$0.50 per day (jQ. . . /.50
$10 per week (0) . . 01.43
$7 per week ( g ) . . . 01.00
43
44
42
42
1
1
1
2
M.
M.
M.
M.
Spanish........
Porto Rican.
English.........
German........
6
6
6
6
11
11
10
10
66
66
60
60
$150 per m onth. . . 5.75
$20 per week......... 3.334
$150 per month (A) A5.75
$150 per month(A) A5.75
43
42
42
42
1
1
1
I
M.
M.
M.
M.
Spanish.........
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
*6
6
11
10
10
10
66
60
60
60
$60 per m onth___ 2.30
$75 per month ( i ) . <2.87*
$62 per month (t) . <2.374
$45 per month (*) . <1.724
43
10
M.
Porto Rican.
6
11
66
$0.75 per d ay........
.75
46
46
46
2
1
1
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
7
7
7
$0.40 per day........
$0.33 per day........
$2 per week...........
.40
.33
.284
44
42
42
47
47
47
47
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican
American___
American___
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
46
47
47
*16
*1
*9
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
64
44
44
45
45
45
45
45
46
46
46
1
*2
2
1
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Mi
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
46
45
46
*3
*1
O)
\m)
Rican.
Rican.
R ican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
(J)
0)
(j)
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(»)
M.
Porto Rican.
6
(m )
M.
Porto Rican.
6
1
« Employed at setting up machinery in new mill.
6 And house rent, estimated at 18 per month.
« And house.
4 And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week.
« And allowance of $0.50 per day for food.
/ And house and allowance of $3 per week for food.
§ And house rent, estimated at $2 per month.
7
7
(i)
(i)
0)
(j)
(0
(1)
10
10
12
12
12
12
66
60
60
84
84
84
84
$10 per week......... 1 664
$100 per month (0 <3.83|
$75 per month (* ). A2.874
$12 per week......... 1.714
$10 per week.........
1.43
$7 per week........... 1.00
$6 per week...........
.854
10
12
12
55
84
84
$0.10 per day........
$0.20 per day........
$0,124 per day.___
.10
.20
54
54
57
57
57
57
57
$0.55 per day........
$0.25 per day........
$0.62 per d ay........
$0.50 per day........
$0.40 per d ay........
$0.20 per day........
$0.15 per day........
$1.75 per a cre(»)..
$1,124 per a cre (»).
$0.75 per a cre(»)..
.55
.25
.62
.50
.40
.20
.15
11
9
9
9*
4
a y
(i)
16
8
(i)
9
(f)
14
(4
48
(0
54
.1 2 4
(in's
( to)
( to)
$3.50 per day (<*)... <*3.50
$0.40 per a cre(»). .
(m)
$0.04 per ton of
cane. (»)
(TO)
And house rent, estimated at $5 per month.
<And lodging, estimated at $3 per month.
Irregular.
* And board and lodging, estimated at $4per week.
* Boys.
*» N ot reported.
» Contract work.
h
i
844
BU LLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
S U G A R P L A N T A T IO N S —Continued.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
day. week.
num
ber.
Stablemen:
Arecibo dept.........
Ponce department.
Stenographer:
Guayama d e p t___
Stock herders:
Bayamon d e p t___
Ponce department.
Storekeepers:
Bayamon d e p t___
Guayama d e p t. . . .
43
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
47
Guayama d e p t___
Sugar boiler's assist
ants:
Arecibo dept.........
Bayamon dept-----
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
P orto
Porto
P orto
P orto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
7
7
6*
7
‘ 7
6*
7
7
6*
7
7
7
7
7
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
10
42
1
M.
American___
6
45
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
47
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
62
61
3
61
61
</)
2
1
62
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
P orto
P orto
Porto
P orto
P orto
P orto
P orto
Porto
P orto
P orto
P orto
P orto
P orto
P orto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
9*
7
12
6*
12
7
12
7
7
12
12
7
12
6*
12
7
6*
12
7
12
7 fa)
12
6*
12
7
12
6*
12
7
12
7
7 fa)
7 fa)
7 fa)
7
12
7
12
7
12
45
42
42
42
1
1
1
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
American___
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
6
1
1
M.
M.
M.
Cuban...........
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
?
a
American___
German........
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
6
6
6
6
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Rican.
Sugar boilers:
Arecibo dept......... » 43
44
Bayamon d e p t___
45
Ponce department.
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
61
a
42
42
46
46
46
46
2
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
44
44
45
1
2
1
M.
M.
M.
i
i
i
i
i
Rica*!.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
9*
10
10
10
$3.50 per week___ $0.50
$0.60 per day («) .. «.60
$0.50 per day (a) .. a .50
$0.50 per day (a) .. a .50
$0.45 per day (a) .. a . 45
$0.40 per day (a) .. a .40
$0.40 per day (a) .. o . 40
$0.40 per day........
.40
$0.25 per dayfa) .. a . 25
$0.25 per dayfa) .. o.25
$0.25 per day........
.25
$0.50 per day («) .. a.50
$0.45 per day (a) .. a .45
$0.25 per day (a) .. o.25
60
$40 per month ( c ) . c l. 53*
66*
78
84
84
84
84
78
84
78
84
fa)
78
84
78
84
84
fa)
fa)
fa)
84
84
84
57
60
60
60
(e\
6
6
6
10
10
9
9
9
9
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
84
84
78
84
84
78
84
84
78
84
84
84
84
84
%
9*
Rates of wages.
57
60
60
54
54
54
54
$1 per d ay.............
$0.70 per dayfa) ..
$0.64 per day fa) ..
$0.60 per dayfa) ..
$0.56 per day fa) ..
$0.54 per day fa) ..
$0.50 per day........
$0.50 per day........
$0.40 per dayfa) ..
$0.40 per d ay........
$0.40 per d ay........
$0.30 per dayfa) ..
$0.30 per d ay........
$0.25 per day........
$0.23 per d ay........
$0.20 per dayfa) ..
$0.20 per d ay........
$0.18 per day........
fa)
$0.50 per d ay........
$0.40 per day........
$0.20 per d ay........
1.00
<*. 70
d .64
<*.60
<*.56
o.54
.50
.50
d .40
.40
.40
<*.30
.30
.25
.23
o.20
.20
.18
fa)
.40
.20
$0.75 per day........
.75
$75 per m onth___ 2.87*
$50 per month ( c ) . c 1.91*
$40 per m on th fa ). c l. 53*
$100 per m onthfa). 63.54
$25 per week......... 4.16*
$0.08 per bag of *10.66*
sugar.
$75 per monthfa) . 62.87*
$75 per monthfa) . k 2.87*
$2.50 per d ay........ 2.50
$1 per day............. 1.00
$0.90 per day........
.90
$0.85 per d ay........
.85
10
60 $7 pftr waaIt
10
60 $5 per week...........
57 $0.87* per d ay ___
9*
° And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week.
6 Boys.
c And board and lodging, estimated at $4 per week.
« And bouse.
« Irregular.
/N o t reported.
9 Contract work.
Rate of pay not reported.
h And bonus of 1 cent per 100 pounds of sugar.
i Has general supervision over manufacture.
i Estimated.
* And lodging, estimated at 13 per month.
1.16*
.83*
.87*
845
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO,
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES^-Continued.
SU G A R PL A N T A T IO N S —Continued.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per
per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day.
week.
num
ber.
Sugar weighers:
Ponce department.
Sugar weighers and
sackers:
Ponce department.
Superintendents:
Bayamon dept___
Ponce department.
Superintendents, as
sistant:
Ponce department.
Superintendent, gen
eral, farming:
Ponce department.
Superintendent, mill:
Ponce department.
Superintendent, rail
road:
Guayama dept___
Teamsters:
Arecibo d e p t.........
Bayamon d ept___
Ponce department.
46
46
1
1
M.
M.
French..........
Porto Rican.
6
6
9
9
46
<9
1
2
1
1
1
M.
Porto Rican.
(<9
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
D utch...........
Spanish:___
Spanish........
Spanish........
Spanish........
7
7
7
7
7
09
09
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
45
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
2
2
46
1
1
M.
(9
7
M.
French..........
6
42
1
M.
American___
43
44
44
44
44
44
45
45
45
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
47
47
5
3
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
5*
6
54
46
3
1
2
2
22
7
1
i>3
9
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
10
(9
1
3
2
1
P i
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
7
6
7
6
6
7
5?
6%
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
<$
09
09
09
54
54
09
§
09
09
09
12
11
12
11
11
12
84
09
12
09
10
12
10
10
10
10
10
94
94
94
10
12
9
9
10
9
12
12
09
12
12
12
12
Rates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
$30 per month (0 ) . «$1.15
$30 per month (6). 6 1.15
(9
(9
$180 per month (/)
$100 per month (0 )
$100 per month (A)
$80 per m onth (9 ..
$50 per month (/) .
/5.92
93.29
6 3.29
*2.63
J 1.644
$2 per day (* )------ * 2.00
66 $35 per month (1) . H.34
84
$35 per month (9 . 11.15
84
$25 per m onth(0 .
1.82
$150 per m on th .. .
4.93
66 $30 per m onth(«»). «*1.15
66 $25 per month (»»). ™.96
72
$200 per m onth(») »7.67
60
$175 per month ( 0) o6.71
72
60
60
60
60
60
57
57
57
55
72
494
49}
55
584
72
72
$0.55 per day........
$0.70 per day........
$0.60 per d ay........
$0.55 per day........
$0.50 per day........
$0.25 per day........
$0.50 per day........
$0.45 per day........
$0.20 per day........
$0.46 per day( 9) ..
$2.50 per week(g) .
$0.40 per day (9) ..
$0.40 per day(n ..
$0.40 per day (9) ..
$0.40 per d ay........
$2.20 per week (9 ).
$1.20 per week (9) .
72
72
84
72
$0.65 per day........
$0.60 per day........
$0.55 per day........
$0.45 per d ay........
09
(9
.55
.70
.60
.55
.50
.25
.50
.45
.20
. 46
9.414
q
9.40
r .40
9.40
.40
9.364
9.20
(9
.65
.60
.55
.45
a And board and lodging, estimated at $15 per month,
t And allowance of 50 cents per day for food.
cN ot reported.
d Irregular.
e Contract work.
Earnings not reported.
/A n d house rent, estimated at $15 per month.
0 And house rent, estimated at $10 per month.
A And house rent, estimated at $15 per month, and allowance of $16 per week for food for himself
and two assistants.
1 And house rent, estimated at $10 per month, and allowance of $2.25 per day for food for himself
and three assistants.
i And house rent, estimated at $10 per month, and allowance of $11.20 per week for food for himself
and two assistants.
* And allowance of $7 per week each for food.
1And food, furnished oy superintendent.
m And food, estimated at $3 per week.
» And house rent, estimated at $20 per month,
o And lodging, estimated at $3 per month.
pB oys.
9 And house.
r And breakfast of coffee and bread, estimated at 5 cents.
« Contract work at rate of $3.75 per 44 cartloads of cane.
846
BU LLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OP LABOB.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued.
S U G A R PLA N T A T IO N S—Concluded.
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week.
day. week.
num
ber.
Teamsters—Conc’d.
Ponce department.
Teamster’ s helpers:
Ponce department.
Timekeeper:
Guayama dept —
Top plant gatherer:
Bayamon d ep t___
Waiter:
Ponce department.
Warehouseman:
Ponce department.
Watchmen:
Ponce department.
Watchmen, ditch:
Ponce department.
Watchmen, field:
Arecibo d e p t.........
Watchmen, m m :
Arecibo d e p t.........
Water boy:
Bayamon d e p t___
Wiper, locomotive:
Ponce department.
W ood choppers:
Ponce department.
47
47
47
1
1
1
M.
M.
M.
46
*3
42
42
1
3
Bates of wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
12
12
12
84
72
84
$0.45 per day(«) .. <*$0.45
.40
$0.40 per day........
$0.40 per day(o) .. <*.40
10
10
10
55
$0.20 per d ay........
6
6
60
60
$75 per month ( c ) . c 2.874
$40 per month (<*) . 41.534
Porto Bican.
Porto Rican.
Porto Bican.
6
M.
Porto Bican.
H
M.
M.
American___
Porto Bican.
7
7
.20
45
<«)
M.
Porto Rican.
6
</)
$0.40 per car( 0) . . .
(•)
47
1
1
M.
Porto Bican.
7
12
84
$0.50 per day (ft) ..
ft. 50
M.
French..........
6
9
54
$40 per month (*') .
1
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Bican.
Bican.
Rican.
Bican.
Rican.
Bican.
Rican.
Rican.
Rican.
Bican.
Rican.
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
12
12
12
12
12
12
6
12
12
12
12
84
84
84
84
84
84
42
84
84
84
84
$0.70 per d ay........
$0.60 per d ay........
$0.50 per day(ft) ..
$0.50 per day (i) ..
$0.50 per day........
$0.40 per day(i) ..
$0.25 per day (ft) ..
$0.86 per d ay........
$0.50 per day(«) ..
$0.50 per day........
$0.45 per day........
.70
.60
ft.50
i.5 0
.50
i.40
ft.25
M.
M.
Porto Rican.
Porto Bican.
7
7
12
12
84
84
$1 per week (ft)__
ft. 144
ft. 10
M.
Porto Rican.
7
M.
M.
Porto Bican.
Porto Bican.
7
7
12
12
6
6
94
57
$0.25 per d ay........
.25
9
54
$0.50 per d ay........
.50
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
47
47
46
46
43
43
44
45
46
46
3
3
7
8
4
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
(‘ )
M.
Porto Bican.
M.
Porto Bican.
M.
Porto Bican.
(/)
(/)
</)
(/)
</)
84
84
</)
$0.70 per week (ft) .
i
1.534
.86
<*.50
.50
.45
$8 par week
.43
$4 par week _ .
$3.50 per week___
.57
.50
$8 per 100 trees ( p ) .
(«)
T A IL O R SH OPS.
Apprentice:
San Juan................
Tailors: (!)
Ponce......................
San Juan................
49
48
49
1
2
3
M.
Porto Rican.
6
9
54
$1 per week........... $0,164
M.
M.
Porto Bican.
Porto Rican.
6
6
10
60
54
$2 per day(*»)___ «» 2.00
$1 per d ay............. 1.00
9
° And house rent, estimated at $2 per month.
6 Boys.
c'And board and lodging, estimated at $4 per week.
* And lodging, estimated at 13 per month.
« N ot reported.
/Irregular.
9 Contract work.
ft And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week.
i And board and lodging, estimated at $15 per month,
i And house.
ft Employed on several plantations and receives pay from each,
i Proprietors do all cutting.
*» Average earnings, from piece rates, estimated by employer.
847
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO,
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES,
BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Concluded.
TOBACCO C U L T U R E .
Occupation and lo
cality.
Estab- Em
Days Hours Hours
lish- ploy
per
per per
ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week.
num
ber.
Cultivators:
Aibonito.................
Field hands:
Aibonito.................
Harvesters:
Aibonito.................
Laborers,
curing
houses:
Aibonito.................
Teamsters:
Aibonito.................
Tobacco curers:
A ibonito.................
50
435
M.
Porto Rican.
50
600
<6)
<«)
50
900
(b)
Porto Ricane
50
30
M.
50
20
M.
50
30
M.
Porto Rican.
6
<*)
10
60
$0.45 per day(«) .. « $0.45
$0.40 per day (a) ..
a .40
60
$0.40 per day (a) ..
a. 40
60
(d )
(<*)
6
10
Porto Rican.
6
10
Porto Rican.
6
(<*)
Equiv
alent
rate
per
day.
Rates of wages.
$0.45 per day (a) ..
a . 45
<*)
(d)
$0.40 per day (a) ..
a . 40
<*)
W
$0.40 per day (a) ..
a . 40
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF SUPERINTENDENTS, PRINCIPALS,
TEACHERS, AND JANITORS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
[Teachers employed in the public schools of the island receive, in addition to their salaries, which are
>aid directly by the insular department of education, certain allowances for .house rent from the
ocal school boards. These amounts vary from $3 to $8 per month in the rural districts and from $10
to $15 in the cities, and are presumably based upon the usual cost of house rent in the several
localities, as well as the relative importance of the position held by the teacher. The salaries of
teachers are paid in twelve monthly installments, although the school year consists of nine calendar
months. During the three months’ vacation drafts in payment of salary are mailed to any address
desired.]
{
Occupation.
TTigh schools............................
Industrial schools...................
Principals, acting:
Common schools......................
Principal, supervising:
Industrial schools...................
Teachers:
Common graded schools, Eng.
Days Hours Hours
per
per
per
Rates of wages.
week. day. week.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
American.......
American.......
American.......
Porto R ican..
American.......
Porto R ican..
Porto R ican..
29
3
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
M.
F.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
F.
Porto R ican..
Porto R ican ..
American.......
American.......
American.......
American.......
American.......
American.......
Porto R ican ..
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
$675 per year.
$675 per year.
$1,500 per year.
$1,200 per year.
$1,000 per year.
$1,500 per year.
$1,200 per year.
$1,000 per year.
$9p0 per year.
18
3
M.
F.
Porto R ican..
Porto R ican..
5
5
6
6
30
30
$540 per year.
$540 per year.
1
M.
American.......
(/)
8
8
1
(/)
2
American.......
5
F.
American.......
5
1 M.
Porto R ican..
4 M.
5
14
Porto R ican..
5
F.
American.......
5
F.
8
American.......
5
5
F.
Porto R ican ..
5
Common graded schools, Span. 193 M.
162
Porto R ican ..
5
F.
5
5 M.
Porto R ican..
5
F.
Porto R ican..
5
« Average wages.
5 Males and females,
c Principally Porto Ricans.
«*Not reported.
« About 2 per cent are of other nationalities.
/Irregular.
o Examinations and special work.
276—No. 61—06 M------- 9
$1,400 per year.
$1,300 per year.
$1,200 per year.
$1,200 per year.
$1,000 per year.
$1,000 per year.
0 $1,800 per year
2
2
5
1
8
1
01
SSSSSSS
Principals:
Common schools......................
Nationality.
s s s s s s s
Superintendents:
Common schools.....................
Em
ploy Sex.
ees.
(/)
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
$2,500 per year.
$675 per
$540 per
$540 per
$540 per
$540 per
$450 per
$450 per
$450 per
$405 per
$405 per
year.
year.
year.
year.
year.
year.
year.
year.
year.
year.
848
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF SUPERINTENDENTS, PRINCIPALS,
TEACHERS, AND JANITORS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS—Concluded.
Occupation.
Teachers—Concluded.
Common rural schools............
Common night schools...........
High schools............................
Industrial schools...................
Teachers of agriculture:
Common schools......................
Teachers of drawing:
Common schools......................
Teachers of English:
Common schools......................
Teachers of kindergarten:
Common schools.....................
Teachers of music:
Common schools......................
Janitors:
Common schools......................
Em
ploy Sex.
ees.
2
332
135
45
36
26
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
19
1
6
4
4
2
2
1
2
3
2
6
6
1
1
1
3
3
3
M.
M.
F.
M.
F.
M.
F.
M.
F.
M.
M.
F.
M.
M.
F.
M.
F.
F.
F.
M.
F.
M.
F.
M.
F.
M.
F.
F.
M.
F.
M.
F.
F.
M.
F.
F.
F.
9
2
3
24
33
15
23
Nationality.
Days Hours Hours
per
per
per
week. day. week.
Porto R ican ..
Porto R ican..
Porto R ican..
Porto R ican..
Porto R ican..
Porto R ican..
Porto R ican ..
American.......
American.......
Porto R ican..
American.......
American.......
Porto R ican..
American.......
American.......
American.......
American.......
Porto R ican ..
American.......
Porto R ican ..
American.......
Porto R ican ..
Porto R ican ..
American.......
American.......
Porto R ican..
American.......
American.......
American.......
American.......
Porto R ican ..
Porto R ican..
Porto R ican..
Porto R ican..
American.......
Porto R ican..
Porto R ican ..
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
M.
Porto R ican ..
M.
F.
American.-___
American.......
M.
F.
M.
F.
American__
American.......
American.......
American.......
6
6
6
6
6
Rates of wages.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
30
30
30
30
30
(*)
(&)
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
5
6
30
$540 per year.
5
5
6
6
30
30
$675 per year.
$675 per y ea r..
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
30
30
30
30
$540 per year.
$54Q.per year.
$450 per year.
$450 per year.
(? )
(&)
“ $360 per year.
$270 per year.
$270 per year.
$225 per year.
$225 per year.
$90 per year.
$90 per year.
$1,200 per year.
$1,200 per year.
$1,200 per year.
$1,000 per year.
$1,000 per year.
$1,000 per year.
$900 per year.
$800 per year.
$750 per year.
$750 per year.
$750 per year.
$675 per year.
$675 per year.
$585 per year.
$585 per year.
$585 per year.
$900 per year.
$900 per year.
$900 per year.
$750 per year.
$720 per year.
$675 per year.
$675 per year.
$675 per year.
$675 per year.
$630 per year.
$585 per year.
$540 per year.
$450 per year.
$225 per year.
2
F.
Porto R ican ..
5
6
30
$450 per year.
2
F.
American.......
5
6
30
$675 per year.
2
1
1
2
1
1
M.
F.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Porto R ican ..
Porto R ican ..
American.......
Porto R ican ..
Porto R ican ..
Porto R ican..
5£
54
5|
5£
10
10
10
10
10
10
55
55
55
55
55
55
$360 per year.
$360 per year.
$360 per year.
$240 per year.
$180 per year.
$168 per year.
“ No allowance for house rent.
&Not reported.
51
849
LABOR CONDITION'S IN PORTO RICO.
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN ROAD REPAIR
ING BY BOARD OF PUBLIC WORKS.
Occupation.
Foremen..................
Laborers..................
Em
ploy
ees.
Sex.
1
1
1
2
X
4
51
20
22
1
2
17
33
a 1
a 1
3
6
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Boy.
& Irregular.
Nationality.
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Porto
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
Rican.........
R ican.........
Days Hours Hours
per
per
per
week. day. ! week.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
8 ![
8 |
8
8 !
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
(&)
(6)
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
(*)
( 6)
Rates of
wages.
! $0.12* per h o u r .
$0.50 per d a y ...
Ii $0.75 per d a y ...
j $0.66 per d a y ...
!; $0.64 per d a y ...
:! $0.60 per d a y ...
$0.50 per d a y ...
$0.48 per d a y ...
$0.40 per d a y ...
$0.30 per d a y ...
$0.25 per d a y ...
$0.06 per h o u r ..
$0.05 per hour ..
$0.03 per hour ..
$0.02 per hour ..
(C)
(<*)
Equiv
alent
rate
per day
$1.00
.50
.75
.66
.64
.60
.50
.48
.40
.30
.25
.48
.40
.24
.16
( c)
(rf)
c Crushing stone for road ballast at $0.55 per cubic meter.
Crushing stone for road ballast at $0.50 per cubic meter.
a
d
WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN TELEGRAPH
SERVICE BY BUREAU OF INSULAR TELEGRAPH.
Occupation.
Clerks.........................
Linemen.....................
Messengers................
Operator, chief.........
Operators..................
Receiving and dis
bursing officer.
Stenographer............
Superintendent.........
Em
ploy
ees.
Days Hours Hours
per
per
per !
week. day. week. i
Rates of
wages.
Equiv
alent
rate
per day
Sex.
Nationality.
1
2
1
9
1
3
7
3
1
1
1
3
4
1
2
1
10
2
3
1
16
11
1
M.
F.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
F.
M.
M.
M.
F.
M.
F.
M.
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
American..............
American..............
American..............
American..............
Porto Rican.........
American..............
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
American..............
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
Porto Rican.........
American..............
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
6
8
10
8
8
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
8
48
70
56
56
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
48
$400 per year...
$480 per year...
$720 per year...
$480 per year...
$240 per year...
$180 per year...
$120 per year...
$60 per year__
$1,080 per year.
$1,080 per year.
$1,000 per year.
$900 per year...
$900 per year...
$840 per year...
$840 per year...
$840 per year...
$720 per year...
$600 per year...
$600 per year...
$600 per year...
$480 per year...
$480 per year...
$1,200 per year.
$1.32
1.311
1.97*
1.31*
.66
.49*
.33
.16*
2.96
2.96
2.74
2.46*
2.46*
2.30
2.30
2.30
1.97*
1.64*
1.64*
1.64*
1.31*
1.31*
3.83*
1
1
M.
M.
American..............
American..............
6
6
8
8
48
48
$900 per year...
$1,800 per year.
2.87*
5.75
850
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
LAWS RELATING TO LABOR IN PORTO RICO.
REVISED STATUTES AND CODES— 1902.
R e v is e d S t a t u t e s .
E m p lo ym en t o f children .
Section 166. No child o f either sex, under sixteen years shall be compelled to
work in agricultural factories and manufacturing establishments over six hours
per day, three in the morning and three in the afternoon. All persons who shall
violate this provision shall be fined in a sum o f from five to fifteen dollars, or
imprisonment not to exceed thirty days for each offense.
Sec. 167. No foreman, teacher or other person having under his charge the
work, care or education of a minor under sixteen years of age, shall resort to
inhumane treatment to compel such minor to work or to study. Any violation
o f the provisions hereof shall be punished with a fine o f from five to fifteen
dollars or imprisonment not to exceed thirty days for each offense.
P rotection o f em p loyees as v o te r s .
Section 289. ♦ * * if an employer o f laborers or an agent o f such employer
threatens to withhold the wages of, or to dismiss from service any laborer in
his employment, or refuse[s] to allow any such employee the time to attend
at the place o f election and vote, [he] shall be guilty o f a felony, and disfran
chised and rendered incapable o f holding any office of trust or profit for any
determinate period.
L ia b ility o f em p loyers fo r in ju ries to em p loyees.
Section 322. Where, after the passage of this act, personal injury is caused
to an employee who is himself in the exercise o f due care and diligence at the
time:
1. By reason of any defect in the condition o f the ways, works, or machinery,
connected with, or used in the business of the employer, which arose from or had
not been discovered or remedied owing to the negligence o f the employer or of
any person in the service of the employer and entrusted by him with the duty of
seeing that the ways, works, or machinery, were in proper condition; or
2. By reason of the negligence o f any person in the service o f the employer
entrusted with the exercising of superintendence whose sole or principal duty
is that of superintendence; or
3. By reason of the negligence o f any person in the service o f the employer
who has charge of, or physically controls, any signal switch, locomotive engine,
car or train in motion, whether attached to an engine or not, upon a railroad,
the employee, or, in case the injury results in death, his widow or children, or
both o f them, and if there be no such widow and children, then his parents (pro
vided that said parents were dependent upon such employee for support) may
maintain an action for damages against the employer, pursuant to the pro
visions of this act.
S eo . 323. When an employee receives a personal injury under any o f the con
ditions enumerated in section 1 hereof [sec. 322], he may bring an action against
his employer before the proper district court to recover damages for such
injury. The damages so recovered shall not exceed the sum o f two thousand
dollars, and in assessing the amount of such damages the court shall take into
consideration the degree of culpability o f the employer, or o f the person for
whose negligence the employer is liable hereunder, the sums expended by the
employee for medical attendance, for drugs, medicines and similar necessary
expenses, and the loss o f wages while recovering from the in ju ry; the court shall
also take into consideration the physical pain and suffering caused by the injury.
I f the injury be of such character as to permanently impair the earning capacity
of the employee, the court shall include in the damages awarded an allowance
for such loss. In case the injury results in a temporary impairment o f his earn
ing capacity, the court, in addition to pain and suffering and the expenditures
for medical services and drugs, shall take into consideration the average rate
of wages which, under ordinary conditions, he might have earned if not injured.
Sec. 324. In case of the death of the employee before the termination of the
action so brought against the employer, it may be continued in the name o f his
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
851
widow or children, and if there be no such widow or children, then in the name
of his parents, if they, or either o f them, were dependent upon such employee
for support at the time of the injury. If it shall appear in any action so con
tinued in the name o f the widow, children or parents o f a deceased injured
employee that the death was the result of the injury, damages shall be assessed
by the court in a sum not to exceed three thousand dollars; and the court shall
estimate such damages in accordance w ith :
(a) The degree o f culpability o f the employer or of the person for whose
negligence the employer is liable.
(b) The material damage incurred by the claimant or claimants through the
death o f the employee in accordance with the actual needs that said claimant
or claimants had to depend upon the wages of such employee for their support,
taking into consideration his earning capacity and his probabilities of life, at
the time o f the accident.
Sec. 325. When, before having commenced an action hereunder, an employee
dies as the result o f personal injury received under any o f the conditions
enumerated under section 1 hereof [sec. 322], his widow, children, or both of
them, or if there be no such widow or children, then his parents, provided such
parents were dependent upon such employee for support at the time o f the
injury, may maintain an action against the employer before the proper district
court, for damages caused by the death of such employee. Such damages shall
not exceed the sum o f three thousand dollars and shall be fixed by the court in
accordance with:
(a ) The degree of culpability of the employer or o f the person for whose
negligence the employer is liable.
(b) The material damage incurred by the claimant or claimants through the
death of an employee in accordance with the actual needs that such claimant
or claimants had to depend upon the wages o f such employee for their support,
taking into consideration his earning capacity and his probabilities o f life, at
the time of the accident.
S e c . 326. The court, when fixing the amount o f damages to be paid in case
o f death by personal injury under this act, shall determine the amount due to
each of the claimants in proportion to the material damages incurred by each o f
them in accordance with the actual needs which each of them had to depend
upon the wages of the employee whose death was caused by accident.
S ec . 327. No action for the recovery of damages for injury or death under
the provisions o f this act shall be maintained unless notice o f the time, place
and cause of the injury is given to the employer within thirty days after the
injury is received or unless it is commenced within six months from the date of
the injury. The notice required by this section shall be in writing, signed by
the person injured or by some one in his behalf; but if from physical or mental
incapacity it is impossible for the person injured to give the notice within the
time provided in said section, he may give the same within ten days after
the incapacity is removed, and in case o f his death without having given the
notice and without having been at any time after his injury of sufficient ca
pacity to give the notice the person or persons entitled to claim compensation
pursuant to the provisions o f this act, or their representatives, may give such
notice within thirty days after the death o f such employee. But no notice given
under the provisions o f this section shall be deemed to be invalid or insufficient
solely by reason o f any inaccuracy in stating the time, place or cause of the
injury: P ro vid ed , It is shown that there was no intention to mislead, and that
the party entitled to notice was not in fact misled thereby.
S e c . 328. Whenever an employee [employer] enters into a contract, either
written or verbal, with an independent contractor to do part o f such employer’s
work, or whenever such contractor enters into a contract with a subcontractor
to do all or any part o f the work comprised in such contractor’s contract with
the employer, such contract or subcontract shall not bar the liability of the
employer for injuries to the employees o f such contractor or subcontractor,
by reason of any defect in the condition of the ways, works, machinery, or
plant, if they are the property of the employer, or furnished by him, and if
such defect arose or had not been discovered or remedied through the negligence
o f the employer or of some person entrusted by him with the duty o f seeing
that they were in proper condition.
S e c . 329. No employee, or his widow or children, or either o f them, or his
parents, if there be no such widow or children, shall be entitled under this act
to any right o f compensation or remedy against the employer in any case where
such employee knew o f the defect or negligence which caused the injury, and
852
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
failed within a reasonable time to give, or cause to be given, information
thereof to the employer, or to some person superior to himself in the service of
the employer who had entrusted to him some general superintendence.
Sec. 330. Any employer wTho shall have contributed to an insurance fund
created and maintained for the mutual purpose o f indemnifying an employee
for personal injuries for which compensation may be recovered under this act,
or who has insured the said employee in any insurance company against the
accidents of labor, shall be entitled to have deducted from the sum which he
shall have to pay as compensation under the provisions of this act, the amount
that shall have been received by the person injured, or by his widow, or chil
dren, or both o f them, or by the parents, if there be no such widow and children,
from the aforesaid fund or from the insurance company, by reason of the same
accident.
S e c . 331. This act shall not apply to injuries caused to domestic servants, or
farm laborers, by fellow employees.
C ontracts o f em p loym en t — E n fo rcem en t.
S e c t io n 369. Every person who shall bring an action for the fulfillment of any
obligation, may obtain an order from the court having cognizance o f the suit
providing that the proper measures be taken to secure the effectiveness o f the
judgment, as the case may require it, should it be rendered in his favor.
S e c . 370. The effectiveness o f the judgment shall be secured in the following
manner:
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
(c)
I f the obligation consists in the doing o f a thing an attachment shall be
issued against the person who is under such obligation for a sum necessary to
execute the work left undone or done otherwise than as provided in the
agreement.'
*
♦
♦
*
♦
♦
*
Lahor com binations n ot unlawful.
S e c t io n 553. The orderly and peaceable assembling or cooperation of persons
employed in any calling, trade or handicraft, for the purpose of obtaining an
advance in the rate of wages or compensation, or o f maintaining such rate,
shall not be unlawful, nor shall it be unlawful for such persons to organize
trade or labor assemblies or unions for the purpose o f bettering the mental and
material condition of the members thereof by lawful peaceable means.
In tim id ation o f em p loyees.
S e c t io n 554. The employment o f force, violence, intimidation or menace, or
any form of coercion, by any person, or by persons associated together, against
any other person or persons, whether with the object o f preventing them from
freely pursuing their employments, professions or trades or whether with the
object o f influencing the price or remuneration paid for their work, shall be a
misdemeanor, and any person convicted thereof shall be imprisoned not less
than thirty days nor more than one year, or fined not less than ten dollars nor
more than five hundred dollars, or both fined and imprisoned.
H o u rs o f labor on public w o rk s — R esid en ts.
S e c t io n 624. * * * no laborers shall be compelled to work more than
eight hours per day, and they shall be, if possible, residents o f the municipality.
E xa m in a tion and licensing o f plum bers.
S e c t io n
*
*
*
764. [It shall be the duty o f the board o f health] to establish rules
for examination and licensing o f plumbers ♦ * ♦
P e n a l C ode .
P ro tectio n o f em p loyees as voters.
S e c t io n 188. * * * if an employer o f laborers or any agent of such em
ployer threatens to withhold the wages of, or to dismiss from service any
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO.
853
laborer in his employment, or refuses to allow to any such employee time to at
tend at the place of election and vote, [he] shall be fined not more than one
thousand dollars nor less than twenty dollars, or imprisoned in the peniten
tiary not more than five years nor less than one year, and disfranchised and
rendered incapable o f holding any office of trust or profit for any period not
exceeding ten years.
E m p lo ym en t o f children— Certain em p loym en ts forbidden.
S e c t io n 265. Any person, whether as parent, relative, guardian, employer or
otherwise, having in his care, custody, or control any child under the age of
twelve years, who shall sell, apprentice, give away, let out, or otherwise dispose
o f any such child to any person, under any name, title, or pretense, for the voca
tion, use, occupation, calling, [or] service of begging, or peddling, in any public
street or highway, or in any mendicant or wandering business whatsoever, and
any person who shall take, receive, hire, employ, use, or have in custody any
child for such purposes, or either of them, is guilty of a misdemeanor.
N egligence o f operators o f steam boilers , etc.
S e c t io n 325. Every engineer or other person having charge o f any steam
boiler, steam engine, or other apparatus for generating or employing steam,
used in any manufactory, railway, or other works, who willfully, or from igno
rance, or gross neglect, creates or allows to be created such an undue quantity
of steam as to burst or break the boiler, or engine, or apparatus, or cause any
other accident whereby human life is endangered, is guilty of a felony.
Sec. 326. Every person having charge of any steam boiler or steam engine, or
other apparatus for generating or employing steam used in any manufactory, or
on any railroad, or in any vessel, or in any kind of mechanical work, who will
fully or from ignorance or neglect, creates, or allow.s to be created, such an
undue quantity o f steam as to burst or break the boiler, engine, or apparatus,
or to cause any other accident whereby the death o f a human being is produced,
is punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary for not less than one nor
more than ten years.
S e c . 327. Evdry captain or other person having charge o f any steamboat used
for the conveyance o f passengers, or o f the boilers and engines thereof, who
from ignorance or gross neglect, or for the purpose of excelling any other boat
in speed, creates, or allows to be created, such an undue quantity o f steam as to
burst or break the boiler or any apparatus or machinery connected therewith,
by which bursting or breaking human life is endangered, is guilty of a felony.
S e c . 328. Every conductor, engineer, brakeman, switchman, or other person
having charge, wholly or in part, of any railroad car, locomotive, or train,
which is used as a common carrier, who willfully or negligently suffers or
causes the same to collide with another car, locomotive, or train, or with any
other object or thing whereby the death of a human being is produced is pun
ishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary for not less than one nor more than
ten years.
In toxica tion o f railroad e m p lo yees , etc.
S e c t io n 344. Every person who is intoxicated while in charge o f a locomotive
engine, or while acting as conductor or driver upon any railroad train or car,
whether propelled by steam or electricity, or while acting as train dispatcher, or
as telegraph operator, receiving or transmitting dispatches in relation to the
movement o f trains, is guilty of a misdemeanor.
P ro tectio n o f em p loyees as m em bers o f labor organizations.
465. Any person or corporation within Porto Rico, or agent or officer
on behalf of such person or corporation, who shall hereafter coerce or compel any
person or persons to enter into an agreement, either written or verbal, not to join
or become a member o f any labor organization, as a condition o f such person or
persons securing employment or continuing in the employment o f any such per
sons or corporation, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor.
S e c t io n
S u n day labor.
S e c t io n 553. On every Sunday commercial and industrial establishments,
excepting public markets, pharmacies, bakeries, hotels, restaurants, cafes, and
854
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
places where refreshments only are served, excepting also public and quasi
public utilities and works o f emergency, necessary to prevent unusual and seri
ous financial loss, shall remain closed and do no business whatever after twelve
o’clock noon. This prohibition shall not, however, extend to theaters and other
places devoted exclusively to amusements or to charitable purposes; at all
such places it shall be lawful to work at any hour on Sunday, but only in aid
o f such charitable purposes or amusements.
S e c . 554. The municipal council of any municipality may, by ordinance, re
quire commercial and industrial establishments, including those excepted in
section 553, or any o f them, to remain closed at all hours on Sunday, excepting
the works of emergency therein mentioned.
Sec. 556. Any person, firm or corporation violating the provisions o f this
title, or any part thereof, or o f an order issued by an alcalde or ordinance passed
by a municipal council under the authority o f this title, shall be fined in the
police court for the first offense in a sum which shall not be less than five dol
lars ($5) nor exceed ten dollars ($10) ; and for a subsequent offense, in a sum
which shall not be less than ten dollars ($10), nor exceed twenty-five dollars
($25). And for this purpose, the police courts shall have jurisdiction to impose
the fines herein provided; and in all cases in which the fine imposed shall ex
ceed, excluding costs, the sum o f ten dollars ($10), an appeal may be taken to
the proper district court in the manner provided by law for other appeals from
the police courts. In default of the payment o f any fine imposed hereuuder
[hereunder] within three days after the judgment shall have been entered or
the appeal dismissed, the person convicted shall pay the said fine by imprison
ment in the municipal jail, or in any other penal institution, at the rate o f one
day for each half dollar o f said fine remaining unpaid.
C i v i l C ode .
E arn in gs o f m in ors.
S e c t io n 225. Property acquired by an unemancipated child by labor or indus
try, o f for any valuable consideration, belongs to the said child, but the usufruct
thereof belongs to the parents having potestas over him whilst he lives in their
company; but if the child, with the consent o f his parents, lives* independently,
he shall be deemed emancipated for all effects as regards the said property, and
he shall be the full owner and have the usufruct and administration thereof.
E arn in gs ,
S e c t io n
*
etc., o f m arried w om en.
1314. The following is the separate property of each o f the spouses:
*
*
*
*
*
*
2.
That acquired for a good consideration by either of them during the
marriage.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
E m p lo y m e n t o f labor— G eneral provisions.
S e c t io n 1486. This class o f services [services o f paid servants and laborers]
may be contracted without a fixed period, for a fixed period, or for a specific
work. A hiring for life is void.
S e c . 1487. A domestic servant hired for a fixed time and to be employed in
the personal service of his master, or o f the family o f the latter, may leave the
service or be dismissed before the expiration o f the term ; but if the master
dismisses the servant without sufficient cause, he shall indemnify him by pay
ing him the wages due and those for fifteen additional days.
The master shall be believed, unless there is proof to the contrary—
1. With regard to the amount of the wages o f the domestic servant.
2. With regard to the payment o f the wages earned during the current year.
S e c . 1488. Besides what is prescribed in the preceding sections with regard
to masters and servants, the provisions o f special laws and ordinances shall be
observed.
S e c . 1489. Field hands, mechanics, artisans, and other laborers hired for a
certain time and for a certain work can not leave nor be dismissed, without
sufficient cause, before the fulfillment o f the contract.
LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO,
855
S e c . 1490. The dismissal o f the servants, mechanics, artisans, and other hired
laborers to which the preceding sections refer gives the right to dispossess them
of the implements and o f the buildings which they may occupy by reason o f
their duties.
Sec. 1491. The execution o f a work may be contracted for by agreeing that
the person who is to execute the same shall give his labor or industry only, or
that he furnish the materials also.
Sec. 1492. I f the person who contracted for the work bound himself to fur
nish the materials, he shall suffer the loss in case o f the destruction o f the work
before it is delivered, unless there has been delay in receiving it.
Sec. 1493. A person who has bound himself to give his labor or industry only
can not demand any payment if the work is destroyed before it is delivered,
unless there should have been delay in receiving the same, or if the destruction
should have been due to the bad quality of the materials, provided that he may
have given due notice o f this circumstance to the owner.
Sec. 1495. A person who binds himself to do a work by piece or by measure
may demand of the owner that he receive it in installments, and that he pay
therefor in proportion. The part paid for shall be presumed as approved and
received.
Sec. 1498. When a certain work has been intrusted to a person by reason
o f his personal qualifications, the contract is rescinded by the death of said
person.
In such case, the owner must pay to the heirs o f the constructor [con
tractor?], in proportion to the price agreed upon, the value o f the part of the
work executed, and that of the prepared materials, provided he may obtain any
benefit from such materials.
The same shall be understood if the person who contracted for the work can
not finish it by reason of any cause independent of his will.
Sec. 1499. A contractor is responsible for the work done by the persons he
employs thereon.
Sec. 1500. Those who furnish their labor and materials in a work agreed upon
for a lump sum by a contractor have no action against the owner, except for the
amount the latter may owe the former when the action is brought.
Sec. 1501. When it should be agreed that the work is to be done to the satis
faction o f the owner, in the absence o f his acceptance the approval is understood
as reserved for the proper expert judgment.
I f the person who has to approve the work is a third person, his decision shall
be final.
Sec. 1502. Should there be no agreement or custom to the contrary, the price
for the work must be paid upon delivery.
Sec. 1503. A person who has executed a work on personal property has the
right to retain the same as a pledge until he is paid therefor.
ACTS OF 1904.
E igh t-h ou r d a y .
(Page 81.)
Section 1. Eight hours shall constitute the maximum length o f a working day
for any work performed and paid out of funds from the municipalities, school
boards, and all other dependencies o f the people o f Porto Rico.
Sec. 2. In all contracts for work to be paid out o f the funds of the people o f
Porto Rico, municipalities, or school boards, each o f said contracts shall contain
a provision limiting a day’s work to eight hours.
Sec. 3. In works of a public nature, a working day may be lengthened only in
cases where the lives and property o f the inhabitants o f a municipality or o f the
Insular government would be endangered, if same were not done. This act
shall not apply to the Insular police force, internal-revenue agents, telegraph
operators and telegraph messengers, nor to the clerks of the departments of the
Insular government when, in the opinion o f the heads o f such departments,
work beyond eight hours by them is necessary in the interest of the public
service.
Sec. 4. Any person who shall w illfully or m aliciously violate the provisions o f
this act, except as specified in section 3 hereof, shall be guilty o f misdemeanor.
Approved March 10, 1904.
856
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
CODE OF CIVIL PROCEDURE.
E x em p tio n s o f w a g es from execu tion.
S e c t io n 249. (As amended by act page 7, acts o f 1904, extraordinary session).
In addition to the homestead exempted by the homestead law, the following
property belonging to an actual resident of this island is exempted from execu
tion, except as herein otherwise specially provided:
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
7.
The earnings of the judgment debtor for personal services rendered at any
time within thirty days next preceding the levy o f execution, or levy o f attach
ment, when it appears by the debtor’s affidavit, or otherwise, that such earnings
are necessary for the use o f his family residing in this island, supported wholly
or in part by his labor: P ro vid ed , This act shall not authorize the garnishment
of the fees or salary of any public officer of employee.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
A DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF
PRINTERS. («)
B Y E T H E LB E R T S T EW A R T.
IN TRODU CTION .
That a number o f disconnected typographical societies existed in
various parts o f the United States prior to the formation of the
unions as now constituted, while not perhaps generally known, will
not be new to students o f the history o f labor organizations. The
references to these early organizations are usually hazy, containing
no more than a mere statement that they existed at certain dates,
with no evidence offered o f the truth o f even these statements. In
this article it is believed the first attempt is made to be specific in the
information presented about these early organizations. In this re
spect at least the article represents pioneer work in its field, not only
in the reproduction of documents, but in the resort to minute books
o f these societies, as a source of information about other kindred
societies. Thus the transcription of circular letters from other
societies, upon the records o f the Columbia Society, or the New York
or Philadelphia societies, has furnished documentary proof of the
existence o f many printers’ organizations nowhere else referred to.
So far as the documents could tell the story little else has been said.
Such explanation as seemed absolutely necessary to an understanding
o f the documents, as, for instance, the changing industrial conditions
\yhich prompted the intense feeling against the professional editor
or publisher who was not at the same time a “ practical printer ” has
been given briefly in notes; while the effect of the great employ-your
self movement socialism o f 1830 to 1850, so apparent in the radi
calism o f the documents of that period, is briefly referred to in the
text. The addresses “ to the trade ” or “ to the public ” have been re
produced in full, and for the most part without comment, the one
object always kept in view being to let the workingmen of that period
tell their own story. Point o f view is everything, and as it is very
difficult, if not impossible, to state another man’s point o f view ex
cept from your own, the only way to be sure of getting the early
printer’s point o f view is to let his documents present his case. Even
then it is hard to realize why some things which seem so trivial to-day
were so serious to men in 1815 or 1830.
o Acknowledgments are due to Mr. R. H. Cressingham, o f New York, for the
loan of valuable material in connection with the New York Typographical So
ciety of 1809; to the officials o f the Library o f Congress for many courtesies;
to the officers o f the International Typographical Union; to Mr. James C.
Britton, o f the Bureau of Labor; and to the officers o f the Washington Typo
graphical Union.
857
858
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR.
Because o f this conviction, that in dealing with the affairs of a
generation other than our own the best way to tell the workingman’s
story is to let him tell it himself, no attempt to preserve literary style
or unity has been made. In fact literary quality has been consciously
sacrificed to include as many extracts from documents or minute
books as possible, to the end that the workman himself should have
the floor.
No attempt has been made to present a consecutive sociological
study. It has seemed more in consonance with the work o f the
Bureau to present the raw material for an economic study of early
printers’ organizations, rather than to make such study.
No reference is had to statements in any of the general histories of
the organized movements of American workmen, hitherto published
as such. Not because such histories were not consulted, or are not
valued, but because the restricted purpose o f this article was to be
confined exclusively to the documents of the early organizations, and
all temptations have had to be resisted which would have carried
the article beyond a strict conformity to the title—“ A Documentary
History.” There is here no pretense to completeness. Effort was
made to locate as many as possible o f the old constitutions, price
lists, and minute books, and copy or examine them. No thorough
canvass was made or attempted. It is doubtful, however, if any
thing missed would bring up any new problem or condition not
touched upon in some of the documents found. The period covered by
actual documents is from 1786 to 1858, the price lists extending to 1866.
North, South, East, and West are represented, not equally, it is true,
but sufficiently to make it more than probable that all the problems
o f the printers in the early days are at least referred to. The origi
nal purpose o f limiting the article to the period prior to the forma
tion o f the National Union in 1852 has been deviated from only to
include a few organizations that were outside the sphere o f influence
o f the National Union. Histories of the National Union and its
successor, the International, are easily accessible, and intrusions here
have been studiously avoided, except when in footnotes it has seemed
necessary to follow a subject to its final disposition; as, for instance,
the woman compositor question and the uniform wage scale. The
Cincinnati wage scale for 1853 was included because it represented a
section o f the country not distinctively covered by earlier docu
ments.
Copies o f constitutions and price lists as far back as 1802 are pre
sented in the appendixes, and are believed to represent every stage of
growth from the benefit societies of the first part of the period and
the associations o f the middle period, or from 1830 to 1840, to the pres
ent unions as exemplified by the constitutions of 1850. Special effort
was made to ascertain the numerical strength of these early organiza
tions, with gratifying results in many cases.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
859
In a few instances copies of printed constitutions and price lists
were found in libraries, particularly the Library o f Congress; but
by far the greater number were copied from old minute books of the
societies, and are not to be found in print except in these appendixes.
Not only are the economic reasons for some of the things done by
the unions (as limitation o f apprentices) to be found in a study o f
their history; but the gradual transformation o f sentiments into
customs, and the evolution of trade interests into “ union princi
ples,” goes on so gradually before our eyes in these minute books
that we can understand them better.
In the early constitutions and minutes o f these organizations will
be frequently found stated in terms those “ union principles ” which
have since become a part of the subconscious thought life of the
“ union man,” and no longer printed or stated, because nobody in
the union supposes it necessary to state basic principles. Just as no
man in introducing his wife specifies that a legal marriage ceremony
has been performed, or in talking about his children stops to explain
that they were born in honorable wedlock; and the man who asks for
an explanation or a verification of these taken-for-granted and so
cially fundamental assumptions, unless he represents some semi
savage tribe where such status is not indubitable, is simply inviting
trouble for himself. So much of this unrevealed ultimate principle
exists; so much depends upon an understanding of this submerged
or subconscious, and to the trade unionist axiomatic, hence never
expressed thought life, that students o f organizations coming from
u different mental atmosphere often fail to find in unions that which
is the reason for their existence—the soul o f purpose by which they
live.
These “ fundamental principles of trade unionism ” are often the
codified experiences o f former generations under industrial conditions
that no longer exist, and can not now be understood by a mind not
inheriting an intuitive perception of them, except by a study of the
early organizations in which they were formulated and o f the con
ditions which suggested them. O f no other institution is it more true
than o f trade unions that they can only be read in the present by the
light o f the past.
BEGINNINGS, 1786 TO 1830.
Whatever o f associated effort there was among printers prior to
1795 was temporary, having a single purpose, and when this was ac
complished the compact was dissolved. It was the custom in all
trades to call a “ general meeting ” o f the trade whenever a matter
of importance to all presented itself. Such calls were signed by
one or two men o f recognized influence in the trade. These meetings,
usually held in private homes, were organized by the election o f
officers, a statement was made of the purpose in calling the trade
860
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
together, and after discussion resolutions were adopted embodying
the views o f those present upon the question presented. When the
meeting had decided what the attitude of the trade was to be, all
those present, if willing to do so, signed an agreement to stand by
each other during the difficulty. Committees were appointed, and
frequent meetings were held during the trouble, especially if it
proved to be a strike and of- some duration, thus creating the impres
sion that a permanent association of journeymen had been formed.
It is certain that some o f the strikes in colonial times were undertaken
with no more o f an organization than this, and while there is noth
ing inherently improbable about the existence of permanent unions
in colonial times, since they had been in existence in England and
Europe for many generations before, yet we should be cautious about
concluding from such a statement as “ The journeymen bakers of
New York went on strike in 1741,” that therefore there was an organi
zation, other than a temporary understanding, among them.
The first, probably, of such understandings among journeymen
printers was in New York City in 1776, when a demand for an in
crease o f wages was made by them and refused by their employers,
with the result that a strike was called, which, proving successful, the
association ceased. Again, in Philadelphia in 1786 an attempt by
the employers to reduce wages to $5.83^ a week was made the occasion
for calling the trade together. The statement issued by the printers
at this meeting has fortunately been preserved and was as follow s:
At a meeting of journeymen printers of Philadelphia held at the
house o f Henry Myers on Wednesday evening, the 31st ultimo, the
following resolutions were unanimously entered into and ordered
transcribed for publication. In consequence of an attempt having
been made by some of our employers to reduce our wages to 35 shil
lings per week:
Resolved, That we, the subscribers, will not engage to work for any
printing establishment in this city or county under the sum o f $6 per
week.
Resolved, That we will support such of our brethren as shall be
thrown out o f employment on account o f their refusing to work for
less than $6 per week.
P hiladelphia, June 7 ,1786.
This document is signed by 26 printers, probably comprising a
majority o f the competent men in the city at that time. There are
indications that this struggle lasted for some time, but none what
ever that the organization of printers had any purpose beyond the
immediate one o f resisting that reduction of wages, or any existence
after this single purpose was accomplished. The document is im
portant, however, as showing that the sentiment of supporting each
other in time o f a strike, out o f which the union strike-benefit fund
grew, existed among printers long before unions as such were formed.
In 1795 an organization was formed in New York City known as
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
861
“ The Typographical Society,” comprising in its membership most of
those working at the trade at that time. It was the first known
society devoting its energies to trade conditions and wage scales that
existed for any appreciable length of time. (a) So far as known it was
° Tlie “ Company of Printers o f Philadelphia,” organized in 1794, was an asso
ciation of employers and job printers, not of journeymen, as is so often stated.
While it is not the purpose o f this article to go into the question of employers’
associations, yet this one o f 1794 is so frequently referred to as a labor organ
ization, its constitution being listed in a very recent bibliography of trade-union
publications as such, that it seems advisable to settle the matter definitely by
reproducing the document, a copy o f which is preserved in the Library of Con
gress. It will be noted that article 14 provides that the company shall “ regu
late the prices at which its members shall execute printing work, determine the
terms of employing journeymen, fix penalties for the violation of their regula
tions,” etc., and is signed by 9 individuals and firms, among them some who
were o f more than local importance as printers and publishers. (See Bishop’s
History of American Manufactures, Vol. 1). The term “ printer” was applied
only to employers in the earlier times, and, later, to both employers and jour
neymen.
Aside from the historical value o f the document itself and the importance of
eliminating it from the literature of trade unionism, it is submitted as one of
the few constitutions extant of a form o f association known as “ companies,”
which formed a link between the merchant guilds of the late Middle Ages and
the employers’ associations o f to-day. The document follow s:
CONSTITUTION OF THE COMPANY OF PRINTERS OF PHILADELPHIA,
1794.
Assured that the interests of every profession depend, in a high degree, on
the union and cooperation o f its members; impressed with the necessity of asso
ciating for the purpose o f securing those advantages which are at present at
tached to the printing business, as well as for the purpose o f extending them ;
and persuaded that such association will conduce to insure the harmony and
good fellowship of those by whom it is composed; we, the subscribers, printers
o f the city of Philadelphia, do hereby constitute ourselves a society, under the
name o f the Company o f Philadelphia Printers.
A r t ic l e
I.
The company shall be formed o f such printers o f the city and liberties, as are
present at the adoption o f this constitution; of such as shall join the company
within one month subsequent to said adoption, and o f such as shall be hereafter
elected in conformity to the third article.
A r t ic l e
II.
Every person previously to his being considered a member, shall subscribe the
constitution, and by such subscription solemnly engage to comply with the arti
cles thereof, as well as such regulations as may be made under the same.
A r t ic l e
III.
A printer may become a candidate for admission into this company, either
on application by letter or on the nomination o f a member; in either case his
name shall be submitted to the company, at one regular meeting, and be balloted
for at the next regular meeting; should, however,*an unanimous voice be ex
pressed for proceeding to an immediate election, all delay shall thereby be sus
862
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
the first society not called into existence by an immediate exigency
o f the trade, and ceasing to exist when that exigency was removed.
pended. I f the votes o f two-thirds o f the members present be in his favor, he
shall be elected a member.
A r t ic l e IV.
A member on admission shall pay, the sum of $2 and the sum o f $1 annually
afterward during his membership.
A r t ic l e V .
There shall be four regular meetings in every year, viz, on the second Tuesday
o f January, April, July, and October, and on such other days as the company
shall fix by adjournment, or as shall be fixed by said meetings.
A r t ic l e VI.
Six members shall be sufficient to proceed to business.
A r t ic l e
VII.
There shall be chosen by ballot, on the second Tuesday o f January in every
year, a president, a secretary, a treasurer, and a committee o f three members,
who shall be called the committee o f inquiry.
A r t ic l e
VIII.
Should any vacancies occur in said offices, they shall be supplied at the next
regular meeting.
A r t ic l e IX.
It shall be the duty of the president, or, in his absence, o f a chairman, to
preside at all meetings; to preserve order among the members; to call a special
meeting whenever he sees it expedient; or at the request o f three members,
to sign orders on the treasurer, whenever the company shall so direct; and in
case the members are equally divided on any question to have a casting vote.
On the death, resignation, or absence from the city o f the president, such of
his duties as are necessary to be exercised between the meetings o f the com
pany shall devolve on the secretary.
A r t ic l e X.
It shall be the duty of the secretary, under the direction o f the president or
chairman, to keep a fair statement of the proceedings o f the company. In
the absence o f the secretary, a secretary pro tempore shall be chosen.
A r t ic e
X I.
It shall be the duty of the treasurer to receive such sums o f money as shall
accrue to the company; to pay the same on the order o f the president or chair
man, and to keep a fair statement of the funds of the company, subject to the
inspection o f any member.
A r t ic l e X II.
It shall be the duty of the committee o f inquiry to obtain all information in
their power, respecting the adherence to, or violations o f this constitution, and the
resolutions adopted in pursuance thereof, by the members o f the company; and
to obtain information o f the state of the printing business in reference to
printers not members and to report the same to the company.
A r t ic l e
X III.
A motion made shall be addressed to the president, which, when seconded,
shall be submitted by the president to the consideration o f the company. The
question shall then be put, and be decided by a majority of votes.
A r t ic l e
XIV.
When the company are organized, they shall have the power to regulate the
prices at which its members shall execute printing w ork; to determine the
terms of employing journeymen; to fix penalties for the violation o f their
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
863
The Typographical Society of 1795 lived two and one-half years, or
until far into 1797, and succeeded in securing an increase of yvages
to $1 per day for New York City printers.
In 1799 the Franklin Typographical Society of Journeymen
Printers, of New York, was organized. Mr. David Bruce, the
famous type founder, was its first president. This society formu
lated the first complete wage scale ever adopted by the printers of
New York City, and went on strike for its enforcement. No copy
o f this scale has been preserved. It demanded 25 cents per 1,000 ems,
and not less than $7 per week in book and job offices, and $8 per week
on newspapers. None of its records and no copy of its constitution
could be found, but from contemporary newspaper files it is learned
that the “ Franklin Typographical Society assembled at the house of
Mr. P. Becanon, No. 87 Fair street, to celebrate the twenty-sixth
anniversary o f American Independence July 4, 1801.”
The Daily Advertiser, of New York, in its issue of February 4,
1803, printed the following notice:
A regular meeting of the Franklin Typographical Society will be
regulations; and, in general, to adopt such rules as may he considered con
ducive to the prosperity o f the printing business.
A r t ic l e
XV.
Any member may withdraw from the society by removal from the city; by
a relinquishment of the printing business; or by signifying his disposition
thereto at a regular meeting: P ro vid ed , That, in the last instance, he do not
cease to be a member until the next regular meeting: A n d also p rovided , That
on such secession he place in the hands of the treasurer the sum of ten pounds
for use o f the company; should, however, two-thirds o f the 'members present
dispense with the payment of this sum, it shall not be demanded.
A r t ic l e
XYI.
Any proposition o f amendment to this constitution, shall be made at a regular
meeting, and not be brought to decision until the next regular meeting: previ
ously to which notice shall be given to the members by the secretary, that it
is proposed to alter the constitution.
A r t ic l e
XYII.
A member may be expelled for misconduct by a majority o f the company, pro
vided that such expulsion be made at a regular meeting, and that such meeting
be not the one at which it is proposed to expel him.
A r t ic l e
X VIII.
On the adoption o f this constitution, the company shall proceed to the choice
of officers, who shall hold their appointments until the day fixed upon for the
annual election of officers.
Adopted September 11, 1794.
W . Y oung.
R o bert C o c h r a n .
R ic h a r d F o l w e l l .
Sa m u e l H . S m it h .
W i l l i a m G ib b o n s .
H o ff a n d D e r r ic k .
J acob J o h n s o n .
W il l ia m W . W oodw ard.
M o rd e o a i J o n e s .
276—No. 61—06 M ------10
864
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
held at*their rooms, 63 Stone street, on Saturday evening, February 5,
1803. Members are requested to be punctual in their attendance.
By order o f the president:
J ohn Collins, Secretary*
It would appear from this that the society had grown too large to
meet in the private homes o f its members and strong enough to have
a hall, or at least rooms o f its own.
In its issue o f September 19, 1803, the New York Evening Post
had the following acknowledgment:
The president of Franklin Typographical Society, o f New York,
acknowledges the receipt o f $83.50 from the Philadelphia Typo
graphical Society for the relief o f such o f our members as may be
distressed in consequence of the prevailing epidemic.
The minutes o f the Philadelphia Society show that at its monthly
meeting in June, 1803, “ it was voted to contribute $83.60 to assist
the printers in New York City who may be suffering from ravages
o f the yellow fever.”
The Franklin Typographical Society o f New York ceased to exist
in 1804, but the bill of prices formulated by it remained the standard
o f wages until September 20, 1809, when the New York Typograph
ical Society, organized early in that year, formulated a new scale.
As further tribute of a documentary character to the work o f this
society o f 1799-1804, may be cited the first- paragraph of a letter
written August 25, 1809, by the secretary o f the New York Typo
graphical Society:
N ew Y ork, August 25,1809.
Gentlemen : The board o f directors of the New York Typograph
ical Society, by a resolution passed the 19th instant, have directed me
to inform you that the customary price per token for working super
royal paper is 37J cents, and 48 tokens (which is supposed to be the
number you work per week) at that price would be $18. The present
society, however, have yet no established prices, either for presswork
or for composition, but the price which is here mentioned is that
which was instituted by a former association in this city, and which
we believe is now generally conformed to.
So much space has been given to this organization because to it
belongs the credit of formulating the first detailed scale o f wages
presented to employers in the printing business in the United States,
and because, curiously enough, while the earlier society o f 1795 is
sometimes mentioned by writers, this much more important one of
1799-1804 is not referred to by any of them.
The Philadelphia Typographical Society was organized in 1802,
and enjoys the distinction of being the oldest existing organization
of the craft. Up to 1831 it existed as both a benevolent and a trade
society, as was the rule among the.early societies. In 1831 it became
a purely benevolent association, and as such exists to-day.
865
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
February 22, 1802, this society formulated a list o f prices (which
is believed to be identical with that o f the New York Typographical
Society in 1800), and, prefacing it with a neat address to the em
ployers, submitted it for acceptance. (a) A photographic reproduction
o f the only copy o f this price list known to be now in existence is here
presented.
Philadelphia, February 22, 1802.
