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58th Congress, ) HOUSE OF REPRESENT A T I V ES. j Doc. No. 386, 3d Session. ( | Part 6. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR. BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR. NO. 6 1 -N O V E M B E R , 1905. ISSUED EVERY OTHER MONTH. W A SH IN G TO N : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1905. EDITOR, CHAS. P. NEILL, COM M ISSIONER. ASSOCIATE EDITORS, G. W. W. HANGER, OHAS. H. VERRILL, G. A. WEBER. II CONTENTS. Page. Labor conditions in P orto R ico, by W alter E. W eyl, Ph. D ................... 723-856 A docum entary history o f the early organizations o f printers, by Ethelbert Stewart.................................................................................................... 857-1033 Digest o f recent reports o f State bureaus o f labor statistics: C olorado......................................... ......................................................... 1034,1035 O regon......................................................................................................... 1035,1036 Pennsylvania.................... .........................................................- ............ 1036-1039 W ash in gton .......................................................... W est V irgin ia........................................................................................ __ 1041,1042 Statistics o f m anufactures in Massachusetts: Eighteenth Annual R eport- 1043-1046 Digest o f recent foreign statistical publications............... ........................ 1047-1053 Decisions o f courts affecting labor.................................................................. 1054-1074 Laws o f various States relating to labor enacted since January 1,1904. 1075-1095 Cumulative index o f labor laws and decisions relating th e re to ............. 1096-1098 HI BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU No. 61. OF L A B O R W ASH IN G TO N . N ovem ber, 1905. LABOR CONDITIONS IN POETO EICO. B Y W A L T E R E. W E Y L , P H . D. IN TRO D U CTIO N AND SU M M ARY. Labor conditions in Porto Rico are inherently different from labor conditions in the United States, or in any of the highly civilized countries o f Europe. Porto Rico is a tropical island, and the strik ing difference which one feels in coming from a country in the temperate zone to the Tropics is reflected in an entire change in the social, political, and economic conditions of the two regions. The absence o f winter and the warm, equable climate reduce the necessities o f the population, and have determined largely the housing, cloth ing, food, earnings, and the manner of living and working o f the pop ulation. The character o f the industries is also different. Tropical agriculture is carried on in a manner entirely at variance with the agriculture o f temperate zones, and the same is true o f all other forms o f industrial life. A study o f Porto Rican labor conditions is practically a study of the economic and industrial conditions o f the island. This study necessitates, therefore, a consideration o f the racial character o f the population and o f the manner and rapidity with which the population increases, as a result o f the excess o f births over deaths, or o f immi gration over emigration. The labor problem in Porto Rico, as compared with that in the United States, is extremely simple. The island is not, as is the United States, a vast complex o f agriculture, industry, and commerce, mutually dependent and altogether self-sufficing. The country is preponderatingly agricultural, and the great mass o f the working pop ulation is engaged in agriculture. As a consequence, an overwhelm ing proportion o f the workingmen belong to the unskilled or low 723 724 BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. skilled class. There is little differentiation, little specialization, lit tle subdivision o f labor. The workmen o f the country are upon a low basis, as regards the character and the variety o f their work and the amount o f their remuneration, and they are not yet sufficiently advanced to be organized into great unions, as in the more highly developed countries. Just as there is no considerable differentiation among the working men o f Porto Rico, so there has been but little change in conditions during several centuries. Since the sixteenth century the population has steadily increased, and what was once a sparsely settled country has now attained a density o f population considerably in excess of that o f our more populous Eastern States. Aside from this numerical increase, the condition o f the population and o f the working classes in particular has remained stationary. The people live now as they lived one or two hundred years ago, close to the soil. They are still, though to a less extent than formerly, dependent largely upon the im mediate products o f the region, and it is still possible for a small acreage to maintain life in the same manner as life was maintained in the island two hundred years ago. The island, lying to the eastward o f the American continent, seemed to be largely forgotten during the centuries, and there was but little interference from without, and until within recent years no sudden or great turn in the development from within. It is probable that the condition o f the working class in Porto Rico has changed less in three hundred years than the condition o f the working class in the United States has changed in fifty years. There are certain interesting phenomena in Porto Rico which might be studied with advantage. One o f these is the influence of slavery and o f emancipation. Like all tropical countries in America, labor in Porto Rico was formerly in large part slave, and, as in these countries, emancipation took place within the last century. African slavery was introduced as early as 1513, and was extended grad ually as the aboriginal population disappeared. From 1860 on, the number o f slaves diminished, and since 1873, when emancipation took place, there has been no slavery on the island. The long-continued existence o f slavery, however, has had its effect on the industrial character o f large sections o f the laboring population. Labor conditions in Porto Rico have been largely affected by the character o f the environment and by the nature of the population. Upon this small island, without mineral resources and without large harbors, a population o f 1,000,000 people is gathered. The island consists o f a longitudinal ridge o f mountains gradually sloping to a narrow plain extending around the coast. The atmosphere is humid and somewhat enervating on the northern coast, but drier on the south ern. The population consists largely o f descendants o f Spaniards and of negroes, with a probable admixture o f Indian blood. The popula LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 725 tion is rapidly increasing, as it has in the past, and is practically un affected by immigration and emigration, which are small. There is but little race antagonism between the whites and the colored people. The island remained for almost four hundred years under the rule of the Spaniards, and during that period it had only a few months o f autonomous government. The religion of the vast mass of the popu lation is Roman Catholic. The great majority of the population reside in the country, not more than 8 per cent o f the entire population living in cities of 8,000 or over. Until within recent years the sanitary conditions of the island were execrable, and a vast amount of work will be required to make the conditions even approximately good. The education of the people o f the island has for centuries been neglected, and it is only since the American occupation that substantial progress has been made. The proportion which the workers bear to the entire population o f Porto Rico is somewhat smaller than that prevailing in the United States. This is due, however, to the large number of children on the island. Considering the adult population, Porto Rico has almost exactly the same proportion o f breadwinners and dependents as the United States; but a far larger proportion of these workers are engaged in agriculture and a much smaller proportion in manu facturing, mining, commerce, and the professions. The proportion o f women employed is very much smaller than in the United States, and the employment o f women, so far as it goes, is very much greater in the cities o f Porto Rico than in the country districts. There is a large employment o f boy and girl labor, even below the age o f 10 years. The great mass of the labor of Porto Rico is unskilled, over fiveeighths o f all workmen being classed under the general head of laborers, and a much larger percentage being directly classible as unskilled. The largest class o f workers of all sorts is that o f agri cultural laborers or field hands. Both- white and colored laborers work as field hands. The whites, who form over three-fifths of the population, are to be found in larger proportions in the uplands than on the coast. The principal industry in which these white people are engaged is that o f coffee raising, which is the most important industry in the uplands. The corresponding industry in the lowlands is sugar culture, which is rapidly growing in im portance. . Roughly speaking, the daily wages o f field hands in Porto Rico range from 30 cents to 55 cents. The prevailing rate of wages in the coffee region is from 25 cents a day, with a breakfast worth 5 cents, to 30 cents a day, with or without breakfast. The prevailing rate o f wages in tobacco raising is slightly above 40 cents a day, and the prevailing rate of wages in the sugar industry is about 50 or 726 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. slightly above 50 cents a day. These wages vary slightly from plan tation to plantation or from year to year. To a very large extent wages are fixed by custom rather than by the direct and obvious action o f competition. The principal disturbing element to wages, both o f agricultural hands and of urban workers, was the change in the currency from the provincial money existing in 1899 to the American currency. (a) The sudden change from a dollar worth 60 cents in gold to a dollar worth 100 cents in gold, or, in other words, an advance o f 66£ per cent in the value of the circulating medium, could not but have a considerable influence upon the wages o f the people. The effect o f this change in the coffee district was obscured by a frightful hur ricane which occurred at about the same time (1899) and which crippled for a considerable time the coffee industry. The depression which occurred not only as a result o f this hurricane, but also from other causes, is not yet past, and has prevented the workmen from obtaining the same pay in American currency as was formerly ob tained in the provincial currency. The net result o f the changes in wages and in the currency in the coffee district was to leave the worker worse off than before. The hardship inflicted upon the workers in the coffee district, however, has been even greater than that entailed by these changes, because o Prior to 1895 the currency of Porto Rico was Mexican, for which the pro vincial currency was exchanged at the rate o f $95 of provincial money for $100 o f Mexican money. At the time o f the American occupation the circulat ing medium of the country was provincial silver that had been coined at the mints of Madrid and Seville and exported to the island. These coins, together with fractional currency, bore the date of 1895 or of 1896, and by the year 1898 there were about six and a half millions of provincial silver in the country. As compared with the gold dollar, the Porto Rican peso was below par. Its bullion value was less than that o f the American silver dollar, the value of the silver being only 93.5 per cent of the value of the American silver dollar. In 1898, and for a short, time previous, the dollar exchanged at a fixed, arbitrary, official rate of 60 cents, the American gold dollar being at a premium o f 66§ per cent, though this official rate was not observed in private commer cial or banking transactions. The following table shows the value o f the Porto Rican peso in American gold for the years 1884 to 1899: VA LU E OF PORTO RICAN PESOS IN A M ERICAN GOLD, 1884 to 1899. $0,870 .888 .800 .781 .813 .781 .794 .813 $0,898 .909 .870 .833 .893 .855 .893 .840 Mean. $0,882 .871 .835 .807 .853 .818 .844 .827 Year. 1892.......................... 1893.......................... 1894......................... 1895......................... 1896.......................... 1897.......................... 1898.......................... 1899......................... Lowest. Highest. $0,763 .699 .625 .526 .625 .584 .584 .606 Mean. a 1884.......................... 1885.......................... 1886.......................... 1887.......................... 1888.......................... 1889.......................... 1890......................... 1891.......................... Lowest. Highest. 15 Year. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 727 there has come a very great reduction in the total amount o f work to be done and a consequent lessening of the regularity of employment. The effect o f the change in the currency on wages has been equally obscured in the sugar regions. While in the coffee districts the change from a 60-cent dollar to a 100-cent dollar was synchro nous with a great depression in the industry, on the other hand the change in the sugar industry occurred along with a rapid increase in the prosperity o f that industry. The declaration o f free trade with the United States opened up to Porto Rican sugar producers a free and practically unlimited market. As a consequence, the rais ing o f sugar has become immensely profitable. Tens o f thousands of acres are planted in cane, and the industry is being extended in all directions. Land which formerly lay fallow or was used for pas ture is now put into cane, with the result o f an increased demand for labor. The peons, or agricultural workers, in sugar culture, appear to be now receiving the same rate of pay in American currency as they formerly received in the depreciated provincial currency, and, as changes in prices have not been sufficient to offset this difference, the condition o f the peons on the coast seems to have been materi ally bettered. The wages o f the manual laborers in the cities do not appear to have remained at the same level in American currency as formerly in the depreciated currency. There are, however, no trustworthy comparative statistics upon this subject, and it is necessary to base a judgment largely upon the statements made by employers and workmen. There seems, upon the whole, to have been an increase in the actual purchasing power of the wages in the cities. In San Juan the present wages for some occupations are the same in gold as they were in provincial currency in 1898, and while the gold prices of commodities, .and especially rents, have risen, the condition o f a large section o f the urban population appears to have improved. On the other hand, there is to be noted in many trades a marked retrogression in the condition o f the workers. The old system of hand trades in Porto Rico, suffering as it did from local competition in Spanish days, has now begun to decline rapidly as a result o f the competition from American manufacturers. There are many handi craftsmen who were formerly occupied in manufacturing articles who are now limited entirely to doing repair work. This change has come about from the fact that it is much cheaper to produce these articles by machinery in large and well-equipped American fac tories than to produce the same articles by hand labor in Porto Rico, even though the rate of wages is much lower in Porto Rico. The handicraftsmen o f Porto Rico complain o f the lack o f work and the reduction both in the volume and in the remuneration o f their labor. 728 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. The rates o f wages for many urban occupations are given in detail in the appendix to this report. To a considerable extent the wages o f rural workers are supple mented by additional remuneration in the form of free lodging, free breakfasts or lunches, and in some cases free fuel. These supple mentary earnings are much more common in some districts than in others, and they appear to have been more common in former times than at present. In many parts of the country it is usual to permit the peon to “ squat ” upon the land o f the proprietor and to build a hut from wood obtained upon the proprietor’s land. The entire value o f one of these huts, as measured in labor, does not seem to average more than $20, although this is admittedly an estimate. The rent granted free is thus inconsiderable, and does not constitute an addi tion to wages o f more than about a cent or two a day; nor is the custom uniform or universal. On many of the plantations visited there was accommodation for only a part o f the peons, and no accommodations for others. The grant of breakfast, which is the midday or 11 a. m. meal, is o f more consequence. This meal usually consists o f about a quarter o f a pound of codfish, together with eight or twelve plantains or bananas, and is supposed to amount in value to about 5 cents a day. In some cases the right o f the peon to util ize a small part o f the land and raise thereon his own fruits and vegetables constitutes a considerable addition to his remuneration. In the urban centers this system of supplementary wages does not seem to prevail. The labor of women is relatively less important in Porto Rico than in the United States. Statistics are given for women’s wages in the tables which form a part o f this report. As in all other countries, the rate o f remuneration is considerably smaller than that for work requiring approximately equal skill performed by men% The principal cause of the low wages prevailing in Porto Rico ap pears to be the large excess o f population. The statistics of births and deaths in Porto Rico are defective and throw no direct light upon the situation, but from other available statistics it is quite clear that the population, already extremely dense, is increasing at a rapid rate. The nature o f the industries o f the island and the manner in which the working people live are such as to cause the population to increase rapidly. The marriage relation in Porto Rico is extremely loose. Many men and women are living together in permanent sexual relationship who have not been married, either legally or by ecclesi astical sanction, and there are many consensual unions which are fluctuating in their character. In a number o f cases a man may live alternately with several wives, and instances are not infrequent where the present common-law wife and a former deserted wife live in the same street. The unions, both legal and free, take place at LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 729 a very early age and result in large families. In the country districts the cost o f raising children is extremely low, and the prevailing cus tom o f making the children useful and a source of family income at an early age encourages the rapid increase o f population. On the other hand, there is a high mortality, especially among children, which acts as a check upon the growing numbers. Notwithstanding this fact the working-class population, already in excess of the demand for labor under the present conditions of industry, is growing at a rapid pace. Another cause o f the low wages prevailing in Porto Rico is the relative inefficiency o f the workers. This inefficiency is due in part to a certain listlessness, unintelligence, carelessness, and lack of initi ative, and may be in part traceable to the conditions o f work during slave times as well as to the manner in which the work is directed and controlled. The efficiency o f the worker may be also affected indirectly by the contempt in which manual labor and the manual laborer are held by the land-owning class of society. The work o f the peon, both in the country districts and in the cities, is also rendered less effective by the absence o f improved means of cultivation or manufacture, and by the habit o f permitting things to be done in the way in which they have been done for decades, instead of taking advantage o f the progress in machinery and in the technical arts. The principal cause o f the inefficiency of the worker, however, is his illness and in many cases his malnutrition. Statistics o f hours o f labor are given in considerable detail in the appendix to this report. In all cases these statistics are based upon verbal statements, either by manufacturers or by workingmen, and have not been tested by reference to time books, owing to the fact that such records are not kept. The remuneration o f the laborer depends not only upon the amount o f money which he receives, but also upon the cost o f the articles for which this money must be expended. Detailed statements are pre sented in this report, bearing upon wholesale and retail prices and upon the cost o f living. This cost o f living is a very different factor from that with which the American workingman has to deal. Life in Porto Rico is much simpler and the requirements are very much lower. The ordinary agricultural laborer lives, with his family, in a single hut, which is built by his own labor, and which is prac tically without furniture and entirely without decoration. Fuel for heating is unnecessary, and fuel for cooking is either cheap or gath ered entirely free o f money cost. O f his living expenditures, by far the largest part is for food, which is small in variety, simple in quality, and low in cost. The diet o f the Porto Rican peasants, especially in the coffee districts, is below what is necessary to main tain industrial efficiency. The cost o f living in the cities, and espe 730 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR. cially in San Juan, is very much higher and the requirements are much greater. The housing conditions in the cities o f Porto Rico, especially in certain parts of San Juan, are very bad. The sanitary condition o f the island, which was extremely bad under Spanish domination, has steadily improved since the Amer ican occupation, but there still remains much to be done to bring it to the level o f American cities. In the cities ordinances have been enacted requiring the establishment of water-closets and providing for the conveying o f water to the houses, and conditions have been improved. In the country districts the situation is much worse than in the cities, and the primary dictates o f health and decency are fla grantly disregarded, with the result that the health of the people is seriously affected. The worst scourge of the population of Porto Rico, and especially o f the rural working-class population, is anemia. This disease, which is caused by a minute hookworm which attacks the red corpuscles of the blood, is almost universal throughout the upland districts of the island. The consequence o f the widespread character o f the disease is to permanently debilitate great masses o f the population and to render them either partially or totally incapable of work. Much o f the alleged laziness o f the Porto Rican is due to this disease, which renders work extremely painful and wearisome. The disease is spread chiefly by the feces o f the persons infected, and its widespread character in Porto Rico is the result o f the custom, in the universal absence o f water-closets, o f depositing excreta upon the ground, where it serves as the basis o f future infection. The prevalent habit o f the country people in going barefooted tends to facilitate the spread o f the disease. A t the present time the problem o f anemia is being vigorously attacked by a commission appointed by the insular gov ernment. Thousands o f cures have been effected, and an effort is being made to spread among the people a knowledge o f the means necessary to combat the disease. The permanent cure o f the people of Porto Rico would be of enormous influence in increasing the efficiency o f the working population of the island. An attempt is also being made to increase the efficiency of the workers by spreading among them the benefits o f an elementary edu cation. The vast majority o f the population o f Porto Rico, as is shown by the statistics contained in this report, are illiterate. Con siderable advance has been made since the American occupation of the island, not only in ordinary elementary education but also in industrial training. The subject o f labor organizations and strikes is treated in this report. It has not been feasible to obtain reliable statistics o f strikes. Such replies as were made to inquiries were so palpably incorrect or hopelessly vague as to render it inadvisable to continue the investiga LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 731 tion. The general conditions underlying labor organizations in the island o f Porto Rico, however, are set forth, as well as a statement concerning the status o f the labor unions and the history and present position o f the Federation Libre, or the Free Federation, the Porto Rican organization affiliated with the American Federation o f Labor. In securing the original data contained in this report many difficul ties were encountered. It was often extremely difficult to obtain re liable statistics o f wages. The average establishment in Porto Rico is small, and in many instances business has been directed for years in a primitive manner. Many o f the employers interrogated claimed that they had no pay rolls, and even where the pay roll was available it was not always useful. It was often difficult and sometimes im possible to learn from the pay rolls the nationality of the employee, whether Porto Rican, Spanish, or a native of some other West Indian island. In some cases it was even difficult to arrive at the sex o f the employee, since many of the Spanish names might stand for either male or female workers. Again, many o f the pay rolls are kept by numbers instead o f by names. Another difficulty in obtaining sta tistics o f wages arose from the fact that in many o f the industries the occupation or special work of the employee was entirely different from anything which we have in the United States, owing to the fact that the industry in Porto Rico has not arrived at the same stage of development as in the United States. It was still more difficult to obtain data bearing upon the cost of living. While retail prices have been given for a number o f the articles o f consumption, there are others, such as bananas, yautias, yams, plantains, etc., which are important, but for which statistics o f general validity are difficult to obtain. Many shop people do not keep books, and catalogues are, as a rule, issued only by large firms, which do not cater to the working classes. Where catalogues do exist the prices are likely to be in excess o f those actually charged. Prices vary from town to town, from shop to shop, from customer to customer, and from minute to minute. In the very small stores, where the workingmen purchase, articles are sold not by weight or measure, but by the cent’s worth. The clerks in these stores acquire great dexterity in determining by the eye the proper amount of beans or rice or soap to be sold for one cent, but there is nothing ac curate or uniform in the determination o f the quantity. None of the working class families keep accounts, and the uniform reply to the question o f how much does it cost you to live is : “ I spend all I earn; I spend all I have.” One o f the difficulties encountered in obtaining information upon labor conditions in Porto Rico is the fact that, except in a few cases, it is not possible to obtain the statements o f the employers on ques tions which are not a matter o f record. To a considerable extent the 732 BU LLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. statements made by employers on such matters have been compared with similar statements by other employers and with the information given by the trade-union leaders of the island. In some cases, how ever, this has not been possible, especially where the labor has been per formed, not as the result o f a direct contract with the employer, but through a middleman or contractor. The ordinary unskilled work ingman, or peon, is unable to give accurate information concerning the conditions o f labor under which he works. P H Y S IC A L . C H A R A C T E R O F T H E ISLAN D . The industrial and labor conditions of Porto Rico have been influenced primarily by the physical character o f the Territory and the nature o f the population inhabiting it. Porto Rico, the smallest o f the Greater Antilles, lies to the east o f Haiti, being separated from that island by the Mona passage. It stretches from latitude 17° 50' to 18° 30' north; from longitude 65° 30' to 67° 15' west, being thus the easternmost o f the Greater Antilles and entirely within the Tropics. Its shape is rectangular, its length east and west being slightly over 100 miles and its breadth north and south about 36 miles. Its area, about 3,600 square miles, is three-fourths o f that o f Connecticut and a little over a thousandth o f that of the United States. The island o f Porto Rico consists of a range o f mountains and hills running east and west, with a maximum altitude slightly over 3,600 feet and sloping toward the coast. The slope o f the land is gradual toward the north, but steep and difficult toward the south. The greater portion o f the area is high, and from the range o f hills which form the water divide o f the island hundreds o f small rivers and streams flow northward and southward to the coast. These rivers are not navigable except for a few miles near their mouths. This island is, by its natural conditions, adapted for agriculture but not for mining, manufacturing, or commerce. The climate o f the island is remarkably equable. The temperature very rarely rises to 100° Fahrenheit, and for a long period the average annual tem perature has ranged on the northern coast from 78° to 82°. The coolest month in the year is January, with a temperature averaging about 75°, while in August, the hottest month, the average is about 82°. While the variation from month to month is but slight, there is considerable difference according to altitude. The temperature in the interior, especially on the higher levels o f Aibonito, Cayey, and Utuado, is much lower than along the coast. The island has the advantage o f a daily sea breeze, and the evenings are mostly cool. During the summer season the temperature rises and there is much rain. The humidity is also very high, averaging in San Juan about LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 733 80 per cent. The absence of cold weather and the high degree of humidity render the climate somewhat debilitating. The rainfall is heaviest on the northern coast, averaging about 60 inches in San Juan, and o f this rain about 40 inches, or two-thirds, falls during the sum mer and the autumn months. The island is poor in mineral resources. Such minerals as were discovered in Porto Rico were long since exhausted by the mining operations o f the Spaniards, and at the present time no mining of any extent is carried on. Nor are there great opportunities for commerce. The coast is gen erally low and level and there are few good harbors, the best being that of San Juan, the capital of the island. Ponce, Guanica, and Jobos are the only harbors on the southern coast where boats o f ordinary draft can enter. Porto Rico may thus be described as a small island, mountainous in the center and level along the coasts, with a climate and soil adapted for tropical agriculture, but without mineral re sources and without good harbors. P O PU L A T IO N AN D RACE. According to the census o f 1899 the population o f Porto Rico was 953,243, spread over an area o f only 3,606 square miles and giving a density o f 264 to the square mile. This density is about the same as that o f New Jersey in 1900, almost twice that o f Pennsylvania, slightly over three times that o f Illinois, and over seven times that o f Cuba. The island o f Porto Rico is not only densely but evenly settled. The density o f population o f the seven departments into which the island is divided ranged in 1899*from 200 to the square mile to 415 to the square mile. The most thickly populated department is thus only slightly over twice as densely settled as the most sparsely settled department. Judged by a comparison of the last census with former census enumerations this evenness o f settlement in Porto Rico is increasing. The island is more thickly settled in the west than in the east, and more densely settled in the north than in the south. The coast lands are more thickly settled than the interior. The most sparsely settled o f the entire 69 municipal districts of the island has a population of 58 to the square mile—about the same density of population as Indiana. The original Indian population was conquered and practically exterminated by the invading Spaniards, but there is evidence o f a considerable intermixture between the Spaniards and the Indian women. The population of the island, even at the present day, retains traces o f the Carib or Indian physiognomy. Beginning with 734 BULLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR. the early part o f the sixteenth century, large numbers of negroes were introduced. There were probably many unions between the whites and the remaining Indians, and between each o f these and the newly arrived negroes. As a consequence, the present population o f the island o f Porto Rico is made up, to a considerable extent, o f the descendants o f these unions between whites and blacks, with a certain admixture o f the descendants of unions between Indians and whites, and between Indians and negroes. O f the 953,243 inhabitants of Porto Rico enumerated in the census o f 1899, 589,426, or 61.8 per cent, were returned as whites, and 363,817 as colored. O f the latter, an insignificant proportion (75 in all) were Chinese, the remainder being negroes and persons o f mixed white and negro blood. The proportion o f white persons in Porto Rico is thus apparently greater than in any other of the West Indies except Cuba. While the proportion o f whites was 66.9 per cent in Cuba (1899) and 61.8 per cent in Porto Rico, only 38.4 per cent o f the inhabitants o f the Bermudas, 25 per cent o f the inhabitants o f the Bahamas, 8.6 per cent o f the inhabitants o f Barbados, 6 per cent o f the inhabitants o f St. Vincent, 4 per cent o f the inhabitants o f the Leeward Islands, and 2.3 per cent o f the inhabitants o f Jamaica were o f white blood. According to the census, there was in 1899 a larger proportion o f persons o f white blood in Porto Rico than there was in Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, or South Carolina in 1900, as is shown in the following table: PERC E N TA G E OF W H ITE , COLORED, AND NEGRO PO PULA TIO N OF T O T A L POP U LA TIO N IN CE R TA IN SELECTED STATES OF TH E U N IT E D STATES, 1900. [F rom the T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900.] State. _______________ F lo r id a ______ . . . ______________________ ______ _ Alabam a _ _______________________________________________ _____ G eorg ia _............................. .................................................................. ......... L ouisiana__________________________________________________________ Mississippi..................................................... ........... .................................... South C arolina__ •................ ........... ......................................................... P orto R ico ( « ) ................................................................................................. W hite. Colored. 56.3 54.7 53.3 53.8 41.3 41.6 61.8 43.7 45.3 46.7 47.2 58.7 58.4 38.2 N egro. 43.7 45.2 46.7 47.1 58.5 58.4 ft Census o f 1899. As compared with former years, the percentage o f the white popu lation o f Porto Rico appears to be growing larger. Until 1820, when the colored inhabitants made up 55.6 per cent o f the population o f the island, the negroes gained more rapidly than the whites, but since the latter date there has been a steady and almost continuous decline until, in 1899, the proportion o f colored was only 38.2 per cent. O f this, it is claimed that 83.6 per cent are o f mixed blood, which, i f true, would leave only about 6.3 per cent o f the entire population o f pure negro blood. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 735 The proportion of whites is largest in the western departments o f the island and decreases toward the east, and is somewhat greater in the northern than in the southern districts. It is also larger in the interior than on the coast. In 40 municipal districts touching on the seacoast, the proportion of whites is 58.8 per cent, while in 29 interior districts, largely in the higher and cooler parts of the island, the proportion is 66.3 per cent. The negroes are more largely employed in the culture of sugar, and the whites more largely in the culture of coffee. The colored population tends, also, to mass itself in the cities. There are some reasons for viewing these statistics of race with considerable doubt. In Porto Eico, as elsewhere, it is frequently impossible to distinguish persons of mixed blood from pure whites or negroes. There is a constant temptation, moreover, for the indi vidual to misrepresent his race, and to state that he is white, although he may be o f pure negro or o f mixed blood. It is probable, therefore, that the real proportion of colored persons, as of pure-blooded negroes, is larger than the statistics seem to indicate. OCCUPATIONS. The number o f Porto Eicans reported by the census o f 1899 as having gainful ocupations was 316,365, or 33.1 per cent.(a) This would apparently indicate that the proportion o f the Porto Eican population engaged in gainful occupations was smaller than in the United States, where 38.3 per cent of the population were so engaged, or in Cuba, where there were 39.6 per cent. This discrepancy, however, is only apparent, and can be explained. Porto Eico, as stated in another place, is said to have a larger per centage o f children below the age of 10 years than the United States, Cuba, or, in fact, any other country in the civilized world. As chil dren under 10 years of age are, generally speaking, included among the dependents, the large percentage of children in Porto Eico naturally tends to make the percentage of dependents in that island unduly large and the percentage o f wage-earners small. a The statistics which follow concerning the occupations of the Porto Ricans are from .the Census o f Porto Rico, 1899. The comparison with Cuba is for the census year 1899, and that with the United States for the census year 1900. Following the terminology of the census o f Porto Rico for 1899, the term “ breadwinners,” or “ persons at work,” is occasionally used for the longer phrase, “ persons in gainful occupations,” and the term “ dependents ” for “ per sons not engaged in gainful occupations.” 276—No. 61—06 M------ 2 736 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. The following table gives the comparative figures for persons 10 years o f age or over in gainful occupations in Porto Rico and Cuba in 1899 and in the United States in 1900: PERSONS 10 Y E A R S OF AGE OR OVER IN G AIN FU L OCCUPATIONS IN PORTO RICO AN D CUBA IN 1899 AN D IN TH E U N ITED STATE S IN 1900. [F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.] Country. Persons 10 years o f Persons 10 age o r over in gain years o f fu l occupations. age or over. N um ber. P er c e n t . 659,294 P orto R ic o ________________________________________ ____ ______ C u b a ................................................. j l .................................................. 1,215,810 United States ( a ) ................................................................................. 157,949,824 816,365 622,330 29,073,233 48.0 51.2 50.2 ° T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900. It appears from the table that o f the inhabitants o f the age o f 10 years or over 48 per cent were breadwinners in Porto Rico, as com pared with 50.2 per cent in the United States and 51.2 per cent in Cuba. The proportion o f breadwinners is thus 2.2 per cent less in Porto Rico than in the United States and 3.2 per cent less in Porto Rico than in Cuba. In Porto Rico there is a slightly larger percentage o f breadwinners among the colored population than among the white population. The following table shows that while 32.1 per cent o f all white per sons in Porto Rico are engaged in gainful occupations the percentage for colored persons is 34.8 per cent: NUM BER AN D PE R CENT OF W H IT E AND COLORED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS. [F rom the Census o f P orto R ico, 1899.] Race. Popula tion. Persons in gainful occupations. N um ber. P er cent. W h ite..................................................................................................... C olored ................. ........................... ................................. ............. 589,426 363,817 189,762 126,603 32.1 34.8 T ota l............................................................................................. 953,243 316,365 33.1 This difference is due to the very large employment of colored females. The percentage o f white males at work is slightly greater than that o f colored males, being 57 per cent for the whites and 56.7 per cent for the colored males. The percentage o f colored females employed is almost double that of white females, 13.7 per cent of all colored females being engaged in gainful occupations as com pared with 7.4 per cent for all white females. LABOR CONDITIONS IN 737 PORTO RICO. The following table gives the number and percentage of white and colored males and females employed in Porto Eico in 1899: NUM BER AND P E R CENT OF W H ITE AN D COLORED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, BY SEX. [F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.] R ace and sex. Popula tion. Persons in gainful occupations. Num ber. Per cent. W hite m ales......................................................................................... Colored m ales ....................................... .............................................. W hite fem ales....................................... ............................................. Colored fem ales ................................................................................... 294,195 178,066 295,231 185,751 167,662 101,002 22,100 25,601 57.0 56.7 7.4 13.7 T ota l............................................................................................. 953,243 316,365 33.1 The great majority o f the white breadwinners in Porto Eico are native born. O f 189,762 white persons engaged in gainful occupa tions, only 8,422, or 4.4 per cent, were born outside o f Porto Eico. This is manifestly due to the fact that the white, like the colored, population is almost entirely native, less than 2 per cent of the whites o f Porto Eico being of foreign birth. O f the whites in Porto Eico a far larger percentage of the foreigners than of the natives is engaged in gainful occupations. While 55.9 per cent of the native white males are engaged in gainful occupations, the proportion for the foreign-born white males is 92 per cent. The percentage of the foreign-born white females in gainful occupations is also greater than that o f the native white females. The following table shows this relative employment: N UM BER AN D P E R CENT OF N A T IV E AND FOREIGN-BORN W H IT E IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS, BY SEX. PERSONS [F rom the Census o f Porto Rico, 1899.] N ativity and sex. Popula tion. Persons in gainful occupations. N um ber. P er cent. m a le s............................................................................ w hite m a les................................................................ fem ales .............................................................. - ........ w hite fem ales_____________ ________ ___________ 285,303 8,892 292,706 2,525 159,478 8,184 21,862 238 55.9 92.0 7.4 9.4 T ota l............................................................................................. 589,426 189,762 32.1 N ative w hite Foreign-born N ative white Foreign-born It should be stated in explanation o f this table that the large per centage o f workers among the foreign born is due, primarily, if not entirely, to the fact that this immigrant population is almost entirely adult. 738 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. The following table shows for specified age groups the percent age o f native white, foreign white, and colored males and females at w ork: PER CENT OF M ALES AND FE M ALES IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS, SP E C IF IE D AGE GROUP, BY N A T IV IT Y . IN EACH [F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.] Males. A ge group. Native white. Females. Foreign Colored. white. N ative white. Foreign Colored. white. 9 years or under......................................... 10-14 years................................................... 