T H E •• P hiladelph ia T y p o g r a p h ic a l S o c ie t y ,” take th e lib e r ty t o
furnish y o u w ith th eir L ist o f Prices . W e h o p e that w e shall b e in d u lg ed w ith at
least a can did exa m in a tion o f o u r d e m a n d s ....w e presu m e y o u are n o t u n acqu ainted
\\ith m any o f them . W e w o u ld w ish to b e placed on a fo o tin g , at least, w ith m e
c h a n ic s ....o u r w a g es have, in n o instance, k ep t p ace w ith them . W e have the m erit
o f not b e in g the m ost dissatisfied, and in n o o n e instance o f d e m an d in g any th in g
un ju st.
W c have, j n the fo llo w in g statem ent, con fin ed o u rse lve s to w hat a m ajority
o f the em p lo y e rs in this city g iv e . O u r o b je c t is, to have o n e u n iform p r ic e established.
In d o in g this, w e shall a ct as m en tow ards m e n ....n o p erson w ill leave his e m p lo y
until he has g iv e n a reasonable n o t ic e ....in return, w e e x p e c t that y o u r c o n d u c t
tow a rd s u s w ill b e equ ally ca n d id .
In d e e d , w e ch erish a h o p e , that the tim e is n ot
far distant, w h en the employer and thfc employed w ill v ie w ith ea ch o th er, the o n e , in
allowing a com p eten t salary, the Other, in deserving it. U n d er these im p ression s w e
S ubm it the fo llo w in g p r ic e s to y o u r d e cis io n .
COMPOSITION.
*
PRESS W O R K .
Dot. Ctt. 3
J
ht. Ctt
8 0 0 \ P e r w e e k , not less than . . . . .
8
P e r w e e k , n ot less t h a n .................
2 _ s A ll paper b e lo w m e d iu m , p e r tok en
E v e r y 1 0 0 0 m ’ s , fr o m B r e v ie r to
* s
D it t o a b o v e m e d i u m .................
E n g lis h , i n c l u s i v e .....................
5 0 s B ro a d sid e s, p e r t o k e n ...................... ...
C o m m o n R u le o r F ig u r e w o r k . . .
<|C ards, p er p a c k .................................. .
£ A sin gle p a ck o f c a r d s .........................
3 A ll sm all j o b s .........................................
00
30
371
75
m
30
30
G e o r c e W h i t e , President.
J ohn C h i l d s , Vice-President.
W i l l i a m L i t t l e , Secretary.
W . W . W an d s, x
el. W . S c o tt,
E . C o n ra d ,
/ Standing } A . S c o t t,
B . G r e a v e s,
t Committee. / P . D e n h a m ,
J. M ‘ liv a b le ,
'
George Tomlin,
I n Jones,
Francis Wrigley,
John Claypoole,
Edward Whitely,
William P. Lane,
Alexander Boland,
James Winnard,
John Kinsley,
Nicholas Komfelt,
George Philips,
Allen Dowell,
James Mearns,
Charles I.ee.
William Alexander,
Isaac, Pitman,
Benjamin Bickerton
John W. Allen,
Thomas B. Abercrombie,
Francis Lauder,
Henry Garson,
Stephen Sewell,
John Whitely,
Silas B. Hand,
Thomas Town,
Samuel Akerman,
John Pigeon,
William Faithfull,
Thomas Stewart,
John Bernard,
Jacob Benriman,
William Comely,
Horatio Boate,
Samuel Starr.
Joseph Bedford,
George Thompson,
John Dow,
William Carle,
Robert Maxwell,
Patrick Mulligan,
James C. Coveriy,
William Hanley,
Thomas Dalton,
John Cooper,
James M'Kibbin,
Arthur Colerake,
John Alexander,
Hance H. Gibbs,
Andrew Sn>der,
John Robinson.
The constitution of this society, which was not finally adopted
until November 6, 1802, is given in full in Appendix A, No. 1, and
is believed to be the oldest constitution of a labor organization
extant in the United States. No printed copy o f the document was
« The bibliography appended to Sidney and Beatrice Webb’s “ History of
Trade Unionism ” in England gives “ the scale o f prices of the Edinburgh com
positors for 1805 ” as the oldest printers’ scale. It may therefore develop that
this Philadelphia price list is the oldest in the language.
866
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
found, but a transcript was made from the minutes o f the society for
the purpose o f this article.
While the constitution gives prominence to the sick and funeral
benefit features of the organization, as did the early craft guilds and
still earlier burial societies, nevertheless, unlike them, it does not
entirely conceal its industrial purposes. The journeymen printers
had secured the acceptance by the master printers of their price list
of February 22, and under “ a desire to consolidate the present good
understanding and harmony which now happily subsists among the
brethren o f our profession,” the constitution o f November 6 was
adopted. In addition to a sick benefit of $3 a week and a funeral
benefit o f $10, “ in every case when a member may be thrown out o f
employ, by reason of his refusing to take less than the established
prices,” the board o f directors “ shall advance, if required, on his own
security, in their discretion, such sum per wreek as will be sufficient to
defray his ordinary expenses,” and, furthermore, if such person was
unable to return the money so loaned, then an assessment should be
levied upon the membership to repay the same. To this incipient
strike-benefit fund was added an obligation upon the part of at least
the officers o f the society to use their influence to secure employment
for members in preference to nonmembers, and, above all, membership
in the society was conditioned upon having “ served an apprenticeship
satisfactory to the board of directors.” It is impossible to read the
minutes o f the meetings o f these early societies, however, without being
convinced that the serious purpose of their existence was not made
prominent in their published documents. They had an exoteric and
an esoteric side. To the public they pointed out their benevolent fea
tures. The real work was done in executive session. However, a
great many o f their members joined them because of these benevolent
features, and thought their mission confined to this, so that there were
always two factions, one demanding more and more of trade regula
tion by the society, the other opposing any interference in trade mat
ters, and constantly urging a further extension o f the mutual benefits,
from an “ alimoner’s ” point o f view.
A t its monthly meeting of December, 1802, the society appointed
a committee to draft a memorial to Congress praying for an addi
tional duty on all imported European books. April, 1803, it raised
the price o f composition on daily newspapers to 30 cents per 1,000
ems, placed a charge of 20 cents on each alteration from copy after
proofs were corrected, and passed a “ lost-time ” rule, as follow s:
Whenever an employer agrees to pay for lost time it shall be at the
rate o f 15 cents per hour.
In June, 1803, the society raised the initiation fee to $2; voted
$83.60 to the printers in New York who were suffering from yellow
fever; then passed the following not at all eleemosynary measure:
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
867
Whereas several employers have taken laborers at presswork, and
thereby the business has been materially injured: Therefore,
Resolved, That no member o f this society shall be permitted to
work at presswork with any person who is not regularly bred, bound
apprentice till 21 years o f age, except under penalty o f expulsion.
In 1806 it began expelling members on first offense for working
below the scale o f prices, and in February, 1807, extended the obliga
tion to all members, theretofore resting upon officers only, to aid
members in securing employment in preference to nonmembers by
the passage o f the follow ing:
Resolved, That if any member of this society who shall procure
employment for any person or persons who are not members of this
institution in preference, and knowing at the time o f the procuring
o f such employment that there are members o f this society then out
o f actual employment, such member or members so offending shall
on conviction be subjected to a fine o f $5, and for second offense be
liable to suspension or expulsion, at the discretion o f the directors:
Provided, nevertheless, That this resolution shall not be construed to
the prejudice o f members interesting themselves in behalf o f stran
gers in distress or emigrants from Europe.
The year 1807 marks the development by the Typographical Society
o f Philadelphia of much that has been thought to have origi
nated with modern unionism, such as the demand for the exclusive
employment of union men, the monthly “ working card,” and the
adoption o f a system very suggestive o f the “ house o f call,” or union
employment bureau. A t the meeting held April 4, 1807, the initia
tion fee was raised to $4 and the funeral benefit increased to $25.
After these concessions to the “ alimoners ” this resolution was passed
and a committee appointed in accordance with its terms:
Whereas many illegal practices and abuses hostile to the estab
lished regulations o f this society, as well as injurious to the interests
o f each and every industrial member thereof; and whereas, also, the
said abuses and illegal practices on the part o f the employers are
tamely submitted to, and in some instances connived at by the em
ployed, to remedy which and to make such further inquiries as they
may deem necessary,
Resolved, That a committee be appointed to inquire into the pres
ent state o f the art, and whether any and what abuses are practiced,
and what regulations it may be expedient on the part o f the society
to adopt, to check and do away with all such abuses and irregular
practices hostile to the interests and well-being of its members, and
that the committee report the results o f their investigations.
Apparently there is a studied vagueness about this resolution so
unusual that one is at a loss to understand it until it is learned from
the report o f the committee that the resolution is aimed not at mem
bers o f this society, but at the master printers, who were cutting
prices and employing “ two-thirders,” or persons who not having
868
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
finished their apprenticeship were willing to work for anything they
could get. The report o f the committee follows:
In reviewing the present state o f the art, it is with considerable
regret that we dissent from a very prevalent opinion, which we can
not think was even true when it was first formed.
To say that “ printing was in a highly flourishing condition ” may
be well enough applied to themselves by the gang o f pettifogging
master printers, but the great body of the journeymen and the few
respectable master printers know it to be false. The prices received
by the master printers six years ago were better for common work
than what they receive at present. A t that time all common work
gave them 64J cents, whereas at present they only receive 45 cents,
and in some cases even less.
The committee are of the opinion, that in order to maintain that
harmony which as yet happily exists between the society and the
master printers, it would be expedient to hold a conference with them
on the subject, and make such regulations in the prices as the nature
o f the times majr require and enable employers in all cases to give the
preference, and if possible, never to employ any other than members
o f this society, or at least men who have served a regular appren
ticeship.
September, 1807, the society adopted the following regulation:
Resolved, That cards be printed by the society, to be renewed by the
secretary every month, for the benefit of those out of employment,
stating that they are not in arrears; and such persons who can not
produce the same, on inquiring of a member for a berth, he is pro
hibited from informing the said person under penalty o f $1 for every
such offense.
As yet no journeymen’s society had been strong enough to maintain,
indeed none had had the temerity to advance any apprenticeship reg
ulations. There was a customary apprenticeship rule that had come
down from the masters’ guilds to the effect that a term o f six years
between the ages o f 15 and 21 was necessary to constitute a journey
man. But the old guild conditions were gone, and the new conditions
were only form ing; neither the conditions nor the workmen’s societies
were ripe for a definite stand on the regulation of apprenticeship.
The Philadelphia society, at its meeting o f December, 1808, took
such stand as it could on the problem by enacting that no member
should teach an apprentice who was not bound before his eighteenth
year; the penalty for violation being not only expulsion from the
society but notices o f such expulsion to be sent to the other societies
o f printers. This is the first intimation of the exchange of names
of objectionable printers, which afterward developed into the “ un
fair lists,” “ rat lists,” etc.
The regulation as passed reads:
That from and after the 1st day of January, 1809, no person, a
member o f this society, shall teach or assist in teaching any person in
the art o f printing who may have arrived at the age o f 18 years.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
869
And be it further resolved, That if any member or members o f the
Philadelphia Typographical Society shall in violation of the rule in
that case made and provided, undertake to instruct, or in any manner
assist to instruct, in any branch o f the art of printing, any irregular
person included in the foregoing resolution, such member or members
shall, on conviction, be expelled from the society, and notice o f such
expulsion shall be communicated to the different typographical asso
ciations throughout the United States as the president o f the board
of directors may think proper.
The latter part of this resolution not only marks the beginning of
the “ unfair list,” but raises the question as to what other typograph
ical associations existed in the United States at that time.
So far as can be definitely ascertained, from original records at
this late date, there were no other such societies in existence in Decem
ber, 1808. In “ Thomas’s History of Printing ” it is stated that “ The
Boston Typographical Society was organized in 1803,” without giving
any clue to the authority for the statement. In 1809 the Philadelphia
society received a communication from the Boston Typographical
Society, stating that it had just completed and presented a scale of
prices to the employers. The letter gives an impression that the
society had been but recently organized, though it does not say so.
This society seems to have been short lived, as another o f the same
name was organized November 25, 1815, as appears from a letter in
the minutes of the New York society, a copy of which is transcribed
elsewhere. The records of the Boston Typographical Society, after
its demise, were placed in the library o f the Franklin Typographical
Society, o f Boston, which was organized in 1822 as a purely beneficial
society, admitting to membership both employers and employees, and
prevented by its constitution from taking any part in trade matters.
This society still exists, but the records of the journeymen’s organi
zation have been lost. The latest mention o f the Boston Typograph
ical Society is in 1826, when it sent a communication to the Colum
bian Typographical Society, at Washington, D. C., as shown by the
minutes of the latter society. The Faustus Association of Printers
was organized in Boston in 1805, but this was an employers’ associa
tion, to regulate prices of work done for the public. It can not
therefore be confidently asserted that there were any societies, out
side o f Philadelphia, in existence when the Philadelphia society
passed its resolution in December, 1808; but it is not improbable
that there were such in Boston and Baltimore. The Baltimore Typo
graphical Society is referred to in 1815 as one o f the older societies.
The date o f its organization has not been ascertained, and none of
its records could be located. Unfortunately also the present typo
graphical union o f Baltimore, organized in 1831, lost its records in
the great fire o f February, 1904, just a few months before the collec
tion of data for this article was begun.
870
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The condition o f the trade in New York City seems to have dete
riorated rapidly after the collapse of the union in 1804. In June,
1809, a coterie o f printers met in the private house of Mr. David
Reins, 49 Barclay street, to discuss the question of organization. A
committee was appointed to draft a constitution and report Saturday
evening, July 1. A t this meeting the constitution was presented,
adopted, and an organization perfected by the election of S. W.
Andrews, president, and David Reins, secretary. One of the most
active men in the organization of this society known as the New
York Typographical Society, was Mr. Samuel Woodworth, author
o f The Old Oaken Bucket. A ll efforts to secure a copy o f this
constitution for the present article have proved futile. From the
start the society took what was at that time a radical stand along
trade lines, though embodying in its plan the beneficial features
common to all trade societies of the time.
The first efforts of the society were directed toward the education
o f the journeymen in the purposes of the organization, and inducing
them to join. A t a meeting held July 29 two members (pressmen
working at the office of the American Citizen) reported that when
they notified their employer that they could not longer work for less
than the customary standard of wages fixed by the scale of 1800,
they were both discharged and their places given to “ two strangers.”
A committee was appointed to wait on the “ strangers,” and later,
when this committee reported, a letter was ordered to be sent them
which so explicitly states the purpose of the society that it is tran
scribed in fu ll:
N ew Y ork, August 25,1809 .
G entlemen : The board o f directors of the New York Typograph
ical Society, by a resolution passed the 19th instant, have directed
me to inform you that the customary price per token for working
superroyal paper is 37| cents, and 48 tokens (which is supposed to
be the number you work per week) at that price would amount to $18.
The present society, however, have yet no established prices, either
for presswork or for composition; but the price which is here men
tioned is that which was instituted by a former association in this
city, and which we believe is now generally conformed to. [This
was the society o f 1799-1804.]
The board o f directors, however, actuated only by motives o f inter
est for the profession, have also directed me to inform you that, hav
ing expressed your determination to use all honorable means to
increase the wages, both o f compositors and pressmen, if necessary,
and to support and maintain the honor and dignity of the trade, the
best manner in which you could evince your sincerity would be by
joining the society, whose objects and conduct you seem to have mis
taken. To establish equitable prices for our labor is the principal
object for which we have recently associated, and which we hope in
a short time to accomplish. The first step toward this is an increase
in our numbers, and we conceive it to be the duty and the interest of
every journeyman printer in the city to come forward and unite with
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
871
his fellow-craftsmen in promoting an object which has for its end
the benefit o f the wdiole.
Should you, gentlemen, conceive the above observations satisfac
tory and have a desire to promote the objects we have in view, I
would observe that the board o f directors meet every Saturday even
ing at the house o f Mr. Clark (Harmony H all), to whom an applica
tion can be made at any of their meetings.
D. H. Reins, Sec’y N. Y. T. S.
The organizers o f this society began at once, as a part of their vig
orous policy, to open communication with all similar organizations
in the country, to which they mailed a circular letter dated Septem
ber 9, 1809, and which proposed nothing less than an exchange, from
time to time, o f what is to-day known as “ unfair lists; ” that is, that
whenever a printer does what to the union is considered an unfair
thing in trade matters, other unions shall be notified o f the fact.
That this principle was then new, or practically so, is inferred no less
from the arguments used in the circular to maintain it, than from the
letter o f the Philadelphia society in reply. Both these letters follow :
N ew Y ork, September 9, 1809.
Gentlemen : In all classes of society experience has proven that
there have been men who, laying aside those principles o f honor and
good faith which ought to govern their conduct toward their brethren,
and for a mere gratification of private interest, have set aside the
obligations they were under by violating the ordinances which they
had pledged themselves to maintain.
It is for the interest o f the profession that such persons (if any
there are) should be discountenanced; and to the end that the knowl
edge o f their sins should follow them, the directors o f the New York
Typographical Society have directed me to open a correspondence
with you, by requesting, if compatible with your constitution, that in
cases where members of your society or others o f the profession may
have acted dishonorably toward it, and should leave--------- for this
city, you would be so good as to transmit information to them, the
favor o f which, on a like occasion, would be reciprocated.
The directors o f the N. Y. T. S. sincerely hope that an instance o f
this nature may never have to be recorded, yet it appears to them
that the adoption of a rule like the above might be attended with
mutual benefit. There is nothing which acts more powerfully on the
human mind than shame. It makes the coward bold, the miser gen
erous; and it is to be hoped that it will ever deter a journeyman
printer from conducting unworthily toward his brethren when innate
principle is wanting.
Accept the assurance of my esteem for you gentlemen, and my
sincere wishes for the prosperity o f th e --------- society.
D. H. R eins, See'y N. T. T. S.
To this elaborate argument for and cautious statement o f one o f
the protective features o f unionism, so universally understood to-day
that it is never stated in terms, the following equally remarkable
reply was received from the Philadelphia society. The “ second let
872
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
ter o f the 23d ” referred to was one announcing the completion of the
wage scale o f September 20 by the New York society.
P hiladelphia, October 28, 1809.
S i r : Your letter of the 18th ultimo and 23d instant came duly to
hand, and I have to apologize for the delay in forwarding an answer.
That o f the 18th embraced a principle which was not readily
acceded to— and the consideration of it was twice referred to the
opinion o f a select committee— a report was made this evening and
finally adopted by the following words: “ The committee thinks
proper to report that they have considered the letter referred to them,
and are o f the opinion that the principle set forth therein is a good
one, and will have a tendency to promote the interests of the two
societies; therefore,
Resolved, That whenever any member of this society shall act
derogatory to the principles o f this constitution, and shall leave this
city for New York, information shall immediately be forwarded
to the New York Typographical Society.”
As I am decidedly opposed to the principle, it can not be expected
that I should dilate upon it. I beg leave, however, to assure you that
the will o f the majority is my guide, and that I shall consider it my
duty to act in strict conformity to the resolution.
Your second letter of the 23d instant has given inexpressible
pleasure to the members of the board and of the society in general.
The energetic measure you have taken, had been so long wanting in
the respectable city o f New York that the friends o f equal rights
reflect with disgust upon the humiliating condition in which our
brethren suffered themselves to remain there; and the following hope
now held forth that they have broken their manacles with a determi
nation that they shall never be riveted again, will be fostered and
cherished, nay, assisted, as far as constitutionally may lay in their
power. But the old adage will here apply, and should be attentively
considered: “ He that will not help himself shall have help from
nobody.” Persevere in your laudable struggle, and remember that
no great end was ever yet attained without danger and difficulty.
Be pleased to accept my best wishes and regards for your society,
and believe that I am, with the sincerest respect, your humble servant,
John C hilds,
President Typographical Society of Philadelphia.
September 20, 1809, the society adopted a scale of prices, no copy
o f which has been found, but which it is known did little more than
restore the scale o f 1800 on common work while providing for the
classes o f work not covered by any former standard of wages.
A circular letter was printed and sent to the master printers, of
which a copy follow s:
TO T H E M ASTER PR IN T E R S OF T H E C IT Y OF N E W Y O R K .
Gentlemen : Between employers and employed there are mutual
interests depending, mutual duties to perform. To the end that
these may result in harmony, certain rules and regulations should be
adopted. Therefore, we, the journeymen printers o f the city o f New
York, having duly and deliberately taken into consideration the
present irregular state of the prices in many of the printing offices,
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
873
and conceiving that they are inadequate to a comfortable subsistence,
have united themselves into an association for the purpose of regu
lating and establishing the same. The annexed list, framed with a
due deference to justice and equit ability, is presented with a view
that it may meet your approbation.
Upon receipt o f the above the master printers formed an organi
zation, and as a first move asked for a postponement of the date when
the new regulations should go into effect. This the journeymen
declined. To gain time, the masters’ association then agreed to the
demands, but at once began to advertise in other cities and towns for
printers, offering good wages and permanent positions. As an offset,
the Typographical Society’s board of directors instructed the secre
tary to—
Inform the different typographical societies in the United States
that this board have reason to believe that it is the object o f the
master printers o f this city, by advertising for a great number of
workingmen, to fill the city with hands and thereby be enabled to
reduce the prices o f work in this city to their former standard.
The members o f the society were instructed to send information of
the situation by letter to all outside journeymen o f their acquaintance.
Evidently the master printers were having some success with their
plan, and, to bring the matter to immediate issue, the Typographical
Society called a strike, beginning October 30, 1809, for the enforce
ment of their scale. Most of the master printers soon agreed to the
scale, but quite a number fought the issue bitterly, and what was for
that time a strike o f considerable duration resulted. Strike benefits
were paid weekly, and it is not until December 18 that the last entry
on the minutes is found recording money appropriated to the “ breth
ren who had been thrown out of employ in consequence of their
refusing to work for less than the established prices.”
During this strike the society discovered that one of its members
had secretly arranged to work for less than the scale in an office
ostensibly paying the society’s rate of wages. Immediately the other
members o f the society refused to work in the office with him, and
requested that he not only be expelled from the society but that his
name be sent to the other societies. For some time the society was
busy expelling members who had secretly worked below the scale
during the strike. However, the struggle had cleared the atmos
phere perceptibly.
As showing the situation before the strike, it may be stated that
the report o f a committee appointed by the society to “ investigate
the state o f trade ” and “ list those working for less than the estab
lished price ” showed compositors working at 20 cents per 1,000 ems,
pressmen working at 25 cents per token (240 sheets), and numberless
boys at from $4 to $4.50 per week. At one office they report:
There is a man working at press who occupies the situation o f two
874
BULLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB.
journeymen, who is said to have served no apprenticeship at the
business.
Out o f their experience came an amendment to their by-laws, passed
December 23, within a week after the close of the strike :
No person shall be admitted a member of this society unless he
shall have duly and regularly served the term o f three years as an
apprentice to one branch, namely, either as a compositor or as a
pressman.
On December 30, 1809, they issued a circular letter, going into the
whole matter o f “ halfway journeymen,” afterwards called “ twothirders,” and the laxity o f apprenticeship regulations. It was
addressed to the employers, and as it is the earliest survey o f the sit
uation in the trade from the workman’s point o f view it is, notwith
standing its length, given in full below:
TO T H E M ASTEB P B IN TE B S OF T H E C IT Y OF N E W Y O B K .
G entlemen : Viewing with deep concern the improper practices in
many o f the printing offices in this city, the journeymen composing
the New York Typographical Society have appointed the under
signed committee to address you on the subject, and represent the
many evil effects they have on the art of printing in general and its
demoralizing effects on its professors.
The practice o f employing what is termed “ halfway journeymen ”
in preference to those who have served their time, while it holds out
encouragement to boys to elope from their masters, as soon as they
acquire a sufficient knowledge of the art to be enabled to earn their
bread, is a great grievance to journeymen, and almost certain ruin
to the boys themselves. Becoming masters o f their own conduct at a
period o f life when they are incapable o f governing their passions
and propensities, they plunge headlong into every species o f dissipa
tion, and are often debilitated by debauchery and disease before they
arrive at the state o f manhood. And it also tends to an unnecessary
multiplication o f apprentices, inasmuch as the place o f every boy who
elopes from his master is usually supplied by another, while at the
same time the runaway supplies, after a manner, the place o f a reg
ular journeyman, and one who, probably has a family dependent on
his labor for support.
W e would also beg leave to call your attention to a practice as
illiberal and unjust as the former, and attended, perhaps, with evils
o f a more aggravating nature. We mean that o f taking grown men
(foreigners) as apprentices to some twelve or fifteen months, when
they are to be turned into the situations o f men who are masters of
their business; which men are to be turned out o f their places by mis
erable botches, because they will work for what they can get. By
these means numbers o f excellent workmen, who ought to be orna
ments to the profession, are driven by necessity to some other means
o f support. When a parent puts out a child to learn an art, it is
with the pleasing idea that a knowledge o f that art will enable him,
when he becomes a man, to provide for himself a comfortable subsist
ence. Did he know that after laboring from his youth to manhood
to acquire our art he would be compelled to abandon it and resort to
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
875
some business with which he was totally unacquainted to enable him
to live, he would certainly prefer that he should in the first instance
seek a livelihood on the sea, or by some other precarious calling, than
trust to the equally precarious success of a trade overstocked by its
professors. O f the number that have completed their apprentice
ship to the printing business within the last five years, but few have
been enabled to hold a situation for any length o f time. And it is
an incontrovertible fact, that nearly one-half who learn the trade are
obliged to relinquish it and follow some other calling for support.
Under the direful influence of the unwarrantable practices, the
professors o f the noblest art with which the world is blessed, have
become “ birds o f passage,” seeking a livelihood from Georgia to
Maine. It is owing to such practices that to acknowledge yourself a
printer is to awaken suspicion and cause distrust. It is owing to such
practices that the professors o f the noble art are sinking in the esti
mation o f the community. And it will be owing to such practices, if
persisted in, that to see a book correctly printed will, in a few years,
be received as a phenomenon.
To render an art respectable it is indispensably necessary that its
professors should be perfect masters o f their calling, which can only
be acquired by serving a proper apprenticeship. And, in our art, it
is not always time that perfects the printer. For it is too often the
case, that boys o f little or no education are taken as apprentices which
the first services as devil frequently preclude the knowledge of, until
they are bound, when the discovery is too late to be remedied. Owing
to the deficiency, they make but sorry printers; whereas, had they
learned some trade which does not particularly require a good educa
tion, they might have been perfect masters o f it and better able to
gain a livelihood. These are evils, gentlemen, which we sorely feel,
and which it is in your power to remedy; and we sincerely hope that
this appeal to your justice and humanity may meet with that consid
eration which its importance demands.” (°)
D. H. R eins.
W . B tjrbridge.
S. Johnson.
®It is impossible to read this circular, and the subsequent struggle the
unions had for fifty years with the runaway-apprentice and “ two-thirder ”
problems without recalling that oldest o f journeymen printers’ documents, pre
served in the British Museum, and quoted in full by Brentano in his History
and Development of Guilds (note to p. 97), as follow s:
The case and proposals o f the free journeymen printers in and about London,
humbly submitted to consideration. Licensed October 23rd, 1666.
Whereas there are at this present in and about the City o f London, to the
number o f one hundred and forty workmen printers, or thereabouts who have
served seven years to the art o f printing, under lawful master printers, and are
reduced to great necessities and temptations for want o f lawful employment,
occasioned partly by supernumary aprentices and turn-overs, which have in
creased the number almost to twice as many on the whole, as would be suffi
cient to discharge all the public and lawful work o f the kingdom. The work
men printers above-mentioned &c. propose; 1. That no foreigners (that is to
say) such an one as has not served seven years to the art o f printing, under a
lawful master printer, as an apprentice, may be entertained and employed by
any master printer, for the time to come. 2. That a provision may be made to
hinder the increase o f apprentices and a limitation appointed as to the number,
&c. 3. That no turn-overs be received by any master printer, but from a
master printer; and that no master printer turning over any apprentice to
876
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
A letter from the Philadelphia society in September, 1810, in
formed the New York City organization o f the new wage scale, that
o f September 20, and the strike for its enforcement in the former
city. Immediately an extra meeting o f the New York society was
called to act upon it. The following extract from the minutes shows
how a feeling o f unity o f interest was rapidly growing among the
workmen o f the neighboring cities o f that date. The minutes are
those o f the special or called meeting:
A letter was read from the journeymen printers of Philadelphia,
accompanied with a circular list o f prices, which they are now stand
ing out for, and urging us to cooperate with them in order to obtain
their just demands; and the board, conceiving the nature o f the com
munication o f the utmost importance, came to the immediate reso
lution o f convening the general society, and the following was imme
diately passed:
Resolved, That a general extra meeting o f this society be called on
Monday, the 24th instant, for the purpose o f giving general infor
mation to the members o f the proceedings o f the journeymen printers
o f Philadelphia.
Resolved, unanimously, That we highly approve o f the proceedings
o f our typographical brethren o f the city o f Philadelphia in the
demand for a raise o f prices.
Resolved, etc., That we pledge ourselves to each other that we will
not take any situation vacated by any of our brethren in Philadelphia
under the present circumstances.
Resolved, etc., That it be recommended to the members of this
society to make the proceedings o f this meeting known as general as
possible.
Resolved, That a copy o f these resolutions be transmitted by the
secretary to the Philadelphia Typographical Society.
On August 7, 1811, the society added an article to its constitution
limiting the age at which apprentices at presswork may begin and
prohibiting members from working with men receiving less than the
scale. The words o f the amendment were:
No member o f this society shall be permitted to take with him as
a companion at press a person who is o f full age at the commencement
o f his apprenticeship; nor shall any member o f the society work in
an office where a person is employed for less than our established
prices, under the penalty o f expulsion in either case.
A side light is thrown on the conditions which furnish a justificaanother master printer may be permitted to take any other apprentice in his
place, till the full time o f the said apprentice so turned over be expired; for
otherwise, the restraint and limitation o f apprentices will be evaded, and the
number supplied by turn-overs.
It is significant to note that the remedy proposed by this first craft guild o f
London printers in 1666—i. e., limitation on the number o f apprentices was'
precisely the one eventually adopted by the typographical societies in the
United States, beginning with the New Orleans society in 1889, and finally
adopted by the Washington, D. C., union in its constitution o f 1867, the last of
the local unions to adopt the measure.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
877
tion from the trade-unionist point o f view, for the first provision o f
the above article, when on July 24, 1813, a committee reports on a
proposition for membership. This applicant proves to have been a
weaver by trade; but as weaving “ gave him a pain in the breast,” he
got a situation in a livery stable. From that he went into a printing
office as a pressman. Even his employer testified before the commit
tee that when he came to work for him “ he did not know how to
scrape a ball, and by his appearance and conduct thought he was
never in a printing office before.” The society refused him admis
sion “ since he is a weaver, not a printer.” Apprenticeship was felt
to be their only protection, and as a safeguard the pressmen (who
worked in pairs) were prohibited from taking as companion a man
who had “ broken into the trade ” after he was 21 years o f age.
Early in 1815 the society began debating the question o f a new
wage scale. One was finally adopted October 7, 1815, a copy of
which will be found in the Appendix hereto. (Appendix B, No. 1.)
This scale further restricted the apprentices by requiring the em
ployer to pay the pressmen an extra piece price where apprentices
were being taught the trade. Not only did the society adopt a new
scale, raising the rates to 27 cents per 1,000 ems and $9 per week, but
at the same meeting, by unanimous vote, adopted a resolution that “ a
committee o f three be appointed to confer with the different typo
graphical societies in the United States, the duty o f which committee
shall be to induce (if possible) the journeymen o f Philadelphia, and
Albany in particular, to raise their prices to at least the same standard
as ours.”
The new wage scale was accepted by most of the employers, but
involved the society in a strike for its enforcement in a few minor
offices. From a clause in a letter the New York society sent to the
societies in Albany, N. Y., and Washington, D. C., in 1816, in re
sponse to notices o f the adoption of new wage scales by those
societies, it will be seen that the employers o f New York were the
first to insist upon or at least suggest the idea o f a uniform wage
scale for the entire country, an idea which for other reasons agitated
the various societies for nearly a half century afterwards. The clause
referred to states:
That you should pursue the measures you are now pursuing has
been the desire o f both the journeymen and employers o f this city
for the following reasons: It was urged by the employers last summer,
when our journeymen made a demand for higher wages, that unless
journeymen in other places would raise their prices to an equilibrium
with those we had presented, it would induce the booksellers to send
their work out o f the city, as the difference in the price for which work
could be done elsewhere would more than pay for the transportation.
It must be remembered that at this time and for nearly a quarter o f
a century afterwards newspapers employed such a small percentage
878
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR.
o f the printers that the societies paid little attention to anything else
than the book and job offices.
After the strike to enforce the wage scale o f 1815 the society had
again to discipline a number of its members. Some of the early
societies had admitted to membership employers who paid the scale.
While this society had never done this, a member who had been ad
mitted as a journeyman did not lose any of his rights in the society
by becoming an employer. The obligation or pledge required mem
bers not only to demand the scale o f prices as journeymen, but to pay
it should they become 46masters.” The experiences o f the strike
forced a new measure upon the organization. The temper of the
society was to be tested by the trial o f an extreme case, and one mem
ber who had become an employer subsequent to joining the society
was brought up on a charge having six separate counts, three of
which read as follow s:
First. For an attempt, in combination with a few employing print
ers, to lessen the established wages of journeymen.
Second. For introducing into the printing business men wholly
unacquainted with it to the exclusion of regular-bred workmen.
Third. For refusing to give employment to members o f this society
and employing one not a member in preference— a direct violation of
the solemn pledge he has repeatedly given us.
The other three charges were, in substance, that he had given cur
rency among the masters to the plans and purposes of the society
contrary to his obligation; that he had permitted his name to be
added to the advertisement of other employers in advertising for
44strangers ” to come to New York and take the places o f the striking
printers; and lastly, that he had injured his brother members of the
society. On motion, a resolution of expulsion was passed, which
resolution provided: 44And his name, with the nature o f his offense,
be transmitted to the different typographical societies in the United
States.” To safeguard the future and make permanent the lesson
learned, the by-laws were amended by the addition of the follow ing:
Experience teaches us that the actions of men are influenced almost
wholly by their interests, and that it is almost impossible a society
can be regulated and useful where its members are actuated by
opposite motives and separate interests. This society is a society of
journeymen printers, and as the interests of the journeymen are
separate and in some respects opposite to that o f the employers, we
deem it improper that they should have any voice or influence in our
deliberation; therefore,
Resolved, That when any member of this society shall become an
employing printer he shall be considered without the limits of the
society and not to vote on any question, or pay any dues in the same.
No device was to be permitted to lessen the piece price o f a quan
tity named in the scale. Under the old system o f printing playing
cards but one was printed at a time. Some master printer devised a
scheme o f setting up two cards in a form and then claimed a reduc
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
879
tion from the pressmen’s scale for presswork. The meeting of June
7, 1817, was devoted to a solution o f the problem: “ I f two cards of
the same be set and worked two at a pull shall they be charged less
than if they were worked singly ? ” The decision of the society was
that “ every 52 cards so worked be charged a pack.” («) Members
were held to honest work for their employers and expelled from the
society for an unworkmanlike thing as surely as for an act prejudi
cial to the interests o f other workmen. In November, 1817, a mem
ber was expelled and his name sent to all known societies because he
had “ turned wrong a half sheet of 24’s, and without mentioning the
fact to his employers left the city, even neglecting to note down the
signature letter in his bill— conduct highly derogatory to the New
York Typographical Society and disgraceful to himself as a
member.”
Out o f the conditions in the industry were rapidly developed the
measures which soon became the customs, which ossifying became the
anatomy o f subsequent trade unionism—the bones and framework
o f all modern organizations along trade lines. These “ fundamental
principles o f trade unionism,” which are never now expressed in con
stitutions, or elaborated in resolutions, because too thoroughly under
stood to be expressed, or require expression, are but the successful ex
periments o f the formative period in its life, made permanent by
time; the sediment o f experience petrified. As witness to this de
velopment it is worthy of note that at its meeting in November, 1817,
the society resolved to keep a register of members, and their places
o f employment. One member was appointed as the representative
o f the society in each printing office, and at each meeting as their
names were read they must give information “ as to the state of trade
and the chances o f employment for more of our members.” A list
o f those out o f work was also to be kept, and these in the order o f
registration were to be notified of any vacancies or opportunities for
employment reported at each meeting. How suggestive this is of
the “ father o f the chapel,” the “ house of call,” and the “ waiting
list,” and each o f the early societies developed similar features. The
aggressive element was, however, being defeated in another direc
tion. In 1816 the society had made application to the State legis
lature at Albany for an act o f incorporation. The assembly passed
the bill, but the senate inserted an amendment, which, while pre
serving all o f the social and “ benefit ” features of the society, pro®The principle involved here has always been contended for by British trade
unions, but not, as a rule, by those of the United States, at least until recently.
The claim is that labor should have a once-established percentage share o f the
product, regardless o f time involved in its production. This is now a dictum
o f the unions that seek to maintain “ a competitive equality ” among employers,
but is not a part o f the typographical union’s creed.
276—No. 61—06
m ------11
880
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR.
hibited it from interfering in any manner with trade matters, or
attempting to influence the wages of labor. This amendment to
its bill the society declined to accept, and the matter went over for
two years. In 1818 the bill came up in its original form again, and
was again passed by the assembly. Mr. Thurlow Weed, who had
joined the society in October, 1816, just after it had established its
wage scale o f 1815, but before industrial peace had been entirely
secured, had charge o f the society’s bill in Albany. Mr. Weed seems
to have been thoroughly in sympathy with the trade regulation inter
ests o f the organizations but the senate was not to be moved. After
two years o f effort to secure what it wanted from the legislature, the
society finally accepted the senate’s terms and adopted, as section 5 of
article I o f its constitution, the follow ing:
S ec. 5. In no case shall the society interfere in respect to the price
o f labor. (a)
The society exists to-day and is financially prosperous, but it
passed out o f the class of organizations considered in this article by
its acceptance o f this legislative charter in 1818. On its beneficial
side it had a most elaborate system for the relief of needy members,
going so far as to furnish and pay watchers for the sick. The large
area of its jurisdiction was divided into sections with visiting com
mittees for each. It was as active in matters o f mutual benefit and
help as on its trade side. The mutual aid element in these early so
cieties has been fully written up heretofore by scholars who, judging
only from their printed constitution, and not having access to the
minutes or records, have assumed that they were merely mutual aid
and burial societies. There is no disposition here to question or even
to ignore this element in these societies, but to bring to light from the
minutes the evidence that whatever livery o f charitable clubs they
wore in public, in their hall rooms they were labor organizations.
Considerable space has been given to this New York society o f 1809
because o f its trade aggressiveness. In trade matters it was the
stormy petrel o f the early societies, and but for the clipping o f its
wings in 1818 the societies organized in the movement of 1815 to
1820 would probably, under its influence, have been as distinctively
and as openly trade unions as were those organized from 1830 to 1850.
In order to follow more closely the career o f this New York Typo
graphical Society from its inception to the surrender of its trade
influence, there has been some sacrifice o f strict chronological arrange
ment. It remains, however, but to state that from the time of its
organization, July 1, 1809, until it ceased to be a labor force in 1818,
it had enrolled 237 members.
During the war of 1812 the secretary o f the society, Mr. David H.
o From a copy o f the constitution as printed in 1833, to be found in the Library
of Congress.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
881
Reins, organized a company of artillery composed entirely o f printers
for the defense o f the harbor of New Y ork; just as the Philadelphia
society, by*unanimous vote in September, 1814, resolved to appropri
ate one day’s labor for each of its members “ on the fortifications now
erecting for the defense o f the city,” and on October 14, 1814, ap
pointed a committee o f three “ whose duty it shall be to receive appli
cations o f the wives o f such members o f this society now absent in the
service o f the country, under the requisition o f the President thereof,
as may stand in need o f assistance, and that they report at every
meeting o f the directory the sum they think proper to be allowed to
each.”
The Philadelphia society, after passing the resolution o f December,
1808, forbidding its members to instruct an apprentice who was more
than 18 years o f age at the commencement of his apprenticeship, and
providing for the transmission to other societies o f the names o f ex
pelled members, as elsewhere referred to, followed this up in March,
1809, by requiring all members to take the obligation formerly ex
acted only from officers, including the pledge “ that I will procure
employment for any member or members o f this society in preference
to any other when occasion may require.”
Early in 1809 the society began proceedings to secure incorporation.
Some alteration in the constitution was required by the courts pre
liminary thereto, though the exact character of the change does not
appear on the minutes. In December, 1809, however, “ the commit
tee appointed to procure an incorporation reported that the constitu
tion had been handed to the judge o f the supreme court for signature
on that day and that Mr. Franklin’s fee as counsel was $8, which he
would not accept, but returned to the committee as a donation to the
funds o f the society.”
July 14, 1810, the initiation fee was raised to $5 and a clause added
to its constitution which has caused the downfall of more societies
than any other one thing with which they had to contend, to the effect
that members who paid their dues for twenty years became “ free
members,” entitled to all the benefits of the society for life without
further payment. The effect o f this will be referred to elsewhere.
In September, 1810, the society presented a new scale o f prices to
the employers, which seems to have been unsatisfactory. No copy of
this price list has been found. A strike for its enforcement seems to
have been a disastrous failure, almost depleting the society’s treasury
and greatly reducing its membership. A t the beginning o f 1810 there
were 119 members in good standing, 14 joined during the year, and
78 resigned or were expelled, leaving the membership 55, or only one
more than in 1802 at its close of the first year o f existence.
Apart from its patriotic attitude in 1814, referred to above, the
benevolent features o f the society occupied its energies until June,
882
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
1816, when the pressmen formulated a scale and issued the following
address to the employers. A similar statement was issued by the
compositors, bearing the indorsement of the society, which* raises the
question as to whether the pressmen belonged to the society or
whether the society as such indorsed only the demands of the com
positors and not those of the pressmen. The only copy of this ad
dress and price list found was transcribed on the minutes o f the New
York Typographical Society as a communication from Philadelphia.
The document itself seems to emanate from a mass meeting rather
than from the society. The Philadelphia society seems not to have
become a purely benevolent association until 1831. Whether or not
the pressmen acted independently o f the society in this matter the
address and scale is worth preserving here.
TO T H E E M P L O Y IN G P R IN TE R S OF T H E C IT Y A N D C O U N T Y OF P H IL A D E L P H IA .
G e n t l e m e n : The pressmen are induced, from a duty which they
owe to themselves, to call your serious attention to what they here
present you. The general prices that they now receive for their
work were established fourteen years since [by the scale o f 1802];
it will therefore appear obvious to every person that there has been
a great increase since that period in the population o f our country,
likewise a wide extension of our commerce, agriculture, and manu
factures. The consequence has been a very considerable rise in the
things necessary for the comfort of man. They are decidedly o f the
opinion that almost all mechanics have had an advance m their
wages in proportion to the rise in the necessaries o f life, taken in the
aggregate; while the printer, whose profession is not second in point
o f merit to any other, is left as it were to stem the torrent of
adversity with an empty pocket. Heaven forbid that this should be
the fate o f those whose labors tend so essentially to the promulgation
o f knowledge throughout our extensive country. And they likewise
believe it to be an indelible fact, long since established, that Philadel
phia is famous for its workmen in the art preservative o f all arts,
both in skill and faculty; but with shame they are compelled to
say (notwithstanding our city is the emporium of art) that they
receive a less award for their services than is awarded in any o f the
other cities o f the Union. From a sense o f imperious duty incumbent
upon them as respectable members o f society, they now make the
demand, fully confident that it is moderate and just. The laborer
is worthy o f his hire.
They therefore anticipate that you will, with liberality becoming
your profession, give your decided approbation to the annexed
scale o f prices. Your opposition we ought not to expect. We are,
however, directed by the meeting to inform you that we have been
authorized and directed to correspond and confer with you indi
vidually, or to meet any committee that may be appointed on your
part for that purpose. You will therefore, gentlemen, please to
inform us o f your determination as soon as possible, as we have to
report to the next meeting. On our part we assure you that we will
use our utmost endeavors in this conference to produce a good under
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
883
standing and to avoid as far as possible those inconveniences and
altercations which invariably arise out of an imperfect understand
ing, well aware that it is too often cherished by those whose position
“ does not command a view of the whole ground.”
(Signed by order o f the meeting.)
J. C. D owden,
P. M iller,
G eo. H itner,
John D ouglas,
O. P. M errill,
Committee on behalf of the Journeymen Pressmen.
P hiladelphia, June 17, 1816.
presswork.
Pressmen to receive not less than $9 per week for 10 hours work
per day. Paper—medium and below medium, not less than 33£ cents
per token; when the number is less than four tokens, to be charged
35 cents per token; above medium 37^ cents per token; stereotype
editions to be charged 35 cents per token; broadsides, medium, 60
cents per token; royal, 75 cents per token. Cards— for one pack
and not exceeding two packs, 33£ cents; when the number exceeds
two packs, to be charged 12^ cents per pack.
The result o f this appeal is not known. In April, 1817, the society
appointed a committee styled The Committee of Employ,
Whose duty it shall be to receive the name or names o f such person
or persons belonging to this society as shall from time to time be out
o f employment, which committee shall thereupon take all just and
honorable methods of procuring situations for such applicants.
Said committee shall meet at least twice in every month, and shall
make report to the board of directors at every meeting thereof of
the number o f applicants (designating their names), and generally
o f the progress made in the duties of said committee, which report
shall be duly entered on the minutes by the secretary and read at
each stated meeting o f the society.
From time to time committees were “ appointed to investigate the
state o f the printing business in this city ” until February 5, 1831,
when, by resolution, it was decided “ that this society from and after
the first day o f April, 1831, be dissolved,” and a committee was ap
pointed to turn all its assets into cash and divide the funds among
the members. Before the date set for dissolution arrived, however,
namely, February 12, it was decided 66that we do now agree to form
an association for benevolent purposes; ” and that while the cash on
hand should be divided among the members, “ the library and book
case and the burial lot ” should be given to the new organization,
provided the donor o f the burial lot (Mr. Ronaldson) would consent
to the transfer.
Thus died the trade regulation features in one o f the oldest socie
ties. As a society it still exists, as does the New York society o f 1809.
Never so aggressively industrial as some o f the others, the Philadel
884
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
phia society was conservatively a trade organization from 1802 to
1831, and even after that, in 1832, it being rumored that one o f its
members was about to employ women as compositors, and had offered
a nonunion printer a situation as foreman in case women were em
ployed, the feeling in the society was so strong that the member in
question felt called upon to write a letter to be spread upon the min
utes o f the society denying that he had ever intended to employ
women. (a)
The following table, compiled from the records of this society, shows
the growth in membership and receipts and expenditures for half a
century, from its organization in 1802 to the date set as the limit to
this article, 1852:
« This is the first mention found of women in the trade. Later the question
became o f utmost importance to printers, and a brief summary of its history
seems necessary here, since the final disposition did not occur until after the
date set as a limit to the general text o f this article. January 17, 1835, a special
meeting was called by the Washington, D. C., society because o f the alarm occa
sioned by a statement published in a local paper “ that girls were being em
ployed as compositors in newspaper offices in Philadelphia,” to break a strike.
Resolutions were adopted and embodied in a circular letter sent to the typo
graphical societies o f Philadelphia, Boston, New York, and Baltimore, asking if
any girls were so employed, if so, how many, and what action these societies
“ proposed to take to prevent the further progress of this e v il? ” The records
do not show that any replies were received. The national convention of 1854
devoted much o f its time to a discussion o f the “ woman question,” as the Detroit
union had asked for instructions in the matter. The proceedings o f the conven
tion contain pages o f resolutions on all sides o f the problem, none of which
passed. The matter was referred to a committee which recommended that the
regulation of the subject be left to local unions, since “ the employment? of
females, as compositors, can never become so general or extensive as to affect
the trade materially.” At a meeting o f the Boston Typographical Union held
June 14, 1856, a motion that “ any member working in any office that employs
female compositors should be expelled from the union,” was “ laid over ” for
future consideration, and April 11, 1857, the same union passed a resolution
“ That all females be allowed by this society to work in all branches o f the busi
ness, provided they receive the scale o f prices adopted by this union.” The
Philadelphia delegates to the national convention o f 1855 were especially “ in
structed to oppose any recognition o f the employment o f females as compositors.”
Nearly every national convention debated, and every local union, in cities at
least, had to adopt a policy in regard to this subject. Finally a “ union of women
printers ” was organized in New York City in 1870 and sought admission to the
national, and the national convention o f 1872 settled the matter by admitting
women to full membership in local unions and demanding for her labor the same
price paid to men.
885
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
ST A T IS T IC S OF M E M B E R SH IP AND OF R E C E IP T S AND E X P E N D IT U R E S DU RIN G
TH E F IR S T H A LF CEN TU RY OF TH E P H IL A D E L P H IA T Y P O G R A PH IC A L
SO CIETY.
M em bers.
Y ear.
R eceipts.
Duest
D ied, re
In good fines,
A d m itted . signed, or standing.
in iti
ations.
expelled.
1802......................
1803........... .........
1804......................
1805......................
1806......................
1807......................
1808......................
1809......................
1810......................
1811......................
1812......................
1813......................
1814......................
1815......................
1816......................
1817......................
1818......................
1819......................
1820......................
1821......................
1822......................
1823......................
1824......................
1825......................
1826......................
1827......................
1828......................
1829......................
1830......................
1831......................
1832......................
1833......................
1834......................
1835......................
1836......................
1837......................
1838.............. ........
1839......................
1840......................
1841......................
1842......................
1843......................
1844......................
1845......................
1846......................
1847......................
1848......................
1849......................
1850......................
1851......................
54
13
1
6
22
9
24
14
6
7
6
3
10
11
14
7
2
2
9
2
9
10
6
12
4
6
1
52
22
45
29
39
26
19
19
21
25
37
11
9
16
15
24
11
14
18
7
15
5
1
2
2
78
2
2
3
4
4
3
6
2
4
5
4
4
3
6
2
1
4
3
3
3
a 114
14
23
33
28
19
12
18
15
6
9
8
10
6
7
1
9
6
9
° R eorganization .
54
62
63
63
68
88
95
119
55
59
64
67
66
72
80
88
93
91
88
84
89
88
91
99
104
112
113
116
114
52
74
105
111
117
115
115
122
125
135
166
168
169
175
190
208
212
225
234
235
241
$80.64
70.94
162.00
52.62
116.87
229.38
109.78
168.00
333.00
209.88
172.00
193.00
138.37
251.38
232.62
247.50
203.87
130.25
128.50
118.50
123.87
161.88
128.87
154.63
115.50
199.25
114.75
137.91
158.25
463.35
429.36
473.84
840.19
831.00
620.49
688.13
569.56
729.24
835.24
1,030.04
1,008.04
1,156.21
1,161.15
1,221.00
1,340.76
1,642.34
1,533.53
1,630.42
1,564.50
1,508.12
E xpenditures.
F rom
oth er
sources.
D eath,
sick , or
ou t-ofw ork
benefits.
$3.00
'
$3.75
48.00
48.70
44.00
52.00
31.00
833.00
65.34
74.90
70.34
78.19
95.93
95.67
67.92
21.98
35.75
314.09
71.54
62.81
999.05
73.25
80.25
76.50
91.00
297.12
100.00
112.00
45.00
70.00
77.65
88.10
100.00
112.00
132.00
150.00
278.00
162.00
162.00
162.00
162.00
163.10
162.00
162.00
328.90
233.71
12.00
41.00
36.00
65.00
79.00
194.00
101.00
31.00
105.00
103.00
75.00
48.00
129.00
183.00
215.00
270.00
143.00
114.50
259.50
101.50
36.00
163.50
162.00
248.00
328.00
55.00
368.57
267.00
150.00
295.52
297.54
203.67
462.84
260.36
267.72
648.35
1,331.84
827.13
1,293.35
1,264.72
782.99
1,235.35
1,362.16
1,566.88
1,801.69
1,568.23
O ther ex
penses.
$59.00
9.00
9.00
44.10
30.37
45.25
165.37
255.02
57.50
32.50
46.50
33.00
38.18
91.24
160.84
44.00
256.25
192.34
27.75
13.88
271.01
27.84
259.26
118.19
130.87
25.00
51.30
106.00
21.58
34.35
79.94
257.78
305.92
22.12
180.09
109.75
147.45
131.33
130.04
172.27
258.92
234.02
165.55
123.30
132.00
141.20
150.85
85.50
99.90
Funds divided equally.
The year 1815 was a memorable one for printers’ societies. Boston,
Mass., Albany, N. Y., and Washington, D. C., organized during the
year, and while the date of the organization of the Baltimore Typo
graphical Society is not known, the first mention o f it is also found
during this year. The first meeting o f the Washington printers for
the purpose o f organization was held December 10, 1814, at the pri
vate house o f Mr. H. L. Lewis, in whose parlor the society met, for
some years paying him $1 per month for the privilege. A t this first
meeting a committee was appointed to draft a constitution, “ with
instructions to model the same as nearly as may be practicable by
886
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
that o f the Philadelphia Typographical Society.” This committee
reported in January, 1815; the constitution was adopted, and the
society organized with 19 members. Nine more were added during
the year, making a total of 28 at the close of 1815. (a)
A copy o f this constitution copied from the records o f the society
for this report will be found in Appendix A, No. 2. As it is avow
edly based on the later developments of that of Philadelphia, no
copy o f which subsequent to 1802 was found, the reader should
compare the two for himself.
The fact should not be overlooked that the Washington society
(called the Columbia Typographical Society) was modeled after
the most conservative and largely beneficial of the earlier societies—
that o f Philadelphia; while that of Albany, N. Y., evidently organ
ized at the instigation of the emissaries from the New York City
society, was patterned after that more aggressive body. But if the
“ first object o f the Columbia society was benevolence,” it also pro
posed to “ regulate prices,” and in the conflict of factions, almost
evenly divided as to numbers (except under extreme provocation, as
in 1836), it was at once liberally benevolent and conservatively per
sistent in trade matters, being the only one of the old societies that
has survived until to-day, and developed into a modern trade union,
rather than a mutual benefit association.
On June 15, 1815, a committee of correspondence was appointed,
which reported July 1 that it had sent the following circular letter
to the typographical societies o f Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York,
Albany, and Boston. The copy here given is from the minutes of the
original society. It differs in phraseology on minor points from
the copy made from the records of the New York society as received.
W ashington, July — , 1816.
To the President of th e --------- S ociety,---------- a t ---------- .
S i r : By a vote of the Columbia Typographical Society, we were
appointed a committee of correspondence: In pursuance o f which
appointment it has become our duty, thro’ you, to address the society
over which you preside, informing them o f the organization, in the
District o f Columbia, o f a society under the above title: having for
its object, first, benevolence, and, second, the establishment o f a regu
lar system o f prices. In the obtainment of these views, we feel
assured o f the good wishes o f your body, as well as o f every friend
to the profession.
« As no information has hitherto been obtainable relative to the membership
of these organizations, the accessions to this society, by years, is here noted up
to 1840. As stated above, it had 28 members at the close o f 1815. In 1816 it
added 15 to its membership; 5 in 1817; 9 in 1818; 5 in 1819; 9 in 1820 ; 6 in
1821; 5 in 1822; 14 in 1823; 10 in 1824; 13 in 1825; 11 in 1826 ; 9 in 1827;
n in 1828; 2 in 1829 ; 4 in 1830; 11 in 1831; 7 in 1832; 5 in 1833; 71 in
1834 ; 33 in 1835; 17 in 1836 ; 31 in 1837; 17 in 1838; and 17 in 1839, making
a total o f recorded names in 25 years o f 365..
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
887
In the infancy o f associations of this nature difficulties will fre
quently occur, tending to dampen the fondest expectations o f the most
sanguine. That we Tiave had to contend with such difficulties we
will not attempt to deny, but by a determined perseverance on the
part o f each member, they have been caused to vanish, and we now
indulge the pleasing hope that our society is firmly and permanently
established. With satisfaction we have it in our power to state that,
with but few exceptions, every journeyman in this District are now
members o f this society. The few who are not, we have the strongest
reasons for asserting, will in a short time attach themselves to us.
We are also directed to state, for the information of journeyman in
your vicinity, the wages given in the District, v iz :
During the session of Congress, per week----------------------------------------------$10. 00
Working on a Sunday------------------------------------------------------------------------2. 00
During the recess, per week___________________________________________
9. 00
For pressmen and compositors:
Composition, per 1,000 ms. for brevier and upwards-----------------------------. 28
Composition, per 1,000 ms. for less than brevier_______________ *_______
. 33£
Presswork, per token_________________________________________________
. 33£
Presswork, per token, bn newspapers_________________________________
. 37£
Journeymen are altogether employed by the week during the session
o f Congress.
We give this notice with a hope that it may prevent journeymen
at a distance engaging at less prices than those above quoted.
With a request that reciprocal communications having a tendency
to benefit the profession may at all times take place,
We have the honor to be, sir, yours, &c., respectfully,
(Signed)
Jas. P ettigrew,
J. G ideon, Jr.
This letter brought but two replies, one from Baltimore (a) and that
o f the president o f the New York Typographical Society, which soci
ety sent a further communication, received October 7, notifying the
« The letter from the Baltimore society makes so clear the fact that that
organization was likewise as thoroughly economic in its purpose as were the
others that it is reproduced here, since no other documents of this early
Baltimore society have been discovered.
B a l t im o r e , D ecem b er 8, 1815.
T o the P resid en t o f the Colum bia Typographical S o c ie ty :
Si r : I hasten to comply with a requisition o f the Baltimore Typographical
Association, imposed on me by a vote o f that body at their last meeting, viz,
a reply to a communication received from a committee of the society over which
you have the honor to preside—under the name and title first mentioned.
Previous, however, to entering into the performance o f this task it becomes a
duty incumbent on me as a friend to a mutual interchange o f sentiments
between associations o f this nature, as well as individuals, to explain, so far
as is within my power, the causes which have produced this almost unpardon
able delay— a delay so derogatory to the feelings and so contrary to the wishes
o f every member of our body.
Your communication bears date of June 30, 1815. It was, I believe, received
in due season, and promptly laid before the next meeting after its receipt, which
meeting empowered and required the then secretary to forward a reply, expres
sive of the thanks of the association, for the attention you have shown them,
the pleasure they always experience in the establishment o f any regulations
which have the least tendency to promote the interest and happiness o f our
brethren in every section o f the Union, their copgratulations that you have so
888
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
Columbian society of a strike in New York to enforce the scale of
prices, and asking that no Washington printers be permitted to take
situations in New York until the trouble was over. A t this meeting
o f October 7 a “ committee was appointed to draft a list o f prices
similar to that o f Baltimore.” This committee reported and the list
was approved November 4,1815. It is reproduced herein (Appendix
B, No. 2) and is to be understood as representing the wage conditions
in both the cities (Washington .and Baltimore) at that time. The
society ordered 150 copies of this price list printed.
The Boston Typographical Society of 1809 had apparently ceased
to exist, as another of the same name was organized November 25,
1815, and on March 2, 1816, on the eve of a demand for an increase
o f wages, sent the following letter to the various societies:
B o sto n , March
1816.
S ir : A society bearing the name of the “ Boston Typographical
Society ” was formed in this town on the 25th of November last
past, o f which Mr. P. F. Quearean is president; Henry Nichols, vicepresident; and William Learned, secretary.
On Monday next, 4th of March, the journeymen o f this town and
vicinity calculate to receive the prices which they have adopted. The
employers have already been informed of our determination and we
doubt not they will be obstinate at first, but must eventually agree to
give us the prices we ask, provided we are united and the journey
men o f your city do not think proper to come to this town for work
at the call o f the masters, as they will doubtless many o f them adver
tise for workmen in a short time.
We, therefore, earnestly request that you will give notice to the
members o f your society o f our proceedings, and as it is all important
that we should be left to manage our own affairs in our own way,
completely succeeded in rebuffing the many obstacles naturally incident in the
formation o f such associations, and their readiness at all times to cooperate
with you in all and every measure which may have for its object the mutual
interest of both associations and the profession generally. The above order,
from causes not yet explained, has not been complied with, nor was known until
the last meeting.
Hoping that the above-recited fact will be sufficient to remove any unpleas
ant sensations from your minds which may have been excited in consequence
thereof, I embrace the present occasion o f complimenting you on the funda
mental principles of your association— “ benevolence ” and the “ establishment
of a regular system of prices.” The first is one of the noblest virtues o f the
human heart and the last very essential to the promotion o f the interest and
happiness o f every association o f a mechanical nature.
To conclude, sir, you may be assured that we will always feel proud to receive
any communication from the Columbia society which may, in the least have a
tendency to favor the views or carry into effect the objects o f each association,
and will ever be ready at any moment to act with alacrity in conjunction with
it on any measure that might lead to our mutual benefit.
I have the honor to remain, with the sentiments o f respect (on behalf o f the
Baltimore association), your very obt. humble servant.
J o h n R evell,
P resid en t o f said A ssocia tion .
Mr. A l e x a n d e r G r a h a m ,
P resid en t o f the Colum bia T ypographical S ociety.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
889
you will please give us every necessary aid in the present contest
which “ try men’s souls.”
We are, sir, with respect, yours, etc.,
E liakim F ish ,
Geo. S ingleton,
W m . K erry, Jr.,
Committee.
P. S.— Should you observe in the newspapers an advertisement for
journeymen wanted in this place, we request you to advertise in our
behalf that there are between 50 and 60 journeymen out of employ
in Boston.
October 4, 1816, the aggressive Albany society, which, as stated
above, had been organized in 1815, sent the following letter to all
societies:
A lbany , Oct. 1816.
To the 'president o f the ’Washington City Typographical Society,
Washington.
Sir : A ll bodies formed for the purpose o f maintaining the rights
o f those concerned therein, while at the same time they afford relief in
cases o f distress to which any of their members may be exposed,
ought to possess the means o f holding up to the contempt of those
societies who have the same just and benevolent ends in view, such
persons as either from self-interest or perverseness endeavor to defeat
the object o f such associations.
Influenced by these sentiments, the Albany Typographical Society
authorized the undersigned to communicate to the different societies
in the United States their willingness to cooperate with them in the
furtherance o f all lawful measures conducive with the interests of the
business, and at the same time to forward the names o f several un
principled persons to you, and through you to the Washington City
Typographical Society, who for months past have been and are still
working in the office o f Messrs.------ in this city below the prices es
tablished by the society.
Their names a re ------ , ------ , ------ , ------ , ------ , ------ .
What renders their conduct the more censurable is the fact of their
being several times warned o f the consequences which would result
from their proceedings, but persisting notwithstanding.
By order o f the society,
J ohn B. N. S teinbergh, President.
J ohn H enshall, Secretary.
While this was recognized as a radical step to take at that time,
there was no refusal to comply with the request o f the Albany society.
It was, in fact, no more than the Philadelphia society had reluctantly
conceded to the New York society in 1809. The Albany society
seems to have refused to permit its members to work in offices with
men receiving less than the scale almost from the first. This society
seems to have been the first to give currency to the term “ rat ” as
applied to a printer who works for less than the established wages,
890
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
and struck against the employment o f a man designated as a 44rat ”
in 1821. To the credit o f this stormy little society in Albany, N. Y.,
let it be said that in a subsequent letter it took up the case o f at
least one o f these men and rescinded its action. The letter gives an
inside view o f the industrial conditions of the time which renders it
preeminently worth preserving.