15-19 years................................................... 20-24 years................................................... 25-29 years................................................... 90-34 years................................................... 85-44 years................................................... 45-54 years................................................... 55-64 years................................................... 65 years or o v e r ......................................... 0.4 33.6 85.6 96.5 97.3 97.5 97.2 96.1 94.3 86.9 0.9 38.0 93.9 98.1 97.9 98.3 96.0 93.8 92.5 76.8 0.8 38.4 89.6 97.6 97.7 98.0 97.9 96.7 95.2 87.3 0.8 6.5 13.7 13.1 11.2 10.8 10.9 9.9 8.1 5.5 0.9 7.0 18.1 11.1 13.0 9.2 10.9 9.2 4.7 0.8 10.5 22.3 22.2 19.7 21.5 22.7 22.0 18.9 12.0 T o t a l................................................. 55.9 92.0 56.7 7.4 9.4 13.7 The percentage o f persons employed of total population is nearly uniform throughout the country. In Arecibo, which has the smallest proportion of breadwinners, 31.6 per cent of the population are en gaged in gainful occupations, while in Mayaguez, which has the largest proportion, the percentage is only 35 per cent. The varia tion in the proportion which the breadwinners bear to the population is therefore inconsiderable, and the fluctuations among the seven de partments o f the island are much less than among the provinces o f Cuba, and very much less than among the States o f the United States. On the other hand, the percentage o f persons employed is much greater in the cities than in the country. In San Juan 43.7 per cent o f the total population are engaged in gainful occupations, as com pared with 30.3 per cent for the rest of the department in which San Juan is situate; in Mayaguez 43.7 per cent, as compared with 33.8 per cent in the rest of the department, and in Ponce 46.2 per cent, as compared with 32.4 per cent for the rest of the department. The proportion o f persons employed for the three cities was 44.7 per cent, as compared with 32.2 per cent for the remaining districts of the three departments. This larger employment in the cities is due in some measure to the greater opportunities for work for men, but to a much larger extent to the superior opportunities for women to obtain employ ment. In the three cities mentioned the male breadwinners represent 65.3 per cent o f the entire male population, as compared with 56.1 per cent for the rest o f the three departments, and in the same cities the female breadwinners represent 26.6 per cent o f the entire female population, as compared with 8.1 per cent for the rest o f the three departments. While the percentage o f males employed was, there 739 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. fore, only about one-sixth greater in the cities than in the rest of the three departments, the percentage of females employed in the cities was considerably over three times as great as the percentage of females employed in the remaining portions of the three departments. 3ike most countries which are preponderatingly agricultural, Porto Rico employs but a small proportion of female workers. In the United States 14.3 per cent of all females were engaged in gain ful occupations; in Porto Rico only 9.9 per cent were so employed. While in the United States there were 22 females employed for every 100 male employees, there were fewer than 18 females employed in Porto Rico for every 100 male employees. Although the proportion o f female workers was smaller than that of the United States, it was greater in Porto Rico than in Cuba, where only 8.8 per cent of all females were engaged in gainful occupations. The following table shows the distribution of breadwinners in Porto Rico, Cuba, and the United States, by sex: NUMBER AND PE R CEN t V>F PERSONS IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS IN PORTO RICO, CUBA, AN D TH E U N ITED STATES. B Y SEX. [F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.] Males. Females. Breadwinners. Country. Total. Num ber. Per cent. 472,261 P orto R i c o ................................... C u b a .............................................. 816,205 United States (u)......................... 88,816,448 268,664 555,974 23,758,836 56.9 68.2 61.2 Breadwinners. Total. 480,982 757,592 37,178,127 Num ber. P er cent. 47,701 66,356 5,319,397 9.9 8.8 14.3 ° T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900. It is essential to remember in any discussion of labor conditions in Porto Rico that the population of the island is preponderatingly agricultural. While in the United States only 38.0 per cent of the entire number o f breadwinners are engaged in agriculture, fishing, and mining, in Cuba 48.1 per cent and in Porto Rico 62.8 per cent were employed in that class. As the number of persons engaged in fishing and mining in Porto Rico is extremely small, while the number in the United States is large, the disproportion appears all the greater. (a) While only 3 breadwinners in 8 in the United States are engaged in agriculture, in fishing, and in mining, the proportion in Porto Rico was 5 in 8, and o f those so engaged nearly all were employed almost entirely in tilling the ground. In the United States the proportion of breadwinners engaged in domestic and personal service is 19.2 per cent; in Cuba, 22.8 per cent, a The census of 1899 returns only 455 fishermen, or 15 out o f 10,000 o f all em ployees, and only 48 miners and quarrymen, or less than 2 out o f 10,000 of all employees. Doubtless some miners and fishermen were returned as “ laborers,” but their entire number was probably very small. 740 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. and in Porto Eico 20.5 per cent. It results from this that the per centage o f breadwinners employed in Porto Eico in trade and trans portation, in the manufacturing and mechanical industries, and in professional services is very much less than in the United States or in other manufacturing and industrial communities. There are only 76 breadwinners out of every 1,000 employed in Porto Eico in trade and transportation as compared with 164 in 1,000 in the United States, the proportion being less than one-half as much in the island as on the continent. The difference between the proportion o f workers engaged in manufacturing and mechanical industries in the United States and Porto Eico is still greater, and that between persons engaged in pro fessional service much greater still. In Porto Eico only 84 out of every 1,000 breadwinners are engaged in manufacturing and me chanical industries, as compared with 221 in the United States, the proportion in Porto Eico being not much greater than 1 in 8 to that o f the United States. Again, for every 1,000 ^breadwinners in Porto Eico there are but 7 persons engaged in professional service, as com pared with 48 in 1,000 in the United States. The following table shows the distribution by large groups o f industries o f the breadwinners in Porto Eico and Cuba in 1899, and in the United States in 1900: P E R CENT OF PERSONS IN G AIN FU L OCCUPATIONS IN PORTO RICO, CUBA, AN D T H E U N ITED STATES, B Y CLASS OF OCCUPATION. [F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.] Class o f occupation. N um ber in P orto Rico. P er cent in— P orto Rico. Cuba. United States, (a) A griculture, fisheries, and m in in g ....... ............................ Dom estic and personal service............................................ M anufacturing and m echanical in d u strie s..................... Trade and transportation..................................................... Professional s e r v ice ....... ....................................................... 198,761 64,819 26,615 24,076 2,194 62.8 20.5 8.4 7.6 .7 48.1 22.8 14.9 12.8 1.4 38.0 19.2 22.1 16.4 4.3 T o t a l................................................................................ 316,865 100.0 100.0 100.0 ® T w elfth Census o f the U nited States, 1900. These comparisons are still more striking i f taken in connection with the figures relating to the sexes o f the breadwinners in the vari ous groups o f occupations. While 42.3 per cent o f the employed males in the United States are engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining, the proportion o f males in Porto Eico employed in the same group is as high as 73.3 per cent. In other words, almost threefourths o f all men and boys engaged in any occupation in Porto Eico are employed directly in agriculture. The males employed in domestic and personal service in Porto Eico represent 10.2 per cent of the total breadwinners; in the United States, 14.7 per cent. Males 741 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. engaged in trade and transportation in Porto Rico represent 8.3 per cent, as against 17.9 per cent in the United States. In the latter country those engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits represent 21.6 per cent, while in the former only 7.5 per cent are em ployed in such occupations; and those engaged in professional service represent 0.7 per cent in Porto Rico and 3.5 per cent in the United States. While the male employees in Porto Rico are preponderatingly engaged in agriculture, the women and girls are employed mostly in domestic and personal service. In the United States 18.4 per cent of all females employed are in agriculture, fishing, and mining, and 39.4 per cent in domestic and personal service; in Porto Rico the proportions of women engaged in these groups o f occupations, as compared with the total number o f women employed, are 3.9 per cent and 78.4 per cent, respectively. In other words, while there are fewer than 2J American women and girls employed in domestic and personal service to every woman or girl employed in agriculture, fishing, and mining, there are in Porto Rico over 20 females employed in the first group o f occupations for every female employed in the second. The per centage o f women engaged in professional service is also smaller, as has already been stated. In proportion to the total number of females, 14.3 per cent women are employed in the United States, as against 9.9 per cent in Porto Rico, a difference of 4.4 per cent in favor o f the United States. O f those employed, moreover, there is over 11 times as large a proportion in the United States engaged in professional service as there is in Porto Rico. Out o f every 1,000 females in gainful occupations in the United States 81 are employed in the professions, and of every 1,000 females employed in Porto Rico there are only 7 so engaged. Out of every 10,000 females, both bread winners and dependents, in the United States, 116 are engaged in the professions, while in Porto Rico, of every 10,000 females in the country, only 6.4 are so employed. The following table shows the percentage of breadwinners, by sex, in Porto Rico, as compared with Cuba and the United States: PE R CENT OF M ALES AND FEM ALES IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS IN PORTO RICO, CUBA, AND TH E U N ITED STATES, BY CLASS OF OCCUPATION. [F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.] P orto Rico. Cuba. United States, (a) Class o f occupation. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. A griculture, fisheries, and m in in g ___ Dom estic and personal service.............. M anufacturing and m echanical pur suits.......................................................... Trade and transportation...................... Professional s e r v ic e ................................ 73.8 10.2 3.9 78.4 52.6 17.2 10.3 69.6 42.3 14.7 18.4 39.4 7.5 8.3 .7 13.4 3.6 .7 14.7 14.2 1.8 16.6 1.0 2.5 21.6 17.9 3.5 24.7 9.4 8.1 T o t a l ................................................. ioo. e 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 a T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900. 742 BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. The great majority of breadwinners in Porto Rico belong to the unskilled classes. O f every 1,000 breadwinners 682 were classed as laborers and 82 were classed as servants. In other words, 76.4 per cent, or over three-fourths of all men, women, boys, and girls em ployed on the island, were laborers or servants. The proportion of males is still greater, 78.8 per cent of all males employed, or almost four-fifths, being reported as laborers. The following table shows the percentage of breadwinners of both sexes in 9 specified occupations, including, as may be seen, 92 per cent o f all breadwinners: P E R CENT OF PERSONS IN PORTO RICO IN 9 SP E C IF IE D OCCUPATIONS OF TO T AL PERSONS EM PLOYED. [F rom the Census o f P orto R ico, 1899.] Occupation. L a b o r e r s................................................... S e rv a n ts................... .............................. L a u n d e re rs.............................................. M erch a n ts Dressmakers and seamstresses............ C arpenters............................................... P er cent o f all bread winners engaged. 68.2 8.2 5.4 2.8 1.8 1.6 Occupation. P er cent o f all bread winners engaged. Salesmen and salesw om en................... A g e n ts....... ...... ......... .............................. Operatives in cigar factories............... 1.5 1.3 1.2 T o ta l............................................... 92.0 The laboring population o f Porto Rico is extremely homogeneous. The census o f 1899 divided all breadwinners into 82 special classes of occupations, but 68.2 per cent are employed in the single cate gory o f unclassed laborers and 92 per cent in 9 classes. The other 73 classes thus included only 8 per cent o f all workers. O f the 82 classes above mentioned, moreover, 52 classes are made up o f special occupations, each employing less than 0.1 per cent of all employees, or less than 1 in 1,000 employees. The classes of actors, architects and draftsmen, artists, book binders, bookkeepers, brickmakers, builders and contractors, butchers, cabinetmakers, charcoal burners, clergymen, commercial travelers, confectioners, dairymen, dentists, engineers (civil) and surveyors, engineers and firemen (stationary engines), foremen and overseers, gardeners and florists, gold and silver workers, gunsmiths, harnessmakers, hostlers, janitors and sextons, journalists, lawyers, literary and scientific persons, livery-stable keepers, machinists, mechanics, miners and quarrymen, musicians, nurses, government officials, offi cials of manufacturing companies, photographers, physicians and surgeons, planters, potters, restaurant and boarding-house keepers, shirtmakers, steam-railway employees, stock raisers, stonecutters, straw workers, street-railway employees, sugar makers, tanners, telegraph and telephone operators, tinners, watch and clock makers, wood choppers, include in each case less than 0.1 per cent o f all workers, or fewer than 316 in each group. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 743 There are 17 other classes, including apprentices, barbers and hairdressers, blacksmiths, clerks and copyists, coopers, draymen and hackmen, fishermen, hat and cap makers, hucksters and peddlers, masons, messengers and office boys, painters, policemen and watch men, printers, lithographers, etc., soldiers, tailors, and teachers, each of which had over 0.1 per cent but less than 0.5 per cent o f all employees. There thus remains only 13 classes of occupations, in each of which there are as many as 0.5 per cent o f all employees. O f the 80 occupations in which, according to the census of 1899, the Porto Rican males are engaged, there are 52 in each o f which are employed less than 0.1 per cent o f all male workers, or fewer than 268 workers, and o f the 19 employments in which females are engaged, there are 8 in each o f which are employed less than 0.1 per cent. O f the 47,701 women and girls employed in Porto Rico, 46,159, or almost 97 per cent o f all, are engaged in 5 classes, viz (in the order of their importance), servants, laundresses, dressmakers and seamstresses, laborers, and merchants. E M PLO YM EN T OF FO REIG N ERS. The employment o f foreign born in Porto Rico is not o f great importance, owing to the small number of the nonnative population. In 1899, for every foreign born white male in a gainful occupation there were 19 native white males so employed. As a general fact, how ever, it may be stated that foreign bom whites are and always have been engaged in the specialized occupations, and in the higher and better-paid trades. There are 19 times as many native white males as foreign born white males engaged in gainful occupations, while of laborers, which is the great unspecialized class, there are over 54 times, as many native white males as foreign born white males. D EPEN D EN TS IN PO RTO RICO. In Porto Rico there is a larger proportion o f dependents to workers than in the United States or in Cuba. This is due to the very great proportion o f children in the population. According to the census o f 1899, 30.9 per cent o f the entire population o f Porto Rico were below the age o f 10, as compared with 22.7 per cent in Cuba, while the percentage for the United States in 1900 was only 23.8 per cent. The proportion o f children under 10 to the entire population is thus very much higher in Porto Rico than in Cuba or in the United States, and also higher than in any single State of the United States or in any advanced country in Europe. The following table shows the percentage of the population o f Porto Rico, o f Cuba, and of the United States, respectively, within various age groups. From this table it may be seen that there are 744 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. many more children in Porto Rico in proportion to the population than in Cuba or in the United States, and there is a much smaller proportion o f adults in the former island than on this continent. In Porto Rico 43.9 per cent of the entire population are below the age o f 15, while in the United States only 34.5 per cent are below that age. On the other hand, 47.1 per cent of the population of Porto Rico are between the ages of 15 and 49, while the percentage for the United States is 52.1 per cent. Thus a considerably larger percentage of the inhabitants o f the United States are between the ages of 15 and 50, during which most work is done, and a smaller percentage of the inhabitants of the United States are either too young or too old to work. It must be noted, however, that in Porto Rico the excess in population is to be found in babies and children, and not in persons who have attained the age o f 50 or over, in which age groups the proportion o f the population is less than in the United States. P E R CENT OF POPU LATION OF PORTO RICO IN EACH S P E C IF IE D AGE GROUP AS COM PARED W IT H CUBA AN D TH E U N ITED STATES. [F rom the Census o f P orto R ico, 1899.] A ge group. P orto Rico. 4 years or under. 5-9 y e a r s .............. 10-14 y e a r s......... . 15-19 y e a r s.......... 20-24 y e a rs........... 25-29 y e a r s.......... 90-84 y e a r s......... . 85-39 y e a rs......... . 40-44 y e a r s......... . 45-49 y e a r s......... . 50-54 y e a rs.......... 55-59 y e a r s .......... 60-64 y e a r s.......... 65-69 y e a rs......... 70-74 y e a r s.......... 75-79 y e a rs......... . 80-84 y e a r s .......... 85-89 y e a r s ......... 90-94 y e a rs......... T o ta l......... a Cuba. United States, (a) 15.8 15.1 13.0 9.8 9.3 8.8 6.8 5.0 4.6 2.8 3.5 1.6 1.9 .7 .6 .2 .3 .1 .1 8.3 14.4 14.0 11.3 9.7 8.7 7.6 6.3 5.4 3.8 3.7 2.2 2.2 .9 .7 .3 .3 .1 .1 12.1 11.7 10.7 9.9 9.7 8.6 7.3 6.5 5.6 4.5 3.9 2.9 2.4 1.7 1.2 .7 .4 .2 100.0 106.0 100.0 T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900. AG E OF B R E AD W IN N ERS. Not only has Porto Rico an unduly large percentage o f children as compared with adults, but the percentage of children employed in gainful occupations of the total number of children is high. A c cording to the statistics o f the census o f 1899, 1,670 children below the age o f 10 were employed in the island. Moreover, while only 14.8 per cent o f the children from the age of 10 to 14, inclusive, are en gaged in gainful occupations in the United States, in Porto Rico 22.4 per cent and in Cuba 24.6 per cent are so engaged. In other words, between one-fourth and one-fifth of the Porto Rican children from 745 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. the age o f 10 to 14, inclusive, are engaged in gainful occupations. The percentage o f boys and girls from 15 to 19, inclusive, at work is also greater than in the United States, constituting in Porto Rico almost one-half (49.3 per cent) o f the entire number o f persons be tween those ages. For the remaining ages, up to and including 54 years, the percentage o f persons employed in Porto Rico is less than that in the United States. Above that age the percentage which the workers o f Porto Rico are of the entire population of that age is greater than a like percentage for the United States. The impor tant fact, however, as shown by the table, is the large percentage o f children below the age of 15 years reported as employed. PER CENT OF PERSONS IN G AIN FU L OCCUPATIONS OF T O T A L PERSONS IN EACH S P E C IF IE D AGE GROUP IN PORTO RICO, AS COM PARED W IT H CUBA AND T H E U N ITED STATES. [F rom the Census o f Porto R ico, 1899.] A ge group. N um ber em Popula ployed in tion. P orto Rico. P er cent in— P orto Rico. Cuba. United States, (a) 9 years o r u n d e r ......... ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _____ 10-14 y e a r s.................................................................. 15-19 y e a r s .................................................................. 20-94 y e a r s .................................................................. 25-29 y e a r s .................................................................. 30-34 y e a r s .................................. ............................... 35-44 y e a r s .................................................................. 45-54 y e a r s .................................................................. 55-64 y e a r s .................................................................. 65 years or o v e r ........................................................ 293,949 124,353 93,148 88,475 84,265 64,317 91,802 59,268 33,716 19,950 1,670 27,939 45,990 48,195 45,008 35,598 52,267 32,859 17,951 8,893 0.5 22.4 49.3 54.4 53.4 55.3 56.9 55.4 53.2 44.5 0.6 24.6 48.8 56.2 57.7 59.3 } 60.4 60.3 59.5 52.0 T ota l.................................................................. 953,243 316,365 33.1 39.6 14.8 *>42.9 *>61.4 59.3 58.4 57.7 52.8 39.1 38.4 • T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900. 6 Eleventh Census o f the United States, 1890. It must be noted in this connection that much of this child labor is agricultural and is not continuous throughout the year. A large proportion o f the children who help their parents by doing chores are probably returned as child laborers. It is rather difficult, there fore, to determine to what extent the work o f these children is permanent throughout the year and to what extent it is merely sporadic and temporary. The large amount of child labor may be due in part to the lack of school facilities and in part to the fact that there is no general effective control of these children. The proportion of females engaged in gainful labor in Porto Rico is less than in the United States. This small percentage of female workers, however, is distributed more evenly throughout the life of the worker. In other words, the women employed in Porto Rico ap pear to work more regularly throughout their lives, and to be em ployed not only before what is customarily the marriage age, but also during the period following marriage. This tendency may be attributed to several causes. In the first 746 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB. place, there is not in Porto Rico, as in the United States, the great demand for young unmarried girls and women in offices and stores. The nature o f the work is largely such as can be carried on by women throughout their entire lives, and especially by women who are loosely married or who, after marriage, are thrown upon their own resources. The low wages which prevail in Porto Rico may perhaps be considered as one of the causes for the large continued employment of women after their marriage. It is also to be noted that many of the women employed are engaged only during the crop season. To a large extent women are employed in picking the coffee crop and during the picking season work either alone or with their husbands and children. They are often employed by the husband, who receives the pay for the entire family. Women are also employed in the tobacco districts in the lighter tasks and are also used to a very limited extent in picking cot ton. The opportunities of women to work in the sugar fields are much more restricted. A very large number o f women are employed in the stripping of tobacco, the making of paper boxes, and in other work in connection with the tobacco industry. They are also engaged to a large extent in hat making, sewing, tailoring, and embroidering. The drawn work of the Porto Ricans, while not so famous as that of the Mexi cans, is rapidly achieving a reputation, and women and girls may be seen working at it in many of the towns and often in villages and isolated rural cabins. Many women engage also in washing. This washing is usually done on the banks of a river. Near almost every town and village o f Porto Rico dozens of barefooted women may be seen squatting upon the flat stones of a stream washing and rinsing clothes during the entire day. These women usually work directly for customers, and appear to average from 20 to 50 cents a day; but it is impossible to secure exact data concerning their earnings, which vary from week to week. The chief occupation o f Porto Rican women is in the household. A large number o f them cook, and others are employed as nurses and servants. Except in a few of the leading hotels and restaurants, cooking is done almost entirely by women. The rate of pay varies greatly. The following table shows the number and per cent of persons according to sex and age engaged in gainful occupations, and includes for comparison the corresponding percentages for Cuba and the United States. 747 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO, This table shows that a larger proportion o f males above the age of 10 are employed in Porto Rico than is the case in the United States. P E R CENT OF M ALES AN D OF FEM ALES IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS IN EACH SPEC IF IE D AGE GROUP IN PORTO RICO, AS COM PARED W IT H CUBA AND TH E U N ITED STATES. [F rom the Census o f P orto R ico, 1899.] Males in gainful occupations. Females in gainful occupations. P er cent in— A ge group. N um ber in P orto P orto Rico. R ico. P er cent in— N um ber in P orto P orto United United Cuba. States, (a) Rico. Rico. Cuba. States. («) 9 years or u n d e r .............. 10-14 y e a r s ........................ 15-19 y e a r s ........................ 20-24 y e a r s ........................ 25-29 y e a r s ........................ 30-34 y e a r s ........................ 35-44 y e a r s ........................ 45-54 y e a r s ........................ 55-64 y e a r s ........................ 65 years or o v e r................ 900 23,155 37,453 40,408 38,497 30,665 45,228 28,468 15,857 8,033 0.6 35.5 87.2 96.9 97.5 97.7 97.4 96.2 94.6 86.6 0.9 44.0 91.6 98.1 } 98.5 98.6 } 98.3 97.5 96.2 90.2 21.4 80.5 1f 96.3 /t 96.6 95.5 90.0 68.4 T o ta l........................ 268,664 56.8 68.2 60.0 770 4,784 8,537 7,787 6,511 4,928 7,039 4,391 2,094 860 0.5 8.0 17.0 16.6 14.5 14.9 15.5 14.7 12.3 8.0 47,701 9.9 0.2 4.5 10.3 } 11.4 12.0 \ 13.4 14.6 15.6 15.8 13.3 8.1 30.6 19.9 15.6 14.7 13.2 9.1 8.8 14.3 ° T w elfth Census o f the United States, 1900. The following table shows the per cent o f persons engaged in gain ful occupations in urban and rural districts according to age and sex. It shows that by far the larger proportion of female laborers are engaged in the urban districts, while of the boys below the age of 15 the larger proportion are employed in the country. P E R CENT OF M ALES A N D OF FE M A LE S IN G A IN F U L OCCUPATIONS IN EACH SPECIFIED A G E G ROU P CLASSIFIED A S U R B A N A N D R U R A L . [F rom the Census o f Porto Rico, 1899.] P er cent o f breadwinners. Total. A ge group. Urban. Male. Rural. Urban. Female. Rural. Urban. Rural. 9 years or u n d e r....................................... 10-14 y e a r s ................................................. 15-19 y e a r s ................................................. 20-24 y e a r s ................................................. 25-29 y e a r s ................................................. 30-34 yeaV s................................................. 35-44 y e a r s ................................................. 45-54 y e a r s ................................................. 55-64 y e a r s ................................................. 65 years or o v e r ......................................... 1.1 21.5 58.3 65.2 65.7 67.7 64.5 59.5 53.7 35.5 0.5 22.5 48.6 53.4 52.3 54.3 56.3 55.1 53.2 45.1 0.9 27.7 86.4 97.0 97.5 96.9 95.7 91.5 87.0 73.2 0.5 35.9 87.3 96.9 97.5 97.8 97.5 96.5 95.0 87.2 1.3 15.6 34.3 36.1 35.4 40.4 37.1 35.6 31.0 17.9 0.4 7.6 15.5 14.8 12.8 12.8 13.6 12.9 10.6 7.2 T o ta l................................................. 44.9 32.4 65.6 56.3 26.4 8.7 A G R IC U L T U R A L LABO R. As has been stated, the great mass of persons engaged in gainful occupations are employed in tilling the soil, and the welfare o f the island, and in particular of its working population, depends pri marily upon the agricultural conditions and possibilities. 748 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. O f the total area of Porto Rico (8,606 square miles), 76 per cent, or 2,748 square miles, are included within farms. The area under cultivation amounted in 1899 to 747 square miles, or to almost 21 per cent o f the entire area of the country. These figures indicate to how much greater an extent the island of Porto Rico is settled and occupied than is Cuba, in which country only 29.9 per cent o f the total area o f the island is included in farms and only 8 per cent of the entire area under cultivation. The figures for Porto Rico cor respond more closely with those for the United States in 1890, when 16 per cent o f the entire area o f the country (including the arid regions o f the West) was under cultivation. (a) The census o f 1899 gives the total number o f farms in Porto Rico as 89,021 and the total area as 1,757,774 cuerdas, the average farm thus having an area o f only 45 acres or cuerdas. ( *&) O f this land, only 477,987 cuerdas were cultivated, giving a cultivated area o f slightly over 12 cuerdas, or acres, per farm. In the United States in 1900 the average farm contained 147 acres, of which 72 acres were improved, while in Cuba in 1899 the average farm had an area o f 142 acres, o f which 18 acres were under cultivation. The following table shows these returns for the various departments o f the island: C U L TIV A T E D A R E A AND AV E R AG E SIZE OF FARM S, B Y D E PA RTM E N TS, 1899. [F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.] Departm ent. Total Cultivated P rop or A verage A verage area area tion culti size o f amount (square (square vated fa rm cultivated m iles). m iles). (per cent). (cuerdas). (cuerdas). A guadilla ...................... ................................. A r e cib o .......................................................... B a y a m o n _______________________________ G u ayam a....... ............. ...... ............................ H um acao ............................ ............... .......... M a y a g u e z ...................................................... P o n c e ............................................................... 240 621 542 561 829 895 821 83 158 68 78 49 123 183 85 25 13 14 15 ♦31 22 28 50 45 57 33 36 53 9 15 8 13 10 13 17 T ota l...................................................... 8,509 742 21 45 12 These statistics, however, present averages which in many instances are misleading. The census o f Porto Rico apparently included under a The census figures for agriculture in Porto Rico can not o f course be con sidered as exact. Agricultural data are necessarily defective in a country in which the population is not used to investigations o f this nature, in which ignorance and illiteracy prevail, and in which even the limits o f plantations are not fixed. The fiscal authorities o f the island have themselves been unable to determine the limitations o f many of the properties, owing to the lack of satis factory departmental maps, and the returns made to the census enumerators in the absence o f such information must have been, therefore, merely approximate. &For small areas it is sufficiently exact to use the terms acre and euerda interchangeably. The euerda has an area o f 1.008 acres. A farm o f 45 cuerdas would therefore contain about 45.4 acres. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 749 “ farms ” little patches of ground which were located near houses and can not be classified as farms in the ordinary sense o f the word, since o f the 39,021 farms reported, 22,327, or 57.2 per cent, were under 5 cuerdas in extent. In other words, 5 out of every 9 so-called farms in Porto Rico were 5-acre patches or still smaller. O f the remaining farms, 7,417, or 19 per cent, had an area of from 5 to 9 cuerdas; 4,503, or’ 11.6 per cent, had an area of from 10 to 19 cuerdas, and 2,927, or 7.5 per cent, had an area o f from 20 to 49 cuerdas. It thus follows that only 4.7 per cent o f all the farms o f Porto Rico had an area o f 50 cuerdas or over. Only 851 farms, or 2.2 per cent, had an area o f 100 cuerdas or over. COFFEE. A t the time o f the census in 1899 coffee was by far the most impor tant of all the crops cultivated in Porto Rico. The census authori ties state that “ the only measure o f agricultural products which was obtained by the census consisted in the area cultivated in each crop.” (a) Measured by this standard, coffee was by far the most im portant crop. According to the census figures, 41 per cent of all the cultivated land was devoted to coffee, 15 per cent to sugar cane, 14 per cent to bananas, 8 per cent to sweet potatoes, 4 per cent to Indian corn, 2 per cent to malangas, 2 per cent to rice, 1 per cent to cocoanuts, and only 1 per cent to tobacco. ( *&) Approximately this same relation between the amounts o f land devoted to the three great money crops—coffee, sugar, and tobacco— reappeared in the values o f the crops as given for 1897 by Senor Coll y Toste, civil secretary o f Porto Rico under the Spanish Government. In that year the value o f the coffee crop was estimated at $12,222,599, that o f the sugar crop at $4,007,992, and of the tobacco crop at $1,194,318, all o f these sums being in provincial currency. Thus the value o f the coffee orop was given as three times that of the sugar crop, just as the acreage two years later (1899) was given as about three times as great as that devoted to sugar. Since 1898, however, a complete revolution has taken place in Porto Rican agriculture, with the result that the coffee industry has greatly diminished in volume and the price of the product has fallen, while, in the other hand, the sugar industry has grown rapidly. The value i f the coffee crop, the exports of which during the three years 1895 to 1897, inclusive, formed 70 per cent of the value o f all the exports from the island, sank rapidly, both absolutely and in relation to other 3rops and other exports. This decline in the coffee industry was due -ii part to the phenomenally large production in Brazil and other ®Census of Porto Rico, 1899, p. 152. 6 These figures account for only 88 per cent o f the cultivated area. 750 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. coffee-producing countries, which tended to reduce the price and to a certain extent to close the markets of the world to Porto Rico. An equally severe blow came as the result o f the acquisition of Porto Rico by the United States. This acquisition of territory did not in any way benefit the Porto Rican coffee planters, since even under Spanish rule they enjoyed the benefits o f free importation of their product into this country. On the other hand, the turning over o f Porto Rico to the United States resulted in a great diminution of the island’s coffee exportation to Spain and Cuba, in which countries Porto Rican coffee had hitherto received preferential treatment as a product o f a Spanish colony. TJie consequence was that the Porto Rican planters were not only obliged to meet the severe competition o f the Brazilian coffee, but were deprived o f the advantages and pref erential tariffs under which they had formerly prospered. A still greater injury to the Porto Rican coffee industry was inflicted by the hurricane o f 1899. This hurricane, which swept over the greater part o f the island, was especially disastrous in the coffee district. Not only were the trees, which require five years o f growth, ruined, but entire plantations and houses and everything necessary to the conduct o f the industry, including even the soil itself in some instances, were swept away. The destruction of life, the washing away o f houses and bridges and o f whole plantations were only inci dents o f the hurricane. The immediate effect was a great reduction in the size o f the crop. The already impoverished planters were un able to secure sufficient capital to reestablish their plantations upon a paying basis, and even at the present time, six years after the date o f the hurricane, the coffee industry in Porto Rico is still suffering from its dreadful effects. The crop, the larger part of which is exported, was valued in pro vincial currency in 1850 at $700,000; in 1870 at $1,000,000; in 1880 at $8,000,000; in 1890 at $5,600,000, and in 1897 at $12,200,000. Since that time the crop has declined greatly in amount and value, and in 1904 the value o f the coffee exported was $3,900,000 in Ameri can currency, equal to $6,500,000 in the provincial currency o f 1897. As a consequence coffee is no longer the most important crop in the island o f Porto Rico. In 1904, o f the entire exports of the island, amounting to $16,013,390, sugar constituted 54 per cent, coffee 24 per cent, and tobacco 11 per cent. In other words, while less than ten years ago the exports of coffee were more than three times as great as the exports o f sugar, at the present time the exports o f sugar are two and one-fourth times as great as the exports of coffee. The fol lowing table shows the quantity and value in American currency o f the exports o f sugar, coffee, and tobacco during recent years: 751 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. EXPORTS (IN CLU DIN G SH IPM EN TS TO TH E U N ITED S T A T E S ) SUGAR, AND TOBACCO, 1901 TO 1905. Year ending June 30— 1901...................... 1903...................... 1903...................... 1904...................... 1905...................... Coffee. Pounds. Value. 13,157,240 36,906,399 35,127,685 34,329,972 16,849,739 $1,678,765 3,195,662 3,970,574 3,903,257 2,141,009 Sugar, brow n. Pounds. 137,817,470 183,822,636 226,215,132 259,294,060 271,325,118 Value. OF L eaf tobacco. Pounds. $4,715,111 04,990,237 5,890,302 0 2,052,973 7,470,122 2,174,078 8,690,814 3,104,754 11,925,804 2,513,271 Value. o $375,527 o212,768 194,857 286,106 437,882 COFFEE, M anufac tures of tobacco. $308,8641,578,748 1,763,207 1,466,425 2,161,411 ° Including stems and trimmings. Generally speaking, it may be stated that apart from domestic con sumption on the island the coffee is raised for foreign markets and tobacco and sugar for American markets. The prevailing rate o f wages throughout the coffee district of Porto Eico is 30 cents a day. There is little fluctuation from this wage, although in a considerable portion o f the territory 25 cents with free breakfast is paid and considered as approximately the same. These wages do not, however, apply to the picking season. The system which prevails, and which has prevailed for many decades, is to pay the workmen by the day, except during the crop gathering, when payment is made by weight or measure, the almud being the customary standard. The pay for the almud varies from day to day and from plantation to plantation. In the early part of the season the rate o f pay for the almud is higher than later on, owing to the fact that ripe berries are scarcer and the quantity which a man can pick in a day correspondingly less. As the season advances and the fruit ripens more rapidly the rate per almud decreases, although the amount which the pickers can earn increases. Toward the close of the season the earnings o f the men, women, and children engaged in pick ing again decline. It has not been possible to secure correct data covering the annual earnings o f the workmen in the coffee plantations. The regularity o f employment, however, is not great and there are many interrup tions, necessitated both by the nature o f the industry and the frequent rains, which often make work in the afternoon impossible. The labor needed in the coffee district during the greater part o f the year is less than that required to keep busy the entire available body of workers, consequently there are many persons unemployed except during the picking season. From data obtained from the books of the planters and from other available testimony it appears that the average worker on the coffee plantation is not employed over four days a week during the greater part of the year. The workmen are not paid at all during the time when it rains, and in the coffee regions it rains on a large proportion of the days in the year. On one plantation 13 men were employed at the time it was visited. 276—No. 61—06 m-----3 752 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. O f this number 2 men worked 5\ days; 2 worked 5 days; 1 worked 6 days; 1 worked 4 days; 2 worked 3£ days; 1 worked 3£ days; 1 worked 3 days, and 3 worked 2 days. The average for the 13 men amounted to 3.9 days o f work during the week. On this estate the peons work only half a day on Saturday. On another estate 2 men worked 6 days; 1 worked from 5 to 6 days; 2 worked 4 days; 5 worked 3 days; 13 worked 2 days or less than 3 days; 4 worked 1 day or less than 2 days, and 1 worked less than 1 day; whereas 4 men carried on the roll did not work at all. The average amount worked during this week appears to have been about 3 days. Upon the basis of 4 days a week, the rate of remuneration of the workers in the coffee district would not be over $1.20 per week, except during the picking season, and this figure is in excess of that earned by those who are less fortunate in securing even this regular employ ment. On one plantation on November 23, 1904, the following amounts of coffee were picked: 3 men picked 1 almud each; 10 picked between 1 and 2 almuds each; 5 picked between 2 and 3 almuds each; 3 picked 3 almuds each, and 1 man picked 4 almuds. The price o f the almud on this day was 8 cents. The rate o f pay as measured in provincial currency was greater during Spanish days than the rate o f pay in American money at the present time. On a typical plantation in the interior o f the island the daily rate o f pay for peons, which prior to 1899 was 44 cents in provin cial currency (somewhat over 26 cents gold in 1899) fell in that year to 25 cents American currency. The rate o f 44 cents was maintained during the previous twenty years despite the fact that the value of the currency as measured in gold decreased greatly during that period. The fall to 25 cents in American money represented a real loss to the peons, owing to the fact that the prices of the commod ities which they purchased did not fall to an equal extent. The decline in the rate o f pay upon this particular plantation was accompanied by a decrease in the regularity of employment and a lessening o f the total amount of work done. When visited, the plan tation was employing only about one-fourth as many peons as it employed a number o f years before, and this lessening o f the working force was shown to be general throughout the island. There is during the picking season a great demand for labor, a demand which is supplied by drafting all available workmen into the service and by obtaining the assistance o f the wives and children o f the workers. In a large group of plantations it was found that there were em ployed on the average from 350 to 400 men throughout the year, these men being employed, however, with considerable irregularity. Dur 753 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. ing the period when the crop was being gathered the number o f men at work was increased about 50 per cent; in other words, instead of 400 men being at work, 600 would work. Moreover, there was an average o f about 180 women and 360 children aiding the 600 men, so that counting women and children equal to men the labor force was almost trebled in these plantations. These figures are approxima tions only, but they indicate the fluctuations in the labor force and the very considerable reduction o f the force at the end of the crop season. SUGAR. Sugar was first introduced into Cuba in 1548. Its production, however, was inconsiderable until the nineteenth century. According to Colonel Flinter the production in Porto Rico in 1775 amounted to only 273,750 pounds; in 1803 to only 176,344 pounds; in 1810 to 2,544,923 pounds; in 1828 to 12,251,662 pounds, and in 1830 to 31,514,388 pounds. The following table shows the quantity and value o f the sugar crop in Porto Rico from 1850 to 1897 by decennial periods: Q U A N TITY AND VA LU E OF SUGAR PRODUCTION, 1850 TO 1897. [F rom the Census o f P orto Rico, 1899.] Year. Quantity (pounds). 