We have become more fully acquainted with the causes which
compelled Stephen Dorion to accept of the illegitimate prices. It
appears he was among the first o f those who refused to comply with
the views o f the employers and consequently lost his situation. He
went to New York in pursuit o f work but could not procure any.
He returned again to this city and after sacrificing all his property,
amounting to about $100, besides contracting a heavy debt for the
support o f his family, with starvation staring him in the face, with
out the least hope or possibility o f procuring any assistance from
our society, and, from the conviction that 44rats ” in abundance
could be procured to carry on the work o f destruction, he chose rather
to work at reduced wages than to become an inhabitant o f a gaol or
a poorhouse. Therefore we hope he may be exonerated from the
odious appellation o f “ rat.”
Twenty years later (1888), St. Louis, Mo., protested against a
too strenuous hounding o f 44rats,” and it was one o f the first acts o f
the national organization o f 1852 to call a halt on the abuse o f this
custom by local societies.
From 1816 to 1827, so far as can be determined from the minutes
o f the Washington society, communications between the various
societies practically ceased, but each was active in its own field. The
problem o f a uniform wage scale throughout the country, begun by
the complaint o f the employers o f New York City in the strike of
1815, now became a serious question to the societies from another
point o f view. The price lists were printed separately from the con
stitutions, and the earlier constitutions in most societies made no
direct reference to wage scales. Some members claimed that work
ing for less than the wage scale was not a violation o f the constitu
tion. Eoving printers also claimed that if they did not work below
the scale o f the society they had originally joined they were not vio
lating any obligation. The Washington society’s scale was higher
than that o f any northern city, and, as the Government printing made
the capital a sort o f Mecca for 46tramp ” printers, this society became
the first serious victim o f this subterfuge.
To settle the claim made by home members, who insisted that the
scale was not a part o f the organic law, the society, February 1, 1817,
ordered 250 copies of the constitution printed 64with the list o f prices
annexed thereto.” This plan was adopted by Boston in 1825, and
gradually by all societies, and the reason for it is as stated above. It
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
891
is kept up to this day by local printers’ unions. This however, only
partially settled the trouble with itinerant compositors. (a)
April 4, 1818, the society adopted an entirely new constitution,
both in preamble and nearly every section. It broke away, practi
cally, from the ultra conservatism of the Philadelphia model, and
placed the Washington society more in line with that o f New York
City prior to its acceptance of a legislative charter. A copy of this
constitution, taken from the minutes, is reproduced (Appendix A, No.
3) as the best documentary evidence o f the development of this
society, and as an excellent specimen o f the constitutions o f all the
more aggressive societies of that date.
The special agitation of the apprentice question began in Washing
ton in 1818, and while the constitution o f that year does not go
beyond requiring “ a satisfactory apprenticeship,” nevertheless from
the minutes it is learned that candidates for membership were not
only vigorously questioned on this point, but were required to prove
by written statements from “ their masters ” that they had served
u a four years’ apprenticeship.” Even after admission members
were held liable to expulsion if it was discovered that there “ had
been irregularities in his apprenticeship.” A case o f this character
a The division of sentiment on the uniform wage scale was apparent in the
call for the national convention of 1836, in which the Washington society sought
to estop the convention from dealing with uniform rates by the very terms of
the call, while Cincinnati had made the original request for a national con
vention in the hope of securing uniform rates o f wages. In the convention o f
1854 a resolution was introduced that all members should consider the bill of
prices a part of the by-laws, and the convention of 1855 formulated a pledge
to be taken by all members, which covered the question in the following manner:
I , ---------------------, hereby solemnly and sincerely swear * * * that I will
without equivocation or evasion, and to the best of my ability, so long as I live,
abide by the constitution and by-laws, ami the particular scale of prices of
work acknowledged and adopted by this or other typographical unions o f the
United States, of which I now am or may become a member, and that I will
at all times, by every honorable means in my power, procure employment for
members of our union in preference to all others. So help me God.
Gradually the eastern and southern societies had educated the itinerant
printers and gotten rid o f the uniformity question when it came up again
from the river cities upon which it had been forced by the steamboat printing
office. Even in the Chicago convention o f 1858 the demand for “ a uniform
price list for all unions in the United States ” came up. The “ demand ” came
from the river cities as usual. It was finally disposed o f at this convention of
1858 by the adoption o f the following resolution:
R e so lv ed , That it is hereby recommended by the National Typographical
Union that the subordinate unions o f Louisville, St. Louis, Memphis, and New
Orleans confer with each other for the purpose o f establishing a uniform scale
o f prices for work done by printers on steamboats running on the Ohio, Missouri,
and Mississippi rivers, and that the united action o f the New Orleans, Memphis,
St. Louis, and Louisville unions shall be regarded by the National Typographical
Union as having full power and authority to regulate all matters pertaining
thereto, provided that the representatives o f the unions named may admit to
their councils representatives from other places interested.
892
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
came up July 16, 1818, when it was charged that one Fleming had no
right to membership. Fleming proved that he had served two and
a half years’ apprenticeship in Dublin, Ireland, and afterwards a
short-term apprenticeship in Philadelphia, but this was claimed
irregular, as the entire term must be under one master to protect the
trade against “ runaways.” The vote on his expulsion being a tie,
he was saved only by the casting vote o f the president. The consti
tution o f 1818 provided for certificates of membership, especially
traveling certificates, and remitted the dues of members while travel
ing outside the District o f Columbia, provided they joined any other
society while so traveling and brought back with them a clear record
from the society so joined. February 16, 1819, the society ordered
250 certificates o f membership and made it obligatory for members
to carry them when at work, whether in the District or out. The con
stitution was again revised in 1821, when the faction opposed to any
trade interference had again secured a majority in the society. This
revision is not here reproduced, as there are no important changes,
except that four years’ apprenticeship is made an “ indispensable
qualification for all persons hereafter admitted.” A ll reference to
other societies was stricken out, and a member absent from the Dis
trict must pay dues upon his return precisely as though he had not
been absent.
The first clause of article 17, section 1, states that “ a majority of
the society shall determine on all charges alleged against any member,
whether they are of a nature cognizable by the rules o f the society.”
As the event proved, it was under this provision that all interference
in trade matters was to be ruled out of order by the “ alimoners,” who
at that moment held a majority against the “ industrialists.” The
society was not ready, however, to take a step which might compel the
surrender o f its right to interfere in wage matters. A t a meeting
held December 1, 1821, a resolution was introduced looking to the
incorporation o f the society by Congress. The trade-regulating ele
ment among members feared that this would result, as it had in New
York City, in taking away all power to interfere in prices o f labor.
It being pretty generally conceded that this might result, the debate
was along that line. The vote was a tie, the president casting his vote
against the project of incorporation. It was not until October 4,
1823, that a trade question was forced before the society, at which
time the question as to whether or not setting minion for 30 cents a
1,000 ems on a newspaper was a violation o f the price list was decided
in the negative. April 3, 1824, charges were lodged against three
men— one a foreman, one a proprietor for whom the others worked,
and the third a journeyman—all members of the society, charging the
two former with paying the latter less than the scale, and the latter
with working under the scale. The contention was that it was none
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
893
o f the society’s business, if all parties to the arrangement agreed to it
willingly as individuals.
The test o f strength between the two factions came on the question
as to whether this was a charge “ of a nature cognizable by the rules
o f the society,” under article 17 of the constitution, as quoted above,
and a majority voted that it was. The membership of the society
had been waning for some time—but 6 new members joined in 1821,
5 in 1822. Some improvement began to be noted, however, and in
1824 for the first time the society joined in a civic parade on the Fourth
o f July as a society, wearing silver “ printer’s rules ” as badges. From
the minutes it appears the society was out in full force, forming “ in
front of the President’s house.” In the parade they had a press on
a wagon “ printing and distributing from it copies of the Declaration
o f Independence.”
A t the June meeting in 1827 the spirit o f the progressive element
began to stir anew, and a communication was ordered to be sent to
the New York City and the Philadelphia societies. For ten years there
had been no correspondence between these organizations. The letter
o f the Washington society(°) brought replies from both the societies
addressed. They .were faint-hearted letters, however, indicating that
those societies as such were not more progressive than this one at that
time. The letters are not of sufficient historical interest to reproduce
them here. O f considerable more importance is a resolution intro
duced by Mr. W. H. Blaney, January 5, 1828. Mr. Blaney was
®Copy of a communication to the presidents of the New York and Philadelphia
typographical societies:
W a s h i n g t o n C i t y , J u ly 9 ,1 8 2 7.
P resid en t o f the N e w Y o rk T ypographical S o c ie ty .
Si b : At a stated meeting o f the Columbia Typographical Society o f Wash
ington, held on the 7th instant, the president was “ requested to forward a copy
of our constitution and by-laws to the society over which you preside, and to
request a reciprocation of favors on the part of your society.”
In compliance with this request, I take pleasure in forwarding our consti
tution and requesting that you will forward us a copy o f yours in return. The
object o f transmitting this instrument is, to open a correspondence with our
brethren o f New York, in the hope that, if kept up between the societies, it may
be o f mutual benefit. Any facts or information that may have that tendency
will be thankfully received on our part, and we shall not fail to notify you of
all matters which may be of moment, or likely to prove interesting to you.
Within the covers o f the constitution you will find our list of prices, and the
names o f all the members o f our society, up to the time it was printed. This latter
information will prove interesting to some o f our brethren of your city, if there
shall be found among these signers of our constitution the names o f any of
their friends. It naturally gives us pleasure to procure information of the com
panions o f our earlier years, and to learn, after a long separation, whether
they are yet alive or whether they have passed that bourn from which no
traveler returns.
This communication, and the constitution, will be handed you by our secretary,
Mr. Francis G. Fish, who is on a visit to some o f the principal Atlantic cities,
and to his friends at the eastward. He is recommended to your favorable
regard, and will be the bearer o f any favor you may wish to send us in return.
Very respectfully, sir, I have the honor to be, your obedient servant,
W m . K ebr , Jr.,
P resid en t Colum bia Typographical S o c ie ty .
894
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
a member of both the Philadelphia and Washington societies.
During 1827 he had been visiting in New York City and Phila
delphia. His acquaintance with the views of the printers of these
cities was wide, and the plan he proposed was without reasonable
doubt approved by a strong minority in all three of the societies,
though it must be remembered that the New York City society was
prevented by its legislative charter of 1818 from embarking in such
a project, nor is it entirely certain that the Philadelphia society had
not as a society lost its control over price regulation. Mr. Blaney’s
plan was embodied in the follow ing:
Resolved, That a committee be appointed from this society to devise
means to form a connection with the Philadelphia and New York
typographical societies for the support of prices in each city, and
report the same at the next stated meeting.
The resolution was tabled, as the time was not yet come for this.
Here, however, we have the first hint (unless it be true that the
New York society did make the same proposition to Boston in 1816)
o f a grouping o f printers’ organizations, such as was accomplished
in 1886.
From 1828 on the scrutiny of applicants for membership, on the
point o f their having served a full term of apprenticeship, became
more and more searching and jealous.
The trouble with the printer to the United States Senate, Gen.
Duff Green, which cemented the scattered societies and made new
ones, and o f which much will be said later, began early in 1829. At
a meeting held July 4, 1829, the president of the society reported
that he had held several fruitless conferences with and had six let
ters from “ Mr. Duff Green on the subject of a reduction o f the
established prices.”
At the meeting o f February 7,1829, a resolution to have the society
incorporated by Congress was voted down by a decisive majority.
This idea o f incorporation was always associated more or less with
that o f surrendering control over wages, and the time for that had
passed. A new impetus was coming to organization—new plans
forming, a new opponent arising, who in an attempt to crush was
destined to solidify the trade organizations.
T H E P E R IO D FRO M 1830 TO 1852.
The fatal mistake of the early societies was the “ free membership ”
section in their constitutions. A member who paid his dues for a cer
tain period— ten years in Washington, ten years in Baltimore, and
twenty in Philadelphia, or who paid a lump sum equivalent to
the accumulated dues o f such periods, became a free member, entitled
to all the benefits o f the societies without further payment. When
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
895
this maturing period arrived the society found itself with a list o f
nonpaying members which acted as a discouragement to new members,
because on the latter must fall the entire expense of the organization
while the “ free members ” got most of the benefits.
The societies generally ceased to exist about the time the first list
o f free members appears. Baltimore, organized in 1814 or 1815*
ceased to exist in 1825 or 1826; Philadelphia, organized in 1802
(with a twenty-year paying period adopted in 1810), disbanded to
reorganize on another basis in 1831, and so on. The reason the Wash
ington society did not go down under the baneful influence o f this
provision was that the printing business in Washington was so un
evenly distributed. When Congress was in session the city was filled
with itinerant printers who paid their dues while they stayed, but few
o f them settled down so as to ever become “ free members.” This
influx and exodus of printers, resulting from sessional work, made
possible the preservation of the Columbia Typographical Society,
notwithstanding this defect in its early constitution; and this society,
by the preservation of its minutes, has made possible a fairly com
prehensive study o f the character of these early societies, as well as
furnishing a fair index, through its correspondence, o f the progress
o f organization elsewhere.
The older organizations, almost without exception, called them
selves societies. The new organizations were adopting the term
“ association.” In 1830 the New Orleans Typographical Association
was organized, as appears from a notice of organization sent by it to
the Philadelphia society. In 1832 this New Orleans association
issued a price list radically increasing the scale of wages; no copy
o f this list has been found. This organization seems to have collapsed
within a year or two, and was reorganized, or another o f the same
name organized, May 9, 1835.
The printers o f New York City were becoming dissatisfied, and a
strong element began to feel that the typographical society, hampered
as it was with legislative restrictions, was not sufficient for their
needs. On November 19, 1830, a mass meeting of printers employed
on the daily papers o f the city was called, and the following resolu
tion passed:
Resolved, That it was never the intention o f the printers employed
on the morning and evening papers to make a schism between them
selves and the New York Typographical Society (some of whonf are
members o f that society). So they disclaim and refute the many
insinuations prepared to convey that idea.
I t is n ot at a ll cle a r th a t th e o ld so cie ty a ttem p ted , as an o r g a n iz a
tion , to ch eck th e m o v e to o rg a n iz e th e p rin te rs a lo n g tra d e lin e s ;
a n d it is certa in th a t m a n y m em bers o f th e o ld so cie ty b eca m e m e m
b ers o f th e n ew w h en it w as fo r m e d .
276—No. 61—06
m
------ 12
896
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
The formation o f a new association along strictly trade lines oc
curred June 17, 1831. A price list was issued, for the enforcement of
which the association seems to have become immediately involved in
a strike. A copy o f this list, with a few changes made in 1833, more
to clear up ambiguities than to change the scale, will be found in
Appendix B, No. 4, of this report. The constitution, as revised in
1833, will also be found in outline in Appendix A, No. 5. The organ
ization continued in existence until about 1840. It should be under
stood that its organization was mainly due to the compositors on
daily papers. There were 220 members in 1833.
The constitution of 1833 was prefaced with a most remarkable doc
ument, called “ Introductory remarks.” Probably no similar state
ment covering the period will be found written by workmen them
selves. They give their point o f view in language which, to put
it mildly, must be considered vigorous. Some of the conditions
complained o f were local to New York City, but many of their griev
ances were general in the trade, and especially that of what would
now be called child labor, out of which grew the apprenticeship
restrictions later on.
Notwithstanding its length, the undoubted historical value o f this
document warrants its complete transcription here. It should be
explained, perhaps, that in this, as in all the early documents, the
term “ printer ” is often, though not exclusively, used to denote the
employer, or proprietor, of the printing establishment, instead o f the
journeyman or compositor.
IN TRO DU C TOR Y R E M A R K S .
The Typographical Association of New York was instituted on the
17th day o f June, 1831. It may not be deemed improper to state
some o f the causes which led to its formation; and, in doing this, it
will be necessary to revert to the condition of the printing business
for some years past.
In the year 1809, the New York Typographical Society was formed,
for the purpose o f sustaining a uniform scale of prices, and of afford
ing pecuniary relief to the sick and distressed of its own members,
their widows and orphans. This institution has continued to the
present time; but the principal object of its first formation has long
since ceased to claim any part of its attention. In 1812, war occur
ring between this country and Great Britain, the business suffered
extremely, and continued in a depressed state until 1815 or 1816,
when it was found necessary to call a general meeting of the journey
men in the city, to take into consideration the propriety of revising
the scale o f prices; and after considerable debate between employers
and employees, a scale was agreed upon, which was adopted by the
New York Typographical Society. The demands of the workmen
were very generally acceded to, and for some three or four years
business was very brisk.
In the year 1818, the society was incorporated by an act o f the leg
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
897
islature, and, being prohibited by the terms of its charter from inter
fering with the scale of prices, it became merely a mutual benefit
institution.
In the meantime, the seeds of declension in the trade were gradually
sown, and the fruit began to appear in various ways. Some printers
from a distance, having heard that business was good, and being
determined to obtain it at all hazards, located themselves among us;
and to secure a sufficient quantity of work commenced operations
on terms that could not be afforded, if they wished to obtain a fair
remuneration for their labor, or act honestly by the workman. The
consequence was, that while a few grew rich at the expense of the
journeymen, old established printers, who had before paid honorable
prices, were obliged to reduce their charges for work, or lose much of
their business; and as their receipts were diminished, the wages of
the journeymen were by degrees reduced, until, instead of a uniform
scale o f prices, every man was compelled to work for what he could
obtain.
Another cause of depression was the practice, which then pre
vailed, and has continued more or less to the present time, o f employ
ing runaway or dismissed apprentices for a small compensation.
These were called two-thirds men, and have always proved a great
pest to the profession. Added to this, roller boys, having gained
admission to the interior of a printing office, have in a short time
found their way from the rear to the front of the press, to the dis
charge of the regular pressman.
The trade, also, as far as pressmen are concerned, had suffered
extremely by the applications of machinery to that branch of the busi
ness; and while a few individuals were growing rich, as they
asserted, for the benefit of the public at large, many who had spent
from five to seven years of the flower of their lives in acquiring a
knowledge of their profession, were left without employment, or were
obliged to resort to some business with which they were unacquainted,
and thus constrained to serve a sort of second apprenticeship.
Matters continued in this condition for a number of years. Mean
time the business of stereotyping had increased to a great extent;
and the numerous improvements in the art, or rather the motto of
multum in parvo literally reduced to practice, rendered it every year
more and more difficult for compositors to support themselves and
their families. To the disgrace of some employers, every advantage
was taken of the necessities of the workmen, and impositions were
continually practiced upon them.
Men, however, when borne down by oppression, rise in their
strength, and assert their rights. The journeymen printers of the
city o f New York, from a sense o f justice to themselves, and those
employers who had uniformly paid honorable prices, resolved to
unite as an association for the purpose o f elevating the business to a
proper level. Numbers of them were engaged on the several daily
newspapers o f this city at prices deemed sufficient when there was
little labor and scarcely any competition, but which were found
totally inadequate when all vied with each other to present the latest
news to their readers. To accomplish this, the workmen were almost
entirely deprived of their rest for nights together.
Scarcely any employment can be more laborious than that of pub
lishing a daily morning newspaper. Many of the offices are in the
898
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOB.
most crowded parts of the city; and, not having been built for the
purpose, are illy calculated to afford a good circulation of air, or
what is next in importance, good light. To the injurious effects of
these and similar causes, many o f the most worthy o f the profession
have fallen victims; and others, after a short endurance, have found
their faculties so impaired, and their constitutions so debilitated, as
to be rendered incapable of undertaking any oth^r permanent employ
ment for their future support. It requires the united exercise of the
mental and bodily labor of the persons employed, for nearly the
whole night, and a considerable portion of the day; being seldom
able to allot more than seven hours to rest and refreshment. To be
thus confined for such a length of time, inhaling the stagnant air
o f a printing office, is sufficient to enervate a man or the most vigorous
constitution.
Under all these circumstances, a general meeting of the trade was
called about the 1st of June, 1831, at which a committee was appointed
to draw up a just and equitable scale of prices. The committee
made their report to an adjourned meeting, which adopted it; and
on the 17th day of the same month the Typographical Association
o f New York was established, and a constitution and by-laws framed
for its government.
A circular to the employing printers was forthwith issued, cover
ing the new scale of prices, and respectfully asking them to accede
to it. Most o f them, to their honor, saw the justice o f the demand,
and promptly awarded the wages asked for. There were some,
however, both among the book offices and daily newspapers, who
altogether refused, and have managed, from that time to the present,
by a constant change o f workmen (for no honorable journeyman
after a knowledge of the facts would remain a moment in such
degraded employment), to evade the demands for a fair compensation.
It is a source o f consolation, after all, that the expenses o f those
establishments where the prices are not paid are greater than those
where they are, owing to the incompetency and dishonesty o f those
employed.
Among the means made use of to depress the business by those
who withhold from the workmen their just demands, has been adver
tising in several o f the newspapers in Scotland, and elsewhere in
Great Britain, that a great opening for printers existed in New York,
thereby inducing many to leave the comforts of home in the old
country, to seek for a precarious subsistence on this side of the
Atlantic. Many, to their regret, can testify, of the truth o f this
assertion; and the feelings of the man, by whose unprincipled con
duct this breaking up of kindred and subsequent disappointment in
obtaining the means of support have happened, are not to be envied.
Perhaps the day may come, when remorse, like a subtle poison, may
lurk about his heart, and cause him to do an act of justice to those
who have been swindled by his deception.
When the association was informed of the means taken by unprin
cipled men to injure the business, a circular was immediately ad
dressed to the printers o f the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland, and dispatched by one o f its members. The association has
since learned, by letters from Europe, that the appeal has had an
extensive circulation, and has tended in a great measure to counteract
the evil contemplated by the original advertisements.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
899
Since its formation, the association has steadily advanced in
strength and respectability, and has repeatedly been called upon to
settle disputes arising between employers and journeymen; and it is
gratifying, that, in all instances where it has been appealed to, its
decision has been respected and acted on by the parties concerned.
These repeated appeals, in cases of difficulty, have induced it again
carefully to revise the scale o f prices, explaining those points which
were before involved in doubt, and amplifying others, so that no other
construction can be given to them than the true one. As the trade has
for a long time, and particularly since the introduction o f stereotyp
ing, been burdened with numerous grievances and vexations, which,
while they employed much of the journeyman’s time, were never paid
for, these things have in the revised scale been taken into consid
eration, and a proper compensation awarded. In doing this, how
ever, proper attention has been paid to the interest of the employer;
for if any o f the vexations spoken o f arise from either carelessness
or the want o f skill of the workmen, it shall be at his expense. It is
intended that the revised scale of prices shall be for the benefit of
both honorable employers and journeymen who know their business;
but shall be o f no service to those unfledged apologies for humanity
who obtrude themselves on a profession of which they know nothing,
and to which they can be little else than a burden and a disgrace.
Many o f the latter class of individuals have made their appearance
in this city, in consequence of advertisements inserted in papers whose
proprietors do not pay the prices; but they are found, on trial, to be
too bad even for such infamous uses. Some o f them are runaway
apprentices; others are destitute not only of honorable feeling but
of all knowledge of their business, and generally trace their defects
to the want or proper instruction from their masters. The conse
quence to the good workman is, that he is frequently made to suffer
from errors committed by these pretenders.
As all institutions, in their infancy, are liable to imperfection, the
Typographical Association could not expect to be exempt from the
common lot. It was found that the constitution under which it
has hitherto acted, was in many things defective; and it was deemed
proper to appoint a committee to revise that instrument. This has
been done, and the association, after a long and arduous discussion
adopted the constitution, by-laws and rules of order published in the
following pages.
It now only remains for the members to be just to themselves and
the printing business will take its proper stand in the community.
To do this it is necessary that all journeymen coming within the juris
diction o f the association should become members, and strictly abide
by the principles o f the constitution.
December 6, 1834, the Columbia Society at Washington received a
letter from the New York Typographical Association containing a
list of the 44rat offices,” and another of the individual 44rats ” in the
city. The strike had not been entirely successful, but the association
recovered and seems to have been strong enough in 1835 to prevent the
employment o f nonunion printers in New York. The evidence o f
this, such as it is, is to be found in the minutes of the Washington
society, which show that September 26,1835, a former member o f the
900
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
society, expelled for his connection with the strike o f March, 1835
(the Duff Green strike), plaintively asks to be reinstated, his princi
pal reason being that he wants to go to New York.
“ I have,” he says in his application, “ for a long time past wished
to go to New York, but I can not procure employment there without I
take with me a certificate from this society, which o f course I can not
procure unless the society will reinstate me in my membership^ which
I now most respectfully and earnestly request them to do.”
Some doubt about the association’s power to prevent employment
o f nonunion men in the city at least two years later is, however, sug
gested by the impassioned address of June 29,1837, which it issued:
To the journeymen printers o f New York City and vicinity:
F ellow-C raftsmen : A t an adjourned meeting of the Typograph
ical Association o f New York City held at the association rooms on
Saturday evening June 24, 1837, information having been given of a
regularly organized “ combination ” on the part of certain o f our
employers to take advantage of the present depressed state of our
trade, and business in general, in order to reduce our present prices,
and to render us, if possible, obedient vassals to the nod o f the op
pressor, a committee was appointed to address you in this particular,
and urge you to a prompt and resolute resistance.
That committee is of opinion, that the time has now arrived when
you are to prove to the world one o f two things— either that you are
•freemen and capable of understanding and maintaining your rights;
or that you are base and servile sycophants, ready and willing to re
ceive whatever compensation and terms your employers may choose
to allow.
You are now to show whether, in your judgment, your employers
or yourselves possess the right of fixing a value on your labor. I f
there yet remains one spark of the courage, manhood and determi
nation which sustained you when forming the present scale o f prices,
let the employing printers of New York and the United States, see
that it still exists, and can be easily fanned to a flame; let them see
that the insignificant and paltry pittance which you now obtain for
your support shall not be reduced at their pleasure—that for them to
grow richer you will not consent to become poorer.
That a pressure exists, and that it is more difficult for all employers
to procure money with which to meet expenses, we are all aware, but
why should your wages be reduced on that account ?
The prices for printing advertisements and for newspapers have
not been reduced.
\
The prices that are now paid to printers are no more than will
barely support them, and the common necessaries o f life are even
higher than when your present scale was formed. Then why should
you submit to a reduction? W hy be the passive minion o f the will
o f tyrants ?
The committee can discover no reason why you should, and it is
their opinion that if true to yourselves you will not be.
Depend upon it, that if, in obedience to the mandate of grasping
avarice— if because your employers say you must, you determine to
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
901
yield, and go to work for less than the scale demands, you will not
only cover yourselves with the consequent odium but you will neces
sarily involve yourselves in debt from week to week; for it is folly to
suppose that if your wages are once reduced your employers will of
their own accord advance them again, even though business should
resume its accustomed course. No, having accomplished their pur
poses, and brought you in submission to their feet, they will keep you
there, and the iron hand o f oppression will be laid more heavily than
ever.
Your employer knows well, that without constant employment,
your wages are not sufficient for your support, and those of the
unholy alliance which is now raising its hydra head against you, are
no doubt impressed with the belief, that by seizing upon the present
period o f depression in the trade, they may compel you to work for
whatever they may please to pay.
The committee would not be understood to include all employers as
coming under their just reprehensions. No, thank Heavens, there are
honorable exceptions, there are employers who have an eye to the
comfort and happiness of their employees, their reward no man can
take away, for it consists in the pleasing consciousness of an exercise
o f a measure o f justice and the performance of noble action.
Our criticism applies to but a dishonorably combined few, whose
object seems to be to shift the severity of the times from their own
shoulders to the shoulders of their journeymen, caring little for their
sufferings so that they escape— fattening on the profits of your labor,
while your wives and children are denied many of the common neces
saries o f life.
The truth is your employers are much more able to pay the existing
prices than you are to have your wages reduced, the pressure operates
in a much greater degree to your disadvantage than to theirs, the
depreciated “ shinplasters ” o f the banks, which are bought up, no
doubt, with considerable profit to the purchasers, are palmed off upon
you in requital for your toil, as though each rag was worth its face
in gold, these rags you must take, though on every dollar you get for
your labor you suffer a heavy loss. Patiently you have borne all
this, and would continue still to bear it; but in the name of evenhanded justice, and for the sake of Heaven, your wives and your
children, let the line of demarcation be here drawn— say to the over
reaching oppressor, Thus far shalt thou come, but no farther.
The committee are well convinced that the chief reason the unprin
cipled combination of your employers have thus dared to invade your
rights, and attempt the reduction of your wages, is because of a ru
mored want o f the union spirit among yourselves. Without union
nothing can be effected— with it, everything. Come forward, then,
you who are not members of the association; and join in putting a
shoulder to the wheel. Support the association, and the association
will support you. There are some of you now in the city who are not
members, why is this? You all receive the benefits "which result
from it. Why, then, do you not join it, and thereby extend its
benefits ?
*
The committee wpuld also respectfully impress on the minds o f the
members the necessity of a strict attention at all meetings of the asso
ciation and a firm support o f its principles. Let each and all of us
902
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB.
determine upon union, strong and effectual union, and let the watch
word be, The prices o f the association must and shall be sustained.
C h a s . A . A d am s,
H. D. B r ist o l ,
W . H. M c C a r t e n a y ,
G eo . H a t t e n ,
W. N. B ose ,
Gommittee.
June 6, 1840, it sent out another “ rat list,” which seems to indicate
that it went down in another strike during that year, and was fol
lowed by the Franklin Typographical Association of 1844, which will
be referred to further on.
The Baltimore Typographical Society, being the second o f the
name, began its existence November 26, 1831, with 25 original mem
bers, adding 24 more names to its roll within a month. This seems
to have been about all the journeymen printers in Baltimore, as dur
ing the next six months, or up to June 30, 1832, it had added but 5
members,. At that date it had expelled 1, and 5 had forfeited mem
bership. The constitution and scale of prices were not adopted until
June 2, 1832. This constitution is fully outlined in Appendix A,
No. 4, and the scale of prices given in full in Appendix B, No. 3.
This organization still exists as Typographical Union No. 12, and,
next to the Washington union, is the oldest existing trade organization
among the printers, it being, of course, understood that while the
Philadelphia organization of 1802, and that of New York of 1809
still exist, they have long since ceased to be labor organizations.
In the minutes of the Columbia Typographical Society, under date
o f February 3, 1832, is mentioned a communication from the Typo
graphical Society o f Cincinnati, Chio, asking for the Washington
list o f prices, and announcing the organization of the printers in
Cincinnati.
In November, 1833, the Philadelphia Typographical Association
was formed, the-society of 1802 having become a purely benevolent
institution in 1831. This organization immediately opened a corre
spondence with all other known societies, as was beginning now to
be the custom, ( a) and at its meeting held June 27, 1835, passed the
follow ing:
Resolved, That an advance of 2^ cents per 1,000 ems be demanded
in addition to our present scale o f prices.
«As the letter from the new Philadelphia organization to the older one in
Washington is of something more than local interest, it is given here.
P h i l a d e l p h i a , M a rch 0, 1834.
Si r : I am induced to attempt this, intrusion on your attention in conse
quence o f a resolution of the Philadelphia Typographical Association, author
izing a correspondence to be established with the typographical trade societies
throughout the Union. The ostensible object o f this scheme is to elicit and
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
903
Resolved, That work by the week in book and job offices and on
afternoon papers be $9 per week (10 hours to constitute a day’s
work) and 20 cents an hour for overwork—morning papers to be
charged $10 per week where they work by the week.
This association seems to have gone out o f existence in 1839 or 1840.
Early in 1834 the Benevolent Typographical Society of Richmond,
Virginia, was formed, and on March 1 issued a letter to all societies.
This letter is here reproduced, not alone because of its value in
describing labor conditions in the trade, but as further evidence that
“ benevolence ” was not the most serious purpose of these organiza
tions even when they put it first in their name. In reading the
statement that no “ rat ” could obtain work in Richmond, it must be
impart authentic intelligence connected with the interests of the members
of our common profession, and it is hoped the imperfect manner in which
the project may be commenced will not be suffered to occasion the end
proposed to be disregarded.
The society in whose name these paragraphs are penned was organized
about five months since. Its primary and paramount intention is the determi
nation and support of adequate wages for journeymen printers. That it
must acknowledge so late an origin may appear singular; but as the exposi
tion due this point might possibly demand a larger space than is. allowable at
present, it is proposed (with your permission) to recur to it at proper length
in a future communication.
The outlines of a constitution have been agreed upon, but the details are
still undetermined. A scale of prices is also under revision, copies of both
which will be forwarded when sufficiently complete. The principles o f associ
ation are literal and definite; the eligibility of candidates consisting in their
being practical printers, not less than 21 years o f age, and in actual connection
with the business.
As respects numerical strength, the institution may be called feeble; but its
originators were fully aware that the mental climate of our city might be found
rather uncongenial to the rapid growth of suph a scion o f the liberty tree; and
though they have not as yet had decided cause to exult in the result, there is
certainly no cause for regret.
Since the formation o f this association, a trades union has been commenced,
and which now embraces a majority of the mechanics’ societies in the city.
Its present objects appear rational and useful, and its progress thus far is
reported as satisfactory.
Business with us is, of course, dull; indeed, there is scarcely a volume in
progress in Philadelphia. But the spring is dawning upon us, in whose very
name there is relief; and since men’s perverseness can not mar the seasons or
derange the sublime machinery o f the planet on whose surface their mad
pranks are played, we think ourselves warranted in looking forward to better
things— in the solemn determination (I would hope) that our next passover
shall not find us unprepared.
Having thus endeavored to fulfill my instructions as far as is practicable at
this time, I have now to request that this sheet, or the substance of its contents;
may be laid before your society at your earliest convenience; and we shall
await advices of the order taken thereupon, and also of the general state o f
affairs at Washington in the typographical department with equal respect and
interest. Wishing you the perfect consummation of your best wishes and
endeavors, I remain, with much respect,
Yours,
H. O. O r r .
P. S. As our association commits its correspondence to the care of the vicepresident, any communications intended for the institution may be addressed
to myself, at No. 227 Mulberry street, or at the office of the Daily Chronicle,
Philadelphia.
H. C. O.
The P r e s id e n t o f t h e C o l u m b i a T y p o g r a p h ic a l S o c ie t y .
904
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
remembered that “ rat ” meant a man working below the scale, and
not necessarily that a nonmember of the society could not secure
employment.
R ichmond, V a., March Jf, 188
D ear S i r : The journeymen printers in this city have recently
formed a society. Previous to the formation of this society we had
no regular prices. The highest price given was 25 cents for
both MS. and printed copy. On the 1st of February o f the present
year, we adopted a constitution (a copy of which I herewith commu
nicate) ; together with by-laws for our government, and likewise a
scale o f prices. This scale of prices, as you will perceive, fixes the
price for the composition o f MS. at 30 cents— that for print at 28
cents— 5 cents for MS. and 3 for print more than the highest
price previously given. There was no alteration made in the price
for presswork, the wages previouslv given being generally consid
ered sufficiently high—the demand for pressmen having always been
so great as to put it out of the power of the employers to make
deductions in that branch.
The scale o f prices was adopted on the 1st February. A resolu
tion passed requiring them to go into operation on the 10th o f that
month. The employers were furnished with a copy of the list of
prices on the 3d—very short notice. When the 10th arrived, the
employers, without a single exception, gave the wages asked for.
Things go on as smoothly under the new arrangement as before.
A ll the printers here, with the exception o f four or five, have joined
the society. These, however, receive the wages fixed by the society.
So far we have no rats. Before the society was formed we did have
a few, who did not receive the highest prices then given. A ll of these
have joined the society "and promised to receive, in future, for their
labor no less than the wages fixed by our scale of prices.
I deem it unnecessary to say more at present than to desire you to
send us a copy o f your constitution, &c., that we may see how our
brethren in your city are driving on. I likewise desire that you will
write me a few lines, giving a history o f the origin and progress, o f the
society o f which you are a member, and to lay this communication
before your society at its next meeting, that they may know we have
formed a society here, and so on. Communicate, likewise, if you
please, the fact o f the existence of our society to as many societies of
this kind as you may know to have been formed. I desire this, not to
put you to trouble, but to be sure o f giving the information desired.
It is my intention to write to as many as I have yet heard of. I f you
will be so kind as to comply with my request in this particular, be
pleased not to omit to state that it is impossible to obtain work at our
business in Richmond as a rat, so as to save those whose intentions
were, to make the attempt the trouble and expense o f the voyage.
Respectfully,
R. S. R edford,
‘ Cor. Sec. Ben. Typ. Soc. of Richmond.
The Corresponding SecY T yp . SocY at W ashington.
N. B.— I should like to hear from you previous to the next meeting
o f our society, which takes place on the 1st Saturday in April.
R. S. R.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
905
It will be necessary here to relate the trouble that the Columbia
Typographical Society at Washington had in 1834 with one of the
local newspaper proprietors, Gen. Duff Green, who was also printer
to the United States Senate. This difficulty drew the typographical
organizations o f the country into closer touch than anything before
had done, and led directly to the national organization of 1836.
The apprentice question had been a source of infinite trouble to the
societies from the very first. From time to time the term of appren
ticeship had been lengthened by various societies increasing it from
three to four, then from four to five years, in the vain hope o f reduc
ing the competition from this source. But there was no effective
means o f preventing apprentices from running away, and the longer
apprenticeship only increased the temptation to do so, hence made
matters worse. True, the master could legally compel the return of a
runaway, if he could find him, but the supply of new apprentices and
of other runaways willing to work for one-half or two-thirds the
established price for journeymen made it unprofitable to search for
escaped apprentices. The fact that a runaway apprentice could, and
would, be so employed at rates higher, to say the least, than his
apprentice rates, operated also to put a premium on running away.
A ll o f the early societies had had more serious trouble with this than
had that of Washington, which was exceptionally fortunate in many
ways. In 1833, however, General Green began employing “ twothirders ” on his paper, the United States Telegraph, and later intro
duced a large number of boys as apprentices in doing the Government
printing. He now proposed (1834) to establish what he called the
Washington Institute, but which was termed by the printers “ a
manual-labor school.” In this institute he proposed to take 200 boys
each year and teach them the printing trade, allowing them $2 a week
each for their work, which $2 was not, however, to be paid to them,
but kept as a trust fund and invested by their employer for such of
them as should remain with him the full period.
The first intimation of the excitement which this matter finally
caused is found in the special meeting of January 11, 1834. A t this
meeting its president stated that its object was to take into considera
tion the subject o f Gen. Duff Green’s speech at the late celebration of
the Columbia Typographical Society, and to adopt such measures as
would more effectually protect the society against his plans, if at
tempted to be carried into execution, and concluded by offering the
following preamble and resolutions:
Whereas, at a late meeting of the Columbia Typographical Society,
Duff Green, editor of the United States Telegraph, did declare
that he intended to monopolize all the work that was possible, and
that he had intended to employ a large number of children to take the
place of the journeymen now employed by him, and that he wished to
raise up a respectable class of men to take our places; and
906
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR.
Whereas the patronage of the press o f this city is almost wholly
derived from the Government, and that we have a right, as men, to
participate in its profits, which his views if carried out, would engross
to himself, be it
Resolved, That the Columbia Typographical Society are desirous
o f adopting such measures as shall be advantageous to the employing
printers, in this city, insure their own rights, and preserve the respect
ability o f the profession.
Resolved, That we look upon the proposed measure of Duff Green,
editor o f the United States Telegraph, as visionary in its final results,
subversive o f our rights, as journeymen printers, and destructive of
the profession to which we belong:
Therefore resolved, That a committee of ------ be appointed to
take the subject into consideration, and prepare a report of their
deliberations, which when they have completed, they shall submit to a
general meeting of the printers of this district, to be called by them, at
such time and place, as they shall deem fit and proper.
After considerable discussion, Mr. Freeland offered the following
as a substitute:
Resolved, That it is the opinion of this society that the practice
which has lately come into vogue, o f employing an undue number of
apprentices, is destructive of the rights and interests o f journeymen,
and detrimental to employing printers;
Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed, whose business
it shall be, whenever they shall think it necessary to do so, to call a
general meeting o f the printers of this city to take the subject into
consideration.
The committee at this time reported against taking any action until
something more definite was evolved. Up to this time no organiza
tion o f printers had attempted to restrict the number o f apprentices.
In nearly every city except Washington the custom of employing a
few journeymen to direct the work of many so-called apprentices was
firmly established. In a letter to the Columbia Typographical Soci
ety March 21,1834, Gen. Duff Green takes the position that any objec
tion to his “ school for printers ” by the society must be based upon an
assumption o f the right of the society to “ regulate the number of
apprentices which I may think proper to employ, and to otherwise
interfere so as to defeat the end I have in view.”
In reply the society denied that it “ assumes the right to regulate
the number o f your apprentices or that of any gentleman.” In a
letter dated April 7, 1834, General Green says to the society’s com
mittee :
Your society can have no right to inquire into the age o f the per
sons whom I employ. * * * But, if instead of employing 50
journeymen, I find it to my interest to employ but 10, any attempt on
your part to enter into a combination to drive those 10 out o f my em
ployment, without I would give employment to the other 40, would be
an offense against my rights, for which the laws have made ample
provision, and which it would become my duty to enforce.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
907
A n elaborate “ prospectus of the Washington Institute ” was car
ried on the first page of Mr. Green’s paper, the Telegraph, for some
time, acting practically as an advertisement for boys to fill his school.
The society appointed another committee to report on the matter.
This committee was o f the opinion that Mr. Green would be able to
fill his school (this being the point upon which the former committee
had advised nonaction), and recommended that a protest be formu
lated and given as wide a circulation as the prospectus had enjoyed. (a)
This protest was accordingly issued, and sent not only to every
printers’ society but to the unorganized printers employed on the
principal papers throughout the United States. In addition to this
protest, which was issued by the society as such, a pamphlet was pub
lished containing the proceedings of a public mass meeting, together
with an “ Address to the people of the United States,” emanating from
the meeting (such addresses were common in those days), the expense
o f printing the pamphlet being met by a collection taken up at the
meeting. This pamphlet, a copy of which is in the Library o f Con
gress, and the “ protest,” copied from the minutes o f the society, are
here reproduced in Appendix A, No. 12. The Baltimore society had
taken action on the subject from newspaper reports and sent a letter
to the Columbia society in time to incorporate it in the proceedings
o f the public meeting. It will be noted that the protest contained an
appeal to journeymen printers not to come to Washington to act as
teachers in the proposed school. It was the fear o f this that prompted
the appointment o f a committee o f seven, under the following resolu
tion, adopted March 7,1834:
Ordered, That a committee of seven members be appointed by the
chair, whose duty it shall be to confer with each other, and report to
a One paragraph o f the committee’s report is here given as indicative o f social
conditions.
The committee have understood, also, that it is the intention of Mr. Green, in
organizing his school, to draw a portion of his scholars from the houses o f refuge
in the northern cities. Now, although the committee object not to the character
o f any boy, when it is* affected only by his origin, believing that when he comes
to man’s estate, he must stand or fall by his individual merit, yet there is no
doubt, from the facility with which these boys may be obtained, by Mr. Green,
the society will have a delicate and difficult matter on hand in attempting to
prevent their employment in this school. With the principals o f these extensive
institutions, the specious and deceptive arguments of the prospectus will, no
doubt, have powerful weight and influence. So far, then, as the success o f the
project o f Mr. Green shall depend merely on the attainment o f scholars, it is
likely to be insured by the readiness with which, no doubt, the principals of
those houses will supply him with the boys under their charge. The committee
can conceive o f no other mode o f preventing this consummation, than by circu
lating among these gentlemen a direct refutation of the principles laid down
in the prospectus. It is in no degree their interest to aid Mr. Green in his
schemes— they look only to the welfare o f their charge; and, if it shall appear
to them, as in the end, should we adopt this course, it no doubt will, that,
instead o f benefiting the boys for whose future welfare they are in a measure
responsible, the scheme o f Mr. Green will be more likely to blast their prospects
in life, be assured they will not be instrumental in aiding the establishment o f
the Washington Institute.
908
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
this society, at their next meeting, what, in their opinion, would be
the most proper and effectual course to pursue to bring about the
establishment o f a national typographical society.
Response was received from the typographical society at Louis
ville, Ky., inclosing a copy of its constitution and resolutions against
44the Duff Green school for printers,” and on the same date from
Charleston (S. C.) Typographical Society, indorsing protest against
the school. This is the first reference found to these societies. Rich
mond, Va., responded, and later other southern societies. December
13,1834, the Philadelphia association notified the Washington society
that Gen. Duff Green was employing printers in Philadelphia and
elsewhere 44on condition that they should have no connection with
the society,” and that as fast as he secured 44strangers ” 44society
men ” were being discharged. Matters went on from bad to worse
until a strike was declared against General Green March 14, 1835,
the causes alleged being 44against the employment of too many ap
prentices,” for the society’s scale of prices (or against 44two-thirders” ), because o f discrimination against 44society men,” and for the
discharge o f the foreman. W ith the details of this long strike itself
we have nothing to do. It was, however, the occasion of bringing the
scattered associations into closer touch with each other. For the first
time in its history the Washington society sent out a 44rat circular.”
Philadelphia and New York promised to restrain their members,
from accepting employment in the Washington establishment, and
the Philadelphia association expelled all its members who did so.
Later the Washington society asked New York, Philadelphia, Balti
more, and Boston for a list o f all 44two-thirders ” and names and
description of a l l 44rats ” in those cities. This request seems to have
been ignored.
October 14,1835, the Washington society passed the following reso
lution :
Resolved, That the members of this society having heretofore deter
mined not to accept employment in the office of Duff Green, do still
adhere to that resolution, and will neither accept employment in that
office, nor in any other office in which any hands or hand employed by
the said Green since the 28th of March, 1835, or by his successor,
E. R. Gibson, may hereafter be employed, until the obnoxious indi
vidual or individuals be discharged.
This sweeping resolution, exceedingly radical for that day, and
certainly so for this society, was forwarded to all other societies in
the United States and indorsed by most of them, thus foreshadowing
the action o f the national convention of the next year (1836), making
44a rat ” so declared by one printers’ organization to be considered
such by all.
Two other societies are mentioned in 1835 for the first time. First,
that o f the Mississippi Typographical Association, o f Natchez, Miss.,
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
909
which sent out a “ rat list ” as a result of a strike September 19, 1835,
and another communication November 6; and, second, the New
Orleans Typographical Association, organized May 9, 1835, indica
ting that the society organized there in 1830 had ceased to exist.
In June, 1835, the Franklin Society, of Cincinnati, had a strike
against a reduction of wages in one establishment. It seems that
“ strangers ” were brought in from Pittsburg and elsewhere. No
vember 6,1835, the Cincinnati society sent out a circular calling for a
national convention. No copy o f this circular has been found, but
upon its receipt the Washington society appointed a committee to
report on the subject. This report, which was accepted and issued
to other societies as a call for the convention, was as follow s:
Mr. Wm. Walters, from the committee, to whom was referred the
circular from the Franklin Typ. Society of Cincinnati, proposing a
National Typ. Society, presented the following report:
Your committee have carefully read the report and resolutions
o f the Franklin Typographical Society, o f Cincinnati, Ohio.
The resolutions propose—
“ 1st. That each society in its own district be sustained by all others
in the prices it may establish.
“ 2d. That journeymen bringing certificates o f membership in
any society, o f good standing, receive a preference over all others in
the efforts made to procure them employment.
“ 3d. That rats, pronounced such by one society, be considered as
such by all other societies.”
I f there be a community of men, which, more than another, has
felt the necessity o f a closer union amongst the different typograph
ical societies o f the United States, it is our own. During the two last
years the society and many o f its members have been the victims of
the most unrelenting persecution and proscription. Single handed
they have encountered the force o f this opposition, for although one
or two societies nobly cheered our efforts, the great body o f them
stood aloof, apparently idle spectators of the controversy. Any
other course, however, could scarcely have been looked for from them,
when we consider the distance which separates them and the absence
of any effective bonds of union between them.
A close examination of the resolutions proposed by the Franklin
Typ. Society has convinced your committee that they do not go far
enough. Each o f the propositions has been in [a] degree, and is now
enforced by almost every society in the Union. There is, however,
no obligation to uphold them existing amongst any of the societies,
and our own experience teaches us that the declaration we have all
made “ to procure employment for a member o f the society in pref
erence to any other person ” ]jas been but loosely observed; or, to
use the more forcible language of the Franklin Typographical So
ciety, “ the certificate of membership ought no longer to procure
from us a mere assent o f the good standing o f the holder, but should
call forth our active friendship for the bearer—our zealous effort to
get him into employment in preference to all others.”
A ll this and much more should be done; and the question for us
to consider is, what are the means necessary for its accomplishment?
910
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
what additional measures are necessary in order to permanently, not
merely transiently, to assent to such regulations amongst the differ
ent typographical societies o f the United States as shall ensure to
every member o f every society, a proper equivalent for his labor, and
a good prospect o f constant employment while ever he shall remain
within the pale o f the honorable members of the craft.
Deeply impressed with the importance of the measure, your com
mittee are about to propose, in order to accomplish these most desir
able results, they beg leave to assure the society that it has not been
without the most mature reflection that they have brought forward
the resolutions which are appended, and which they believe will alone
provide a remedy sufficiently ample for the widespread evils which
are now felt.
Resolved, That it be recommended to the different typographical
societies o f the United States to form a union of societies, under such
name as the convention to be held for that purpose shall designate.
Resolved, That in order to form such union, a convention be held
in the city o f Washington on the 3d day o f March next, to be com
posed o f three delegates from every typographical society existing in
the United States.
Resolved, That the convention shall have powder to draft a consti
tution, and such other regulations as shall be thought proper for the
government o f the union, which constitution shall be submitted tc
the local societies for their adoption; and whenever two-thirds ol
the local societies shall agree to the said constitution, the government
o f the union shall be considered as formed, and annual meetings take
place accordingly.
Resolved, That the power now possessed by the different societies
to regulate the prices within their respective limits, shall not be
infringed by any regulation of the convention.
Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be forwarded to every
typographical society in the United States; and that such o f them
as shall agree to them, be requested to appoint delegates, without
further notice, to attend the convention.
(Signed)
W m . W alters,
J as. B rown,
W m . W . Curran.
The report and resolutions having been read, the second resolution
was amended by inserting the first Monday o f June as the time of
the meeting o f the convention, and as amended were adopted unani
mously.
Letters approving o f the convention and promising to send dele
gates were received from Harrisburg (Pa.) Typographical Associa
tion, August 26, 1836 (first m ention); Baltimore, July 30; Nashville,
Tenn., August 26; Philadelphia, August 27; Cincinnati, August 28;
Richmond, Va., October 14, and later letters along the same line
were received from New Orleans, and from Mobile, Ala. (first men
tion). New Orleans named two members of the Washington society
and asked that they be permitted to act as proxy delegates from
New Orleans, thus inaugurating from the very start that system of
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
911
proxy representation that has many times since so nearly disrupted
organizations. October 14, 1836, the Washington society met to
elect delegates to the convention and appoint a committee to arrange
for the same, since it was to be held in Washington. A t the meeting
the society decided to “ pay all the expenses o f the National Typo
graphical Convention.”
The first convention o f the National Typographical Society met
in the aldermen’s chamber, city hall, Washington, D. C., November
7, 1836, the session lasting five days. Delegates were present from
the typographical societies in Baltimore, New York City, Washing
ton, Harrisburg, Pa., Philadelphia, and by proxy from New Orleans.
The delegate from the Philadelphia association was excluded from
the convention, not because of any objection to the association, but
because the Washington society succeeded in proving that the delegate
himself was one o f the men that had worked for a time in the Duff
Green establishment during the strike. The Philadelphia association
evidently was not aware o f this when it elected him, as he was
immediately expelled by that association.
The convention was welcomed in an address from the mayor of
the city, Hon. Peter Force, (a) who had joined the New York Typo
graphical Society in 1812, and was its president in 1815. In 1816
he joined the Columbia Typographical Society, and became its first
“ free member ” in 1826.
The convention adopted a constitution (which as amended in 1837
is given in the appendix hereto) and issued two addresses, one to the
various typographical societies in the United States, the other to the
printers o f the country in general. Both o f these documents appear
in Appendix A, No. 9.
To the local societies the convention appealed for a closer relation
a Visitors going up in the Washington Monument may see carved in one of its
largest stones the name “ Peter Force.” Students o f industrial history prefer,
however, to remember him by a monument o f very different character. Mr.
Force was for a number of years one o f the proprietors o f a job printing office
in Washington. Here he executed many o f the “ broadsides ” so characteristic
o f the time, and here was printed the constitutions o f many civic societies of
all kinds. He seems to have had a keen intuition o f the historical value of
things, and early began a collection of tracts, broadsides, constitutions, etc.,
which he ultimately gave to the Library o f Congress as the Force Collection of
Tracts— a veritable gold mine o f industrial information, especially. as relating to
the Southern States. In those days tracts and “ broadsides ” occupied relatively
the position o f magazine articles and newspaper discussions o f to-day, and their
preservation for future reference was o f utmost importance. Mr. Force was of
great assistance to the typographical societies as an employer in their struggle
with the apprentice problem. As indicated in the text he was mayor o f Wash
ington, and was employed by the Government to plan or outline a system for a
Government printing establishment.
276— No. 61—06
M -----
13
912
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB.
one with the other; proposing uniform regulations regarding appren
tices ; that runaways from one office should not be permitted to work
in any other; that members expelled from one society for any good
cause shall not be admitted to membership by any other society; that
no member o f any society should work in any printing office where
such expelled member is employed, until he is reinstated by the orig
inal society; there was to be an exchange of “ rat ” lists, and, most
important of all, the societies were advised to open their doors to
membership for all printers then working at the trade as journeymen,
whether they served an apprenticeship or not; then after organizing
all these, put up the bars and require a six-year apprenticeship.
There had for years been two factions in the societies— one, seeing
that the apprenticeship requirements were creating an army o f print
ers sufficiently large to do all the work, outside o f the societies because
o f ineligibility, wanted to temporarily let down the bars and organize
the trade, and then increase the requirements; the other faction, stick
ing to the old traditions, sought to remedy the evil by increasing the
severity o f apprenticeship. It seems that the societies had elected
delegates to the convention from the more radical factions in nearly
every instance. This entire address should be carefully read as being
a presentation by the workmen themselves o f their view o f the
situation.
The address to the printers of the United States in general, whether
organized or not, is likewise of importance and interest. There are
a few references in this document that require some explanation at
the present time in order to be understood. The early printer
expected to work a short while as a journeyman, then start a paper or
job office for himself. His employer was “ a practical printer ” like
himself. The appearance o f the publisher who simply owjied the
plant and employed men to do the work of editing as well as printing
the paper alarmed the early compositors. These tirades against the
“ speculator on the labor o f printers,” and against “ the hireling
editor,” are but the manifestations o f his natural alarm at the com
mencement o f the changing conditions. The advent o f large capital
into the printing business suggested to him the possible permanency
o f journeymanship for him as an individual. What he said and did
was his protest against the prospect o f being involved in a permanent
wage condition. A ll the documents of this period must be read with
this constantly in mind, and especially this address to the printers
in 1836. (a)
a Speaking to the toast “ The ‘ Practical Printer ’ Editor,” before the Franklin
Typographical Society, o f Boston, at its twenty-third anniversary banquet (this
society was organized in 1822, but was never a trade organization), Hon. J. T.
Buckingham, editor of the Boston Courier, said that when he was a young man
the printer considered it a reproach if he did not edit his own paper. “ Every
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
913
"A notice printed on the cover of the published proceedings o f this
convention of 1836, and dated November 26, is of interest. It fol
lows:
Since the adjournment o f the convention the committee on publica
tion have learned with much regret that two attempts have in the
South been made to injure the journeymen. They would, therefore
urge upon all printers in every city, town, and village where no
society exists to establish one as soon as practicable to enable them to
be represented in the National Typographical Society in September
next.
The “ two attempts to injure the journeymen ” referred, no doubt,
to the strike in Richmond, Ya., in November, 1836, to enforce the ap-*
journeyman expected to have a printing office and a paper o f his own. Originally,
of course, the great printers— Caxton, Gutenburg, Faust—were all scholarly
men.” Continuing, Mr. Buckingham sa id : “ In the year 1811, Messrs. Young
and Miners, printers and proprietors o f the Massachusetts Mercury, at the sug
gestion of the late Reverend Doctor Morse, of Charleston, engaged a gentleman
from New Haven as an editor for their paper, which then took the name of the
*New England Palladium ’ ; and this, so far as I can learn, was the first instance
in Boston of employment o f a professional editor. At this time (January
15, 1848) I am the only individual now living in Boston, if not in the Common
wealth, who unites the printer and the editor in one man.”
Beginning thus in 1811 this “ innovation,” as the printers called it, spread
until it became one o f the grievances complained o f by the New York Printers’
Association in 1831, and was made one o f the burdens of the address of the
national convention of 1836. In 1838 a resolution was introduced in the Wash
ington Typographical Society demanding that members be not permitted to
work for proprietors not themselves “ practical printers.” And in 1839 a circu
lar appeal was sent from an association in Mississippi to all printers’ organiza
tions requesting them to refuse, after a given date, to work for the nonprinter
who, as a capitalist, was merely “ speculating on the labor o f printers.”
The immediate cause of this circular from the South was no doubt the fact
that Gen. Duff Green had, after leaving Washington, attempted to organize
“ The American Literary Company,” operating from Columbia, S. C., his plan
still being to employ boys under the guise of teaching them a trade. The
cooperative ideas of the time, or what may be called the great employ-yourselfmovement o f 1830 to 1855, which, among other things, produced the “ Brook
Farm,” had something to do with it, too, as such ideas were in the a ir ; but the
“ practical printer’s ” inbred fear of the “professional editor ” and the “ specu
lator ” was the energizing thought. The reply o f the Washington society to
this circular asking that journeymen refuse to work for men not themselves
practical printers is full of historic significance and is quoted in full. It also
shows that all hope of the national organization’s success had not been lost in
1839:
W ashington , D. C., Septem b er 22 , 1839 .
D ear Sir : I have laid before the Columbia Typographical Society the papers
which you forwarded on the subject o f “ real and counterfeit printers.” Every
member was furnished with a copy of it at a special meeting; and on the even
ing of the last convention—the first Saturday o f the present month—the subject
was laid upon the table, nem. diss.
A resolution embracing the same subject was offered for our consideration
914
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
prentice section of the local constitution, and to fight the union in
Augusta, Ga., was making against that printers’ Banquo, Gen. Duff
Green, who had taken his boys’ school idea with him and gone to
South Carolina to organize “ The American Literary Company.”
The Augusta association had gotten out a circular, similar to the
Washington society’s “ protest,” which circular was printed in the
Washington papers at the expense of the local society. A t the re
quest o f the Augusta association the Washington society had a trans
cript o f its minutes, and all documents and letters relative to the Duff
Green matter, made and forwarded to the former organization—no
small nor inexpensive task in those pre-typewriter days.
The second convention o f the National Typographical Society met
about fifteen months ago. After some debate, it was indefinitely postponed.
No one has since moved that its consideration be resumed. Some o f our mem
bers, privately, thought the intentions o f the resolutions impractical. For in
stance, they would say: “ How can you cause the mammoth establishments o f
New York and other cities to be resigned to the practical printer? Where can
you find practicals with sufficient capital or credit to undertake such establish
ments? It is true some printers might refuse to work for the present employers,
in expectation o f achieving the desired result; but in the present disunited con
dition of the craft others could be found who would perform the labor required.”
Such arguments as these are plausible, and the novelty of the proposition has
not yet become familiar to those immediately interested.
Should, however, the National Typographical Union ever go into operation
and the printers be awakened to the true sense o f danger threatened by news
paper speculators—when all of our profession shall be bound by a brotherly tie,
united in the same cause, with a determination to make it prosper— then, only
then, can we look with confidence to the consummation o f our wishes. But at
present, when not one-fourth o f the printers north o f Baltimore belong to the
local societies, and all means to induce those who are not members to join one,
or create a society where none exists, have proved fruitless, it seems supererog
atory to urge the measure at the time set forth in Mr. North’s circular. The
great subject of the union should be the first to grasp and occupy our minds. We
should persevere in urging concert of action and association. Without it, we
can do nothing toward affecting the object communicated.
It has occurred to many of us that if the Southern and Western States were
to form a typographical union, it would soon extend to other portions o f the
country. It would be more expedient in the direction named than elsewhere,
as journeymen there are more free to act for themselves, not having much, if
any, fear o f an army o f apprentices being thrust into their places if they should
dare to assert their dearest rights. You, o f course, know that such has been
the procedure in a few cities o f the North. Boys o f but a few months’ initiation
in the profession, infest them from the neighboring towns, and in Philadelphia
men are not considered rats if they get the prices exacted by the tariff, although
at work in the same shop, where the two-thirders abound. Now, a great many
printers from the Quaker City, and others who countenance the rat system, go
South and W est; and if matters could be so arranged that the itinerants would
be denied work in your and the other sections unless they could produce their
certificates o f membership from local societies, it would make them, from neces
sity, join associations and become interested in them. This might, with some
additions or amendments, add strength to the infant weakness of the organic
state of our union, and prepare a clear path for the progression of practical
printers to the objects o f their special attention.
With great respect, thanks for your attention, and a due appreciation o f Mr.
North’s intentions,
I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
L. A. G obright,
Cor. Sec. C. T . S ociety.
Mr. T hom as P almer , R a ym on d , M iss.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
915
in New York Citj' September 4, 1837, with delegates from eight
societies in the United States, and a fraternal delegate from Nova
Scotia, who was seated with full powers, predictive of admission of
Canadian unions into the National, thus forming the present Inter
national Typographical Union in 1869. It is doubtful whether the
proceedings o f this convention were ever printed. No copy has been
found in the search for data for this report. The report of the
Washington delegates will, hovrever, give an idea of the proceedings,
and is here transcribed entire from the minutes of that society:
W ashington,January 6 , 1838 .
The delegates appointed by the Canadian Typographical Society,
to attend the national association, which was to assemble in the city
o f New York on the 4th Sept., 1837, beg leave to submit the following
report :
That your delegates have been prevented from making a report
by the nonarrival o f the printed proceedings o f the meeting, which
was left under the control of the New York members. Altho’ we
have received a letter intimating that they would be soon sent on, we
still have been disappointed. It is a matter o f regret to us, as we find
it almost impossible to direct your attention to the necessary acts
which require your immediate cooperation; and which alone can
enable us to discharge our task satisfactorily to ourselves.
That your delegation arrived in New York on the second of Sep
tember, and were notified to meet at the sheriff’s room, in the city
hall, on the 4th, which was kindly granted by the public authorities
o f said city. Eight societies being represented, viz, New York,
Philadelphia, Harrisburg, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Mobile, New Or
leans, and Washington. The meeting was organized by calling to
the chair one o f this society’s delegation, and appointing A. I. W.
Jackson, o f Baltimore, as secretary. That their first act was to revise
the constitution, adopted by the convention which met at Washington
in November, 1836. That after a labored investigation of that in
strument, they made some amendments, in order to accord with the
views and instructions of the several members. That they continued
in session till Saturday, the 9th, inclusive, when, severally, having
subscribed the new constitution, they adjourned sine die, to meet
again at Pittsburg, next September, and that they were then invited,
and attended a public dinner given by the New York association, in
courtesy to the members of the national association.
Your delegates, not having the constitution to refer to, must, of
course, be excused from entering into a detail of the several articles;
but they would remark that, in article 10th, twenty-five per cent is to
be levied o f the different societies, annually, by a prescribed rule, to
defray all expenses incurred by the association; their instructions
were for thirty per cent.
Article 13 furnishes the mode of checking the practice o f employing
two-third apprentices. This is of initial importance to the whole
fraternity, and requires consideration commensurate with its impor
tance; for all can realize the complete prostration which such a cus
tom must create. The proposed check, adopted by the association
916
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB.
appears as simple as it is easy of accomplishment, if judicious meas
ures alone be pursued. This plan is by the granting to travelers the
“ union card,” which was introduced into the convention’s constitu
tion at Washington. Many duties are enjoined on local societies,
which must be referred by you to committees, to mature and prescribe
a mode o f operation for carrying them into effect.
Your delegates are aware that the society will look for an expres
sion o f their opinion as to the utility and future prospects of the asso
ciation, and, therefore they will present their views in as brief a man
ner as possible. From all they could learn from their intercourse with
the gentlemen composing the assembly, they are o f the belief that
no other plan coi^ld be adopted that would prove so efficacious and
satisfactory to all concerned, and guard the craft against the innova
tions which are daily arising to drive the regular and good workman
out o f employment, or to reduce their wages to the standard o f the
cupidity o f some employers who forget the rights o f their fellow-men.
That the anticipated prospects of the association may be evidenced
from the interest taken in it by all associations in the United States
and Nova Scotia, whose delegate was admitted to a seat during the
discussions. It is the opinion o f your delegation, that the employer
and the journeyman were never on such amicable terms o f friendly
feelings as they are at the moment, which certainly is ominous o f our
success in this great cause.
In closing the imperfect report they have made, they would con
gratulate the society on the high respect in which they are at present
held by both employers and journeymen, as well in Washington, as
throughout the whole country; and they sincerely pray this band of
union may never be severed by any untoward circumstance, originat
ing on your part. They now conclude by recommending the follow
ing resolution for adoption:
Resolved, That a committee be appointed to receive the printed
proceedings o f the association, and to report on their contents as soon
as practicable, or on any matters concerning said association.
(Signed)
J am es C leph an e.
J am es H andley.
The national society did not hold a convention in 1838. In August
o f that year the following announcement appeared in the papers in
most of the cities where printers were organized:
N A T IO N A L T Y P O G B A P H IC A L SOCIETY.
Meeting postponed.— The undersigned, officers o f the National
Typographical Association, composing the board of control, at the
earnest solicitations o f a number o f delegates and societies forming
said association, have, after mature deliberation, resolved on a post
ponement o f the next meeting, and hereby give this public notice to
the different societies of printers attached to said association, as well
as those desirous of connecting themselves thereto, that the next
meeting o f the National Typographical Association will be held in
the city o f Pittsburg, Pa., on the first Monday of September, 1839,
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
917
at which time and place it is fondly expected the representatives from
the different societies will be in attendance.
A. I. W. Jackson, Baltimore,
*President.
W m . W ellington, Philadelphia,
Recording Secretary.
Chas. A lbert D avis, New York,
Corresponding Secretary.
James Clephane, Washington,
Treasurer.
Board of Control.
A ugust 10, 1838.
The publishers o f newspapers throughout the United States will
confer a favor on the craft in general, by giving the above notice one
or two insertions.
Whether this postponed convention ever met is not known and
may well be doubted. The general laws for the government of local
societies appear to have been promulgated by the New York conven
tion o f 1837. They were gotten out in leaflet form by the Washing
ton society for its own use, as follow s:
Columbla. T ypographical S ociety.
“ Resolved, That the general laws recommended by the National
Typographical Society to the local societies for their government be
printed for the use o f the members.
Test:
W. A. K ennedy, Secretary.
D ecember 1, 1838.
GENERAL LAW'S.
A rticle 1. Every apprentice shall serve until he be 21 years of
age; and at the time o f entering as an apprentice shall not be more
than 16 years o f age; and every boy taken as an apprentice shall be
bound to his employer in due form of law.
A rt. 2. No runaway apprentice shall be received into any office
in the United States attached to the national association, either as
an apprentice or journeyman.
A rt. 3. That on the death of his master, or if, from any cause, the
office wherein he was indented shall be discontinued, he may be taken
into another office, and be regularly indented to finish the term of his
apprenticeship.
A rt. 4. After the 1st day of January, 1844, it shall not be lawful
for any local society to consider any application for membership
unaccompanied by sufficient proof that he had served the period of
five years, as a regularly indented apprentice at the printing business.
A rt. 5. That after the 1st day o f January, 1839, it shall not be
lawful for any local society to permit members o f said society to work
in any office where boys may be taken as apprentices to the printing
business, to serve for a less period than five years.
9 18
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
A rt. 6. The local societies shall have the power to establish such
tariff o f prices as may be suitable to the section o f country in which
they may be located.
A rt. 7. It shall be the duty of all local societies, working under the
jurisdiction o f the national association, to sustain each other in their
list o f prices or such other regulations as they may adopt for their
government.
A rt. 8. That all local societies suspend so much o f their constitu
tions as requires a term of apprenticeship as a qualification for
membership; and that they admit all who are at work at the business
as journeymen so soon as it shall be ascertained that the proposed
regulations o f the association upon this subject shall be adopted by
two-thirds o f the societies.
A rt . 9. A n y person presenting his union card from one society,
under the jurisdiction o f the national association, to another society
under the same jurisdiction, and paying the monthly dues called for
by their constitution, shall be entitled to the trade benefits o f said
society.
A rt. 10. Local societies shall recognize but two classes of printers—
employers and journeymen—that is, persons who carry on business
solely as employers and those who work as journeymen, in the manner
prescribed, and at the prices demanded by such society.
A rt. 11. It shall be the duty of local societies to have prepared an
annual report of their condition, showing the number of members
admitted for the year preceding; the amount of receipts from initia
tion, dues, and fines; the number o f newspapers and periodical
publications, together with all offices o f whatever character, under
the immediate control o f practical printers, at the time o f making
such reports; also, those under the control of others than printers, and
such other information as may be in possession of said local societies,
in reference to the profession generally; said report to be transmitted
to the national association at its annual meetings.
A rt. 12. That the societies be requested to forward to the national
association, annually, the number, as near as may be ascertained, of
apprentices in the district of country over which the society has
jurisdiction; also, of all the journeymen— distinguishing members of
the society from others.
A rt. 13. That men pronounced rats by one society, shall be con
sidered such by all others, until reinstated by said society.
A rt . 14. A local society, on the suspension or expulsion o f a mem
ber, shall give information to all other societies as soon as practicable,
and make annual report to the national association.
A rt . 15. T hat it be made obligatory on the members o f the respec
tive societies to solicit all printers in good standing to join some local
society.
A rt. 16. That every society which may henceforth be established,
transmit the title, list o f officers, and its locality ? to the corresponding
secretary o f the National Typographical Association.
A rt. 17. The above regulations, when adopted by two-thirds o f the
local societies, shall become binding upon the whole, as general laws,
for the government o f the craft.
To return now to affairs of the local societies, the Philadelphia
Typographical Association sent out a letter dated June 16, 1834, on
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS QF PRINTERS.
919
the state of trade, saying: “ For several months the book offices
have not had work enough to employ even their apprentices, and
when we may safely anticipate a favorable change we are unable to
say as we are anxious to hear.” July 11, 1835, the same association
wrote that it was having trouble as a result o f “ having taken meas
ures to effect an advance in the price o f our labor;” that the employ
ers were advertising in other cities, and asked the Washington society
to “ prevent that influx o f strangers upon which the employers (a)
rely in connection with the defection, which, in a small degree, we are
sorry to say, they have effected for defeating the purposes of this asso
ciation.” Later, August 30, 1835, the association sent out a circular
saying the trouble was over.(6)
August 6, 1836, the Nashville, Tenn., Typographical Society sent
out its revised constitution and price list, both o f which will be
found in full in the appendix. It will be noticed that this society
binds itself by its constitution (art. 14) to “ cooperate with the
« I t may be of interest to note that an employing printers’ association was
formed just before this in Philadelphia, it being organized February 7, 1835.
A scale o f prices for composition and presswork, by which all contracts for
such work were made, was adopted and made a part o f the constitution. Mem
bers violating the contract scale were subject to fine or expulsion. Evidently
the “ Printers’ Company ” o f 1794 had ceased to exist.
The steam press was beginning to alarm the pressmen, and curiously
enough they proposed at first to meet it just as, in after years, the glass-workers’
unions and the coal miners’ unions proposed to meet the machine, i. e., by
reducing their wages for hand work to a point where it would not pay the
employers to install steam presses, except that the pressmen proposed to do it
by exactly the methods they opposed when applied by the employers to type
setting—by the introduction o f boys into the business through a subdivision of
labor. A resolution was passed by the Washington society with this in view
October, 14, 1835, as follow s:
R e so lv e d , That a committee be appointed to inquire into the expediency of
making such alterations in the price of presswork and the introduction o f rollers
and roller boys as will enable employers to have their work done as cheap, better,
and with greater certainty, by hand, than by the use o f steam or power presses,
while at the same time pressmen will be able to make as good wages, if not
better than under the present system.
As showing the attitude o f the early printers toward machinery the two
following remarkable letters are taken from the minutes of the Washington
society:
[Copy of a letter laid before the society by a member.]
W arrenton , V a ., O ctober 6 , 1840.
D ear Si r : Through you I woul<f respectfully inform the Typographical
Society of Washington, that I have invented and made a machine for setting
and distributipg typ e; which machine is now in complete operation in this place,
and will, according to the estimate of practical printers, do the work o f four
men; the cost not to exceed $20. Being poor myself, my object is to realize
something like a compensation for my time, labor, and ingenuity; and being
aware that it may perhaps conflict with the interest of your society, I have
concluded to propose to sell them the exclusive right for the District o f
Columbia. To effect this object, I propose that your society deputize some one
920
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
National Typographical Society ” and to be represented in its conven
tion. This society had 35 members in 1836, and the 44chapel ”
system was firmly established in all offices.
During 1836 a letter was received from the Typographical Soci
ety at Columbia, S. C. The letter, however, does not make clear
whether the society had just been organized or not. This society
sent out a “ rat list ” in 1842, and seems to have gone down in a strike
o f that year.
December 3, 1836, the Washington society, 44owing to the advance
in the price o f products generally ” (by which is meant the cost Qf
living) (a) asked for 44an advance of about 10 per cent on our present
tariff prices for the employing printers of the D istrict;” and ap
pointed a committee to revise the scale and call on the employers.
January 7, 1837, the committee reported that the employers had
agreed to the new scale, and it was ordered printed. (See Appendix
B, No. 6.) It is impossible to ignore the evidence o f the slowness
o f the world’s affairs in those days when we reflect that this was the
first change in price list adopted by the society since the original one*I
to decide upon the merits of the sam e; pledging myself to let them have it, as
a body, for less thdn I can get from an individual proprietor.
Let me hear from you early, or by the society.
Respectfully,
I. D. H ill .
fRepiy.i
W ashington , N o vem b er 18, 18^0.
M r. I. D. H ill .
Si r : In compliance with a resolution o f Columbia Typographical Society,
I acknowledge the receipt of your letter, apprising it o f your invention and
your desire to dispose o f it to said society. And, 1 am also instructed to say,
that, while they wish you success in your undertaking, they do not feel them
selves justified in offering you any pecuniary aid; nor do they feel willing to
abet in bringing into operation anything that would encroach upon the rights
o f those who have given years of labor and privation to acquire a knowledge
o f a business which they had reason to believe would yield them a support in
after life. You propose to distribute and set type by machinery! Shade o f
the immortal Faust thou art forever eclipsed. But should your invention prove
beneficial to the craft, we will hail you as a benefactor. Your professions
o f regard for this society, and the craft at large, are duly appreciated.
Yours respectfully, in behalf o f Col. Typo. So.,
D avid H. H anlon ,
Corresponding Secreta ry.
a As indicative o f the cost of living, the prices quoted from the Central Mar
ket at Washington, D. C., September 18, 1837, are here reproduced. “ Beef,
from 64 to 124 cents per pound; cornecf beef, 8 cents; veal, 64 to 10 cents;
pork, 12 cents.; mutton, 64 to 10 cents per pound; lamb, 50 to 75 cents per
quarter; ham, 14 cents per pound; butter, 20 to 25 cents; butter, print, 314 to
374 cents; lard, 124 cents per pound; chickens $2 to $3 per dozen; eggs, 15
cents; corn (green) 124 cents per dozen; potatoes, 50 cents per bushel; sweet
potatoes, 374 cents per peck; corn meal, $1,124 per bushel; rye meal, 80 cents
per bushel.”
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
921
o f 1815, and that was but a schedule of prices already paid and had
been in existence for several years. Wage scales that last twentytwo years without alteration will not be numerous in this century.
February 4, 1837, the Typographical Society at Lexington, Ky.,
sent out a circular, which, like the one from Columbia, S. C., does not
state clearly when the society was formed.
In 1838 the St. Louis, Mo., Typographical Association sent out a
protest against a perpetual “ ratting ” of printers who had conducted
themselves honorably in other cities. The occasion o f this was that a
printer who had worked in the Duff Green plant in Washington,
D. C., in 1836 or 1837, went to St. Louis, Mo., and obtained a situa
tion, when it was discovered he was on the rat list sent out from
Washington. The St. Louis society testified that the man had “ con
ducted himself honorably ” in St. Louis, and wanted to know how
long the rat list was expected to last. The Washington society in
reply granted its permission to the St. Louis association to accept
this man as a member, and annulled its rat list o f 1836.
May 4, 1839, the Washington society adopted the “ chapel system.”
From Louisville, Ky., came a letter stating that the Louisville Typo1
graphical Association was formed April 1, 1839. “ There having
been heretofore two societies m this city, which now exist no more, we
have organized upon entirely different lines.” During the year sev
eral societies were heard from for the first time, some only recently
organized, while others appear to have been in existence for some
time. Vicksburg, Miss., for instance, sent out a “ rat list ” and asked
for an exchange o f same; Columbus, Ohio, was first heard of July 6,
1839, the letter not being preserved in the minutes. Detroit, Mich.,
sent out a strike notice stating that the association had been com
pelled to strike for wages due and unpaid. Rochester, N. Y., reported
that an organization had just been effected; as did Frankfort, Ky.,
and Tallahassee, Fla. The letter of the latter organization, with
the reply o f the Washington society to that of Frankfort, Ky., are
of sufficient importance to reproduce here in fu ll; as is also a letter of
the Washington society to the Boston Typographical Society, which
was organized in 1838. (a)
a Below Is a copy of tlie letter received from the Tallahassee, Fla., association,
giving rates of wages and cost o f living at that time :
T allahassee , tfoveniber 80, 1839 .
G entlemen : The journeymen printers of Tallahassee have formed themselves
into an association for the purpose of regulating prices, as well as for their
general benefit. They have also instructed me to address you, in behalf of the
association, to beg that you will warn those who feel desirous of coming to this
place, against the propriety o f doing so under an engagement for less than the
prices we have adopted: which are $18 per week— that they will have to pay
here, for board, from $6 to $10 per w eek; clothing and other expenses double,
and oftentimes treble to that of the northern prices, and all other things in
proportion.
922
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
The most important event of this year (1839), however, in view of
the continued apprenticeship troubles, was the action o f the New
Orleans Typographical Association. September 1, 1838, this organi
zation sent out a circular letter notifying all societies that it was
on strike against one office in the city, that of David Felt & Co.
August 3, 1839, it sent out a “ rat circular,” doubtless growing out of
the same difficulty. In its constitution as revised September 14,
1839 (see Appendix A, No. 7, where this is reproduced in fu ll), this
association prohibits (art. 12) any member from working “ on any
English daily morning paper, on which any apprentices may be em
ployed.” This is a far more radical solution than has been attempted
by any typographical union of to-day, except that of New York
City, where apprenticeship is abolished in daily newspaper offices by
agreement, and in Philadelphia, where the union constitution pro
hibits them. January 8, 1840, the Boston association sent letters
asking for wage scale and stating it was making a list of wages paid
in all4cities. Jackson, Miss., Typographical Association was organ
ized in 1840. The collapse o f the National Society disheartened
the local societies and gave the “ benefit ” faction, or the “ alimoners,”
as they were called, the floor and the argument for a year or two.
April 4, 1840, the Mobile, Ala., association, and June 6 of the same
year the New York association, each sent out “ rat circulars ” as a
result o f strikes in which both organizations seem to have gotten
In craving the endeavors of your excellent association in our behalf, I am,
sir, in the name o f the Florida Typographical Association,
Most respectfully, your obt. ser’t.,
S. I. N ow lin , S ec’y.
To the P resident
and M embers
of the W a s h . T ypo . Society .
The following is in reply to a letter from Frankfort, K y .:
W ashington , O ctober 6, 1889.
D ear S i r : Mr. Jefferson laid your circular and letter before the Columbia
Typographical Society last evening; and our members were much gratified on
being informed o f a new auxiliary in the “ profession o f letters.,, We look to
your section o f country with as much solicitude as we do to the North for the
advancement of our interests; and are pleased to perceive in each a proper
attention evinced to the subject. A new society was formed in Boston about
a year ago and it now numbers 70 members. The old one was composed of a
few journeymen and of master workmen, “ who now control its operations,
thereby destroying the purposes for which it was established.” The Boston
circular remarks that the journeymen are “ now prepared to assert their
rights, w’hich they have too long neglected.” This may be called “ a ^ in the
East.” Since that period three other societies have been established, o f which
yours is one.
While we are receiving such pleasing intelligence, we indulge the hope that
the recommendations o f the national society have been regarded in framing
the local constitutions. Among those the regulation o f apprentices is promi
nent: Every boy to serve for five years, to be bound to his employer in due
form o f law, and to serve until 21 years o f age. The employers o f Washington
have sanctioned it, and those elsewhere will, also, if they be made to understand
how important it will be to their interests and to ours.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
923
their death blow. Nowhere, outside of New Orleans, was the ap
prentice trouble settled or even mollified, and even there it was con
trolled only in the morning newspaper offices. The Washington
society was permitting special exceptions to its apprentice regula
tions ; and in Philadelphia, society members were working with boys
and “ two-thirders ” until it was said there were just journeymen
enough in an office to tell the apprentices what to do. The whole
subject was chaotic. In January, 1842, the Washington society
appointed a committee to go over the entire matter. The “ alimoners ” had,a majority o f the committee and were for the repeal of
all laws attempting to regulate trade affairs of this kind. The
minority report was for strict enforcement. Taken together, these
reports form the most important document of this period on the
subject. Not only do we get here an inside view o f the workings
o f the two factions in the societies of the early printers, but we get
In behalf of the Columbia Typographical Society, wishing you success and
everything which may advance your prosperity, I am, gentlemen,
Yours, respectfully,
I. A. G obeight,
Cor . S ec . C . T, S o c ie ty .
Messrs. W m . B lanchabd and J. R. W atson ,
F ra n kfort, K y .
The following is in reply to a circular sent out by the Boston society as
reorganized in 1888:
W ashington , O ctober 6, 1839.
To the Members of the B oston T ypo. Society :
Gentlemen : The circular from your association was read to our society last
evening. The members were particularly pleased with its spirit, as much from
the fact o f a new ally in our cause, as from the expression that a “ portion o f
the journeymen, animated by the noble example set them by their brethren o f
the South, have at last awoke from their supineness, and are now prepared to
assert and maintain their just rights, which they too long have neglected.”
It is from the North that we have most to fear— it is in that section o f country
so many innovations are made upon the profession; and it is there where
journeymen— many of them— have remained passive to the employer’s injus
tice. But, happily, in this age of reform, the “ printer’s trade ” partakes o f its
influence, and every day develops some improvement in his condition. Typo
graphical societies are increasing everywhere, and all seem animated by the
same principle of action.
The employers o f this city have acquiesced in our proposition (suggested by
the national society) that every apprentice shall be bound to his employer in
due form o f law— to serve five years— till 21. In a few years, if this rule be
generally adopted and adhered to, the important benefits resulting from it will
be manifest. This is the great object to which we should direct our attention,
as it will eventually extirpate rats, two-thirders, and runaway apprentices; and
then we shall “ see the day when the craft, and every member of it, shall be
respected, as we are convinced they possess the ability ” to effect the reforma
tion.
In behalf of the Columbia Typographical Society, wishing you every success,
and hoping, with you, “ that a good feeling may pervade the journeymen
printers o f the union,” I subscribe myself,
Respectfully, yours,
I. A. G obeight,
Cor . Sec. C o l T. S.
924
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
a view o f the situation as seen by those most interested. For that
reason the report, notwithstanding its length, is given below :
The committee appointed upon the apprentice regulations at the
last stated meeting submitted the two following reports, which were
received:
The committee o f the Columbia Typographical Society, to whom
the following resolution was referred, v iz : 66Resolved That this society appoint a committee to inquire into and report upon, the expe
diency o f either modifying, repealing or more rigidly enforcing the
apprentice regulations o f the said society ”— ask permission of the
society respectfully to present their views in the following report:
That your committee, in accordance with the above resolution, have
duly considered the matter referred to them, and given to it that
attention which the importance o f the subject demands. That your
committee consider the above-named regulations were recommended
by the general convention o f printers, with the intention, (in connec
tion with other measures,) to unite the societies o f the different cities
for the advancement of the interests o f the craft; and could only be
beneficial by general adoption. That such has not been the case is
evident to everyone, for they have only been carried out by one
society besides this. That, as said project of union has totally failed
o f success, this society is under no obligations to other societies to
enforce said regulations. That this society, itself, having violated
the regulations in the case of the boy (Bailey) taken into the office of
Mr. Allen, and failed to enforce them in numerous other instances
where they have been openly violated, can not now, with any hope of
success, resolve to enforce them. Can this society demand o f employ
ers an adherence to regulations that the society was the first to
violate? These regulations, by mutual agreement between them,
were equally binding upon this society and employers; but, by your
own act, in the opinion of your committee, you have absolved the
employers from all obligation to adhere to them. When violations
o f said regulations have occurred, and been reported to this society,
you have, more than once, appointed committees to confer with the
employers on the subject, but without any satisfactory result. Some
have promised to comply with the wishes of the society; others have
treated you with contemptuous silence, and all have continued to vio
late the apprentice regulations, as long as it was their interest to do so.
That, in the opinion of your committee, the aforesaid regulations
operate in favor of the employer, and against the interests o f the
journeymen: the long term o f apprenticeship and the legal power
given to the master to make the apprentice serve the full term of five
years, certainly offers greater inducements to employers to take ap
prentices, and bring them in competition with journeymen, than the
old system, under which—the term of apprenticeship depending alto
gether on the will of the boy, the master possessing no legal power to
detain him— there was less inducement to bring apprentices in compe
tition with journeymen. In a word, the regulations, as they now
stand, are a dead letter, and as long as they remain in, and are
acknowledged by, this society, as a part of its constitution, without, at
the same time, enforcing them, they are a disgrace and reproach to us.
That, in the opinion o f your committee, it is inexpedient to modify
or enforce said regulations. That, in the opinion of your committee,
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
925
if this society, in its wisdom, should see fit to repeal the said regula
tions, it will settle all differences now existing between this society
and employers in relation to apprentices, prevent future collisions of
the same nature; still the murmurs and dissatisfaction o f a large and
respectable minority of this society; and give peace and good feelings
where we have long had agitation and angry contention.
In conclusion, your committee would respectfully recommend the
following resolution for adoption, and ask to be discharged from the
further consideration o f the subject: “ Resolved, That the apprentice
regulations o f the Columbia Typographical Society be, and they are
hereby, repealed.”
C. W . C. D un nin g to n , )
J ohn T. C. C lark ,
' ] Com tee.
A minority o f the committee of the Columbia Typographical So
ciety, to whom was referred the subject of a repeal or modification
o f the apprentice regulations o f said society, respectfully begs leave
to report:
That he has given the matter his most serious attention and
weighed all the arguments that presented themselves to his mind;
for and against these regulations, in the calm balance o f reflection.
For the repeal o f the regulations, there appear to exist the following
reasons: First, because the regulations were framed to meet a general
law on the subject, to be in force in all cities throughout the Union,
whereas said general law has only been complied with in one city
besides this. Second, because the regulations were not made in ac
cordance with long-established usage, either in this or in any other
age and country, but were merely got up as an experiment, which
experiment has failed to stand the test of five years’ successful appli
cation. Third, because this society has itself specially authorized
an infraction o f the regulations in one instance and not promptly
condemned their infraction in other instances. Fourth, because a
very respectable minority in this society, in number and character,
have always regarded the regulations as irregular, and not within
the purview o f the society’s original jurisdiction—a minority which
has sufficiently increased o f late to call for some concession, or else
(he most convincing arguments, from the majority.
These reasons appear to be of such weight as to entitle them to
great consideration. The closing part of the last season might seem
to many particularly cogent as regards the mere expediency of repeal,
from the fact that the regulations of a society o f operatives can
scarcely ever be beneficial or effective, unless approved by two-thirds
of those who are to carry them into effect. The undersigned has
been mindful o f the strength of the reasons in favor of repeal, and
also of the deduction which may be naturally drawn from the closing
portion o f the last; but he has deemed it due to the investigation in
which he is engaged, to turn to the other side, and see what reasons
may be offered for the retention and maintenance of these regulations.
They may be stated as follows: First, the regulations prevent a too
rapid multiplication o f journeymen, by withdrawing from parents
and guardians the inducement o f putting boys to the business as a
temporary stay or relief, who, having served a couple o f years, are
turned out to compete with journeymen o f more mature experience.
Second, they improve the quality o f such apprentices as do serve, by
926
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
affording them ample time to learn their business, a complete knowl
edge o f which always stimulates them, in every situation in life, to
a regard for the honor of the craft. Third, masters will readily
start the printing business with apprentices only, when they can
transfer or abandon such apprentices at will. Fourth, boys who
are initiated into the business from temporary expediency, besides
excluding journeymen to a certain extent, while serving their ap
prenticeship, frequently return, on the failure o f other business, at
a time when those who have made it the business o f their lives can
scarcely procure employment at it—thereby increasing the general
distress among the craft. Fifth, this society, from its foundation
up to a very short period before the adoption of these regulations,
showed its partiality for long apprenticeships by requiring four years
o f such service to be one o f the constituent qualifications o f member
ship. Sixth, the small number o f apprentices now, in this city, com
pared with what there were when these regulations were established,
affords the most irrefragable evidence of the efficacy and good result
o f the regulations.
The undersigned, after such a hesitancy as is involved in the fore
going citation o f the merits o f the case, has concluded to, and does,
recommend an adherence to the apprentice regulations. He believes
they have been productive o f much good to the master, the journey
man, and the apprentice: to the master, by increasing his net profit
on the apprentice’s labor; to the journeyman, by limiting the num
ber o f his competitors; to the apprentice, by affording him a compe
tent experience; and to all, through an amenity and congeniality o f
sentiment engendered by the system. He thinks that their repeal
would be but an entering wedge to split and divide our society on
all the regulations which it has established for the general welfare.
He also believes there is no middle ground. Modification would
only multiply the attacks o f those interested in repeal, as well as the
enemies o f the society. Special instances may occur where an ex
ception to the regulations will be necessary—such as where the family
to which an apprentice belongs is removing from one section o f coun
try to another; but in such special instances the undersigned appre
hends a vote o f two-thirds can readily be obtained to authorize such
exception.
In conclusion, the undersigned asks that the committee be dis
charged from the further consideration o f the subject.
(Signed)
F. J e f fe rso n .
Mr. Delano offered the following resolution: “ Resolved, That the
apprentice regulations be enforced forthwith.” For which Mr.
Drew offered the following as a substitute : “ Resolved, That a com
mittee o f vigilance be appointed, to consist o f one member of this
society in each office, in the city, to supervise the admission o f ap
prentices into the respective offices in which the members of the com
mittee may be engaged; and that, on the admission o f a new appren
tice into an office, the committee be required to wait upon the em
ployer, on the authority o f the society, and inquire whether such ap
prentice has been taken in accordance with the regulations o f this
society, and to report the same to the society; and that said com
mittee also be authorized to pursue a like course with regard to those
apprentices who are now working in offibes contrary to the rules of
the society.”
Nothing, however, came of it at this time.
By resolution the
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
927
society had appointed a committee November 6, 1841, to make a list
o f all the “ journeymen now employed in the several offices o f this
city designating the number that are members of this society, the
number that have been, but from any cause have ceased to be mem
bers ; and the number that have never been attached to the society.”
April 2,1842, a resolution to prohibit members from working with
nonmembers after January 1,1843, was introduced, this being the first
attempt in Washington to discriminate against merely nonunion men
as distinguished, o f course, from 44rats,” or men working under the
scale. The argument o f the resolution is identical with that used by
unions against the nonunion man to-day:
Whereas experience has clearly demonstrated that it has been only
by the formation and continuance of the Col. Typ. So. that the craft
have been enabled to attain their present prosperous condition, in a
moral and pecuniary point o f view, in this city ; and
Whereas a crisis has arrived in the affairs o f the profession, which
calls for a rally o f all members of the craft in support o f the consti
tution and regulations o f the society; and believing that all who work
at the business in this city are benefited by the existence o f said
society, and bound, both by honor and interest, to contribute to its
support. Therefore,
1. Resolved, That every person working at the business will be
required to make application to join this society within one month
from the time o f his commencing work at any office in this city, at a
regular stated meeting o f the society.
2. Resolved, That on the refusal or neglect o f any to comply with
the regulation contained in the foregoing resolution, or in case of the
rejection o f such applicant, the members o f this society shall cease to
work in any office where such person may be employed.
3. Resolved, That the foregoing resolution go into effect, as an
amendment to the constitution, on the 1st day o f January, 1843.
As a similar resolution was introduced in 1847, this, i f passed (the
minutes do not show whether it was or n ot), does not appear to have
been very effective, but is none the less indicative o f the sentiment of
the time.
In New York City early in 1844 the Franklin Typographical Asso
ciation had been founded for the purpose o f securing an advance in
wages. The scale, which was 28 cents per 1,000 ems and $11 a week,
was agreed upon at a meeting held April 13,1844, to take effect April
15. A t a meeting’ held on the latter date the following resolutions
were passed:
Whereas the Franklin Typographical Association have designated
the 15th day o f April, 1844, as the time for the revised scale o f prices
to go into operation; and
Whereas it is necessary for the association, to protect those who
may be thrown out o f employment in consequence thereof, Therefore,
Resolved, That all persons who may be thrown out o f employment
in consequence o f demanding the advance designated in the scale, be
requested to report themselves to the board o f management at
276— No. 61—06
14
m
---------------
928
BU LLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
Stoneal’s Hotel, Fulton street, on Monday, April 15,1844, between the
hours o f 10 a. m. and 10 p. m. to receive such information, instructions
and assistance as circumstances may require.
Resolved, That a committee o f three be appointed to make arrange
ments for the firing a salute o f 100 guns on Monday, A pril 15, 1844,
in honor o f the large number o f the generous and liberal employers
who have already signified their willingness to pay the new scale.
This firing o f guns was premature, i f intended as a celebration of
victory. May 6, 1844, the association opened reading rooms and a
house o f call at No. 109 Nassau street for the use o f all the journeymen
printers, and where “ members o f the association out o f employment
are requested to call and register their names and addresses.” It was,
in fact, a “ headquarters o f the strikers ” such as we know to-day.
Matters grew worse and worse for the association. July 22 the follow
ing “ address ” was issued:
The corresponding secretary o f the Franklin Typographical Asso
ciation having been duly appointed by the board o f managers to con
fer with certain printers concerning prices, respectfully submits the
following report:
Saturday morning, July 20, I called on John F. Trow, the corpo
ration printer, and stated to him that I had been appointed by the
association, to inquire o f him i f there was any truth in the rumor that
he was about to reduce prices in his book office. He answered me very
haughtily, “ Suppose there is ? ” I said that I did not come to ex
plain why he should not reduce prices, but merely to ask what truth
there was in the rumor. Again he replied, “ Suppose there is? ” I
asked him i f that wa& his only answer. He replied that he acknowl
edged no right in the association to ask him questions; that the asso
ciation had been the cause o f difficulty in his office, and that he was
determined to “ set his face against ” this or any other association that
should assume the right o f dictation as to what men should receive
for their labor. He should “ set his face against the association.”
He held that he had the right to pay what he pleased for work, and
that no one had a right to say a word in the matter; and he was
“ determined to set his face against the association.”
After this ebullition o f superfluous breath, the gentlemanly corpo
ration printer set his back against me and I walked off.
Printers o f New Y ork! have you no interest in this matter? A
portion o f your number, by great exertion formed an association—
upon a liberal and benevolent plan—have adopted a scale o f prices to
which these very men acceded, and which every honorable employer
considers fair and just.
This scale o f prices will put more money in your pocket in a month
than the association will take from you in a whole year.
I f you who are not members o f our association would come up and
join—if you would help yourselves fight your own battles—we might
give such answer as would effectually convince Mr. John F. Trow,
and others o f his belief, that free and independent men, men who earn
an honest livelihood by the sweat o f their brow, have a right to dic
tate to fellow-men—aye though their names be not blazoned six sev
EAKLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
929
era] times in gorgeousness o f gold leaf and black paint upon the walls
o f a four-story building.
But i f the mass o f journeymen printers will remain idle in this
business—i f they will shun all opportunity for benefiting themselves—
then they must submit to be insolently told that they have no right to
ask a fair return for their labor, that they must take what their
masters choose to offer, and be silent; they must be content to cringe
before the soulless tyrant who by any means may happen to possess
control over a case of type and a rickety press; they must be content
to live or die, to feast or starve, as the greed and avarice of the em
ployer may dictate.
Fellow-journey men! have you not as fair a right to sunlight and
shade, to air and existence as any other breathing mortal? I f so,
then protect that right, for it is in danger. The men who would de
prive you o f a portion o f your hard-earned wages* were willing for
their own interests to pay the scale at the time o f its adoption.
Business was brisk then, work was plenty, and men were in demand.
Now work is scarce, and for that reason these fellows would cut down
your wages! as i f the laborer was responsible for the decrease o f busi
ness, and his wife and children must be punished and starved so that
the employer’s account o f profits and gain may foot up as they did
when business was good. Oh, charitable, enlightened, benevolent
logic that would reduce the compensation for work because work is
scarce!
In view o f these circumstances* we call upon the journeymen print
ers o f New York to come up, not to help us individually, nor for the
purpose o f parade or display, but come up for the benefit of your
selves* for your own protection, for the protection o f your wives and
children— for the protection o f their honor— for the protection o f the
honor and the dignity o f labor, and the character o f freemen; all o f
which are endangered by the illiberal, selfish and unjust actions o f a
certain number o f purse-proud mortals.
T. F. O t t a r s o n , Corresponding Secretary.
The last meeting o f this militant association, so far as can be
learned, was held December 21, 1844. About this time, or possibly
in 1843, an attempt was made to found a national secret society, to be
composed o f picked men from the local associations in all cities* and
to be called “ The Order o f Faust.” The move was started in New
York City, and it is said that such o f the leaders as were approached
in Albany, Washington, Cincinnati, Boston, and Philadelphia were
ready to join and to found coordinate branches. Only rumors o f it
ever reached the surface, and if such secret society was ever really
formed it did not get beyond New York, and never exerted any
influence.
The years from 1844 to 1847 were remarkable for nothing but the
same old temporizing struggle over apprentices, and the ever-swelling
army o f u two-thirders,” which was augmented continuously from
the apprentices. In 1845, in Washington, a group o f printers forming
a committee from the society were arrested upon a charge o f “ con
spiracy,” as the result o f an attempt to enforce the society’s appren
930
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
ticeship regulations, which all o f the employers (including those
causing the arrest) had agreed to for years, but which nobody, not
even the society, had paid much attention to. The extent to which
apprentices were substituted for journeymen, as compared with the
present time, can be best realized by reference to an incident in De
troit, Mich. In 1846 the apprentices struck on a Detroit newspaper,
and publication was suspended for two days because there were not
journeymen enough to do the work. November 22, 1847, the Albany
(N. Y .) association sent out a letter stating that contractors had taken
the State printing at 17 cents per 1,000 ems, and were hiring boys at
$3 a week to do the work. The next year the Albany union limited
the number o f apprentices. In 1847 the Baltimore association
adopted a constitutional amendment limiting apprentices at the ratio
o f one apprentice to each three journeyman. In the convention of
1850 the Baltimore delegates, as well as those o f Albany, urged limi
tation, and referred to that o f their own unions, but without men
tioning the ratio. Mr. H. T. Ogden, o f Cincinnati, Ohio, who was
a delegate to the convention of 1850, in an interview for this report
kindly supplied this important information. Mr. Ogden went to Cin
cinnati in 1847, and his first employment was in a job office where
there were 3 journeymen and 5 boys, called apprentices, but were only
so in name. Mr. Ogden thinks that was about the ratio throughout
the Middle West at that time. Few offices had more than one or two
journeymen. He remembers that in the best office in Lexington, Ky.,
in 1836, there was 1 journeyman and 5 apprentices in the news com
posing rooms and 1 journeyman and 1 apprentice in the job room.
In 1847 Mr. Ogden corresponded with the Baltimore union and got
its apprenticeship limitation rule, which was adopted by the Cincin
nati union in 1848. In 1849 there seems to have been a rivalry
between the radical and conservative elements, the former wishing
to further restrict apprentices by increasing the ratio to 1 to 4. Mr.
Ogden was the candidate of the “ 1 to 3 ” party, and was elected
president o f the union. The Cincinnati scale in 1848 was $10 a week.
The scale for 1853 will be found in Appendix B, No. 12.
' In 1848 the Typographical Union o f Boston was organized. A
preliminary meeting to%discuss organization was held December 8,
1848, at the residence of Mr. Henry K. Oliver, who later became the
first chief o f the first bureau of the statistics of labor. Final organi
zation was effected December 16, 1848, with approximately 60 mem
bers. The prices paid at that time were 25 cents per 1,000 ems to firstclass journeymen in the best offices and 16f cents to “ two-thirders,”
who outnumbered the journeymen about two to one. The union
issued a circular in December, 1848, in which it said :
There are in Boston 156 journeymen working 12 hours each day,
and 7 days each week who receive on an average of $9.25 per week.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
931
There are 325 journeymen working 10 hours each day and 6 days each
week, who receive on an average o f $6 per week.
The scale o f prices demanded by the union in 1849 was 28 cents per
1,000 ems, with a weekly rate o f $13 on morning papers; for evening
and semiweekly papers, 28 cents per 1,000, and $10 for weekly rate.
Job offices and weekly papers paid the same piece rate, or $9 a week
on weekly rate; time work was 20 cents an hour.
The Pittsburg (Pa.) Typographical Association, formed in 1849,
issued a scale o f prices, which is reproduced in Appendix B, No. 8.
This union proposed at first only a three-year indentured apprentice
ship for all boys employed in offices; but in 1850 or 1851 adopted a
limitation o f apprentices at “ 1 to 3.” The Boston union of 1848
tried to solve its problems by refusing to admit to membership any
who had not served a four-year apprenticeship and had recommenda
tions as a good printer. It is difficult to see how this would solve
the problem of the “ two-thirder,” who was content to remain a twothirder and out o f the union, however, as it is not at all clear that
members refused to work with nonunion .men at first, and certainly
not with nonunion men who claimed to be only apprentices, as the
“ two-thirders,” when driven to defense, invariably did. In 1849
the Boston union had a long and bitter strike to enforce its new scale.
December 29, 1849, a meeting attended by 27 compositors from the
daily newspaper offices was held in New York City to discuss organi
zation and the prospects of securing a uniform scale o f wages
throughout the city. This was accomplished January 19, 1850, by
the organization o f the New York Typographical Union (now “ Big
Six ” ) and the adoption of a scale calling for 32 cents per 1,000 ems,
which the employers acceded to without friction. Hon. Horace
Greeley, having accepted an invitation to do so, was elected its first
president; “ working cards ” with his signature as president still
exist and are greatly prized by their owners. (c)
<*The New York Tribune of January 21, 1850, contains the following notice
o f the organization and condensation of the constitution adopted:
At a meeting of the New York Printers’ Union held on Saturday evening,
January 19, 1850, the following officers were elected: President, Horace Greeley,
vice-president, Edgar H. Rogers; recording secretary, William H. Prindle;
financial secretary, R. Cunningham; corresponding Secretary, George Johnson;
treasurer, Thomas N. Rooker.
CONSTITUTION OF THE NEW YORK PRINTERS’ UNION.
The objects of the union shall be the maintenance o f a fair rate o f wages,
the assistance and encouragement o f good workmen, the support o f members in
sickness and distress, the relief o f deserving printers who may visit our city in
search o f employment, the establishment o f a library for the use and instruc
tion o f members, and to use every means in our power which may tend to the
elevation o f printers in the scale of social life.
1.
The officers o f this union shall consist o f a president, vice-president, a
recording secretary, a financial secretary, a corresponding secretary, a treasurer,
a financial committee o f three to serve one year, a visiting committee o f seven
93 2
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
A typographical union existed in San Francisco, Cal., and one in
Trenton, N. J., in 1850; but whether organized in that year or not, is
not known. The San Francisco scale of wages was $5 a day. Like
wise the printers o f Savannah, Ga., and those of Syracuse, 1ST.. Y.,
report organization and trouble in September, 1850, but do not clearly
indicate how long they had been organized.
The present typographical union in Philadelphia was organized
August 10, 1850, adopting a constitution and by-laws (reproduced in
Appendix A , No. 8 ), and price list, which is given in full in Appen
dix B, No. 9. This constitution limits apprentices, and prohibits its
members from working with “ two-thirders.” The union was imme
diately involved in a strike. September 18, 1850, there were 425
members enrolled and 30 journeymen who had refused to join, but
were not working below the scale. September 21 the “ vigilance com
mittee ” reported 55 u two-thirders 55 and 60 unbound boys in the
to serve for three months, a relief committee o f five to serve for six months
and a board o f five trustees to be elected annually.
2. The regular meetings o f the union are to be held on the first and third Sat
urdays o f each month, and special meetings may at any time be called, at the
request of six members, signified in writing to the president.
3. Eleven members shall constitute a quorum for the transacting o f business.
4. The initiation fee is $1, and application for admission may be made
through any member, the applicant first depositing in the hands of the financial
secretary the sum of $1.
5. At the next meeting after his proposition, the union shall take his request
into consideration and it shall thereupon be balloted for by ball ballots, and if
the applicant shall receive three-quarters o f all the ballots, he shall be entitled
to a certificate o f membership.
6. Any printer who has attained the age o f 21 years, who is in sound health,
and o f good moral standing in society, may become a member by complying with
the requirements o f the constitution.
7. Members may pay their dues monthly if they prefer it, and should the lia
bilities o f the union in consequence) o f benefits to sick and superannuated mem
bers, exceed the receipts thereof, then three-quarters of the members present at
a regular meeting, or at a special (in which not less than 20 members shall
form a quorum) shall have power to lay an assessment not to exceed the sum o f
$2 in any one year upon every member o f the union in addition to all other
constitutional dues.
8. In addition to the initiation fee of $1, the sum o f $6.50 per annum will be
required from each member as dues, payable quarterly on the first Saturday of
April, July, October and January.
9. Members who are rendered unable to work by sickness, shall receive the
sum o f $4 per week, and in case o f death o f a member's wife, $20. In case o f
the death o f a member an assessment o f 25 cents upon each member will be
made for defraying the funeral expenses. The surplus, i f any, to go into the
general fund.
10. No member shall be entitled to receive any benefits until he shall have been
a member one year.
11. Whenever a new member is proposed a committee o f investigation o f the
members shall be appointed to inquire into the qualifications of the candidate
and report in writing at the next regular meeting.
12. The widows and orphans o f members who are qualified at the time of
their decease shall, upon the recommendation o f a committee appointed to
investigate the circumstances, be allowed such assistances as the union may
from time to time direct.
13. This union may at any future time adopt a scale o f prices for the gov
ernance o f the trade; and any printer who may be working for less than such
scale, shall not be considered a proper person to be a member o f this union.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
9S3
printing offices o f the city, and gave name and detailed personal
description o f each. The strike lasted into December, when the com
mittee reported to the union that it could not win the strike with the
demands as they then stood; recommending the repeal of the limita
tion on apprentices, that being the one demand most bitterly op
posed by employers, and the one which alienated public sentiment,
The sections o f the by-laws limiting apprentices were repealed, as the
union was unable by strike to enforce them. September 28, 1850, the
New York union issued a call for a national convention, Boston and
Philadelphia joining in the call.
The National Convention of Journeymen Printers of the United
States met December 2, 1850, in New York City, with delegates from
unions in the following cities: New York City; Albany, N. Y .; Bal
timore, M d .; Trenton, N. J .; Philadelphia, Pa., and Louisville, Ky.
The cities heard from by letters read in convention were Boston, St.
Louis, San Francisco, Washington, and Cincinnati. The time o f the
convention of 1850 was largely taken up with the discussion of a
proposition to limit the number of apprentices. Mr. Conway, of
Baltimore, started it by offering the following resolution:
Resolved, That the principle now in successful operation in Balti
more city, limiting the number o f apprentices in the various printing
offices, be earnestly recommended to the trade throughout the
country.
A ll the delegates seemed to favor limiting apprentices, but some
construed the resolution as committing the convention to the Balti
more plan o f restriction, and others wanted the local unions to quietly
adopt the plan without the publicity which the adoption o f the reso
lution by the national convention would excite. This was the view of
the Philadelphia delegates, one o f whom, Mr. Keyes, objected prin
cipally to the Baltimore method and introduced the substitute reso
lution which finally passed, as follow s:
Resolved, That the limiting o f the number o f apprentices be earn
estly recommended to the various unions throughout the country, for
their adoption.
The report says: “ A ll agreed as to its utility and justice; the only
question was as to its expediency.” The Philadelphia delegate espe
cially, “ though favorable to the principle in itself, was opposed to its
being so openly proclaimed. He thought it would be employed to
injure the trade.” It will be remembered Philadelphia had just lost
a strike on this issue. The Baltimore delegates were divided on the
wisdom o f openly demanding the restriction, Mr. Conway, however,
carrying the question by an address in which he said:
The gentlemen on the other side urge that it should be adopted by
the different unions quietly, without exciting attention to the subject.
He thought that the adoption of it by the different unions would
934
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
excite more attention and hostility than the mere recommendation of
it, by this convention. But he did not think we could be injured by
any opposition which either its adoption or its recommendation might
provoke. The same objection might be urged to every measure
o f reform which was proposed. I f we are going to be regulated in
our actions by the opinions o f the employing class, and those whom
they control, we might as well go home at once and submit ourselves
entirely to established usages. * * * I f there were people hostile
to this [limiting apprentices], so were there people hostile to the
assembling o f this convention, or to the adoption o f any measure cal
culated to redeem the trade from the control o f the capitalist. We
are not here to consult their selfish views, but our own interests, in
our actions upon this as well as all other measures.
The New York delegates described the apprentice situation in that
city and favored the resolution calling for a limitation. “ Too many
printers have been manufactured of late years. New York City
affords a miserable proof o f this fact. The system is prolific of
4rats.5 Let apprentices be limited and journeymen would be in
demand. The price o f labor would be increased and placed in a posi
tion which would enable it to compete successfully with the power of
capital.55
The resolution was adopted, and the printers’ organizations from
1850 stood committed to the principle o f limiting the number of ap
prentices as a defense against what had amounted to child labor,
although the local unions of Baltimore, Albany, New Orleans, and
Cincinnati had been acting upon this principle for several years
previously.
After debates and amendments, the convention finally agreed upon
the following:
Resolved, That this convention recommend to our brethren through
out the country the formation o f unions on the following basis:
Resolved, That a standing national executive committee, o f three
from each State, be appointed to enforce the execution o f all resolu
tions o f this convention, bearing upon the different sections here rep
resented ; to gather information on all matters o f interest to the trade;
to report the same quarterly to the different unions, and to the next
convention when it assembles; to make arrangements for the assem
bling o f the next convention, and also to attend to whatever else the
convention may direct, during the interim between the adjournment
o f this and the assembling o f the next convention.
Resolved, That this convention strenuously urge the journeymen
printers o f every city and town in the United States (provided there
are six or more employed in such place), to form themselves into
unions and establish connection with each other for the purpose of
securing united action upon every question involving the interests of
the trade; and that on and after the 1st day o f February, 1851, no
journeyman printer, coming from any city or town known to contain
the organization provided for above, will be allowed to work in any
locality embraced within this organization unless he exhibit a certifi
cate of membership from the society situated in the place from which
he comes.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
935
This resolution was the result o f a compromise. The committee
originally appointed by the convention to draft a plan had reported
a very modest resolution, urging organization. One o f the delegates
from Baltimore, Mr. M. F. Conway, who throughout the proceedings
advocated the more radical measures, proposed as a substitute for the
committee report one which would prevent any printer, after Feb
ruary 1,1851, getting work in any city represented in that convention
unless he was a member o f a union in the town he came from. This
would compel every town where ten printers were employed to form a
union if any o f the ten should ever desire to get employment in any
other town or city where a union existed. The New York delegates
declared such a rule could not be enforced in New York City; the
union there was not strong enough. Mr. Conway was willing to ex
cept New York City from the provisions of the resolution, owing to
the weakness o f the organization there. Philadelphia likewise op
posed this radical action, and finally Delegate Greene, o f Louis
ville, Ky., proposed as a substitute the above compromise resolution,
which was adopted. The interest in this debate is the side light it
throws on the relative strength of the unions in the various localities
then as compared with the present, and the exhibition of good sense
by the convention in ruling against an extreme measure, which would
doubtless have arrayed the employers and unorganized printers sol
idly against it at its very inception.
The basis upon which local unions were to be organized was stated
by resolution, under seven headings, as follow s:
First. Regulation and adjustment of the different scales of prices,
so as not to conflict with each other.
Second. Giving traveling certificates to their members, in good
standing, to be legal for one year, which shall recommend the holders
thereof to assistance and traveling expenses from the union in any
city or town where they can not obtain w ork: Provided Said holders
have done nothing in the meantime, by a course of intemperance or
otherwise, to disqualify them from the same, o f which fact the
national executive committee shall notify the unions or societies in
other places.
Third. Keeping a registry of the names o f “ rats ” , and other un
worthy members o f the trade, and description o f their person, to be
sent to every union or society in the country, and to be kept by each
union for reference.
Fourth. Receiving no stranger as a member o f any union or society,
who shall not produce a legal certificate o f membership from the
society or union o f the place to which he belongs.
Fifth. Levying a monthly contribution upon each member, suffi
ciently large to enable it to accumulate within two years a sum
equivalent, at least, to $10 for each member, as a reserve fund, in view
o f their being compelled to quit work in vindication o f their rights.
Sixth. Establishing the right o f any sister union or society to call
upon them for pecuniary assistance, if necessary, to the amount o f $1
from each member: Provided That all sums thus loaned shall be
936
BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR.
repaid in monthly installments, equivalent to at least 5 per cent of
the original loan; the first installment to be paid within one month
after the difficulty calling for the loan shall have passed away.
Seventh. Granting certificates from one union, to enable the mem
bers thereof to become attached to any other, without paying an
entrance fee, provided the holder intends residing permanently
within the bounds o f the union into which he seeks admission.
Another important move by this convention was to make a clearcut distinction between trade organizations and benefit associations.
The early printers were not actuaries, nor had the fine adjustment of
premium rates to risks and expectancy been made by anyone in
those days; hence the inaccurate calculations at the base o f the old
benefit societies naturally led to charges of bad management of funds,
and the trade-regulating purposes of organization were swamped
and lost with the collapse of the “ benefit system.”
After the discussion of a resolution, in which every delegate par
ticipated, a substitute resolution was offered and passed unanimously,
as follow s: “ Resolved, That it be recommended to all typographical
trade associations to abolish the so-called benefit system.”
The contract system o f doing public printing was denounced,
although the convention put on foot a plan by which the combined
unions o f the country were to bid on the Government printing and
execute the same in a national union office in Washington. The estab
lishment o f a Government Printing Office was denounced, and Congres called upon to let the contracts only t o “ practical printers.” The
jewel o f consistency did not at all times adorn the proceedings.
Numerous plans for permanent national organization and extension
o f the chain o f local unions were discussed.
The convention issued an “ Address to the journeymen printers of
the United States,” which will be found in full in Appendix A,
No. 10.
This address, which “ the committee took the liberty to append ”
to the convention proceedings, and thus preserve, had, they state,
“ already been published in many o f the newspapers.” It is not the
purpose o f this article to comment on the documents submitted; but
as this address would be considered extremely radical i f issued by the
International Typographical Union to-day, and as it is extremely
improbable that anything bordering on some of its sentiments could
be passed in that organization, it is but fair to call attention to the
fact that the lines between radicalism and a progressive conservatism
were not so clearly defined or sharply drawn then as now. An attack
upon the wage system of industry did not mean then what it means
now. Such attacks had been and were being made by the humani
tarians o f that day; and Greeley, Dana, Alcott, Thoreau, and all
they o f the Brook Farm and countless other experiments, were decry
ing the wage system without exciting anybody, even themselves.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
937
Their plan of establishing cooperative communities and groups, like
the Brook Farm or the proposed printing office to do the Government
printing, 44abolished the wage system ” for individuals and groups
o f individuals. It did not matter that their idea was to extend these
until all would eventually be in some group, since that wTas so pal
pably impossible or infinitely remote in time that it was a perfectly
safe subject for discussion. That these reflections upon the wage
system in those days did not mean what the same language would
mean to-day is shown from the fact that the same convention unani
mously passed a resolution opposing a Government printing office.
There was nothing inconsistent about this then, for the theory that
the wage system can only be ultimately abolished for all by the final
absorption o f industries by organized government had not been defi
nitely formulated by any school of thinkers in this country at that
time. The socialists of that day were St. Simonites, not Bellamyites, nor yet Carl Marxians. Nevertheless, it is well to note that the
history o f the typographical union is marked by the gradual elimina
tion o f general propositions from its councils; the progressively
emphatic tightening of the lines on strictly trade matters. Its
strength lies largely in its experience and the long line o f precedents
established, which enable it to know the best thing to do and to do
that quickly and with firmness. It is organized not vaguely at the
top by the International alone, nor solely by the more compact local
union; but in every union printing office there is a chapel, or office
organization, and its discipline and control, as well as its attempt to
adjust grievances, settle troubles, or make agreements begins at the
chapel.
The national executive committee was composed as follow s:
New York.—T. J. Walsh, Albany; Edwin H. Rogers, Peter Mac
Donald, New York City.
Pennsylvania.— It. B. Smyth, John F. Keyser, W. B. Eckert, Phil
adelphia.
New Jersey.— Charles Bechtel, John Hartman, William Gillipsy,
Trenton.
Maryland.—M. F. Conway, Frederick Young, John W. Peregoy,
Baltimore.
Kentucky.— George E. Greene, J. L. Gibbons, Raymond Lynch,
Louisville.
The committee elected M. F. Conway, o f Baltimore, as chairman
o f the national executive committee.
The Second National Convention o f Journeymen Printers met in
Baltimore September 12,1851, and organized with Mr. J. L. Gibbons,
of Louisville, Ky., as chairman. Delegates were present represent
ing unions in New York City, Albany, Utica, Boston, Philadelphia,
Pittsburg, Harrisburg, Baltimore, Louisville, Cincinnati, Richmond,
and Trenton. A constitution was adopted which, when ratified by
938
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
the local unions in five States, was to be the basis for a new and
permanent organization, to be called the National Typographical
Union. A copy of this document will be found in Appendix A,
No. 11.
Methods for promoting organization among printers and denuncia
tions o f the system o f letting public printing by contract to the lowest
bidder occupied most o f the time in their discussion, and little
besides the adoption of the constitution was done. A minority re
port from the three strongest men on the general committee advised
against permanent organization and the adoption o f a constitution at
that convention. Only one part o f their report is important here.
One principal reason the minority gave was “ that, inasmuch, as there
are but 11 unions represented in this body while there must be at
least 50 in active operation throughout the country, and the unor
ganized material for as many more,” the minority did not believe it
wise to attempt to construct a permanent organization until a larger
number o f unions could be represented. Mr. Henry T. Ogden, of
Cincinnati, was one of those signing this minority report, and he was
interviewed on the statement made that u there must be at least 50
unions in active operation ” at the time o f this convention. Mr.
Ogden’s wonderful memory, reading back from 1904 to 1851 with
astonishing clearness, corroborated most emphatically the opinion
forced by this investigation. He said:
The use o f the number “ fifty ” was not the result of careful
counting; in fact, was not based upon any actual knowledge* It was
a mere guess. Mr. Conway, of Baltimore; Mr. Walsh, o f Albany,
and myself thought we had better go slow on permanent constitutions,
and, as one o f the arguments, called attention to the mass o f unrepre
sented printers. Another thing is that, while the distinction between
the old benefit society with nontrade-interference constitution and
the union idea was very clear and strong in 1851, there was still a hope
that all these benefit societies would unionize their membership bodily
as soon as a strong national union was formed, and we were still
counting on these. Nevertheless, I doubt i f all three o f us could have
made a list o f fifty, even counting the benefit societies.
The apprenticeship recommendations o f the convention o f 1851 were
less radical than those o f 1850, the evident policy being to throw
every important matter over to the convention o f 1852. When, how
ever, the convention of 1852 assembled it was as the Third National
Convention o f Journeymen Printers, as the unions from the necessary
five different States had not yet signed the constitution of 1851 and
paid the requisite $5. It was not until the fourth day o f that conven
tion— that is, on May 6,1852— that the needed signatures were obtained
and the National Union formed. By resolution, however, the conven
tion on the third day o f its session declared itself as acting under the
constitution o f 1851. There were delegates from Cincinnati, Indian
apolis, New York City, Albany, Louisville, Baltimore, Pittsburg, Har
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
939
risburg, Philadelphia, Columbus, Boston, St. Louis, Memphis, Cleve
land, and from Richland and Ashland, Ky. Not all o f these dele
gates, however, seemed inclined to take part in the convention, and
the permanent organization was formed upon definite assurances from
but seven unions, as follows: New York City, Boston, Philadelphia,
Baltimore, Cincinnati, Albany, and Pittsburg. Prior to the organ
ization o f the National Union, hence within the scope of this article,
the convention adopted a report o f the “ committee on business,” cov
ering many o f the questions that have been brought down historically
to this point. The two most important of these resolutions were the
follow ing:
Second. Resolved, That we discountenance the system known as the
two-thirds system, and strongly recommend to the subordinate unions
the propriety o f crushing an evil so prejudicial to our interests and
our rights.
Fourth. Resolved, That subordinate unions be recommended to use
their influence as far as possible, to do away with the employment of
apprentices on daily papers.
It must not, however, be inferred that either o f these problems was
solved by resolutions. As stated above, on May 6,1852, the organiza
tion o f National Journeymen Printers passed into the present
National Union, and the limit set upon this article is reached.
Quite a number o f local societies and unions did not immediately
join in this national movement. The Washington society, which was
the prime factor in the national organization o f 1836, declined to
enter that o f 1850 or 1852, and was the last o f the older organizations
to join, which it did in 1867. In Appendix B will be found the wage
scales o f this society down to 1866, which was the last issued as an
independent society. The Washington union did not limit appren
tices until it joined the National Union in 1867.
No account is here taken o f the local unions that withdrew from
the National and remained out for a few years. There was, however,
an organization movement in the Territories of the extreme West that
was entirely outside the sphere o f influence o f the National Union,
and must be referred to. The only document left by this movement,
so far as known, was found in 1904 in an old job printing office in
Salem, Oreg. The original is the property o f the typographical
union o f that city. There is a copy in the collection o f the Oregon
Historical Society, at Portland. The original is on parchment, and is
as follow s:
J O U R N E Y M E N P R IN T E R S 5 C O N V E N TIO N .
Pursuant to notice the printers of Oregon and Washington Terri
tories met in convention in Portland, on Saturday evening, June 11,
1853, for the purpose o f organizing a typographical society.
On motion, T. F. McElroy was called to the chair, and E. M. Waite
appointed secretary.
940
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
On motion, Ed M. Cowne, W. B. Affleck, H. S. Stipp, and R. D.
Austin were appointed a committee to draft resolutions.
The committee on resolutions reported the following, which were
unanimously adopted:
Whereas, we, the printers o f Oregon and Washington Territories,
in considering the great disadvantage attendant upon the present
system o f our labors m these Territories, and with a view o f obviating,
as far as practicable, present evils, and establishing a basis upon
which all connected or interested in the cause o f right can heartily
indorse, consider the organization o f an association for mutual pro
tection and advancement o f the journeymen printers o f the abovenamed Territories n e c e s s a r y ; therefore, be it
Resolved, That this association shall be known as the “ Oregon and
Washington Typographical Society,” and we, as members, consider
ing the present rates o f labor disproportionate in comparison with
other mechanical branches; therefore, be it
Resolved, That after the 20th day o f June, 1853, we, as members o f
this society, will not work at the printing business for less prices than
the old-established rates o f $1,500 per year or $5 per day, and will use
all honorable means in our power to prevent ratting by either
employers or those employed.
Resolved, That any printer belonging to this society accepting a
situation and working for less than these rates shall be treated by us as
a dishonorable man, and we hold it our privilege to publish him to the
world as a rat.
Resolved, That as members o f the craft known as the “ art preserva
tive o f all arts ” we will protect each other in the same, and do all in
our power to hinder any innovation among us.
Resolved, That the proceedings o f this meeting be presented to the
publishers o f the different papers in Oregon and Washington Terri
tories for publication.
On motion, a committee o f five was appointed to draft a consti
tution and by-laws.
The following persons were chosen by the chairman: W. B. Affleck,
E. M. Waite, Ed M. Cowne, H. S. Stipp, and J. R. Thoman.
On motion, the following corresponding secretaries were appointed:
W. B. Affleck, Portland; Ed M. Waite, Salem, Oregon Territory,
and T. F. McElroy, Olympia, Washington Territory.
On motion the meeting adjourned to meet on Sunday, June 18, at
8 o’clock p. m.
T. F. M cE lroy, Chairman.
E. M. W aite, Secretary.
To summarize, we find documentary evidence that New York City
had an organization, probably temporary, in 1786; another formed in
1795 and existing until late in 1797; a third existing from 1799 to
1804; another organized in 1809 and existing as a trade organiza
tion to 1818, and as a mutual benefit society still in existence. Again,
in 1831 a trade organization formed principally by newspaper com
positors, and existing until about 1840, the exact date of its dissolu
tion not being known. Again, in 1844 an organization which seems
to have continued only from April to the last o f December o f that
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OP PRINTERS.
941
year, and, lastly, the present union, which was organized in January,
1850. In Philadelphia the printers organized in 1802, continuing
as a trade organization with benefit features until 1831, when it was
reorganized as a purely benefit society and as such still exists;
another association, organized in 1833, lasted until 1839 or 1840, and
in 1850 the present union was organized.
In Boston the evidence o f an organization in 1803 is not quite con
clusive; one organized in 1809 lasted until 1826 (that o f 1822 being
a nontrade-regulating society); another in 1838, the date of the dis
solution o f which was not ascertained, and the present union, formed
in 1848.