1850........................................................................................................................ 1880....... : .............................................................................................................. 1870........................................................................................................................ 1880........................................................................................................................ 1890............................................................................................................... ........ 1897 . ................................................................................. ..................... 112,129,483 116,015,181 191,649,670 221,220,894 128,021,904 126,827,472 Value (pesos). 3,910,167.88 3,480,455.33 5,749,492.10 3,016,948.55 3,782,465.50 4,007,992.08 Since the American occupation, and especially since the free admis sion o f Porto Rican products into the United States, there has been a great boom in the sugar industry. Until the year 1879 the sugar crop always exceeded in value that of coffee. During the 48 years from 1850 to 1897, inclusive, the sugar crop was worth $118,000,000 in provincial currency, while the coffee crop was worth only $98,000,000 and the tobacco crop only $12,000,000. (®) The year 1879 was the greatest year o f sugar raising during the period of Spanish dominion, after which the crop o f sugar became less and less impor tant, while that o f coffee became more and more important. A t the present time, however, this state o f affairs is being changed and there is a rapid reversal to the conditions o f the former period. A ll the seacoast lands which by any possibility can be put into sugar are being made use o f in this w ay; and lands which for many years had lain fallow have since been planted in cane. The pasture lands ©Second Annual Report o f the Governor o f Porto Rico. page 19. Washington, 1902, 754 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOK. are being pressed back into the mountains in order that every avail able acre o f land may be devoted to sugar. With the increase in the output o f sugar and the rise in price there has come a change of method. The old-fashioned process of manu facturing sugar has been practically abandoned and the modern scientific methods used in Hawaii and other places substituted. Everywhere throughout the sugar district one sees abandoned mills which it no longer pays to operate. Under the present system it is possible to extract about 10 or 11 per cent of sugar from the cane instead o f from 5 to 7 per cent under the former process. To install a modern plant, however, it is necessary, for the sake of economy, to have machinery capable o f producing a minimum o f 5,000 tons annually, and to equip and operate such a plant hundreds o f thou sands o f dollars are necessary. To secure the necessary output the product o f several thousands o f acres is required. Rates o f wages on sugar plantations are given in detail in tables accompanying this report. These tables show that the rates of wages prevailing in the sugar plantations are considerably higher than are those in the coffee districts. The demand for labor has been very great— in fact, the coast sugar lands have drawn largely upon the mountain districts for their labor supply— and wages have been high in proportion. The rates of wages for ordinary unskilled work on the sugar plantations, as may be seen from the tables, average from 50 to 55 cents per day. Wages which appear in the tables as considerably below this figure are paid to boys and striplings, and wages which exceed this amount are given to men who are employed on work requiring a certain amount of skill. In a number o f cases statistics are presented separately for men engaged in special occupations, such as cane cutters, loaders, canehole diggers, cane planters, cultivators, ditchers, fence men, grass cutters, land clearers, etc., but in all these cases the division is not according to the grade o f the workman, but merely according to the specific occupation at which he is temporarily engaged. There is no permanent division of labor along these lines, but each o f these d if ferent offices is performed consecutively by one field hand or laborer. In a number o f instances the wages o f laborers engaged in special occupations can not be given, since for many tasks a special piece rate is paid, instead o f day or time wages. This substitution o f piece rates for time rates is taking place very rapidly and extensively. It is to be assumed, however, and the conclusion is borne out by the testimony o f the employers, that the remuneration of the men under the piece system is not much greater than under the time system. The same men are usually employed alternately at piece rates and time rates,, and in view o f this fact it is not to be supposed that the actual daily remuneration will vary much between the two kinds o f employment LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 755 at which the same men are put. In many cases the amounts received by the individual workmen engaged at piece rates are not known, since the custom is to pay a lump sum to the foreman for the whole piece o f work and permit him to divide this money among the men under him in any manner or proportion that may be agreed upon between him and his men. The higher wages paid in the sugar districts temporarily attract considerable bodies o f men from the coffee districts, where laborers are abundant and poorly paid. There is, however, a considerable opposition on the part o f the men in the coffee districts to migrating, even temporarily, to the lower sugar districts. They consider the coast lands unhealthy, and it is doubtless true that they feel the debilitating effects o f the warm and often moist climate to a much greater extent than do the coast people, who are accustomed to it. Moreover, the work upon the sugar estates is extremely arduous. The men work under a broiling sun, usually for 10 hours a day, and this working in the sun is especially difficult for the coffee laborers, who are accustomed to the shade of the uplands. Finally, it is diffi cult to attract the coffee workers, owing to the fact that many of them suffer from anemia and find not only the work but the long walk to the place where the work is to be found too great an exer tion for their strength. Notwithstanding these facts, a considerable migration takes place annually, the uplander remaining until it is necessary for him to return to cultivate his little patch in the hills, or until the end o f the sugar season. The sugar industry has been the one to bear the brunt o f most of the agricultural strikes which have taken place in Porto Rico. This has apparently been due to the prosperity of the industry and the rapid extension o f cane culture which has created a greater demand for labor. The strikes have been o f short duration, and the employees are not permanently organized. While the rate of wages is higher than that prevailing in the coffee districts, the work is more arduous, and the custom o f giving bonuses or free grants in the form o f lodg ing, breakfast, etc., is not so prevalent in the sugar districts as in the coffee districts. Moreover, in the regions devoted to sugar-cane cul tivation it is not so customary for the worker to have a little patch o f ground which he can cultivate for himself. TOBACCO CULTURE. The rates o f wages in the tobacco fields are somewhat lower than in the sugar districts but considerably higher than in the coffee districts. In the tobacco fields wages average slightly over 40 cents per day, the rates for men averaging between 40 and 45 cents per day. On certain plantations employing over 2,000 men and women 756 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. the rates o f pay range from 40 to 45 cents and average a trifle over 41 cents. These wages are fairly uniform throughout the island with those planters employing a considerable number of men. A large part of the tobacco of the country is raised by small cultivators, who themselves do all the necessary work. These men not only raise the tobacco, but take it to market, and pay no wages, either in the cultivation or transportation o f the product. FRUIT CULTURE. A t the present time only a small proportion of the agricultural workers of Porto Eico are engaged in fruit culture. Porto Eico is admirably adapted for the growing of fruits and it is to be antici pated that a large amount o f capital will be invested in this industry. A considerable amount o f capital has already been put into orange culture, but cultivation is still in its earlier stages. The trees do not bear until the fourth or fifth year, and most o f the groves have been planted within that time. Several thousand acres, however, have been put into oranges and “ the indications are that these plantings will be largely increased in the near future.” (a) Land is cheap, as compared with orange lands elsewhere, as are also labor and freight transportation, while the American tariff favors the Porto Eican product as it does that of Florida and California. The cli matic conditions are perfect, since frost is unknown on the island, and the conditions as regards diseases and insect pests are no worse, if not better, than they are in Florida. What is required is better transpor tation within the island and from its ports to the American cities. Eefrigerator facilities are especially necessary. The wages paid in the growing of oranges average about 40 cents a day. It was possible to secure reports for only one plantation, which, however, is one o f the largest on the island. The price of un skilled labor on this plantation is 40 cents a day and there is no difficulty in obtaining a plentiful supply. It is considered probable that grapes of some European or Cali fornian variety might be raised on the island. These grapes would probably ripen in May or June, or considerably before the California grapes are put on the market. There is at present, however, prac tically no cultivation of grapes on the island. The island also offers opportunities for the cultivation and expor tation o f pineapples, bananas, mangoes, and cocoanuts. As yet the « See Report on Observation in Porto Rico, by Prof. F. S. Earle, in Annual Report o f the Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903, reprinted in Annual Report of the Office of Experiment Stations for the year ending June 30, 1903, page 455. For the general conditions o f orange culture in Porto Rico, see Bulletin No. 4 of the Porto Rican Agricultural Experiment Station, Propagation and Marketing o f Oranges in Porto Rico, by H. C. Henricksen. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 757 amount o f labor upon plantations producing these fruits and nuts is entirely too inconsiderable to warrant investigation. The fruit and vegetable situation of Porto Rico may be summed up by stating that, while the island is admirably adapted for the cultivation o f many tropical fruits and vegetables, their cultivation upon a large scale has not yet been undertaken. The only exception is oranges, and even for this fruit cultivation has been too recent and the employment o f labor too small to permit it to be considered one o f the leading agricultural industries o f the island. U RBAN W AGES. The population o f Porto Rico is overwhelmingly rural. There is no large city in the island, and but four cities with a population of 8,000 or over. These are San Juan, with a population of 82,048; Ponce, with a population of 27,952 (including its p o r t ); Mayaguez, with a population o f 15,187, and Arecibo, with a population of 8,008. The total urban population in cities of 8,000 or over was only 8.7 per cent o f the total, as compared with 82.3 per cent in Cuba and 33.1 per cent for the United States (1900). There were, however, in Porto Rico 53 small towns with a popula tion o f 1,000 or more, but less than 8,000. These small towns, together with the cities o f 8,000 or over, had a population, in 1899, o f 203,792, or 21.4 per cent o f the total inhabitants o f the island. In the island o f Cuba, which has a far less dense population than Porto Rico, the percentage o f people living in towns of 1,000 or more is 47.1 per cent, or more than twice as large a percentage as in Porto Rico. The wages paid urban workers in a number of occupations are given in the appendix to this article (p. 820 et seq.). A brief state ment o f the conditions prevailing in some of these urban occupations will help to a better understanding of labor conditions in the island. BARBERS. This occupation in Porto Rico is of slight importance. There are a few establishments in the larger cities which are fairly well equipped and charge American prices. The smaller shops in the cities usually consist o f a proprietor or of a proprietor with one apprentice. BOARDING-HOUSE SERVICE. In the boarding-house and hotel service there is a great variation in the rates o f wages. These wages include board and lodging, esti mated by the proprietors at $12 per month; but this is a very evident overestimate. The wages o f persons employed in this service, as in domestic service, are much lower than in the United States. The 758 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. efficiency o f these employees is also much less. It is customary and is considered necessary for families to maintain a larger number o f servants than families of the same income would maintain in the United States. Both of the boarding houses from which wage re ports were obtained catered largely to Americans, and the wages are higher, on the whole, than in similar native establishments. No sta tistics are presented for restaurants or hotels, since the wages o f em ployees in these establishments are to a large extent in the form of tips, and all restaurant keepers of whom inquiry was made claimed that they kept no books or pay rolls. BUILDING TRADES. The vast majority o f the habitations of the Porto Ricans are huts constructed by themselves. The construction o f dwellings in the country districts is, therefore, not a special trade. Even in the cities the building trades do not employ any considerable number. The walls o f the ordinary house in the city are built of native brick and then covered with cement. The bricks used are long and wide, but not thick, and are coarse and slightly burned. The price ranges generally from $7 to $10 per thousand. The work of brick laying is carried on in a leisurely manner, and on most of the opera tions the hours o f labor are about 54 per week. The three establish ments treated in this report were engaged upon the construction of churches. The contractors in each case stated that the work was done by picked men. The wages range from $1.80 to $2.50 for car penters; $2.25 for foremen of carpenters; $2.50 for foremen of masons; from $1.80 to $2.25 for masons, and from $1.80 to $2 for painters. The wages for unskilled workmen range lower, but were considerably higher than ordinary wages for unskilled labor in other industries in the cities. Mortar mixers receive 90 cents per day, and the prevailing rate o f pay for common labor was 72 cents per day. Less than 10 per cent of the laborers, or 2 out of 26, receive the rate o f 90 cents per day. The establishments from which the reports were obtained were in San Juan, Rio Piedras, a suburb of San Juan, and in Yieques Island. Wages in the latter region were the highest; labor, and especially skilled labor, being scarcer in that island than in other parts o f Porto Rico. CIGAR MAKING. The making o f cigars is one of the most important i f not the most important manufacturing industry in the island. The industry has grown very rapidly since the American occupation o f Porto Rico. The legislation permitting the importation o f cigars from Porto Rico into the United States without any duty and without any impost LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 759 save the internal-revenue taxes allowed the Porto Rican cigar to com pete on favorable terms both with the native American and the Cuban cigar. The effect was a great increase in the trade in Porto Rican cigars, which was followed by a temporary setback owing to the fact that inferior grades were thrown upon the market. The industry has since grown rapidly, although during the present year it has been somewhat handicapped by a large increase in the cost o f leaf tobacco. The manufacture o f cigars in Porto Rico is carried on under con ditions similar to those prevailing in the United States. American capital is practically in control of the industry, the largest estab lishment being in the hands of a company affiliated with the Ameri can Tobacco Company. Nearly all of the workers are Porto Ricans, except classers (men who grade the finished product), who, to a large extent, have come from Cuba. The employees in most estab lishments are organized into a trade union, affiliated with the cigar makers’ union in the United States. The rates of wages, as may be seen from the table in the appendix, are lower than those paid in the United States. The wages are higher in San Juan than in the smaller towns in which many of the cigar factories are situated. Some o f the manufacturers have factories in more than one district. Some of the establishments are overcrowded, but on the whole the work is carried on in fairly commodious and suitable quarters. The cigars manufactured are principally for American consump tion. The cigarettes are largely consumed locally. A ll the cigars made in Porto Rico are manufactured by hand, although, of course, molds are used. The following statement shows the earnings o f various workers in a large tobacco establishment in Porto Rico: The leaf strippers in the manufacture of cigars receive 2J cents per pound o f leaf stripped, and 141 girls working at this earned together $373 during a week, or an average o f $2.65 apiece. O f these, 13 earned $3 or over, 120 earned $2 or over, but less than $3, and 8 earned less than $2 per week. The cigar classers, working on the cheaper grade, averaged almost $9 per week. During the week under observation 15 men earned $130, or an average of $8.67. O f these men, 8 earned from $10 to $12 and 7 men earned less than $10, but more than $5. The high-grade classers earned high wages. During the week under observation 9 men earned $30 or less than $35, 10 men earned $20 or less than $30, and 3 men earned less than $20. The total payment during the week to these 22 men was $590, or an average o f $26.82 per man. This is the highest grade work in the establishment. A t bundling cigars 5 men earned during the same week $17.20, or an average o f $3.44 per man. 760 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. At wrapping and packing 5 men earned $21, or an average of $4.20 per man for the week. For the work o f drying the leaf the ordinary pay is 60 cents per day. O f 30 men so employed, 23 earned 60 cents per day, 3 earned 70 cents, 2 earned 75 cents, 1 earned 80 cents, and 1 earned $1 per day. The average for these 30 men was thus 64 cents per day. The fore man received $14 per week. For the work o f wetting the leaf the ordinary pay is 80 cents per day and the average pay is 74 cents. O f the men engaged in this work, 7 earned 80 cents, 1 man earned 60 cents, and 1 man earned 50 cents per day. The pay o f the foreman was $12 per week. The pay o f the cigar makers varies with their skill and with the quality o f the cigar made. On a $7.50 brand 10 men, working 5 days in the week, earned $61.49, which is equivalent to a weekly pay of $6.15 and a daily pay of $1.23. O f 235 men making a $4.50 brand, 100, or 43 per cent, earned less than $5 per week and 135, or 57 per cent, earned from $5 to $10 per week. The average time worked during the week was about 40 hours. Two foremen earned together $27.50 for the week. On the $12 brand 30 men working 48 hours during the week earned $294.60, or an average o f $9.82 per week and an average of 20J cents per hour. O f these men, 18 earned $10 or over per week, and 30 men earned more than $5, but less than $10. The earnings o f 30 men making an $8 brand amounted to $124, an average o f $4.13 per week. On a $7 brand the earnings o f 40 men working an average of 48 hours a week were $306.45, or an average o f $7.66 per week per man or of 16 cents per hour. The weekly earnings ranged from $6 to $9. The earnings of 20 men working 3 days were $41.30, an average of $2.07 per week or o f 69 cents per day. The earnings o f 60 men working 4 days in the week were $332, or an average o f $5.53 per week or o f $1.38 per day. On a $5 brand the earnings o f 127 men working 4 days in the week were $415, or $3.27 per week or 82 cents per day. In these cases the average daily and hourly earnings appear lower owing to the fact that in many instances the men did not do their full complement o f work. In the manufacture o f cigars the wages o f 54 girls working as strip pers for 48 hours in the week ranged between $2 and $3. The average earnings o f the 54 were $2.31 per week or somewhat less than 5 cents per hour. Twenty-one men were employed at $2 per day as leaf classers (selectors o f wrappers for the cigars). The total earnings of these during the week were $215, amounting thus to $5.18 per week per man. Two foremen together earned $29.50 per week and 2 clerks earned together $29.50 per week. On the cigarette machines 8 men earned $99.59 for 48 hours’ work, an average o f $12.45 per week, or 26 cents per hour. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 761 In making cigarette shells 17 men, paid at the rate of 15 cents per thousand, working about 40 hours per week, earned $81.18. These aggregate earnings, however, like many of those previously men tioned, give a lower average than the true one, since in some cases men who are carried on the rolls work only a day or a fraction o f a day. Thus, o f the 17 men working at a uniform rate and earning $81.18 in all, 15 made $80, or an average o f $5.33, while the remain ing 2 made only $1.18, or an average of 59 cents for the week. A t the work o f packing cigarettes 34 men, working an average of 40 hours, earned $243.80, an average of $7.17 per week. At the leaf process 3 men earned 90 cents per day, 1 earned $1.25 per day, and 4 men earned 50 cents per day. The average for these 8 men was thus 74f cents for each day worked. The average earnings of the 8 men for the week were $4.49. In warehouse labor 13 men, working at $1 a day, earned during the week $62.25, or an average of $4.79 each. An average o f $1.59 each per day was earned by 3 carpenters work ing 2| days. The foreman o f the warehouse earned $20 per week; the foreman o f the boiler room, $20 per week; the fireman, $12 per week; the foreman o f the cigarette department, $12 per week, and the cart driver and the watchman each $7 per week. COTTON GINNING. This is a new industry and is o f no great importance. Wage data were obtained for the only establishment in operation. The rates of wages for the laborers range from 40 to 60 cents, the average wages being under 50 cents a day for an 8-hour day. There is probably a considerable future in store for the industry of cotton growing. While cotton as yet has not been grown to any ex tent, that which has been produced is of an extremely good quality, equaling, it is claimed, the famous Sea Island cotton o f the United States. The cotton which has been raised so far has been shipped to Manchester, England. DRESSMAKING. In the small establishment from which a wage report was obtained the work was performed for American customers. The rate of pay was 25 cents per day, with two meals o f an estimated value of 20 cents per day. Dressmaking, especially for native customers, is fre quently done in the houses of the customers. Many of the dress makers work alone, and most o f those who work in common share profits. Much o f the dressmaking and o f the general needlework of the Porto Ricans is excellent. 762 BULLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR. FOUNDRIES AND MACHINE SHOPS. The foundries and machine shops of the island are few in number and small in size. They do practically no direct manufacturing and are largely confined to the repair of machinery. These machine shops are extremely primitive, although the character o f the work they turn out is not o f a low grade. FRUIT CANNING. A t the present time two fruit-canning establishments exist on the island, as the result o f the development of pineapple culture. Both o f these were investigated, but wage data were obtained for only one. These canneries are in operation only during the season, which does not last over five months. About 95 per cent o f the labor is unskilled. In the fruit-canning establishment in the city of Mayaguez the labor ers (not counting those engaged in specialized occupations) included 50 men, 6 boys, and 80 women and girls. The daily wages o f the men ranged from 30 to 50 cents and averaged 44 cents, while the wages of the boys and women were uniformly 25 cents per day. In view of the fact that this employment lasted only five months and that the wages were paid for 10 hours o f intense and rapid labor, the wages paid furnish a fair indication of the rates received by unskilled workers in Mayaguez. There was no difficulty experienced by the manager in obtaining a sufficient number of workmen and workwomen at this price. Both the men and the women employed in the canning o f pine apples showed great rapidity and expertness in the operation. The work was carried on quite as well as in an American establishment. This was true o f both of the establishments o f the island. On account o f the difficulty o f securing the necessary pineapples the establishment for which no report was secured was working only part o f the time. LAUNDRY* WORK. Most o f the laundry work is done by women of rivers or streams or in their own houses. laundries in San Juan, but both are small. hands in the San Juan establishment for which received 5 cents an hour for 10 hours a day. washing on the banks There are two steam The female machine a report was obtained MACARONI MANUFACTURING. A report was obtained for one macaroni factory, situated in San Juan. The factory works 6 days a week and 8 hours a day. Threefourths o f the employees were women, earning 40 cents a day. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 763 MUNICIPAL WORE. The municipalities o f Porto Rico employ a small number o f work men for public work. These positions are eagerly sought, but the wages do not appear to be higher than in ordinary private work. Thus the municipality o f San Juan pays the majority o f its carpen ters $1.75; its carpenters’ helpers 50 to 75 cents, the average rate for carpenters’ helpers being about 73 cents a day. The masons receive $1.75 and the masons’ helpers 50 cents a day. The largest group o f employees is that o f the street sweepers, who are paid only 50 cents a day for an 8-hour day. PLANING MILLS. The wages o f carpenters in the planing mills range from $1.25 to $1.75 per day. Unskilled labor is paid from 60 cents to 90 cents per day. The lumber used is Georgia and Florida pine. No native woods are used in the planing mills. PRINTING AND PUBLISHING. The printing and publishing establishments o f the island are small. The rates of pay for newspaper compositors range from $3 to $9 per week, the average rate being under $6. There are a few engravers employed earning from $16 to $18 per week. SHOEMAKING. Most o f the shoemakers work individually and make their con tracts directly with the customers. When the proprietor employs assistants he usually does the cutting and leaves the rest o f the work to be done by his assistants. A ll the establishments were small. No machinery is used, the work being carried on by the simplest tools. Where the establishment is relatively large, as in a shop in Ponce which employs 14 shoemakers, the pay is by the pair o f completed shoes. STREET RAILWAYS AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING. There are only three small street-car lines in the island—one in San Juan, one in Ponce, and a very small line in Mayaguez. Re ports were obtained for those using electricity, these lines being sit uated in San Juan and Ponce. The number of men employed was extremely small. The pay o f conductors ranged from 91 cents to $1.23-J per day, and the motormen received from 82 cents to $1.15 per day. ROAD REPAIRING. In June, 1905, 166 employees, including 2 boys, were employed by the insular board o f public works. O f these 164 are classified as laborers. The wages of 154 men reported as employed by the board 764 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. o f public works in the repairing of works varied from 40 cents to 75 cents a day. The average rate was 46 cents per day. The men work 8 hours per day and 6 days per week when there is sufficient work for them. A considerable portion of the road repairing is done by contract. The prices paid to the laborers are, as a rule, not above the current rates prevailing in the region. Wages paid are somewhat lower in the mountain districts than near the coast, and it is, moreover, easier to obtain laborers in these regions than in the lowlands, owing to the great surplus of labor. TAILORS. Like the shoemakers and seamstresses, the tailors usually work for individual customers and do not receive their pay in day wages. There are, however, a few small establishments in which the men are paid by the day. TELEGRAPH. The telegraph service of the island is under the insular government. This department has grown considerably since the arrival of the Americans. New lines have been built to various parts o f the country and at the present time the island is covered with a network of wires. There are 9 American operators, including a chief operator, whose salaries range from $900 to $1,080 per year, and there are employed 48 native operators whose salaries range from $480 to $900. The average pay for the Porto Rican operators is $598, and for all opera tors is $642. Other employees are 14 messengers and 10 linemen. O f the linemen 9 receive $480 a year and 1 receives $720. CAUSES OF L O W W A G E S IN PO RTO RICO. The chief cause of the low wages in Porto Rico is the excessive population o f the island. The supply of labor appears to be in excess o f the demand, and while in certain places, for limited periods, it may be difficult to obtain labor at low wages, the normal condition is one o f a body o f workmen attempting to secure positions which are insufficient in number. The rapid growth o f the population has tended constantly to force wages down, and under present con ditions o f increase there seems little probability o f any great perma nent improvement in the conditions o f the working classes. (®) a The density of population (264 per square mile) is greater in Porto Rico than in Jamaica and much greater than in Cuba or Haiti. It is, however, much smaller than in some of the crowded little islands o f the West Indies. Thus Barbados, with an area of 166 square miles, has a population o f 197,792, or a density o f 1,192 per square mile, and the Windward Islands, with an area o f 499 square miles, have a density of 385 to the square mile. The density o f population of Jamaica (and Turks Island) is 183, the area being 4,373 square miles and the population 800,685. (See Statesman’s Yearbook, 1905, p. xxvi.) LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 765 This increase, which still continues despite the present density of the population, has been marked during the entire period of 140 years for which official statistics are available. In 1765 the popu lation was only 45,000; by 1800 it had increased to 155,000; by 1832, to 330,000; by 1860, to 583,000, and by 1899, to 953,000. The decennial rate o f increase, while large, appears to be declining. From a perhaps apocryphal, though officially noted, increase of 57 per cent from 1765 to 1775, the rate of increase has declined with more or less regularity to a decennial increase o f 16 per cent in the period from 1887 to 1899. This latter increase, which is slightly greater than that for the quarter of a century immediately preceding, may be due, to a certain extent, to a more careful enumera tion at the last census. But this rate o f increase is smaller than that in the United States during the period from 1890 to 1900. This increase in Porto Rico, however, took place despite a very high death rate, and is all the more remarkable in view o f the fact that the popu lation is already very dense. This rapid increase, moreover, unlike that in the United States, is to be attributed almost entirely to an excess of births over deaths and not, as in the United States, to an excess o f immigrants over emi grants. As is shown later, the immigration to Porto Rico is incon siderable. The census of 1899 showed that only 1.5 per cent o f the population were born outside o f the island, and o f this number 55 per cent were Spanish and 11 per cent were from Spanish America. This proportion o f foreign born is much less than in the United States and only one-seventh as great as in Cuba. The rapid increase in the population may better be understood when the marital and sexual relations o f the population are studied. The marital relation in large sections of the Porto Rican population is transitory and unsteady. A considerable portion of the people live in what may be called sexual promiscuity, while another large number o f men and women live together by mutual consent, without legally binding ties and often only for a short period. These facts are brought out clearly, though not exactly, by the census enumeration o f 1899. The census of that year shows that of the entire population 69.7 per cent were single, 16.6 per cent were married, 8.8 per cent were living together in more or less permanent sexual relations by mutual consent, and 4.9 per cent were widowed. This proportion o f single persons, even excluding those living together by mutual consent but unmarried, is enormous. O f the population 15 years o f age or over, 45.9 per cent were single persons (excluding those living together by mutual consent, but unmarried), while including persons living together by mutual consent the pro portion was 61.7 per cent. When it is recalled that the percentage for Hungary, Mexico, France, Italy, Denmark, the United States, 766 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. Germany, England and Wales, Austria, Sweden, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Belgium varied between 23.2 and 43.9 per cent (a) the exceedingly large number o f single persons in the island will be appreciated. It seems probable, indeed, that the percentage of those living together by mutual consent is even greater than that actually given above and that many of the persons reported as mar ried are actually merely joined together in more or less permanent extramarital relationships. Even on the face o f these statistics there are 53 people in these loose unions for every 100 persons who are married. The proportion o f consensual unions to marriages appears to be rather greater in the cities than in the rest o f the country, and greater also in the less settled regions o f the eastern than in the more highly developed western part o f the island. Thus, while in Aguadilla there were only 26 persons living together by mutual consent to every 100 persons legally married, in Humacao, which represents the less-developed regions o f the east, there are 91 people living together by mutual consent to every 100 legally married. These loose consensual unions are also more common among the colored than among the native white population. For every 100 native white married persons there are 37 persons living together by mutual consent; while for every 100 married colored persons there are 98 colored persons living together by mutual consent, or almost an equal number. This state o f affairs is reflected largely in the percentage o f ille gitimate children. The census of 1899 gives a total illegitimate popu lation o f 148,605. These figures, however, are probably less than the actual number. The illegitimate population among the colored peo ple is very much larger than among the whites, only slightly over 11 per cent o f the native whites being returned as illegitimate, as com pared with over 22 per cent o f the colored people. It must not be supposed that all, or even the majority o f the con sensual unions, or unions of persons living together without the sanction o f the State, are necessarily temporary. Many o f these loose unions resulted, as in Cuba and in other Spanish-American countries, from the fact that formerly the expenses attaching to a re ligious marriage, while not excessive according to an American stand ard, were sufficiently great to cause many persons to dispense with the ceremony. These unions were not considered legally binding, nor the issue from them legitimate, but in very many cases the peons were literally unable to raise the money required to pay for the marriage. There can be no doubt, however, that a very large percentage o f these unions were and still are temporary. There are still many peons « These figures for other countries are only approximate, since they do not always refer to the same year nor always to exactly the same age. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 767 in Porto Eico who change from wife to wife with cheerful alacrity. In many cases a woman in one part of the town may be supporting three or four or five children, while the children’s father, with whom she was formerly joined, is living in consensual union with some other woman. The effect o f these unions is to render the man enter ing into them reckless, both as to the union itself, the number o f re sulting children, and the frequency with which he changes wives. Since the American occupation, these conditions have very materi ally improved. It is now possible to marry civilly without any relig ious sanction, and the fees demanded by the church for the religious ceremony have been reduced to such a point that they no longer con stitute a serious obstacle to marriage. Moreover, and more important still, the mere fact o f a man entering into a consensual union with a woman now gives to her the right to demand support both for her self and her children, and to insist upon his entering upon a fixed marriage relation. So great, however, is the poverty o f the popula tion that the legal fee of $1, which is ordinarily required, still acts as an effective hindrance to marriage with many people who are liv ing together in extramarital relations. The percentage o f marriages is probably increasing, and the rela tionship between the sexes is gradually being placed upon a better basis, upon a basis, moreover, which safeguards to a great extent the position o f the woman. It can not be expected that in a country in which the standard o f living is as low as in Porto Eico any serious restraint will, for a considerable time, be placed upon many of those entering into conjugal or quasi-conjugal relations. The relations in this respect are extremely primitive and naive, and this fact is re flected in the very high birth rate which prevails. (a) The extremely low cost of living, especially in the rural districts, makes the expenses attendant upon rearing children up to the time when they are able to work so low that sexual relationships are entered into without the most casual consideration o f the ability of the newly joined couples to support the offspring of the union. When it is recalled that many families enter into this informal, although often permanent, wedlock without the dollar necessary to pay for the marriage certificate, it can readily be understood that the rearing o f a family is a responsibility which does not weigh heavily. The conclusion ‘that the birth rate in Porto Eico is extremely high is borne out by an analysis of the statistics presented in the Census a This high birth rate is perfectly evident from a consideration o f certain factors, including the imperfect mortality statistics and the increase o f popu lation between successive census enumerations. It is thoroughly concealed, however, by official statistics o f births, which are admittedly defective. 276—No. 61—06 M-------- 1 768 BU LLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. Report for 1899. The estimate o f the census is that the annual death rate is not much less than 40 per thousand and that the birth rate is considerably in excess o f this; and it seems to be borne out by the facts as well as by an intelligent interpretation o f the official figures. (a) The increase in the laboring population o f Porto Rico is but little affected, either by immigration or emigration. The population of foreign birth is small, amounting to only 1.5 per cent of the total. O f these immigrants, the largest percentage are from Spain and Spanish America. Upon the conclusion o f peace, a certain number o f Spaniards left the island and a certain number o f Americans entered it; but since that time the immigration o f Spaniards has more than made up for the exodus after 1898. The emigration is also slight. The population o f Porto Rico is singularly immobile, and there is comparatively slight movement even from village to village, to say nothing o f from the island to foreign countries. The standard o f living is so low that sentimental attrac tions and sheer inertia tend to hold the population in their native villages even when the opportunities for work are better a dozen miles away. There appears to be no prospect whatever of any con siderable migration, either now or hereafter, from the island to the continent o f America. After the hurricane o f 1899 there was great distress, and in conse quence a certain migration from Porto Rico to Hawaii and Cuba was induced by agents. There was demand for labor in the sugar fields o f Hawaii and in the iron mines o f Cuba. Several thousand emi grants were shipped to Hawaii, many o f them without any property whatever, except the clothes on their backs. The success o f this experiment was by no means great. A large proportion o f the emigrants arrived in too enfeebled a condition and were found to be too unused to their new work to insure success. The change in their environment and the resulting homesickness caused much dis content among them, and many o f them found means to return to Porto Rico. E F F IC IE N C Y AN D COST O F LABO R. While the wages o f Porto Rican labor are low as compared with wages in the United States, or even in most o f the western countries of Europe, the efficiency o f the workman is so much less that the cost o f performing any particular piece of work is not always lower there than in the United States. No statistics have been collected by which the difference can be accurately gauged, and the testimony of many o f the employers is so vague as to be entirely inconclusive. a For an analysis of these figures see the Report on the Census o f Porto Rico, 1899, pp. 112 to 117, inclusive. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 769 It is commonly stated that the unskilled workers on the plantations are so much below the agricultural laborers in the United States in efficiency that it actually costs more to perform a certain amount of work .than it would in the United States. The general testimony, however, is to the effect that the labor, while less efficient than corre sponding unskilled labor in the United States, is nevertheless cheaper, owing to the extremely low rates o f wages. In certain industries this can be clearly shown. In the manufacture o f cigars, for in stance, the somewhat smaller efficiency o f the Porto Bican workman is more than counterbalanced by the lower wages, with the result that it costs less to manufacture cigars on the island and import them to the United States than to manufacture them here. Much o f the inefficiency o f the Porto Bican workman is due to the climate. While the heat is never as great as on the most sultry and sweltering days in the cities o f our Atlantic coast, still the warm, humid atmosphere o f Porto Bico is enervating. Americans who ar rive in Porto Bico from the United States find that their ability to work is very much less than it was at home. The conditions appear to be somewhat better on the southern coast o f the island, where the atmosphere is less humid. Even there, however, it is by no means as easy to do a full day’s work as in the more temperate parts o f the United States. Another cause o f the comparative inefficiency, o f the Porto Bican workingman is the disease o f anemia. A very large proportion o f the rural population o f Porto Bico suffers from this disease, which attacks the red corpuscles o f the blood and renders breathing diffi cult, and continued and severe labor almost impossible. Many o f these anemics work—when they do work—in an extremely listless manner and after two or three hours o f exertion are completely exhausted. The average Porto Bican is o f shorter stature and of slighter build than the average American, and his strength is considerably less. Despite his small stature the Porto Bican workingman seems to possess a fair amount o f endurance. Many of the plantation owners agree in stating that the men work with a very fair degree of perseverance and endurance. This is more to be wondered at in view o f the climate, the prevalence o f anemia, and the general under feeding o f the population. It is perhaps to be accounted for partly by the temperance o f the Porto Bican. The negroes appear to be considerably stronger than the persons o f white or mixed blood, and their endurance and capacity for con tinued work are considerably in excess o f those o f the white popula tion. The inhabitants o f the coast lands also appear to be stronger than the highlanders, who consist, to a large extent, o f white persons 770 BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. and o f anemics. The stevedores in San Juan, Ponce, and other cities, working by the piece, are very energetic men and certainly accomplish feats o f great strength. In some o f the sugar mills the men, mostly blacks, carry on the head bags o f sugar weighing 300 pounds. Despite the weight and the excessive rapidity of the work these men do not appear to suffer unduly from it. The work on the sugar plantations, lasting as it does from sunrise to sunset, and performed in the full glare o f the sun, requires great strength and endurance. The great mass o f Porto Rican labor is unskilled. Even in these occupations, however, the Porto Rican displays far less skill and intelligence than the ordinary unskilled worker in the United States. There is frequently a listlessness about his work and a lack o f interest and forethought which precludes the possibility o f intelligent appli cation. It is the common complaint o f landowners that they can not trust their employees to display any intelligence or skill in carrying out orders. They also show a great lack of ingenuity and resource fulness. They work largely as their fathers before them worked and as before them their grandfathers and great-grandfathers. It is this fact, among others, that tends to make Porto Rican unskilled labor, like unskilled labor in all countries, expensive. It is necessary, except in the smallest forms o f piecework, to have con stantly present an overseer or foreman to direct the work and pre vent idling and soldiering. There has resulted from this a tendency, especially since the American occupation, to give out work‘under the contract system and to give up as far as possible the payment o f day wages. The general *system now prevailing on sugar planta tions is to pay a small contractor a certain sum for ditching, for planting, or for any of the other agricultural processes and allow him to employ the peons on such terms as he thinks proper. General listlessness is perhaps the most characteristic feature o f Porto Rican labor. The general relation between the employer and employee in Porto Rico is one of a blind, unthinking, and unreasoning submissiveness on the part o f the peon, who is ordered about at will by a foreman. Under such conditions there is no call for and little evidence o f initiative on the part of the individual workingman, who simply does as he is told to the extent o f his somewhat limited capacity. The Porto Rican laborer has the reputation of being extremely lazy, but it is probable that his reputation in this respect is somewhat worse than he deserves. It is frequently alleged by large planters that they do not pay their workmen any higher wages, because i f they did the men would work a fewer number o f days. It is claimed that the men who earn 50 cents a day for 6 days would not work over 4 days i f the rate was raised to 75 cents a day. This assertion, which LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 771 is made by the Porto Rican employer, as it was made by the English employer two centuries ago, must be taken for what it is worth, although it might be suggested that the experiment has not often been tried. What does appear to be true is that the Porto Rican is fairly constant in his employment and works with a fair degree of regularity. On many o f the plantations the testimony is that workmen return with a fair degree of regularity to their work and accept all the employment offered to them. In a majority o f cases, on the other hand, the failure to work regularly throughout the week is attributed to the conditions of the industry and to the fact that the employer can not use the men. In the coffee districts, for instance, large numbers o f men are left unemployed at the end o f each crop, and during the season there is no work for the men when it rains. It is quite the truth that when the ordinary peon earns more than usual he is likely to spend it in gambling, but it has not been demonstrated that in Porto Rico an increase in wages would mean a proportional reduction in the number o f working days. SU PE R V ISIO N OF LABO R. Much o f the alleged inefficiency of Porto Rican labor has been due to the unintelligent manner in which it has been directed. The prod uct o f the work o f a given number of men has not been as great in some industries in Porto Rico as it would be in the United States, owing to the fact that the workingmen have not been organized by their employers in the proper manner. The planters, as a rule, are not scientific agriculturists. The contempt for work o f any sort which prevailed during Spanish times caused the plantations to fall into the hands o f men who were not particularly interested in the administration o f their estates. They did not study the best methods of culture and they failed to fertilize their land and to keep pace with advances in agricultural chemistry and the manufacture o f agri cultural machinery. Moreover, the planters as a rule were not wise enough to reinvest a portion o f their profits in improved machinery and appliances. In good times there was a tendency to spend the large profits for purposes unconnected with the improvement o f the business, and in bad times it was necessary to borrow money at high rates o f interest for the purpose o f carrying on the estates. Money lending in Porto Rico is almost entirely in the hands of the Spanish or “ Peninsulars.” The rate of interest for first mortgages has ranged from 8 to 12 per cent and even more, and for second mortgages it has been as high a$ 2 per cent a month. Many o f the estates are hope lessly mortgaged and many o f the coffee properties, especially since the cyclone o f 1899, are mortgaged for an amount in excess o f 772 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. their present selling value. In fact, in Porto Rico we find the anom alous situation o f many planters cultivating in a more or less half hearted way properties in which they have long since ceased to have any equity whatever, while on the other hand the real owners, the men who have advanced the money, do not foreclose because they do not want to be burdened with the control. On many estates prac tically the entire profits are diverted from the cultivator to the Span ish money lender, who may reside on the island but who usually lives in Spain. To this state o f affairs is partly due the low wages and the irregular employment in many parts o f the coffee districts. The small equity which the planter holds in the estate which he cultivates does not per mit him to pay any higher wages, and the poverty o f the planter frequently prevents him from making the outlays necessary for the proper cultivation of his land. It is not unusual to find coffee estates in the hands o f Porto Ricans employing only one-third as many men as they employed a dozen years ago. A t the present time the passing o f lands from native to American control has tended to increase both wages and the demand for labor. The practically unlimited demand in the United States for certain Porto Rican products, especially sugar, tobacco, and fruits, would mean a far better utilization o f the land and a far more effective organization o f the workers if the necessary capital and the requisite intelligent direction o f labor were present. The increased effectiveness o f labor as a result o f the investment of capital and the more intelligent direction and economy o f labor is evi denced by the change from the small obsolescent sugar mills o f Span ish days to the great centrals o f the present time, with their improved machinery, their more thorough division of labor, their rigid economy o f work, and their far more effective organization. The output of sugar, both per ton o f cane and per workman employed, has largely increased as a result o f this improvement. The large mills, while paying higher wages than the smaller mills, are able to save a consid erable amount o f labor and make a profit far greater than was possi ble under the old conditions. Since the American occupation there are certain indications o f a more scientific and better adjustment of the work o f the employers, due largely to the incoming o f new blood and new ideas. In the sugar industry, in the cultivation o f fruits, and in the manufacture o f cigars, the opportunities for labor have increased and the labor employed has, on the whole, been somewhat better organized. Moreover, there is a tendency, which is small but perceptible, for Porto Ricans to learn American methods o f business. The majority o f Porto Rican youths sent to America to secure an edu cation still devote themselves to law and medicine, but as time goes on LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 773 it is probable that a constantly increasing number will devote them selves to the study o f agriculture, technology, and business methods. Moreover, under American domination, it appears that the former prejudice o f the planters against labor or even the personal super vision o f labor is weakening. C O M PE TITIO N OF PO RTO R IC A N W IT H FO REIG N LABOR. The competition o f the labor o f one country with that o f another may be either direct or indirect. Direct competition takes place in the form o f direct importation or exportation of workmen. Thus the London waiters are in direct competition with persons o f the same occupation in Germany, Switzerland, and France, since Ger man, French, and Swiss waiters can be and are directly imported into England and there is a constant importation and exportation of for eign and English waiters. The more usual form of competition be tween workmen is, however, that o f products. Porto Rican labor is less directly in competition with that o f other countries than is usually the case. The direct competition is compara tively slight. The immigration laws o f the United States are en forced for Porto Rico, and these laws, especially as regards the im portation o f contract laborers, are maintained rigidly. Despite the fact that the wages in some o f the neighboring islands, notably in St. Thomas, are even lower than in Porto Rico, there is very little immi gration. The emigration is also slight. The movement of Porto Rican workmen to the United States may be practically disregarded. It is doubtful whether such workingmen, ignorant o f the language and unused to temperate climes, would be successful in their competi tion with immigrants from Italy, Poland, and other countries of Europe. Moreover, the poverty o f the island is such that only a very small proportion o f the workingmen would be able to raise the $20 necessary to pay for a steerage passage to New York. There is a slight movement from the western part of the island to the planta tions of Santo Domingo, which is separated from Porto Rico by a strait only 60 or 70 miles in width. This emigration, however, is so slight that it may be assumed for all practical purposes that the laboring population o f the island is constant, without immigration or emigration, and that there is no direct competition of labor with foreign countries. Indirect competition o f Porto Rico with foreign countries is also small. The island is under the American protective tariff, and while the revenues derived from direct importation go to the insular in stead o f the Federal treasury, the competition, as regards the exclu sion o f products o f foreign manufacture, is exactly the same as 774 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. in the United States. Most of the industries o f Porto Rico are not strictly competitive. The competition of the Porto Rican sugar growers with the growers of Cuba, Haiti, Java, and continental countries does not affect in any direct manner the wages or conditions o f work o f the mass of sugar laborers. The inclusion of Porto Rico within the American customs union gives to Porto Rican sugar a substantial advantage over foreign sugar, which must pay a customs duty. The same is true of Porto Rican tobacco and fruits in the markets o f the United States. The workmen employed in trans portation, both railroad and street railway, the dock laborers, and others are beyond the reach of any possible competition. The coffee industry is in constant and direct competition with the same industry in Brazil and other countries, and it is probable that this competition is felt in a measurable degree by the workingman through the pros perity or decadence o f the industry. In none of these industries is there any appreciable competition between the laborer o f Porto Rico and the laborer o f the United States. In certain forms o f manufacturing which, however, are not o f great importance to the island the competition is more severe. There is a clear case o f competition between the products o f the cigar makers of Porto Rico and o f the cigar makers of the continent of America, to the disadvantage, on the whole, o f the latter. The cigars manufac tured by the Porto Ricans are for the American market, and the transference o f factories from the United States to Porto Rico or the starting o f factories in Porto Rico for the American trade con stitutes naturally a direct competition between the cigar makers of the two countries. In the smaller manufacturing industries there is also competition between the labor of the two countries based on a competition between the products. A number of small trades formerly existing in Porto Rico have suffered considerably from the competition with the United States, and seem doomed to disappearance. The carpenters of Porto Rico formerly manufactured tables and other articles o f furniture. They manufactured them by processes elsewhere obsolete, and the products were both crude and expensive. The free introduction of articles made with dearer labor, but by more advanced and finished methods has largely destroyed the Porto Rican industry. The same is true to a considerable extent o f other smaller trades. The manu facture o f hats and o f shoes, and the work o f blacksmiths, etc., have suffered in this manner. This competition, with its ruinous effect on the primitive industries o f Porto Rico, existed before the American invasion, but the conditions have been accentuated and aggravated since that event. What has occurred is similar to the development o f these industries in alh parts of the world where direct competition with the factory has destroyed the former manufacture under crude LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 775 hand methods. In these industries there has been a growing inability to secure work, a reduction in the earning power o f the workmen, a practical destruction of a slowly acquired efficiency, and a limitation o f the work o f the men who formerly manufactured to the mere do ing o f repair work. W A G E S AN D SAYIN G. 'I he amount o f saving among the workmen of Porto Rico may be practically disregarded. In the first place, wages are too low to admit o f any extensive saving. With the wages prevailing, espe cially in the coffee districts, it is more wise to spend than to save. In some parts o f the island in recent years the earnings of the family have not been sufficient to maintain the workingman in a state o f industrial efficiency. The best investment of the meager earnings of the workman in these districts is in food and drink, and anything like saving would be unwise and almost criminal, if it were not impossible. In the sugar districts on the coast it might be possible to save small sums o f money, but under present conditions the habit of the Porto Rican o f not saving seems perfectly justified in view o f the narrow margin between wages and the cost o f mere subsistence. Even i f wages were higher, it is doubtful whether for many years to come there would be any extensive saving. The cost of maintain ing the working population in a state of industrial efficiency, not to say o f establishing a reasonable or high standard o f living, is so far above the normal rate of wages existing in the island that it may be said, broadly, that the need of the workingman is not saving but spending upon articles o f consumption that will benefit him. The expenditure o f the meager earnings of the workman, however, is often extremely injudicious. While, as has been before stated, there is no large expenditure o f money for spirituous liquors, and but little drunkenness, an unduly large part o f the earnings of the workman in many parts o f the island goes to a wasteful form of expenditure, namely, gambling. Even if there were a possibility of saving, there are at present no adequate facilities for taking care of the earnings o f the working man. While a few savings banks exist in some of the towns, their clients are not primarily the working classes, and in the country no facilities whatever are to be found for investing or safeguarding earnings which are saved. In occasional instances where the work ingmen do acquire a small sum in advance, the custom appears to be to leave it with the foreman of the plantation until some feast day, when it is drawn out and expended. 776 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. PR IC E S AN D T H E COST OF L IV IN G . The cost o f living of the Porto Rican workingman can not be given in statistical form. It was found impossible to secure family budgets o f any sort or description. Even the more intelligent o f the Porto Rican workingmen do not keep anything faintly resembling household accounts. Expenditure in practically all cases exactly balances income. The great mass of the working class—certainly not less than 99 per cent— consume every month the earnings for that month. It can be said with approximate, i f not exact, truth that the work ing classes o f Porto Rico do not save at all. There is no cold weather for which preparation in the form of saving must be made, and there are no extraordinary expenses which must be met. According to the opinion o f the ordinary peon, there is nothing to save for. The expenditure is very largely concentrated upon food. The expenditure for housing, except in the large cities, is comparatively small, and in the country districts it may be practically disregarded. The expenditure for clothing forms only an inconsiderable element in the cost o f living o f the country peon. No fuel is required for heating, and the cost o f fuel for cooking does not constitute a con siderable element in the budget. There are no expenditures for direct taxes. The amount of money devoted to the maintenance of religious, charitable, and other societies may be entirely disregarded. No money is expended on books, since the great mass o f the popula tion are illiterate; and even newspapers, which cost only 1 or 2 cents, are not bought to any extent by the rural population. The expenditure, therefore, is practically narrowed down to a wasteful spending for gambling and an economical spending for food and drink. The impoverishing effect o f gambling among the Porto Ricans has perhaps been somewhat exaggerated. The gambling spirit is rampant, and the Porto Rican peon is, in the great majority of cases, an ardent gambler. Formerly a large part o f this gambling took place about the cockpits, and although cockfighting is now contrary to law and has been largely banished from the cities, the practice still prevails, more or less surreptitiously, in the country districts. So widespread is the spirit of gambling that it may almost be said to take the place which in other countries is taken by saving. The Porto Rican gambles with what he saves from his food and eats what remains after gambling. It is, of course, impossible to gauge with any measure o f accuracy the extent o f this expenditure for gambling, but from personal observation and from the testimony of many capa ble observers gambling in some degree is almost universal. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 777 A disproportionately large fraction of the small earnings o f the Porto Rican workingman goes to food and drink. The latter item is not very important. The Porto Rican is singularly temperate and his consumption o f alcoholic beverages is small. While the juice of the sugar cane, in the form of a drink called “ guarapo,” and also rum are drunk, the quantities consumed do not appear to be very great. It is extremely unusual to see a drunken Porto Rican upon the streets or highways, and during this investigation only one native was seen who was obviously under the influence of liquor. When one compares the drinking of the Porto Rican with that o f the Mex ican the temperance of the former appears extraordinary. This holds equally true when the temperance of the Porto Rican is com pared with that o f the Englishman, the German, or the American. The selection o f foods by the Porto Rican is determined greatly by relative cheapness. The peon attempts instinctively to satisfy his physiological needs by such articles, native and foreign, as will give the elements required at the least possible cost. The warmer climate probably necessitates a smaller consumption of food. It seems prob able that the earnings of the majority of the workers throughout the coffee districts during the last few years have amounted to consider ably less than $100 per year per family. With such a restricted income the greatest amount of economy is essential in order to secure sufficient nutritive food. A large proportion of the food consumed by the poor of Porto Rico is o f foreign origin. The place ordinarily taken by meat in the diet o f the European workingman is in Porto Rico very largely occu pied by dry, salt codfish. This codfish, which is one o f the principal articles o f import, is obtained from Nova Scotia, and is consumed every day in small quantities by the great mass o f the Porto Rican population. Rice, which is consumed in large quantities, is imported from the United States; probably most of the beans consumed are o f Porto Rican growth. The bread in Porto Rico is made from American flour. It can therefore be stated that a considerable por tion o f the articles entering into the daily consumption of a Porto Rican workingman comes from foreign countries. This dependence upon foreign countries for many of the chief articles o f food, which at first appears striking in view o f the fact that the island is essentially agricultural, is to be explained by the nature o f its agriculture. The Porto Ricans are principally engaged in the raising o f money crops, such as sugar, coffee, and tobacco. The condition o f the island as regards both the raising o f money crops and the indebtedness o f the planters to merchants demanding money payments is not unlike that of the Southern cotton-raising States, especially before the civil war, when these States drew upon the West for huge quantities of corn, although they themselves were 778 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. capable o f raising it. The declaration o f free trade between, the United States and Porto Rico renders the leading articles imported for consumption comparatively cheap in the island. The articles entering into the usual Porto Rican diet differ largely in the city and in the country and differ also as between the coast and the highlands. In the cities the diet seems to be made up chiefly o f dried, salt codfish, beans of various sorts, rice, bread, etc. Milk is scarce and is seldom used. Butter, which is imported principally from Denmark and sells for 30 cents a half pound, is far beyond the reach o f the Porto Rican workingman. Bread, which is made from American flour, retails for about 5 cents a pound and forms a large part of the diet of the workingman. Beans and rice are used in especially large quantities and are cooked together with the codfish, making a not unsavory mess. Coffee is in very general use, and the lower grades o f sugar are also consumed. Bananas and plantains are consumed in large quantities, although not nearly to the same extent as in the country districts. Sweet potatoes, which are rather large and coarse, are used, as is also the yautia, a tuber not unlike the potato, but with a rather sweetish taste not usually appreciated by the nonresident. Peas are eaten, and a number of other vegetables also, though in limited quantities. The principal fruit eaten is a small banana called the “ guineo ” and sometimes “ lady finger.” Mangoes are also eaten in many parts o f the island. Oranges and pineapples, although cheap, do not appear to be largely consumed by the working classes, the banana being far cheaper than either o f these. Yams are also eaten in considerable quantities. The consumption of meat seems to be quite small. The cattle are lean, and in killing and preparing the flesh is stripped o f every ounce o f outside fat. The meat is eaten very shortly after the animal is killed, since in the absence o f refrigerating facilities it would spoil within two or three days. As a consequence the beef is stringy and tough and, to Americans, unpalatable. The native Porto Ricans o f the wealthier classes eat large quantities o f meat, apparently more than the character o f the climate and the nature of their work would warrant. To the poor workingman, however, meat is a rare luxury, so that it may be stated broadly that in Porto Rico the eating o f meat is a distinct sign of a higher social position and greater wealth and is the hall-mark of economic superiority. In the very small stores, which the working people patronize, articles o f food are sold in very small quantities and not by weight or measure, but by the cent’s worth. In order to ascertain accu rately the prices paid in the case o f such purchases, all the articles o f food purchased by a workingman in the market in Ponce during a period o f eight days were weighed and a careful record kept o f LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 779 weight and price. The average prices paid per pound on these purchases are shown in the following table: AV E R AG E P R ICE S OF FOOD IN T H E M A RK ET IN PONCE AS PUR CH A SE D IN SM ALL Q U A N TITIE S B Y TH E W ORKINGM AN, JUNE, 1905. A rticle. Aguacate (alligator p ea rs).... .............. A p ia __________ ______________________ Bananas (s m a ll)..................................... Beans, re d ........................... ..................... Beans, strin g...................... .................... B e e f........................................................... B read......................................................... C aim itos.................................. ................ Carrots__ ____ _________ ___ __________ Cheese_____ ____ ________ ____ ________ C hickens................................................... C odfish...................................................... C o ffe e __________ ______ _____________ C orn................... ....................... ................ Corn, ea r................................................... Corn, g r e e n .............................................. C u c u m b e r s............................................ E g g p la n t................. ................................. E ggs (m a rk e t)......................................... G a r lic ....................................................... G u m b o .......................... ............................ Habas ................. ..................................... H a m .......................................................... Cost per pound. $0,084 .024 .084 .060 .082 .101 .064 .017 .084 .320 .194 .082 .160 .019 .018 .017 .028 .025 o.l92 o.240 .107 .055 .052 .160 A rticle. H e rb s........................................................ M afafas.................................................... M a m e y .................................................... M utton ................................ .................... M utton c h o p s.......................................... Onions . .........- ..................... .........- ........ P a lm illa ........... ...................................... Papaya, g r e e n .______________________ Pineapple....... ......................................... P lan tain ...........- ...................................... Potatoes, sw eet....................................... Potatoes, w h ite....................................... R ice ___________ ____ ________________ Spinach....... ............................................. Sugar, b r o w n ......................................... Sweet peppers______________________ T allote...................................................... T om atoes............ ..................... ...... ........ V erm icelli....... ........................................ W atercress . ........................... ................ Y a m s ....... .............. ................................. Yautia, y e l l o w _____________________ Yautia, w h ite_______________________ Y u c c a .............. ............. - ____ _________ Cost per pound. $0,014 .005 .007 .116 .150 .069 .042 .011 .021 .018 .012 .020 .040 .021 .060 .036 .010 .042 .160 .086 .080 .023 .019 .009 a P er dozen. In the country districts the imported articles are somewhat more expensive and are used to a less extent. On the other hand, the native products here form a larger part o f the dietary o f the peasant. To an almost unbelievable extent the masses o f the rural population, especially in the mountainous districts, live on the banana. The banana is probably the most economical plant in the world, and in proportion to the land and labor required for its production gives the largest amount o f nutriment. With a little knowledge of the proper method of cultivating their land the Porto Ricans could live very much better without increased cost. An acre or two, or even the half acre around the peon’s hut, which in many instances he is permitted to cultivate, would provide him with an amount of food of a varied character sufficient to round out his diet. A t the present time corn is not consumed by the inhabit ants to any considerable extent, and what is raised in the island has an unusually small ear and is hard and not liked. It is used almost entirely for feeding animals and not as food for persons. It would be quite possible to cultivate com in large sections o f the country, and a great number of vegetables could be raised in the neighborhood o f the homes o f the peons. What is needed more than anything else is to teach the natives the elements of agriculture. Without an impe tus from the outside they will continue indefinitely to cultivate their patches in the present wasteful and unproductive way instead of 780 BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OP LABOR. improving their diet list and general condition by the raising o f other food products. The situation with respect to the dietary o f the Porto Eican may be summed up in the words o f Dr. Azel Ames in his report on labor conditions in Porto Eico, published by the Department o f Labor in its Bulletin o f May, 1901. He says: The food list of the rural wageworkers in Porto Eico is probably poorer than that of any equal body o f people under so enlightened a government and located so near to the great granary and provi sion supply o f the world. It barely includes the essential components to meet the physiological demands o f the human system; but it is often interesting to observe how these demands will assert themselves and the individual seek food o f a kind which, not especially liked, attractive, or cheap, he buys in response to the craving and claims o f his physiological requirements. Practically all observers have agreed that the diet o f the Porto Eican peasant is insufficient. It has been demonstrated, says Dr. Francisco del Yalle Atiles, in his book on E l Campesino Puer.torriquenor that in the Tropics the people naturally prefer a simple diet, and can depend for their alimentation more largely upon vegetable foods than would be possible in the temperate zone. There is, how ever, no doubt in his mind that the jibaro (rustic) is ill fed. His food consists chiefly o f rice, plantains, codfish, to some extent corn, to a slight extent milk, and a few native vegetables and fruits. His bread is almost invariably prepared badly, and meat is seldom eaten. As a result o f defective alimentation, the general health o f the pop ulation is extremely poor. Dr. del Yalle Atiles goes in detail into the physiological and pathological consequences o f the lack o f nour ishment o f the Porto Eican peasant, and intimates that the industrial efficiency o f the Porto Eican workman is materially and disadvanta geous^ affected by this lack o f nourishment.^) The cost o f clothing in Porto Eico is very slight. Prices range about the same as in the United States, or perhaps a trifle higher, but the needs o f the working people are extremely simple. The ab sence o f cold precludes the use of overcoats and usually o f coats and vests, and renders the wearing of outer or inner woolen garments not only useless but inadvisable. The well-to-do classes in the Porto Eican cities dress largely as they do in towns o f the same size in the United States, though in lighter fabrics, and the skilled workmen also dress well though cheaply. The chief material used is cotton, which is imported from the United States and sold for a price slightly above that paid here. The prevailing color is white. Shoes and socks are almost universally worn by the skilled and even by many o f the un skilled workers in the cities, as are also coats and straw hats. a Francisco del Valle Atiles. El Campesino Puertorriquefio. San Juan, 1889. LABOB CONDITIONS IN POKTO BICO. 781 The great mass o f the unskilled workers, however, dress with the utmost cheapness. This is especially true in the country districts, where the chief and often exclusive articles o f apparel are a cotton shirt and a pair o f cotton-duck trousers. As a rule no under-garment is worn and no coats are used, while shoes and socks are very unusual. Even where shoes are worn, socks are usually absent. There appears to be o f late a considerable increase in the number o f shoes used, and the time appears to be approaching when the possession and use o f this article o f apparel will become the mark of decency. This has already come to pass in the cities. The children even in the poorest districts o f the cities hesitate to go to school unless they have shoes. In the country districts, however, this is not yet the case, and shoes for men and women, as for boys and girls, are the exception. Even where used their possession is considered a luxury rather than a comfort. It is not unusual to see a peon trudging along a dusty road carrying under his arm his precious pair o f shoes, not to be put on until he has reached the outskirts of the town. The shoes are largely o f American manufacture and o f the cheapest grades, al though a considerable number of shoes are made by hand on the island. In many parts o f the island, especially in the sugar districts and in the cities and towns, the habit o f wearing an outer cotton coat is becoming more general. This is, however, still unusual, especially in the country districts and among the poorer classes o f workingmen. The wardrobe o f the poorer classes o f Porto Ricans is as limited in extent as in variety. While the skilled workingmen as a rule possess several changes o f garments, many of the unskilled workmen appear to own nothing but a week-day suit o f shirt and trousers and a somewhat more elaborate Sunday suit. Many o f them even dispense with the latter. A large section o f the .more unskilled workers live in the one suit o f shirt and trousers day and night until it literally falls to pieces. The suits appear to last for a shorter time in the rain and heat o f Porto Rico than they would in a drier and more temperate climate, and the numerous stores dealing in cotton duck appear to do a thriving business. The hats o f the poorer classes o f the workmen o f Porto Rico are made o f the cheaper forms o f straw or palm leaf. They are inex pensive and lasting. W H O L E S A L E AN D R E T A IL PRICES. In the following tables wholesale prices in Porto Rico are given 'tor a series o f articles, and an attempt has also been made to show wholesale prices in former years. A comparison of these former wholesale prices with present wholesale prices is difficult, owing to 782 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. the fact that not only has the currency changed, but the method o f making sales. Formerly goods were sold to a larger extent on long credit than at the present time. The former system o f selling goods to the planter contemplated paying for them either three or four months after the delivery o f the goods, or upon the 31st of January, or at the close o f the coffee season; but present wholesale prices are either upon thirty days’ credit or for cash. Prior to the establish ment o f the gold standard, moreover, the value of the Porto Rican dol lar or peso fluctuated violently, as is shown by the table on page 726. The following table shows the wholesale cash prices in American currency in June, 1905: W HOLESALE CASH PRICES OF COMMODITIES, JUNE, 1905. Article. Baking powder.......................................... Beef, jerked (itasajo) ................................. Beer, Bohemia........................................... Beer, P abst................................................ Candles, paraffin........................................ Candles, tallow.......................................... Cement, Portland, Dragon...................... Codfish, superior....................................... Cooking pots, cast-iron (1, 2, and 5 gal.) Crackers, p ilot........................................... Crackers, soda, Harris.............................. Epsom salts............................................... Flour, Perfecta.......................................... Garlic.......................................................... Grindstones................................................ Ham. ordinary........................................... Herring, smoked........................................ H ops............................................................ Iron, galvanized, corrugated American. Iron, galvanized, corrugated E nglish... Iron, galvanized, plain English............... Kerosene, Diamante................................. Kerosene, ordinary.................................... Lard, Unica................................................ Lard, Unica................................................ Lard, Unica................................................ Lard, Vencedora........................................ Lard, Volcan.............................................. Macaroni..................................................... Matches, safety.......................................... Oil, olive, Conradi..................................... Oil, olive, Conradi..................................... Peas............................................................. Pork, salt, short cuts, in brine................ Potatoes, Irish........................................... Rice, broken............................................... Rice, good quality..................................... Rice, Japanese, white................................ Rice, Japanese, yellow.............................. Rice, large grain........................................ R ope............................................................ Salt, native, rock....................................... Sausage, Competitor................................. Soap, blue, Fairbanks............................... Soap, blue, Fairbanks............................... Soap, Fairy................................................ Soap, Rocamora........................................ Sugar, granulated...................................... Sugar, native, first class........................... Sugar, native, second class....................... <*In cases of 20 one-pound packages. » In packages of one pound each. e In tierces. d in cases of 4 to 10 cans. Country of production. United States___ Argentina........... Umted States... United States. . . United States___ United States___ United States___ Nova S cotia... Germany......... . United States___ United States. . . Germany............. United States. . . Spain................... United S tates___ United States___ United States___ United S tates___ United S tates___ England.......... England.............. Umted States___ United States. . . United States___ United States___ United States___ United States___ United States___ Porto R ico........... Porto R ico........... Spain..................... Spain..................... United States___ United S tates___ United States___ United States___ United States___ United States___ United States___ United States___ United States___ Porto R ico........... United States___ United States___ United States___ United States___ Spain..................... United States___ Porto R ico........... Porto R ico........... Unit of quantity. 100lbs. («). 100 lbs........ Barrel........ Barrel....... 100 lbs....... 100 lbs....... Barrel....... 100 lbs....... 100 lbs........ B o x ........... B o x ........... 100 lbs........ Bunch (100 bulbs) 100 lbs................... 100 lbs................... B ox (6 to 8 lb s .).. 100 lbs. (i>)....... 100 lbs.............. 100 lb s.............. 100 lbs.............. Case (10 gal.). . Case (10 gal.). . 100 lbs. ( e ) ....... Case ( d ) ........... Case ( « ) ........... 100 lbs. ( c ) ....... 100 lbs. (c )....... 100 lbs.............. Case (1,440 boxes). B ox(801bs.net)(/) Box(80 lbs. net) ( o ) 100 lbs................... Barrel (200 lbs.) .. 100 lbs................... 100 lbs................... 100 lbs................... 100 lbs................... 100 lbs................... 100 lbs................... 100 lbs................... 100 lbs................... 100 lbs................... Case (100 lbs. net) Case (50 lbs. n e t ). Case (100 cakes) .. Case (100 lbs. net) 100 lbs................... 100 lb s................... 100 lbs................... < In cases of 20 cans. / In cases of 4 cans each. 9 In cases of 8 cans each. Price. 16.75 9.00 9.00 13.00 7.50 14.00 2.75 7.50 4.50 .85 .90 3.50 5.90 .30 2.00 9.00 .18 25.00 3.75 5.00 4.75 2.10 1.40 8.50 8.75 9.00 5.80 6.00 4.40 5.70 12.00 12.25 2.50 14.50 2.25 2.75 3.00 3.50 3.25 3.25 10.00 .45 11.50 4.30 2.15 4.00 4.90 6.75 4.40 4.25 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 783 In April, 1893, the following were the wholesale prices in provin cial currency (about 70 per cent of American currency), with eight months’ credit: American flour, $8.25 to $8.75 per barrel. Rice, $4.75 per quintal. (The higher grade o f rice ; at that time low-grade rice similar to the cheaper American grades was not im ported.) Spanish soap, $0.05f per pound. Oil, Spanish, $0,111 per pound. Codfish, $7.25 to $7.50 per 100 pounds. Lard, common, $0.16 per pound (now $0.07). Salt, $0,621 per 100 pounds. Native sugar, muscovado, $0,041 per pound. Habana cigarettes, $3.25 per 1,000. Porto Rican cigarettes, $1.75 to $2 per 1,000. Potatoes, $3 per 100 pounds. Macaroni, Spanish, $0,081 per pound. Ham, American, $0.23 per pound. Rice, Japanese, $0,051 per pound. Onions, $0,051 per pound. Kerosene, $0.30 per gallon. Sardines, Spanish, $0.85 per dozen tins. Sausage, German, fancy, $0.40 per pound. Pork, American, $0.16 per pound. Chick peas, $0,061 per pound. Candles, $0.16 per pound. In December, 1894, the wholesale prices in provincial currency (worth about 65 per cent of American currency) were as follows: Codfish, $O.07f per pound. Rice, $0,047 per pound. Onions, $0.03 per pound. Sugar, $0.04 per pound. Pork, $0,181 per pound. Potatoes, $0.04 per pound. Kerosene oil, refined, $0.45 per gallon. Macaroni, $0.10 per pound. American flour, $11.50 per sack. Potatoes, $3.75 per 100 pounds. In November, 1897, the following wholesale prices prevailed in the seacoast towns o f Porto Rico. These prices are in provincial cur rency, which at that time was worth about 60 per cent of American money. The prices are also credit prices, and involved on the average the payment about six months subsequent to the delivery of the goods, Wheat flour, $14.25 per barrel. Cuban cigarettes, 270 for $1. Baking powder from the United States, $0,121 per pound. • Hams from the United States, $0,181 per pound. Rice, $0.0485 per pound. Pork, $0.14 per pound, in quantities less than a barrel. Pork, $0.13 per pound, in barrels o f 200 pounds. 