Baltimore in 1814 organized a society which existed until 1826,
the present union having been organized in 1831.
Washington organized in 1815 the society which still exists as
Union No. 101, and is the oldest existing union o f printers, if not
the oldest union in any trade, in the United States. Albany, N. Y.,
had an organization from 1815 to 1827, another in 1847. New
Orleans, one in 1830, which must have collapsed in a short time, as
another was organized in 1835, existing until about 1845. The present
union was formed in 1852.
Cincinnati organized in 1832 a society which appears to have
lasted until about 1840. The present union was organized in 1846,
though not, o f course, under its present charter, as all charters were
dated by the National Union and then reissued and dated by the
reorganized international, which was not done until 1869. Richmond,
Va., and Charleston, S. C., appear in 1834. Louisville, Ky., had an
organization in 1834; another in 1839, which seems to have sur
vived until 1847. In 1835 is found the first mention of or reports
from organizations in Natchez, Miss., and Nashville, Tenn.
In
1836 the first record is made o f organizations in Harrisburg, Pa.,
Mobile, Ala., and Augusta, Ga. The Columbia, S. C., society was
also organized in 1836, the society existing until about 1842. An
organization was formed in Lexington, Ky., in 1837. St. Louis had
an organization in 1838, which appears to have been in existence some
time when first heard from through a circular letter issued by it
protesting against a continuous rat list. In 1839 first mention is
noted o f organizations in Frankfort, K y.; Rochester, N. Y .; Talla
hassee, F la .; Columbus, Ohio; Detroit, Mich., and Vicksburg, Miss.
Organizations were formed in Jackson, Miss., in 1840; Pittsburg,
Pa., in i849; San Francisco, Cal., in 1849 or 1850; Savannah, Ga.,
Syracuse, N. Y., and Trenton, N. J., in 1850. The organization in
Oregon and Washington Territories o f what appears to have been
a delegate union occurred in 1853. Lastly, two national organiza
tions were organized, that of 1836 and that of 1850, which reorgan
ized in 1852 as the present national body o f printers.
942
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
APPENDIX A, NO. 1.—FIRST CONSTITUTION OF THE PHILADEL
PHIA TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ADOPTED NOVEMBER 0, 1802.
P r e a m b l e .— The formation o f institutions for the mutual benefit and assist
ance of one another having been found by experience to be attended with much
good, when conducted with regularity, and supported with energy*; and it being
wise and expedient to provide in the day o f prosperity for the exigencies o f
adversity; we, the subscribers, with these ends in view, and a desire to consoli
date the present good understanding and harmony which now happily subsists
among the brethren of our profession— have naturally considered, adopted, and
declared ourselves bound to each other, by the following articles:
A r t i c l e 1. The society shall be called, and known by the name of the “ Phila
delphia Typographical Society.”
A rt. 2. The concerns o f the society shall be governed by a board to consist o f
a president, vice-president, 12 directors, a treasurer, and secretary, the form er
o f whom, to be elected by ballot, and to hold their respective offices as fo llo w s :
A r t . 3. The president shall be elected in general meeting, on the first Satur
day in the month of November in every year, by a majority of the members
present, and shall hold his office during the term o f one year.
A r t . 4. The vice-president shall be elected on the first Saturday in the months
o f November, March and July, in every year, by a majority o f the directors
present, and be chosen from among their own body, and shall hold his office dur
ing the term o f four months.
A rt. 5. The directors shall be elected by ballot, the first monthly meeting after
the adoption o f this constitution; and immediately after their election and in
stallation, shall divide themselves into four classes and the members o f the first
class shall hold their office during the term o f one month—the members o f the
second class during the term o f two months, the members o f the third class,
during the term of three months, and the members o f the fourth class, during
the term o f four months, so that at every monthly meeting there may be an
election for three directors and in case of the death, resignation, or disability
o f any director or directors, then the president for the time being, shall give
notice thereof, and at the first monthly meeting thereafter, another person shall
be elected to fill the vacancy occasioned by such death, resignation, or disability,
aforesaid.
A r t . 6. The treasurer shall hold his office during the term of one year, and be
elected as follow s: On the first Saturday in November in every year in general
meeting, or on the first Saturday thereafter, three candidates for this office shall
be elected by ballot, and on the first meeting o f the board, thereafter, one o f the
three persons as aforesaid, elected shall be appointed, by a majority o f voices of
the directors (except the president, vice-president, and secretary, who shall not
be permitted to vote upon this occasion) as treasurer o f the society, and the
directors who shall vote for him, must become sureties for the faithful execution
o f the duties o f his office in the manner, hereinafter mentioned.
A rt . 7. The secretary shall be appointed by the president, by, and w ith the
advice and concurrence o f the board, and hold his office during their pleasure.
A r t . 8. All acts o f the board o f directors, shall be in the name of the Typo
graphical Society of Philadelphia, and signed by the president for the time
being, attested by the secretary.
DUTIES OF OFFICERS.
A r t . 9. It shall be the duty of the president, to preside at all general and
special meetings of the society and board of directors, to keep order therein,
and generally to do such things, as to his office may of right appertain and
belong.
A r t . 10. In the absence o f the president, or, in case of disability, death, or,
resignation, the vice-president shall preside, until the removal of such or until
another person to fill the vacancy shall be elected, and perform the like services
as the president—and in case of the absence, disability, death, or resignation of
the president, and vice-president, then the board of directors shall appoint a
president pro tempore.
A rt. 11. The directors shall have power to pass by-laws for the government
o f themselves, and of the general meetings, resolutions and acts not derogatory
to the true intent and meaning of the constitution, and generally to transact all
and every such business for the good and well-being o f the society, and is not in
this constitution determined to be done in general meeting.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
943
A r t . 12. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to receive all dues, fines and for
feitures, collected by the secretary for the use o f the society— and receipt to the
secretary therefor— to keep exact and true accounts o f all moneys received— and
of his expenditures, and to make no disbursements, unless authorized to do so by
a majority o f the directors who voted the appropriation, expressed in their own
proper handwriting on the warrant directed to him for that purpose— and shall,
also, when thereto required, by a majority of the board, or o f the society in gen
eral meeting, make out, and present a just and true account of his receipts and
expenditures, and the amount of cash in his hand— and on his disability, resigna
tion, or expiration o f his term o f service, deliver over to his successor, in the
presence of the board, or three o f their members, all the money and accounts in
his possession, belonging to the society, under pain of forfeiting his and the
directors’ security, aforesaid. And in case o f the death o f the treasurer, then
the receipts and accounts o f the secretary shall be sufficient vouchers against his
heirs, executors, or administrators. And on the death, resignation, or, disability
of the treasurer, the vacancy occasioned in said office thereby, shall be filled as
directed in the sixth article.
A rt . 13. The secretary shall give regular attendance to all special, general,
and stated meetings o f the society and board o f directors, shall keep an exact
and plain minute o f their proceedings, collect all dues, fines, and forfeitures o f
the m em bers; which, he shall immediately deliver to the treasurer, and take his
receipt therefor, in a book to be provided for the purpose, and generally do all
and every such things, when thereto required by the board ; or, the society in
general meetings, as to them shall seem proper. F or all such services, if
punctually perform ed, he shall receive at the rate o f $1 per month, at the dis
cretion o f the board.
INSTALLATION OF OFFICERS.
A r t . 14. Immediately after their election the respective officers, shall be
entitled to take their seats, on subscribing to the following declaration: I ----------------- do solemnly declare, that I will to the best o f my ability, execute the
office of -------- - and that I will not divulge any o f the proceedings o f my
brethren, required by them to be kept secret, and that I will to the utmost of
my power, procure employment, for any member or members o f this society, in
preference to any other, when occasion requires.
ADMISSION OF MEMBERS.
A rt. 15. No person shall be eligible to become a member o f this society, who
shall not have served an apprenticeship satisfactory to the board o f directors,
to whom he shall make application in person, and they shall thereupon proceed
to the election by ballot, and i f the candidate shall obtain a m ajority o f twothirds o f the board present, he shall then be declared a member o f this society,
and receive a certificate thereof.
DUES, FINES, AND FORFEITURES.
A rt . 16. Every person on subscribing to the constitution, shall pay into the
hands of the secretary, to be by him delivered over to the treasurer, the sum of
$1, which may thereafter be increased to any sum not exceeding $5; and in
addition thereto the sum o f 25 cents per month until he shall have been ten
years a member o f the society, or be rendered incapable, by sickness or other
wise, in the opinion o f the board, to pay such an installment, and if any member
shall neglect, or refuse to make his monthly payment, for three successive
months, he shall not be entitled to vote at any election; to hold any office in the
society, or, to receive any benefits therefrom, until such payments shall be made.
All fines and forfeitures, levied by the board o f directors, in virtue of this con
stitution, shall be paid into the treasury for the benefit o f the society, and if
any person shall neglect, or, refuse to pay such fine or forfeiture, three months
after the same shall have become due, the board shall thereupon issue a notice
to the judges o f elections forbidding them to receive the votes of such delin
quents, or, to make returns o f any vote which may be given for him to fill any
office in the society, and in case such fine or forfeiture shall be incurred by the
secretary, he shall be liable to expulsion; two-thirds o f the directors present,
concurring in a vote for that purpose.
276— No. 61— 06 M-------15
944
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
JUDGES OF ELECTIONS.
A rt. 17. It shall be the duty o f the society in general meeting, or, in case o f
their neglect, then the president for the time being; to appoint three fit and
qualified persons, to preside, at any election to be held in general meeting for
officers of the society, and the said judges shall make out an exact and true
return, certified under their hands, of the number o f votes given for every
person voted for, and deliver such returns to the president, who, shall thereupon
declare the person or persons having the greatest number o f votes, to be elected,
and, in case of a tie, between any two or more candidates, the board shall
declare, which of them is to exercise and hold the office.
QUALIFICATION OF VOTERS.
A * t . 18. No person shall be entitled to vote, without he shall have received a
certificate of membership; nor then if he shall be three months in arrears in
his monthly payments; or, a notice has been issued to the judges of election
against him, as mentioned in the sixteenth article.
ALIMONY.
A r t . 19. When the funds o f the society shall have amounted to $100, the
board o f directors may award, such sums to sickly and distressed members,
their widows and children, as to them may seem meet and proper; provided,
that such sum shall not exceed $3 per week. And in every case, where a mem
ber may be thrown out o f employ, by reason o f his refusing to take less than the
established prices, they shall advance if required, on his own security, in their
discretion; such sum, per week, as will be sufficient to defray his ordinary expen
ses, and if such member, by sickness, or otherwise, should be rendered unable to
refund the amount, or part of the sum so advanced, the board may levy a tax
upon every other member of the society; which shall be sufficient, or, in part
sufficient, to defray the amount advanced as aforesaid. And further, no person
shall receive the benefits arising from this article, until he shall have been six
months a member of the society; unless he is a stranger, and in absolute dis
tress. And furthermore, that the sum o f $10 be allowed, from the funds o f the
society, to the widow or nearest relative o f any deceased member for the purpose
o f defraying funeral expenses.
TREASURER’S SECURITY.
A r t . 20. Before the treasurer enters on the duties o f his office; he shall give
obligation to the president, vice-president and secretary, for the time being;
thereby promising to refund the amount of any moneys, which may be in his
hands, belonging to the society, on his death, resignation, or removal from office,
which obligation, shall be signed by, and equally obligatory on those directors,
who by their votes, may have selected him for the office.
BADGE.
A r t . 21. The badge o f the society, when such a distinction shall be necessary,
shall be a silver rule, to be procured at the expense of each member, of such
size and dimensions as the board may direct, and on one side shall be engraved
the member’s name and on the other side a press— and as soon as the distinction
shall be established, a gold rule shall be provided for the president, and belong
to him, to his successors, who may hereafter fill the office.
GENERAL MEETINGS.
A rt. 22. A general meeting of the society, shall be held the first Saturday in
every month, for the purpose of electing officers, hearing the reports o f the
board of directors, and making monthly payments.
SPECIAL MEETINGS.
A rt. 23. A special meeting o f the society, shall be held, whenever the board of
directors shall think necessary, or, in case o f the failure o f their stated meet
ings, the president for the time being, shall think proper.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
945
REVISION OF THE CONSTITUTION.
A r t . 24. No alteration, or amendment shall be made to this constitution, unless
two-thirds of the society present, shall concur therein:
Adopted November 6, 1802.
J o h n C h il d s ,
A l e x . S cott,
W m . LrrTLE,
S. S e w a l l ,
G eorge W h i t e ,
C o m m ittee .
APPENDIX A, NO. 2.—ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION OF 1815, COLUM
BIA TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. C.
P r e a m b l e .— Whereas, experience having proven that the association of indi
viduals, and the formation o f societies, for the express purposes o f benevolence,
have seldom, if ever, failed to meet the sanction of both God and man, we, there
fore, with these ends in view, and by this incontrovertible truth strongly
impressed, with the hope, that our endeavors will, in like manner, merit the
commendation of all good men, and draw down upon all our undertakings the be
nign influence of our Creator, to unite, and form ourselves, as one body, for the
mutual benefit of each, binding ourselves one to the other in manner follow ing:
TITLE.
A r t ic l e I. The society shall be called and known by the name of “ The
Columbia Typographical Society.”
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY.
A r t . II. The concerns o f the society shall be managed and conducted by a
president, vice-president, treasurer, secretary, who shall be elected by ballot, and
shall hold their respective offices for and during the term of one y ea r; from and
after the first Saturday o f January next.
A rt. III. In case of the death, resignation, or disability o f any officer, the
president, or in his absence the vice-president for the time being, shall give
notice thereof, and at the first monthly meeting thereafter, another election
fehall be held to fill the said vacancy, occasioned by such death, resignation or
disability as aforesaid. And in all cases where the election of officers does not
taka place on the day specified in this constitution, it shall be equally binding
if it takes place at the next meeting of the society thereafter; and the persons
so elected as aforesaid, shall hold the said office until the first Saturday of
January next ensuing.
A r t . IV. All acts of the society shall be in the name of “ the president, on
behalf of the Columbia Typographical Society,” and shall be signed by the presi
dent, for the time being, attested by the secretary.
DUTIES OF OFFICERS.
A r t . V. It shall be the duty o f the president to preside at all stated and spe
cial meetings of the society, and to keep [order] therein, and generally to do
such things as to his office may of right belong—
A r t . VI. In the absence o f the president, or in case o f his disability, death, or
resignation, the vice-president shall preside,, until the removal of such dis
ability or another person shall be elected to fill such vacancy; and in case o f the
absence, disability, death, or resignation o f both the president and vice-presi
dent, then the members present shall proceed to appoint, by ballot, a president,
pro tempore.
A r t . VII. The secretary shall give regular attendance at all special and
stated meetings of the society; shall give an exact and plain minute of their*
proceedings; collect all dues, fines, and forfeitures o f the members, which he
shall immediately deliver to the treasurer, and take his receipt therefor, in a
book to be kept for that purpose, and generally to do all and every such thing,
when thereto required by the society, as to them shall seem proper—
A r t . V III. It shall be the duty o f the treasurer to receive all dues, fines, and
forfeitures collected by the secretary for the use o f the society, and give a
9 46
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
receipt to the secretary therefor; to keep exact and true accounts o f all moneys
so received, and of his expenditures; and he shall make no disbursements
unless authorized so to do by a majority o f the society; and shall also, when
thereto required by a majority o f the society, make out and present a true and
just account of his receipts and expenditures, and the amount o f cash in his
hands; and on his disability, resignation, or expiration o f his term of service,
deliver over to his successor, in presence o f the society, all the moneys and
accounts in his possession, belonging to the society, under pain o f forfeiting the
penalty of his bond. And in case o f the death o f the treasurer, then the
receipts and accounts o f the secretary shall be sufficient vouchers.
TREASURER’S SECURITY.
A bt. IX. Before the treasurer shall enter upon the duties o f his office, he shall
give bond to “ the president in the name of the ‘ Columbia Typographical
Society,’ ” with such security as shall be approved by the society, thereby
promising that the amount of the moneys which may be.in his hands, belonging
to the society, shall be refunded on his death, resignation, or removal from office;
and in all cases where the person elected to fill the office of treasurer, shall
refuse or neglect to give bond, with such security as aforesaid, the treasurer, for
the time being, shall hold the office until another person is chosen, who will com
ply with the terms of this article.
A rt. X. The society shall make all necessary by-laws, and rules for their
government, in addition to this constitution: P ro vid ed , That nothing therein
contained shall be construed in any way to contravene the provisions of the
same.
ADMISSION OF MEMBERS.
A r t . X I. No person shall be eligible to become a member o f this society, who
is not, at the time o f his application, a resident o f the District o f Columbia, and
who shall not have served an apprenticeship satisfactory to the society; to a
member o f which he shall make application in person, which application must
lay over for consideration to the next stated meeting of the society, when they
shall proceed, by ballot, thereupon; and if the candidate shall have a majority
of two-thirds o f the members present, he shall then be declared a member of the
society, and receive a certificate thereof.
EXPULSION OF MEMBERS.
A rt . X I I . W h en ever such satisfactory evidence o f the im m oral or improper
conduct o f any mem ber o f this society shall be exhibited to the society, by a
m em ber thereof, as m a y induce them to consider such person unfit to be con
tinued a m em ber, they shall expel such person as aforesaid, tw o-thirds o f the
m em bers present concurring in a vote fo r th a t purpose.
DUES, FINES, AND FORFEITURES.
A r t . X III. Every person subscribing to this constitution shall pay into the
hands of the secretary the sum o f $2 each; and a monthly contribution of 25
cents, unless he shall have been ten years a member o f the society, or rendered
incapable by sickness or otherwise, in the opinion o f the society, to pay the
same. And if any member shall neglect or refuse to make his monthly pay
ments for three successive months, he shall not be entitled to vote upon -any
question, or at any election, to hold any office in the society, or to receive any
benefit therefrom, until such payment shall be m ade; and if any member shall
be nine months in arrears, for monthly dues, fines, or forfeitures, notice thereof
shall be given him by the secretary o f such arrearages, and if he neglects or
refuses to pay the same, within three months thereafter, he shall thereupon
be expelled: P ro vid ed a lw a ys , That this article shall in no manner affect
persons actually sick or absent from the District.
All fines and forfeitures levied by the society, by virtue of this constitution,
shall be paid into the treasury for the benefit o f the society. And if any
person shall neglect or refuse to* pay such fine or forfeiture three months after
the same shall have become due, the secretary shall inform the president, who
shall thereupon declare the fact to the society, and refuse receiving his vote
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
947
until the same shall have been paid, and shall, therefore, make no return, (if
he shall have been voted for, for any office,) o f such votes. And in case such
fine, or forfeiture, shall be incurred by either of the officers, they shall be liable
to be expelled two-thirds o f the society concurring in a vote for that purpose.
ALIMONY.
A rt. XIY. The society may award such sums to sickly or distressed members,
their widows and children, as to them may seem meet and p rop er: P rovid ed ,
That such sums shall not exceed $3 per week. And no person shall receive
the benefit arising from this article until he shall have been three months a
member o f this society, unless he is a stranger and in absolute distress.
A n d fu rth er , That the sum o f $15 be allowed, from the funds o f this society,
to the widow or nearest relative of any deceased member, for the purpose of
defraying funeral expenses, etc.
BADGE.
A rt. XV. Every member of this society shall furnish himself with a silver
rule, o f such size and dimensions as may be established by the society; on one
[side] shall be engraved the member’s name, and on the other a press; and a
golden rule shall be provided for the president, for the use o f him and his suc
cessors in office, on one side of which shall be engraved “ President o f the Colum
bia Typographical Society,” and on the other side a press, over which shall be
an appropriate motto to be hereafter designated and expressed verbatim by the
society.
At all processions o f the society the members shall wear their badge sus
pended by a blue ribbon from the second buttonhole o f the coat.
STATED MEETINGS.
A rt. XVI. A stated meeting o f the society shall be held the first Saturday of
every month.
SPECIAL MEETINGS.
A rt. X V II. Special meetings o f the society shall be called whenever any five
members shall request the president to call the sa m e; and the president shall
thereupon direct the secretary to n otify the members accordingly.
CERTIFICATE OF MEMBERSHIP.
A rt. X V III. As soon as practicable after signing this constitution the presi
dent shall furnish each member with a printed certificate o f membership, in the
following words, signed by him and attested by the secretary:
B e it k n o w n , That A. B. having complied with all the provisions of our
constitution, is hereby declared a member o f “ The Columbia Typographical
Society.”
Given under my hand and seal this — day o f --------- A. D. 181— at the city
o f Washington, in the District o f Columbia.
-------------------- P resident .
A ttest:
-------------------- S ecreta ry .
BY-LAWS.
A rticle I. Any member, duly elected to an office, or appointed on a committee,
who shall refuse to serve therein, shall pay the sum of 25 cents; unless an excuse
be given and accepted.
A rt. II. No resignation *of office or membership shall be accepted without
notice in writing being given thereof, and all dues, fines, and forfeitures, if any,
being first paid.
A rt. III. Any member who shall leave the room, during the session o f the
society, without leave from the presiding officer; or who shall otherwise trans
gress the principles o f decorum, dr violate the usages and rules o f order, in the
opinion of the chair, or, on appeal, in the decision o f a m ajority; or who shall
appear at any meeting in a state o f intoxication; or who shall introduce into
the society’s room, or cause to be introduced, previous to adjournment, any drink
9 48
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
other than water; or who shall in any wise interrupt the business or harmony
of such meeting; shall be fined, at the discretion of a majority present, in any
sum not exceeding $5, or dealt with in any manner such majority may think
proper.
RULES OF ORDER.
1. The president, or in his absence, the presiding officer, shall decide all ques
tions of order; subject, however, to an appeal to the decision o f a majority of
members present; but any one member may call another to order, subject in like
manner to the decision o f the chair, or to an appeal.
2. All committees shall be appointed by the presiding officer.
3. No debates shall take place on any subject or motion, which is not reduced
to writing.
4. All unfinished business shall be first in order, unless otherwise directed
by a majority of votes; the standing order shall then be the proposing of new
members, and reports o f committees.
5. Any member of the majority may move for the reconsideration of a subject
on the same or at the first stated meeting thereafter, on which the said subject
has been determined, but not afterwards.
6. When two or more members rise to speak at once, the presiding officer shall
name the one to speak first.
7. No member shall speak more than twice on one subject, unless to explain,
with permission from the chair, in which case he is to confine himself strictly to
such explanation.
8. No person shall be permitted to enter or remain in the society's room
during its session except regular members.
9. If any petition or subject in writing be offered for consideration, a com
mittee shall (if deemed necessary) be appointed to consider it and make report
thereon.
10. A motion for adjournment, or an order for a subject to lie on the table,
shall always be in order, and be decided without debate.
11. The president, vice-president, treasurer, and secretary shall not be liable
to serve on any committee.
12. All resolutions, in waiting, shall be read first by the person offering the
same, then to be handed to the secretary, and, by him, read again; when the
question for consideration shall be put by the chair, and if agreed to consider it,
it shall then be open for discussion and read a third time before its final passage.
13. The president shall not vote on any question unless there be an equality
of votes on the same, in which case he shall have the casting vote.
14. The president may give his opinion on any question under debate, if
requested; but not otherwise.
15. The presiding officer shall, during the hours o f business, have his head
uncovered.
16. In debate, each member rising to speak, shall address “ Mr. President,”
with his head uncovered, and shall remain so until he resumes his seat.
17. Any rule or by-law, in case o f necessity, may be suspended, for the time
being, by the concurrence of two-thirds o f the members present.
18. No member shall serve on two committees at the same time.
APPENDIX A, No. 3.—SECOND CONSTITUTION OF THE COLUMBIA
TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1818.
P reamble .— Whereas, the formation of societies, for the better securing and
more effectually maintaining the privileges and prerogatives o f any well-disposed
class o f men is consonant with, and sanctioned by, every principle o f justice
and equity: And,
Whereas, the association o f individuals, for the purposes o f benevolence, is,
we have a right to believe, approved by the Deity, while, it meets with the
wishes o f every liberal-minded member of the community— we, therefore,
actuated by these motives, do unite ourselves as one body, for the mutual benefit
of each, binding ourselves, one to the other in form and manner follow ing:
A rticle I, S ection 1. The society shall be known and called by the name of
the “ Columbia Typographical Society.”
A rt. II, Section 1. The concerns o f the society shall be managed and con
ducted by a president, vice-president, treasurer, and secretary, who shall be
chosen annually— at the first stated meeting o f the society, in the month o f
January, each succeeding year.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OE PRINTERS,
949
A rt. I l l, Section 1. All acts o f the society shall be in the name of the presi
dent, on behalf of the “ Columbia Typographical Society,” and shall he signed
by the president for the time being, attested by the secretary.
A rt. IY, Section 1. It shall be the duty of the president to preside at all
stated and special meetings of the society, and to keep order therein, and
generally, to do such things as to his office may of right belong.
A r t . Y, S e c t io n 1. In the absence of the president, or in case o f his disabil
ity, death, or resignation, the vice-president shall preside, until the removal o f
such disability, or another person shall be elected to fill such vacancy; and, in
case o f the absence, disability, death, or resignation, o f both the president and
vice-president, then the members present shall proceed to appoint a president
pro tern.
A rt. YI, Section 1. In case o f the death, resignation, or disability of the vicepresident, secretary, or treasurer, the presiding officer shall give notice thereof;
and, an election to fill the vacancy thus occasioned shall be held at the first
monthly meeting after such notice shall have been made known. And, in all
cases where an election to fill such vacancy does not take place at the time above
specified, it shall be equally binding if it takes place at the next meeting there
after ; and the person then elected shall hold his office till the expiration o f the
term to which his predecessor was appointed.
A rt. YII, Section 1. The secretary shall regularly attend at all stated and
special meetings of the society; shall keep exact and plain minutes of their pro
ceedings ; collect all dues, fines and forfeitures of the members; and, generally,
do and transact all and every such business, as the society may deem meet and
proper.
Sec. 2. All moneys collected by the secretary by virtue of this article, shall be
immediately delivered over to the treasurer; (in the presence o f the presiding
officer,) and his receipt taken therefor; which shall be entered in a book to be
kept for that purpose. In the absence of the treasurer, he shall receipt for all
such moneys to the presiding officer.
A rt. VIII. Section 1. The treasurer, before entering upon the duties of his
office, shall give bond to the president in the name o f the Columbia Typograph
ical Society, with such security as may be approved by the society, thereby promis
ing that the amount o f the moneys which may be in his hands, belonging to the
society, shall be refunded on his death, resignation, or removal from office, and,
in all cases where the person elected to fill the office o f treasurer, shall refuse or
neglect to give bond, with security, as aforesaid, the treasurer, for the time being,
shall hold the office, until another person is chosen who will comply with the
aforegoing terms.
Sec. 2. It shall be the duty o f the treasurer to receive all dues, fines and for
feitures, collected by the secretary, for the use o f the society, and to give a
receipt therefor; to keep exact and true accounts o f all moneys so received, and
o f his expenditures; and he shall make no disbursements unless authorized so to
do by a majority of the society, under a warrant of the president. And, on his
disability, resignation, or the expiration of his term o f service, he shall deliver
over to his successor, in the presence o f the society, all the moneys and accounts
in his possession, belonging to the society, under pain o f forfeiting the penalty of
his bond. In case o f the death of the treasurer, then the receipts and accounts
of the secretary shall be sufficient vouchers.
Sec. 3. A committee shall be appointed at every stated meeting o f the society
in the month of December, to audit the treasurer’s accounts, and make report of
the state thereof to the society: P ro vid ed , That the society may at any time,
when, in the opinion o f a majority o f the members, it shall be expedient, cause
the treasurer to make out and present a true and just account of his receipts
and expenditures, and o f the amount of cash in his hands.
A rt. IX. Section 1. Any person desirous of joining this society, shall make
application to a member thereof; whose duty it shall be to make known such
application to the society, with the applicant’s pretensions to membership;
which shall lie on the table one month.
Sec. 2. Such applicant being introduced at the next stated meeting o f the
society, the presiding officer shall put to him such interrogatories, as, in his
opinion, may be meet and proper; and, if he has served an apprenticeship to
the satisfaction o f the society, and the investigation be otherwise favorable,
the meeting shall then proceed to ballot fo r such candidate; and a m ajority
o f the members present agreeing to his admission he shall be declared duly
elected a member o f the society.
A rt. X . S ection 1; Every person, on subscribing to this constitution, shall
assent to the follow in g declaration, which shall be administered b y the pre-
950
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
siding officer: Y o u ---------------------, do solemnly pledge your word that you will
conform to, and support, the constitution and by-laws laid down for the gov
ernment o f :his society; that you will, at all times, procure employment for a
member o f this society, in preference to any other person and that you will not
divulge their proceedings required to be kept secret.
Sec. 2. B efore the president, vice-president, secretary or treasurer, enter on
their duties, they shall assent to the following declaration: Y o u -------------------- ,
do pledge your honor, that you will to the best of your ability, discharge the
duties devol ring on you a s --------- o f this society.
A r t . X I. Se c t io n 1. Every person, on subscribing to this constitution shall
pay into the- hands o f the secretary the sum o f $2 each; and a monthly con
tribution o f 25 cents each shall be assessed and required o f every member o f
this society, until he shall have been ten years a member, or except he be ren
dered incap ible, from sickness, or some other cause, in the opinion o f the
society to pay the same; or unless hereinafter otherwise provided. And, if
any member shall neglect to make his monthly payments for three successive
months, or shall at any time, when requested, refuse to pay the same, he shall
not be entit ed to vote upon any question, or at any election; to hold an office
in the society, or to receive benefit therefrom, until such payments shall be made.
S e c . 2. All fines and forfeitures, levied by this society, by virtue o f this con
stitution, shall be paid into the treasury, for the benefit of the society. And
if any person shall neglect or refuse to pay such fine or forfeiture, three
months after the same shall have become due, the secretary shall inform the
president, who shall thereupon declare the fact to the society, and refuse
receiving his vote, upon any question, until the same shall have been paid;
and shall, likewise, make no return (if he shall have been voted for to any
office) of such votes. And in case such fine or forfeiture shall be incurred by
either o f the officers; they shall be liable to be expelled; two-thirds o f the society
concurring in a vote for that purpose.
Sec. 3. Should any member be nine months in arrears, for monthly dues,
fines, or forfeitures, notice thereof shall be given him by the secretary, of such
arrearages; and if he neglects or refuses to pay the same, within three
months thereafter, he shall, thereupon, be expelled: P ro v id ed , a lw a ys , That such
part o f this article as relates to expulsion, shall, in no manner, affect persons
actually sick or absent from the District.
A r t . X II. S e c t io n 1.. Any member o f this society, who shall hereafter leave
the District shall provide himself with a certificate of honorable membership;
under hand o f the president, attested by the secretary; and shall, (if he join a
similar association during his absence) on his return, be exonerated from
paying all and every due, fine or forfeiture, which might otherwise have been
incurred; and shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities which he
would have been; had he not left the society as aforesaid; provided, he, on his
return, proc.uce a certificate o f uniform correct conduct from the president of
an association, as aforesaid, while a member thereof.
Sec. 2. But should a member leave the District in any other manner than as
before specified, and, on his return, wish again to join the association, he shall
be charged svith his monthly dues, for and during the time he has been absent,
unless, in the opinion of a majority o f the members of this society, after an in
vestigation by a committee appointed for that purpose, he be considered unable
to pay the sam e: P ro vid ed , That in this last instance, he pay the amount o f the
initiation fee required by the preceding article o f this constitution: A n d , pro
vid ed , fu rth er, That this article shall in no manner affect such persons as have
been ten years a member of this society; or, having obtained a certificate from
this association, as above prescribed, may have resided where a similar society
did not exist.
A r t . X III. S e c t io n 1. Such members as are charged with having forfeited
their seats from a violation o f the constitution, by-laws or regulations o f this
society shall have one month’s notice given them o f such charge by the presi
dent, to enable them to make their defense; which not being made at the next
monthly meeting o f the society, or, being made and not deemed satisfactory, the
society shall expel any such person, two-thirds o f the members present concur
ring in a vote for that purpose.
A r t . X IY. S e c t io n 1. The society may award such sums to sickly or distressed
members, their widows or children, upon representation being made by two or
more members, o f the necessity therefor, as, in their opinion, may be meet and
proper: P rovid ed , That such sums shall not exceed $5 per w eek; and no person
shall receive the benefit arising from this article, until he shall have been three
months a member o f this society, un!ess he is in absolute distress.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
951
Sec. 2. A n d fu rth er , That the sum of $20 be allowed, from the funds o f the
society, to the widow or nearest relative, o f any deceased member: P ro vid ed ,
It shall appear upon proper investigation, they shall stand in need thereof; for
the purpose o f defraying funeral expenses, etc.
A rt . X Y . Section 1. A quorum o f the society shall consist o f eight members,
at all stated or special m eetings; but, no money belonging to the society shall
be appropriated unless sanctioned by six o f said eight members, if there shall
not be more than eight presen t : P ro vid ed , h o w ever , That i f there shall be more
than eight present, a m ajority o f two-thirds thereof, shall be necessary to make
an appropriation.
A rt . X Y I. S e c t io n 1. A stated meeting o f the society shall be held on the first
Saturday o f every month.
A r t . X VII. S e c t io n 1. Special meetings o f the society shall be called whenever
any five members shall request the president to call the same; and the president
shall thereupon direct the secretary to notify the members accordingly.
A r t . X V III. S e c t io n 1. Additional to this constitution, the society shall make
all necessary by-laws and rules for its better government: P ro v id ed , That the
provisions o f this constitution be not affected thereby.
A rt. X I X . S e c t io n 1. As soon as practicable after signing this constitution,
the president shall furnish each member w ith a printed certificate o f member
ship, under the society’s seal, in the follow ing words, signed by him, and attested
by the secretary :
S e p . 2. Be it known, that A. B. having complied with all the provisions o f our
constitution, is hereby declared a member o f the Columbia Typographical Society.
Given under our hand and the seal o f the society, this — day o f --------- , 181-,
at the city o f Washington, in the District of Columbia.
---------------------, P resid en t .
Attest:
S ecreta ry .
A r t . X X . S e c t io n 1. No alteration or amendment shall be made to this consti
tution, unless four-fifths o f the members present, concur therein; nor then, unless
all motions to that effect lie over for consideration one month.
W a s h i n g t o n C i t y , A pril
18 18 .
APPENDIX A, NO. 4.—OUTLINE OP CONSTITUTION OP THE BALTI
MORE TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ADOPTED JUNE 2, 1832.
The Baltimore Typographical Society (second organization with the same
name) was organized November 26, 1831. The constitution was not adopted
until June 2, 1832. It was, in outline, as follow s:
“ P r e a m b l e .— We, the subscribers, members of the Baltimore Typographical
Society, in order to form a union among ourselves, to preserve regularity and
decorum in our proceedings, to awaken and reward emulation in our brethren,
in the art and mystery of printing, to guard against those extremities of sick
ness and sorrow, to which, without any fault of our own, we are, nevertheless,
(from the infirmity of our common nature), daily and hourly subject, and to
secure, after our departure from this world, some little provision for our
widows and orphans, or others, endeared to us by the interesting ties o f blood
or affinity, do enact, declare, and establish the following as our constitution and
future rules of government.”
Article I states that “ this society shall be known and called by the name of
the Baltimore Typographical Society.”
The territorial limits of its jurisdiction are not specified, as they are in other
documents.
The usual list of officers are provided for and their duties defined, the only
difference being that this society had a preference for official committees
rather than individuals, such as a “ committee of correspondence” o f three, a
“ visiting committee ” o f five members. The powers o f the president were some
what greater than in most of these societies, and point toward subsequent de
velopments in later unions along this line. Article III o f the constitution says:
“ S e c t io n 1. It shall be the duty of the president to preside, and preserve order
and decorum at all meetings o f the society; to silence disorderly debate, govern
the transactions o f all business appertaining thereto, and give a casting vote
on any question which can not otherwise be decided; he shall have full power
to call special meetings; sign all orders on the treasurer, and perform all other
duties required by the constitution and by-laws.
952
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
“ S e c . 5. It shall be the duty o f the visiting committee to receive and act upon
all applications for relief, visit the sick members, etc., check on the treasurer
for the amount of aid, necessarily and constitutionally, to be afforded, which
shall be indorsed by the president and secretary before payment, (subject al
ways to deductions for dues, fines, and forfeitures:) with all other duties de
volving upon them as a visiting committee, and make report of their whole
proceedings at the next stated meeting.”
The secretary was “ exonerated from the payment of monthly dues, and al
lowed 50 cents for each meeting.” However, “ if the secretary shall absent him
self from a meeting of this society, without being prevented by sickness of him
self, or death in his family, he shall forfeit his monthly remuneration and an
additional sum of 25 cents; and if he does not send the books, then he shall
be amerced in a sum o f 50 cents for such omission of duty in addition to the
first-named sums.”
The initiation fee prescribed by the Baltimore society was $3, and monthly
dues 25 cents, with a forfeiture o f membership when arrearages amounted to
$1.50, unless the member was sick or absent from the city. Payment of dues
for fifteen years made one a “ free ” member. Honorary membership for life
could be secured for $5, but carried with it only the right to attend the meetings
and vote for regular officers. It does not seem to have been necessary even to
have been a printer in order to secure honorary membership. The qualifications
for membership are declared by Article V I :
‘‘ The indispensable qualifications o f all persons hereafter admitted as mem
bers o f this society are, a good moral character, industrious habits, and a practi
cal knowledge o f the art and mystery o f letterpress printing, having acquired
the same by an apprenticeship o f at least four years, during minority.
“ ADMISSION OF MEMBERS.
“A bt. VII. Any person desirous of becoming a member o f this society, may
make application through any member thereof, whose duty it shall be to make
known such application to the society, which application may, if not otherwise
determined, lie over until the next stated meeting, when the society shall, if
deemed expedient, proceed to ballot for the candidate; and if two-thirds o f the
voters present agree to his admission, he shall be declared by the presiding officer
to be duly elected.
“ S ec. 2. No proposition fo r membership shall be considered as before the
society, nor to be acted upon, until the applicant’s pretensions shall have been
stated by the member or members proposing and recommending him.
“ DECLARATION OF MEMBERS.
“ A r t . VIII. Every person to be regularly admitted a member o f this society
shall accede to the following declaration:
“ Y o u ,--------------------- , do hereby pledge your honor, that you will conform
to all the rules and regulations established by the constitution and by-laws of the
Baltimore Typographical Society; that you will, on all occasions, procure em
ployment for a member of this society in preference to any other person; that
you will encourage, as far as in your power, a friendly feeling among the
members; discountenance all vice and immorality in them ; and, as far as may
be, endeavor by your actions and counsel, to urge in the members, generally, a
spirit o f industry and fidelity— to the end, that a membership of this society, of
which you [are] becoming a member, may be the best recommendation to employ
ment, and the highest assurance for the faithful discharge of all confidence and
trust reposed in y o u ; and you also pledge yourself not to divulge any of the pro
ceedings o f your brethren in this society.”
Article X is devoted to “ trials and expulsions.” Sections 3, 4, and 5 fo llo w :
“ S ec. 3. Any attempt by a member to deprive another o f membership, or good
standing in the society, by bringing false charges against a member before the
society, w ith evidently a malicious intent, shall, on trial and conviction by the
society, be punished by a fine— in a sum o f not less than $1, nor m ore than $5—
suspension, or expulsion, as the society may determine, by a m ajority present.
“ S e c . 4. Frequent intoxication, gross immorality, needless and frequent neg
lect o f business, so that his employer is seriously injured, or the member’s
family thereby reduced to a state of suffering, shall, upon information and con
viction by the society, be punished with suspension or deprivation o f member
ship, as the offense may b e : all questions o f suspension or deprivation o f mem
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
9 53
bership shall be, without debate of propriety, in all eases, by ballot, and a ma^
jority of legal voters present necessary to decide on such questions.
“ Sec. 5. Any member guilty of an evasion o f the provisions of this constitu
tion, by-laws, or list o f prices, for the purpose of working for a less sum than
is therein determined; taking a boy to teach him presswork for less than his
services for thirteen weeks, or half his wages for twenty-six weeks, if by the
piece— or if by the week teach him for a less sum than $26, or $1 per week for
twenty-six w eeks; procure the discharge o f a member from an office upon a false
accusation, or injure the interests o f his employer by revealing the secrets of
the office, unnecessarily, shall, upon conviction, be deemed expelled by the society.
“ FORFEIT OF MEMBERSHIP.
“ A rt. X I. No member, under forfeit o f membership, shall work in an office
where a boy, not an original apprentice of that office, is employed for less than
the list o f prices demands, unless the boy, so employed, is under 17 years of age,
or shall have come from an office, the proprietor o f which shall have deceased
or declined business; nor shall any member, under the same forfeiture, work in
an office where any person or persons are employed for less than the list of
prices calls for.
“ FORM OF CERTIFICATE.
“ A rt. XIY. Any member, on leaving the city, shall, upon application, have a
certificate o f membership, bearing date at the period given, signed by the
president and attested by the secretary, (or in the case o f the death, absence
from the city, or resignation o f the president, signed by the vice-president) if it
shall appear by the books o f the society, that all arrears are paid up, and no
charges o f improper conduct are pending against him, in the manner follow ing:—
“ C i t y o f B a l t im o r e , —------- 18— .
“ This is to certify, that at a meeting of the Baltimore Typographical Society,
held of the — day o f --------- , one thousand eight hundred a n d --------- , ----------------- was regularly admitted a member of the society, and is recommended
to the typographical societies throughout the country, and to printers generally.
Given under our hand, at the city of Baltimore, in the State o f Maryland, this
— day o f --------- , one thousand eight hundred and --------- ; and in t h e ---------year of the institution o f the society.
-------- ------- — , P resid en t .
“ Attest.
------------- -------, S ecretary.
“ BENEFITS.
“ A rt. XV. Any person, after being one year a member o f this society, shall
be entitled, upon written application, to receive the sum o f $2.50 per week,
during his indisposition, whilst so much remains in the funds: P ro vid ed , His
sickness does not arise from immoral conduct; but he shall not be entitled
to any support for such affliction, unless the application be made during the time
of its continuance; and the visiting committee shall, in no case, pay any mem
ber’s claim for time elapsed, more than one week previous to application. The
visiting committee shall have a discretionary power, and may require the aid
of a physician, in all cases of doubt as to the capability of any member to
attend to his usual business.
“ Sec. 2. A t the death o f any member o f this society, (after having been one
year a m em ber) the sum o f $30 shall be allowed by the society for defraying
his funeral expenses; and, each and every member o f the society shall pay into
the hands o f the secretary, at the next stated meeting, the sum o f $1, as an
extra contribution, tow ards replenishing the funds.
“ Sec. 3. On the death o f any member o f this society who has not been twelve
months a member, the sum of $15 shall be paid toward defraying his funeral
charges: and, at the next stated meeting o f the society, an extra contribution o f
50 cents shall be paid*by each and every member, to replenish the funds.
“ Sec. 4. The society shall attend the funeral o f all deceased members.
“ FEIGNING SICKNESS.
“ A rt . XVI. Should any member feign himself sick or disabled, for the pur
pose of deriving benefits from this society, or while he is deriving benefits there
from, such member shall be expelled the society, and forfeit all rights therein.
954
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
“ RECEIVING MEMBERS FROM OTHER SOCIETIES.
“ A r t . X V III. Any person presenting a certificate o f membership from any
other typographical society to this, shall be entitled to a seat as a member, and
enjoy all the benefits o f this society, if the society from which he comes recip
rocates the same privilege.”
Article 3 of the by-laws o f the Baltimore society says:
“ A r t . 3. All members absent from a stated or adjourned stated meeting, when
the roll is called, shall be fined 6$ cents; and, if absent from the meeting during
the whole evening, to be fined 25 cents— and no exoneration from payment by
any excuse, except confinement by sickness.”
APPENDIX A, NO. 5.—OUTLINE OF CONSTITUTION OF THE NEW
YORK TYPOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION OF JUNE, 1831, AS
AMENDED IN 1833.
An outline of the constitution of the New York Typographical Association
o f June, 1831, as revised and amended in 1833, is here given. This is not
intended as an outline in the ordinary sense, for the portions of the constitu
tion having a bearing on subsequent developments are given in full. Only mat
ter that is o f a merely antiquarian interest is omitted.
The preamble of the constitution states that “ The journeymen printers o f
the city o f New York, with a view to elevate the character and advance the
interest of the profession, by maintaining a just and uniform scale o f prices
for their labor, do hereby resolve to form themselves into a society under the
name o f the Typographical Association of New York, and do enact for their
government, the following constitution and by-laws:
Section 1 o f Article I states:
“ S e c t io n 1. The jurisdiction o f this association shall embrace the city o f New
York and the villages o f Brooklyn, Jersey City, Williamsburg, and Hoboken.”
The articles defining the officers and their duties do not require special
notice, beyond the mention that the fiscal affairs and general management o f
the association were delegated to a board o f directors consisting o f 12 mem
bers, divided into four classes, the entire number o f one class to be retired and
their successors elected each month. This made a four months’ tenure of
office for each director, though he changed his class each month, and each
month three, new men came in, except that members were not deemed ineli
gible for reelection, i. e., a member going out o f office in the fourth class might
be reelected in the first class. The secretary’s salary was to be a sum “ not
exceeding $20 per annum to be regulated by the board, and be exempted from
the payment o f monthly dues.” In case he neglected to attend a meeting of
the association he was to be “ fined in a sum not exceeding 50 cents for each
delinquency, to be deducted from his yearly salary.” The janitor, or door
keeper was also exempt from monthly dues and to be awarded a salary by the
board o f directors, but within a constitutional limit o f “ $G per annum.” The
treasurer must never have to exceed “ $15 o f the funds of the association” in
his possession at one tim e: all over this to be deposited in “ the savings bank ”
subject only to the order of the board of directors.
Each officer-elect on assuming his office affirmatively subscribed to the
follow ing:
“ Do you solemnly declare that you will, to the best of your ability, execute
the office o f --------- ? That you will support the constitution o f this association,
and all by-laws founded thereon? And that you will act in this capacity for
the general benefit of the members thereof, when opportunity offers or occasion
requires? ”
No member in arrearage for dues or fines to the extent of 12$ cents or who
had not been a member six months was eligible for election to any office. The
initiation fee was $1.50, 50 cents o f which must accompany the application for
membership, the balance paid on night o f election to membership. The monthly
dues were 12$ cents, until this amounted to $20, when the party so paying was
to be considered “ a free member.”
Then, as now, the pledge o f the initiate bound him not only to demand the
scale while working as a journeyman, but to pay it should he ever become an
employing printer. Article 4, covering the subject o f membership is in full, as
follow s:
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
“ A r t ic l e
9 55
IY .— E lection and initiation o f m em bers .
“ Section 1. Applications for admission into this association must be made to
the board of directors, either personally or through any member o f this asso
ciation. The applicant must first deposit, or cause to be deposited, in the hands
o f the secretary, the sum of 50 cents, upon which the board shall take his request
into consideration; and if it shall satisfactorily appear that he is a regular
journeyman printer, of the age of 21 years, and not working for less than the
prices established by this association, the results of such inquiries shall be
reported to the next meeting.
“ Sec. 2. A person favorably reported to the association shall be balloted for,
and the votes of three-fourths o f the members present shall entitle him to
admission: when, having signed the constitution, and paid the additional sum
o f $1, he shall be entitled to a certificate o f membership.
“ Sec. 3. Candidates who do not come forward within three months after being
notified o f their election, shall forfeit their deposit money, unless a satisfactory
excuse for the delay be rendered. Should a candidate be rejected, his deposit
shall be returned.
“ Sec. 4. Newly elected members of this association shall be introduced, by
the individuals who first proposed them to the board o f directors, or such other
suitable person, or persons, as may be designated by the chair. The members
o f the association will rise on the entrance o f the candidate and remain stand
ing until he be conducted to the presiding officer, who shall address him as
follow s:
“ Sir —I have the pleasure of informing you that you have been elected a!
member o f the Typographical Association o f New York. Before your name is
added to the roll, it is my duty to ask, Do you understand the objects o f this
association? Will you, both as a journeyman and an employing printer, sup
port the constitution and scale o f prices of this association, and all by-laws
founded thereon? Will you attend all meetings o f this association, and embrace
every proper occasion to promote its reputation and enhance its prosperity?
And where your influence is desired by individuals of the profession, and their
claims as workmen are equal, always give the preference to members o f this
association?
“ As your answers are satisfactory, and trusting that you will ever bear in
mind the principles upon which this association is founded, I now tender to you
the right hand of fellowship. As an earnest o f the sincerity o f the declarations
you have just made, you will sign this constitution, which defines your rights
and duties.”
The older typographical society o f New York admitted both employers and
employees in the industry. Indeed this seems to have been the real source o f
its undoing as a labor organization and the securing o f a charter which pro
hibited it from interfering with rates of wages. The Typographical Association
provides against splitting upon this rock by section 2 of Article Y, which says:
“ Sec. 2. Any member o f this association who shall establish the printing
business on his own account, will forfeit his title to membership; but in event o f
his again becoming a journeyman, he shall be entitled to all his former rights
and privileges.”
Other important articles, covering the matter o f relief, containing the germs of
the “ strike-fund ” idea, “ out-of-work benefits,” and establishing the “ chapel,”
are the follow ing:
“ A rticle V I .— O f th e fu n d s .
“ Section 1. The funds shall not be appropriated to any other purpose than
to defray the necessary expenses of the association, and the pecuniary relief of
its members. In no case shall the allowance to members exceed $3 per week to
single men, and $4 to married men, and the board o f directors shall determine
the right o f applicants to the per week allowance specified in this section.
“ Sec. 2. Any member who may be thrown out of employment in consequence
of not obtaining a price for his labor that shall be in accordance with the scale
and having a certificate to that effect from the *father o f the chapel/ in the
office where he was last employed, shall be entitled to the weekly relief specified
in the preceding section while he shall remain unemployed; but, if it shall satis
factorily appear that he makes no effort to obtain another situation or refuses
honorable employment when offered him, and continues to draw from the treas
ury, his weekly allowance shall be immediately stopped, and his claim on the
funds be suspended for the term o f six months.
956
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR.
“ Sec. 3. No member shall be entitled to the weekly allow ance above specified,
who may be in arrears fo r fines or dues, exceeding the amount o f 50 cents.
“ Sec. 4. Any sum that may be earned by a member during the week that he
receives pecuniary relief, shall be deducted from his weekly allowance.
“ Sec. 5. W henever the amount o f moneys in the treasury shall exceed $500,
appropriations may be made for the relief o f sick members, and also for the
burial o f deceased brethren.
“ A r t ic l e
YII.— O f th e chapel.
“ S e c t io n 1. In each printing office within the jurisdiction comprised in Article
I, section 1, where journeymen connected with this association are employed,
there shall be established what is technically called a ‘ chapel,’ and an experi
enced journeyman printer chosen to preside thereat, who shall be constituted
and known in his official capacity as ‘ father of the chapel.’ To this chapel
shall be referred for settlement any difference that may arise between employer
and employed, or between journeymen; and the disagreements shall be ad
judged by the chapel, and its decision acquiesced in and supported by its
members respectively.
“ Sec. 2. When doubts arise respecting the construction, which may be given
to any article, or articles, in the scale o f prices, a chapel shall be immediately
summoned, at w hich the father shall preside, when the difficulty shall be can
vassed, and the decision o f the m ajority be binding upon all.
“ Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of the father o f the chapel to report the nature
o f the difficulty, and the decision thereon, to the president o f the board o f direct
ors, who shall, if in their opinion necessary, bring the subject before the
association.
“ Sec. 4. Every member of* the association in the office shall have a voice in
the chapel; but if the majority, in large offices, decide to delegate the trust to
chapels consisting of five, seven, or nine members, of which the father to be
always one, it shall be competent for them to do so. The father o f the chapel
to be elected by a majority and continue in office three months.
“ Sec. 5. No chapel shall be form ed in any printing office where there are
less than three members o f the association em ployed; and any difficulty orig
inating in, or any dem and fo r relief, emanating from such office, shall be laid
before the board o f directors.”
Article X on “ Impeachment and trial o f members ” provides that “ any
breach of the constitution, by-laws, or scale o f prices o f this association, shall
constitute just grounds for impeachment, admonition, fine, or expulsion o f any
o f its officers or members.” It is also provided that “ conduct calculated to
bring into contempt, or derision, the association as a body ” is punishable in like
manner. Charges must be made in writing, a copy furnished the member
against whom they are made at least one week before the date o f the meeting
at which they are to be taken up. A majority vote convicts.
Article X I “ Of the scale of prices ” says:
“ S e c t io n 1. The scale of prices for labor, appended to this constitution, shall
in all cases, be considered as a part thereof, and no member of this association
shall on any pretense whatever, work, either directly, or indirectly, for prices
less than those specified therein.”
Article X of the by-laws establishes an employment office, or out-of-work
register, with priority rights. The latter, however, would not appear to
amount to a waiting list based upon establishments and priority rights therein.
The article says:
“ A book shall be kept at the association-room for the purpose o f registering
the names o f such members as are in want o f employment, and also o f vacant
situations, and any journeyman who may have placed his name on the book
shall forfeit 6 cents for every twenty-four hours his name shall remain thereon
after he has obtained a situation.”
By-law X II requires:
“ It shall be the duty o f the members o f this association to inform strangers,
who come into the offices where they are employed, of the established prices,
and also o f the existence of the association, and o f the necessity of becoming
members.”
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
957
APPENDIX A, NO. 6.—CONSTITUTION OP THE NASHVILLE
TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1837.
P reamble .— Whereas, it is the duty o f every member o f a laudable calling,
to use his best exertions toward enhancing and dignifying said calling, by
adding to the quantum o f its virtue and intelligence— as well as for mutual pro
tection and defense, as for the purpose o f cultivating a friendly feeling and
intercourse toward each other; and
Whereas these objects are more attainable by the formation o f societies com
posed of the same class o f persons than by other means:
Therefore we, the subscribers, printers residing in the city of Nashville, desir
ous to forward the aforesaid ends, have agreed to form ourselves into a society,
and for our government adopt the following constitution:
A rticle I.— O rganization .
Section 1. This society shall be called the “ Nashville Typographical Society.”
Sec. 2. This society shall have fo r its objects the various purposes stated in
the preamble and constitution.
Sect. 3. The society shall hold its regular meetings on the first Saturday in
each month, and seven paying members shall constitute a quorum to transact
any business confided by this constitution.
A rticle II .— O f th e officers.
Section 1. The officers o f the society shall be a president, vice-president, sec
retary, treasurer, and five directors, to be elected annually at the regular meet
ing in April, by ballot.
Sec. 2. The newly elected officers shall not enter upon the duties of their
offices until the adjournment o f the meeting at which they have been elected;
and before taking their seats, shall individually or collectively, as the case may
be, make the following pledge, administered by the president.
“ You, A B, do hereby pledge yoyr honor that you will endeavor, to the best
of your ability, to discharge the various duties incumbent on you, (or each of
you, as the case may be) by the constitution and by-laws o f this society; and
that you will act impartially in all things pertaining to your duties whilst officers
of this society.”
A rticle III .— O f the president .
S e c t io n 1. The president shall preside over the deliberations o f the society,
but shall not, whilst in the chair, enter into debate, or give his opinion on any
question except such as relates to order; but may at any time leave the chair
for that purpose, and appoint a member to fill the same, P ro vid ed , He does not
speak more than twice on the same question.
Sec. 2. The president shall not vote on any question, except in case o f a tie,
when he shall have the casting v o te ; but in elections? he shall have his vote as
a member on ly .
Sec. 3. The president shall have power to nominate all committees, but the
nomination shall be confirmed by a vote o f the society.
Sec. 4. The president shall have power to inflict fines for unnecessary absence,
misbehavior, or neglect o f duty, not exceeding $1 for any single offense; but any
member may appeal to the society for a release o f fines, P ro vid ed , His appeal
have a second.
Sec. 5. The president may call special meetings when he and the board of
directors shall deem it necessary.
A rticle IV .— O f the vice-president.
Section 1. In the event o f the death, absence or disability o f the president,
the vice-president shall act as president.
Sec. 2. In the event o f the death, absence or disability of both president and
vice-president, the society shall fill the vacancy by a pro tempore appointment.
958
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
A r t ic l e V .— O f the secreta ry.
S e c t io n 1. It shall be the duty of the secretary to keep a true and legible
record of the proceedings of each meeting in a well-bound book kept for that
purpose.
S ec . 2. The secretary shall act as collector, and all moneys received by him
for the society, shall be paid over to the treasurer forthwith, taking a receipt
for the same in a book kept by him for that purpose.
S ec . 3. It shall be his duty to notify members o f the society of all special
meetings; also, newly elected members o f their election.
S e c . 4. He shall keep a box or trunk, in which all papers belonging to the
society shall be deposited by him, and safely kept under lock.
S e c . 5. In consideration of the ordinary duties o f his office, the secretary shall
be exempt from the payment o f his monthly installments.
S e c . 6. In case of the absence o f the secretary, his place shall be filled by a
pro tempore appointment, and the person so appointed shall be exempt from
the payment o f his monthly dues for the meeting he may act as secretary.
A r t ic l e
VI .— O f th e treasurer.
S e c t io n 1. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to receive all moneys col
lected by the secretary for the use of the society, and receipt to him for the
same.
Sec. 2. He shall keep a true and correct account o f all moneys received by
him, and of all expenditures.
S e c . 3. He shall make no disbursement unless by an order o f the society,
which order shall be signed by the president and countersigned by the secretary.
Sec. 4. The treasurer shall make a report of the state o f the finances to the
society at the regular meetings in July, October and January, and at the April
meeting he shall make his report in conjunction with the secretary and board
o f directors, for which purpose, they shall have free access to the books o f the
secretary and treasurer, as well as all other papers belonging to the society.
Sec. 5. The treasurer shall be required to give bond and security to the presi
dent, when the sum in the treasury shall amount to $100.
A r t ic l e
YII.— O f the directors.
Section 1. The board o f directors shall, within ten days after their election,
meet and choose one o f their' number to act as chairman, who shall also act
as secretary of the board.
Sec. 2. They shall inquire into the claims o f applicants fo r relief, and recom
mend relief to indigent printers or their families, in such cases as in their ju dg
ment they may deem p roper; and also have a general supervision o f the inter
ests and concerns o f the society.
S ec . 3. The board of directors shall act as a standing, corresponding and
publishing committee, to transact such business as the society may from time
to time direct.
•
Sec. 4. In case o f the death of a member o f the society, the board shall have
the superintendence of the funeral. They shall likewise make strict inquiry
into the circumstances of the deceased, and if they deem it necessary, shall
recommend a sum not exceeding $30, to defray the expenses o f the funeral.
S e c . 5. The board shall inform all journeymen printers on their arrival in
this city, o f the existence of this society, and furnish each individual with a
copy o f its constitution.
Sec. 6 The chairman of the board shall have power to assess a fine o f 50
cents for nonattendance at their regular monthly meetings, when a satisfactory
excuse is not given, which fine shall be reported to the secretary and charged on
his book.
Sec. 7. Any member of the board who shall neglect to attend their regular
monthly meetings for three months successively, shall be reported to the society
by the chairman of the board, and if said member can not give a satisfactory
excuse for such neglect of duty, he shall be deprived o f his office, and the
society shall go into an election to fill the vacancy.
S e c . 8. The chairman and two other directors shall have power to transact
any business intrusted to the board by this constitution. In the absence of the
chairman, a pro tempore appointment shall be made to fill the vacancy.
S e c . 9. The board shall meet regularly on the last Saturday in each month,
for the transaction of business that may be laid before them.
.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
959
Article V III .— O f the chapel.
Section 1. There shall he a chapel in each office where there are three mem
bers o f the society, (exclusive o f the foreman.)
S e c . 2. The chapel shall choose one of the members to preside who shall be
called the father o f the chapel.
S ec. 3. The chapel shall have the supervision o f all disputes betw ixt journey
men, and such other business as concerns their office alone, and w hich can not
be brought immediately before the society.
S e c . 4. Journeymen belonging to this society shall be under the regulation of
their respective chapels, and each chapel shall have power to enforce the pay
ment of all dues to the society.
Sec. 5. In case any journeyman employed in this city, should neglect or refuse
to present his name to the society for membership, it shall be the duty o f the
chapel to refuse to work with him.
S e c . 6. Any member o f the society who may be dissatisfied with the decision
o f a chapel, will have the right to an appeal to the society, P ro vid ed , Said member
is not in arrears.
S e c . 7. Any decision made by one chapel shall be considered binding on the
others, unless disapproved o f by the society.
S e c . 8. All business done by chapels shall be in private.
Ar t ic l e
IX .— Qualifications.
Section 1. No member shall be eligible to any office in this society who is in
arrears to the society, at the time o f election, the sum o f $1 or upward, or who
has not been a member at least six months.
Sec. 2. The qualifications for membership shall be a good character, indus
trious habits, and a good practical knowledge o f the art o f letterpress printing.
Sec. 3. No person shall be admitted to membership in this society who is
known to be a runaway apprentice, or has not served his apprenticeship.
S ec. 4. Any person wishing to become a member of this society, must make the
same known in writing to the chairman o f the board o f directors, whose duty it
shall be to lay the same before the board at their next monthly meeting, and if
the board shall deem the applicant worthy o f membership, the president shall
present his name to the society, and if it be found that three-fourths o f the
voting members present are in favor o f his admission, he shall be declared duly
elected.
S e c . 5. W hen any person is duly elected, he shall, before taking his seat, make
the follow in g prom ise:
“ You, C D, do hereby pledge your honor, that you will conform to all the rules
o f this society, that you will not divulge any o f the proceedings that are not
intended to be made public; that you will endeavor to cultivate a friendly feeling
among the members, so that being a member o f this society, may give the
highest assurance of the faithful discharge of all confidence and trust reposed
in you.”
A r t ic l e X.— D u es, fines , etc .
Section 1. The initiation fee shall be $2; the monthly dues 50 cents, to fall
due on the day before the regular monthly meetings.
S e c . 2. Any member being absent at roll call without a sufficient excuse shall
be fined 12£ cents, for absence the whole meeting, 50 cents, and for leaving the
room whilst the society is in session, without permission o f the president, not
less than 12£ or more than 50 cents.
S ec. 3. Any person neglecting or refusing to pay moneys due the society for
two months, shall be debarred all the privileges the society until all such dues
are paid u p ; and if not paid up within four months, he shall be expelled, and
shall not be again admitted unless he pays all dues and is elected as a new
member.
Sec. 4. The society may, at any time, raise or lower the initiation fee or
monthly installments by a vote o f three-fourths o f the voting members present,
270—No. 61—06
M ------ 16
960
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
A r t ic l e
X I.— L ife m em bership.
S e c t io n 1. Any member who shall have resided in the city for twelve years,
having paid np, regularly, all his dues and lines, shall have a right to member
ship during life, without further installments; and any member on admission,
or at any time afterwards, paying into the treasury, the sum o f $25, shall, also,
in like manner, be considered a member for life.
A r t ic l e
X II.— B en efits.
S e c t io n 1. The benefits and reliefs of this society shall be extended to its mem
bers or their families, and to all the deserving o f the profession.
A r t ic l e
X III.— Certificate o f m em bership.