276—No. 61—06 M----- 5 784 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, Codfish, $0.06£ cents per pound. Rice, Spanish, $0.05£ per pound. Lard, pure, American, $0.14 per pound. American sausage, $0.36 per pound. Sugar, muscovado, $0.03£ per pound. Galvanized iron, English, $0.06 per pound. Spanish wine, $0.65 per gallon. Spanish candles, $0.16i per pound. Olive oil, Spanish, $13 a case o f 100 pounds. Onions, $0.05 per pound. The retail prices of various commodities in several Porto Rican towns in 1905 are given in the following table: R E T A IL PRICES OF COMMODITIES, 1905. Retail price in— Article. Unit. Adjuntas, Carolina, Ponce, Estab. Aguirre, Estab. Estab. No. 1 Estab. No. 4 No. 3 No. 2 (May (Jan. to (Jan. to (May). and May). May). June). San Ponce, Ponce, Juan, Estab. Estab. Estab. No. 5 No. 6 No. 7 (Jan. (Jan. (Jan. to to to Apr.). A pr.). Mar.). FOOD. Apples, evaporated, fancy Pound......... Baking powder, R oyal___ Pound......... Bananas (guineos), small. 5................... $0.01 .08 Bananas (mafafas), large, 100............... coarse, for cooking. Beans,canned, kidney,red. 2 lb. can___ Beans, dry, lima, Califor Pound......... nia. $0.07 Beans, dry, white and red, Pound......... American. .02* $0.06 fl.04- .05 Beans, dry, white and red, Pound......... Porto Rican. Beef, canned, corned, Lib- 1 lb. can___ bey’ s. Beef, canned, dried, Ar 1 lb. can. . . . mour’s. Beef, canned, dried, Lib- * lb. can___ * bey’s. .25 Beef, canned, Irish stew, 1 lb. can___ American. Beef, canned, roast, Ar 1 lb. can___ mour’ s best. Beef, dried ( t a s a j o ), Ar Pound......... .09 gentina. Beef, fresh, ribs................. Pound......... Beef, fresh, sirloin steak... Pound......... Beets, canned, best........... 2* lb. can __ Butter, creamery, fresh, Pound......... Armour’s. Carrots, canned, second 2 lb. can___ grade. Cheese, American.............. Pound......... .20 Chickens, roasters............. Pound......... Coffee, first grade, green, Pound......... Porto Rican. Coffee, good, green, Porto Pound......... .15 Rican. Coffee, second grade, Pound......... green, Porto Rican. Com, canned, American. . 1 lb. can___ .10 t o . 15 Com, canned, best............ 2 lb. can___ 2 lb. c a n .. . . Com, canned, medium___ Com meal, white or yellow 3* lb s........... fancy. .10 Crackers, soda, American . Pound......... Crackers, soda, Zephyr, 1 Pound......... 2*-lb. lot. a Price, January and February, 1905. b 40 cents in January and March and 45 cents in February, 1905. c 15 cents in January, 16 cents in February, and 17 cents in March, 1905. d 13 cents in January, 14 cents in February, and 15 cents in March, 1905. $0.15 .50 .15 .10 .15 .30 .15 .15 .20 .24 .18 &.43* .12 .22 .25 c.16 d . 14 .15 .12 .15 .12 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO, 785 R E T A IL PRICES OF COMMODITIES, 1905—Continued. Retail price in AdjunSan Ponce, Juan, tas, Carolina, Ponce, Ponce, Estab. Estab. Estab. Estab. Estab. Estab. Aguirre, 6 No. 7 No. 4 No. 5 No. No. 1 Estab. No. 3 (Jan. No. 2 (May to (Jan. to (Jan. (Jan. (May). (Jan. to to and May). May). Apr.). to Apr.). Mar.). June). Article. Unit. Crackers, Uneeda biscu it . Thinks, dressed................. Fish,canned, salmon, best . Fish, canned, salmon, sec ond grade. Fish, canned, sardines, American, good. Fish, canned, sardines, American, in oil. Fish, salt, cod, best.......... Fish, saltj cod, American, first grade. Fish, salt, cod, American, second grade. Fish,salt,cod,Nova Scotia Fish, salt, mackerel, silver back. Flour, Hecker’s, sold in 7 lb. lots. Flour, Pillsbury’s best, sold in 25 lb. sacks. Flour, X X X X best, Amer ican. Flour, X X X X , Minnesota Garlic, Spanish.................. Lard. American ............................ Lard, compound, Ameri can. Lard, silver leaf, sold in 5 lb. pails. Lard, silver leaf, sold in 10 lb. pails. Macaroni, vermicelli, or spaghetti. Macaroni, vermicelli, or spaghetti, Porto Rican. Milk, condensed, Eagle brand. Milk, condensed, Eagle brand, sold in 1 doz. can lots. Mutton, fresh .................................. Olive oil, American ................... Olive oil, French, best, sold by the qt. Onions, American ...................... Onions, Spanish ........................... Peaches, evaporated, fancy, in bulk. Pork, bacon, in glass......... Pork, fresh, loins............... Pork, ham, canned, sliced, Armour’s. Pork, “ ham” (shoulders), sugar cured, American. Pork, salt, American......... Pork, salt, American, best Potatoes, Irish, American Prunes, evaporated, sec ond grade. Raisins, fa n c y ............................... Rice, American, first grade. Rice, American, second grade. Rice, American, third grade. Rice, fancy .......................................... Salt, fine white table Salt, small rock, Porto Rican. Sausage, Bologna ....................... Sausage, canned, Vienna.. Sausage, p ork ................................. Package. . . . Pound".____ 1 lb. can___ 1 lh. Ofl.n __ $0.06 .25 .20 .12 f lb. can___ .15 £ lh. nan___ .08 Pound......... Pound......... a .09 Pound......... Pound......... Fish ..................... .12 a $0.10 $0.08 .08 .15 Pound _ __ .05 Pound ............... .04} Pound Pound 100.......................... Pound ............... Pound ............... .04 ($0.03} to .08 .07 .40 .08 \ ................. / Pound......... .14 Pound......... .13} .10 Pound ............... Pound......... .08 1 lb. Qfl-n .08 .14 .12} 1 lb. can .23 3.25 3.40 Pound ............... Gallon......... Gallon ............... Pound ............... Pound . Pound......... .08 .04 .07 .18 .30 .22 .25 1 lb. ja r....... Pound......... 1 lb. can___ .11 P o u n d........... Pound ............... Pound ............... Pound ............... Pound ............... .08 .03} Pound ............... Pound ............... .04 6 .04 .03 5.03 .08 .12 Pound ............... Pound ............... Pound......... 1 lb. can Pound ............... <*Price from January to May, 1905. .25 6.02} .02} .06 .12 Pound ............... 5 lb s ..................... 3 lb s ..................... .03 .02 .17 .15 .is 5 Price January to April, 1905. 786 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, R E T A IL PRICES OF COMMODITIES, 1905—Continued. Retail price in- Article. Unit. Succotash, canned, best. . . 2 lb. can___ Sugar, brown, Porto Ri Pound......... can. Pound......... Sugar, second grade, Pound......... Porto Rican. Sugar, w h it ft ; r,nbfvn ...... Pound......... Tea, English' breakfast... Pound......... Tomatoes, canned, stand 3 lb. can___ ard. Tongue, canned, Libbey’s . 1 lb. can___ Tripe, canned, American... 1 lb. can___ Pound......... Vinegar, cider, Monarch... Gallon......... Ad jun San Ponce, Ponce, Juan, tas, Carolina, Ponce, Estab. Estab. Estab. Estab; Estab. Estab. Aguirre, 6 7 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. No. 1 Estab. No. 2 (Jan. No. (Jan. (Jan. to (Jan. to (Jan. (May to to (May). May). to and May). Apr.). A pr.). M ar.). June). $0.15 $0.05 $0.04* $0.07 a . 07 .07 .09 .65 .12 .35 .18 .25 .26 CLOTHS AND CLOTHING. Calico, American, best___ Calico, American, cheap grade. Cotton duck, American, best. Cotton duck, American, cheap grade. Cotton thread, Clark’s, 150 yard spool. Ginghams, A. F. C., Amer ican. Ginghams, Everett, Amer ican. Lawns, National, Ameri can. Shirtings, 27 in., American Shirtings, white, Fruit of the Loom, American. Shirtings, white, Ameriican, cheap grade. Shoes, men’s, American__ Shoes, men’s, American, best. Shoes, men’s, American, cheap grade. Shoes, women’s, Ameri can. Shoes, women’s, Ameri can, best. Shoes, women’s, Ameri can, cheap grade. Socks, men’s, American, best. Socks, men’s, American, cheap grade. Stockings, women’s, American, best. Stockings, women’s, American, cheap grade. Blanket____ Y ard ........... Y ard ........... .40 t o . 50 $0.11 .05 Y ard ........... .20 Y a rd ........... .10 Spool........... .04 Y a rd ........... .10 Y ard ........... .08 Y ard ........... .05 Y ard ........... Y ard ........... .05 .10 Y ard ........... Pair............. Pair............. .05 (*0 3.00 Pair............. Pair............. 1.25 (c) Pair............. Pair............. Pair............. Pair............. 1 *'* ' 1__ 3.00 1 ............I.......... ! 1.25 .25 .10 Pair............. .25 Pair............. .10 FUEL AND LIGHTING. i Kerosene oil, Aladdin, S. Gallon......... O. Co., sold in 5 gal. cans. .05 Kerosene oil, American, Liter (<*).... red, inferior grade. | /.04 Kerosene oil, American, Cuartillo (e) second grade. .06 Kerosene oil, American, Liter ( d ) ___ white, good. .24 Kerosene oil, S. O. Co., Gallon......... first grade. i a 6£ cents in January. 7 cents in February, and 7£ cents in March, 1905. &From $1 to $4. Greater demand lor the $1.50 grade. c From $0.50 to $2.50. Greater demand for the $1.25 to $1.50 grades. d Liter equals 1.0567 quarts. e Cuartilfo equals $ gallon. f Price in April and May, 1905. 0.23 787 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO, R E T A IL PRICES OF COMMODITIES, 1905—Concluded. Retail price in— Adjuntas, Carolina, Ponce, Estab. Aguirre, Estab. Estab. No. 4 No. 1 Estab. No. 0 No. 2 (Jan. to (Jan. to (May (May). and May). May). June). Article. Unit. Kerosene oil, S. 0 . Co., second grade. Kerosene oil, S. 0 . Co., third grade. Gallon......... $0.22 Gallon......... .20 San Ponce, Ponce, Estab. Estab. Juan, Estab. No. 6 No. 5 No. 7 (Jan. (Jan. (Jan. to to to Apr.). Apr.). Mar.). METALS AND IMPLEMENTS. Nails, wire, American....... Plows, No! 4, Hall's pat ent. $0.05 30.00 Pound......... P low ............ LUMBER AND BUILDING M ATERIAL. $25.00 34.00 Spruce, boards, Canadian. M f t ............. White pine, boards, Amer M f t ............. ican. Yellow pine, boards and F o o t............ plank, American. .03 FURNITURE AND UTEN SILS. Coflee pots, tin and enam eled, American. Dippers, enameled, Englisn, pints. Sewing machines, hand, Singer (cash). Sewing machines, hand, Singer (installment). Sewing machines, Singer No. 28,1 drawer (cash). Sewing machines, Singer No. 28, 1 drawer (in stallment) . 1 coffee pot 1 dipper____ .30t o . 35 .18 $20.70 1 machine... 1 machine... 24.30 1 machine 30.60 1 machine... 39.60 MISCELLANEOUS. Soap, Babbitt's Best. Soap, Fairbanks’ Blue Cloud, American. Soap, Ivory, large size___ Soap, Spanish, long bars.. Soap, washing, American. Soap, toilet, scented or unscented, American, best. Soap, toilet, scented or unscented, American, cheap grade. Starch, American.............. Cake............ Pound......... Cake............ Pound......... Pound......... Cake............ .06 .10 .06 .25 .05 Cake............ Pound......... $0.05 $0.06 .05 !............ 788 BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. Retail prices of a series of commodities in the city of Ponce during the years 1898 to 1905, inclusive, are given in the following table. The prices are in American currency throughout the entire period. R E T A IL PRICES OP COMMODITIES IN PONCE, 1898 TO 1905. Price during— Article. Unit. 1898 (Sept. to Dec.). 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905 (Jan. to A pr.). $0.10 °$0.10£ $0.11 .04 ft .04§ .05 c.23| .30 .20 .12 d.lO f .10 $0.11 .05 .20 .10 $0.11 .05 .20 .10 $0.11 .05 .20 .10 $0.11 .05 .20 .10 1899. 1900. CLOTHS AND CLOTHING. Calico, American, best............ Calico, American, cheap grade Cotton duck, American, nest. Cotton duck, American, cheap grade. Cotton thread, Clark’s 150-yd. spool. Ginghams, A. F. C., American. Ginghams, Everett, American Lawns, National, American.. Shirtings, 27 in., American. . . Shirtings, white, Fruit»of the Loom, American. Shirtings, white, American, cheap grade. Shoes, men’s, American, best. Shoes, men’s, American, cheap grade. Shoes, women’s, American, best. Shoes, women’s, American, cheap grade. Socks, men’s, American, best. Socks, men’s, American, cheap grade. Stockings, women’s, Ameri can, best. Stockings, women’s, Ameri can, cheap grade. Y ard ........... $0.10 .04 Y ard ........... .30 Yard........... .12 Y ard ........... Spool........... .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 Y ard........... Y ard ........... Y ard........... Y ard........... Y ard........... .10 .08 .06 «.07 .12 .10 .08 .06 .07 .12 .10 .08 .06 /.0 6 f d . lOf .10 .08 .06 .06 .10 .10 .08 .06 .06 .10 .10 .08 .06 .06 .10 .10 .08 .05 .055 .10 .10 .08 .05 .05 .10 .04 .05 Y ard........... .04 .05 .05 .05 .05 .05 Pair............. Pair............. 3.50 1.50 3.50 0 3.16§ 1.50 ft 1.33$ 3.00 1.25 3.00 1.25 3.00 1.25 3.00 1.25 3.00 1.25 Pair............. 3.50 3.50 0 3.16§ 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 Pair............. 1.50 1.50 ft 1.33| Pair............. Pair............. .50 .15 .50 .15 Pair............. .50 .50 Pair............. .15 .15 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 33J /.11§ .25 .10 .25 .10 .25 .10 .25 .10 .25 .10 33$ .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .10 .10 .10 .10 .10 20.70 i . *. i.lll FURNITURE AND UTENSILS. Sewing machines, hand, Singer (cash). Sewing machines, hand, Singer (installment). Sewing machines, Singer No. 28.1 drawer (cash). Sewing machines, Smger No. 28.1 drawer (installment). 1 machine... 20.70 20.70 1 machine... 24.30 24.30 24.30 1 machine... 30.60 30.60 30.60 1 machine... 39.60 39.60 39.60 MISCELLANEOUS. Soap, toilet, scented or un scented, American, best. Soap, toilet, scented or un scented, American, cheap grade. Cake............ .30 .30 ft.26§ .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 Cake............ .06 .06 *.05* .05 .05 .05 .05 .05 Plows, No. 4, Hall’ s patent... lp lo w ......... «24.00 24.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 METALS AND IMPLEMENTS. 26.00 Price changed from 10 to 11 cents in May. 5 Price changed from 4 to 5 cents in May. c Price changed from 30 to 20 cents in May, import duty reduced, d Price changed from 12 to 10 cents in May, import duty reduced. « April to December. /P rice changed from 7 to 6 cents in May, import duty reduced. 0 Price changed from $3.50 to $3.00 in May, import duty reduced, ft Price changed from $1.50 to $1.25 ip May, import duty reduced. 1 Price changed from 50 to 25 cents in May, import duty reduced. /P rice changed from 15 to 10 cents in May, import-duty reduced, ft Price changed from 30 to 25 cents in May, import duty reduced. I Price changed from 6 to 5 cents in May, import duty reduced. a LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 789 HOUSING CONDITIONS. The housing conditions in the rural districts of Porto Kico are extremely primitive. There is no necessity for the house to be warmed, since the temperature, except in the higher altitudes, is never sufficiently low to cause discomfort. The houses of the major ity of rural workers are merely a framework of poles, covered with the bark of palm trees and with dried leaves, and thatched with palm leaves or a tough grass which is found all over the island. These houses are sometimes built on the ground, but more frequently they have a board floor made of palm. This floor is raised from the ground so as to permit the rain water to flow under the house, and often the house is built on a slight incline. The house invariably is one story in height, and usually consists of one large room, vary ing from about 10 to 20 feet square. This room, especially if it is large, is sometimes divided by a partition into two freely communi cating rooms. Even where there is a partition, there is, as a rule, no division of the sexes, since in such cases all the family live, and often work, in one of these rooms during the day and sleep in the other at night. The influence of these conditions upon the sexual impulses of adolescent children is not favorable. Despite their flimsy appearance these houses are fairly firm and have sufficiently resistant qualities for the ordinary purposes of shelter. In many parts of the island the houses are grouped in little clusters, but in other places they are isolated and found on every hilltop. The Porto Rican on the coast appears to be quite gregarious, and in this region one finds many hamlets throughout the entire territory. In the wider areas on the uplands the huts of the peons are scattered everywhere, and many are located in places difficult of access and are separated so far from one another that social intercourse, coordi nated labor, and the procuring of medical assistance are extremely difficult. During the hurricane of 1899 many of these huts upon the moun tain sides were swept away as though they were bits of wood, but for the ordinary contingencies of the climate they appear to do fairly well. There are usually a door and a window and sometimes a small communicating shed in the rear in which is done the family cooking. To the average agricultural worker, his house costs nothing. Many receive their huts free so long as they work, and in some cases they are permitted to cultivate a small plot of ground, sometimes free and at other times on shares. Where free huts are not granted the peon is usually permitted to construct a hut on the land of the proprietor, although this is becoming somewhat less general. Practically all the hut owners are squatters and few hold legal title to the lands they occupy. The land costs nothing and the hut is put up by the labor 790 BULLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB. of the peon. The materials also cost nothing, since the peon is usually allowed to cut down the trees which are necessary. Probably the entire cost of constructing a hut under these conditions is from $10 to $20 or $30 worth of labor, and, on the assumption of a rent of 20 per cent of the real value, the annual cost of the unfurnished house could not be estimated at more than $6 per year. The furnishing of the house is equally simple. A hammock is indispensable and there are as a rule a bench or two, a few pots or jars, but usually no chairs and no bed. The clothes are hung upon nails, and there is no such thing as a bureau or washstand. There are also no tables and no carpet or matting. The benches are often nothing but a solid log upon which the people sit. It may be stated as a rule that the cost of all the articles in an ordinary peon’s hut is not above $10. Practically the only decoration ever seen consists of the colored litho graphs of American advertisers, sometimes in Spanish, but usually in English. In one room visited the decoration consisted of 50 or 60 copies of a small colored lithograph issued by an American manu facturer of soap. One of the greatest advances which could be made in the standard of living of the Porto Rican workingman would be the improvement of his house and his clothing. It would be of great advantage to have the house made larger and with more rooms and it would be equally advantageous to have certain articles of household furniture. Some small progress has been made along these lines, but as yet the standard of living is extremely low. The Porto Rican, in so far as his house goes, lives as his ancestors did 300 years ago. In the cities the housing conditions are probably worse upon the whole than they are in the country. The inhabitants of the country have at least the advantage of fresh air. In view of the aversion of the average Porto Rican peon to currents of air, and especially the night air, the lack of completeness with which his house shuts out the air is perhaps a blessing in disguise. San Juan, with a population of 35,000, suffers from natural condi tions not dissimilar to those in New York. The city is built on a small island and its topographical limitations have in the past encour aged an excessive crowding. The great mass of the population live in close proximity to their work, with the consequence that the crowding is more intense than would otherwise be the case. The housing conditions in the worst section of San Juan are almost indescribably bad. While a considerable reform has been effected since the American occupation, especially in the matter of sanitation, the conditions even now are extremely evil, and in some respects worse than in the worst habitations in our American cities. In a number of houses, which were visited in the course of this investiga LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 791 tion, it was noticed that habitations which had originally been intended for two or three families had subsequently been converted into rude tenement houses. The available space was poorly utilized, the halls being wide, the buildings low, and much expensive ground partially wasted. Nevertheless, these houses, by reason of exorbitant rents, which have increased greatly during the last six or seven years, bring in as much as $200 or even $300 a month, and this money is usually sent to Spain, where as a rule the absentee landlord resides. It is not unusual for four, five, or six people to live in a single room. The custom is one family in a room, irrespective of the size of the family or of the room. Many of the rooms have uneven brick floors and whitewashed brick walls. Many of the rooms visited were extremely damp and very dark with no windows whatever, and no ventilation, except through the open door. The rooms of these houses open upon courts, which are often thronged with men, women, and children. Much of the washing, both for the family and out siders, is done in the courts. In many of the courts dogs and chickens are in evidence, and despite the efforts of the sanitary inspector to maintain a state of cleanliness, the courts are dirty and have a bad odor. In many houses in the poorer quarters there is insufficient watercloset accommodations, although in this respect the conditions have greatly improved since the American occupation. Some of the houses are crowded from roof to foundation; thus there can be no sufficient separation of the sexes, the most intimate of domestic relations being necessarily carried on in the view of the entire population of the room. While the population of these houses per square foot of area is very much less than in many a New York six-story tenement, and while the air space per inhabitant is often greater in the San Juan dwelling than in that of New York City, the housing conditions of the poorest people in Porto Rico appear to be almost, if not quite, as bad in respect to light, air, crowding, and sanitary conditions as the worst conditions in the city of New York. In many of the houses which are excessively crowded on the ground floor, the upper stories are far more habitable. In a number of cases a dozen families live on the ground floor, and a single family on the floor above. The higher floors are more aristocratic and bring higher rents. The conditions in this respect are similar to those of some of the continental cities. The mild climate of Porto Rico renders the overcrowding more bearable than it would be in an American city. Many of the people sleep in their houses but spend their waking hours outside. The rooms are often vacant while the streets and the open courts, or patios, are thronged. Some domestic operations are carried on in the rooms, but even more are done in the courts. While 792 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. most of the workingmen of San Juan wear shoes on the street, their wives and they themselves are barefooted or wear loose slip pers in the open courts and in their houses. As a result of improved sanitary inspection, the healthfulness of the houses in the cities has been increased. The obligation to put in water-closets and the establishment of an adequate system of sewers has led to the banishment of yellow fever and to the removal of con ditions which under Spanish times were almost intolerable. An important reform which has been instituted by the Americans has been the abolition of cisterns. These cisterns collected rain water and were sometimes made receptacles for refuse and garbage. The cisterns have been closed by an order of the local board of health. Rents in Porto Rico have risen even more rapidly than accommo dations have improved. The Porto Rican workingman, as well as the man of greater means, is now obliged to pay a higher rent in Amer ican money than he paid in 1898 in provincial money. A t the time of the change of the currency the same rents, or almost the same rents, were exacted in American money as were formerly obtained in provincial money, and since that time there has been an advance which has been variously estimated at from 10 to 25 per cent. In other words, the man who formerly paid $4 a month for his room in provincial money (valued at $2.40 gold) is now obliged to pay from $4.50 to $5 in American money. As far as the single item of house rent is concerned, the price in San Juan seems to have mounted more rapidly than wages. While further improvement may not improbably be anticipated in the housing conditions of San Juan and other Porto Rican cities, it is not to be anticipated that such progress will be rapid or easy. There is a tenacious opposition on the part of the landlords to any consider able improvement in the conditions, since improvements cost money. The landlords, residing as a rule in foreign countries, have no interest in their houses other than securing a high rent, and the tenants them selves, while dissatisfied with present conditions, are not clamqrous for any sanitary improvements that will involve more care or clean liness on their part. The topographical peculiarities of San Juan will tend to continue for some time the overcrowded conditions. An excellent line of trolley cars now runs from the city to the suburbs, but a 5-cent fare is a large element in the calculation of a worker earning only 50 or 75 cents a day. Therefore it will probably be some time before the poorer classes of the city population will be able to escape from their crowded quarters. LABOB CONDITIONS IN POBTO BICO. 793 SANITARY CONDITIONS. Porto Rico is naturally one of the most healthful of all countries in the torrid zone. “ Its whole contour is so interspersed with hill and dale, mountain stream, and playa that the copious rains which freshen the atmosphere every month in the year at the same time cleanse the surface of the earth from all impurities. ” (a) Y et at the time of the American occupation the sanitary conditions in Porto Rico were extremely bad. Nothing had been done to utilize the natural advan tages. The water supply was bad. Most of the country people drank the river water as it flowed in its natural channels, and many of these streams, according to the testimony of Dr. William Fawcett Smith, were used “ not only as public laundries, but as common sewers for the surrounding country. ” The wells in the cities and towns were not unusually found in the courtyards and quite frequently in close proximity to the cesspools. The cisterns from which 55,093 houses drew their water supply were polluted in this manner, as well as by the filth which accumulated on the roofs of the houses. Except in the cities of Ponce, San Juan, and Mayaguez, there were no waterworks or aqueducts in any of the towns, and even in these cities the water works were in extremely poor condition. Another cause leading to a considerable amount of sickness was the former customs observed in the burial of the dead. Owing to there being insufficient provision for the interment of the dead, the cemeteries were greatly crowded. Burials were conducted in an insanitary manner, and huge piles of human skulls and bones were heaped up in public view. The military government caused new cemeteries to be opened and gave to the municipalities the power to condemn land for this purpose. Branch cemeteries 'were established in remote districts, and acts were passed by the insular legislative assembly permitting free burial to the poor. As a consequence, con siderable improvement has been effected in this direction. Much of the disease, and especially the anemia, in Porto Rico is due to these insanitary conditions, which are an unwelcome heritage from Spanish administration. The unhealthy conditions are not confined to the cities alone, by reason of the fact that the conditions under which the rural population live are insanitary and that the isolated dwellings of the Porto Rican peasants do not encourage advanced sanitation. In 1899, at the time of the taking of the census, 54 per cent of all the dwellings in Porto Rico secured their drinking water from running streams, many of which were polluted by the disposition of excreta and other filth. Thirty-five per cent of the dwellings obtained their water a First Annual Report of the Governor of Porto Rico. Washington, 1901, pages 32 and 33. 794 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. from cisterns constructed for the collection of rain water, and which in many cases were the receptacles for garbage and refuse. Only 6 per cent of the dwellings, mostly in the cities of Ponce and Mayaguez, were supplied with water from aqueducts, while only 5 per cent of all houses secured their water from springs or wells. More serious even than the question of the source of the drinking water is that of the disposition of excreta in Porto Rican houses. In 1899,76 per cent of all the dwellings in Porto Rico had no form what ever of water-closet or privy. No provision at all was made for the dis position of excreta, the demands of nature being fulfilled in the fields or in the gardens near the houses. Of those dwellings which had any pro vision whatsoever for the disposition of excreta, constituting less than one-fourth of the whole number, 96.7 per cent had an extremely archaic method in the form of the so-called pozo. (a) Less than 1 per cent of all the dwellings could be said to have a water-closet or any other form of receptacle for excreta intended to destroy the foul odors. Only 1,181 out of a total of 158,305 dwellings had a water-closet or inodoro. This number has largely increased, however, since the American occupation.^) One of the most important of all the factors influencing the condi tion of the laboring classes of the island is the disease of anemia. This disease, which mainly attacks the poor of the island, more, per haps, than any other single factor, impairs the industrial efficiency of the great mass of Porto Rican laborers. It affects the vast majority of the inhabitants of the rural districts of Porto Rico and contributes seriously to the sickness, weakness, and poverty of the laboring population. This disease, which was formerly attributed solely to bad and insuffi cient food, to hardship, and to the unpropitious character of the cli mate, is now known to be caused by parasitic worms called “ uncinaria.” The worm, which is usually called the “ hook worm,” on account of its hook-like appearance, is about one-third of an inch in length and is developed through a larva from an ovum. This ovum, when deposited on the earth, is hatched out under favorable circum stances of heat, shade, and humidity in about twenty-four hours. The worm, however, is never hatched out within the body of man. As a consequence there can be fortunately no reproduction or multi plication of hook worms within the body, and the number of worms in an infected person can be increased only by reinfection. This worm, which is found in, probably, over one-half of the entire population of the island, attacks the red corpuscles of the blood. ®There is no exact English equivalent for the word pozo, which includes all receptacles for excreta, except those which are intended to diminish or entirely destroy foul odors rising from it. The nearest word in English would probably be privy. &Of the entire number of dwellings, almost 1 per cent are returned without any speci fication as to the method employed in connection with the disposing of excreta. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 795 Whether it enters the body by the mouth, or, as is more usual, through the skin, it makes its way to the intestines and attacks there the blood in the capillaries. The resulting disease is a profound anemia and a degeneration of the vital organs of the body, resulting in a chronic invalidism and frequently in death. This disease gives to the population, and especially the poorer or laboring population of the island, its specific appearance. According to the Report of the Commission for the Study and Treatment of Anemia in Porto Rico, less than 10 per cent of the rural inhabitants of the island are entirely free from this disease. Even in light cases, where only a few worms are present in the intestines, the color of the skin changes. In the case of whites there is, in such cases, often a slight pallor, and in mulattoes a pastiness of appearance. The appe tite becomes irregular, shortness of breath results, the muscles become flabby and weak, and chronic indisposition to work results. Severe headache, dizziness, and an occasional palpitation of the heart also mark the incipient stage of the disease. In the moderate cases of the disease, which may be said to be the prevailing type in Porto Rico, the effects are much more apparent. In these cases there is a con siderable pallor, the skin becomes dry, sweating insufficient and irregu lar, and the mucous membranes become pale. The appetite is exag gerated or perverted. There is nausea, vomiting, coating of the tongue, abdominal pains, breathlessness, palpitation of the heart, rapid and weak pulsation, pain in the chest, dizziness, weakness in the knees and legs, noises in the ear, and frequent headache. The patient becomes dull and depressed and loses all ambition. The muscles become flabby and weak, and the persons so affected find it extremely difficult to work. In marked cases the pallor is extreme, and all the symptoms of the moderate cases are frightfully exaggerated. The patient is extremely dull, anxious, and melancholy. The muscles are flabby, sore, and painful, and the weakness is such that work is entirely impossible. In children and young persons the disease retards both the mental and physical growth and delays puberty. The disease in mothers leads to frequent deaths from childbirth and results often in the birth of weak and rachitic children. The vast extent of this disease in Porto Rico is due to the ease with which the inhabitants, and especially the poor ones, are infected. The disease is carried entirely by the larva of the worm, which leaves the body in the feces, and enters it again either by ingestion through the mouth or by penetration of the skin. It was formerly supposed that infection by penetration of the skin was impossible, but it has now been well established by a series of experiments and observations that such infection is possible. In Porto Rico practically all of the infection appears to result in this way. The great majority of the sufferers are those who can not afford to wear shoes, and are not 796 BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OP LABOR. accustomed to them, and most of the cases occur during the rainy season when the ground is wet or damp and when acute exacerbations of the skin occur. An enormous number of persons contracted this dis ease during the period immediately following the cyclone, when thou sands were exposed to unusual privations. The peon attributes the anemia to dampness of the soil, and persons who ordinarily wear shoes frequently trace it to a time when they were, perhaps, paddling about on the banks of a stream while taking a bath. Since the vast majority of Porto Ricans suffering from anemia belong to the poorer classes, the proportion of persons affected is larger among the workers than in any other class. The disease is largely, if not entirely, rural, the infection being slight in the city. Poor food, insanitary conditions, an ill-balanced diet, the humidity of the climate, and a generally weak condition are, perhaps, all con tributing causes, in so far as they lessen the resisting power of the body. The most exposed of all laborers in the island are the coffee pickers and other workers on the coffee estates. These men, like most rural workers, labor barefooted and in the most heavily infected districts, principally in the rainy season, when all the conditions are propitious for infection. In the sugar plantations there is much less infection, but many sugar workers are infected in banana groves, and a large number of infections are contracted while washing clothes, which is usually done upon the banks of streams. Ajieinia, or, as it is called, uncinariasis, is preeminently “ a filth disease.” The infection of the soil by the evacuation of the bowels is indicative of the personal habits of the rural worker in Porto Rico. Almost all of the patients examined and cured by the anemia com mission were accustomed in their homes to deposit their feces in the open country, considerably over five-sixths of all persons examined having no privies whatever. It is impossible to exaggerate the effect of the habit of going about barefooted in Porto Rico, because nearly all the cases of anemia can be traced to this habit. Since the worms do not propagate within the body, their numbers tend to decrease through accident or natural death of the parasites when the patient is removed from the source of infection, as, for instance, when he goes to the city to live. In the rural districts of Porto Rico, however, the custom of going barefooted tends to reinfect patients continually. Persons who have once been cured of anemia contract the disease again. The disease, moreover, is one which requires cleanliness on the part of the patient, as well as of the whole community in which he lives. To escape reinfection, therefore, the habits of the people in defecation must be altered. Anemia in Porto Rico attacks persons of all ages. The greatest amount of sickness appears to occur between the ages of 10 and 30, but cases occur in infancy and in extreme old age. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 797 The economic importance of the disease can not be overestimated. While women, owing to their being less exposed, are somewhat less subject to it than are the men, and while full-blooded negroes appear to have a partial immunity from its worst forms, the disease is so widespread as to be considered practically universal. The statement of the anemia commission that 90 per cent of the rural population is more or less affected is, at best, an estimate, but there can be no doubt as to the widespread character of the infection. The disease accounts in large measure for the well-known indolence of many of the Porto Rican peasants and for their improvidence and thoughtlessness of the future. The feeling of hopelessness which the disease inspires is heightened in many cases by the isolation of the peon, and by the practical impos sibility of his being reached by medical aid. His weakness is increased by the poor character of his food, and the weakness arising from anemia tends to discourage any effort to earn more or to live better. The disease becomes such a curse, and has resulted in so large a percentage of all the deaths in the country th a t‘ ‘it is known by the jibaro as ‘la muerte natural’ (the natural death).” According to the commission, the number of deaths from anemia is even much larger than official reports indicate, and it goes so far as to state that ‘ ‘our own estimate of it is that it causes about 30 per cent of all deaths.” The commis sion concludes by saying: “ So, until a determined effort to educate, direct, coax, or compel the use of some form of latrine, and a general intelligent crusade is begun, in which the infected are treated, uncinariasis, or ‘ anemia/ as it is popularly known, will continue to reduce the white and mixed inhabitants form ing the country class o f the island to a lower and lower grade, mentally, morally, and physically, until the very existence o f the class will be threatened.” (a) The worst feature of anemia is not that it causes so large a number of deaths, but that it so thoroughly incapacitates the sufferer and so completely destroys the qualities necessary to industrial success. The disease of the father, even if not directly conveyed to the wife and children, as is usual and probable, affects them indirectly in the resulting incapacity and inefficiency of the principal breadwinner of the family. The disease thus extends both directly and through its indirect effects to ever-widening circles, and affects fundamentally and disastrously the welfare of the entire laboring population. The importance of the scourge of anemia has now become appar ent to all in Porto Rico. The complaint about the laziness of the working population becomes less reasonable when it is realized that this population is sick, and it is now recognized that to secure better and more efficient workmen the population must be cured of this enfeebling disease. “ In order to get better food, people have to 0 Report on Anemia in Porto Rico, p. 88. The italics are from the report. 798 BULLETIN OF TH E BUEEAU OF LABOE. work for it, and these people are not usually capable of such labor in their present condition.” (a) The first steps toward doing away with this scourge were taken in 1904, when the legislative assembly of Porto Rico passed a bill pro viding for an appropriation of $5,000 for the study and treatment of anemia. The commission appointed in conformity with this law consisted of Dr. Bailey K. Ashford, Dr. W. W. King, and Dr. Pedro Gutierrez Igaravidez. The treatment of patients was carried on in Bayamon and in Utuado, and was continued until August 5, 1904. During the present year the commission is continuing its work at Arbonito, having been enabled to do so by the appropriation of $15,000 by the Porto Rican Government. The method of treating the disease consists of the curing of existing cases and the preventing of the pollution of the soil. Every person harboring a parasite is a focus of infection, and it therefore becomes essential to cure all existing cases. The treatment consists of an expulsion of the worms by thymol or other drugs. The treatment usually takes about 5 or 6 weeks. To cure all existing cases, however, a much greater force will be required than that provided by the commission. The absence of satisfactory municipal hospitals and the poverty of the cities make this impossible; and to even approach the gigantic task of curing what is almost the entire rural population would require a national organization with a large number of able physicians in a number of centers scattered all over the island. So great is the desire of the sufferers from anemia to be cured that many of them walk to the place where they may be treated, dragging themselves slowly for 8 or 10 hours, leaving their homes one evening and arriving at the tempo rary hospital the next morning. The prevention of soil pollution is necessary to any permanent eradication of the disease. So long as the soil remains polluted with eggs and larvae no cures can be considered final. Any attempt at chemical disinfection of the soil is of course out of the question, and the only means of curing the people and thereby increasing the industrial efficiency of the great mass of rural workers is by teaching them habits of personal cleanliness with regard to the disposition of their feces. Some work of this nature, viz, in the direction of the con struction of water-closets of however primitive a nature, has already been attempted by the anemia commission with success, and many small villages now have numerous latrines, where two years before these were unknown. The" institution of latrines could be encour aged and the people could be taught habits of cleanliness in the dis position of their excreta, both at home and on the plantation, by talks to the people, by teaching cleanliness to the children in the a Report on Anemia in Porto Rico, p. 88. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 799 schools, by personal activity on the part of the owners of plantations, and by means of leaflets and pamphlets written in plain, simple lan guage, and describing how the disease is propagated. (a) Whether or not the time is yet ripe for a law compelling the building of latrines and making carelessness or uncleanliness in the disposition of excreta a misdemeanor is perhaps a question, but sooner or later the people must be induced or compelled to put an end to the dis ease by increasing their personal cleanliness. The effect upon the conditions of the laboring classes of Porto Rico of completely obliterating the disease of anemia would be almost incalculable. Many persons who are now too sick and weak to work would then be enabled to do so, and the industrial efficiency, as it is affected by the muscular strength, the nervous energy, the physical endurance, and the intelligent direction of work of the people would be vastly increased. An energetic movement with a view to the obliteration of the disease is probably the greatest single step which can be taken at the present time toward improving the industrial efficiency of the laboring classes of Porto Rico. EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES OF TH E PORTO RICAN WORKMAN. The industrial capacity of the Porto Rican workman is to a certain extent influenced by and reflected in his education. The system of public instruction during Spanish days was antiquated, and in many respects inefficient and insufficient. The general administration of the schools was in the hands of the provincial authorities, and just prior to the American invasion the administration was by a bureau of the department of the interior. The expenses of the administra tion were provided by the provincial budget, but the principal expenses— the lighting of the buildings, the remuneration of the teachers, and the cost of school supplies— were met by the impover ished municipalities. The schools were seldom in buildings used alone for educational purposes, but were to be found usually in rented rooms with inadequate space, light, and ventilation, and with insuffi cient furniture, school appliances, and supplies. The schools were poor in the cities and poorer in the rural districts. The children of the working classes seldom attended before the age of 8, and in many cases, owing to their inability to secure decent clothes, did not attend at all. The teachers were very poorly paid, and under the Spanish a Such a pamphlet has already been issued by the anemia commission, but the great majority of patients are, of course, unable to read it. The pamphlet is called La Anemia de Puerto Rico. Su causa y modos de evitarla. San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1905. This little pamphlet, containing about 1,200 words, is written in an extremely clear manner, and has been as widely distributed as the literacy of patients has permitted. 276—No. 61—06 M ----- 6 800 BULLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OP LABOK. system received fees from the children of well-to-do parents. Pupils from poor families were, therefore, often neglected entirely, in order that the teacher might give his whole attention to those who paid him for his services. It was believed that about 25,000 or 26,000 pupils were enrolled in the public and private schools of Porto Rico at the close of the period of Spanish dominion. Of these almost twothirds were boys. As a result of these conditions the percentage of illiteracy is very great. According to the census of 1860 only 51,259 persons, or less than 9 per cent, out of a total of 583,181, including children under 10 years of age, were literate. At the census of 1899 this condition had somewhat improved. In that year, of the population 10 years or over 22.7 per cent were literate. The extent of illiteracy is very much greater in the country than in the urban districts. The isolated situation of the Porto Rican peon renders his education difficult, and the care and attention given to rural schools has always been much less than that given in the cities. W e thus find that while the percentage of literates of the age of 10 or over was only 22.7 per cent for the whole island, and as low as 10 to 12 per cent in a number of country districts, the per centage was as high as 55.5 per cent in the city of Ponce, 61.3 per cent in the city of Mayaguez, and 63.7 per cent in San Juan. The literacy is less for the interior than for the coast districts, owing no doubt in large part to the greater concentration of popula tion in the latter regions. The percentage of literates of the age of 10 or over was 17.3 per cent for 29 inland districts and 20.5 per cent for 37 coast districts, the three containing large cities being excluded. This higher percentage of literacy in the coast districts prevails despite the fact that these coast districts have a 7.5 per cent higher percentage of colored persons than the interior, and these colored persons have a considerably higher percentage of illiteracy. Of every 1,000 whites of the age of 10 or over 271 were able to read, while of every 1,000 colored persons of the age of 10 or over only 156 could read. The illiteracy, therefore, of the whites on the uplands is much greater than the illiteracy of the negroes or of the mixed popu lation of the uplands and is much greater than the illiteracy of the same population on the coast. As in most other backward countries, the percentage of illiteracy was much greater among females than among males. Of every 1,000 Porto Rican females of the age of 10 or over only 199 could read, while of every 1,000 males of the same age 257 could read. The small foreign-born white population of Porto Rico was largely literate, 87.5 per cent of the foreign-bom whites of the age of 10 or over being able to read. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 801 Since the American occupation a very considerable advance has been made in the development of education. The number of schools has been increased, the organization has been bettered, the equip ment of the schools and the training of the teachers improved, and a more or less regular and reasonable system of promotion has taken the place of the former system of favoritism existing upon the island. Some of this advance was made by the military government, which improved the position of the teacher and the equipment of the school room, but the greater part has been achieved under the civil adminis tration of the island. This improvement was rendered possible by the devotion to the purposes of education of a large part of the round $2,000,000 con tributed by the American Government from duties collected upon Porto Rican products. B y the end of the first school year after the establishment of the civil administration in Porto Rico the number of schools upon the island had increased to 800, as compared with 500 in Spanish times. For the maintenance of these schools an annual expenditure of $500,000 was necessary. By the next year 1,000 schools, necessitating the annual expenditure of $600,000, were in operation, and 1,200 schools, involving an annual expenditure of $700,000, were in operation at the beginning of the school year 1903-4. Under present fiscal arrangements, the maximum expendi ture for schools appears to have been reached. The result of this increased expenditure of money and of this improvement in the organization of the system has been reflected in an increased attendance. There were in operation on June 30, 1904, 1,113 common schools and 51 special schools. In common schools were included all graded and rural schools, and by special schools were meant high schools, industrial schools, night schools, agri cultural schools, and kindergartens. The number of teachers employed in the common schools during the year 1904 was 1,204, of whom 743 were males and 461 were females; 1,075 were whites and 129 were colored. While the colored population formed 38.2 per cent of the entire population of the island, the enrollment of colored pupils was only 25.9 per cent of the entire enrollment. There were 61 teachers employed in the special schools, making a total of 1,265 teachers in all the schools, of whom 139 were Americans. Of these latter, 47, or approximately a third, were men. The enrollment of pupils in all the schools, including both common and special schools, and including reenrollments or duplicates, was 63,556; of these, 47,089 were whites, and 16,467 were colored. The number of boys exceeded the number of girls, 37,394 pupils being males and 26,162 being females. The total number of different pupils actually enrolled, deducting duplicates, was 61,168. The average daily attendance of these schools during the year was 802 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. 41,798, the average enrollment per school was 58, and the average attendance 38. The school year consisted of 35 weeks of 5 days each, making a total, excluding legal holidays, of 170 days. Upon the basis of an increase of population since 1899, at the same annual rate as the increase from 1883 to 1899, the population of Porto Rico on June 30, 1904, according to the estimate of the Com missioner of Education, was 1,012,775, and the total school popula tion between the ages of 5 and 18 was 393,786. Upon this basis the entire number of pupils enrolled in the public schools was only 6.3 per cent of the entire estimated population and only 16.1 per cent of the entire estimated school population, while the daily attendance was only 4.1 per cent of the entire population and 10.6 per cent of the estimated school population. This number must be increased b y the number of children enrolled in the private schools of the island, but as the total number of pupils so enrolled amounted to only 4,841, the inclusion of these pupils does not seriously affect the result. The children enrolled in private schools formed only 0.5 per cent of the estimated total population in 1904 and only 1.2 per cent of the estimated school population for that year. It may thus be seen that only 6.8 per cent of the entire estimated population and only 17.4 per cent of the entire estimated school population was enrolled in the public and private schools, while the percentage of attendance for both amounted probably to about 4.4 per cent and 11.3 per cent respectively. In other words, only a trifle over onesixth of all the children between the ages of 5 and 18 were enrolled in any school, either public or private, common or special, in the island of Porto Rico, while the average attendance was equivalent to a regular attendance of only one-ninth of the boys and girls of the island during the year 1904. (a) It may be seen from the above summary that, while great improve ment has been made in the school system over the conditions that prevailed prior to the American occupation, very much still remains to be done. Even at the present time only 1 boy or girl out of 6 is enrolled in school. Most of the pupils are to be found in the less advanced classes. The great majority, especially in the rural schools, leave after one, two, or three years, and the percentage of pupils in the sixth, seventh, and eighth years is, therefore, ex tremely small. One of the main causes of this early leaving of a The salaries of the teachers are fixed by law, and during the year 1904-5 were as fol lows: For rural teachers, $30 and $25 per month; for graded teachers and teachers of English, $50 and $45 per month, and for principal teachers, $75 and $70 per month. To these were added allowances for house rent, which for rural teachers were never less than $3 nor more than $8 per month, and for graded, principal, and special teachers were never less than $10 and never more than $15 a month. There is provision made, however, for the hiring of special teachers by special contract. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 803 the school is the widespread poverty, and the desire and necessity of the parents to avail themselves of the services and the earnings of their children. But even if all the children were able to attend, it would not be possible for them to do so, since the seating capacity of the schools is still inadequate to even the present needs of the popu lation. It is essential to the industrial advance of Porto Rico that the children be accorded ah education. While the advance made since the American invasion has been very rapid as compared with the progress in Spanish times, it has not been sufficient to meet the neces sities of the case. Unless the rate at which schools are opened and equipped is rapidly increased it will be many years before the majority of the inhabitants of Porto Rico are able even to read and write. The problem of educating the people in at least the rudi ments of learning is facilitated by the density of the population in the greater part of the island, by the smallness of the area, by the universality of the dominant Spanish language, and by the common origin and traditions of the population. On the other hand, the educational problem is rendered more difficult by the wide disper sion of the inhabitants of the mountainous districts, and by the separation and difference in ideals and ideas between the population to be taught and of the Americans who dominate the school system. At the present moment there appears to be a marked lessening of the rate at which school facilities are being extended to the Porto Rican population, and especially to the large number of laborers in the island. This has resulted partly from the exhaustion of the special fund of about $2,000,000, which had been set aside for the purposes of public improvement and of education. The revenues of the country have not in the past been sufficient to defray the ordinary expenses of the Government plus the considerable expenditures for public works and education, and the rate at which the revenue has increased has by no means been sufficient to make up for the exhaus tion of the special fund. The expenditures for education consti tute a very large percentage of the gross revenues of the island, and it is claimed that this percentage can not be increased without increasing the revenues, and further that the increase in revenue must be made up not from increased taxation but from an insular loan. On the other hand, if any great number of the boys and girls of Porto Rico are to receive even a rudimentary education, it will be essential that the appropriations be largely increased. A former commissioner of education (°) declared, in 1904, that in addition to the outlay of $700,000 a year, there would be necessary an addi tional appropriation of from $1,000,000 to $3,000,000 a year, even o Dr. Samuel McCune Lindsay. See Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1904, page 34. 804 BULLETIN OF TH E BUKEAU OF LABOR. with the most economical administration, to insure the education of the children. This money, it was recognized, could not be obtained b y increased taxation, but must be secured in the form of a public loan. In the discussion of the laboring conditions in Porto Rico it is as essential to understand the currents of opinion as to realize the economic and political conditions which form their basis. The reproduction of such opinions is of course more difficult and more liable to error than is the statement of facts which may be capable of statistical or other demonstration. It is important to know that in certain sections an opinion is making itself felt that the education of the Porto Rican workingman is not essential, or even important. It is argued that it is the destiny of the island to be exploited, as it has been in the past, by outside capitalists, and that the condition to be foreseen is that of a large, densely-settled, lowgrade, unskilled, ignorant, native population without real self gov ernment. It is argued also that, given a population doomed to ordinary unskilled agricultural labor, it is unwise and even impossible to educate the children. It is claimed that two or three years of instruction in reading and writing will not have an appreciable permanent effect upon the children, who immediately go back to work in the cane field or on the tobacco plantation, and that under such circumstances it is impossible to educate the great mass of the people or to improve permanently their intellectual condition. If the future of the Porto Rican workman is to be a peon, what, it is asked, will be the benefit to him of any education, let alone that of an advanced education? While this opinion is held by a considerable number of people, it can not as yet be stated to be the dominant or prevailing opinion. It is held, however, by many people, who view Porto Rico as a field for exploitation without regard to the interests of the native population, and who are perfectly satisfied that the peon be uneducated so long as he fulfills the primary qualification of being a cheap laborer. It is claimed by these people that the demand for education is at present merely the desire of the unskilled workers to escape from their usual occupations and secure clerical positions in the Government service or elsewhere, and that with the filling up of these positions the demand for education will diminish. The attitude of the Govern ment, however, appears to be one of a strong desire to educate the native population, both in the ordinary school courses and in indus trial training. There has been a considerable extension of industrial training in the island, and a number of industrial schools with some specialization along trade lines have been started. Besides public schools, there are a number of free schools founded by charitable societies. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 805 Despite the limited extent to which they have as yet been applied, the changes in educational methods and the increased educational opportunities afforded by the American occupation have already begun to affect the attitude of the entire laboring population. There is an avid desire on the part of large sections of the population for education, a desire at once inspiring and pathetic. Little rural schools, housed in small buildings, as well as the more pretentious schools in the cities, attract children in great numbers, and the spell ing book and the reader are found in huts and thatches which do not suggest the idea of education. During the course of this investiga tion there were met many illiterate men whose children were going to school, acquiring there a knowledge of reading and writing Spanish, as well as a smattering of English. The opportunity to educate his children is regarded as an enormous boon to the average worker, whether urban or rural, since it seems to open to them a gate which has been closed to him. ATTITU DE OF EMPLOYERS TO EMPLOYEES. In the island of Porto Rico, as in other Latin-American countries, the laborer is not held in high esteem. The feudal traditions which the Spanish adventurers and conquerors brought with them in the sixteenth century; the enslavement of the Indians, and the subse quent introduction of negro slavery; the preponderance from the first of unskilled over skilled labor; the absence of a strong middle class, together with the dearth of cities, all tended to create and deepen a chasm between the people who held the estates and the peons who worked upon them. The conditions prevailing in Porto Rico until the abolition of slavery in 1873 and even, to a less extent, up to and beyond the American invasion were those of a more or less benevolent and more or less responsible despotism. The people of Porto Rico were the large landowners, and the great mass of field workers were not so much as counted. The wealth, education, refinement, leisure, and all that wealth and leisure bring, were the property of a single class and of the children and grandchildren of that class. There was little opportunity for individuals from the lowest or peon class to rise to a higher level. Even at the present time the condition of the Porto Rican peon is but little changed. His work is unskilled, he is easily replaced, and there is no monopoly value attached to his labor. Between this illiterate, though not necessarily unintelligent peon, working bare legged in his only suit of cotton shirt and trousers, living with a large family in a leaky one-roomed hut, earning an average of 50 cents for each day that he works, on the one hand and his employer, a man of property and education, on the other hand, there is nothing in com 806 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. mon. There are no steps of gradation by which the one class could merge into or approach the other. The invasion of Porto Rico by the Americans and the infusion of American ideals into the life of the people have led to some slight change in the attitude of the people toward work and toward the worker. The sons of rich plantation owners are becoming more willing to enter lucrative careers, though the professions are still unduly pre ferred over agriculture and business. The Americans have, more over, tended to strengthen somewhat the position of the workingman b y giving him a vote, by defining his position before the law, and by recognizing to a less extent than did the Spanish the difference between the employer and employed. Nevertheless, even at the present moment it is quite clear that the social and economic position of the Porto Rican worker is low, that he is held in small esteem, that there is a contempt for his work (a contempt not even disguised by conventional phrases), and finally that the economic power and the political influence of the workingman are extremely small. To a considerable extent the former relationship between employer and employee was conventional rather than contractual, being upon the basis of a patriarchal and more or less benevolent despotism on the part of the employer rather than a free relation entered into by a contract between approximately equal parties. Wages were fixed largely by custom and were fairly uniform in any given district for the same industry. These wages, moreover, were only partly in money, being supplemented by the grant of free lodging and often by other gifts or grants. This condition exists to a greater or less extent in the island at the present time, although within recent years, and especially since the agricultural strikes, the patriarchal attitude of employer to working man is giving way and is being displaced b y a very different attitude based on a more purely contractual relation. The attitude of the employer at the present time is to secure labor as cheaply as possible and of the workingman to obtain all the wages which he can possibly secure. It is still customary, however, to permit or encourage agricul tural laborers to live in huts or shacks upon the employer’s land. A part of the wages are paid in kind, and usually the plantation owners consider themselves more or less in the relation of masters rather than employers, a state of feeling which, perhaps, prevails to a greater extent among the Porto Rican than among the American employers who have gone into the country. Many American plantation owners have contributed to a slight extent to the welfare of their employees, giving them somewhat better huts, and securing for them at times a better supply of water. One American plantation owner regularly has two policemen present when paying off in order to prevent his men from immediately losing their wages to professional gamblers. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 807 There is still an attitude of surprise on the part of the landowners when strikes occur on their plantations. The strike is regarded not as a desire to contract collectively, not as a justifiable or even legal attempt to alter the conditions of employment, but rather as a breach of trust, and as a manifestation of ingratitude on the part of the beneficiaries of the employer’s favor. The lax conditions prevailing in agriculture are also to be found surviving in industrial concerns. As a rule the high speed of the American workingman does not prevail in the factories or the shops of Porto Rico. Old men are retained in employment even when their efficiency is considerably impaired. In a number of establishments wages tend to remain fixed, and in some concerns the workingman continues to be paid, even when sick for a few days. Except in a very few concerns there is no rigid or exact calculation of labor and other manufacturing costs, such as prevails in factories in the United States. LABOR ORGANIZATIONS. The history of the working population of Porto Rico has been such as to render it very difficult to organize it into labor unions. So long as slavery existed it was manifestly impossible to build up an organization of the workingmen of the island, and even after the abolition of this institution the rigor of the law prevented any considerable labor movement from coming into existence. The character and traditions of the population make labor organization difficult even now. The great mass of the workingmen belong to the unskilled class, which even in countries like England and the United States it has been found difficult to organize. In Porto Rico these difficulties have been even greater. To the unskilled nature of the work, and therefore to the ease with which striking workers could be replaced, were added the additional difficulties of the extreme poverty of the peons. To a peon earning a maximum of 50 cents a day the payment of even moderate dues to a labor organization involves a great sacrifice. A union composed of extremely poor members can not be stronger than the material out of which it is composed permits, and the worker’s very need of protection makes it more difficult to protect him. Moreover, the lack of education, and to a certain extent of intel ligence, among the workers of Porto Rico tends to accentuate the difficulties of organization. Being unable to read or write, the major ity of workers can not be reached by means of pamphlets or printed material of any sort, and owing to the cost of travel they are unacquainted with their fellow workingmen in other parts of the island. They are also unaccustomed to form unions, and are unfa miliar with the methods in which unions of workingmen can best be carried on. 808 BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR. A final difficulty in the way of the creation of trade unions was the opposition of the former Government of the island. During Spanish times formation of trade unions was of, at least, doubtful legality, and any organized effort to effect this was looked upon as a plot or conspiracy to increase wages, and was declared illegal. When in the early part of 1902 an organizer of the American Federation of Labor, Mr. Santiago Iglesias, attempted to organize unions in the island and to affiliate them with similar organizations in the United States he was arrested, together with seven other labor leaders, and was tried by the San Juan district court for “ plotting to alter the price of labor” and, together with his associates, was convicted. The sentence of Santiago Iglesias was for four years and three months, and that of each of the other labor leaders was for four months. The court also declared the Federacion Libre, or Free Federation, the Porto Rican branch of the American Federation of Labor, illegal, and ordered it to be closed within twenty-four hours. The decision called forth many protests, especially from labor organizations, both in the United States and Porto Rico. The decision was subsequently reversed b y the supreme court of Porto Rico. The following extract from the annual message of Governor Hunt to the insular legislative assembly discusses the sentence imposed upon the labor leaders, and summarizes the attitude of the Amer ican administration toward the organization of labor: The time seems ripe for the introduction of many changes in the present laws. The full benefits of American system can only be realized through legislation sweeping away un-American principles and substituting American. A recent conviction under the present penal code has brought into prominence several old laws. The man was convicted o f the violation of the laws of “ Plots to alter the price .of things.” The English translation of the Spanish Code provides that “ those who wrongfully combine to enhance or lower the price of labor or regulate its conditions wrongfully, provided such combination has begun to be carried into effect, shall be pun ished with the penalty of arresto mayor. This penalty shall be imposed in its maximum degree on the leaders and promoters of the combination, and on those who shall employ violence or threats to insure its success, unless they deserve a higher penalty by reason thereof.” It is said that this English translation is not correct, but should read “ those who conspire to enhance or lower the price of labor or regulate its conditions abusively ” etc. Whether the trans lation is quite correct or not there is a difference of opinion as to the scope of the law, one construction being that any combination to raise or lower the price of labor or regulate its conditions, even if only calculated to disturb market prices, is criminal, while the.other view is that a combination becomes penal only when accompanied by an attempt on the part of those who combine to prevent others than themselves from working. It seems certain that as long as the law stands as it is ambiguities as to its intent will exist, and judges in the conscientious performance of judicial duty may pro LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 809 nounce judgments which are harsh and incompatible with American statutes. The remedy lies with the lawmakers. There is no room for lawlessness in Porto Rico, but the right to organize to secure better wages by peaceable measures is perfectly lawful and con sistent with good government. Ambition to better one’s condition is intensely American, and oftentimes only gratified through organ ized effort; and where the purpose of an organization is merely to increase the profit of labor, or dignify its worth through peaceful ways, a law which is susceptible of a construction forbidding the execution of such purpose is unworthy of an American government and should be abrogated. According to the revised statutes and codes of Porto Rico labor combinations are not in themselves unlawful. Section 553 of the revised statutes says: “ The orderly and peaceable assembling or cooperation of persons employed in any calling, trade, or handicraft for the purpose of obtaining an advance in the rate of wages or com pensation, or of maintaining such rate, shall not be unlawful, nor shall it be unlawful for such persons to organize trade or labor assemblies or unions for the purpose of bettering the mental and material condition of the members thereof by lawful peaceable means.” It is, moreover, made unlawful by section 465 of the penal code to compel a workman to enter into an agreement not to join a union as a condition of employment. The trade unions of Porto Rico are organized on a basis similar to that in the United States. The “ Federacidn Libre de los Trabajadores de Puerto Rico,” or, as it will henceforth be called, the “ Federation” or the “ Porto Rican Federation,” is the central organization in Porto Rico. It has as its object the uniting of workmen of all classes and of all branches of manufacturing pro duction, of arts and trades, of useful and liberal professions, of agriculture, and the workmen and day laborers generally, as well as proletarian employees of the State, and all others who in the opinion of the workmen deserve to belong to the Federation. This Federation, according to its constitution, recognizes that only by organizing the workmen of the island into unions and then combining their forces will it be possible to obtain naturally and rapidly their economic and social emancipation and destroy forever the ignor ance, the slavery of low wages, the tyranny of employers, the usury, the corruption, the unjust and inhuman laws, and the other evils which they consider as obstacles to the endeavors of the working man. (a) a The statement of these objects, as well as of the means by which they are to be attained, is taken from the constitution of the Porto Rican Federation. The endeavor has been made, as far as possible, to give a free translation of the constitution and rules which are founded more or less obviously upon similar constitutions of trade unions in the United States. The reader is referred to “ Reglamento de la Federacidn Libre de los Trabajadores de Puerto Rico,” included in the pamphlet Federacidn Libre de los Trabajadores de Puerto Rico. Su programa, leyes y cooperativas. San Juan, P. R,, 1903. 810 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR. The Federation endeavors to form a reserve fund in every union in order to struggle successfully for the legal objects of the Federa tion, said objects being to secure from the capitalists the best possible conditions with respect to the remuneration of labor as well as the best treatment of the workingman in the factories, to regulate the hours of labor until such time as the working-day shall not exceed eight hours in all forms of work, and to create and sustain common fraternal centers in all towns of the island for the purpose of exchang ing ideas and impressions. The Federation also has the object of raising the moral and intellectual level of the present and of future generations of workingmen by securing from the State and munici palities sufficient aid, including night schools, to enable the work ingmen and their children to acquire the elemental knowledge which will serve as a basis of their intellectual development. The Federa tion also desires to establish cooperation, solidarity, and mutual help, and to install workshops belonging to the Federation as a means of improving the material conditions of the workingman. It is the object of the Federation, following the policy of the American Federation of Labor, to unite all workingmen not included in a special trade union in the so-called federal or general unions, called in Porto Rico “ Oficios Varios.” The direction and administration of the Porto Rican Federation is in charge of a central committee of delegates of all the unions. The delegates are nominated or elected every six months in the general meetings in all parts of the island. The administrative body of the organization is divided into sec tions, one of which takes charge of the internal organization of the Federation, another of “ Instruction and Fine Arts,” another of finan cial arrangements, and another of propaganda and troubles arising between labor and capital. These sections or committees do not decide finally but refer all matters for adjustment to the central com mittee, whose actions are subject to the final decision of the assembly o f all affiliated unions. The central committee is responsible to the general assembly. Every union composing the Federation is declared to be autonomous in so far as matters pertaining to that union or to its members are concerned. The constitution provides that there shall be elected by every union a directing council, which shall have charge of the administra tion and direction of the material and moral interests of the organiza tion. Eacn such union shall have its constitution, defining the duties of its officials and the contributions and duties of its members. These constitutions shall be submitted to the approval of the unions in general congress, in the same manner as the constitu tion of the Federation is submitted to its membership. Each of LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 811 these autonomous unions is supposed to defend and improve the conditions of labor in the particular trade to which its members belong, and to perform the duties and carry out the purposes common to trade unions in general. Each union shall meet at least once each month. When any union requires the assistance of the other unions affiliated with the Federation, it shall petition the central committee of the organization to convoke immediately a general assembly of the unions, with the purpose that this assembly take action in the interest of the petitioning union. Where the decision is adverse to it, the petitioning union reserves its liberty of action in reference to the question or controversy in which it is engaged. It is provided that each union shall maintain a reserve fund to* relieve the distress of its members in the event of contests, as well as for the creation of the spirit of solidarity among all of the unions. The constitution of the Federation defines exactly the powers and duties of the treasurer, the secretary, and the central committee. These powers and duties are not dissimilar from those usually attached to the offices in question. The constitution also provides for periodical meetings of the unions and of the Federation, and provides for the question of extraordinary expenses, and for the right of appeal to the central committee, and for other questions which may arise among the unions. The constitution of the Federation was discussed by the assembly of unions in San Juan in November, 1898, and was certified to by the insular government of Porto Rico on August 24, 1900. The Federation is formed upon a basis in many respects similar to that of the American Federation of Labor. Like the latter, it is a federation of unions which are autonomous, and it is directed by a general assembly elected by the unions composing it. The ultimate source of authority in the Federation, as in the American Federation of Labor, is thus the unions themselves, and, according to the theory of government, the entire policy of the organization is directed, not b y a central body, but by the several unions, with powers of selfgovernment for themselves, and jointly controlling the central body. There is, however, one point of difference between the Federation and the American Federation of Labor. The latter organization arose as a result of a joint action of unions already existing, whereas in Porto Rico the Federation was created at the same time, or before, the unions which were to form its component parts. In other words, the development in Porto Rico may be said to have begun with the Federation instead of, as in the United States, with the various unions desiring to form a federation. In Porto Rico there are seven general districts for the unions, cor responding to the seven governmental districts. The organizations in the island are of three classes— the local unions, comprising the 812 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. members of a single trade in a single locality; the central unions, corresponding on a small scale to our national organizations, including the local unions of a given trade in the entire island; and, finally, the Federacion Libre, comprising the central unions of all trades in the entire island. In March, 1905, there were 123 unions in Porto Rico affiliated with the Federation, and through it with the American Federation of Labor. Sixteen of these unions were in Bayamon, 10 being in San Juan, 1 in Manati, 1 in Vega Baja, 3 in Carolina, and 1 in Rio Grande; 20 were in the department of Ponce, 15 being in the city of Ponce, 1 in Penuelas, 2 in Juana Diaz, 1 in Santa Isabel, and 1 in Yauco; 11 were in the department of Mayaguez, 10 being in Mayaguez proper and 1 in San German; 34 were in the department of Arecibo, 28 in Arecibo proper, and 6 in Utuado. In the department of Guayama there were 18,8 being in the city of Guayama, 3 in Arroyo, 3 in Salinas, 1 in Caguas, and 3 in San Lorenzo. There were 8 in the department of Aguadilla; of which number 5 were in Aguadilla itself, 1 in Aguada, 1 in San Sebastian, and 1 in Lares. There were finally 16 in the depart ment of Humacao, of which 2 were in Humacao, 7 in Yabucoa, 1 in Fajardo, 3 in Patillas, and 3 in Maunabo. These unions include organizations of carpenters, tobacco workers, cooks, women workers, masons, day laborers, bakers, sailors, bricklayers, coachmen, black smiths, coopers, tailors, cutters, dock workers, shoemakers, barbers, agricultural laborers, coffee sorters, painters, etc., as well as miscel laneous unions composed of workmen of various trades, and compar able with the federal unions of the United States. The Federacion Libre issues a monthly journal, published in Spanish and English, called the “ Porto Rico Workingmen’s Journal.” The union of carpenters and joiners in Porto Rico is affiliated with the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners in the United States, which is in turn affiliated with the American Federation of Labor. The constitution of the Porto Rican union is printed in Spanish and in English. It has 86 members, has an initiation fee of $5, and monthly dues fluctuating between 30 cents and 40 cents. The membership of the union consists of regular members, between the ages of 21 and 50, half members ol the age of 50 or upwards, and apprentices between the ages of 18 and 21. The regular members earn $1.50 and $1.75 per day. The older men earn from 75 cents to $1.25 per day. Some of the members are paid by the piece and some by the day or week. Frequently members are paid fortnightly, and sometimes, though very seldom, by the month. Payment to union members is always made in American money. It is claimed by the union that on plantations in various parts of the island, carpenters are given chips of wood, metal checks, or pieces of pasteboard, which LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 813 are redeemable in merchandise at the plantation stores; but no such payment is ever made in San Juan or to members of the local organi zations. No deductions are made from payments, and there are no bonuses or extra payments. The wages now paid are $1.50 to $1.75 per day, American money. The work day at the present time fluctu ates between 8 and 10 hours. In the Government shops the working day is 8 hours. During the last five years there have been two strikes. One of these took place for a reduction in the hours of work, and another occurred in consequence of the change in the currency. (a) The Porto Rican local of the International Typographical Union was formed at the close of 1901, as a result of the work of the organizer of the American Federation of Labor, Mr. Santiago Iglesias. There was a preliminary meeting held on December 26, 1901, at which the principles and methods of the American labor movement were explained. A second meeting was held on January 2, 1902, at which all the printers of San Juan were present. A few days later over 20 printers signified their intention to become members of the International Union and a charter was asked for and subsequently obtained. The first report of the Porto Rican local union to the International Typographical Union was made in July, 1904. The San Juan local of the International Longshoremen, Marine and Transport Workers’ Association claims a membership of 60. It follows the constitution of the American organization, with which it is affiliated. According to a report made to the author by the local secretary of the organization, the general dues during the last year amounted to $38.05 for the entire union. The workmen are divided according to several grades; the foreman is paid by the piece and the manual workers are paid an average of 15 cents an hour. There are no deductions for fines or otherwise and the men are paid in money. There are no extra payments or bonuses. The wages 12 years ago were stated to have been $2 in Spanish money a day. The hours of work are 11 per day. It is claimed that there is a great lack of work among the unions, and it is even stated that the members of the unions receive but one or two days’ work per week. No esti mate could be made of the number of weeks’ work per year, but it is generally stated that there is little work and especially for the union members. There has been (June, 1905) no strike in this organi zation for five years. (b) «'Verbal and written statements by Zoilo Betancourt, secretary. &This information, given by Roman Tuentas, the secretary of the organization, was obtained verbally, and was subsequently reduced to writing. 