S e c t io n 1. Any member applying to the president, and stating his intentions to
leave the city, or quit the business, shall be entitled to a certificate, signed by
the president and countersigned by the secretary: P ro vid ed , He is not in debt to
the society, and is not lying under any charge of misconduct before the society.
S e c . 2. On said member leaving and returning at any distant period, he shall
be received as a regular member without the payment o f installments for the
time o f his absence: P ro vid ed , He deliver his certificate to the president by the
first regular meeting after his return to the city; but if he should neglect or
refuse to comply with the above, he must be admitted in the same manner as
though he had never been a member.
A r t ic l e
X IY .— M iscellaneous.
S e c t io n 1. The anniversary of the society shall be celebrated by such suitable
arrangements as the society may think proper to make, and any member re
fusing to attend, without a reasonable excuse, shall be fined the sum o f $2,
said fine to be charged to him on the secretary’s book.
Sec. 2. Upon the death o f any member o f this society, the members shall fill
the funeral train, and w ear crape on the left arm fo r thirty days in honor o f the
deceased.
S e c . S. This society shall, as far as practicable, cooperate with the “ National
Typographical Society,” and endeavor to be represented at its annual meetings.
Sec. 4. The society may, at any time, make such rules and regulations as they
may deem expedient, relative to the wages, and their deportment tow ard w ork
men who are employed under the regular wages.
S e c . 5. No person published by the society as a “ rat,” shall be released without
the unanimous consent o f the voting members present at a regular meeting.
S e c . 6. Any attempt by one member to injure another member’s good standing,
without sufficient cause, shall be punished at the discretion o f the society. So
also shall gross immorality, frequent and needless neglect o f business to the
serious injury of the employer, or the bringing the individual’s own family to
a state of want or suffering, or any other act which is evidently wrong, and cal
culated to injure or bring a stigma on this society or its members, shall be taken
cognizance of, and every case of expulsion shall be made known to all societies
in correspondence with this.
S e c . 7. A charge of the violation o f the above section must be made in writ
ing, with the name of the person making the charge, and the secretary shall
notify the accused to appear at the next regular meeting, and should he neglect
or refuse to appear for two successive meetings, the society shall proceed to try
him, appointing a member to manage his case for him.
S e c . 8. The president shall act as judge,* and the other members, with the
exception o f the accuser or accused, shall act as jurors, and any member may be
used as a witness. The accuser shall first produce his evidence, having a right
to cross-question the witnesses. The accused shall then proceed in the same
manner in his defense. After all the evidence has been laid before the society,
the vote shall then be taken by ayes and noes— guilty or not guilty— and twothirds shall be required to convict. On conviction a majority may assess the
penalty. All may vote except the accuser and accused.
S e c . 9. Any member who shall reproach another, or any o f the family of a
deceased member, with having received the benefits of this society, shall, for
the first offense, be fined $5, and for the second, expelled.
Sec. 10. Any member o f this society, on becoming an employer, shall forfeit
his membership.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
96 1
Sec. 11. This constitution may be altered or amended in the follow ing manner.
The alteration or amendment shall be offered at one monthly meeting, and en
tered on the minutes, and shall lie on the table fo r further consideration until
the next monthly meeting, when it may be adopted by three-fourths o f the vot
ing members present.
BY-LAWS.
1. All members shall address the chair standing, and in all cases where two
or more shall rise, and a controversy or contention take place as to who shall
have the floor, the president shall decide which member shall speak first, and
the others standing shall take their seats or be subject to a fine.
2. The president shall have power to check any member addressing the chair,
on any subject, who shall wander from the subject; he shall also order any
member to take his seat who shall indulge in personalities.
3. Any member refusing to come to order when called upon to do so by the
chair, or any member behaving disorderly or indecorously, shall be fined not
less than 25 cents nor more than $1, and not permitted to take any part in the
proceedings until the same is paid.
4. No member shall be permitted to speak more than twice on the same sub
ject, without permission from the chair.
5. No motion shall be in order until the question before the house is disposed
of, except a motion to adjourn, which shall always be in order.
C. The minutes of each and every meeting of this society shall be signed by the
president and secretary.
7. Whenever a member is constitutionally debarred the privileges of the
society, he shall not be released until he makes a full settlement with the
secretary.
8. Any member proposing a dissolution of this society shall be expelled.
9. Any member who may accept an appointment to serve on a committee, and
does not attend to the duties o f that appointment, if he can not give a satis
factory excuse, shall pay a fine of 50 cents, to be charged to him on the
secretary’s book.
10. Reports o f committees and resolutions must be submitted in writing.
11. No member shall be entitled to a vote in this society, until after the pay
ment o f his initiation fee.
12. No question shall be reconsidered, except on motion of one of the majority
13. No rule or by-law o f this society .shall be suspended for any purpose.
14. No amount shall be received from any member less than the full amount of
his dues to the society.
15. The by-laws may be altered or amended at any stated meeting of the
society, by a vote of three-fourths of the voting members present
ORDER OF BUSINESS.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
The president shall take the chair and call the meeting to order.
The secretary shall call the roll.
Read the minutes o f the last meeting.
Assessment o f fines.
Collection of fines, dues, etc.
Application for membership.
Initiation of officers and members.
Presentation of bills against the society.
Reports of committees.
Reports of officers.
Vacancies in committees and offices to be filled.
Unfinished business.
Business of the evening.
Discharge of members for absence, misconduct, etc.
Adjournment.
96 2
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
APPENDIX A, NO. 7. —CONSTITUTION OF THE NEW ORLEANS
TYPOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION, AS REVISED AND ADOPTED
SEPTEMBER 14, 1839.
P r e a m b l e .— The printers o f New Orleans, feeling the necessity o f organiza
tion for the purpose o f securing a fair, just, and uniform compensation for their
labor, and to provide for such of their craftsmen as may be unable through ill
health to support themselves, have associated together. They deem it clearly
established by experience, that the interests and prosperity o f the producing
classes can only be sustained by the action o f the whole, concentrated and
united. By union only, can they accomplish the object of their association.
Therefore, fully believing that the best interests of the trade will be promoted—
the respectability of the profession advanced—the harmony o f the whole secured
by the establishment o f an umpire for the settlement o f disputes— we have
formed ourselves into a body, to be styled the “ New Orleans Typographical
Association,” and adopt the following constitution and by-laws for our
government.
A r t ic l e
I .— Jurisdiction and govern m en t .
S e c t io n 1. The jurisdiction of this association shall embrace the city and
parish o f New Orleans and the city o f Lafayette.
Sec. 2. The concerns o f this association shall be managed by a president, vicepresident, secretary, treasurer and six directors.
S ec. 3. The president, vice-president, secretary, treasurer and six directors,
shall be elected by ballot on the second Saturdays o f May and November and
hold their respective offices for the term o f six months, or until their successors
shall have been chosen. A majority o f votes shall constitute a choice.
A r t ic l e
II .— D u t y o f the officers.
S e c t io n 1. It shall be the duty of the president to attend all meetings o f the
association and o f the board o f directors; to preside at, and keep order therein;
he shall be authorized to call extra or special meetings o f the association or
board o f directors at any time he may think proper, or at the request o f a ma
jority of the directors, or ten members o f the association.
S e c . 2. It shall be the duty o f the vice-president to attend all meetings of the
association and board o f directors, assist in keeping order therein, and to pre
side in the absence o f the president.
Sec. 3. It shall be the duty o f the secretary to attend all meetings o f the
association and board o f directors, and keep a true and faithful record o f all the
transactions therein; publish notices o f stated and special meetings, in such
form and manner as may be ordered by the board o f directors; receive initia
tion fees and monthly dues, collect all fines, etc., and immediately upon the
receipt o f such moneys deposit the same with the treasurer, who shall receipt to
him therefor. He shall likewise keep a book, in which each member’s name
shall be inserted in such manner as to show when he was admitted, the
amount o f dues he has paid, and when he withdrew, died or was expelled;
which book shall be the register o f the association; and he shall also keep such
other book or books, as may be, from time to time, directed by the association.
At the opening o f each meeting, he shall read the minutes o f the preceding and
intervening meetings o f the association and board o f directors, and perform
such other duties as may be compatible with his office. For the faithful per
formance o f these services, he shall receive a salary not exceeding $G0 per
annum, to be regulated by the board, and be exempted from the payment of
monthly dues. ‘ In case of nonattendance at meetings, he shall, at the option of
the association, be fined in a sum not exceeding $3 for each delinquency, to be
deducted from his annual salary.
S e c . 4. It shall be the duty o f the treasurer to attend all meetings o f the
association; to receive all moneys collected by the secretary, and to receipt to
him for the same; and to keep a true and faithful account o f all the moneys
received and expended. He shall not make any disbursements whatever, without
a written order approved o f by a majority o f the board o f directors, and signed
by the president, except in cases provided for under the head of relief. He
shall render a detailed account o f all the financial affairs o f the association to
the board of directors, at their regular meetings in May and November. Before
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
963
entering upon the duties o f his office, he shall give an obligation or bond to the
association, backed by such surety or sureties as may be approved of, thereby
engaging to refund all the moneys and other property of the association, which
may have been intrusted to his care, at the expiration o f the time for which he
was elected, or on his resignation or removal from office. The treasurer shall
deposit all moneys in his possession over $50, and shall exhibit the certificate o f
deposit to the board o f directors, at their monthly meeting.
S ec . 5. The board o f directors shall meet on the first Saturday of each month,
and shall have power to make their own by-laws, provided they do not militate
against the spirit of the constitution, or such regulations as may be made from
time to time by the association. It shall be the duty o f the directors to audit
and settle the accounts of the treasurer, secretary and committee of relief. All
appropriations o f the funds, except in cases provided for under the head of relief,
shall be made through the treasurer, and an order to that effect, approved by a
majority of the board and signed by the president, shall be considered a suffi
cient warrant therefor. They shall render to the association, at its regular
meetings in May and November, a true and faithful account o f all the affairs
o f the association. They shall likewise receive all applications for membership,
and report on the eligibility o f candidates for admission. Any member of the
board of directors, who may fail to attend, shall be fined 50 cents for each
neglect.
A r t ic l e III .— O f election s .
S e c t io n 1. A general election for officers o f the association shall be held on
the second Saturdays o f May and November in each year, o f which previous
public notice shall be given by the secretary.
S e c . 2. The secretary and two members, to be named by the chair, shall
officiate as inspectors or judges, at each election; and it shall be their duty to
see that no member votes more than once, and to exclude from voting all such
members as are in arrears for dues or fines. Immediately upon the closing o f the
polls, they shall canvass the tickets that have been received, make out a correct
report in writing of the number o f votes given for each person, and deliver it to
the presiding officer, who shall thereupon declare the result o f the election.
S ec . 3. Immediately after the election, the respective officers, previous to
taking their seats, shall subscribe to the following declaration, which shall be
administered by the presiding officer: “ Do you solemnly declare that you will,
to the best o f your ability, execute the office o f --------- ? That you will support
the constitution of this association, and all by-laws founded thereon? And that
you will act in this capacity for the general benefit o f the members thereof, when
opportunity offers or occasion requires it? ”
S e c . 4. Any person who is in arrearage for dues or fines, shall not be eligible
for election to any o f the offices before mentioned.
A r t ic l e
IV .— E lection and initiation.
S e c t io n 1. Application for admission into this association, must be made to
the board o f directors, either personally or through a member of this associa
tion. The applicant must deposit in the hands o f one o f the members of the
board o f directors, the sum o f $5; upon which the board o f directors shall take
his request into consideration; and if it shall satisfactorily appear that he is a
regular journeyman printer, o f the age o f 21 years, and not working for less
than the prices established by this association, the result o f such inquiries shall
be reported at the next regular meeting o f the association.
S e c . 2. A person favorably reported to the association, shall be balloted for,
and the votes o f three-fourths of the members present shall entitle him to admis
sion ; when, having signed the constitution, he shall be entitled to a copy of it,
and a blank certificate of membership, which blank certificate may be filled at
the end o f three months from the time of his admission, or at the discretion of
the board o f directors.
Sec. 3. Candidates who do not come forward within two months after being
notified o f their election, shall forfeit their deposit money, unless a satisfactory
excuse for the delay be rendered. Should a candidate be rejected, his deposit
money shall be returned.
S e c . 4. Every newly elected member shall be introduced by the individual
who proposed him to the board o f directors, or such other member as may be
designated by the presiding officer; who shall addresss him as follow s: “ Sir,
964
BULLETIN OF TH E BUEEAU OF LABOE.
I have the pleasure o f informing you that you have been elected a member o f
the New Orleans Typographical Association. Before your name is added to the
list, it is my duty to ask, Do you understand the objects o f this association?
W ill you, either as a journeyman or foreman, support the constitution and scale
o f prices o f this association, and all by-laws founded thereon? Will you attend
all meetings o f this association, and embrace every proper occasion to promote
its reputation and enhance its prosperity? Where your influence is desired by
individuals o f the profession, and their claims as workmen are equal, will you
always give the preference to members o f the association, and also pledge your
self not to divulge any o f the proceedings o f the association? ” [ I f his answer
be in the affirmative, the president will reply as follow s:] “ As your answers
are satisfactory, and trusting that you will ever bear in mind the principles
upon which this association is founded, I will now tender you the right hand o f
fellowship. As an earnest o f the sincerity o f the declaration you have just
made, you will now sign this constitution, which defines your rights and duties.”
S ec. 5. Any member o f this association w ho shall establish the printing busi
ness on his ow n account, w ill forfeit his title to m em bership;— but in the event
o f his again becom ing a journeyman, he shall be entitled to all his form er rights
and privileges.
A r t ic l e
Y.— O f m o n th ly dues.
S e c t io n 1. Each member o f the association, with the exception o f the secre
tary, shall pay into the treasury the sum o f 50 cents per month.
A r t ic l e
V I .— O f th e fu n d s .
S e c t io n 1. The funds shall not be appropriated to any other purpose than to
defray the expenses o f the association, and the pecuniary relief o f its members.
S e c . 2. Any member who may be thrown out o f employment in consequence
o f not obtaining the price for his labor in accordance with the scale o f prices,
shall be entitled to a weekly allowance o f $5; and the board o f directors shall
determine the right of applicants to the per-week allowance, specified in this
section. I f it shall satisfactorily appear that he makes no effort to obtain
another situation, or refuses honorable employment when offered him, and con
tinues to draw on the treasury, his weekly allowance shall be immediately dis
continued, and his claim on the funds be suspended for the term o f six months.
Sec. 3. No member shall be entitled to the weekly allow ance specified, w ho
may be in arrears fo r dues or fines.
Sec. 4. Any sum that may be earned by a member during the week that he
receives pecuniary relief, shall be deducted from his w eekly allowance.
A r t ic l e
YII. — O f th e chapel.
S e c t io n 1. In each printing office, within the jurisdiction o f this association,
wherein members o f it are employed, there shall be established a chapel, and an
experienced journeyman from among them chosen to preside thereat, who shall
be constituted and known in his official capacity as father o f the chapel. To
this chapel shall be referred for settlement any difference that may arise be
tween the employer and the employed, or between the journeymen, and the
disagreement shall be adjudged by the chapel .; but in case either party should
feel itself aggrieved after the matter in dispute has been eanvassed and decided
by the chapel, it shall be the duty of the father to lay the case before the asso
ciation, whose decision shall be final.
S e c . 2. The father o f the chapel shall be elected by a majority, and continue
in office for three months.
S ec. 3. No chapel shall be form ed in any printing office in w hich there are
less than three members o f the association employed.
A r t ic l e
V IIL — O f im peachm en t and trial .
S e c t io n 1. Any breach o f the constitution, by-laws, or scale o f prices of this
association, shall constitute just ground for impeachment, admonition, fine or
expulsion o f any of its officers or members.
S e c . 2. Impeachment and trial of members shall supersede all other business
before the association, unless otherwise directed by a vote of two-thirds o f the
members present
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
9 65
S e c . 3. Any member shall be competent to impeach another member, on either
o f the following specifications: 1. Of any violation o f the constitution, by-laws,
or scale of prices. 2. Of conduct calculated to bring into contempt or derision
the association as a body.
Sec. 4. All charges and specifications shall be reduced to writing, notice
thereof given at a general meeting, and a copy or copies thereof served on the
member or members against whom they are made, by the secretary or other au
thorized officer o f the association, at least one week previous to its regular or
monthly meeting.
Sec. 5. No member shall be tw ice arraigned upon the same charges and speci
fications. A m ajority o f votes, exclusive o f the party implicated, shall, in all
cases, determine the innocence or delinquency o f the accused.
A r t ic l e
IX .— O f r elief o f m em bers.
S e c t io n 1. Any member who may become sick, or otherwise incapacitated
from pursuing his business, shall be entitled to the sum o f $8 weekly.
S e c . 2. In the event o f death o f any member o f this association, the sum of
$80 shall be drawn from the treasury, to defray his funeral expenses.
S e c . 3. It shall be the duty o f the president, at the first meeting o f the board
o f directors, after their election, to divide said board into three committees, to
act as committees o f relief. The committees shall serve alternately for the
period o f two months.
S e c . 4. It shall be the duty o f the committee of relief to visit the members
who may be unable to attend to their business through ill health, so soon as
such inability may come to their knowledge, and ascertain if they need the
assistance of the association; if so, the committee shall visit such members at
least once a week during their illness, and pay to them the sum allowed by the
constitution, and take receipts therefor, in a book provided for that purpose.
S e c . 5. It shall be the duty o f the committee o f relief to make a detailed
statement of the moneys expended, to whom paid, etc., at the expiration o f their
term of office; which report shall be incorporated with the proceedings o f the
board.
S e c . 6 No member shall be entitled to the benefits o f the preceding provisions,
who may be in arrearage for dues or fines.
.
Sec. 7. Any member who may feign illness, for the purpose o f receiving the
benefits o f the foregoing provisions, shall be expelled, on proof thereof.
Sec. 8. Any member w ho may speak in derision o f another, for receiving the
assistance o f the association, shall be reprimanded for the first offense, and ex
pelled fo r the second.
Se c . fi. The committee o f relief shall make a statement of the moneys wanted
for carrying out the foregoing provisions, from time to time, as found necessary,
to the secretary, who shall examine the same, and certify to its correctness—
upon* which certificate, the president shall draw on the treasurer for the
amount.
S e c . 10. The treasurer shall pay the drafts o f the president for all purposes
coming under the head o f relief, without the intervention of the board; and such
order shall be deemed a sufficient voucher for such payments.
S ec. 11. The secretary shall assess on each member the sum o f fifty cents
extra, on the meeting next succeeding, that on w hich appropriations are made
to inter members.
A r t ic l e
X .— T im e o f m eetings.
S e c t io n 1. A general meeting o f this association shall be held on the second
Saturday o f every month, for the purpose o f hearing the proceedings o f the board
o f directors, collecting dues, and transacting such other business as may come
before i t
Sec. 2. At all the meetings of the association, eleven shall be a quorum to
proceed to business.
A r t ic l e X I .— O f the scale o f prices.
S e c t io n 1. The scale o f prices appended to this constitution, shall, in all cases,
be considered as a part thereof; and no member o f this association shall, on any
pretext whatever work, either directly or indirectly, for prices less than those
specified therein.
966
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
A rticle X II.— O f apprentices .
Section 1. No member o f this association shall work on any English daily
morning paper, on which any apprentices may be employed. [This article is
not considered applicable to any apprentice now in such offices.]
S ec . 2. No member o f this association shall work on any English paper, or in
any book or job office, where any apprentice is employed, who may not be bound
for a term o f not less than four years during minority.—{T his clause is not to
apply to any existing contracts.]
S ec. 3. In order to find proprietors o f evening papers and job offices an oppor
tunity to test the capacity o f boys intended for apprentices, the latter shall be
allowed a novitiate of two months.
A rticle X III.— General provision s .
1. No additions, alterations, or amendments shall be made to this constitution,
or scale of prices thereto appended, unless one month’s notice shall have been
given o f such intention at a general meeting o f the association, and three-fourths
o f {he members present concur therein.
2. No French journeyman, (not a member) within the jurisdiction o f this
association, shall be amenable to its rules or regulations, except he interfere
with the English compositors or pressmen.
BY-LAWS.
1. The hours of meeting of this association shall be as follow s: From the
10th o f March to the 10th o f October, at 8 o’clock in the evening, and from the
10th o f October to the 10th of March, at 7 o’clock. The board o f directors to
meet on the Saturday evening preceding the meetings o f the association.
2. No member shall speak more than twice on the same subject, except by
leave of the association. The speaker shall in all cases address himself to
the presiding officer. He shall not be interrupted while speaking, unless by the
presiding officer, when he shall think proper to call him to order, or to admonish
him to a closer adherence to his subject.
3. When two or more members rise at once, the presiding officer shall decide
who is to speak first.
4. All resolutions and amendments shall be presented in writing. When a
question, resolution or motion, is under debate, no other motion shall be ad
mitted by the president, unless to postpone the further consideration thereof,
to divide the question, to amend or to adjourn; and no amendment shall be ad
mitted that shall appear to the president to destroy the spirit or principle o f the
resolution or motion under consideration.
5. Questions o f order shall be decided by the president; but in case o f appeal
from his decision, the association shall determine by vote, without debate.
6. A motion to reconsider any former resolution or vote, can only be made by a
member who voted ,in the majority.
7. Any officer or member o f this association who shall fail of attending a
special or regular meeting, without sending or rendering, at the next meeting,
a satisfactory excuse for such neglect, shall be subject to, and pay a fine of 50
cents.
8. Any person who may be in arrears for dues and fines, shall not be entitled
to vote on any question coming before the association. Any member o f this
association who may be in arrears for dues and fines one year, shall be expelled.
9. No member shall leave the room during the meeting o f the association,
without leave of absence from the presiding officer, under the penalty o f 25 cents.
10. In case any director or other officer shall refuse or neglect to take his
seat at the board for two successive meetings, his seat shall be considered as
vacated, unless he shall give a satisfactory excuse therefor.
11. The secretary shall furnish the chairman of every committee with a list
o f the names o f the respective members; and any member o f a committee, who
shall neglect to attend to the duty assigned him, he having been notified by the
chairman, shall forfeit and pay the sum o f $1, unless he can render sufficient
reason to the association for such neglect.
12. The secretary shall make out the account of each member, and present the
same for payment at the end o f each quarter.
13. It shall be the duty o f the secretary to make out lists o f members who
may be in arrears for six months, (whose bills have been regularly presented,)
EABIiY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
967
and furnish the same to the several fathers of chapels, who are directed to
have the same affixed in some public part of the office.
14. It shall be the duty o f members of this association to inform strangers,
who may come into offices where they are employed, o f the established prices,
and also o f the existence o f the association, and the necessity o f their be
coming members.
15. In no case shall a member o f this association be allowed to work with
a free man o f color, either as compositor or pressmen.
16. No member o f this association shall reveal any part o f its proceedings,
under penalty o f impeachment and expulsion.
17. Members leaving the city shall not be charged with dues or fines during
their absence, provided they notify the secretary o f the same. For neglect o f
such notification, they shall be fined $2.
RULES OF ORDER.
1. At the time appointed, the president shall call the meeting to order, and
request the secretary to call the roll and collect the monthly dues and fines.
2. The minutes of the preceding meetings o f the association and the board
o f directors shall be read by the secretary.
3. Business remaining over from former meetings shall be acted on, or further
postponed.
4. Candidates shall be balloted for.
5. Reports o f committees shall be read and considered.
6. Communications shall be read and new motions received.
7. The secretary shall report the amount of money received, as also the
names of those who have not paid the full amount o f their dues and fines.
APPENDIX A, NO. 8.—CONSTITUTION OF PHILADELPHIA TYPO
GRAPHICAL UNION, ADOPTED AUGUST 10, 1850.
A r t ic l e
I.— T itle and acts.
S e c t io n . 1. This institution shall be known by the name o f “ The Journey
men Printers’ Union, o f Philadelphia.”
S e c . 2. All acts shall be in the name of “ The Journeymen Printers’ Union,
of Philadelphia,” and shall be signed by the president and secretary for the
time being.
A r t ic l e
II .— M a nn er o f votin g .
S e c t io n 1. On all questions or motions, except the election of officers, and the
election and expulsion o f members, the members shall vote viva voce.
S e c . 2. In the election o f officers, and in the election or expulsion o f members,
the members shall invariably vote by ballot.
Sec. 3. All questions or resolutions in reference to prices shall be debated
and adopted in committee o f the whole.
A r t ic l e
III.— M em bersh ip.
S e c t io n 1. An indispensable qualification o f all persons admitted members
o f this union, shall be a practical knowledge of the art o f letterpress printing.
Sec. 2. All applications for membership in this union, shall be presented by
members, at the stated meetings, at which time the pretensions o f the applicant
shall be distinctly made known; and, if a majority o f the voters agree to the
admission o f the applicant, he shall be declared to be duly elected. But any
person elected to membership, who shall neglect to sign the constitution for
one month after his election, (provided notice in writing be given him,)
shall be considered to have forfeited his right to admission, unless he shall
show satisfactory cause for such neglect.
Sec. 3. All candidates for initiation shall be waited upon outside of the
door of the place of meeting of the union, by the vice-president, or such other
member as shall, for the time being, fill his place, who shall inform such
candidate that there is nothing in the constitution o f the union conflicting with
his religious or political principles, be they what they m ay; and, should he
be satisfied to proceed, shall read to him the following pledge, and if he should
consent to take the same in the presence o f the assembled members o f the
968
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
union, lie shall be introduced to the president, and requested to raise his right
hand whilst repeating these words :— “ I, (repeating his own name) hereby sol
emnly and sincerely pledge my honor as a man, that I will not reveal any
business, or proceedings o f any meeting of this union; and that I will, without
equivocation or evasion, and to the best o f my ability, so long as I shall remain
a member thereof, abide by the constitution and by-laws, and the particular
scale o f prices of work acknowledged and adopted by i t ; and that I will, at all
times, by every honorable means within my power, procure employment for
members of this union, in preference to persons not connected therewith.”
S e c . 4. Members-elect, on signing the constitution, shall pay to the financial
secretary the sum o f $1, (which may at any time hereafter be increased to a
sum not exceeding $2,) together with the further sum o f 25 cents in each and
every month thereafter.
Sec. 5. Should any member neglect to pay his dues and fines for three suc
cessive months, or refuse to make payment when requested by the financial
secretary, he shall not be entitled to receive the quarterly password; and
should any member be six months in arrears in said payments, it shall be the
duty o f the financial secretary to notify him of the same, and o f the penalty
attached to further neglect; which penalty shall be set forth in the by-laws:
P ro v id ed , That no penalty shall attach when sickness is the cause o f the delin
quency.
S e c . 6. Absence from the city shall in no case exonerate a member from dues
during such absence; but any member may draw his certificate of absence, by
paying all dues and fines standing against him; and, upon again presenting
his certificate, shall be reinstated in the union: P ro vid ed ,,H e shall have been
guilty of no acts in violation of the constitution and by-laws o f the union
during his absence.
Sec. 7. A m ajority o f the members present shall decide whether charges
alleged against a member are o f such a nature as to be cognizable by the rules
c f the union.
Sec. 8. All accusations against the character o f a member must be made in
writing, and referred to a committee o f five, who shall examine into the same,
and recommend to the union w hat order shall be taken upon them.
A r t ic l e
IV.— Officers.
S e c t io n 1. The officers of the union shall consist o f a president, vice-president,
recording secretary, financial secretary, treasurer, business committee, (consist
ing of 15 members) and a doorkeeper.
S e c . 2. It shall be the duty of the president to preside at all meetings, and
preserve order therein, draw all orders on the treasurer authorized by the
union, and transact such other business as may appertain to his office.
S e c . 3. It shall be the duty o f the vice-president to perform all the duties
appertaining to the office of the president, in case of his absence, resignation or
death.
S ec 4. The recording secretary shall attend all meetings o f the union, and
keep correct and plain minutes of the proceedings; notify all persons elected
members, and also all persons elected to office, not present at the time of elec
tion, and transact such other business as the union may, from time to time,
assign him. For the performance of these duties he shall be allowed the sum
o f $1 for each meeting.
S ec . 5. The financial secretary shall attend all meetings o f the union, and
shall keep accurate accounts o f all dues and fines, and shall collect them. And
all moneys he may collect shall be immediately paid to the treasurer, in the
presence of the presiding officer. He shall also keep a list of those members
who shall be more than three months in arrears, and may hand their names to
the presiding officer. He shall notify all members who may be six months in
arrears, and of the penalty attached to further neglect. He shall furnish to
any member who may desire it (provided said member shall first pay all arrear
ages a'gainst him) a certificate o f absence, certifying he is in good standing in
the union. He shall also perform such other duties pertaining to the financial
business as the union may from time to time direct. For the performance o f
these duties he shall be entitled to the sum of $1 for each meeting: P ro v id ed ,
That it shall be the duty o f both the recording secretary and the financial sec
retary to deliver over, within seven days after the expiration, o f their terms of
office, resignation or removal, all books, papers, or other property belonging
to the union.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
969
S e c . C. It shall be the duty o f the treasurer to receive all sums o f money in
behalf o f the union from the financial secretary, and give his receipt therefor.
He shall keep true and accurate accounts o f all the money received and ex
pended on behalf of the union. He shall make no disbursements without a
warrant from the president, attested by the financial and recording secretaries.
He shall also give such security for the safe-keeping o f all moneys belonging to
the union as the business committee shall deem necessary. He shall also, within
seven days after the expiration o f his term of office, or in the event o f his
resignation or removal, deliver over to his successor all moneys or property in
his possession belonging to the union.
S e c . 7. It shall be the duty o f the business committee to attend to the general
correspondence of the union. They shall receive reports from all committees
connected with the state o f the trade in this city and county, and elsewhere, and
all statistics in connection therewith, and perform such other business as the
union may from time to time direct. They shall make reports to the union at
every meeting.
S e c . 8. It shall be the duty of the doorkeeper to attend at the door, and he
shall admit no member without the password. He shall announce the name of
any member at the door without the password to the president, who shall
admit him and give him the password: P rovid ed , He shall be in good standingin the union.
a r t i c l e V . — E lection s.
S e c t io n 1. The election for all officers of this union shall be held, annually, on
the second Saturday in August.
S e c . 2. The judges o f the election (to consist o f two) shall be appointed by
the president on the evening o f the election, which election shall be held by
general ticket. They shall announce the result of the election to the president,
who shall declare to the union the names o f the successful candidates.
S e c . 3. Should a vacancy occur among the officers of the union, (not other
wise provided fo r) the presiding officer shall give notice of the fact, and an
election shall be immediately held to supply the vacancy for the remainder of
the term.
A r t ic l e Y I .— T h e funds.
The funds of the union shall be applied to defraying the necessary expenses,
and for such other purposes as may be provided for in the by-laws.
A rticle VII.— M eetin gs.
S e c t io n 1. The stated meetings of the union shall be held on the second Sat
urday in each month.
S e c . 2. In the recess a special meeting o f the union may be called by the appli
cation of a majority o f the business committee to the president, in writing,
when he shall direct the recording secretary to give public notice calling the
union together.
S e c . 3. Eleven members shall constitute a quorum.
A r t ic l e
V III.— D isp u tes .
Should difference or disputes occur between the employer and employed, or
between the journeymen in an office, in which members of this union are em
ployed, (relative to any matter within the jurisdiction of this union,) it shall
be the duty of such members to adjudge, if possible, the matter in dispute;
and in case either party shall feel aggrieved, the difference may be brought
before the union, whose decision shall be final.
A r t ic l e
IX .— A m en d m en ts , dissolution , and “b y-law s.
S e c t io n 1. No alteration or amendment shall be made to this constitution,
without the concurrence o f two-thirds of the members present at a* stated meet
ing ; and the proposed alteration or amendment, which must be in writing, shall
he read by the president at two successive meetings before final action shall be
had thereon.
Sec. 2. No resolution o r motion, tending to dissolve the union, shall he in
order, w hile eleven members require its continuance.
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
970
Sec. 3. In addition to the constitution, the union shall make all necessary by
laws and rules of order: P ro vid ed , They contain nothing inconsistent with the
constitution: A n d provided also , That no fine or other penalties imposed by the
constitution and by-laws shall, in any case, be remitted, excepting only that o f
expulsion, which may be commuted by the votes of a majority present to a fine
o f not less than $3, nor more than $5.
A r t ic l e
X.— P a ssw o rd and pledge.
S e c t io n 1. The president shall, at the end o f every quarter, change the pass
word, which he shall give to every member who may be in good standing in the
union, separately and in a whisper to each; and no member shall make use of
the password for other purpose than to enter the union.
Sec. 2. Should the printers o f any or every other city in the Union form them
selves into similar unions, and desire to connect with this union, it shall be the
duty o f the president to establish such connection; and he shall, provided the
majority present assent, establish a traveling password, which shall be legal
for one year, and grant traveling certificates to members, certifying that the
holder is in good standing in the union, and recommending him to the kindness
and protection of all unions with which this union may connect.
Sec. 3. Should a convention or congress o f delegates from the different trades
or bodies o f workingmen in this city and county, or elsewhere, be at any time
held, it shall be the duty o f the union to elect tw o or more delegates fo r the pur
pose o f representing this union.
A r t ic l e
X I.— H o n o ra ry m em bers.
S e c t io n 1. Any person of a good moral character, who may have learned the
art and mystery of printing, may be proposed for honorary membership, if at
the time of such proposition, he shall be out of the business, and known as a
friend to the principles of this union; and if elected by a majority o f the mem
bers present, he shall receive from the president such certificate of the fact, as
may be provided for the purpose.
S e c . 2. Honorary members shall be admitted to all the meetings o f the union,
and enjoy the same privileges as members, with the exception of the right to
vote or hold office, and the title to benefits.
BY-LAWS.
A r t ic l e
I.— M eetin gs.
The hour of meeting shall be, from the 1st o f October to the 1st o f April, at
7.30 o’clock ; from the 1st o f April to the 1st of October, at 8 o’clock.
A r t ic l e
II.— Installation o f officers.
S e c t io n 1. All officers-elect shall be installed on the first stated meeting after
the election; and it shall be the duty o f the president to install all newly elected
officers.
Sec. 2. All newly elected officers, upon being requested to do so by the pre
siding officer, shall range themselves in front of his desk, and subscribe to the
following pledge, which he shall dictate to them :— “ I do hereby pledge myself
to faithfully perform the duties of the office to which I am elected, to the best of
my ability, and for the benefit and honor of the union.”
A r t ic l e
III.— C o m m ittees— H o w and tchen appointed , duties , etc.
S e c t io n . 1. The president shall appoint all special committees, and fill all
vacancies, unless otherwise provided for.
Sec. 2. The business committee shall, in addition to the duties prescribed in
the constitution, perform the follow ing:— They shall keep accurate accounts of
the number of men and boys employed in each office in the city and incorpo
rated districts, as well as o f any suspicious circumstances in connection there
with, which may be reported by the chairman of any office; they shall also have
charge of all correspondence of the union, and keep, as nearly as possible, a
correct account of the state of the trade in other cities with which we may con
nect ; they shall also, whenever they deem the interest of the craft demands it,
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
971
call special meetings o f the union. It shall also be their duty to recommend to
the union any course o f action which, in the performance o f their duties, they
believe to be beneficial to the union and craft in general. For the better per
formance o f these duties, the chairman may, at his option, divide the committee
into subcommittees, each to consist o f at least two, for the management o f par
ticular branches o f the business.
Sec. 3. The business committee shall elect from their number three auditors,
fo r the purpose o f auditing and settling the accounts o f the financial secretary
and treasurer, w ho shall make report thereof in w riting quarterly, to the busi
ness committee.
Sec. 4. The business committee shall be constituted as follow s:—Five mem
bers from hands on daily papers, and ten from those in book and job offices and
on weekly papers respectively ; and it shall be the duty of the judges o f the elec
tion to select from the list voted for, the five hands on daily papers having the
highest number of votes, and the remaining ten from the book and job offices and
weekly papers respectively, having the highest number o f votes, who shall be
declared duly elected: P ro vid ed , No two o f said committee shall be elected from
one office.
Sec. 5. All special committees shall report in writing at the next stated meet
ing, unless otherwise ordered.
Sec. 6. No member shall be appointed on a special committee, unless present
at the time o f appointment; nor shall any member be compelled to serve two
successive terms on any one committee.
A rticle IY . — R e lie fs , etc.
Section 1. When the hands in any office shall be called upon to quit work in
vindication o f their just rights, as prescribed in the scale of prices adopted by
this union, each housekeeper and married man shall be entitled to receive $5
per week, and each single man, not a housekeeper, $3, until he obtain employ
ment : P ro vid ed , That no hand or body of hands shall so quit work without the
sanction o f the chairman of the business committee; but should he not deem the
matter o f sufficient importance to warrant him in sanctioning the strike, he
shall, if requested to do so by the parties interested, call a special meeting of
the union, when the decision o f a majority present shall be final: P ro vid ed , also ,
That this section shall not go into effect until the present difficulty with the
employers be settled.
S ec. 2. I f any member on a strike shall refuse employment when offered to
him, he shall forfeit all claim upon the union for the weekly allowance: P ro
vid ed , That if such member do not earn by such employment a sum equivalent
to that provided for in the preceding section, the balance shall be made up to
him by the union; his bills and receipts being considered sufficient vouchers o f
the amount he earns by such employment.
Sec. 3. I f any member shall be discovered attempting to impose upon this
union, by making false returns o f the amount he has earned while on a strike,
he shall be debarred from further benefits for the period o f six months, and shall
be incompetent to fill any office, or take part in any debate in this union for one
year.
Sec. 4. It shall be the duty o f the president, when any hand or body of hands
are legally on a strike, to keep a list o f their names, and to draw weekly an order
on the treasurer, attested by the recording and financial secretaries, in favor of
each hand, for the sum which may be due him under these by-laws.
Sec. 5 Strangers arriving in the city shall be allowed to work, until the next
stated meeting of the union, when they must become members. Should he or
they neglect or refuse to join the union, it shall be the duty o f the hands em
ployed in the office to quit work, and insist upon his or their discharge.
S ec. 6. I f any stranger, a member o f our craft, shall not obtain employment
within one week, and decides to leave, he shall be entitled to receive a sum not
exceeding $4, to defray his expenses out of the c ity ; an order for which may be
drawn by the president attested by the recording and financial secretaries, on
the treasurer: P ro vid ed , The union from which he holds his certificate creates
a similar provision in favor o f members of this union.
972
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
A r t ic l e
V.— M e m b e r s , their du ties , etc.
S e c t io n 1. It shall be the duty o f the hands employed in every office to
appoint from their number a chairman, whose duty it shall be to report to the
business committee, in writing, once a month, the condition of the office in
which he may be chairman; the number o f men and boys employed, and such
other matters as he may deem of importance to the union. He shall also be the
medium o f communication between the hands and the employer, in all questions
cognizable by the rules of this union. It shall also be his duty to announce to
all strangers going to work in the office the necessity of becoming members of
the union, as prescribed by section 5, Article IV, o f these by-laws. He shall
also keep a schedule in which members o f this union who are unemployed may
Inscribe their names and residences, and, should any vacancy occur, he shall
notify them o f the same immediately. Should he neglect to perform any of
these duties, he shall be fined in a sum not less than 25 cents, nor more than 50,
at the option o f the union.
S e c . 2. I f any member accept work in any office where the hands have struck
on any question involving the rules o f this union, and shall refuse to quit work
when ordered to do so by the chairman o f the office, he shall be expelled from
the union.
Sec. 3. In no case shall members o f this union work in any office, after the 2d
day o f September, 1850, where hands are employed who refuse to join the union;
and should any member do so, he shall be fined or expelled, at the option o f the
union.
S e c . 4. No member expelled from this union shall be readmitted for a sum
less than $3; and his monthly dues shall be charged to him from the time of
his expulsion to his readmission, and he shall not be eligible to any office in
this union for one year after his readmission.
S e c . 5. All journeymen printers residing in Philadelphia at the time o f the
formation o f this union, who shall refuse to join on or before the 2d day of
September, 1850, shall be charged $2 initiation fee: P ro vid ed , That on appli
cation o f any member of the craft, who is conscientiously opposed to the princi
ple of secret association, and who may signify his disposition to adhere to our
scale of prices, rules, etc., he shall, if the majority present consent, be deemed
an honorary member o f this union, and shall be entitled, should he desire it, to
receive from the president a certificate, by paying such sum as may be directed
by a vote of the union: A n d provided fu rth er , That persons admitted to mem
bership under the first provision o f this section, and who have been receiving the
advanced rates, shall be willing, for the whole time thus employed to pay such
percentage o f the advance as may be decided upon by the union.
S e c . 6. Any member six months in arrears for dues and fines, who shall not
pay such arrearages at the next stated meeting shall be suspended; and it shall
be the duty of the hands employed with him to quit work, and insist upon his
leaving the office or paying such arrearages: P ro vid ed , He shall be previously
notified by the financial secretary, as provided in the constitution.
A r t ic l e
VI.— A p p ren tices .
S e c t io n . 1. Any apprentice in the last year o f his time, who may express a
desire to become a member of this union, may do so by paying the initiation fe e ;
but no monthly dues shall be exacted from him, nor shall he have the right to
vote or take part in any debate until he attains his majority when he shall be
considered a full member.
S e c . 2. No member of this union shall work in any office where the number
o f apprentices ranges over the following ratio:— Book and job offices shall be
entitled to 2 apprentices; where more than 9 and less than 15 journeymen are
permanently employed, 3 apprentices; where more than 15 and less than 20
journeymen are permanently employed, 4 apprentices; and in no case whatever
shall more than 5 apprentices be allowed in any one office: P ro v id ed , That this
section shall not apply to offices where a greater number of legal apprentices
are employed at the time of the formation o f this union.
Sec. 3. Should attempts be made to introduce apprentices into any office
where the above ratio are already employed, it shall be the duty o f the chair
man of said office to report the fact to the business committee; and should they,
after an investigation, be satisfied that the spirit o f the preceding section has
been violated, it shall be their duty to order the hands employed in such office
to quit work and protest against the introduction o f such apprentice or appren
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
9 73
tices; and should such hands, or any one or more o f them, refuse to quit work
when so ordered by the business committee, he or they shall be fined or expelled
at the option of the union.
Sec. 4. No member o f this union shall w ork m any office where a boy shall
leave his employer after he is 16 years o f age, unless said employer shall die or
decline business, or said boy shall be otherwise legally discharged.
S ec. 5. No member o f this union shall work in any newspaper office where an
apprentice or apprentices are employed.
A r t ic l e
VII.— T w o-th ird ers, etc.
S e c t io n 1. Any individual working for less than the scale o f prices o f this
union, who is not bound by indenture or by contract for a term o f five years,
shall be deemed a r a t; and a list of such individuals, with a description of their
persons, shall be kept by the business committee; and it shall be their duty to
furnish any body o f printers in other cities or towns, who may connect with us,
a copy of the same, with a request to transcribe and retain it for reference.
A r t ic l e
VIII.— F in e s, etc.
S e c t io n 1. Any officer absent at roll call shall be fined 12£ cents; if absent
over half an hour 25 cents.
Sec. 2. Any officer having charge o f books, who shall fail to have them in the
meeting, at roll call, shall be fined 25 cents.
Sec. 3. Any member appointed on a committee, who shall refuse or neglect to
perform , his duty shall be fined 25 cents for each neglect or refusal.
S e c . 4. The recording secretary shall be subject to a fine o f 25 cents for neg
lecting to perform properly the duties of his office.
S e c . 5. The financial secretary shall be subject to the following fines; For
neglecting to notify members when in arrears for dues or fines, each offense 12£
cents; for neglecting to make quarterly or other reports, 50 cents; for neglecting
to perform such other duties as the constitution or union may require, for each
offense 25 cents.
S e c . 6. The treasurer and auditors shall- each be subject to the following
fines; For neglecting to make quarterly or other reports, 50 cents each ; for neg
lecting to perform such other duties as may be required of them by the union,
25 cents for each offense.
Sec. 7. Any member intoxicated, or making use o f profane language in the
meeting, or refusing to obey the president when called to order, or using disre
spectful language tow ard the officers or members o f the union, shall be subject
to such fines as may be imposed by the union.
S e c . 8. Members neglecting to notify the financial secretary when they change
their residences, shall be fined 12^ «ents.
S e c . 9. Any member o f the business committee, who shall neglect business or
luties intrusted to him, shall be fined 25 cents for each offense.
A r t ic l e I X . — M iscellaneous.
P r o p o s it io n fo r M e m b e r s h i p :— Every member proposing a candidate for ad
mission shall do so in writing, with his name and address; and, provided no ob
jection be made, the candidate may be elected and introduced the same evening.
P a y m e n t o f B il l s :— All bills against the union must be presented to a meet
ing before being paid, unless the bill contracted has been ordered by the union.
C h a n g e o f R e s id e n c e :—Members changing their residence, shall give notice to
the financial secretary within one month.
D iv u l g in g P r iv a t e B u s i n e s s :— Any member revealing business o f this union
ordered to be kept secret, shall be subject to such punishment as the union may
direct. The doorkeeper shall receive $1 per meeting for his services, and shall
admit no one without the password, except by order o f the president. Should
any member be at the door without the password, he shall announce the. fact,
together with the name of the member, to the president.
A l t e r a t io n o f B y - l a w s :-^-No proposition to alter, suspend, or annul these
by-laws, shall be acted upon until it shall have been submitted, in writing, to a
previous regular meeting o f the union; nor then, without the concurrence o f twothirds of all the members present.
974
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
APPENDIX A, NO. 9.—CONSTITUTION AND DOCUMENTS OF THE
FIRST NATIONAL CONVENTION OF PRINTERS, 1836.
CONSTITUTION OF THE NATIONAL TYPOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION,
OF NOVEMBER 11, 1836, AS AMENDED SEPTEMBER 5, 1837. («)
Whereas experience has proved that the interests and prosperity of the
typographical profession o f the United States can not be maintained and pro
moted but by the united efforts of the whole body, nor its character and
standing properly elevated by the feeble efforts o f individual societies: And
whereas it has become necessary for the welfare of the craft that a bond of
friendship, feeling, and obligation, should exist amongst all societies through
out the Union: Having in view the accomplishment o f these desirable results,
and of meting out equal justice to our employers and ourselves, the several local
societies at present organized, do agree to form themselves into a united society,
to be denominated The National Typographical Association, and enact for their
government the following constitution:
A r t ic l e I .(& )
S e c t io n 1. This association shall be known and called by the name of the
“ National Typographical Association,” and shall be composed o f such local
associations as shall acknowledge this constitution and its accompanying
by-laws.
S e c . 2. Each local society shall be entitled, for twenty contributing members
or less, to one delegate to this association; over twenty and not exceeding
forty, two delegates; above forty, three delegates; to be duly elected from the
contributing members o f said society: P ro v id ed , Nothing herein contained
shall prevent any society from filling up their delegation by proxies, if said
proxies be contributing members or members of some society attached to this
association.
A r t ic l e II.
A convention, consisting o f delegates from the several local associations, shall
be held annually— the convention in session having pow er to appoint the place
o f meeting o f its successor.
A r t ic l e
III.
The convention shall have power to pass such general laws for the govern
ment of local societies as may not conflict with any regulations o f said so
cieties, so far as they exercise, or may hereafter exercise, the right to establish
prices for the district of country over which .they have jurisdiction.
A r t ic l e
IV.
S e c t io n 1. The officers o f this association shall be a president, vice-president,
recording and corresponding secretaries, and treasurer, who shall be elected
annually, by ballot, and hold office until their successors shall be chosen. A •
• This constitu tion was originally adopted at the W ashington m eeting o f the National
Typographical Society in 1836, but is given here as amended the follow in g year, when
the name was changed to N ational T ypographical A ssociation.
b B elow w ill be fou nd noted the changes made from the constitution o f 1836:
A rtic le I, section 1. This society shall be known and called by the name o f “ The
N ational T ypographical S ociety,” and shall be com posed o f delegates from each regularly
organized society in the United States.
Section 2 did not contain the proviso o f that o f 1837, but did contain after the words
“ contributing members o f said society ” this se n ten ce: “ The delegates thus elected
shall have pow er to enact all general laws fo r the governm ent o f local societies,” which
is clearly inconsistent w ith A rticle II o f 1836 and A rticle II I o f 1837.
A rticle X . The constitu tion o f 1836 le ft the per cent blank and there was slightly
different w ording.
A rticle X I o f constitution o f 1836 i s : “ The first m eeting o f the N ational Society shall
be in the city o f New York, on the first M onday o f September n e x t ; [1 837] and thereafter
at such tim e and place as the society shall annually determ ine.”
A rticle X I I o f 1836 said “ an engraved card, to be called the union card.”
Section 2 o f A rticle X I I o f 1837 does not appear in constitution o f 1836.
A rticle X V o f 1836 does not appear in that o f 1837, and was as f o llo w s :
“ So soon as any local society shall ratify this constitution, they may, immediately
thereafter, elect a delegate or delegates, under the provision o f the same, to meet, as is
provided fo r in A rticle X I o f this constitution, fu lly empowered to act on any o f the
propositions em anating from this convention fo r the consideration o f local societies.”
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OP PRINTERS.
975
majority o f the votes of all the members present, being necessary to constitute
an election.
Sec. 2. The officers of this association shall constitute a board of control,
for the adjustment o f any difficulties which may arise during the recess o f the
convention, subject to the supervision o f the said association at their next
meeting.
Sec. 3. The board o f control shall also have power to originate all corre
spondence necessary for the management and welfare of the profession. It
shall be their duty also to hold correspondence with local societies, and such
European societies as may desire to correspond with them. They shall solicit
from said societies in Europe and America information o f the condition o f the
trade; and lay before the association, at each annual meeting, a message, ac
companied by all correspondence and documents which they may have received
in their official capacity. They shall give a statement o f the expenses incurred
by them; also, such plans for the future management o f this board as experi
ence may suggest.
Sec. 4. The board shall have power to fill all vacancies that may occur in
their body during the recess of the convention.
A rticle V.
Section 1. The president shall preside at all meetings o f the convention, and
preserve order therein—shall put all questions and announce the decision; he
shall be entitled to vote upon all questions.
Sec. 2. The president shall sign all bills passed by the convention, and all
drafts upon the treasury.
S ec . 3. In case of the absence o f the president the vice-president shall pre
side.
A rticle VI.
Section i. i t shall be the duty o f the recording secretary to keep correct
minutes o f the proceedings o f the convention, file and preserve all papers in
trusted to his care.
Sec. 2, •He shall receive and pay over to the treasurer all moneys that may
come into his hands for the use o f the National Association, and take receipts
from that officer for the same; also, attest all drafts upon the treasury.
A rticle VII.
It shall be the duty o f the corresponding secretary to carry on all correspond
ence with European societies, and to answer calls for information from local
societies in the United States. He shall preserve a correct copy o f his cor
respondence, and lay the sarnie before the association at its annual meetings.
A rticle VIII.
The treasurer shall receive all moneys from the recording secretary, and re
ceipt to him for the same ; pay all bills passed by the convention, signed by the
president, and attested by the secretary; keep a true account o f all moneys re
ceived and disbursed, and make a report at each annual meeting o f the asso
ciation. He shall, when legally directed by the president, immediately deliver
over to liis successor in office all moneys, books, etc. in his possession belonging
to the association. He shall give such surety for the faithful performance of
his duties as the convention may deem satisfactory.
A rticle IX.
Immediately after their election, the president, vice-president, secretaries, and
treasurer shall assent to the following declaration :
“ You, A B, do solemnly pledge your word and honor, in the presence of this
convention, that you will, to the best o f your ability, discharge the various duties
Incumbent on you a s --------- o f The National Typographical Association during
your term o f office.”
276—No. 61—06
m
------ 17
976
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
A rticle
X.
Each society, or association, shall annually pay into the treasury o f this asso
ciation, 25 per cent, on the whole amount received into their treasuries, for
defraying the expenses o f the attendance o f their delegates, and other necessary
expenditures; but should the amount in the treasury be insufficient, an addi
tional tax shall be levied on the local societies, proportioned on each according
to amounts last paid in.
A rticle XI.
A majority of the societies represented shall constitute a quorum for the
transaction of business; no money to be appropriated but by a vote of two-thirds
of the delegates in attendance.
A rticle X II.
S ectio n 1. There shall be issued by the officers o f the National Association,
in blank form, (under the control o f that body) to local societies, for the use of
their members, a card, to be called the “ union card,” with suitable designs
and inscriptions; and it shall be the duty of the local societies to issue one of
these cards to every member in good standing, when about to leave the section of
country over which they may have jurisdiction; and on the member’s arriving
under the jurisdiction o f another society, and depositing his card with the presi
dent, or in his absence with any other officer, and receiving a certificate o f such
deposit, it must secure for him the confidence and good offices o f that b od y ; and,
in case of his departure, in good standing, from said place, the proper officers
of the society will give him another similar card, which shall be his passport
with the next society. The card to be as follow s:
“ This is to certify that the bearer h ereof,-------------------- , is a member o f the
-------------------- ; and, at the time of issuing this card, is in good standing, and as
such will receive the confidence, friendship, and good offices of all societies
under the jurisdiction of the National Association.
“ Given under our hands a t --------- , this — day o f ---------, 18— .
“ -------------------- , P residen t.
“ -------------------- , S ecreta ry .”
S ec . 2. It shall be the duty of every member of any association or society,
on arriving in a place from another section o f country, to wait on some one
connected with the association, and show his card. And that it be further the
duty of said member waited on, to introduce (as soon as practicable) the
stranger among his craftsmen o f the association, for examination o f card.
A rticle X I I I .
This constitution may be altered or amended at any meeting o f the National
Association, to suit a majority o f the local societies then represented: P ro vid ed ,
No alteration shall be made unless notice be given at the previous annual
meeting.
ADDRESS TO LOCAL SOCIETIES BY THE CONVENTION OF THE
NATIONAL TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY IN 1886.
In proposing the general rules for the management o f the local societies, the
committee deem it a matter o f so much importance to the permanency and effi
ciency of the contemplated union, that they can not forego the opportunity to
impress upon the members o f such societies the strong necessity which exists for
yielding so much o f opinion, of power, and of government, as shall be required
to give harmony, stability, and efficacy to the whole system. To accomplish
the great purposes aimed at, and to secure a good organization, something of
concession— much o f resolution and determination— will be needed. The prin
cipal object should never be lost sight of—the glorious result thereof should for
ever be kept in view, and a comparison should be drawn between our present
inefficient, unorganized, and, in too many respects, deplorable condition, with
the energetic discipline and strength constituting its reverse.
The advantages which will accrue to the profession from the adoption o f some
equitable plan o f union, are incalculable; and the recommendations o f the com
mittee are such as, in their judgment, will be most feasible, provided a proper
spirit o f conciliation, allied to an unshaken firmness o f purpose, shall be ob
served on the part o f the local societies. Our employers, though some o f them
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
97 7
may be opposed to us a while, will eventually become convinced that, in endeav
oring to ameliorate our own condition, we have not forgotten their interests,
but have, on the contrary, consulted and secured them; and your committee
conceive that, in no recommendation o f theirs, is the least principle o f right in
fringed or reason violated, but strict and impartial justice extended to all
concerned.
I f it be made obligatory upon the parents or guardians of boys to have them
bound as apprentices for a certain term, (not less than six years), does the
employer suffer injustice? By no means. He is benefited. The employer, the
journeyman, and the apprentice, are all benefited by this regulation, and the
provision made to bring into membership, in one or the other of the several
local societies, all who may not be connected therewith—and after a distant
specified period to admit none who have not served six years at the trade, will
be found, upon proper reflection, to be productive of the happiest results, as it
will secure to the employer the whole time o f the apprentice, and prevent those
from working as journeymen who have not served a regular apprenticeship.
The committee would, therefore, again urge upon the local societies the pro
priety of deep and mature deliberation, and they confidently hope that, when the
few innovations upon long-established usages, which the nature o f the subject
necessarily imposed, shall come before them for consideration, they will receive
that approval to which their merits may entitle them.
[The regulations below, when adopted by the respective societies, throilgh
their representatives, will become binding upon the whole, as general laws, for
the government o f the craft.]
A bticle 1. Every apprentice shall serve until he be 21 years of age; and at
the time of entering as an apprentice shall not be more than 15 years o f age;
and every boy taken as an apprentice shall be bound to his employer in due form
of law.
Abt. 2. No runaway apprentice shall be received into any office in the United
States attached to the National Society, either as an apprentice or journeyman.
Abt. 3. Any boy who may be legally released from his master, may be
received into another establishment to serve out the remainder o f his apprentice
ship, provided he has not been legally released for his own bad conduct.
A bt. 4. That on the death o f his master, or if, from any cause, the office
wherein he was indented shall cease to be, he may be taken into another office,
and be regularly indented to finish the term o f his apprenticeship.
A bt . 5. After the — day o f --------- , 18— , it shall not be lawful for any local
society to consider any application for membership unaccompanied by the cre
dentials of the applicant that he had served the period o f six years as a regu
larly indented apprentice at the printing business.
A b t . 6. That after the — day o f --------- it shall not be lawful for any local
society to permit members of said society to work in any office where boys
may be taken as apprentices to the printing business, to serve for a less period
than six years.
A bt. 7. The local societies shall have the pow er to establish such tariff o f
prices as may be suitable to the section o f country in which they may be
located; always having a due regard to the wants o f the profession.
A bt . 8. It shall be the duty of all local societies, working under the jurisdic
tion o f the National Society, to sustain each other in their list o f prices, or
such other regulations as they may adopt for their government.
A bt. 9. That any individual violating the constitution or regulations o f the
local society o f the district in w hich he resides, shall be summoned to appear
before the society to which he is attached; and if it should be proved to the
satisfaction o f said society that the individual has committed the offense, that
he shall be forthw ith exp elled ; and that no member o f any society be permitted
to w ork in an office where he may be employed, unless said individual shall
be reinstated by the society from w hich he had been expelled.
A bt. 10. That all local societies repeal so much o f their constitutions as
requires a term of apprenticeship as a qualification for membership; and that
they admit all who are at work at the business as journeymen, so soon as it
shall be ascertained that the proposed regulations o f the convention upon this
subject shall be adopted by two-thirds of the societies.
A bt. 11 Any person presenting a certificate o f membership from one society,
under the jurisdiction of the National Society, to another society under the same
jurisdiction, and paying the monthly dues called for by their constitution,
shall be entitled to the trade benefits o f said society. I f he shall pay in addi
9 78
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
tion the usual initiation fee, he shall be entitled to the full benefits o f the
society.
A rt . 12. In case it shall be necessary in any local society to strike for an ad
vance o f wages, it shall be the duty o f all other societies to contribute such sum
as may be necessary to sustain them : P ro vid ed , The board o f control o f the
National Society previously sanctions the strike.
A rt . 13. No member o f any society shall contract for more work than he can
perform in person on one machine or press (whether for a master printer,
publisher, or bookseller) at the same time.
A rt . 14. Local societies shall recognize but two classes o f printers— employers
and journeymen—that is, persons who carry on business solely as employers,
and those who work as journeymen, in the manner prescribed, and at the prices
demanded by such society.
A rt . 15. It shall be the duty of local societies to have prepared an annual
report o f their condition, showing the number o f members admitted for the
year preceding: the amount o f receipts from initiation, etc., said report to be
transmitted to the National Society at its annual meeting.
A rt . 16. That the societies be requested to forward to the board o f control,
or to the National Society, when in session, the number, as near as can be ascer
tained, o f apprentices employed in the district of country over which the society
has jurisdiction; also, o f all the journeymen— distinguishing members of the
society from others.
A rt . 17. That men pronounced rats by one society, shall be considered such by
all others.
A rt . 18. N o person shall be adm itted into a society until he attains the age o f
21 years.
A rt . 19.
A local society, on the suspension or expulsion o f a member, shall
give information to all other societies, and make annual report to the National
Society.
A rt . 20. That it be made obligatory on the members of the respective soci
eties to solicit all printers to join some local society.
The foregoing constitution, etc., o f the National Typographical Society was
adopted by the undersigned delegates, representing the societies attached to
our several names, at the City Hall, in the city o f Washington, on the 11th day
of November, 1836.
C h ar les A . D a v is ,
J o h n L. B r o w n ,
A u gustus H . K r a u t h ,
From New York.
E zr a C r o s s m a n ,
W m . Sh ar pless,
J a s . F . H a l id a y ,
From Harrisburg, Pa.
J o h n F. C o o k ,
G eo . J o h n s t o n ,
W m . H o l l id a y ,
From Baltimore, Md.
J no . S t o c k w e l l ,
Ja m e s Cle p h a n e ,
W. W . C u r r a n ,
From Washington, D. C.
A. F . C u n n i n g h a m ,
C harles F. L ow rey,
From New Orleans, La.
ADDRESS TO THE PRINTERS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES
ISSUED BY NATIONAL TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, CONVENTION OF
1836.
C i t y H a l l , W a s h in g t o n C i t y , N o vem b er 1 1 ,1 8 8 6 .
F e l l o w -C r a f t s m e n :
The delegates from the different societies which were invited to meet at
Washington on the 7th day o f November instant, to form a convention, to take
into consideration the present condition o f the printing business, being about
to close their labors, they feel desirous to address you, in order to lay before
you the motives which induced the call, and which urged them to adopt meas
ures to form a constitution for the originating and management o f a general
association, under the denomination of " The National Typographical Society,”
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
979
to be held annually, and to be composed o f delegates from all societies in the
different sections o f the United States, proportioned* to the rate o f their sitting
members.
From recent attempts at encroachments on the rights of journeymen, and to
prevent such in future, it has been judged most prudent to seek safety in union.
This concert o f action becomes the more imperative, since we daily perceive the
rapid strides which printing is making over a vast extent o f country, and the
measures which may be adopted to injure us. It is a lamentable fact that
the newspaper press has almost entirely passed from under the control o f
members o f the profession, into the hands of speculators and partisans, who,
ignorant o f the feelings and sympathies o f the craft, create dissensions and
difficulties when they can not make them subservient to their will and interest.
As nothing o f a permanent nature could be undertaken by this convention,
it confined itself solely to recommendatory measures, such as were suggested
during the several meetings which were held, leaving much important matter
to the societies to accomplish before they confirm and ratify the constitution.
But in the meantime, it is incumbent on us to make you acquainted with the
various topics which engaged our time and attention, and the results at which
we have arrived.
In looking back but a few years, we may almost* say a few months, associa
tions by men in the humbler spheres of life were regarded, even by men o f
sound legal knowledge, as a departure from common usage, which ought to be
considered as a combination against wealth and rank, and contrary to common
law, for which opinions they pretended to have many strong judicial precedents
to sustain them. But already have the true principles o f political knowledge
spread almost with the celerity o f sound, and stamp the improvements o f the
age. All that dread o f danger has disappeared, and given place to more con
genial feelings. So much so, that it has now become the duty o f the working
classes to watch the employment o f capital in the hands of the speculator.
Indeed, it is an important object for the study o f legislators, to restrain the
capitalist in his wild career o f gain, that he may not injure the poor mechanic
in the line o f his profession. Should this maxim be overlooked, the wealthy
o f the land may increase in riches, but the most abject poverty and distress
will be sure to follow in the track. Does it not then become the industrious
mechanic to protect himself and family from pauperism, by adopting a mode
o f defense which will cause a more general distribution of that property which
is produced by his hard earnings?
To you, fellow-craftsmen, who take a pride in your profession, and look upon
the present degraded state of the press as a public misfortune, which must
eventually corrupt the morals o f the mmmunity, and destroy our free institu
tions, we would appeal to arrest this e v il; or, before many months pass over, the
art o f printing will no longer give support to its professors. The demon o f
misrule has entered the sacred temple of liberty, corrupted its officiating priests,
and profaned the holy altar. This picture is too true, and has already alarmed
the fears, and occupied the attention o f many good men of our land, and among
that number, the patriotic and enlightened Noah W ebster; as a proof o f which,
we give the following living picture o f the press from the pen o f this great m an:
“ The press, when judiciously managed, is one o f the greatest blessings o f a
civilized people; when abused, it is the most powerful instrument o f mischief.
Probably no civil privilege in this country is so much perverted and abused. In
no country is reputation held so cheap. Slander, like the scythe o f death, levels
all worth and distinction; the press, one o f the noblest instruments of improve
ment, is converted into an instrument o f deception, and the means o f making
citizens hate and oppress each other. The moral effect o f this abuse is lamen
table ; for it seems to have become a ruling belief o f partisans that a man has a
right to defame those who differ from him in opinion."
Thank God, but few o f these corrupt conductors of the press are practical
printers! Unfortunately, however, they manage to carry on this warfare by
the service o f boys, raising six or eight at a time for a few years, to subserve
their nefarious purposes, and then cast them on the profession for support By
this means, they continually keep the stream flowing into the larger cities, driv
ing the journeymen from their positions to make room for those youths who
will labor for a mere pittance to obtain a livelihood, and hence become an object
to some avaricious employers—inconsiderate men.
This we consider a cruel and an unjust practice, and are determined, as far
as lies in our power, to meet the evil with energy and! firmness. We call upon
each local society to unite with us in denouncing it, *and upon every parent or
980
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
guardian to protect the interest of their charge, by compelling their boys to be
regularly bound as apprentices, and to be taught a full knowledge of their busi
ness, and not to allow them to be thrown into the company o f immoral and
profligate youths, encouraged by receiving more money than they are acquainted
with the value of.
We would earnestly advise every society not to lose one day in adopting some
specific act on this head, that all may feel the benefit. The suggestions o f the
National Society’s constitution will point out a mode to regulate you in this
all-important and long-complained-of evil, which has already ruined the business
in more than one city; we must congratulate those societies who have under
taken to check this wicked custom, and we hope they will expose those who
traffic at their neighbors’ cost.
We can not embrace, in this brief address, the one-half o f the objects brought
before this convention; but one serious evil we must not omit, because, if longer
persisted in, it will reduce us to the wretched condition of the servile tools o f
party, which must deprive us o f the most distant hope o f ever benefiting our
selves by our profession. This evil exists in a country, too, where the press is
considered free, and the principles of liberty are well known. We have allusion
to that unjust and pernicious practice o f the legislatures of many States, as
well as o f the Federal Government, o f bestowing all their printing and binding
in such a manner as to reward their zealous partisans, even to the smallest
job, when they are not only not printers, but entirely unacquainted with the
art, to the exclusion and utter ruin of the practical man. This ought not to be
submitted to, and we must endeavor to have it altered, if necessary, by means
o f the ballot box, in calling on all whose interests may be concerned to unite
with us. It is the duty of all upright and honest legislators to protect all
classes, and not to oppress one class of citizens to elevate another. We may
compete with capital, but can not contend against the powerful influence of a
State. Security in the right o f what we possess is the principal object o f the
social compact, and the property o f the working man consists in the knowledge
of his calling, and any infringement o f that right is at once subversive of all
civil institutions.
We can not overlook what has been pointed out to us since we assembled here,
through the public papers. A joint stock company, we understand, is about
being formed in Boston(«) to carry on printing by means o f boys; and we also
perceive, from a prospectus published in the United States Telegraph, that a more
formidable inroad is about to be made by a joint stock company with a capital
o f $500,000 under a pretended charter. This chimerical plan, o f itself, could not
excite one uneasy sensation in the breast o f any practical m an; but, in this age
of speculative mania, others may attempt the same or similar projects. The
following simple extract will at once exnibit the manner by which our interests
might be destroyed by the failure or success o f such undertakings:
“ It is proposed (says the prospectus) to manufacture the paper used in
printing, and thus save the expense o f drying it for market, putting it into
bundles, transportation to market, commission, interest, and guaranties, equal
at least to 20 per cent.
“ A greater saving can be made by the employment o f boys in composition,
printing, and binding. This, with the profits on periodicals, reprints, and ele
mentary books, will secure to the stockholders a good dividend.”
Our efforts, in endeavoring to enlist your feelings and cooperation, are in
tended for the benefit of all, individually and collectively. We are aware that
our friends will expect from this convention some regulation with respect to
the price of labor; but we believe it bad policy to meddle with the concerns of
local societies— and, therefore, can fix no standard o f wages; but we judge it
better to obligate ourselves to sustain each other in our general interests, when
prudence may dictate the interference. We, therefore, call upon you, through
your associations, to concert measures to have delegates sent to “ The National
Typographical Society,” that its exertions might be felt, simultaneously, from
one end of the Union to the other, in sustaining the honor and interests o f our
profession. In those sections o f the country where no society is as yet estab
lished, we trust the craft will see the necessity o f immediately uniting them
selves in some bond o f union. Where members of the profession may be but
few and scattered, a chapel, or some such meeting, may be concerted to appoint
a delegate or proxy.•
• We understand that the Boston company has already gone into operation.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
981
To the rising profession o f the West, we would particularly address our
solicitations, as they promise to become the future guardians of the people’s
press, and the protectors of the freemen’s rights. To them the present is a most
important era. However small their numbers may be they ought now to concen
trate and unite themselves together, for the least procrastination may perhaps
prove an insuperable obstacle to their progress. They have no ancient preju
dices to contend against—no inveterate habits to overcome; which must make
the task to them a pleasant and easy one, and on which might be predicated
many a useful and valuable institution. Libraries or reading rooms might be
got up, and made the channel o f much friendly intercourse between them.
Through this means o f acquiring information, they might, with a giant’s arm,
protect the yet almost uncorrupted West from the hireling editor’s contaminat
ing pen, and become the true recorders of the nation’s progress to greatness and
glory, in the peaceful pursuits of civil life, or in encouraging the citizen soldier
when called on to battle against the oppressor for liberty and independence.
Although we do consider it the duty of all printers to join and lend their aid
to some association, we would rather invite than use coercive measures to
induce them to become members. We would do this in the best o f faith, that
we might have all the good and moral men of the craft enrolled as brothers of
one family, and none to stand aloof but the unworthy and debased. We hope
the different societies will, accordingly, so amend the qualification articles in
their respective constitutions as to make all who are now ineligible from want
of certificate, etc., o f apprenticeship, good members, who may be at the same
time working at the business as acknowledged journeymen. When the Na
tional Sociey’s constitution is ratified, then six years will be the minimum
standard o f apprenticeship for boys to be bound. This regulation the employ
ing printer will find to be of primary importance to his interest and welfare.
And thus, reciprocally blending our interests, we may stand united, and oppose
the efforts of the selfish speculator, or the partisan politician. Under such a
union, we will make our press to be heard, whether in the turmoil o f a Republic
or in the dead calm o f a despotism.
Through the agency of the various delegations a statistical table will be
annually furnished, and regularly published, of the number o f newspapers and
periodicals in the United States; the names and professions o f editors: men
employed, members or not members o f a society; boys bound, etc., so that we
may possess all necessary information concerning the management of the pal
ladium o f our rights, which the public, as well as the craft, should know.
We fear we have transcended our limits for publication, and must omit much
of what we would wish to suggest. We would remark, however, that the union
we are about to form is but an association o f social feelings, to ascertain the
condition o f our trade, and make regulations for the government o f ourselves;
we have encroached upon no man’s rights, nor committed an act that we shall
ever have cause to regret. The interests of the employer and journeyman have
been assimilated, and, we hope, rendered permanent for the time to come.
The convention transacted its arduous duties with the greatest harmony and
good feeling towards each member; and perhaps never did a meeting take place
under more propitious auspices than this convention did, and which promises
much to the future of the profession at large. With great respect, and good
wishes to all the profession, we bid you adieu.
APPENDIX A, NO. 10.—ADDRESS ISSUED BY THE CONVENTION
OF 1850 TO THE JOURNEYMEN PRINTERS OF THE UNITED
STATES.
For some time past the project o f calling together a national convention of
journeymen printers has met with considerable attention and favor from the
trade in various portions o f the country. Aware of this fact, and partaking also
in the general desire, the unions o f New York, Philadelphia, and Boston about
a month since issued a circular, requesting the different societies throughout
the country to send delegates to a national convention, to be held in New York,
on Monday, December 2, 1850. In consequence o f the very short space o f time
intervening between the receipt o f the circular and the meeting o f the con
vention, but five States have sent delegates, v iz : New York, New Jersey, Penn
sylvania, Maryland, and Kentucky. These delegates met in convention at the
time and place specified, and, through their committee, now address you.
It is useless for us to disguise from ourselves the fact that, under the present
arrangement of things, there exists a perpetual antagonism between labor and
982
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
capital. The toilers are involuntarily pitted against the employers: one side
striving to sell their labor for as much, and the other striving to buy it for as
little, as they can. In this war o f interests, labor, o f itself, stands no chance.
The power is all on the other side. Every addition to the number o f laborers
in the market decreases their pow er: while the power o f capital grows in a ratio
commensurate with the increase of the capital itself. On the one side, the
greater the number of dollars, the greater the ability to succeed in the conflict:
on the other the greater the number o f laborers, the less the ability to succeed.
Add to this the fact that wealth accumulates, on the one side, much faster as the
laborers accumulate on the other, and the utter impotency o f unorganized labor
in a warfare against capital becomes manifest.
To remedy the many disastrous grievances arising from this disparity of
power, combination, for mutual agreement in determining rates of wages, and for
concert o f action in maintaining them, has been resorted to in many trades, and
principally in our own. Its success has abundantly demonstrated its utility.
Indeed, while the present wages system continues in operation, as an immediate
protection from pressing calamities, it is clearly the only effective means which
labor can adopt. So far as it extends, it destroys competition in the labor
market; unites the working people, and produces a sort of equilibrium in the
power of the conflicting parties.
This being the case, it appears evident that an extensive organization, em
bracing the whole country, would secure to our own, or any other trade, a
power which could be derived from no other source. The delegates here assem
bled have come together deeply impressed with this conviction. They regard
such an organization not only as an agent o f immediate relief, but also as essen
tial to the ultimate destruction of those unnatural relations at present subsist
ing between the interests of the employing and employed classes. All their
activities have accordingly been regulated with a view to the establishing of
such an organization. They have recommended the formation o f societies in
all the cities and towns throughout the country. They have rendered it obliga
tory upon all members of the profession traveling to any point embraced in the
representation here, for work, to have with them certificates of membership
from the society located in the place from which they come. They have estab
lished a national executive committee, to urge the enforcement of their recom
mendations and requirements. They have also instructed that committee to
use their utmost exertions to have a full representation o f the whole country in
the next national convention, which they have ordered to be held in Baltimore,
Md., on the 12th of next September.
The members o f this convention are well assured that, to secure the adoption
o f the measures they recommend, they must recommend those alone which are
best calculated to effect the immediate well-being o f the individual members of
the trade. The establishment o f a general organization must be effected upon
certain principles. In proportion as the advantages o f the operation o f those
principles are felt and observed, the establishment o f that organization will be
rendered certain or doubtful. The principles, therefore, recommended by the
convention, upon which it urges the formation o f societies throughout the
country, are such as can not fail to enlist in their favor the most potent consider
ations o f self-interest. Among them are—
First. An understanding in the regulation o f scales o f prices in different
localities, so that those in one place may not be permitted to become so com
paratively high as to induce work to be sent elsewhere.
Second. The enforcement o f the principle o f limiting the number o f appren
tices; by which measure a too rapid increase in the number o f workmen, too
little care in the selection o f boys for the business, and the employment of
herds of half men at half wages, to the detriment o f good workmen, will be
effectively prevented.
Third. The issuing o f traveling certificates, by which the distresses o f brother
craftsmen, incurred in journeying from one place to another, in search of work,
may be relieved. In this we have one o f those means of attracting and attach
ing to our societies men who, not troubled largely with abstract principles of
strict duty, are nevertheless willing to become “ repentant prodigals ” for the
sake of the “ fatted calf.” Besides, it is eminently calculated to produce a
warmer attachment on the part o f superior men, inasmuch as it will bind them
in ties o f gratitude, and in the luxurious fellowship o f good deeds.
Fourth. Measures to prevent disgraced members of the profession enjoying,
anywhere in the United States, those privileges which belong exclusively to
honorable printers. They consist in keeping a registry o f “ rats,” to be sent by
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
983
the executive committtee to every union in the country, for reference; and ad
mitting to membership no stranger, who does not produce evidence o f his having
been a member in good standing o f the society, if any existed, in the place from
which he comes.
Fifth. The gradual collection of a sum o f money by each union sufficient to
enable it to hold out successfully against the employers, in the event o f a con
tention for higher wages.
Sixth. The recognition o f the right o f a union to borrow from any other, when
necessary, a sum o f money to the amount o f $1 for each member thereof, to be
repaid in a manner prescribed. This is intended, in conjunction with other
matters proposed, to strengthen each individual society in the struggles which
it may be called on to make, from time to time, against unjust employers. Its
efficacy needs no explanation.
Seventh. Measures for the attainment of several other objects of less impor
tance, which are calculated to give efficacy to the whole.
Such has been the main work o f the convention; and, while the members
thereof are aware that it is but the commencement of an undertaking which in
its full completion, must necessarily be more or less protractive, they look with
confidence to those who shall follow them, in subsequent conventions, to conduct
it to a successful consummation.
The project o f establishing a joint stock office, at Washington City, for the
purpose of executing the printing o f the United States Government, was intro
duced into the convention; but its newness, as a matter o f practical concern,
to the great body o f journeymen printers, with the necessity of having a
thorough deliberation on so important a matter, and the propriety o f delegates
being elected with special regard to its consideration, prompted its reference
to the next convention. The practicability o f the working people* employing
themselves, and realizing the profits of their own labor, there can be no doubt
might be illustrated and established, if the journeymen printers o f the United
States would resolve to try the experiment. In fact, our Philadelphia brethren
have already, to a great extent, succeeded in an effort of the kind. A publish
ing establishment has been instituted in that city, by the union there; and thus
far has answered the most sanguine expectations of its projectors and friends.
I f a similar concern, on a large scale, could be instituted in Washington, a
similar result might be reasonably apprehended. The subject is, at least, well
worthy a full and deliberate consideration: and may be regarded as one of the
most important and interesting which will engage the attention o f the next
convention.
Combination merely to fix and sustain a scale o f prices, is o f minor impor
tance, compared to that combination which looks to an ultimate redemption o f
labor. Scales o f prices, to keep up the value o f labor, are only necessary under
a system which, in its uninterrupted operation, gives to that value a continued
downward tendency. But when labor determines no longer to sell itself to
speculators, but to become its own employer; to own and enjoy itself and the
fruit thereof, the necessity for scales o f prices will have passed away, and
labor will be forever rescued from the control o f the capitalist. It will
then be free, fruitful, honorable. The shackles o f a disastrous convention
alism will have fallen from its limbs; and it will appear in the character
which nature designed it to sustain. This is certainly a consummation most
devoutly to be wished; and, however difficult it may be to attain, if within the
range of possibility, ought to constitute the great end to which all our other
aims and efforts should be made subsidiary.
The journeymen printers o f the United States are earnestly invoked, by their
brethren here, to employ their most effective endeavors in the prosecution o f
this work. Its success now rests with them; and it is to be hoped they will
feel the full weight o f the responsibility. We beg them to take into favorable
consideration the measures we .have recommended for their adoption. We beg
them to assist the national executive committee, by every possible means, in
the fulfillment of its duties. We beg them to circulate the official proceedings
of this convention, (published in pamphlet form by the union o f Philadelphia)
wherever such circulation will be calculated to excite an interest in the move
ment. And we beg them finally to send a full representation to the next con
vention, from every section o f the country. They owe a duty which they are
thus called upon to discharge, not only to us, who have commenced in this move
ment— not alone to themselves, who are so deeply interested in it—but also to
the laborers o f all trades and vocations, who are anxiously awaiting the devel
opment o f some sure plan o f amelioration, which they can all adopt. Public
9 84
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
opinion places us at the head o f the mechanical professions. Let us not belie
that opinion, by falling behind it. Something is expected of u s : and when the
next convention assembles, let its numbers and its actions justify and realize
the public expectation. Let something be evolved, during its deliberations,
which will redound to the benefit o f our own trade, and, by way o f example,
to the benefit o f all others.
Respectfully,
M. F. Co n w a y ,
G eo. E. G reene,
A&d. J. A tkin son ,
J. T. N afew ,
C h a s . B echtel ,
C om m ittee.
By order o f the convention:
J ohn W. P eregoy,
P resid en t.
Geo. E. Greene,
M. C. B rown ,
V ice-P resid en ts.
F. J. Ottarson ,
J ohn H artm an ,
Secretaries.
N ew Y o r k , D ecem b er 7, 1850.
APPENDIX A, NO. 1 1 .—CONSTITUTION OF 1851, NATIONAL TYPO
GRAPHICAL UNION.
We, the representatives o f the typographical associations o f the States of
Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Kentucky, Virginia, Massachusetts
and New Jersey, in national convention assembled, for our government, do
ordain and establish the following:
CONSTITUTION.
A rticle I.
Section 1. This body shall be known by the name of “ The National Typo
graphical Union,” and shall be acknowledged, respected and obeyed as such
by each subordinate union in the country. It shall possess original and exclu
sive jurisdiction in all matters pertaining to the fellowship of the craft in the
United States. All subordinate unions shall assemble under its warrant, and
derive their authority from it, enabling them to make all necessary local laws
for their own government. It shall be the ultimate tribunal to which all
matters o f general importance to the welfare o f the members o f the different
unions shall be referred, and its decision thereon shall be final and conclusive.
To it shall belong the power to regulate, fix and determine the customs and
usages in regard to all matters appertaining to the craft. It shall possess inher
ent power to establish subordinate unions who shall always act by virtue o f a
warrant granted by authority o f this body.
A rticle II.
The members o f this National Union shall be composed of its elective officers
and the representatives from subordinate unions, acting under legal, unreclaimed
warrants granted by this National Union.
A rticle III.
Section 1. The elective officers shall be a president, two vice-presidents, (who
shall be chosen from different States), a recording secretary, a corresponding
secretary, and a treasurer— all o f whom shall be elected annually, by ballot, and
be installed and enter upon the duties o f their offices at the termination o f the
session at which they are elected. They shall attend each meeting o f the Na
tional Union, and perform such other duties as may be enjoined by its laws and
regulations. No officer, who is not also a representative, shall be permitted to
vote, except the president, in case o f equal division.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
985
A rticle IY.
Section 1. The president shall preside at the meetings o f the National
Union, preserve order, and enforce the laws thereof. He shall have the casting
vote whenever the National Union shall be equally divided; but shall not vote
at other times. During the recess o f this National Union, he shall, in conjunc
tion with the vice-president, have a general superintendence over the interests
of the craft; and make report, immediately upon the assembling o f the Na
tional Union, of his acts and doings in relatioh thereto. He shall not hold
any office in a subordinate while acting as president o f this National Union.
Sec. 2. The vice-presidents shall assist the president in the discharge of his
duties, and shall take precedence of rank in proportion to the votes received
in the election of each (i. e. the officer receiving the highest number o f votes
shall rank before the one receiving the lower number). In the absence o f the
president and first vice-president, the second vice-president shall preside.
Sec. 3. The recording secretary shall make a just and true record o f the pro
ceedings o f the National Union, in a book provided for that purpose; keep
accounts between the National Union and subordinates under its jurisdiction;
read all petitions, reports and papers to be laid before the National Union,
and perform such other duties as may from time to time be required o f him.
Sec. 4. The corresponding secretary shall conduct the correspondence o f the
National Union, and transact such business as appertains to his office. Copies
of all communications transmitted or received by him shall be laid before the
National Union.
Sec. 5. The treasurer shall keep the moneys of the National Union, and pay
all orders drawn on him by the president and attested by the recording secre
tary, under the seal of the National Union. He shall lay before the union at
each regular session a full and correct statement o f his accounts, and before
entering upon the duties o f his office give such security as the National Union
may require.
A rticle Y.
Section 1. Representatives from subordinate unions must be actual members,
in good standing. They must be elected by the body they represent for the
term of one year— and furnished with a certificate of election.
S ec . 2. Each subordinate union shall be entitled to three representatives in
the National Union, and each representative shall be entitled to one vote.
The expenses of the attendance o f said representatives shall be defrayed by the
unions they respectively represent.
A rticle VI.
The National Union shall meet annually on the first Monday in May, at such
place as shall from time to time be determined upon.
A rticle VII.
The revenue of the National Union shall be derived as follow s: For a war
rant for a subordinate union, $5, and 5 per cent upon the total receipts o f sub
ordinate unions.
A rticle VIII.
In case o f death, resignation, disqualification, or refusal o f the president
elected to serve, the duties o f the office for the remainder o f the term shall
be performed by the vice-presidents in the order designated by this constitution.
And in case o f death, resignation, disqualification or refusal of the above offi
cers to serve, then a president pro tern shall be elected. In case o f the death,
resignation, disqualification, or refusal to serve, of any officer, the preceding
officer for the time being shall appoint some qualified person to perform the
duties until the next regular meeting o f the National Union.
A rticle IX.
A majority o f the representatives o f the several unions under the jurisdiction
of this National Union, shall be necessary to form a quorum for the transac
tion of business. All questions, unless otherwise provided for, shall be decided
by a majority of the votes given.
986
BULLETIN OP T H E BUREAU OP LABOR.
A rticle X .
Section 1. General laws for the government o f the craft throughout the juris
diction of this National Union, may be enacted and enforced by this bod y ; and
any union within its jurisdiction refusing to abide by its laws and decisions shall
be expelled. The National Union shall also upon the request o f any subordinate
union under its jurisdiction, establish ceremonies o f initiation into the ranks
of such subordinates.
Sec. 2. The National Union shall from time to time enact such by-laws as it
may deem necessary: P ro vid ed , That such by-laws will not conflict with this
constitution.
Sec. 3. Any alterations or amendment o f this constitution must be offered to
the National Union, at a regular session thereof; and, if seconded, it shall be
entered on the minutes. At the next stated meeting the amendments may be con
sidered, and if agreed to by two-thirds o f the vote given, shall become part of
the constitution. All alterations o f the laws of the National Union shall be
made in like manner; and no law o f a general application shall be adopted, un
less submitted and entered on the minutes at the regular session previous to
being adopted.
J. L. G ibbons , L ou isville, K y .
H. A. G uild , N e w Y ork.
E. H. R ogers, N e w Y ork.
T hos . J. W a l s h , A lb a n y , N. Y .
M. F. C o n w a y , B a ltim ore, M d .
R obt. J. B ruce, B a ltim ore , M d .
G eo. H. R andell , B a ltim ore, M d .
W ashington A shton , B a ltim ore , M d .
M yron H. R ooker, N e w Y ork.
W m . C. F igner , Philadelphia. Pa.
W m . B. E chert , Philadelphia, Pa.
J. B. S m it h , Philadelphia. Pa.
G eo. W . J ones , Philadelphia, Pa.
J ohn H. F a s y , Philadelphia, Pa.
Geo. W a d h a m , B o sto n , M a ss.
C h a s . A. R andell , B o ston , M a ss.
H. H. B oardman , B o sto n , M a ss.
J. R ichard L ewellen , R ichm ond , Va.
J ames H. W alford, R ichm ond, Va.
A ug. D onnelly , B a ltim o re, M d .
W. G. W ill ia m s , Cincinnati, Ohio.
H enry T. Ogden, Cincinnati, Ohio.
H iram H. Y oung, Cincinnati, Ohio.
C h a s . B echtel , T ren ton , N. J.
J ohn W. Cassedy , T ren ton , N . J.
A lex . W. R ook, P ittsbu rg, Pa.
W. J. I rvin , H arrisburg, Pa.
A. C. P ool, H arrisburg, Pa.
SCHEDULE.
First. This constitution being adopted, shall be signed by the members o f this
convention, published by its authority, and forwarded by the national executive
committee to the different typographical unions and associations, for their
ratification.
Second. As soon as the unions of five different States shall signify to the ex
ecutive committee their willingness to comply with the principles and requisi
tions of the constitution, and accompany the same with the regular fee o f $5,
the said executive committee shall issue their circular, announcing that the Na
tional Typographical Union has been formed, and request all subordinates who
have ratified the constitution, to elect representatives in pursuance o f its pro
visions, who shall assemble on the first Monday in May, 1852, in the city o f
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Third. I f five-unions, as specified above, do not ratify the convention as early
as the 15th day of May next, then the national executive committee shall call
a national convention, to assemble at such time thereafter as they in their judg
ment may deem proper, to be held in the city where the first session o f the
National Typographical Union would have been held, had it been formed as
above.
Also,
R e so lv e d , That a national executive committee o f one from each typograph
ical society here represented be appointed, to enforce the execution o f all reso
lutions adopted by this convention, collect information on all matters in rela
tion to the trade, and report the same to the next convention.
R eso lved , That the Secretary from New York be authorized and required,
in conjunction with the national executive committee, to take charge o f the
proceedings o f the convention together with the address o f the executive
committee, and have them printed, subject to orders for the same, from all
local typographical associations, or societies, at a price to be fixed by said
secretary.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
9 87
R e so lv e d , That the various local societies be earnestly requested to order, for
circulation in their respective localities and districts, such number o f copies of
the above-mentioned proceedings as may be necessary to supply all newspapers
and printers in their own district, or elsewhere, as they may deem proper.
R e so lv e d , That the officers and members o f the various societies throughout
the country are hereby requested to have the proceedings o f this convention, or
an outline thereof, published in all newspapers within the circle o f their
influence.
APPENDIX A, NO. 12.—PROTESTS AGAINST THE WASHINGTON
INSTITUTE.
PROTEST OF THE COLUMBIA TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, AUGUST 19,
1834.
P rotest of the typographical society, addressed to the public generally, and
particularly to the printers o f the United States, against the Washington Insti
tute, a school about to be organized in the city o f Washington, by Duff Green,
which proposes to substitute, in the printing business, the labor o f boys for that
of journeymen.
Columbia T ypographical Society , A u g u st 19, 1884 •
The Columbia Typographical Society of the District of Columbia, solemnly
impressed with the responsibility under which it rests, and the duty which it
owes to the interests o f its members, and to the welfare o f the profession
generally, has deemed it its duty to make public the statements which fol
low, under the hope and belief, that, as the segis of the law is powerless for
the protection of the occupation of its members, the stern voice o f public
opinion may aid in accomplishing the overthrow o f the evil which threatens
the prosperity of the printing business, and o f which it is the purpose o f this
paper to treat.
For the first time since its organization this society now appears at the bar
o f the public. During the entire period which has elapsed since its formation,
which took place in the year 1815, nearly twenty years ago, it has never had
occasion so to appear. Considerations of a high character, from which it must
not shrink, involving, it may be, its own existence, has prompted the step which
it has now taken; and which must stand as its apology before an enlightened
and just community.
The course of the society, since its origin has been strongly marked by pros
perity ; from a number not exceeding 20, who were present at its organization,
it has extended its members tenfold; 200 names being now enrolled upon its
constitution, as living and active members, some o f whom are conductors o f the
public press at different points o f the Union, contributing, it is believed, a solid
reputation to its character and standing. This course of unexampled prosperity,
the society is perfectly aware is mainly owing to the just character of its pro
ceedings, which will be found to prevail throughout its history; its funda
mental rule o f action, which it has never broken, has ever been to infringe in no
degree on the rights of the employer: and, should the occasion ever demand it,
to maintain, with steady and determined purpose, the rights and interests o f its
own members. The main object of the formation of the society, however, was
benevolence. No difficulty between the employers o f that day and the journey
men organizing the society could have been the cause o f its formation, because
the society adopted the prices throughout as they found them. The wages o f
the journeymen were established by the employers themselves, before the forolation o f the society, and has never been changed, or attempted to be changed to
the present time, by either party, except in two instances, which we may have
occasion to notice hereafter.
But although benevolent purposes were the immediate occasion o f the forma
tion o f the Columbia Typographical Society, that other interests o f the members
composing it were taken into consideration o f at that time, is plainly apparent,
by the fact that the society did adopt and merge in its proceedings a list o f
prices for the government o f its members in this city. It has always been the
understanding o f members that the price received for their labor must conform
to that adopted by the society. The employers themselves seem to hate yielded
to the justice of this arrangement as no serious difficulty, requiring the exercise
o f whatever o f power the society possessed, has ever arisen since its formation.
98 8
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
Beyond this point, however, it has never been claimed heretofore, that the
power o f [the] society should be extended. How far it would be justified, in
endeavoring to maintain, where they have been wantonly attacked, the per
manent interests of the members composing the society, or o f the business which
they pursue, is a question which we shall pass by, until we shall have stated
more fully the immediate occasion o f the publication o f this paper.
It is with feelings of the most painful regret that the society has now to an
nounce to the public that a scheme is in agitation, if not already organized, the
operation of which, it is confidently believed, will destroy the occupation o f the
great body o f its members, and vitally injure the business which they pursue.
The scheme referred to was announced by its author (Mr. Duff Green) on
the 1st of January la st: since which time, the society, through a committee ap
pointed for that purpose, has endeavored to dissuade him from carrying it into
operation. The correspondence which took place on that occasion will be found
at the close of this expose. («)
On perusing the letters o f Mr. Green, the reader will perceive that he pro
poses to organize in the city of Washington, an establishment to be called the
Washington Institute. The prospectus o f this institution, which has been pub
lished and circulated by its author, to what extent or amongst whom is not
known, discloses the following as its prominent features:
From 100 to 200 boys are to be engaged, whose duty it shall be to work at the
printing business, under regulations therein prescribed.
Preceptors, to be drawn from the ranks o f the journeymen, and from other
sources, are to be employed to superintend the education of the boys.
The amount o f the labor of each shall be put down in a book to be kept for
that purpose; and, at the period o f his graduation, whatever amount shall ap
pear to his credit, beyond a certain daily task to be fixed for him, shall be
loaned to him on interest, for a certain term o f years, to enable him to commence
the publication of a newspaper or some other business.
These are believed to be the only features o f the institution which it is
necessary to portray at this time, in order to a fair understanding o f its charac
ter. Some o f its details, o f minor importance we may have occasion to notice
hereafter.
The object o f the institution is declared to be “ the regeneration of the
American press, and the improvement o f the character of the members o f the
craft ” ; but, as during its operation, the proprietor contemplates discharging from
his employment the journeymen at present in his office, except such as may be
required to act as preceptors to the b o y s; and judging also, from the following
facts which the occasion has compelled the society to make public, we are
bound to believe that the main object of the formation of the Washington
Institute is the personal aggrandizement o f the proprietor.
It is scarcely necessary to state that the great body o f the printers o f this city
are now, and have always been, employed upon work, emanating from the
Government. Up to the year 1819, the printing o f Congress had been given out
by contract; but that body, becoming dissatisfied by with the manner in which
the work had been executed, appointed a committee on the subject who reported
a joint resolution, the provision o f which required that each House should elect
its own printers, by ballot, for the subsequent Congress, and fixed upon a scale
of prices to be given for the execution o f the work based upon the prices given
by the employers to the journeymen.
This resolution was adopted by both branches o f Congress, and has the form
as well as the force o f law. It remains in existence at the present moment.
The prices o f the labor o f the journeymen were thus, in a measure sanctioned
by law, and both the printers in Congress, and the journeymen employed upon the
work seem to have considered themselves as bound in honor and justice not to
interfere with the established wages. No interference o f the kind was ever
made by the journeymen up to the present moment, nor by any one of the em
ployers until the period of the election o f Mr. Green as Printer o f the House of
Representatives in 1828.
Within a year after the election o f this gentleman he attempted to reduce the
wages of journeymen from $10 to $8 per week throughout the year, although
his pay as printer was regulated by the same law, and was precisely the same in
every respect as that of his predecessors. This attempt was o f course resisted
by the journeymen, and successfully resisted.
« These letters are om itted, as the text makes their contents sufficiently apparent.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
989
The next attempt o f Mr. Green to reduce the price o f the labor o f journey
men, which took place during the progress o f the following year was as follows.
The nature o f that reduction we will briefly describe: In executing the printing
for Congress it is frequently necessary to work to a late period o f the night.
The regular working hours o f the journeymen were from 8 a. m. to 8 p. m.
After the last-mentioned hour, if their services were required, it was customary
to pay them at the rate o f 20 cents an hour. This sum had been uniformly paid
by the former printers to Congress, and was considered the fixed price through
out the city. No regulation on the subject, however, had ever been adopted by
the society, and Mr. Green, having ascertained this fact, immediately reduced
the price of this portion o f the labor o f the journeymen in his employ to 16§
cents the hour— that sum being the rate per hour at $10 per w eek; and at this
moment, actually pays but this sum.
The journeymen acquiesced in this reduction solely because although the rate
was below the customary price, it infringed no regulation o f the society. It is
true that the nature of “ extra work,” as it is called exposed those who had it
to perform to great fatigue, at the risk of the loss of bodily health; but this
sacrifice the journeymen were willing to make rather than break that peace
which had existed for such a number of years between themselves and their
employers.
Not satisfied with effecting this reduction in their wages, the aggregate of
which amounted to a considerable sum, Mr. Green struck yet another blow at the
interests o f the journeymen; not this time by reducing the rate o f their wages,
but by excluding a great number o f them from employment through the agency
of b oy s; 40 or 50 o f whom he employed about the period o f his second Congres
sional term as printer. This unjust and ungenerous policy, although submitted
to, as were his other measures, without any public complaint from the journey
men, defeated itself in less than two years; it contained the seeds o f its own
destruction. The boys themselves, seeing the use that was thus attempted to
be made o f them, held a meeting on the subject, and one and all abandoned his
employment. To us this was no matter o f surprise. They had become, in a
measure initiated in the business, and had begun to feel the full throb o f those
principles o f honor, magnanimity, and justice the germ o f which, we are proud
to believe is planted in the heart o f the practical printer.
We have thus followed the course o f Mr. Green in his connection with the
printing business in this city, up to the period prior to his late election by the
Senate as printer to that body. The facts which are here enumerated, and
others which could be enumerated, o f similar character, are truths, susceptible
o f proof, it is believed, before a court o f justice. The society has no motive in
detailing them other than that which springs from the overruling dictates of
stern necessity the preservation of the rights of its members, and o f the busi
ness whereby they earn their bread.
And now, we ask any candid man to say, if he have attentively perused the
foregoing facts, whether the Washington Institute is not another scheme,
springing from the fruitful mind o f its author, to oppress and injure the
journeymen— another link in the chain which he has constantly been engaged
in forging, during the whole period o f his residence amongst them intended to
oppress their rights, and bend down, with iron force the prosperity of their
profession. In short a scheme, the main object o f which is to promote the
personal aggrandizement o f the proprietor, at the expense o f the journeymen,
and in utter disregard o f their interests.
All, or nearly all, the internal regulations o f the Washington Institute, will be
found to corroborate the truth o f the view just taken o f its object. The first
and most prominent o f these regulations is, that the money to which the student
is entitled at the period o f his graduation is not handed to him as property which
is legally his own but is loaned to him as the property of the proprietor. Now,
the practice which custom has sanctioned in the printing business, during the
whole period of which we know anything of its history is that whatever sum an
apprentice has earned beyond a certain daily task which is set for him, seldom
exceeding that fixed by the regulations o f the Washington Institute, is not
loaned, but paid to him as the fruit o f labor to which he is justly and honorably
entitled. We venture to say, that there is scarcely a practical printer now living
who can not remember the feeling o f delight with which, when a boy, he received
from the hands of his employer the amount o f his weekly “ overwork.”
Another regulation of the institution, and which will further confirm the
view we have taken of it, is, that any student becoming sick, or otherwise
unable to attend to his duties, shall be “ dismissed from the school ” , and sup
990
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
ported till the restoration o f his health by his parents or guardian, if he be so
fortunate as to possess either. This regulation, which we are almost ready to
pronounce inhuman, as it is uncharitable and unjust, is another infringement
of the practice which custom has sanctioned in our business.
These two regulations, taken in connection with the fact, that $15,600 will be
annually saved, according to the estimate o f the proprietor, by the substitution
of the labor o f boys for that of journeymen, prove, we think, beyond a doubt,
that in framing the project o f the Washington Institute, its proprietor had
almost a single eye not to the objects o f philanthropy but to his own pecuniary
welfare.
There are other features of this institution, not however connected with
this view of it, to which the philanthropist must object. Solitary confinement is
the punishment to which the students are liable, “ substituted ” as the proprie
tor remarks for “ corporal punishment.”
Now, it is a matter o f great doubt in the minds o f enlightened men, whether
the substitute here mentioned has contributed in any degree, to the moral im
provement of society in this or any prior age. But can it be possible that
the proprietor o f the Washington Institute has now to be informed that the
brutal punishment of flagellation has almost entirely ceased in all well-regulated
offices in this country, and without the substitution in any instance, o f the more
odious punishment o f solitary confinement? The application o f such a system
to youth, the season of buoyancy o f spirit and innocency o f thought, can have
no other than the most deleterious effect upon the ripening attributes of the
mind, gradually hardening it against the common sympathies o f our nature.
‘‘ The end o f this school (says the prospectus) is to educate men that they
may have intelligence to think for themselves and,” (as the effect o f such educa
tion) “ independence to act up to the principles which their judgments approve.
What would be the condition of the public mind, if the press o f the United
States was under the guidance o f such men now? ” («)
Passing by the imputation here cast upon a free and enlightened people that
are under the dominion, and follow the lead o f the newspaper press, we venture
to express a doubt, whether, if the end here proposed were obtained, it would
advance, in any degree the character o f the American press. Judging from the
experience o f the past, we believe that no improvement which this institution can
possibly accomplish, is demanded in the ranks o f our profession; for it is be
lieved to be an indisputable fact, that that portion o f the newspaper press in this
country, which is in the hands o f those who have been journeymen printers, is
conducted with as much, perhaps more respect to the feelings o f individuals,
and with a greater regard for the character o f the press itself, than that portion
o f it conducted by other persons. In his course heretofore as an editor, what
stable claim can the principal o f this institution advance to be a regenerator o f
the American press? Has the newspaper o f which he has been for many years
the proprietor, been conducted either with regard to its doctrines and senti
ments, or in the morality o f its language, with that soundness and purity which,
we should suppose, ought to characterize that journal whose conductor holds
himself up as a regenerator o f the American press? We leave the reader to
answer these questions according to his judgm ent; believing that there can be
but one reply to them, especially from those who are patrons o f the journal in
question.
Instead of regenerating the American press, we think the Washington Insti
tute rather calculated to inflict a lasting injury upon it. The imagination of
man could scarcely have devised a better or more effectual scheme for the
prostration of its usefulness, its morality, and its independence. The gradu
ates of this institution are educated by hundreds in the same school, imbibing
from this common fountain o f instruction the principles and opinions o f the
proprietor, when they come to be conductors of the press, they will be governed
by those opinions, be they good or be they evil. Being indebted to the principal
o f the institution in the sum which has enabled them to commence business,
the tone o f each paper will through fear o f the screws of the law, be regulated
by the chord which is struck at the institution at Washington. Indeed, upon a
close examination o f all the circumstances connected with its organization, we
°As a com m entary on this passage we w ill take the liberty to make an extract from the
United States Telegraph o f November, 1826, wherein the same writer, in reply to an
article which appeared in the N ational Journal, expresses the follow in g sen tim en t:
“ Education, honorable motives, and integrity are high qualifications, but are your
educated men the m ost u sefu l? W ill not Mr. F orce’s rule cut off that large portion o f
respectable editors, scattered over the country, who, like Mr. Force, are printers by pro
fession ?— W as Franklin or Thom as Paine e d u c a te d ? ”
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS-
9 91
are confident in the belief, and feel justified in announcing it to the public, that
the second, if not the first, great leading object o f the formation o f the Wash
ington Institute, is the establishment of a league o f presses throughout the
United States through the instrumentality o f the students whom it shall grad
uate. No such purpose is o f course avowed in the prospectus o f the institution,
yet in confirmation o f its truth is the fact, currently reported and believed in
this city, that eminent leading politicians o f the country have countenanced the
design of the institution, and have loaned heavy sums o f money to its proprietor
in aid of its formation.
The extent o f the power which will be thus concentrated in the hands o f the
proprietor o f this institution, and o f those with whom he acts, after it shall have
gone fully into operation the imagination can scarcely limit— its disastrous
effects upon the morality and independence o f the press, extending throughout
the Union, must either bring it into irretrievable disgrace in the estimation o f an
enlightened community, or fasten on the liberties o f the people a disease as
loathsome to the eyes of the patriot as dangerous and incurable.
Another interest which this institution is calculated to injure, is that o f the
employers generally. After it shall have gone into successful operation (o f
which, however, we are perfectly sensible there is strong doubt) what employer,
under the present system can compete with the Washington Institute? Accord
ing to the calculation o f its principal, $15,600 will be annually saved by the
operation of the institution— that is, by the employment o f boys instead o f jour
neymen; which sum, it must be remembered, is exclusive o f the ordinary
profit o f the employers. With such an immense fund as this at his command,
what will prevent the proprietor o f this institution from reducing the present
prices o f the employers to such a standard as must compel them to close their
respective offices? An entire monopoly of the business according to the ordi
nary operation of trades, will thus be effected, unless similar institutions are
established by the employers generally, which must ultimately take place if the
present institution shall go into successful operation.
But the injury which the Washington Institute is calculated to inflict upon
the interests o f the journeymen, as well as upon the printing business generally,
is, to us, one of its most objectionable features. The very first step in its career
thrusts the great body o f the journeymen from its proprietor’s employment: and
if the principles upon which it is founded should obtain throughout the country,
the very name o f a journeyman printer would be unknown, or known only as a
title of reproach and degradation; and a large body of men who now depend
upon their labor as journeymen for the support of themselves and their families
must seek new channels for the prosecution o f labor, or be exposed to all the
miseries which attend the want o f employment.
The extent o f distress, however, which would fall immediately upon the
journeymen, by the successful prosecution o f this institution, great as it un
doubtedly will be, would be even less than that which must be felt by the
pupils themselves, when they become o f age, after the institution shall have
numbered a few years in its existence. The sphere in which they were
designed to be placed having been abundantly supplied by their predecessors,
they will be launched forth into the world with but little regard to the direc
tion which they may pursue. We will suppose what is very improbable that
each one o f them will be seriously disposed to commence the business he has
learned, or some other. He would first attempt most probably, to embark in
his own business. He looks around him in the city in which he has been edu
cated, and finds every avenue to its successful operation already filled; he goes
abroad from place to place, but everywhere finds the opening so small that his
limited means and experience can not push him through. Thus in fruitless
attempts to enter his profession, he gradually sinks the small capital which was
loaned to him at the period o f his graduation. And now, what is his con
dition? What has he gained by the labors and studies o f his boyhood? The
money which he possessed, and for which he is amenable to the law, is gone!
He can not enter his business as an employer, and there are now no journey
men printers—the baneful school which generated him having destroyed their
occupation. The business which he has learned is now, for all practical pur
poses, altogether useless to him; and he now finds too late for any efficient
remedy, that, if he wishes to be numbered among the honorable o f the land, he
must begin the business o f life anew!
That this picture will prove to be a true one, we confidently believe. Can
parents or guardians, then, lend their aid to the establishment of this institu
276—No. 61—06
m -----18
992
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
tion, by enrolling their children, or others, under their charge, on the list o f its
incumbents? Are you willing that the children, for whose future welfare you
are responsible, in so far as giving its proper direction to their early career can
make them so, shall waste the prime of that period o f life which the God o f
nature evidently designed for instruction, in the attainment o f the knowledge
o f a business which they can never pursue or, if pursued, pursued under the
tremendous disadvantages which must necessarily result from a competition
with the myriads o f their fellow-graduates— a disadvantage which will be daily
growing worse, and which must ultimately overwhelm them in ruin.
In every view which can be taken o f this institution, it is strongly objection
able; and it ought not, we think to go into operation. What means then can
be used consistent with the spirit o f the laws, to prevent its organization? The
society is perfectly aware of the delicacy o f the situation in which circum
stances have placed it. It knows very well that there is no law for the protec
tion of the occupation o f the laboring community. The rights of journeymen,
and o f the working classes generally, have, indeed, been wonderfully overlooked
or disregarded in the United States. A high state o f prosperity, necessarily
accompanying the prosperity of the country has hitherto, no doubt, caused
them to overlook those rights, which, in other countries, have long since received
the protection o f the laws. All combinations, where the rights or property of
individuals are intended to be operated upon, we are compelled to acknowl
edge, are founded in a principle which is erroneous; but it is surely the duty o f
a good government to prevent their occurrence, by extending the powerful hand
o f the law to the protection o f those interests which are now altogether un
guarded. The occupation o f the journeyman is, with a very few exceptions,
his only estate; it is to him as invaluable in a certain sense, as the property
o f the rich m an; it enables him to live, to support his family, and to lay by the
means which shall support him in sickness, or when the withering hand o f age
shall be laid upon him. It is, indeed, a species of property; and as such,
demands the protection o f the laws. Combinations amongst the working classes,
it may be confidently asserted, would never take place, if their employment were
protected by la w ; and where they do occur, are but the necessary consequence
o f keeping that employment out o f the pale o f the laws.
One o f the main objects for which government was instituted amongst men,
is the security o f property. The laws which guard it, where it is guarded at all,
are even more comprehensive than those which protect life. The homicide, by
crossing the boundary line o f his country, is, in the eyes o f the laws o f the
country in which he has taken shelter, a guiltless m an; but the debtor may seek
refuge amid the glaciers o f Switzerland; bury himself beneath the snows of
Siberia; or hide in the jungles o f In d ia ; he is everywhere insecure— everywhere
the debtor, while within the boundaries o f civilized society.
Comprehensive and extensive indeed are the laws which secure to the citi
zen the inviolability o f his property. After the journeyman has earned $10, the
powerful hand of the law secures it to his u se; but the means whereby he earns
that sum are left entirely unprotected. His business, to learn which he has de
voted the whole period o f his minority, may be entered, to his exclusion, by any
one and at any moment, and is constantly liable to innovations destructive to its
very existence; in proof o f which the organization o f the Washington Institute
need only be named. The impotency of the laws, in regard to this subject being
thus manifest, what course is left for this society to pursue, with an evil o f such
fearful magnitude hanging over the vocation o f its members? The dangerous
hand o f empiricism is tampering with the best interests of their profession; and
can it be expected that they will stand tamely by, the silent spectators of its
overthrow?
Fellow-craftsmen o f the union! It is in your ears, then, that this appeal must
sound loudest and strongest. Without your powerful aid, the Washington
Institute, and the principles upon which it is founded must be fastened upon u s !
There are no means o f escape from the crisis which awaits us— it must be met,
and met fearlessly, whether in the conflict we survive or fall. Repeatedly have
we implored its principal to abandon his enterprise, but we have asked in vain.
The organization of the institution has already commenced, and without a
prompt and vigorous effort, united as one man throughout the whole union, boys
will usurp your places, and our honorable occupation will be numbered among
the things which are gone. Can you—will you submit to this humiliating condi
tion? Shall a single individual, not numbered among you as a practical printer,
who, since he has been connected with the business in this city, has, at different
periods endeavored to reduce, and in one instance has actually reduced the price
9 93
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
o f your labor, and who, in his intercourse with those in his employ, has, on some
occasions, conducted himself toward them like the master to the slave— shall
Mr. Duff Green be permitted, without an effort from you to prevent it, to estab
lish the Washington Institute—the last, most effectual and most deadly blow at
the interests o f your profession?
Aside from your pecuniary interests, which this institution is intended to
subvert, have you not the feelings o f printers for the honor and character of
your profession, which it is also calculated to destroy? You are, to a certain
extent, responsible for the character o f the American press:— as practical
printers you are the natural guardians o f its liberty; its purity and its honor—
will you then lend your aid in establishing this manufactory o f editors— pen
sioned conductors o f that press, the integrity o f which it is your interest as well
as your duty, should all other classes o f society desert it, to uphold and main
tain with jealous regard and sleepless vigilance?
And now, fellow-craftsmen in concluding this appeal, we ask your united co
operation in the attempt which will be made by the printers of Washington to
discountenance this institution. Lend not your services to its principal as in
structors or teachers o f the institution. This negative part is all that is now
required of you. By a contrary course, at the present moment, you may become
the unwilling instruments of its successful organization, and in after years,
when you come to partake o f its bitter fruits, the mortifying reflection that you
contributed to the establishment o f the institution will goad y o u ; for its organi
zation will be, in part, your own act, if by no timely interference to turn aside
the blow you suffer it neglectively to fall upon you.
PROTEST OF PRINTERS ASSEMBLED IN PUBLIC MEETING, 1834.
of the meetings of the printers o f the District o f Columbia relative
to the Washington Institute, a school about to be organized in the city of
Washington by Duff Green; which proposes to substitute, in the printing busi
ness, the labor of boys for that o f journeymen.
At a meeting o f the printers of the city of Washington, held on the 19th of
August, o f which Mr. A. F. Cunningham was appointed chairman, and Mr. James
F. Haliday, secretary, the following resolutions were adopted:
“ R e so lv e d , That it is recommended by the printers of this meeting, that there
be called, on Friday evening next, 22d instant a general meeting o f all the
employing and journeymen printers o f the District o f Columbia, at the City Hall,
at 7 o’clock p. m., for the purpose o f taking into consideration the proposal of
General Duff [Green] for the establishment o f a manual-labor school, entitled
by him the “ Washington Institute.”
“ R e so lv e d , That the proceedings o f this meeting be signed by the chairman and
secretary, and that the publishers o f the newspapers of this district be requested
to publish them.
“ A. F. C u n n i n g h a m , Chairm an .
“ J a m e s F. H a l i d a y , S e c r e t a r y ”
P
r
o
c
e
e d
i n
g
s
M E E T IN G
O F
T H E
P R IN T E R S
O F
T H E
D IS T R IC T ,
A U G U S T
22.
In pursuance of the above call, the largest meeting of printers (about 300)
ever convened in this city, was organized in the council chamber, City Hall,
Mr. A. F. Cunningham being called to the chair, and Messrs. J. T. Towers and
J. F. Haliday, appointed secretaries.
On being conducted to the chair, Mr. Cunningham said:
“ In taking the chair this evening to preside over this enlightened meeting, I
feel much my own weakness, and solicit the indulgence and aid o f every gentle
man, in preserving order and decorum. I trust that no expression will be allowed
to escape from the lips o f any which will cause regret on the morrow. Let cool
judgment preside over your minds, and direct your councils. The object we have
in view may not be accomplished in a week nor a month; let us therefore so act
that we may hold out to the end. This meeting is for the purpose o f taking
into consideration the proposed plan o f Gen. Duff Green to establish a manuallabor school, in pursuance o f a call which has been published in some o f the daily
papers, emanating from a meeting held on Tuesday last, in this city. The meet
ing is now organized, and waits for your action.”
On motion o f Mr. E. B. Robinson, a committee o f five was appointed, con
sisting o f Messrs. E. B. Robinson, G. C. Smoot, John Finch, Z. Wade, (o f Alex
994
BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB.
andria) and W. W. Curran, to draft resolutions, expressive of the views of the
meeting. After being absent for the space o f half an hour, Mr. Robinson, in
behalf of the committee, presented the following preamble and resolutions,
which were read and unanimously adopted.
“ Whereas, a plan is proposed by Gen. Duff Green, editor of the United States
Telegraph, which, if carried into execution, must vitally injure the interests
of the profession, and tend to the depreciation o f prices, so much so that no
other employer can compete with him, and must finally throw the youth, who
may be taught in his institute, upon the world, without labor, and consequently,
without support: And whereas, self-preservation being the first law o f nature,
the journeymen printers feel it incumbent upon them to take such steps as
will prevent the consummation o f an oppressive monopoly, that is designed to
ruin them and their families, by depriving them o f all chance o f participating in
the benefits which flow from the public printing, the prices for executing which
were based on the wages paid to the journeymen, and which was never con
templated by Congress should be performed by any other than them: And
whereas, the benefits which General Green contemplates will accrue to the
boys who shall be educated in his proposed institute can never be realized to
them, nor redound to his honor or profit, the printers feel it their duty, under
standing the subject as they do, to use their best endeavors to warn him o f the
evils which await his undertaking, and to dissuade him from farther prosecut
ing a scheme which must forever break up the friendly relations that have
heretofore existed between him and them ; and they feel sanguine he will relin
quish it, when he is made aware that the “ little community ” which claimed so
much o f his solicitude a year ago, will be scattered and left destitute, in order
to make room for another and an untried “ community ” which must carry ruin
and disgrace with it to those who may foster and uphold it, and finally wither
and become extinct; but if he be determined to persevere, they feel it their sol
emn duty to protect themselves, by using every legitimate means in their power
to prevent him from accomplishing his ruinous and ungenerous design.—
Therefore,
“ 1. Be it R e so lv e d , That as journeymen printers, we feel deeply interested in
all movements of the employers which have a tendency to injure the business,
and look upon the prospectus lately issued by Gen. Duff Green as going directly
to destroy the profession to which we belong.
“ 2. R e so lv e d , That a committee o f seven be appointed to draft an address to
the people o f the United States, giving a full expose o f his connection with the
press in this city, and the probable result o f his institute, the very elements of
which are fraught with destruction to the independence o f the present printers,
and which has for its object the prostration o f the minds o f the future guar
dians o f the press to the dictation of one man.”
[The chair appointed as the committee under this resolution, Messrs. J. Clephane, G. C. Smoot, J. Stock well, W. W. Curran, E. B. Robinson, John Finch,
and E. Laporte.]
“ 3. R e so lv e d , That we believe it will be impossible for Gen. Duff Green to
prosecute his theory without the patronage o f the Government; and that
should he remain determined to go on, the committee be authorized to draw
up a memorial, which shall be sent to every town and printing office in the
United States for signatures, praying Congress to withhold their patronage
from a man who is only desirous o f self-aggrandizement, and of breaking down
that spirit o f equality which has always characterized the journeymen printers
and their employers, by the erection o f an odious monopoly in the heart o f the
country, that shall be sustained by the Congress o f the United States.
“ 4. R e so lv e d , That we will, individually, do all in our power to aid the com
mittee in carrying into effect the foregoing resolutions; and we do hereby
pledge ourselves to sustain each other in all legal steps which may be taken
to circumvent the scheme that is intended to deprive us o f our living, by taking
from us the means o f pursuing our profession.
“ 5. R e so lv e d , That having the fullest confidence in the Columbia Typograph
ical Society, we pledge ourselves, to the extent of our ability, to aid it in the
measures it has already taken, or any other it may think necessary to adopt,
in order to defeat the establishment o f said ‘ Manual Labor School, or Washing
ton Institute.’
“ 6. R e so lv e d , That we request the cooperation o f all the printers, both employ
ing and employed, throughout the United States, in discountenancing the estab
lishment of the Washington Institute.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
995
“ 7. R e so lv e d , That every journeyman printer who shall be known to aid or
instruct in any manner, any apprentice in the said institute, be held up to uni
versal contempt by the printing community throughout the United States.
“ 8. R eso lved , That all reasonable expenses to which the committee may be
subjected, shall be defrayed by the members of this meeting, who cordially
pledge themselves to contribute their quota whenever called on.”
Mr. Baldwin offered the following, which was unanimously adopted:
“ R e so lv e d , That the thanks o f this meeting be tendered to Reuben Burdine,
esq., for procuring the use o f the council chamber for the accommodation o f this
meeting.”
On motion of Mr. G. C. Smoot, it was
“ R e so lv e d ,. That the secretaries forward a copy of the proceedings of this
meeting to Gen. Duff Green, and to every typographical society in the United
States.”
On motion of Mr. Pratt, it was
“ R e so lv e d , That the proceedings of this meeting be signed by the chairman
and the secretaries, and that the newspapers in this District, and throughout
the United States, be requested to publish them.”
“ A. F. Cu n n in g h a m , Chairman .
“ J no. T hos . T owebs ,
“ J ames F. H aliday ,
S ecreta ries .”
A D J O U B N E D
M E E T IN G .
An adjourned meeting o f the printers o f the District o f Columbia, was held
(pursuant to public notice) at the aldermen's room, City Hall, on Tuesday
evening, 2nd September.
The proceedings of the last meeting having been read, the chairman pre
sented the following communication:
G en tlem en : In perusing General Green's answer to the protest of the Co
lumbia Typographical Society, your chairman noticed a reference to a part o f
the proceedings of the journeymen printers held on the 22d ultimo, which is
erroneous, both in letter and in fact, which, as your chairman, he has thought
it his duty to bring to your notice, that publicly it may be denied. General
Green insinuates throughout his answer, that we are actuated in this measure
by others behind the scenes, who are his competitors for the Senate's printing.
This insinuation is all we could expect from an individual who has proclaimed
the men by whom he has become enriched “ ignorant journeymen.” We throw
back the charge, and inform him that, however others may be induced to sell
themselves for gold, the members of this meeting, although united as one man
to stay the hand of encroachment and oppression, are composed of political
materials too various to be dictated to by any individual.
General Green also takes exception to some remarks made at the late meeting
of this body, which, according to your order, were published as part o f the pro
ceedings of this meeting, and after giving the names o f several Catholic clergy,
says that he “ makes this correction, that the meeting may revise the published
account o f their proceedings.” Believing that the meeting intended doing jus
tice to all, your chairman conceived it to be his duty to call on such authority,
referred to by General Green, as his time and means permitted. He did so, and
has to state, that at first, the gentlemen referred to were struck with the plausi
bility of his plan, and looked upon it with favor, but that they never approbated
it; that each hour’s reflection on his scheme convinced them that it was
fraught with incalculable evils to all whom General Green designed to employ;
and that instead o f proposing to engage them in the female labor, “ necessarily
employed in so large an establishment,” the idea conveyed to said clergy was,
that the children were to be taught in the art and mystery of the male
labor of a printing office.
The committee appointed at the last meeting to draft an address to the people
o f the United States, submitted the following, which was unanimously adopted:
To
the
P eople
of the
U nited States .
Believing that, in the history of the press in this country, there never was a
more critical period than the present, whether as it respects the freedom o f the
people, or the liberty of the press itself, this meeting, impressed with the impor
tance o f the subject, have considered it their duty to address their fellow-citizens
996
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
throughout the Union, and to lay before them a development o f the plan by
which their interests are about to be affected. Upon us, as printers, the imme
diate injury will fa ll; but we will not be the only victims of this innovation,
for, from the many ramifications o f the scheme we are about to examine, it will
appear that injury, more or less, must accrue to the whole community. In
corroboration o f the above, we lay before the public, in the spirit o f truth and
candor, the following brief statement o f facts.
Gen. Duff Green, Printer to the Senate o f the United States, and editor o f the
United States Telegraph, is about commencing the erection o f a manual-labor
school in this city, under the name o f the “ Washington Institute,” in which he
proposed to bring up 200 boys, continuously, to the printing business, and to edu
cate them accordingly, by their own labor. This he means to do under the specious
pretext of “ regenerating the morale o f the American p r e s s w i t h which he has
been but a few years connected and who has but a superficial knowledge o f the
art, or the men employed by him in the business. Yet he pretends to have dis
covered a radical defect in its management; and by a pompous prospectus, he
endeavors to enlist the sympathies o f the people in his behalf, in order to enable
him to accomplish his purpose.
The great tendency o f this scheme will consequently be, the prostration of the
journeyman, and to deprive him o f the just fruits o f his labor, the only inher
itance o f which he can boast; and by creating a monopoly, to turn to his own
advantage the profits o f the printing, publishing, and binding o f this District,
thus destroying those now engaged in business, and throwing all those branches
o f the profession under the sole direction of one man— a thing much to be
deprecated at all tim es; “ and though printers are but men ” and must yield to
the pressure o f circumstances, yet the man may burst forth in the printer, and,
proudly feeling his right to liberty and equality, he may spurn the attempts of
any individual to lay him under restraint or coercion, or deprive him o f the
means of existence. This is not the only evil to be apprehended. It portends
incalculable dangers, as we believe, to the liberties o f our country. When inno
vations o f this nature upon our long-established customs are proposed, they are
sufficient to awaken our fears, and to arouse us in defense o f those blessings
which we have long enjoyed, and which have so essentially conduced to the
prosperity of this favored country.
The Columbia Typographical Society has already issued a protest against this
encroachment upon their rights, in which they have fairly exhibited the inju
rious consequences which must result to the community, as well as to the
printers. We heartily join them in their reprobation o f this singular and
unprecedented theory. It is not for us to dictate to any man what course he
ought to pursue, or to set limits to the field o f his action, whether his efforts be
directed to the forwarding o f his own interested views, or to the line of conduct
which he may adopt for him self; but we do contend, that we have an inalien
able right to protect ourselves and our interests from encroachments of any
and every kind, and to sound the alarm when we apprehend danger.
It is not to be disguised, that the motive for establishing this school is of a
“ peculiarly ” political character. This may be drawn from the whole tenor of
the prospectus. Although pains have evidently been taken to clothe it in
ambiguous language, so as to leave it liable to different interpretations, yet to
those who are acquainted with the nature o f the undertaking, as well as with the
former views o f General Green, it is as clear as noonday, and capable of easy
demonstration. There is no better way to arrive at the truth o f the problem,
than to trace up the chain o f events which led to the point at issue. As far
back as 1828, General Green communicated to his then partner in business, that
he intended to have his work performed by boys, by which means he would be
enabled to carry on his business at a cheaper rate than those who employed
journeymen. Indeed, General Green’s course, since his connection with the
press, in this city, in 1826, has been one continued effort o f innovation; and to
get his work done at a less price than the established tariff, appears to have
been, as it is now acknowledged to be, his great desideratum.
The brief history o f that connection follow s: The Washington Gazette for
a long time printed by J. Elliott, was purchased by the party opposed to John
Quincy Adams, for the main purpose o f opposing his reelection. That paper
was discontinued, and the United States Telegraph was established. About
this period General Green made his appearance in Washington. He imme
diately became acquainted with the selected editor, Mr. J. S. Meehan, a man of
unquestionable integrity, o f respectable talents, and possessing a thorough
knowledge of the printing business, both in theory and in practice. Through
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
997
this means General Green soon became acquainted with the leading members
o f the Jackson party, and proving his ability to take charge of such an estab
lishment, by his contributions to the editorial department, he very soon super
seded Mr. Meehan, and became the sole editor and proprietor. Nothing, however,
could be inferred from hence that Mr. Meehan was not willing that the change
should be made, or that every measure thereof did not meet his cordial appro
bation. No circumstance worthy o f note took place, until the winter o f 1827-28,
when the party in the Senate opposed to Mr. Adams, and in favor of the elec
tion o f General Jackson, united and elected General Green printer to that body.
Shortly after this event, General Green appears to have conceived the idea of
reducing the prices paid for labor, and also o f reducing the expenses of his
office by the introduction of boys, which he increased by the latter part o f the
year 1828, to the number o f 30 or 40.
The allurements of education, and the great personal advantages were then as
now, held out to them. They were told that a library would be procured for
their use—that instruction would be given them in the professional departments;
and that, by the expiration o f their term o f service, they might, by study and
attention, fit themselves either for editors, doctors, or lawyers.
This system was indeed commenced. Each boy was required to write a
treatise upon some subject; and one evening in each week was set apart for
receiving those productions, and passing judgment upon their merits. This was
continued for a short period; but his plan for raising a library failing, the
scheme was abandoned.
General Green’s plan for raising a library for the use o f the boys, was as
singular as it was novel— no other than that o f laying a tax of 25 per cent on
that part of the wages o f the journeymen, denominated “ overwork.” General
Green, who never willingly abandons a position once taken, discovering that the
prices paid for overwork were greater than what the journeymen could actually
claim by their tariff o f prices, reduced that item from 20 (a price still willingly
paid by other employing printers in this city), to 16| cents per hour, pro rata
with their weekly wages which is $10 per week, thus exultingly putting in his
own pocket what had been denied him to raise a library. About the same period
of making this encroachment upon the journeymen, he attempted to reform his
boy system. But such of the boys as considered his reform an innovation upon
the contract by which they had entered the office to the number of between 19
and 20, (with but one solitary exception) left his employ. By this scheme
General Green met heavy loss; for before an understanding took place, the
most valuable portion o f them had engagements elsewhere.
He did not stop here, for during the last winter, even the females in his office
felt the weight of his economizing schemes.
General Green states, in his attempted reply to the protest o f the Columbia
Typographical Society, that no person who has ever been in his employ has lost
a cent by him. The fact is, that during the past winter, he, so far from paying
the females in his establishment, has reduced their wages below what is paid in
every other office, from 20 to 40 per cent, thus extending his grinding oppression
to those who have no protectors, and who can not help themselves.
It will not be amiss to notice here the circumstances o f his proposals to
several charitable institutions to obtain female labor for his office, as a substi
tute for that of m en; and all under the ostensible object of performing a benevo
lent a c t: in this also he was disappointed.
The establishment of the manual-labor school is but a concentration o f his
various schemes to lower the prices o f labor, in his establishment, and to add
to his already enormous profits, a portion o f the hard-earned pittance o f the
operative.
The amount o f printing given to General Green by both Houses o f Congress
and the several departments o f the Government since his connection with the
press, has been unparalleled in the annals of this country; and we venture
nothing in saying, although the exact amount can not be ascertained, that his
actual profits therefrom does not fall short o f $300,000; and that notwithstand
ing his reiterated declarations, that he pays too much for labor, and that the
wages paid to journeymen are too high, no printer in this or any other country
has ever realized the same profits in the same period of time, from the same
number of hands.
Had we been satisfied that his motive in establishing this school was either
patriotic or philanthropic, not one opposing word would have escaped our lips.
But we can not shut our eyes to the fact, that this institution calls for no
personal or pecuniary sacrifice. He proposes to sustain it by the labors o f the
9 98
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OP LABOR,
students, without expending one cent of the profits o f the works to be executed
by them. This fact must show that benevolence has no share in the plan
designed. Where or when did pure philanthropy barter its sympathies for
gold? Did a real benefactor of mankind ever distribute charity with one hand,
and grasp at gain with the other?
From what has been above stated, we leave it to the public to say, whether
it be not plain that monopoly o f some kind is in view, to drive competition
out o f the market, and by this means to effect the ruin of the workman. And
we ask whether it be consistent with the feelings of human nature, calmly to
survey the approaching ruin o f ourselves and our families, or to sit contented
under the caprice of a destroyer o f all our comforts and happiness? The
world will never believe, that by ruining the present generation, he will benefit
the next; or that he who educates the son and starves the father, is a true
benefactor. Should this plan o f General Green prove successful (which we
believe will not be the case), where would be found the individual capital
sufficient to sustain itself against such fearful odds? The same system must
be adopted by others, and the productive classes, already sufficiently numerous,
would become too abundant to insure public safety. Casuistry may discredit
our reasoning, and sophistry may be used to our disadvantage; but we appeal to
the plain understanding of every honest man, and request an attentive and
unbiased perusal of the prospectus itself.
Let us examine his plan as we may, in every line we see something militating
against the interests o f our country. What must be the surprise of the freemen
of America, to be told o f this man, and at this late day, that we, the “ people,”
are incapable o f self-government; and that our press, which has so long sus
tained our liberties, is radically diseased? Is General Green the man to cor
rect this radical defect?— he who tells the public that his connection with the
press commenced so recently, and who, till 1823, had, perhaps, never been within
the walls of a printing office; and who, to this day, has but a vague and theoret
ical idea o f the business? Does he pretend to say that he has been favored with
some divine inspiration— some talismanic power? That he, a stranger to the
profession, has discovered the ignorance o f the men who conduct it, and can
apply the remedy? Why the very means which he proposed to use, show how
little knowledge he has o f its operation. For instance he has enumerated vari
ous comprehensive works for publication, and would induce belief that those
who take a share in their composition must thereby have a knowledge o f their
contents. Now the contrary is the fact; for articles, o f any length are divided
into various parts, and each compositor is furnished with a small portion ; which
instead o f giving him any information on the subject, tends, if it have any
effect at all, to obscure its sense and create false impressions. But General
Green is to “ elevate the morale o f the press.” How? By establishing a
system o f ethics for its government—to educate boys to be its rulers and gov
ernors, and to dictate to printers what they shall d o! Thus hoodwinked, we
are to submit to students o f this institution, and to receive lessons in politics and
morals from the regenerated press! Strip the language o f the prospectus o f its
ambiguity, and the above is the interpretation o f it.
We seriously believe that some political movement is at the foundation of
this embryo school. Look at the facilities which the plan would throw into
the hands o f a political partisan, to enable him to have overwhelming influence
on elections. Suppose, for example, he wished to control the elections o f any
particular State, he might establish as many presses in that State as he chose,
at a very trifling expense, because the boys labor for the money for this purpose,
and are by pecuniary ties bound to obey his orders, or be thrown destitute upon
the world, being rendered obnoxious to his powerful institution. Still farther,
we are convinced that this is the real motive o f this institution, from the fact
that large numbers o f his prospectus have been circulated in the South, amongst
those who lean to the same political principles that General Green advocates,
while the vast North and West have not even heard a whisper from him of this
regenerating press school.
Next to liberty, we value the profession we have adopted; and we shall use our
best endeavors to maintain it in its purity and in its freedom. Never, we hope,
will it be under the control of any one man, however great or wealthy he may be.
The march o f mind will regulate the emanations o f the press; and if this pro
jector has the welfare o f the country at heart, much better would it be to leave
it where he found it,— in the hands o f the “ schoolmaster,” whose exertions only
can regulate the “ m orale” o f the press. The press is but the mirror o f the
m ind; it no more than reflects the im age which is placed before it, and exhibits
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OE PRINTERS.
999
it for the public benefit. General Green may be a profound politician; but, as a
political economist, he betrays his ignorance in his plan o f education. The plan
o f the institute has a specious aspect. It promises to give constant employment
and a thoroughly classical and scientific education to 200 boys, who are to
defray the expenses o f their board, education, and clothing, and even medical
attendance, by their own labor, and when free, to have placed to their credit
$728 each. What a beautiful picture of benevolence is drawn here! But how
is the fact? The boy is to labor mentally and physically, for thirteen hours each
day—three hours more than the regular time of work. He is to earn, out o f
journeymen’s rate of wages, $2 per week, after paying all expenses, which
$2 are to be deposited in a fund till he is 21 years o f age; and then what is
to be done with it? Given to the freed student, to enable him to commence
business? No! It goes to the coffers of the principal o f the institution, who
realizes, by this means, in seven years, $145,600! There is a provision, indeed,
by which this sum may probably be loaned to the students, to be paid back in
small annual installments, when a “ prudent investment ” may offer. Thus the
General is the judge and disposer of the fund— he may lend it or not—
he may refuse or accept securities, just as the investment may suit his pleasure.
Does it look like a benefaction to withhold from the boys all the earnings of
their industry? Why not place it, bona fide, to their credit, when o f age and
allow them to follow the bent o f their own inclinations? But it will be seen
that the independence o f the pupil is not his object; but, on the contrary, to
secure the lasting dependence of the youth upon him, that he may direct his
labors to the advancement of his own particular ends, whether political or
mercenary.
General Green labors to impress on the public mind, that the printer must be
ignorant, from being brought into the office as a “ devil ” — a “ mere drudge ” —
“ an errand boy ”— “ to do the menial services o f the establishment.” This low
sarcasm is unworthy o f a serious reply. But we would tell him, that the day
has gone by when servitude o f this kind was exacted from the youngest appren
tice— and tell him, too, that no corporal punishment is put in practice in any
office— a circumstance which he must have known. To talk of substituting
“ solitary confinement ” for flagellation, is so ridiculous, that we deem it un
worthy o f serious consideration.
General Green, has, in public and in private, asserted that the press o f this
country was a disgrace, owing to its being conducted by “ ignorant journeymen
printers; ” and he proposed at the anniversary supper of the Typographical
Society, in January last, to regenerate it by the institution which he was then
about to set on foot. He said, in proposing this institute, that his object was
not to realize anything from it; that his highest ambition was to record his
name as a public benefactor, and after he was dead to be placed in a plain
cemetery, with a marble slab thus inscribed: “ Here lies Duff Green, the
Regenerator of the American Press,” or in other words, more beautifully
described by the p oet:
“ When he dies, he’ll leave a lofty name,
A light and landmark on the cliffs o f fame.”
Those present felt the audacity o f this remark, though not a harsh word was
used while they considered him their guest; but they took immediate steps to
repel the indignity offered to them, which were arrested by his having author
ized an individual to recall his words, and to state that he was ashamed of his
language, and that it was not his intention to have offended the gentlemen pres
ent. The apology was accepted; but the quiet which has reigned from that time
has emboldened him to come forward and publish his prospectus to the world.
As another method o f elevating the “ morale o f the press,” he says, “ One
great object has been to enlist in aid o f the institute the great interests o f
society, and to connect it with each, by the publication o f a paper deserving their
continuous support; ” and he has connected the United States Telegraph with
the “ interest of politics,” which paper has been long under his control, and we
leave it to the people to say, how much it has contributed toward redeeming the
fallen morality of the press.
We feel it our duty as American citizens, having the interest o f our country
at heart, to warn the parent and guardian o f youth of the error which they are
likely to fall into, by sacrificing the liberty and happiness o f their charges, and
being led away or infatuated with General Green’s project, which, if it could
be successful, would tend to lower the press in the estimation of the people, by
inculcating doctrines which are calculated to destroy the vital principles o f our
free institutions.
100 0
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
In closing our address, we would call upon the printers throughout the United
States to examine the prospectus for themselves— to consider the motives which
could induce any man to engage in such a scheme as “ regenerating the Amer
ican press,” under the flimsy pretext o f the low estimation in which it is held
on account of being under the control o f “ ignorant printers.” In contradis
tinction to this, we place the press conducted by practical printers far above
the whole mass of those ephemeral papers that are sustained by party. We
call upon you as printers, as freemen, to rally round the shield o f our liberties,
to protect it in its republican form, its purity, and its privileges, and to frown
into insignificance the man who is base enough to use it for the degradation of
his fellow-beings. The Rubicon is passed, and we now proceed to the object we
have in view—to protect our rights. No political motive urges us o n : we merely
desire to maintain those rights o f equality which are intrusted to our care, and
to keep and protect them unsullied. To you we look for an approval, and
friendly cooperation in our exertions in resisting the encroachments o f power,
and w e shall never flinch from the duty we have imposed upon ourselves. The
freedom of the press must not be touched by unhallowed hands. We conjure
you by all that is dear, not to suffer our efforts to be paralyzed by apathy.
The following letter was received from the Baltimore Typographical Society:
B altimore , S ep tem b er i , 183If.
“ T o the P rin ters o f the D istrict o f C olu m bia :
“ G entlemen : The proceedings o f the meeting of the printers of the District
o f Columbia, held in the city o f Washington on the 22d ultimo, relative to the
infamous project o f Gen. Duff Green, was laid before the Baltimore Typo
graphical Society, at its meeting on Saturday last, and they came to the conclu
sion that a general meeting o f the printers o f this city should be held for the
purpose of taking the subject into consideration on Saturday evening next.
We have no doubt, from the spirit manifested upon the reading o f the pro
ceedings, by the members of the Baltimore Typographical Society, that you may
rest assured you will receive the aid, countenance and support of the frater
nity in this city, in your just and laudable effort to put down this scheme of
Duff Green's; a scheme which, if suffered to be brought into existence and
complete operation, will do more to injure the journeymen and employing
printers o f the United States, than any that has been thought o f since the
days o f Faustus.
“ We only wish, gentlemen, you could have been present at our meeting, and
have seen the spirit that was manifested, and the determination, as far as in
their power, and is compatible with the laws o f our country, to nullify the
ungracious, ambitious, and ungenerous designs o f said Duff Green.
“ Gentlemen, wishing you, and all o f us, success in the cause in which we are
mutually engaged, and hoping our efforts may be crowned with success, we
subscribe ourselves,
“ Yours, in fellowship,
“ J osiah B ailey ,
“ J. N. M illington ,
“ T hos . R. G eddes,
“ C o m m ittee o f C orrespondence .”
On motion of R. H. Pratt it was
“ R e so lv e d , That the thanks o f the journeymen printers be tendered to the
editors of the Globe and American Mechanic, for publishing their proceedings,
and to the editor o f the Alexandria Gazette, for his able defense o f those
proceedings.”
On motion, it was
“ R e so lv e d , That the chairman and secretaries be authorized to call a meeting
of the printers o f the District o f Columbia, when, in their opinion, circumstances
require it.”
On motion, it was
“ R e so lv e d , That the proceedings o f this meeting be signed by the chairman and
secretaries, and that the newspapers in this District, and throughout the United
States, be requested to publish them.”
A. F. C u n n in g h a m ,
Chairm an .
J no. T hos . T owers , l t e r ( ,torfes
J ames F. H aliday , j ^ c r e t a n e s .
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
1001
APPENDIX B, NO. 1.—SCALE OF PRICES ADOPTED OCTOBER 7,
1815, BY THE NEW YORK TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
COMPOSITION.
1. All works in the English language, common matter, from English to minion
inclusive, 27 cents per 1,000; in nonpareil, 29 cents; in pearl, 371 cents; in
diamond, 50 cents: in all cases headlines and directions, or signatures and
blank lines to be included. An odd en in width or length, to be reckoned an em ;
if less than an en, not to be counted.
2. All works done in foreign languages, common matter, to be paid 4 cents
extra per 1,000 ems.
3. Works printed in great primer, or larger type, to be computed as English.—
script, 30 cents per 1,000.
4. All workmen employed by the week, shall receive not less than $9 in book
offices and on evening papers, and on morning papers not less than $10.
5. Works done in the English language, in which words o f Greek, Hebrew,
Saxon, etc., or any of the dead characters occur, should they average one word
per page, it shall be considered sufficient to become a charge, which shall be
settled between the employer and employed.
6. Works done in Hebrew and Greek, without points, shall be paid 15 cents
per 1,000 ems higher than common m atter; with points, to be counted half body
and half points, and paid double.
7. That making-up a set o f furniture for a work o f five sheets or under, if an
octavo, be paid 25 cents. All other impositions to be 3 cents extra, progressively,
in proportion to the size— a single form shall constitute a set.
8. Works done partly in figures and partly plain, such as arithmetical works,
etc. to be paid 30 cents per 1,000 ems. Rule and figure work to be paid double.
9. Broadsides, such as leases, deeds, etc. done on English or smaller type, to
be paid 27 cents per thousand ems. Play bills, posting bills, etc. to be paid for
at the rate of 15 cents per hour.
10. Algebraical works, or those where characters o f music are the principal
part, and works composed principally o f medical, astronomical, or other signs,
to be paid double.
11. Time lost by alteration from copy, or by casing or distributing letter, to
be paid for at the rate o f 15 cents per hour.
12. All works composed from manuscript copy, 2 cents extra.
13. Side, bottom, or cut-in notes, to be agreed on between the employer and
the employed.
PRESSWORK.
1. Bookwork, done on brevier or larger type, on medium or smaller paper,
33 cents per token; on smaller type, 35 cents. Royal paper, on brevier or
larger type, 35 cents per token; on smaller type, 371 cents per token. Super
royal paper, on brevier or larger type, 36 cents per token; on smaller type, 39
cents per token.
2. A token o f paper, if on bookwork, to consist o f no more than 101 quires;
and if on a daily paper, no more than 10. For covering tympans, 371 cents
each ; tympan and drawer to be considered as two.
3. Jobs, folio, quarto, etc. to be paid 33 cents per token.
4. Cards, if 100 or under, 30 cents; for each additional pack, if not more than
5, 121 cents; if over 5, 10 cents.
5. Broadsides, on bourgeois or larger type, 45 cents; on smaller type, 50 cents
per token.
6. Three cents extra to be paid on forms containing wood engravings.
7. No journeyman working at press on a morning daily paper, shall receive
a less sum than $10 for his weekly services; nor those on an evening paper a less
sum than $9. I f the quantity o f work should exceed 8 tokens per day, the
whole to be charged, if on a morning paper, at the rate o f 45 cents per token; if
an evening paper, 40 cents per token. Daily papers not exceeding 6 tokens
per day, if a morning paper, $9 per week, if an evening paper, $8 per week.
8. All works done on parchment to be settled between the employer and em
ployed.
9. Working down a new press to be settled between the employer and em
ployed.
10 0 2
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
10. I f at any time a pressman should be obliged to lift his form before it is
worked off, he shall be allowed 33 cents for the same.
11. A pressman shall receive, for teaching an apprentice presswork, for the
first three months, 5 cents per token, and for the three months following, 3
cents per token.
P eter F orce, P resident.
T hos . S nowden , S ecreta ry.
APPENDIX B, NO. 2 .—LIST OP PRICES OP THE COLUMBIA TYPO
GRAPHICAL SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. C., ADOPTED NOVEM
BER 4, 1815.
COMPOSITORS.
During the recess of Congress, in book or newspaper offices, to receive not
less than $9 per week. During the session, in offices engaged on Congressional
work, or in newspaper offices, to receive not less than $10 per week, and $2
for each and every Sunday.
By the piece.—For every 1,000 ems, from brevier to pica, 28 cents; for
smaller letter than brevier, 331 cents; on newspapers, not less than 30 cents
per 1,000 em s; above pica, to be charged as pica.
Rule or figure work.— All common rule or figure work, from brevier and
upward, not less than 45 cents per 1,000 ems; below brevier, 50 cents per
1,000 ems.
Rule and figure work.— All common rule and figure work, from brevier and
upward, not less than 561 cents per 1,000 ems; below brevier, not less than
65 cents per 1,000 em s; above pica, to be charged as pica.
For all foreign languages, printed in the Roman character, an addition o f
5 cents per 1,000 ems.
All words printed in Greek, or other foreign characters, to be paid for at the
rate of 60 cents per 1,000 ems.
Side notes to be calculated separate from the text.
An addition of 3 cents on each 1,000 ems for pronouncing dictionaries.
Alterations.— Compositors to receive, for alterations from copy, at the rate of
25 cents per hour.
PRESSMEN.
During the recess of Congress, shall receive not less than $9 per w eek; by the
piece, in newspaper offices, not less than 271 cents per token, for royal or super
royal ; nor less than 45 cents per token for imperial.
During the session, in offices engaged on Congressional work, or in newspaper
offices, not to receive less than $10 per week, and $2 for each and every Sunday.
Paper.— Medium, and below medium, when the form consists of brevier, or
larger letter, 331 cents per token; below brevier, not less than 35 cents per
token; royal and upward, on brevier or larger letter, not less than 371 cents
per token; all under brevier, not less than 50 cents per token.
Quarto, on medium paper, above 44 pica ems in width, to be paid as roy a l;
octavo, above 24 pica ems, to be paid as roy a l; 12mo. above 21 pica ems, to be
paid as roy al; 18mo. above 17 pica ems, to be paid as royal.
Jobs not less than 35 cents per token.
Cards, for one pack, and not exceeding two packs, 35 cents; when exceeding
two packs, to be paid at the rate of 15 cents per pack.
Broadsides shall be paid for double, according to the size o f the paper.
All work on parchment, if one pull, 64 cents; if two pulls, 121 cents.
For taking down or putting up a press, $3.
For working down a new press, $6.
For lifting a form before completed, 331 cents.
For covering a tympan and drawer, $1, or 50 cents for either.
When an alteration in a form takes place, each pressman shall be paid 161
cents per hour.
No pressman shall teach an apprentice presswork, without the benefit o f his
work for 13 weeks, or half his wages for 6 months; nor shall he teach an
apprentice who is more than 18 years old, and who is bound for less than three
years.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
1003
APPENDIX B, NO. 3.—LIST OP PRICES OP THE BALTIMORE TYPO
GRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ADOPTED JUNE 2, 1832.
COMPOSITION.
I. Works done in the English language, common matter, from pica to minion,
inclusive, 25 cents per 1,000 em s; nonpareil, 30 cents; agate, 3l| cents; pearl,
33£ cents; diamond, 50 cents. The headline, with the blank after, and the
foot line, in all cases to be counted not less than three lines; an odd en in
width or length, to be counted an em ; if less than an en, not to be reckoned.
II. Works printed in pica, or larger type, to be counted as if done in pica.
III. Works printed in Latin or Spanish, 3 cents extra per 1,000 ems; in
French, 5 cents extra. Dictionaries in the above languages to be advanced as
in Art. VI.
IY. Works in which Greek, Hebrew, Saxon or other foreign characters may
occur, when they amount to one line per 1,000 ems, 2 cents extra, and in propor
tion for a greater or less quantity.
V. All works done in Greek and Latin, or Greek and English, to be charged
a price and a half.
YI. English dictionaries, printed with figured vowels and accents, 5 cents
advance; without figured yowels, but with accents, 2 cents advance. Geo
graphical, biographical, and medical dictionaries, gazetteers, dictionaries o f the
arts and sciences, and works o f a similar character, are not included in this
article, unless they be attended with extra trouble, beyond the usual descriptive
matter.
VII. Arithmetical works, 5 cents advance per 1,000 ems; rule work to be
charged a price and a h alf; rule and figure work, double; algebraical works,
and works composed principally of medical, astronomical, or other signs, to
be charged double price.
VIII. Works done in Hebrew, without points, 15 cents advance per 1,000 em s;
with points, (to be counted half body and half points) double price.
IX. Works done in Greek, without accents, 40 cents per 1,000 ems; with
accents, 50 cents; the asper and lenis not to be considered as accents.
X. Spelling books, and works of that description, 5 cents in advance per 1,000
ems.
XI. Side and center notes in Bibles and Testaments, to be counted the full
length of the page, (including the lead or one rule) according to the type in
which they are set, and charged 5 cents extra per 1,000 ems. Cut-in notes in the
above works to be cast up according to the type in which they are set, and
charged a price and a half.
X II. Side notes, in law and historical works, to be counted the full length of
the page, and charged according to the type in which they are set; and when
cut into the text to be charged 4 cents extra per 1,000 ems.
X III. Quotations, mottoes, contents of chapters, and bottom notes, in smaller
type than the body, to be paid for according to the size of type in which they
are set.
XIV. Works where the measure does not exceed 14 ems in width, to be paid
2 cents in advance per 1,000 ems.
XV. Time occupied by alterations from copy, or by casing or distributing let
ter not used by the compositor, to be paid for at the rate of 15 cents per hour.
XVI. When compositors, in book and job offices, shall be required to work
after regular hours, they shall be allowed 20 cents per hour, or 5 cents advance
per 1,000 ems.
XVII. All letter cast on a body larger than the face, to be counted according
to the face of the typ e; and all letter cast on a smaller body than the face to be
counted according to the body.
X V III. For all matter made up and imposed by the employer, no more than
2 cents per 1,000 ems shall be allowed. The compositor in all cases to furnish
the head, blank, and foot line, and count the same.
X IX . Making up a set o f furniture, to be charged for by the time occupied, at
the rate o f 15 cents per hour.
X X . Compositors shall, in all cases, charge for every blank page at the end
of a work imposed— each form to be graduated by the following ru le: In octavo
forms, if less than 2 pages, to be charged as 2 ; for 3 pages, 4 to be charged;
for 5, 6 or 7, a full form, etc.
X X I. Compositors employed by the week shall not receive less than $8 per
week. Ten hours shall be considered a day’s work in book and job offices.
10 0 4
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
PRESSWORK.
With balls or rollers before the press.
P er token.
Medium and royal----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- $0. 30
Super r o y a l----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. 37$
Im p e ria l______________________________________________________________
. 45
Job w ork ______________________________________________________________
. 33$
B roadsides____________________________________________________________
. 60
Cards, two packs and under to be considered a token, all over, 12$ cents
per pack.
With rollers behind the press.
Per token.
Medium and royal----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- $0. 23
Super r o y a l------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.25
Im p e ria l_______________________________________________________________
. 27
All fine works to receive an extra price, to be determined by the employer and
pressman, according to its quality. All book work under four tokens to be
charged 2 cents extra per token.
All broadsides to be 45 cents per token.
Job work, 25 cents per token.
Cards, two packs and under, 25 cents; all over two packs, 10 cents per pack.
All colors to be charged double.
In all cases, where the employer finds the roller boy, 4 cents to be deducted
on book or job w ork ; on cards, 2 cents per pack.
Machine rollers.— Medium, four tokens or less, 30 cents per token; over four
tokens, 27 cents. Other works in proportion. Fine work, extra price.
Lifting forms.— When there are not more than eight tokens, the pressman
shall receive the price of one token extra for every form he shall be necessitated
to lift.
Standing.— After a form shall have been put to press, the pressman shall
receive 15 cents for the first half hour, and 20 cents for every subsequent hour
that he is delayed by corrections or alterations.
Pressmen working by the piece, required to count the paper from the press,
to be paid 2 cents extra per token.
Pressmen employed by the week to receive not less than $8 per week. Ten
hours shall be considered a day in book and job offices.
When pressmen, in book and job offices, shall be required to work after regu
lar hours, they shall be allowed 20 cents per hour, or 4 cents extra per token.
Pressmen employed on morning papers, to be paid not less than $9; on evening
papers, not less than $8 per week.
For covering tympan or drawer, 50 cents.
APPENDIX B, NO. 4.—SCALE OF PRICES OF THE TYPOGRAPHICAL
ASSOCIATION OF NEW YORK, ADOPTED JUNE 15, 1833.
COMPOSITION.
1. Works done in the English language, common matter, from English to non
pareil, 25 cents per 1,000 ems; agate, 27 cents; pearl, 30 cents; diamond, 37$
cents. The headline, with blank after, and the foot line, in all cases to be
counted not less than three lines. When a measure exceeds even ems in width,
and is less than an en, an en only to be counted; but if an en, or over, to be
counted an em. Where guard lines are required to pages, they shall be furnished
by the employer in a solid shape, or shall be charged by the compositor.
2. Works printed in great primer, or larger type, to be counted as if done in
English.
3. All jobs done in plain script, to be counted as English, and charged at 30
cents per 1,000 em s; those in analytical or combination script, on inclined bodies,
to be counted as above, and charged 374 cents.
4. Works printed in Latin or Spanish, 3 cents extra per 1,000 em s; in French,
5 cents extra. Dictionaries in the above languages to be advanced in proportion,
as in article 7.
5. Greek, Hebrew, Saxon, etc., or any o f the other characters not in common
use, if amounting to one word, and not exceeding three words per 1,000 ems, to
be charged 2 cents extra. Where the characters are o f a different size from the
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
1005
body o f the matter, and are to be justified in, they shall be charged 4 cents
extra. All exceeding three words to be charged in proportion.
6. All works done in Greek and Latin, or Greek and English, to be charged a
price and a half.
7. English dictionaries, printed with figured vowels and accents, 5 cents
advance; without figured vowels, but with accents, 2 cents advance. Concord
ances, and works of a similar description, where figures and points predominate,
or any work where capitals, small capitals, or italic, are profusely used, 3 cents
advance. Where superior letters or references are used, as in Bibles, or works
o f that character, 1 cent extra per 1,000 ems, shall be charged. Geographical,
biographical, and medical dictionaries, gazetteers, dictionaries o f the arts and
sciences, and works of a similar character, are not included in this article,
except they are attended with extra trouble, beyond the usual descriptive matter.
8. Arithmetical works, 5 cents extra per 1,000 ems. Rule work, part plain
and part figures, and figure work, where no rules are used and figures are
required to be placed in columns, to be charged a price and a h alf; rule and
figure work, double. Algebraical works, and works composed principally of
medical, astronomical, or other signs, to be charged double.
9. Works done in Hebrew, without points, 15 cents advance per 1,000 ems;
when with points, the body and the points to be cast up each according to its
size, and to be charged double.
10. Works done in Greek, without accents, printed copy, page for page, 37i
cents; other reprints, 40 cents per 1,000 em s; with accents 50 cents; the asper
and lenis not to be considered as accents.
11. Church music, whether analytical or solid, to be charged a single price,
according to the size o f the type in which it is set. Piano music to be charged
a price and a half, according to the size, except where it is condensed, when it
shall be charged double.
12. Works done from manuscript copy, to be charged 2 cents extra per 1,000
ems, except foreign languages, which shall be 5 cents; printed copy, with fre
quent interlineations, to be considered as manuscript.
13. Spelling books, and works o f that description, 5 cents advance per
1,000 ems.
14. Side and center notes in Bibles and Testaments to be counted the full
length o f the page, (including the lead, or one rule, which shall count at least
one em) according to the type in which they are set, and charged 5 cents extra
per 1,000 ems. Cut-in notes, in the above works, to be charged 4 cents extra
each note, and the whole page to be counted as text.
15. Side notes in law and historical works, to be counted the full length of
the page, according to the type in which they are set; and when cut into the
text, to be charged 4 cents extra each note.
16. Quotations, mottoes, contents o f chapters, and bottom notes, in smaller
type than the body, to be paid for according to the size o f the type in which
they are set.
17. Works where the measure does not exceed 16 ems in width, to be paid
2 cents advance per 1,000 ems.
18. Time occupied by alterations from copy, by casing or distributing letter,
not used by the compositor, or other work appointed by the employer, to be paid
for at the rate o f 15 cents per hour.
19. When compositors are required to work more than regular hours, they
shall be allowed 20 cents an hour, or 5 cents advance per 1,000 ems.
20. All letter cast on a body larger than the face, (as bourgeois on long
primer) to be counted according to the fa ce; and all letter cast on a body
smaller than the face, (as minion on nonpareil) to be counted according to the
body.
21. In all cases where a companionship may deem it necessary that matter
should be made up by one person, the compositors may either appoint, from
among themselves, or authorize the employer to appoint, a person to perform
that duty, on terms to be agreed upon between themselves and the person
employed to make u p : P ro vid ed , h o w ever , That no more than 2 cents per 1,000
ems shall be allowed to the employer for making up, imposing, taking the
necessary proofs, and keeping the schedule.
22. When a compositor is required to take out bad letters, and replace them,
in consequence o f faults in the founder, miscasts, or worn-out fonts, he shall be
paid at the rate o f 15 cents an hour.
23. For imposing forms, no more shall be allowed than 3 «^ents per page for
quarto, 2 for octavo, 1} for duodecimo, l i for sexadecimo, and the like sum for
1006
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR,
all forms o f a larger number o f pages— the compositor, in all cases, to lay the
pages in regular order, or to be responsible for their being so done.
24. It shall be the duty of the compositor imposing, to take two proofs of each
form. All proofs taken afterwards, shall be paid for at the rate o f 8 cents each,
for letterpress forms, and for stereotype forms and small jobs, 2 cents each.
When an extra proof, or proofs, are required by the carelessness of the composi
tor, they shall be at his expense.
25. Making up furniture for a quarto form, 18 cents; an octavo, 25 cents; and
3 cents extra for all other impositions progressively.
26. Compositors employed on morning newspapers shall receive not less than
$12 per w eek; on evening papers, and in book and job offices, not less than $9 per
week. Ten hours shall be considered a day in book and job offices.
PRESSWORK.
With balls.— Medium, 30 cents per token; royal, 33£; super royal, 37$;
medium, and a half, 39; imperial, 40 cents; and everything above imperial, 45
cents. Cards, the first hundred, 30 cents; for all over one hundred, 10 cents a
pack. The charge with hand rollers to be the same as with balls.
With rollers.— Medium, when there shall be but 4 tokens or less on a form,
25 cents per token; if over 4 tokens, 23 cents. Royal, 4 tokens or less, 27
cents, over 4 tokens, 26 cents. Super royal, 4 tokens or less, 30 cents; over
4 tokens, 28 cents. Medium, and a half, 4 tokens or less, 32 cents; over 4
tokens, 30 cents. Imperial, 4 tokens or less, 35 cents; over 4 tokens, 33 cents.
For any size above imperial, the charge shall be, when there are 4 tokens or
less, 40 cents; over 4 tokens, 35 cents. All broadsides, 40 cents per token.
Cards, the first hundred, 25 cents; all over one hundred, 15 cents per hundred.
All fine work to receive an extra price, to be arranged between the employer
and journeyman. Work done after regular hours, to receive an advance o f 5
cents per token.
Roller boys.— When the employer shall furnish a roller boy, there shall be
18 per cent, deducted from the wages of the pressman until it amounts to $2
per week, when the deduction shall cease.
Machine rollers.— Medium, 4 tokens or less, 21 cents per token; over 4 tokens,
20 cents. Other sizes in proportion. Fine work, extra price.
Lifting forms.— When there are not more than 8 tokens, the pressman shall
receive the price of 1 token extra for every form he shall be required to lift.
Covering tympans.— The sum of 37$ cents shall be allowed for covering a
tymp'an; and the like sum for covering a drawer, or inner tympan.
For putting up or removing presses.—Twenty cents per hour shall be allowed.
Standing.— After a form shall have been put to press, the pressman shall
receive 15 cents for the first half hour, and £0 cents for every subsequent hour,
that he is delayed by corrections or alterations.
When a pressman is employed by the week, he shall receive not less than $9
per w eek; ten hours, in all cases, to be the limit o f a day’s work. Overwork,
20 cents an hour.
SCALE OF V A R IA T IO N FOR TH E SIZES OF FORMS.
O ctavo pages
o r smaller.
P ic a em s.
Medium, to contain_______________________________________________
R oyal, to c o n ta in ________________________________ ________ ________
Super royal, to contain...................... ......................................................
Medium and a half, to contain____ ______ ___________________ _____
Im perial, to co n ta in _______ _______________ ____ ____ ______ ______
9,000
11,000
13,600
16,000
18,000
Quarto or
larger pages.
P ica
em s.
11,000
18,500
16,000
18,000
23,000
Any form exceeding either o f these, by 250 ems, to be charged as the next
highest.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
1007
A P P E N D IX B, NO. 5 .—B IL L OP PRIC E S OP T H E N A S H V IL L E ,
T E N N ., T Y P O G R A P H IC A L SOCIETY, ADOPTED 183 7 .
COMPOSITION.
Compositors to receive per week_______________________________________$11. 00
Bookwork, MS. copy, per 1,000 ems___________________________________
. 35
Bookwork, reprint___________________________________________________
. 33$
Newspaper, manuscript and reprint___________________________________
. 32
Pamphlets, (100 pages, or less,)_______________________________________
. 37$
Rule or figure work, to be counted price and a half.
Rule and figure work, double price.
For all works in foreign languages, an advance o f______________________
. 12$
Dictionaries, arithmetics and algebraical works, an advance o f_________
.12*
Side notes to be calculated separate from thetext, an advance o f_______
. 02
All measures under 12 ems pica, an advance o f_________________________
. 02
Letters cast on a different body from the face, to be counted by the body
one way and the face the other.
Alterations from copy, per hour_______________________________________
. 25
All sizes larger than pica, and not exceeding double pica, to be counted
pica.
Larger than double pica to be charged by the time.
All type smaller than nonpareil, an advance o f_________________________
. 02
Dressing furniture for book or pamphlet form_________________________
. 50
Ten hours shall be considered a day’s work.
All extra work to be charged per hour.
PRESSWORK.
Pressmen to receive per week_________________________________________$12.
Mammoth or elephant, (book or news), per token______________________
Imperial and super ro y a l______________________________________________
Royal and medium___________________________________________________
J o b s _________________________________________________________________
Cards, first pack_____________________________________________________
Cards, each additional pack on same form_____________________________
Hat tips, same as cards.
Jobs on silk or bank-notepaper________________________________________
Broadsides, on medium paper, or smaller_____________________________
Broadsides, larger than medium----------------------------------------------------------Lifting forms before finished, to be charged a token.
All jobs with colored ink, per hour-----------------------------------------------------Parchment, each pull--------------------------------------------------------------------------Covering tympan and drawer, each-----------------------------------------------------All works containing woodcuts, an advance of^-----------------------------------Corrections made in a form, after being put to press, to be charged per
h o u r _______________________________________________________________
Ten hours considered a day’s work.
Ten quires to be considered a token on a newspaper form—10$ quires on
a book form.
00
. 40
33$
. 25
.37$
. 37$
. 18|
.50
. 37$
. 50
. 25
.06$
.75
. 10
. 25
A P P E N D IX B, NO. 6 .—L IST OF PRICES OF T H E COLUM BIA TYPO
G R A P H IC A L SOCIETY, W A SH IN G T O N , D . C., A M E N D E D A N D
A D O PTED J A N U A R Y , 1 8 3 7 .
COMPOSITION.
1. Compositors, during the recess o f Congress, in book, or newspaper offices,
to receive not less than $10 per week. Ten hours to constitute a day’s work.
2. During the session o f Congress, in offices employed on the current Con
gress work, and in all offices engaged on other work done for, or by the
authority o f that body, or in newspaper offices, to receive not less than $11
per week.
3. In all offices, and at all seasons to receive not less than $2 for each and
every Sunday, (to consist o f eight hours,) and for extra hours on Sunday, 25
cents; and at all other times, 20 cents per hour.
276—No. 61—06 M------ 19
1008
BULLETIN
OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
P IE C E W O B K .
1. All works done in the English language, common matter, from pica to
minion, 31 cents per 1,000 ems; minion and nonpareil 37 cents; agate 39
cents; pearl 41 cents; diamond 50 cents. The headline, with the blank after
it, and the foot line, in all cases, to be counted as three lines. An en, in length
or width, to be counted an em ; if less than an en, not to be reckoned. Above
pica to be charged as pica.
2. Newspapers.— Brevier and upward, 33£ cents per 1,000 ems; minion and
nonpareil, 37 cents; agate 39 cents; pearl, 41 cents; diamond, 50 cents.
3. Rule or figure work.— All rule or figure work a price and a half, accord
ing to the type in which it is set. All matter in which two or more rules are
inserted, to constitute rule w ork ; and two or more columns o f figures, without
rules, to constitute figure work.
4. Rule and figure work.— All rule and figure work to be paid double the
price of common matter. One column o f figures and one rule in a page of
other matter, shall constitute rule and figure w ork: P ro vid ed , h o w e ve r , That
on works, the pages of which are uniformly made up of two or more columns,
(as on periodical publications,) no charge beyond that o f common matter shall
be made for, or on account o f the rules separating the columns.
5. All heads and foot lines attached to rule or figure work, or rule and figure
work, to be reckoned the same as the body of the matter.
6. For all foreign languages, printed in the Roman characters, an addition
o f 6 cents per 1,000 ems.
7. All works printed in Greek or other foreign characters, to be paid for at
the rate of 66 cents per 1,000 ems.
8. Arithmetical works to be paid an advance of 6 cents per 1,000 ems on the
price of common matter.
9. Algebraical works to be charged double price.
10. Spelling books, or other work containing more than two columns in a
page, to be paid an advance o f one-half on the price o f common matter.
11. Music, double price.
12. Side notes to be counted the full length of the page, and charged accord
ing to the type in which they are set.
13. Cut-in notes to be cast up according to the type in which they are set,
and charged 10 cents extra per 1,000 em s; and the whole page to be counted as
text.
14. All bottom notes, contents of chapters, etc. in smaller type than the text,
to be paid for according to the type in which they are set.
15. All letter cast upon a larger body than the face, as bourgeois on long
primer, to be counted according to its fa ce; and all letter cast upon a smaller
body than the face, as minion on nonpariel, to be counted according to the body.
16. All works where the measure does not exceed 14 ems in width, to be 3
cents per 1,000 ems advance.
17. For making up a set of furniture, not exceeding 16 pages, 31 cents; when
exceeding, 55 cents.
Alterations.— Compositors to receive for alterations from copy, at the rate of
25 cents per hour.
PRESSWORK.
1. Pressmen, during the recess o f Congress, shall receive not less than $10
per week— ten hours to constitute a day’s work.
2. During the session o f Congress, in offices employed on the current Congress
work, and in all offices engaged on other work done for, or by the authority of
that body, or in newspaper offices, to receive not less than $11 per week.
3. In all offices, and at all seasons, to receive not less than $2 for each and
every Sunday, (to consist o f eight hours,) and for extra hours on Sundays, 25
cents, and at all other times, 20 cents per hour.
1009
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
PIECEW ORK.
K ind o f w ork—p er token.
W ith
balls or
hand
rollers.
W ith
rollers
and
roller
b oy s or
m achine
rollers. («)
$0.37
.39
.41
.43
.45
.47
.46
.48
.50
.52
.50
.41
.60
$0.27
.29
.31
.33
.35
.37
.36
.38
.40
.42
.40
.31
.50
1. Paper.—Medium and below medium, when the form consists o f brevier,
o r larger letter.........................................................................................................
Below brevier, not less than......................................................................................
Royal, on b revier or larger letter............................................................................
Royal, below b r e v ie r ................................................. — ........................................... .
Super royal, on b revier or larger letter................................................................
Super royal, below b re v ie r.........................................................................................
M edium ana a half, on brevier o r larger le t te r ...................................................
Medium and a half, below b re v ie r..........................................................................
Im perial, on brevier o r larger l e t t e r .....................................................................
Im perial, below b r e v ie r .............................................................................................
Newspapers, when printed on im p e ria l................................................................
Newspapers, when printed on royal o r super r o y a l...........................................
F or any size above imperial, the charge shall b e .................................................
a Pressman to find his ow n roller boy.
2. SCALE OF V A R IA T IO N FOR T H E SIZE OF FORMS.
O ctavo o r Quarto or
smaller.
larger.
P ic a , em s.
Medium, to contain.................................................................. ............................
R oyal, to contain..... .................................................................. ..............................
Super royal, to c o n t a in .........................................................................................
Medium and half, to contain.................................................................................
Imperial, to contain. ...............................................................................................
9,000
11,000
13,500
16,000
18,000
P ic a em s.
11,000
13,500
16,000
18,000
22,000
Any form exceeding either of these by 250 ems to be charged as the next,
highest.
S C A L E
F O B
J O B S .
Inches.
Medium to measure____
18 by 22
Royal to measure_______
19 by 24
Super royal to measure.
Imperial to measure-----
20 by 27
21 by 31
3. All bookwork less than 4 tokens to be charged 2 cents extra per token.
4. Jobs, 39 cents per token, when worked on medium, or paper below medium;
when on royal or upward, on brevier or larger letter, not less than 43 cents;
below brevier 45 cents; when on imperial, 50 cents per token.
5. Work done in colors, double price.
6. Cards, for 1 pack, and not exceeding 2 packs, 39 cents; when exceeding 2
packs, to be paid at the rate of 16 cents per pack.
7. Broadsides shall be paid for double, according to the size o f the paper.
To constitute a broadside, the matter to extend across the sheet without a
break. A foolscap sheet, and all above, to be considered a broadside.
8. All work on parchments, when not done by the piece, to be paid $2.20
per day, and no charge to be made for less than half a d a y ; when done by the
piece, if 1 pull 7 cents; if 2 pulls, 14 cents.
9. All matter that is required to be made up and imposed in pages, to be con
sidered bookwork.
10. Tokens.— On newspaper work, not over 10 quires, or 240 sheets; and on
other work, not more than 250 sheets; or 10$ quires to constitute a token.
11. For taking down or putting up a press, 20 cents, per hour.
12. For working down a new Ramage press, $6.
13. For lifting a form before completed, 37 cents.
14. For covering a tympan and drawer $1.10, or 55 cents for either.
15. When an alteration in a form takes place, each pressman shall be paid at
the rate of 18 cents per hour for the time occupied, or 25 cents per hour if but
one pressman, with roller boy.
10 1 0
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
1G. No pressman shall teach an apprentice presswork, without the benefit of
his work for fifteen weeks, or half his wages for six months; nor shall he teach
an apprentice who is more than 18 years old, and who is bound for less than
four years.
No alteration or amendment shall be made to the foregoing list o f prices,
unless two-thirds of the members present concur therein; nor then, without one
month’s previous notice having been given.
REGULATIONS RESPECTING APPRENTICES.
1. Every apprentice shall serve until he be 21 years o f a g e; and, at the time of
entering as an apprentice, shall not be more than 16 years o f age; and every
boy taken as an apprentice shall be bound to his employer in due form o f law.
2. No runaway apprentice to be received into any office in the District o f
Columbia, either as an apprentice or journeyman.
3. That on the death of his master, or if, from any cause, the office wherein
he was indented shall be discontinued, he may be taken into another office, and
be regularly indented to finish the term of his apprenticeship.
4. After the 1st day o f January, 1844, the Columbia Typographical Society
will not consider any application for membership unaccompanied by sufficient
proof that the applicant has served the period of five years as a regularly
indented apprentice at the printing business.
5. That after the 1st day of January, 1839, the Columbia Typographical
Society will not permit members o f said society to work in any office where boys
may be taken as apprentices to the printing business to serve for a less period
than five years.
6. The Columbia Typographical Society recognizes but two classes o f print
ers— employers and journeymen: that is, persons who carry on business solely
as employers, and those who work as journeymen in the manner prescribed, and
at the prices demanded by this society.
APPENDIX B, NO. 7.—SCALE OF PRICES OF THE NEW ORLEANS
TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ADOPTED SEPTEMBER 14, 1889.
COMPOSITION.
Compositors employed on morning newspapers to work by the piece only, at
the following rates: Plain matter, in the English, French, or Spanish language,
62£ cents per 1,000 ems, for manuscript or printed copy; pearl, 75 cents per
1.000 em s; ruby, 81£ cents per 1,000 em s; diamond, $1 per 1,000 em s; rule and
figure work, $1.25 per 1,000 ems; rule or figure work separately, 93f cents per
1.000 ems. A foreman not to receive less than $25 per week.
On evening papers, and in book and job offices, compositors not to receive less
than $19 per week, ten hours constituting a day’s w ork ; and all extra hours to
be charged at the rate o f 40 cents per hour. Work done by the piece to be
charged the same as morning papers. Foremen on evening papers not to
receive less than $22.50 per week. Where two foremen are employed on one
paper in two languages, the foreman on the English side not to receive less than
$20 per week.
On bookwork, the running title, white line under it, and the foot line o f the
page, to be considered as regular matter.
An odd en in width or depth to be counted an em ; but if less than an en, it
is not to be reckoned.
Bookwork and jobs done by the piece, with pica or larger letter, to be charged
as pica.
Bookwork and jobs done by the piece, in which Hebrew, Greek, or other for
eign characters occur, to be charged when they amount to one line, 16 cents
extra per 1,000 ems.
Bookwork done by the piece in the dead languages, to be charged at the rate
o f $1.25 per 1,000 em s; but work done in the dead and modern languages, (an
equal proportion of each,) to be charged at the rate o f 93-f cents per 1,000 ems.
Bookwork with side notes, to be charged as follow s: The text and side notes
to be charged separately, and the notes to be charged according to the letter in
which they are set, and calculated the full length o f the page; when they are cut
in the text, 16 cents extra to be charged.
Music $1.25 per 1,000 ems.
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS,
1011
Letter cast on a body smaller than the face to be charged according to the
body; and letter cast on a body larger than the face to be charged according to
the face.
Compositors making up a set of furniture, to charge at the rate o f 40 cents
per hour.
Compositors, in all cases, to charge the blank pages which may occur in a
work.
For alterations from copy, if a single one, 25 cents; per hour, 40 cents.
PRESSWORK.
[With halls or rollers.]
Bookwork done on medium, royal or super royal paper to be charged per
to k e n _______________________________________________________________ $1.00
Imperial ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.25
Broadside, posting bills, super royal or imperial________________________ 1. 50
Broadside, posting bills, under super royal_____________________________ 1.00
Cards:
Plain, two packs or under__________________________________________
. 75
G la zed ____________________________________________________________ 1. 25
For each succeeding pack, if plain-------------------------------------------------. 25
For each succeeding pack, if glazed_______________________________
. 37$
Work done on parchment, each impression_____________________________
. 12$
Standing after a form shall have been put to press, per hour____________
. 40
Covering tympan and drawer, each____________________________________
1. 00
Putting up a press------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5. 00
Taking down a press---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. 50
Pressmen working on morning and evening papers, or other periodicals,
by the piece, to charge for medium, or super royal, per token________
. 75
Imperial or larger------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LOO
For all extra fine work an additional price to be charged, to be agreed on
between the employer and employed.
All work done in colors, to be charged according to the time employed thereon.
Lifting a form before the whole impression is worked off, to be charged as
one token.
When a roller boy is furnished by the employer, no more than 25 per cent
shall be deducted.
When a pressman may be employed by the week in a book or job office, or on
an evening paper, he shall not charge less than $19 per week, ten hours consti
tuting a d a y ; and all work done after the regular hours, 40 cents per hour.
On morning papers, pressmen working by the week, not to receive less than
$22.
J a m e s P ir n ie , P resid en t.
W il l i a m P ic k e t t , V ice-P resident.
J a m e s O ’D o w d , S ecreta ry.
R obert M cC o u l l , Treasurer.
A. H. H ayes,
H . L. K e l s e y ,
E. B. K e l l y ,
J. P. L y n c h ,
Ja m e s D y e r ,
Ja m e s T aylo r ,
D irectors.
1012
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
APPENDIX B, No. 8.—SCALE OF PRICES OF THE PITTSBURG TYPO
GRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION, ADOPTED NOVEMBER 21, 1849.
Pittsburg Typographical Association, organized in 1849, issued a bill of prices
together with apprenticeship recommendations, November 21, 1849, as follow s:
REPORT ON BILL OF PRICES.
T o the Officers and M em b ers o f the P ittsbu rg T ypographical A ssociation.
Your committee appointed to fix a bill o f prices, respectfully offer the follow
ing for the consideration o f the association:
COMPOSITION.
1. Composition, manuscript and reprint, per 1,000 ems________________ $0. 25
2. Any size smaller than nonpareil___________________________________
.28
(The headline, with the blank after, and the foot line, in all cases to
be counted three lines; over an en in length or width, to be counted
an em ; if less, not to be reckoned.)
3. Work done in foreign languages, in Roman characters, extra per
1.000 ems________________________________________________________
. 10
4. Work done in foreign languages, and not in Roman characters, except
the German, which shall be the same as English, per 1,000 ems____
. 50
5. Algebraical work, and works having a great number of astronomical,
medical, and other signs_________________________________________
. 50
6. Spelling books and similar works, advance per 1,000_______________
. 05
7. Arithmetical work, advance________________________________________
. 05
8. English dictionaries with figured vowels and accents, advance______
. 10
9. English dictionaries without figured vowels, advance----------------------. 05
10. Side and center notes in Bibles, Testaments, and other works, to be
counted the full length of the page, (including the lead or rule)
according to the type in which they are set, and an advance per
1.000 o f_________________________________________________________
. 03
11. Cut-in notes to be cast up according to the type in which they are set,
and charged an advance o f----------------------------------------------------.05
12. Quotations, notes, mottoes, etc., in smaller type, to be counted accord
ing to the type in which they are set.
13. Works where the measure does not exceed 14 ems, advance per 1,000
o f ______________________________________________________________
.03
14. All letter cast on a body larger than the face to be counted according
to the fa c e ; and all letter cast on a smaller body than the face, to
be counted according to the body.
15. Composition on music to be done as agreed upon by the employer and
journeyman.
16. Rule and figure work, per 1,000------------------------------------------------------. 50
17. Rule or figure work, per 1,000--------------------------------------------------------. 37$
18. Letter list, or names set two or three in newspaper column, per 1,000.
. 37$
19. Time lost in alterations from copy, extra casing of letter, or anything
not coming legitimately under the preceding articles, to be charged
by the h ou r_____________________________________________________
. 20
20. Journeymen working by the week, (ten hours a day’s work) to re
ceive not less than______________________________________________
8. 00
21. Journeymen working on morning papers, per week not less than____ 9. 00
22. Foremen shall not receive less per week than_______________________ 10. 00
JOB WORK.
F o r m s to be distributed b y th e jou rn eym a n.
Common medium sheet b ills----------------------------------------------------------------- $1.00
Common medium sheet-bills (with border,)____________________________ 1.25
Common medium half-sheet bills_______________________________________
.50
Common medium half-sheet bills (with borders)-----------------------------------. 75
Common medium quarto bills--------------------------------------------------------------. 37$
Programmes, (eight to a sheet)-----------------------------------------------------------.50
Posters for theater, circus, etc__________________________________________
. 50
Bills o f lading_________________________________________________________
.50
Circulars for balls, etc., (scrip t)_______________________________________
.25
Business cards or exhibition tickets____________________________________
.25
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
1013
Plain composition in script to be counted as pica.
All job work not above enumerated, or any the before mentioned with an
extra quantity o f matter, to be agreed upon by the parties.
PRESSWORK.
Office to find the roller hoy.
Medium, or under, per token___________________________________________ $0.20
Imperial, per token___________________________________________________
. 25
Double medium, per token-------------------------------------------------------------------. 28
Music, per token______________________________________________________
. 23
Steamboat bills, per token, (black )___________________________________
.25
Steamboat bills, per token, (colored)__________________________________
.35
Alterations on steamboat bills_________________________________________
. 10
Bills o f lading, circulars, invitations, billheads, checks, drafts, etc., per
token________________________________________________________________
. 25
Colored work, per token_______________________________________________
. 30
Cap or quarto post, per token__________________________________________
. 25
Cards, first pack----------------------------------------------------------------------------------. 12$
Cards, every additional p a ck __________________________________________
. 06$
Posters, 100 or less-----------------------------------------------------------------------------. 25
Posters, each additional 100 or less_____________________________________
. 12$
Books o f not more than one token an advance o f_______________________
. 05
All work done on parchment, each pull-------------------------------------------------. 04
Covering ty m p an --------------------------------------------------------------------------------.50
Covering d r a w e r --------------------------------------------------------------------------------.50
Making r o lle r _________________________________________________________
.25
Lifting forms before their completion, an extra token to be charged; provided,
the full complement does not exceed 8 tokens.
Extra charges on engravings.
Pressmen employed by the week, ten hours to constitute a day’s work, $9 per
w eek; power pressmen, $10.
Your committee, without wishing to be considered as dictating to employers,
would earnestly recommend that hereafter no apprentice shall be taken for a
less period than three years, and that regular and formal indentures be made
between the parties, that justice may be done both.
Respectfully,
G. T. Myebs.
J oseph Martin .
D . P. W ork .
A l e x . W . R ook .
W . H . C appe .
B. SlNGERLY.
J. R e isin g e r .
P ittsb u r g , ’N o vem b er 21 , 1849,
APPENDIX B, NO. 9.—SCALE OF PRICES OF THE JOURNEYMEN
PRINTERS’ UNION OF PHILADELPHIA, UNANIMOUSLY ADOPTED
AUGUST 10, 1850.
MORNING NEWSPAPERS.
1. Composition in agate, and in all larger type, o f regular body and face, 30
cents per 1,000 ems.
2. Composition in type smaller than agate, o f regular body and face, 35 cents
per 1,000 ems.
3. Letter cast on a body larger than the face, to be charged according to the
fa c e ; and letter cast on a body smaller than the face to be counted according to
the body.
4. Rule and figure work, double price.
5. Composition requiring three justifications, such as three columns o f figures,
lists o f letters, as at present published, etc., a price and a half.
6. Work by the hour, and all waiting after 8 o’clock, p. m. for mails, or for
any other purpose, 25 cents per hour.
7. On each occasion where a hand shall be called to go to work, after being
through the regular work, $1 shall be charged extra.
1014
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
8. Every hand employed upon a morning newspaper shall be entitled to
24 consecutive hours' intermission from labor in each week, and if called upon
to work during such intermission, he shall be paid $1 extra, whether the said
intermission occurs on Saturday*, or any other day o f the week.
9. Work by the week, $12 per week, 10 hours constituting a day’s work.
WEEKLY AND AFTERNOON NEWSPAPERS.
1. Composition, 28 cents per 1,000 ems.
2. Hour work, 20 cents per hour.
3. Ten dollars per week, 10 hours constituting a day’s work.
BOOK AND JOB WORK.
1. Work in the English language, printed copy, from pica to nonpareil inclu
sive, 27 cents per 1,000 ems; from agate to diamond, 30 cents per 1,000 ems.
Manuscript copy, 2 cents per 1,000 ems extra. Printed copy, with 10 interlinea
tions or alterations per 1,000 ems, to be charged as manuscript.
2. Work in foreign languages, Roman characters, printed copy, 5 cents per
1.000 ens extra; manuscript, 7 cents per 1,000 ens extra.
3. Work in the Hebrew language, 35 cents per 1,000 ems. Where points are
used, they shall be counted according to their body, and charged 40 cents per
1.000 ems.
4. Work in the Greek language, 45 cents per 1,000 ems.
5. Work in which Hebrew and Greek words, and words in other than Roman
characters occur, 1 cent extra for every three words.
6. Spelling books, dictionaries, primers, and all works in which figured vowels
and accents are used, printed copy, 33 cents per 1,000 em s; manuscript, 35 cents
extra per 1,000 ems.
7. Arithmetical work, 10 cents extra per 1,000 ems.
8. Algebraical work, 50 cents per 1,000 ems.
9. Work in which cuts, excepting initial letters, are run into the matter, 2
cents per 1,000 ems extra on the pages in which such cuts occur.
10. Quotations, mottoes, contents o f chapters, footnotes, descriptions, under
cuts, to be charged according to the type in which they are set.
11. Jobs in script to be counted as pica, 33 cents per 1,000 ems.
12. Work in which the lines or paragraphs are in different sized type alter
nately, 2 cents per 1,000 ems extra.
13. All matter in which there are a number of braces, requiring more than two
justifications, a price and a half. (In this section reference is made to tables
of classification, as a botanical work, etc.)
14. Side and center notes, or references to Bibles, Testaments, law and his
torical works, and work of a similar description, to be counted according to the
type in which they are set, and measured the whole length o f the page, includ
ing the leads and rules, 3 cents per 1,000 ems extra.
15. Cut-in notes, 2 cents per note, and the matter to be counted as text.
16. In letterpress offices, cuts and blank pages to be charged by the composi
tor ; and all cuts to be charged according to the type o f the page in which they
respectively occur.
17. Letter cast on a body larger than the face, to be charged according to
the fa ce ; and letter cast on a body smaller than the face, to be counted accord
ing to the body.
18. The headline, the blank after it, and the foot line, to be counted three
lines. An en in width to be counted an e n ; if more than an en, to be counted
an em ; if less than an en, not to be counted.
19. When the measure does not exceed 14 ems in width, 3 cents per 1,000 em s.
extra.
20. When the measure does not exceed 18 ems in width, 2 cents per 1,000
ems extra.
21. When the measure does not exceed 21 ems in width, 1 cent per 1,000 ems
extra.
22. The compositor shall not be required to correct alterations (including
alterations of punctuations) from printed copy.
23. In tabular work, three or more columns of rules and figures to constitute
rule and figure work. Three or more columns of rules to constitute rule work.
Three or more columns o f figures to constitute figure work. Rule and figure
EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS.
1015
work, double price. Rule work, a price and a half. Figure work, a price and
a halt
24. No work shall be measured by any type larger than pica.
25. Making up a set o f furniture to be charged for according to the time
occupied.
26. In stereotype offices, the forms to be revised, or prepared for molding, at
the employer’s expense, and reimposed matter to be in the care o f the office.
27. The lowest charge for any piece o f work, 27 cents.
28. All work on time, (except week work) 20 cents per hour.
29. Compositors employed by the week, $10 per week; ten hours to consti
tute a day’s work.
MUSIC.
1. Plain choral music, 18 cents per 1,000 ems; plain choral music, contain
ing two parts on a staff, or with organ accompaniment, 22 cents per 1,000
em s; where a single staff on the page contains two parts, 20 cents per 1,000 ems.
. 2. Piano and other instrumental music, 20 cents per 1,000 ems.
3. Rudiments to be counted as music.
4. Music jobs, containing less than 15,000 ems, 3 cents per 1,000 ems extra.
APPENDIX B, NO. 10.—LIST OF PRICES OF THE COLUMBIA (WASH
INGTON, D. C.) TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ADOPTED NOVEMBER
2, 1850.
COMPOSITION.
1. Compositors to receive not less than $12 per w eek; ten hours to constitute
a day’s w ork ; and for extra hours, 25 cents per hour.
2. In all offices, and at all seasons, to receive not less than $2.50 for each and
every Sunday, (to consist of eight hours;) and for extra hours on said day, 30
cents per hour.
PIECEWORK.
1. All works done in the English language, common matter, from pica to non
pareil, 40 cents per 1,000 ems; nonpareil, 44 cents; agate, 47 cents; pearl, 49
cents; diamond, 60 cents. The headline, with the blank after it, and the foot
line, in all cases, to be counted as three lines. An en, in length or width, to be
counted an em ; if less than an en, not to be reckoned. Above pica, to be
charged as pica.
2. Rule or figure work.— All rule or figure work a price and a half, according
to the type in which it is set. All matter in which two or more rules are
inserted to constitute rule w ork ; and two or more columns o f figures without
rules, to constitute figure work.
3. Rule and figure work.— All rule and figure work to be paid double the price
o f common matter. One column of figures and one rule, in a page or other mat
ter, shall constitute rule and figure work: P ro vid ed , h ow ever , That on works
the pages o f which are uniformly made up of two or more columns, (as on
periodical publications,) no charge beyond that o f common matter shall be made
for, or on account of, the rules separating the columns.
4. All heads and foot lines attached to rule or figure work, or rule and figure
work, to be reckoned the same as the body o f the matter.
5. All foreign languages, printed in Roman characters, an addition of 6 cents
per 1,000 ems.
6. All work printed in Greek, or other foreign characters, to be paid for at the
rate o f 79 cents per 1,000 ems.
7. Arithmetical works to be paid an advance of 6 cents per 1,000 ems on the
price o f common matter.
8. Algebraical or mathematical works to be charged double price.
9. Spelling books, or other work containing more than two columns in a page,
to be paid an advance of one-half on the price o f common matter.
10. Music double price.
11. Side notes to be counted the full length o f the page, and charged according
to the type in which they are set.
12. Cut-in notes to be cast up according to the type in which they are set, and
charged 10 cents extra per 1,000 em s; and the whole page to be counted as text.
13. All bottom notes, contents o f chapters, etc., i
@FedFRASER