814 BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OP LABOR. PRESENT TENDENCIES. The immediate influence of the American occupation upon the con dition of the Porto Rican workingman is, upon the whole, a beneficial one. The declaration of free trade between the United States and Porto Rico, and the consequent granting to the island of a preferred position, with regard to its exports, meant an increased prosperity to the new insular possession of the United States. This prosperity has come largely to the sugar and tobacco industries, and will, proba bly, to an equal extent benefit those who are engaged or who will be engaged in the production and shipment of fruits. In the coffee industry, the depression which already existed in 1898, has been deepened by the American occupation. The acquisition of Porto Rico by the United States did not mean the opening of any new market for Porto Rican coffee, since even before that time coffee was admitted free to the United States; on the contrary, it meant a short ening of the European market, with the result of a further deteriora tion in the condition of the coffee planter. As coffee was in 1898 the principal crop of the island, this deterioration has tended to offset the beneficent influence of American occupation upon the sugar and tobacco industries. There can be no doubt, however, despite the present adverse con ditions that the general trend in Porto Rico, in so far as it affects the real owners of property, is upward. Exports are increasing, capital is flowing into the country at a fairly rapid rate, and new industries are being started. The price of land, especially in the sugar and fruit districts, has rapidly advanced and will no doubt continue to do so. To what extent, however, this improvement has filtered down to the laboring population is somewhat problematical. Upon the whole, wages seem to have risen along the coast lands— that is, if we compare present wages in American money with former wages in provincial money reduced to the American gold standard. But since prices (measured in the same way) have also risen, the increase in money wages is largely apparent and the real benefit accruing to the working classes even in the coast lands is less than might appear upon the surface. The labor conditions in the coffee district are much worse than they were prior to the American occupation, although most of this deterioration has been due to causes other than the American occupation itself. Outside of the effect upon wages, there are other indications of an improvement in the conditions of the working classes of the island. There can be no doubt that upon the whole the American adminis tration of the island is more directly aimed at the advancement of the people than was the Spanish administration even at its best. The sanitation of the island is being improved and education is LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 815 being extended to at least a considerable minority of the Porto Ricans. Moreover, for the first time an effort is being made to root out the disease of anemia and to increase thereby the industrial efficiency of the population. When, however, we look at the deeper influences at work at the present time, it is difficult to be very optimistic concerning the future labor conditions in Porto Rico. The fundamental conditions under which the workmen live have not been and could not have been materially altered, and it is doubtful whether the tendencies now at work will ever permit of a rapid and continuous progression of the workingman, or of a steady and permanent bettering of his standard of living. There are many reasons for not anticipating a rapid and radical improvement. In the first place, Porto Rico is essentially an agri cultural country. Its natural resources are all agricultural, and it has neither the geographical position nor the resources of iron and coal to permit it ever to become a great manufacturing country. The small manufacturing industries which formerly existed on the island have tended rather to diminish than to increase as a result of the American occupation. Free trade with the United States means the importation of articles manufactured more economically upon a large scale to take the place of articles formerly manufactured by hand or by simple tools on a small scale. While it is possible, and even probable, that a considerable industry will grow up in the mak ing of cigars and in the canning of fruits, it seems reasonable to think that the country will remain permanently in an agricultural state. It is moreover practically inevitable, from the tendencies now observable, that a large proportion of the laboring population will belong for many decades, if not permanently, to the peon class. There is no room in the industry of the island for large numbers of skilled men. Most of the work to be performed upon the sugar, coffee, and tobacco plantations is the rudest agricultural labor, and the great mass of the population will necessarily be employed at these tasks. Conditions as they now exist tend rather to lessen the hold of the peon upon his land. The enormously increased pros perity in sugar culture, as well as the growth of larger estates and the increasing custom of grinding sugar in huge central factories, causes the real unit of production rapidly to increase. To be eco nomically operated, a sugar mill requires the output of several thou sands of acres; and while the ownership of these acres may for a considerable time remain in the hands of separate owners, the lands must be cultivated in a joint manner and practically as a single operation. It is obviously impossible that a peon earning 50 to 60 cents a day during the season can ever secure a sugar plantation or an interest 276—No. 61—06 M -----7 816 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR in a sugar plantation. The rise in the value of land, moreover, will tend, both in the sugar districts and elsewhere, to separate the peon more completely from the soil. The former system of permitting the peon workman to squat upon his employer’s land and to culti vate an acre or two for himself seems now to be giving way with the increase in the value of the land and the necessity for its better utilization. It can not too often be repeated that Porto Rico is not a new country with valuable virgin fields, but a thickly populated region, where land brings higher prices than in most parts of the eastern States of the United States. W ith the rise in the value of the land, therefore, it is extremely probable that the peons who have no land will be unable to secure it, and those who now possess small patches will be persuaded to sell. There can be no doubt that the demand for labor on the island of Porto Rico will increase for some time, and that with an increased demand for labor wages will tend for the time being to rise. This increased demand for labor has already shown itself in the sugar and tobacco industries, and there is even in the coffee industry a demand for labor larger than that of a few years ago. I f the Porto Rican planters succeed in securing a large market for their coffee in the United States, either b y convincing Americans of the excellence of their product or b y obtaining a more favored treat ment in the shape of a duty upon coffee grown in countries not under American jurisdiction, the result will be a larger product, a fuller utilization of the land, a greater demand for labor, and larger annual earnings for the workmen of that district. Even without a marked improvement in the coffee industry, there are evidences that for some years the demand for labor will continue to increase and to absorb a certain proportion of the oversupply of labor existing on the island. Not only do the present tendencies indicate the permanency of an agricultural population without ownership of land, but it also seems probable that the oversupply of labor which now obtains, and which depresses wages to so low a point, will continue to e^ist, unless fundamental changes occur in the conditions of the Porto Rican’s life and in the character of the population. The low standard of living of the Porto Rican workingman, and the consequent ability of a huge population to live in the cheapest con ceivable manner, permits the great mass of the rural workers to propa gate without thought of consequences. The population lives close to the soil, and tends to increase with the naturalness and rapidity of a people with no demands upon life except to live. Sexual unions take place at an early age and are very fruitful. Throughout the country districts little restraint is put upon marriage, either legal or natural. In spite of the high death rate among children, and with LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 817 little immigration from other countries, the population which in 1887 amounted to 221 per square mile increased by 1899 to 264 per square mile. There is no reason to believe that this rapid increase of the popula tion, which has grown from 70,250 in 1775 to 953,243 in 1899, will not continue. The country is already overpopulated according to Amer ican standards, but in comparison with certain West Indian posses sions it is still almost an unsettled district. The population of Bar bados, for instance, amounts to 1,207 inhabitants per square mile. While Porto Rico is much more thickly populated than either Haiti or Cuba, it has not yet reached the limit of increase, nor has the ulti mate pressure which will be exerted by these multitudes been yet attained. (a) In the past Porto Rico has been a country of absentee ownership. A large part of the property of the island was owned by Spaniards residing in Spain, and the island was exploited in the interest of these owners. The present tendencies do not lead one to expect any funda mental change in these conditions. Even at the present time a large part of the property of the island belongs to absentee Spaniards. “ It is probably true,” says ex-Governor Hunt, “ that Spaniards own the greater part of the taxable property of the island; hence they consti tute a powerful and influential portion of the community.” “ A t present,” he continues, “ Porto Rico suffers the disadvantages of absenteeism with landlords who willfully impede the success of the Government which protects their property.” (6) While there is no means of verifying the estimate of Governor Hunt that more than one-half of the taxable property of the island is in the hands of Spaniards, there can be no doubt that a considerable portion of it is thus owned. The whole tendency, moreover, is for the Spaniards, and latterly the Americans, to acquire the property of the country. Americans are investing largely in sugar plantations, fruit plantations, street railways, etc., and the real owners remain in the United States, although the foremen are Americans resident in the island. As a consequence, it seems probable that the increase in wealth which may come to the island in the shape of preferential tariff rates will not to a great extent remain in the island, but will be paid out to nonresidents. a The population of Porto Rico is still less dense than that of several European countries. As compared with a density of 264 inhabitants to the square mile for Porto Rico in 1899, the German Empire has a population of 270 to the square mile; Italy, 293; the United King dom, 343; Holland,429, and Belgium,589. China with a population of 266 to the square mile and Japan with a density of 317, also have a more thickly settled territory. It must be noted, however, that the European countries herein compared are largely manufacturing communi ties, which draw upon other less densely settled countries for much of their food and raw materials. &Fourth Annual Report of the Governor of Porto Rico from July 1,1903, to June 30,1904, pages 10 and 11. 818 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. This tendency toward nonresident ownership seems, upon the whole, to be upon the increase. Even many of the Porto Ricans who own large estates spend large portions of their money and leisure in the United States or in Europe, while the profits upon Spanish and American enterprises go to Spain and the United States. W ith the low rates of wages, caused largely by the excessive and ever-increasing population and by the unskilled character of the work, the conditions of the workingmen and other residents are not improved in a com mensurate degree by an increase of the prosperity of land owners who do not reinvest their earnings in the island. In attempting to improve the conditions of the majority of the Porto Rican population, the American people will meet with many difficulties and much discouragement. Absentee ownership must inevitably create a body of influential men who will look upon the native population merely as cheap labor and will stand in the way of any effort to educate them or improve their status. On the other hand, an aggressive and progressive educational policy may meet with listlessness and inertia, if not with active opposition on the part of large numbers of the native population. If the idea of raising the Porto Rican to a higher standard of living and thought is to succeed, it will be only by persistent effort in the face of these difficulties. The naive conception of a' decade ago, the belief that civilization would immediately follow the flag and that the poverty, the misery, and all the inheritance of centuries of mis rule, would pass away with the Spanish domination, must give place to a fixed determination to carry out a difficult progressive programme. Even a lack of appreciation of such efforts by the Porto Rican peon should not deter from persistent effort, since it will be necessary not only to improve material conditions, but equally to create a demand in the minds of the laboring classes of Porto Rico for such improve ment. The very lack of appreciation on the part of large numbers of the Porto Ricans would be the strongest argument for the necessity of such work. Such a policy of improving the conditions of the Porto Rican popu lation, or what is almost the same thing, of the great mass of the Porto Rican laborers, will necessarily rim counter to the interests of many individuals— Spanish and American— financially interested in the island. While it is necessary to encourage the investment of foreign capital in the industries of Porto Rico, this policy ought not to be carried out to the extent of depriving the native population of its chance of material and moral progress. Many of the absentee owners of Porto Rican properties and many of their agents resident in Porto Rico consider the island and its population as equally fit for the crassest exploitation, and are as contemptuous of the people as they are enthusiastic about the island. The current use by many Ameri LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 819 cans of an opprobrious epithet for Porto Ricans, bespeaks an attitude which takes no account of the human phase of the problem, but con siders the population as composed merely of so many laborers willing to work for such and such a price. The programme which the American people must carry out in order to live up to the theory under which the island was acquired and to improve the conditions of the laboring and other population of the island, is necessarily an extensive one. If the condition of the people is ever to be raised to a standard at all comparable with that prevailing in the United States, the people must be educated and the sanitary conditions improved, civil and political rights guaranteed and extended, and the condition of the workingman amply protected by law. The American people should recognize that they owe a duty to the Porto Ricans, and that they can not permit the welfare of the population for which they have accepted responsibility to be deter mined b y accident or by conflicts of interests. The American people must, if they are to raise the standard of the Porto Rican peons, continue to prosecute the work of education upon the island, no matter how severe the financial drain. It is equally essential to carry out a programme of sanitation which will guarantee to every Porto Rican infant the chance to five its allotted life. The power of the Porto Rican peons to insist upon fair and reason able conditions of labor is, and for decades if not generations will con tinue to be, far less than that of the workmen of the United States, or of the countries of western Europe. It is not probable, under present conditions and without the benefit of progressive education, that the peons of the country will be able to obtain more favorable terms of employment and more reasonable conditions of labor with out the intervention in some way of governmental authority. The demands of the peons for better conditions of labor will be in direct opposition to the interests of those who may insist that they are of a low type, just as their demands for education may be opposed on the ground that their work must remain unskilled. If, by means of education, by means of improved means of communi cation, by means of a free press, and of assemblages and meetings and conventions, and of fairs and entertainments that will bring the people together, the standard of living of the men, and especially of the women of Porto Rico, is once raised; if the demands on life made by this people become sufficiently great to prevent the population from assuming marital responsibilities with its present recklessness; if, moreover, the resources of the country are exploited more wisely and the peon himself be assured of the ownership of at least a patch of land and be taught to utilize it economically, the conditions of life and labor of the great mass of the Porto Rican population may be per manently improved. Such an improvement, however, will be difficult 820 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. and slow, and will be evident only as measured by decades or genera tions, and not by years. If, however, the island be utilized merely or primarily as a means of providing opportunities for investment and commercial exploitation by American citizens; if the policy of edu cating the people be held up on account of its expense and alleged uselessness; if the standard of living of the people be not raised, the condition of Porto Rico and of the Porto Rican laboring class after one hundred or two hundred years will be no better than it was in the year 1898, when the sovereignty of Spain gave way to the domin ion of the United States of America. APPEN D IX. The tables following give respectively the wages and hours of labor of males employed in railroad transportation in 1897,1902, and 1905, and the wages and hours of labor of employees in various industries, in 1905, by occupations and localities. The data which went to make up these tables were collected in Porto Rico during the progress of the investigation for this report. These tables are followed by the laws relating to labor in Porto Rico. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF MALES EMPLOYED IN RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION, 1897, 1902, AND 1905. Occupation. Number of employees. Days per week. Hours per week. 1897. 1902. 1905. 1897. 1902. 1905. 1897. 1902. j 1905. Agents, station................................................... Blacksmiths.......................... ............................. B oilermakers...................................................... Carpenters........................................................... Clerks................................................................... Conductors......................................................... Engineers............................................................ Firemen............................................................... Fitters................................................................. Flagmen.............................................................. Freight handlers................................................ Hostlers, locomotive......................................... Inspectors........................................................... Laborers.............................................................. Machinists........................................................... Mechanic’s apprentices...................................... Mechanic’ s helpers............................................. Painters............................................................... Switchmen.................................................. ; ___ Turners................................................................ W atchmen........................................................... Water station tenders....................................... 22 10 2 14 32 5 10 10 6 9 3 1 23 5 15 5 6 13 3 4 2 24 4 3 13 30 6 15 16 14 1 19 4 1 25 3 3 5 2 10 3 8 6 34 14 4 16 59 25 27 40 18 4 19 6 2 42 7 17 19 3 19 5 16 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6' 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 (0>7 7 7 6 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 7 7 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 84 60 60 60 84 84 60 84 84 84 60 60 60 60 60 60 84 60 84 84 « Twenty-one persons work 6 days and 38 persons work 7 days per week. b Thirteen persons work 48 hours, 8 persons work 60 hours, ana 38 persons work 84 hours per week. 821 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO, WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF MALES EMPLOYED IN RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION, 1897, 1902, AND 1905—Concluded. Wages per day. Per cent of increase (+ ) or decrease ( —) in 1905 as com 1902 1905 Equiva (United (United pared with 1897 lent in equivalent in States States United money). money). United States States money. money. 1897. Occupation. Agents, station.................................................. Blacksmiths........................................................ Boilermakers...................................................... Carpenters.......................................................... Clerks................................................................... Conductors......................................................... Engineers............................................................ Firemen............................................................... Fitters................................................................. Flagmen.............................................................. Freight handlers................................................ Hostlers, locom otive......................................... Inspectors........................................................... Laborers.............................................................. Machinists........................................................... Mechanic’s apprentices..................................... Mechanic’ s helpers............................................. Painters.............................................................. Switchmen.......................................................... ! Turners................................................................ ' Watchmen...........................................................j| Water station tenders....................................... Provin cial money (silver pesos). 30.00 ®$21.60 2.00 1.44 2.50 1.80 1.50 1.08 a 25.16 ®18.12 ®40.00 a 28.80 a 50.00 a 36.00 a 35.00 ®25.20 2.50 1.80 a a 16.00 a 30.00 a 38.00 .75 2.50 .15 .80 c. 10 ®15.00 1:25 ®21.75 ® 16.00 ®$30.00 2.15 &$40.00 1.75 1.60 «29.67 o 40.00 o40.00 o 30.00 1.75 0 8 .OO O20.00 c. 16 a36.86 <235.00 « 50.00 *35.00 1.75 O20.00 o25.00 o 75.00 .60 /60.00 .75 2.00 ®11.52 ®21.60 o27.36 .54 1.80 1.20 2.00 .20 .11 .58 c.072 0 10.80 .90 ol5.66 0 11.52 .60 1.00 01 6.00 1.50 ol5.81 01 6 .00 2.00 1.20 2.20 .40 .60 1.75 9 30.00 1.75 0 24.29 o25.00 + 85.2 + 21.5 + 11.1 + 48.1 +103.4 + 21.5 + 38.9 + 38.9 - 2.8 +117.0 + 44.9 +119.3 + 38.9 + 22.2 +263.6 + 3.4 +143.1 +177.8 + 94.4 + 55.1 +117.0 Wages per hour. Per cent of increase ( + ) or decrease ( —) in 1905 as com 1902 1905 Equiva (United (United pared with 1897 lent in equivalent in States States United money). money). United States States money. money. 1 1897. Occupation. Agents, station.................................................. Blacksmiths........................................................ Boilermakers...................................................... Carpenters.......................................................... Clerks................................................................... Conductors......................................................... Engineers............................................................ Firemen............................................................... Fitters................................................................. Flagmen.............................................................. Freight handlers................................................ Hostlers, locomotive......................................... Inspectors........................................................... Laborers.............................................................. Machinists.......................................................... Mechanic’ s apprentices..................................... Mechanic’ s helpers............................................. Painters............................................................... Switchmen.......................................................... Turners............................................................... Watchmen.......................................................... Water station tenders....................................... Provin cial money (silver pesos). 0.1150 .2000 .2500 .1500 .0964 .1534 .1917 .1342 .2500 .0613 .1150 .1457 .0750 .2500 .0150 .0800 .1000 .0575 .1250 .0834 .0613 $0.0828 .1440 .1800 .1080 .0695 .1104 .1380 .0966 .1800 .0442 .0828 .1049 .0540 .1800 .0110 .0580 .0720 .0414 .0900 .0600 .0442 $0.1150 A$0.1096 .2150 .1750 .2000 .1600 .1138 .1534 .1534 .1150 .1750 .0307 .0767 .1200 .2875 .0600 .2000 .0200 .2000 .1600 .1318 . 0959 i . 1370 L0959 .1750 .0548 .0685 i .1000 *.2300 .0750 .2200 .0600 .1000 .0613 .1500 .0606 .0613 l .0400 .0600 .1750 .0822 .1750 .0691 .0685 + 32.4 + 21.5 + 11.1 + 48.1 + 89.6 - 13.1 — .7 — .7 - 2.8 + 55.0 + 20.8 +119.3 + 38.9 + 22.2 +263.6 + 3.4 +143.1 + 98.6 + 94.4 + 15.2 + 55.0 ® Per month. 6 Per month, and house rent; in San Juan, Mayaguez, Arecibo, and Ponce estimated at $20 per month; in other sections at $8 to $10 per month. c Per hour. d Per month* and while on the road, allowance of 50 cents per day for food, averaging $8 per month. « Per month; including bonus of 10 per cent of wages, paid for saving fuel. / Per month; and while on the road, allowance of 75 cents per day for food, averaging $10 per month. 9 Per month; and house rent, estimated at $2 per month. * And house rent; in San Juan, Mayaguez, Arecibo, and Ponce estimated at $ 2 0 per month; in other sections at $8 to $10 per month. i And while on the road, allowance of 50 cents per day for food, averaging $8 per month. i Including bonus of 10 per cent of wages, paid for saving fuel. * And while on the road, allowance of 75 cents per day for food, averaging $10 per month. i And house rent, estimated at $2 per month. 822 BULLETIN OF T H E BUBEAU OF LABOR. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES. BAKERIES. Occupation and lo cality. Establish- Emment ploynumber. Apprentices: Ponce.................... San Juan.............. Bakers, first hand: Ponce.................... 3 San Juan.............. 2 Bakers, second hand: Ponce.................... San Juan. 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 2 2 2 2 M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Porto Rican. 4 1 1 1 M. 2 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 4 1 M. Spanish........ 1 4 1 6 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 4 1 1 1 2 2 4 Confectioner’s assist ant: San Juan................ Deliverymen: San Juan................ Pastry cook: San Juan................ Salesmen: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Nationality. 4 4 3 Days Hours Hours per er per week. week. ly. 7 7 7 7 Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate 8 8 $0.25 per day........ $0.25 $3 per month (&).. &.11* (a ) fa) fa) fa) fa) $3 per d a y ... $1.50 per day. $1AO per day. $2.25 per day. 3.00 1.50 1.50 2.25 $1.50 per day.. $1 per d ay----$0.62$ per day. $1 per d ay----$0.75 per day.. $1 per d ay ___ 1.50 1.00 (a) $16 per month (c) . c .52$ $ $ $11 per m onth............. 36 $14 per month fa) . d . 46 <«) fa) (a) (<*) (a) <°) $25 per month (c) . .75 1.00 c.82 $0.50 per day................50 $10 per month fa) . d .33 $ BARBER SHOP. Barbers: San Juan................ 5 5 5 1 1 1 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6$ 6$ 6i 12 12 12 78 78 78 $25 per month. $15 per month. $12 per month. $0. BOARDING-HOUSE SERVICE. Cook, chief: San Juan................ Cooks: San Juan................ Dishwasher: San Juan................ Housemaid: San Juan................ Laundresses: San Juan................ Scrubber: San Juan................ Waiter: San Juan................ 7 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 13$ 94$ $45 per month («). «$1.48 Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 7 13$ 13 94$ $16 per month (/) . 91 $12 per month fa) . / . 52$ «.39$ /.16$ 7 6 2 1 M. P. 6 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 13 91 $5 per month ( / ) . . 6 1 F. Porto Rican. 7 13 91 $7 per monthfa) .. e 7 3 F. Porto Rican. 7 10 70 $5 per month (/) .. /.16$ 6 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 13 91 $4 per month (/) .. /.1 3 6 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 13 91 $8 per m onth(/) .. / .26$ 9 9 9 9 9 54 54 54 54 54 11,8ft par day $1.80 1.80 1.50 2.50 1.80 .23 BUILDING TRADES. Carpenters: R io Piedras............ San Juan................ Vieques Isla n d ___ Foreman, carpenters: San Juan................ 8 9 9 10 10 9 1 11 3 1 3 M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 11.80 p er d a y $1.50 per day........ $2.50 per day........ $1.80 per day........ 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $2.25 per day........ a Irregular. 6 And board, estimated by employer at $6 per month, c And board, estimated by employer at $10 per month. & And board and lodging, estimated b y employer at $12 per month. « And board. /A n d board and lodging. 2.25 823 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. BUILDING- TRADES—Concluded. Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Foreman, general: Vieques Islan d ___ Foreman, masons: Rio Piedras............ Laborers: Rio Pedras............. San Juan................ Vieques Island____ Masons: Rio Piedras........... San Juan................ Vieques Island....... Mortar mixers: R io Piedras............ Vieques Island.___ Painters: Vieques Island.___ Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 10 1 M. American___ 6 9 54 $5 per d ay ............. $5.00 8 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $2.50 per d ay........ 2.50 8 9 10 10 12 3 2 11 M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 9 54 54 54 54 $0.72 per d ay........ $0.72 per day........ $0.90 per day........ $0.72 per d ay........ .72 .72 .90 .72 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 4 10 1 2 3 4 2 M. M. M. M M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 $2.00 per d ay........ $1.80 per day........ $2 per d ay............. $1.8) per d ay........ $2.25 per day......... $2 per d ay............. $1.80 per d ay........ 2.00 1.80 2.00 1.80 2.25 2.00 1.80 8 10 2 2 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 9 9 54 54 $0.90 per day........ $0.90 per day........ .90 .90 10 10 1 2 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 9 9 54 54 $2 per d ay............. $1.80 per d ay........ 2.00 1.80 CIGAR MAKING. Banders: Areeibo... Bookkeepers: Areeibo... San Juan........... Bookkeeper, assistant: San Juan................ B ox stampers, ciga rettes: San Juan........... Bundlers, cigars: San Juan........... Carpenters: Ban Juan........... Casers: San Juan........... Cashier: San Juan........... Cigarette machine cleaners: San Juan........... Cigarette machine op erators: San Juan........... Cigar makers: Areeibo.............. Bayamon. Ponce.— 11 8 F. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $0.25 per day........ $0.25 $75 per m onth___ $20 per week......... 2.87J 3.334 11 14 1 1 M. M. Spanish......... Porto Rican. 6 6 9 9 54 54 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $15 per week......... 2.50 14 6 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $0.01 per 1,000....... a . 40 14 6 M. (*) 6 8 48 $0.05 per 1,000....... ( c) 14 3 M. Porto Rican. 3 8 24 $1.50 per day......... 1.50 14 14 8 11 M. M. Porto Rican. (6) 6 6 9 8 54 48 $1 per d ay............. $0.80 per day........ 1.00 .80 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $15 per week......... 2.50 14 3 M. Porto Rican. 6 10.50 per d ay........ .50 (d ) (d ) 14 8 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $0.05 per 1,000....... a 2.084 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 15 24 15 22 67 290 10 1 1 2 5 2 1 1 1 5 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. (*0 6 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 54 54 54 54 54 $13 per 1,000.......... $8 per 1,000............ $7 per 1,000............ $4.50 per 1,000....... $5 per 1,000........... $4.50 per 1,000....... $7.50 per 1,000....... $22.50 per 1,000.... $17 per 1,000.......... $14 per 1,000.......... $8 per 1,000........... $12.50 per 1,000___ $7.50 per 1,000....... $6.50 per 1,000....... $6 per 1,000______ $4 per 1,000........... Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. (d ) <*) 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 (d ) (d ) 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 • Estimated. b Principally Porto Ricans. « N ot reported. <*Irregular. * Earnings vary from $0.64 to $1 per day, according to speed. a 1.95 ®1.20 a 1.05 a . 90 a . 80 a 1.20 <*1.20 o2.814 0 2.124 ol.40 ol.36 ol.25 o 1.20 ol.04 o.96 («) 824 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR, WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES-Continued. C I G A R M A K I N G —Continued. Occupation and lo cality. Cigar makers—Cont’d. Ponce...................... San Juan................ Classers, wrappers: Arecibo................... San Juan................ Clerks: Arecibo................... San Juan................ Driers: Arecibo................... San Juan................ Elevator boy: San Juan................ Engineer: San Juan................ Fireman: San Juan................ Foreman, cigarette machine operators: San Juan................ Foremen, factory: Arecibo................... Bayam on............... San Juan................ Foreman, factory, as sistant: Arecibo................... Foreman, laborers: A recibo................... Foreman, leaf classers: San Juan................ Foreman, packers, cig arettes : San Juan................ Foreman, packing and shipping dept.: Arecibo................... Foreman, sorters, ci gars: San Juan................ Foremen, strippers: San Juan................ Foreman, warehouse: San Juan................ Laborers: Arecibo................... Bayam on............... Ponce...................... San Juan................ Manager: Arecibo................... Messengers: San Juan................ Office boy: San Juan................ Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate 13 13 14 6 69 300 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. « 6 6 (<0 9 9 9 54 54 (0 11 11 14 2 2 20 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. (<*) 6 6 6 9 9 g 54 54 48 $8 per week........... $1.33$ $6 per week........... 1.00 $2 per day ........... 2.00 11 14 14 14 1 2 1 2 M. M. M. M. French.......... Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 54 54 48 54 $12 per week......... $15 per week......... $12.50 per w eek ... $10 per week......... 2.00 2.50 2.08$ 1. 66$ 11 14 1 20 M. M. Spanish........ 6 6 9 8 54 48 $8 per week........... $0.70 per day(ft) . . 1.33$ ft. 70 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $1 per d ay ............. 1.00 14 1 M. American___ 6 8 48 $20 per week......... 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $12 per week......... 2.00 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $30 per week......... 5.00 11 12 14 1 2 2 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 9 9 9 54 54 54 $20 per week......... $15 per week......... $15 per week......... 3.33$ 2.50 2.50 1.33$ (d ) 8 $3.50 per 1,000....... $2.50 per 1,000....... (0 a w 11 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $8 per week........... 11 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $8 per week........... 1.33$ 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $16 per week......... 2. 66$ 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $12 per week......... 2.00 11 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $27 per week......... 4.50 14 1 M. Spanish......... 6 8 48 $30 per week......... 5.00 14 4 M. (*) 6 8 48 $12 per week......... 2.00 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $20 per week......... '3.33$ 11 12 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 8 10 4 2 1 2 13 21 8 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Rican. 8 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 9 Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 54 54 54 54 54 54 48 48 48 $0A0 per day........ $0.70 per d ay........ $0.75 per d ay........ $0.50 per day........ $0.40 per day........ $0.25 per day........ $1 per d ay............. $0.75 per day(ft) . . $0.50 per day(ft) . . .50 .70 .75 .50 .40 .25 1.00 ft.75 ft.50 $175 per m on th ... 6.71 $1.13 per day........ 1.13 £ Itican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 11 1 M. Cuban........... 6 14 2 M. Porto Rican. 6 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 (*) 9 («) 54 54 $5 per week........... 9 « Earnings vary from $0.56 to $0.91 per day, according to speed. 6 Boys. c Earnings vary from $0.25 to $0.62$ per day, according to speed. d Principally Porto Ricans. « Irregular. / Pay varies from $7 to $25 per 1,000. ?N o t reported, ft Average. *Males and females. .83$ 825 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO, WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. C I G A R M A K I N G —Concluded. Occupation and lo cality. Packers: Arecibo............... San Juan............ Packers, cigarettes: San Juan............ Shell makers, hand, cigarettes* San Juan........... Shell maker, machine, cigarettes: San Juan........... Shipping clerk: San Juan........... Sorters cigars: Arecibo.............. Ponce................. San Juan........... Stenographer: San Juan........... Stock keeper. Ponce................. Strippers. Arecibo.............. Ponce................. San Juan................ Teamster: San Juan................ Timekeeper: San Juan................ Tobacco distributers: Bayam on............... Watchmen: Arecibo................... San Juan................ Weighers: San Juan................ Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 11 11 14 1 5 10 M. M. M. Spanish......... Porto Rican. (6) 6 6 6 9 9 8 54 54 48 («) («) $0.05 per 1,000....... 14 34 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $0.40 per 1,000....... <*$1.33* 14 17 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $0.15 per 1,000....... <*1.33* (a ) h (<0 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $0.04 per 1,000....... <*1.00 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $7.50 per week___ 1.25 11 11 13 14 14 3 3 2 20 16 M. M. M. M. M„ Porto Rican. Spanish......... Porto Rican. Porto Rican. <*> 6 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 8 8 54 54 54 48 48 («) W (/) $0.40 per 1,000___ $1.25 per 1,000....... ( c) (<0 (/) («) W 14 1 P. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $25 per week......... 4.16* 13 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $1.25 per day........ 1.25 11 11 13 13 13 14 14 15 10 2 3 5 210 50 M, F. F. F. F. F. F. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. (6) 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 54 54 54 54 54 48 48 $0.02 per p ou n d ... (*) $0.05 per p ou n d ... <*.30 $0.05 per p o u n d ... <*.60 $0.03 per p ou n d ... <*.30 $0.02 per p ou n d ... <*.20 $0.02* per p ou n d .. <*.50 $0.02* per pound.. («) 14 1 M. Spanish......... 6 8 48 $1 per d ay............. 1.00 14 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1 per d ay............. 1.00 12 4 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $0.75 per day......... .75 11 14 2 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Spanish......... 7 7 12 10 84 70 $4 per week........... $0.10 per hour.___ .57 1.00 14 10 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1 per d ay............. 1.00 COFFEE PLANTATIONS. Care takers: Arecibo dept Carpenter: Ponce department. Carpenter’s helper: Ponce department. Cultivators: Arecibo dept.......... 17 17 17 1 1 1 7 7 7 15 1 15 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 11 66 $0.75 per day........ .75 M. Porto Rican. 6 11 66 $0.35 per day........ 17 17 17 17 17 17 2 6 337 1 1 29 M. M. M. M. M. M. .35 Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 6 6 6 6 6 6 12 12 12 12 12 12 72 72 72 72 72 72 $0.40 per day........ $0.35 per d ay....... $0.30 per d ay........ $0.28 per day........ $0.26 per d ay........ $0.25 per day........ .40 .35 .30 .28 .26 .25 Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. (0) (0) W (0) $0.30 per day......... $0.30 $1.50 per week (*) . *.21* $1.20 per week(*) . *.17 Porto Rican. P orto Rican. Porto Rican. M. M. M. (g ) (0) a Earnings vary from $2.40 to $3 AO per day, according to size of box. Rate of pay varies from $0.60 to $0.87* per 1,000. 6 Principally Porto Ricans. cN ot reported. & Estimated. e Rate of pay varies from $0.75 to $1.25 per 1,000, according to class of cigars. /Earnings vary from $1.25 to $2 per day, according to class of cigars. Rate of pay varies from $0.50 to $1.75 per 1,000. ff Irregular. * Employed all the year and also is furnished plot of ground on which to cultivate vegetables, etc., on halves. 826 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LO CALITIE^-Continued. COFFEE PLANTATIONS—Concluded. Occupation and lo cality. EstabEm Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Cultivators—Conc’d. Arecibo d e p t ......... Mayaguez dept— Ponce department. Overseers: Arecibo d ept.......... Mayaguez dept— Ponce department. Pickers: Arecibo dept.......... Mayaguez dept— Ponce department. Water b o y : Arecibo dept.......... W ood chopper: Mayaguez dept___ Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 16 15 16 «5 a 13 a 15 a1 a 12 a2 13 14 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 10 11 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 60 66 $0.20 per day......... $0.20 .18 $0.18 per d ay........ .16 $0.16 per d ay........ $0.15 per d ay........ .15 $0.13 per day........ .13 $0.12 per day........ .12 $0.10 per day........ .10 $0.30 per day........ .30 $0.25 per day(*>)... 5.25 17 17 17 17 17 17 16 15 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 7 12 12 12 12 12 12 10 11 72 72 72 84 84 72 60 77 $3.75 per week (« ). $2.50 per week ( c ) . $0.40 per day........ $2.25 per week___ $2.10 per w eek___ $1.50 per week(o) . $2.50 per week___ $0.30 per d ay........ 0.62* 17 <2600 16 <*36 15 <*22 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 6 7 (*) 10 (e) (*) 60 (<0 (/) (/) 9.26 (0 9.26 17 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 12 72 $0.06 per d ay........ .06 16 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $0.25 per ca rt........ 9.41* .40 .32 .30 0.25 .41* .30 COFFEE SORTING AND POLISHING. Engineer: Ponce...................... ' 18 Laborers: Ponce...................... 18 Polisher: Ponce...................... 18 Sorters: Ponce...................... 18 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $1 per d a v (c )........ c$1.00 4 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $1.12* per day.. . . . 1.12* 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $2 per d ay............. 2.00 200 F. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 (i) *.35 $0.08* COPPERSHITHING. Apprentices: Ponce...................... Coppersmiths: Ponce...................... 19 6 M. Porto Rican. 6 19 19 1 3 M. M. Spanish........ Porto Rican. 6 6 8* 51 $0.50 per week___ 8* 8* 51 51 $1.50 per d ay(l) . . *1.50 $1.40 per day......... 1.40 COTTON GINNING. Engineer: San Juan................ Foreman: San Juan................ Ginners: San Juan................ Laborers: San Juan................ 20 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1 per d ay............. $1.00 20 1 M. American___ 6 8 48 $80 per m onth___ 3.06* 20 20 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 8 8 48 48 $0.75 per day........ $0.60 per d ay........ .75 .60 20 20 2 3 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 8 8 48 48 $0.50 per d ay........ $0.40 per day........ .50 .40 Boys. 5 And breakfast of codfish and plantains, estimated at 5 cents. e Employed all the year. <*Not including women and children. « Irregular. / 8 cents per almud (about 10 pounds) of cleaned coflee. 0 Estimated. *12 cents per almud (about 10 pounds) of cleaned coflee. <Not reported. j 5 cents per basket of about 20 pounds. * Estimated. 1 And board and lodging, estimated at 50 cents per day. a 827 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. DRESSJMK1N6. Occupation and lo cality. Dressmakers: («) San Juan................ Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week day. week. num ber. 21 3 F. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 10.26 per day (&) . . &I0.25 FOUNDRY AND MACHINE SHOP. Blacksmiths: San Juan................ Machinists: San Juan................ Machinist’ s appren tices : San Juan................ Molders: San Juan................ Molder’ s apprentices: San Juan................ Pattern maker: San Juan................ 22 22 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 9 9 54 54 $2 per day............. $2.00 $1 per day............. 1.00 22 22 22 22 1 2 2 1 M. M. M. M. Porto Rican. Cuban........... Spanish........ Porto Rican. 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 9 54 54 54 54 $2 per d ay............. $25 per m onth___ $25 per m onth___ $0.75 per d ay........ 2.00 .96 .96 .75 22 22 22 4 2 2 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 9 9 9 54 54 54 $0.25 per day $0.15 per day........ $0.10 per day........ .25 .15 .10 22 22 22 1 1 2 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 9 9 9 54 54 54 $2 per day............. 11.25 per d ay........ $1 per d ay............. 2.00 1.25 1.00 22 2 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $0.25 per day 22 1 M. Spanish........ 6 9 54 $2 per day............. .25 2.00 FRUIT CANNING, PINEAPPLES. Corer: Mayaguez............... Engineer: Mayaguez............... Engineer’s helper: Mayaguez............... Laborers: Mayaguez............... Machinists: Mayaguez............... Peelers, machine: Mayaguez............... Processer: Mayaguez............... Slicer: Mayaguez............... 23 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 23 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 <*) (<0 $4 per week........... .t>b} M. Porto Rican. 6 (<0 (°) $2 per week........... .33} Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 6 6 b 6 6 10 10 10 10 10 60 60 60 60 60 $0.50 po* $0.40 per $0.30 per $0.25 per $0.25 per day........ day........ day........ day........ day........ .50 .40 .30 .25 .25 2.50 23 <n 23 23 23 23 23 30 10 10 Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 10 60 $0.40 per d ay........ $0.40 80 M. M. M. M. F. 23 3 M. American— 6 10 60 $2.50 per day........ 23 2 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $0.50 per day........ .50 23 1 M. American— 6 10 60 $6 per week........... 1.00 23 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $0.40 per day........ .40 $0.40 per day........ $0.40 * 6 FRUIT CULTURE, CITRUS.( e ) Cultivators: Bayamon dept— Foreman, cultivators: Bayamon dept— Foremen, gang: Bayamon dept___ Manager: Bayamon dept___ 24 75 M. Porto Rican. 7 10 70 24 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 10 70 $0.65per day ( / ) . . / . 65 24 14 M; Porto Rican. 7 10 70 $0.50 per day ( / ) . . /.s o 24 1 M. American___ 7 10 70 $100 per m on th .. . 3.29 a Proprietress does all cutting and fitting. A nd two meals, estimated at 20 cents. Irregular. dBoys. « No fruit has been marketed. f And house rent, estimated at $1 per month. b c 828 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. HATS, STRAW. EstabHours Hours lish- Em Sex. Nationality. Bays per per per ment ploy week. ees. day. week. num ber. Occupation and lo cality. Blockers: San Juan, Blocker’ s apprentices: San Juan............... Bookkeeper: San Juan.............. . Carpenter: Bonce..................... Engineer and fireman: Ponce.................... Finishers: Ponce.................... . San Juan. Finisher’ s apprentices: Ponce. Pressers: Ponce. San Juan, Sewers: Ponce. San Juan............ Sewer’ s apprentices: Ponce.................. Sizers: Ponce.................. Sizer’ s apprentices: Ponce................ 26 26 26 1 5 1 26 26 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 2 M. Porto Rican. 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 8 8 8 48 48 48 $9 per week........... $1.50 $8.50 per week___ 1.41* 1.25 $7.50 per week___ 6 8 48 $3 per week........... .50 6 8 48 $45 per m onth___ 1.72* 25 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1.25 per d ay........ 1.25 25 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 SI per d ay............. 1.00 25 25 26 26 26 26 1 1 1 1 2 10 M. M. M. M. M. F. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 6 6 6 . 6 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 8 48 48 48 48 48 48 $7.50 per week___ *1.25 $3.50 per week___ .58* $9 per week........... 1.50 $6 per week........... 1.00 .75 $4.50 per week___ .66* $4 per week........... 25 25 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 8 8 48 48 S3 per week........... $2 per week........... .50 .33* 25 25 25 25 26 26 26 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 $9 per week........... $7.50 per week___ $6 per week........... $4.50 per week___ $9 per week........... $7.50 per week___ $5 per week........... 1.50 1.25 1.00 .75 1.50 1.25 .83* 25 25 25 25 25 26 1 1 2 14 1 7 M. M. F. F. M. F. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 8 48 48 48 48 48 48 $7.50 per week___ $6 per week........... $5 per week........... $0.24 per h at......... $3.50 per week___ $5.50 per week___ 1.25 1.00 .83* 25 25 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 8 8 48 48 $2 per week........... $1 per week........... 25 25 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 8 8 48 48 $6 per week........... $4.50 per week___ 25 4 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1 per week........... .16* Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. (a ) .58* .91* .33* .16* 1.00 .75 ICE MANUFACTURE. Clerks: San Juan................ Engineer: San Juan................ Firemen: San Juan................ Laborers: San Juan................ Superintendent: San Juan................ 27 27 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 7 8 8 56 56 $50 per m onth___ $25 per m onth___ $1.64* .82 27 1 M. Spanish........ 7 12 84 S900 per y e a r ....... 2.46* 27 3 M. Porto Rican. 7 8 56 S8 per week........... 1.14* 27 4 M. Porto Rican. 7 12 84 S6 per week........... 27 1 M. American___ 7 12 84 >$1,500 per year___ LAUNDRY, STEAM. Clerk: San Juan................ Deliveryman: San Juan................ 28 1 F. English......... 28 1 M. American___ 6 (P ) 10 (*) 60 (») S5 per week........... $1.50 per day(«) . . «N o t reported. &Irregular. e Estimated earnings; receives commission on deliveries. .85* 4.11 829 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO, WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. LAUNDRY, STEAM!—Concluded. Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy Sex. Nationality. per per per ment week. day. week. num ees. ber. Fireman: San Juan................ Helper: San Juan................ Machine hands: San Juan................ Marker: San Juan................ Wagon boy: San Juan................ Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 28 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $1 per d a y ............. $1.00 28 *1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $1 per week........... .16| 28 11 F. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $0.05 per hour.___ .50 28 1 F. Porto R ican. 6 10 60 $2.50 per week___ .41* 28 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $2 per week.......... .33* MACARONI MANUFACTURE. Fireman: San Juan................ Foreman: San Juan................ Laborers: San Juan................ Modelers: San Juan................ 29 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1 per d a y ............. $1.00 29 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1.50 per day........ 1.50 29 5 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1 per d ay............. 1.00 29 22 F. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $0.40 per day........ .40 MUNICIPAL WORK. Blacksmith: San Juan............ Blacksmith's helper: San Juan............ Carpenters: San Juan............ Carpenter's helpers: San Juan............. Cart drivers, street cleaning: San Juan................ Draftsman: San Juan................ Inspector, street clean ing: San Juan................ Masons: San Juan................ Mason’ s helpers: San Juan................ Overseer, building re pairs: San Juan................ Overseers, street cleanSan Juan. Overseers, street sweeping: San Juan................ Overseers, street sweeping, assistant: San Juan................ Paver, street repairla n Juan................ Paver's helpers: San Juan................ Street sweepers: San Juan................ Watchman, corral: San Juan............... o Boy, 30 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1.75 per day........ $1.75 30 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $0.75 per day........ .75 30 30 4 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 8 8 48 48 $1.75 per d ay........ $1.12* per d ay.___ 1.75 1.12* 30 30 30 18 1 1 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 8 8 8 48 48 48 $0.75 per day........ $0.62* per day.___ $0.50 per day........ .75 .62* .50 30 8 M. Porto Rican. 6* 8 52 $240 per year........ .66 30 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1.50 per d ay........ 1.50 30 1 M. Porto Rican. 6* 8 52 $900 per year........ 2.46* $1.75 per day........ 1.75 .50 30 5 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 30 5 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $0.50 per d ay........ 30 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1.25 per day(6) . . &1.25 30 30 1 2 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6* 6* 8 8 52 52 $480 per year........ $360 per year........ 1.31* .98* 30 30 2 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6* 6* 8 8 52 52 $0.87 per day......... $0.75 per day......... .87 .75 30 30 2 2 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6* 6* 8 8 52 52 $0.75 per day........ $0.50 per day......... .75 .50 30 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1 per d ay ............. 1.00 30 4 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $0.75 per day........ .75 30 33 M. Porto Rican. 6* 8 52 $0.50 per day......... .50 30 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 8 56 $0.75 per day........ .75 6 Employed all the year. 830 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES-Continued. PLANING MILL. Occupation and lo cality. Blacksmith: Ponce..................... Carpenters: Ponce..................... San Juan............... Carpenter’ s appren tices: San Juan................ Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 31 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $7.50 per week___ $1.25 31 31 32 1 2 5 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 10 10 («) 60 60 48 $9 per week........... $7.50 per week___ $0.21* per hour___ 1.50 1.25 1.75 32 32 32 32 2 1 1 2 M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto 6 6 6 6 Vv (°) 48 48 48 48 $0.12* per hour.. . . $0.09§ per h ou r.... $0.06| per h ou r.... $0.03* per hour.. . . 1.00 .75 .50 .25 Engineer: Ponce..................... Fireman: San Juan................ Fireman’ s helper: San Juan................ Foreman, carpenters: San Juan................ Foreman, mill: San Juan................ Laborers: Ponce..................... San Juan................ Lumber marker: Ponce..................... Machine hands: San Juan................ Molder’ s apprentice: San Juan............... Planer hand: San Juan................ Planer hand’ s appren tice: San Juan................ Sawyer, jig : San Juan................ Sawyer, rip: San Juan............... Turner: San Juan............... Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 31 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 60 $7.50 per week___ 1.25 32 1 M. Spanish......... 6 (a) 48 $8 per week........... 1.33* 32 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 («) 48 $1.50 per week___ .25 32 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 <«) 48 $0.31*per h ou r.... 2.50 32 1 M. American___ 6 (a) 48 $27 per week......... 4.50 31 32 32 4 3 5 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 10 («) 60 48 48 $3 per week........... $5.75 per week___ $0.10 per hour.___ .50 .96 .80 1.00 10 W 31 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 60 $6 per week........... 32 2 M. Porto Rican. 6 («) 48 $4 per week........... 32 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 <a) 48 $0.08* per h o u r.... .66* 32 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 (°) 48 $10 per week......... 1.66* 10 .66* 32 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 (“) 48 $0.06* per h ou r.... .50 32 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 («) 48 $2 per week........... .33* 32 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 (°) 48 $9.50 per week___ 1.58* 32 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 (•> 48 $0.25 per hour.___ 2.00 PRINTING AND PUBLISHING* Bookbinder, job work: San Jqan................ Chief of bureau, gov’t office: San Juan................ Compositors, book and job: San Juan................ 33 1 M. American___ 5* 8 44 $900 per year........ 12.87* 36 9 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 $1 per week........... .16* 34 1 M. Porto Rican). 6 9 54 $3 per week........... .50 36 6 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $3 per week........... .50 35 35 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 8 8 48 48 $0.75 per week___ $0.25 per week___ 34 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $5 per week........... 33 1 M. American___ 5* 8 44 $1,400 per year___ 4.47 36 36 36 1 2 10 M. M. M. German........ Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 8 8 8 48 48 48 $9 per week........... $8 per week........... $3 per week........... 1.50 1.33* .50 6 « Monday to Friday, 8|; Saturday, 4*. & £& Accountant, gov’t office: San Juan................ Apprentices: San Juan................ Apprentice, job work: San Juan................ Apprentices, litho graphing: San Juan................ Apprentices, newsT \O Id3l** Pcb JT LH I• Ponce...................... 831 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. PRINTING AND PUBLISHING—Concluded. Occupation and lo cality. Es tab Days Hours Hours lish- Em Sex. Nationality. per per per ment ploy week. ees. day. week. num ber. Compositors, gov't office: San Juan................ Compositors, job work: San Juan................ Compositors, paper: Ponce___ news- San Juan. Engravers, lithograph ing: San Juan................ Folders: Ponce...................... Foreman, job work: San Juan................ Foreman, newspaper: Ponce...................... Foreman, pressman, lithographing: San Juan................ Laborer: Ponce...................... Manager, lithog. dept.: San Juan................ Manager, printing de partment: San Juan................ Press feeders, newsPonce. Pressmen, govt, office: San Juan................ Pressman, job work: San Juan................ Pressmen, lithographSan Juan. Pressmen, newspaper: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Pressman's appren tices, govt, office: San Juan................ Pressman's appren tices, newspaper: San Juan............... Public printer, govt, office: San Juan............... Public printer, asst., govt, office: San Juan................ Equiv alent rate per day. 33 33 33 1 2 7 M. M. M. American___ Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 5} 5| 8 8 8 44 44 44 60.40 per hour.___ 63.20 60.30 per hour.___ 2.40 60.25 per hour.___ 2.00 34 34 1 1 M. M. Danish......... Porto Rican. 6 6 9 9 54 54 612 per week......... 69 per week........... 35 35 35j 35 35 36 36 36 36 36 1 3 2 1 1 2 7 4 2 4 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 48 66 per week........... 48 65 per week.......... 48 64 per week........... 48 63.50 per week___ 48 63 per week........... 48 69 per week........... 48 67 per week........... 48 66.50 per week....... 48 66 per week........... 48 64.50 per week___ 1.00 .83} . 66§ ,5g} .50 1.50 1.16} 1.08} 1.00 .75 36 36 2 1 M. M. German........ German........ 6 6 9 9 54 54 618 per week......... 616 per week......... 3.00 2.66} 2.00 1.50 35 «3 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 60.50 per week___ .08} 34 1 M. American___ 6 9 54 625 per week......... 4.16} 35 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 67 per week........... 1.16} 2.58} 36 1 M. German........ 6 9 54 615.50 per week. . . 35 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 63 per week........... .50 36 1 M. German........ 6 9 54 6100 per m onth. . . 3.83} 36 1 M. Spanish......... 6 8 48 685 per m onth___ 3.26 35 35 1 2 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 8 8 48 48 62 per week........... 61 per week........... 33 33 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 5} 5j 8 8 44 44 60.25 per hour___ 60.20 per hour___ 2.00 1.60 34 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 66 per week........... 1.00 36 36 2 2 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 9 9 54 54 610 per week......... 66 per week........... 1.66} 1.00 35 36 1 3 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 8 8 48 48 65 per week........... 69 per week........... .83} 1.50 33 33 1 2 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 5} 5} 8 8 44 44 60.10 per hour___ 60.07 per hour___ .80 .56 36 2 M. Porto Rican. 6 8 48 63.50 per week___ .58} 33 1 M. American— 5} 8 44 61,400 per year..... 4.47 33 1 M. Porto Rican. 5* 8 44 61,000 per year___ 3.19 a 276—No. 61—06 Rates of wages. Boys. .33} .16} 832 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. SHOEMAKING. Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Shoemakers: («) Ponce..................... San Juan................ 37 37 38 38 2 12 1 1 M. M. M. M. Spanish........ Porto Rican. Italian.......... Porto Rican. 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 9 54 54 54 54 Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. (c) (6) (&) ( c) $0.80 per pair....... <*$0.80 $0.80 per pair....... <*.80 STREET RAILWAIT AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING. Advertising agent: San Juan................ Boiler hands: San Juan................ Bookkeepers: P once...................... San Juan................ Car cleaner: («) P once...................... Carpenter: P once...................... Cashier: San Juan................ Clerk: P once...................... Coal passers: P once...................... San Juan................ Collectors: P once...................... San Juan................ Conductors: P once...................... San Juan................ Electrician: Ponce...................... Engineers: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Engineers, assistant: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Firemen: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Foreman, machine shop: San Juan................ Foreman, track: San Juan................ Hostler: P once...................... Inspector, lighting: San Juan................ Inspector, transporta tion: San Juan................ Interpreter: San Juan................ Laborers: Ponce...................... 40 1 M. Scotch.......... 6 8 48 $80 per m onth___ $3.06* 40 40 1 2 M. M. American___ Porto Rican. 6 6 10 10 60 60 $1 per d ay............. $1 per d ay............. 1.00 1.00 39 40 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 10 9 60 54 $65 per m onth___ $65 per m onth___ 2.49 2.49 39 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 12 84 $30 per m onth___ 39 1 M. Porto Rican. 2 10 20 $1.50 per day........ 1.50 40 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $135 per m on th .. . 5.17* 39 1 M. Negro........... 6 10 60 $20 per m onth___ .76* 39 40 1 3 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 7 12 8 84 56 $22.50 per month.. $0.75 per d ay........ .74 .75 39 40 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 10 9 60 54 $50 per m onth___ $45 per m onth___ 1.91* 1.72* 39 39 40 2 3 18 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 7 7 Hi 9 10 80* $37.50 per month.. 63 $27.60 per m onth.. 70 $0.11 per hou r___ 1.23* .91 1.10 39 1 M. American___ 7 10 70 $83.33 per month.. 2.74 39 40 1 1 M. M. American___ American— 7 7 10 10 70 70 $83.33 per month.. $100 per m onth. . . 2.74 3.29 39 39 40 40 1 1 2 1 M. M. M. M. Negro........... N egro........... Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 7 7 7 12 12 8 8 84 84 56 56 $64 per m onth___ $55 per m onth___ $1.75 per d ay........ $1.25 per d ay........ 2.10* 1.81 1.75 1.25 39 39 40 1 1 3 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 7 7 12 12 8 84 84 56 $45 per m onth___ $30 per m onth___ $1.50 per d ay........ 1.48 .98* 1.50 40 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $2.25 per day........ 2.25 40 40 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. American___ 6 6 9 9 54 54 $50 per m onth___ $45 per m onth___ 1.91* 1.72* 39 1 M. Negro........... 7 10 70 $18 per m onth___ .59 40 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $30 per m onth___ 1.15 40 40 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 7 16 16 112 112 $35 per m onth___ $30 per m onth___ 1.15 .98* 40 1 M. American___ 6 8 48 $110 per m on th ... 4.21* 39 39 1 6 M. M. Negro........... Porto Rican. 6 / 2* 10 10 60 /2 5 $20 per m onth___ $0.60 per d a y ........ .76* .60 <*Proprietors do all cutting. b Earn from 14.50 to 15 per week, pay varying from $0.40 to $1.12 per pair, c From $0.75 to $0.83*. d Estimated. « Also acts as pitman. Average. .98* 833 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. S T R E E T R A IL W A Y AND E L E C T R IC LIG H T IN G —Concluded. Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Laborers, track: San Juan................ Linemen: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Machinists: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Machinist's helpers: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Messengers: San Juan................ Motormen: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Oilers: Ponce...................... Oilers, power house: San Juan................ Receiving teller: San Juan................ Stenographer: San Juan................ Stock-room boy: Ponce...................... Storekeepers: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Superintendents, gen’l: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Superintendents, as sistant: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Switch-board men: San Juan................ Track greasers: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Track sanders: San Juan................ Track walker: San Juan................ Treasurer, assistant: P once...................... Trolley tender,freight: San Juan................ Watchman: Ponce...................... Watchman, bam : San Juan................ Watchman, machine shop: San Juan................ Watchman, office: San Juan................ Wiremen: Ponce...................... San Juan................ Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 40 19 M. Portor Rican. 6 9 54 $0.06 per hour....... $0.54 39 40 40 40 2 1 3 2 M. M. M. M. Porto Rican. Swedish........ Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 6 10 10 10 10 60 60 60 60 $30 per m onth___ $40 per m onth___ $28 per m onth___ $24 per m onth----- 1.15 1.53* 1.07* .92 39 40 40 40 40 40 1 1 1 2 1 3 M. M. M. M. M. M. American— Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 6 6 6 6 6 10 9 10 9 9 9 70 54 60 54 54 54 $100 per m o n th ... $2 per d a y ............. $1.75 per day........ $1.50 per day........ $1.25 per day........ $1 per d ay ............. 3.29 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00 39 40 1 2 M. M. Negro........... Porto Rican. 7 6 10 9 70 54 $45 per m onth___ $0.75 per day........ 1.48 .75 54 $16 per month___ 40 2 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 39 39 40 3 2 18 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto R ican. 7 7 7 10* 8 10 73* $35 per m onth___ 56 $25 per m onth___ 70 $0.11 per hour....... 1.15 .82 1.10 39 39 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Japanese___ 7 7 12 12 84 84 $22.50 per m onth.. $22.50 per month.. .74 .74 40 3 M. Porto Rican. 7 8 56 $0.75 per d a y ........ 40 1 M. Porto Rican. 6* 9 58* $65 per m onth----- 2.13* 2.87* .61* .75 40 1 M. English......... 6 9 54 $75 per m onth----- 39 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $10.50 per month.. .44 39 40 1 1 M. M. American___ French......... 6 7 10 10 60 70 $65 per m onth___ $30 per m onth___ 2.49 .98* 39 40 1 1 M. M. American___ American___ 7 7 10 16 70 112 $125 per m o n th ... $125 per m on th .. . 4.11 4.11 39 39 40 40 1 1 2 1 M. M. M. M. American___ American___ American___ American___ 7 7 6 7 10 10 10 16 70 70 60 112 $75'per m onth___ $60 per m onth___ $75 per m onth___ $85 per m onth___ 2.46* 1.97* 2.87* 2.79* 40 40 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 9 9 54 54 $1 per d ay............. $0.06 per hour....... 1.00 .54 39 40 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 7 10 10 70 70 $22.50 per month.. $0.75 per d ay........ .74 .75 40 2 M. Porto Rican. 7 10 70 $0.06 per hour___ .60 40 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 10 70 $0.10 per hour___ 1.00 39 1 M. American___ 6 10 60 $100 per m o n th ... 3.83* 40 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $0.06 per hour___ .60 39 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 12 84 $25 per m onth___ .82 40 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 10 70 $50 per m onth___ 1.64* 1.64* 40 1 M. American___ 7 10 70 $50 per m onth----- 40 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 10 70 $39 per m onth___ 1.28 39 39 39 40 40 1 2 2 1 3 M. M. M. M. M. American___ Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6* 7 6 6 10 Hi Hi 10 10 60 74f 80* 60 60 $60 per m onth___ $30 per m onth___ $21 per month — $30 per m onth___ $1 per d ay............. 2.30 .98* .69 1.15 1.00 834 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. SUGAR Occupation and lo cality. EstabDays Hours Hours lish- Em Sex. Nationality. per per per ment ploy ees. week. day. week. num ber. Rates of wages. alent rate per day. d e p t... 41 4 M. Porto Rican; 6 d e p t... 41 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 61.20 per day......... d e p t... 41 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 6 36 61 per d ay ............. 1.00 d e p t... 41 7 M. Porto Rican. 60.07 per t on ......... 6.75 dept... 41 41 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 10 10 60 60 61.25 per d ay........ 60.80 per d ay........ 1. 41 41 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 10 10 60 60 60.40 per d ay........ 60.25 per day......... 41 41 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 3 3 18 18 60.63 per d ay........ 60.50 per d ay........ 41 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 12 72 60.90 per d ay........ 41 41 41 41 1 1 1 3 M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 10 10 10 10 60 60 60 60 61.50 per d ay........ 61.25 per day........ 61.12 per day........ 61 per d ay ............. 41 41 4 3 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 10 10 60 60 60.60 per d ay........ 60.50 per day......... 41 1 M. Porto Rican. 41 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 60.70 per d ay........ 41 41 2 3 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 12 12 72 72 61 per d ay ............. 60.90 per d ay........ Carpenter’s helpers: Bayamon dept___ Cooper: Bayamon dept___ Coopers helper: Bayamon dept___ Engineers, locomotive: Bayamon dept___ Engineers, mill: Bayamon dept___ Engineers, mill, asst.: Bayamon dept___ Firemen: Bayamon dept___ Foreman, laborers: Bayamon d e p t... Foreman, teamsters: Bayamon d e p t... Laborers, general: Bayamon d e p t... Laborers, mill: Bayamon d e p t... Laborers, railroad: Bayamon dept___ _ hands: ayamon dept___ « Irregular. <°) (a) (a) 63 per day ( c ) ----- 8 88 88 88 1.20 c3. 8 g 8 8 3 8 SS 8 S 8 g Cane weigher: Bayamon d e p t... Carpenters: Bayamon d e p t... («) 60.07 per ton ......... &60.80 41 3 M. Porto Rican. 6 12 72 60.85 per d ay........ 41 4 M. Porto Rican. 6 12 72 60.60 per d ay........ 41 41 41 1 1 4 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 12 12 12 72 72 72 60.95 per d ay........ 60.80 per d ay........ 60.60 per d ay........ 41 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 12 72 61.40 per d ay........ 41 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 12 72 60.75 per day........ 41 41 1 2 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 10 10 60 60 60.60 per d ay........ 60.50 per day......... 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 2 2 17 2 27 3 13 1 d2 d 1 d2 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. F. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 9 12 12 12 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 54 72 72 72 60.80 per d ay........ 60.75 per day......... 60.70 per d ay........ 60.65 per day........ 60.60 per d ay........ 60.55 per d ay........ 60.50 per day......... 60.40 per d ay........ 60.40 per d ay........ 60.35 per day........ 60.30 per day........ 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 1 1 5 1 20 d1 d2 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican; Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 60.80 per d ay........ 60.70 per d ay........ 60.60 per day......... 60.55 per d ay........ 60.50 per day........ 60.37 per d ay........ 60.25 per d ay........ .37 .25 41 7 M. Porto Rican. 60.14 per to n ......... 6.80 («) (a) (*) 8 8 888 Boiler cleaners: Bayamon d e p t... (a) <*) gS Blacksmith’s helpers: Bayamon d e p t... (a) (a) ISS83S 8 8 8 8 S S 8 8 3 8 8 Bag fillers: Bayamon Bag marker: Bayamon Bag sewer: Bayamon Bag stowers: Bayamon Blacksmiths: Bayamon :. m a n u f a c t u r e 835 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. SU G AR M A N U FA C T U R E —Concluded. Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. aay. week. num ber. Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. Sugar boiler: Bayamon dept___ Sugar boiler’s assts.: Bayamon dept___ 41 1 M. West Indian. 6 12 72 $100 per m on th ... $3.83} 41 41 Teamsters: Bayamon dept___ Watchmen: Bayamon dept___ 2 1 M. M. West Indian. West Indian. 6 6 12 12 72 72 $90 per m onth___ $70 per m onth___ 3.45 2.68} 41 07 M. Porto Rican. 6 12 72 $0.35 per d ay........ .35 41 41 41 1 1 1 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Spanish......... Porto Rican. 6 6 6 12 12 12 72 , $0.65 per day......... 72 $0.65 per d ay........ 72 $0.55 per day........ .65 .65 .55 SU G AR PLAN TATIO N S. Bayamon dept___ Guayama dept___ Ponce department. Blacksmith’s helpers: Arecibo dept.......... Bayamon dept___ Ponce department. Boiler hands: Bayamon dept___ Bookkeepers: Arecibo dept.......... Bayamon dept___ Ponce department. Cane cutters: Arecibo dept.......... Bayamon dept___ Ponce department. 12 13 per 100 bags (c). 10.50 per day......... $0.50 Porto R ican.! 6 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9} 43 44 45 42 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5} 6 6 6 6 6 12 10 9} 10 8 8 8 8 9 8 8 8 8 12 12 72 $1.62$ per day.. 60 $1 per d ay........ 57 $1.50 per day... 60 $2.75 per d ay... 48 $1.75 per day (d ).. 48 $1.50 per day ( « ) .. 48 $1.25 per day (d ).. 48 $1.12$ per day.. 54 $1.12$ per day.. 44 $lp er d ay ........ 48 $1 per day (« ).. 48 $1 per day (d).. 48 $0.60 per day ( « ) .. 72 $1.40 per day ( / ) . . 72 $1.20 per day ( / ) . . 43 44 45 46 46 46 47 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 12 10 9} 8 8 8 12 72 60 57 48 48 48 72 $0.55 per $0.50 per $0.75 per $0.87 per $0.75 per $0.40 per $0.45 per 45 45 45 1 6 ol M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 9} 9} 9} 57 57 57 $0.56 per day. $0.50 per day. $0.25 per day. 43 44 45 46 46 1 1 1 1 1 M. M. M. M. M. Spanish........ Porto Rican. American___ French.......... French.......... 6 6 6 6 6 10 10 9} 9 9 60 60 57 54 54 $100 per m onth. . . $20 per week......... 44 44 44 44 44 45 46 47 47 47 47 47 1 23 10 19 2 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 9 9 9 9 9 54 54 54 54 54 47 (P ) s1 2 1 7 3 Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 (<> 6 6 6 6 6 12 12 12 12 12 % 72 72 72 72 72 day. day.. day.. day (d). day r ' day ( day ( (*) 1.62} 1.00 1.50 2.75 dl.75 d 1.50 d 1.25 1. 12} el.OO d 1.00 «.60 /1.40 /1.20 .55 d.8 7 d.75 «.40 /.4 5 .56 .50 .25 3.33} $50 per month (*). *1.91} $40 per month (*). * 1.53} $1 per d ay............. $0.60 per day........ $0.55 per day........ $0.50 per d ay........ $0.45 per d ay........ $0.02$per lOOlbs. («) $0.42 per to n (c )... $0.60 per day........ $0.50 per day........ $0.45 per day........ $0.40 per day........ $0.35 per day........ °B oy s. 5 N ot reported. c Contract work. d Employed at setting up machinery in new mill. « Ana house rent for one employee. /A n d house rent, estimated at $2 per month. 0 For 5 months, $78 per month; remainder of year, $48 per month. h And board and lodging, estimated at $15 per month. 1 Irregular. (*) 72 57 M. 45 33 Bag fillers: Ponce department. Bag marker: Bayamon dept___ Blacksmiths: Arecibo dept.......... 1.00 .60 .55 .50 .45 <*) (*>) .50 .45 .40 .35 836 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES— Continued. S U G A R P L A N T A T I O N S —Continued. Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy Sex. Nationality. per per per ment week. day. week. num ees. ber. Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. Cane cutters and haulPonce department. Cane cutters and load- 46 («) M. Porto Rican. 6 (ft) (ft) $0 .65p erton (c)... (a) Arecibo d e p t ......... 43 («) M. Porto Rican. 6 (ft) (ft) 46 46 46 (a) M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 (ft) 6 (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) $0.02* per 100 pounds, (c) $0.55 per ton ( c) . . . $0.37 per ton ( c ) .. . $0.35 per ton ( c ) .. . (a) (a) (a) (a) 46 (a) M. Porto Rican. (6) (ft) (ft) $0.40 per ca r(c). . . (a) 46 46 (®) (°) M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. (ft) 6 (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) $0.25 per 100(c)... $0.20 per acre(c).. (a ) 46 («) M. Porto Rican. (ft) (ft) (ft) $0.40 per acre(c).. (*) 45 («) M. Porto Rican. 6 (ft) (ft) $0.08 per c a rt(c).. (a) 45 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 (ft) 6 (ft) 6 (ft) (ft) 6 (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) $8 per acre(c)........ $5per acre(c)........ $4peracre(c)........ $2.75 per acre(c).. $2.25 per acre(c).. $1.50per acre(c).. $0.01* per vara (d ). $0.01 per vara(d) . $5 per aere(c)....... (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (ft) 12 9} 10 10 9 (ft) 72 57 60 60 54 $50 per m onth___ $8 per week........... $1 per d ay............. $60 per month ( c ) . $60 per month (e) . $40 per month (/) . $1.91* 1.33* 1.00 C2.30 C2.30 /1.53* Ponce department. Cane cutters, seed: Ponce department. Cane hole diggers: Ponce department. Cane hole markers: Ponce department. Bayamon dept___ Cane planters* Bayamon dept___ Ponce department. Cane weighers: Arecibo d e p t ......... Bayamon dept___ Guayama dept___ Ponce department. v«UO WcigUpi o Ruipui • Bayamon dept___ Carpenters: Arecibo d e p t ......... Bayamon dept___ Guayama dept___ Ponce department. Carpenters helpers: Bayam on dept___ Ponce department. (a ) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) («) (a) (a ) 43 44 45 42 42 46 1 1 1 1 1 2 M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. American___ Norwegian... French.......... 6 6 6 6 6 6 45 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 9* 57 $0.75 per d ay ........ .75 43 43 44 44 45 42 1 1 1 1 1 4 M. M. M. M. M. M. 6 6 6 6 6 6 12 12 10 10 9* 10 72 72 60 60 57 60 $1.12* per d ay___ $0.75 per d ay........ $1.50 per d ay___ $0.75 per d ay........ $1.75 per d ay___ $2.50 per d ay ........ 1.12* .75 1.50 .75 1.75 2.50 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 1 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. British West Indian. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 5* 6 6 6 6 5* 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 8 8 12 12 48 48 48 44 48 48 $2.50 per day (a) $1.62 per day ( » ) . . $1.50 per day (9 ).. $1.50 per d a y ........ $1.25 per day (ft) .. $1.12* per day (&). $1.12* per d a y ___ $0.70 per d ay........ $0.50 per d a y ........ $1.75 per d ay (< ).. $1.20 per day(<) .. 92.50 91.62 91.50 1.50 * 1.25 h 1.12* 1.12* .70 .50 <1.75 <1.20 54 48 44 72 72 2 M. Porto Rican. 6 9} 57 $1 per d ay............. 1 M. Porto Rican. 8 6 48 $0.75 per day (9) .. 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 48 $0.46 per day (A ).. 8 1 M. Porto Rican. 48 $0.35 per d ay........ 6 8 1 M. Porto Rican. 44 $0.25 per d ay ........ 8 5* 1 M. Porto Rican. 12 72 $0.75 per day(<) .. 6 ©Not reported. ^ Irregular, c Contract work. d Contract work: a vara=about 33 inches, e And board and lodging, estimated at 14 per week. / And board and lodging, estimated at $15 per month. o Employed at setting up machinery in new mill. AAnd house. < And house rent, estimated at $2 per month. (a ) 45 46 46 46 46 47 1.00 9.75 5 .46 .35 .25 <.75 837 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. S U G A R P L A N T A T I O N S —Continued. Occupation and lo cality. Cashier: Guayama dept___ Centrifugal tenders: Arecibo dept......... Ponce department. Chemists: Arecibo dept ____ Guayama d e p t___ Ponce department. Chemist’ s assistants: Ponce department. Chemist, distillery: Ponce department. Clerks: Guayama dept___ Clerk, disbursing: Ponce department. Clerks, distillery: Ponce department. Clerks, mill: Ponce department. Coachmen: Ponce department. Conductors, railroad: Guayama dept___ Cooks: Ponce department. Cook’ s helpers: Ponce department . Cooper: Bayamon dept___ Cultivators: Ponce department . Distiller: Bayamon dept___ Ditch cleaners: Ponce department. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy Sex. Nationality. per per per ment week. day. week. num ees. ber. 43 1 M. American___ 6 43 46 47 47 (&) (&) 5 4 M. M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6} 6 6 6 43 42 42 42 46 1 1 1 1 1 M. M. M. M. M. D utch........... Russian........ German........ Russian........ F r e n c h ........ 6 6 6 6 6 46 4 M. French.......... 46 1 M. Spanish........ 42 42 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 46 1 M. French.......... 6 46 46 1 1 M. M. French.......... French.......... 6 6 46 46 1 1 M. M. French.......... Spanish........ 6 6 46 46 46 1 2 1 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 10 ( c) 9 12 12 60 Equiv alent rate per day. Rates of wages. $175 per month («) «$6.71 $0.06 per bag ( d ) .. % $0.05 per bag(<0 .. 72 $2.50 pr. 100 bags (<*) 72 $8 per 100 bags(d). ( 6) «.77} *.73} 12 10 10 10 9 72 60 60 60 54 $100 per month ( /) . /3.83} $250 per month ( 9 ) . 9 9.58} $125 per month ( 9 ) . 9 4.79 $125 per month ( 9 ). 9 4.79 $160 per month (ft). ft 6.13} 6 9 54 $30 per month (ft ) 6 10 60 $50 per m onth___ 10 10 60 60 $75 per month ( 9 ) . $40 per month ( 9 ) . 9 54 $60 per m onth___ 2.30 10 10 60 60 $60 per m onth___ $30 per m onth___ 2.30 1.15 9 9 54 54 $40 per month ( f t ) . ft 1.53} $30 per month ( f t ) . ft 1.15 7 7 7 12 12 12 84 84 84 $5.50 per week(*j. $0.60 per day(*> . . $0.25 per day ( j ) . . 6 6 . ft 1.15 1.91} 9 9 2.87} 1.53} *.78} *.60 i .25 42 4 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $1.25 per d a y . . . . . 1.25 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 P. M. F. F. F. M. F. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 12 12 12 12 84 84 84 84 84 $0.40 per d a y (i) . . $0.40 per day (i) . . $2 per week ( ; ) ___ $1.87 per weefcfi) . $0.20 per d a y (/) . . $0.20 per d a y (j) . . $0.36£ per d a y ( i) . i.40 i.40 i .28} i 26} i .20 i.20 L 36} 46 46 46 2 1 1 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 7 7 84 84 84 $0.40 per day ( j ) . . $0.23 per d ay(i) . . $0.20 per day ( J ) . . J. 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 57 $1.37} per d a y .... 1.37} Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 6 6 6 6 $1.70 per acre(<*). . $1.50 per acre(d) . . $1.40 per acre(d) . . $1.20 per acre(d) . . $1 per acre(d).......... $0.50 per acre ( < * ).. $0.40 per acre (< * ).. $0.37} per acre ( & ) . $0.30 per acre (<*) .. $0.20 per acre (< * ).. (& ) (6 ) (6 ) (6 ) (6 ) (6 ) to M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. i M. Porto Rican. 45 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 45 (ft) h (& ) ( &) (* o (&> ?&) ?&) Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. ( c) ( c) 6 (c ) 6 6 6 (* ) ( c) (« ) h 12 12 12 9} ( c) (<0 (4 ( c) (c ) (c ) fc) (c ) ( c) ( c) 9* (« ) \c ) (c ) (c ) ( c) (c ) ( c) (c ) ( c) ( c) 57 $0.87} per day.___ 46 ( &) 6 («) $1.86 per acre (< * ).. M. Porto Rican. 46 ( &> M. Porto Rican. 6 (« ) (4 $0.40 per acre (< * ).. 46 ( &) 6 (<0 M. Porto Rican. (4 $0.20 per acre (< * ).. 46 h 6 (4 M. Porto Rican. (c) $0.15 per acre (<*) .. <*And house rent, estimated at $10 per month. &N ot reported, c Irregular, d Contract work. « Estimated. /A n d bonus of 1} cents per bag of 240 pounds of sugar. 9 With board ana lodging, estimated at $4 per week. * And board and lodging, estimated at |15 per month. * And house. i And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week. i. 40 i . 23 20 (b) (P ) ( &) ( 6) .87} (6 ) (6 ) (b) (6 ) 838 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES-Continued. SU G A R PLA N T A T IO N S—Continued. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Occupation and lo cality. Ditchers: Arecibo dept. Bayamon dept. Ponce department. Ditch men: Ponce department. Electrician: Ponce department.. Electrician, assistant: Ponce department.. Electrician’s helper: Ponce department.. Engineers: Bayamon d e p t.. . . Ponce department.. Engineer, distillery: Ponce department.. Engineer’ s helpers, mill: Ponce department.. Engineers, locomotive: Guayama d e p t.. . ’. Ponce department.. Engineers, mill: Guayama d e p t.. . . Engineers,mill, assist ant: Arecibo dept Ponce department Engineers, mill, chief: Arecibo dept___ _ Ponce department Engineer, pump: Guayama d e p t... Engineer, steam plow: Guayama d e p t.. . Rates of wages. 44 44 45 46 46 46 2 2 3 (O) (°) («) M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 1 8 30 19 13 15 10 12 3 7 2 4 3 01 8 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 46 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 46 1 M. Porto Rican. 6 46 1 M. Porto Rican. 45 45 45 47 2 1 1 2 M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto 46 1 M. French.......... 46 2 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $0.65 per d ay........ 42 42 2 2 M. M. 6 6 10 10 60 60 $3 per day(<)........ <3.00 $3 per day............. 3.00 46 1 M. American___ British West Indian. American___ 6 9 54 $100 per month (i) 42 42 1 1 M. M. American___ Porto Rican. 6 6 10 10 60 60 $200 per month (<) <7.67 $100 per month (A) A3.832 43 46 46 1 2 2 M. M. M. Porto Rican. French.......... French.......... 62 (*) 6 9 6 9 <») 54 54 $75 per m onth___ 2.652 $60 per month (i) . >2.30 $60 per month (<) . <2.30 43 46 1 1 M. M. English......... French.......... 62 6* (b \ $135 per month ( « ) i»4.78 $100 per month ( i ) >3.832 42 1 M. American___ 6 10 60 $141.50 per mo. (*). A5.422 42 1 M. American___ 6 10 60 $100 per month(n) »3.832 Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 9 9 92 <») (&) (*) 54 54 57 (6) (fr) $0.60 per day........ $0.60 $0.50 per d ay........ .50 $0,622 per day.___ .622 $0.80 per a cre(c). . (a) $0.40 per acre(c). . (a) $0.02 per vara (<*). (a) 10 10 9 9 9 10 (*) 10 9 9 9 10 9 9 12 60 60 58§ 492 492 55 (*) 60 582 492 582 55 492 582 84 $0.63 per day(« )... $0.50 per d a y («)... $0.50 per day........ $0.50 per d a y («)... $0.50 per d a y ( A . .. $0.50 per day(«)--$0.50 per day........ $0.46 per day(« )... $0.45 per day........ $0.40 per d a y (/)... $0.40 per day........ $0.40 per d a y («)... $0.30 per day( / ) . . . $0.20 per day........ $0.50 per day........ «.63 «.50 .50 «.50 /.5 0 «.50 .50 «.46 .45 /.4 0 .40 «.40 /.3 0 .20 .50 9 54 $1.75 per day........ 1.75 9 54 $1.25 per d ay........ 1.25 6 9 54 $0.75 per d ay........ .75 6 6 6 7 92 92 92 12 57 57 57 84 $0.80 per d ay........ $0.75 per day........ $0,622 per day.___ $0.80 per day......... .80 .75 .622 .80 6 6 6 6 6 (*) 6 6 62 52 52 52 7 6 6* 52 6* 5} 5* 6£ 7 (») (*) (b ) 9 K (b ) (*) M $200 per month (A) A6.572 « N ot reported. 6 Irregular, c Contract work. d Contract work; a vara= about 33 inches. « And house. /A n d breakfast of bread and coflee, estimated at 5 cents. 0B oy. AAnd house rent, estimated at $25 per month. <And board and lodging, estimated at $4 per week. 1 And board and lodging, estimated at $15 per month. AAnd house rent, estimated at $5 per month. l And house rent, estimated at $12 per month. » And bonus of 1 cent per 100 pounds of sugar. » And lodging, estimated at $3 per month. Equiv alent rate per day. .65 S3.832 839 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. S U G A R P L A N T A T I O N S —Continued. Occupation and lo cality. Fence men: Ponce department. Fertilizers: Bayamon dept----Ponce department. Field hands: Arecibo d e p t......... Bayamon d ept----- Guayama d ept___ Ponce department. Estab- Em D ays Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 5$ 5$ 5$ 5$ 5$ 5$ 6 6 5$ 45 46 (*) W M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 43 43 43 44 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 42 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 4 376 <20 5 9 10 1 1 «2 1 1 1 1 27 3 1 2 11 («) Ce ) F. M. M. M. M. M. M. F. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. (/) M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. (/) Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. (f) 1 4 2 2 2 1 1 15 24 3 7 1 8 7 2 <1 <2 <1 3 1 17 14 1 1 <6 1 20 (6) (b) (6) (6) 8 9 10 8 9 10 12 (<0 (<0 44 49$ 55 44 49$ 55 72 («) («) 66 6 11 66 6 11 66 6 11 54 6 9 54 6 9 54 9 6 60 6 10 54 6 9 54 9 6 57 6 9$ 57 6 9$ 57 6 9* 57 6 57 9$ 6 9$ 57 6 57 6 9$ 94 57 6 57 6 9* 27 9 3 57 6 9$ (/) (/) (/) 55 10 5$ 49$ 9 5$ 55 10 5* 6 60 10 55 10 58$ 9 6$ 66 6 11 49$ 9 5$ 49$ 9 5$ 55 5$ 10 58$ 9 6* 49$ 9 5$ 49$ 9 5* 49$ 9 5$ 66 6 11 58$ 9 6$ 49$ 9 5$ 66 6 11 72 6 12 84 12 7 72 6 12 72 6 12 84 7 12 72 12 6 72 6 12 72 6 12 72 6 12 6 00 00 (c\ 6 fci 6 (cj (c) 6 U Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 10.50 per d a y (o)... <*30.50 10.50 per d ay........ .50 30.50 per day......... .50 $0.40 per day(« )... a . 4 0 30.40 per day........ .40 30.40 per day........ .40 30.50 per d ay........ .50 30.50 per acre(d). . 30.80 per acre(d). . 30.55 per d ay........ 30.55 per day........ 30.30 per d ay........ 30.60 per day........ 30.55 per d ay........ 30.50 per day........ 30.50 per day........ 30.45 per day......... 30.35 per day........ 30.69 per day........ 30.62$ per day.___ 30.56$ per day.— 30.56 per day........ 30.50 per day........ 30.40 per day........ 30.35 per day........ 30.30 per day........ 30.25 per day........ 30.20 per d ay........ 30.15 per d ay........ _ (f) 30.63 per d ay(« )... 30.50 per day( 0 ) . .. 30.50 per d ay(<»)... $n.50 ppr day 30.46 per d ay........ 30.45 per d ay(o)... 30.45 per d ay........ 30.40 per day ( o ) . . . 30.40 per day........ 30.40 per day (a)... 30.40 per day (« )... 30.35 per d ay(0)... 30.35 per d ay........ 30.30 per d ay ( 0 ) . . . 30.30 per day........ 30.25 per day......... 30.20 per day (a )... 30.15 per d ay........ 30.60 per day........ 30.55 per d ay........ 30.50 per day........ 30.40 per day........ 30.40 per day........ 30.35 per d ay........ 30.20 per day........ 30.15 per day........ 30.12$ per d ay.___ 30.70 per acre(b).. 30.60 per acre m .. 31.20 per acre ( i ) .. 31.20 per acre(«) .. (*) (6) .55 .55 .30 .60 .55 .50 .50 .45 .35 .69 .62$ .56$ .56 .50 .40 .35 .30 .25 .20 .15 (/) a . 63 9 .5 0 a . 50 .50 .46 o.45 .45 9 .40 .40 a.40 o.40 9 . 35 .35 0.30 .30 .25 0.20 .15 .60 .55 .50 .40 .40 .35 .20 .15 .12$ (6) (6) *>) a And house. 6 N ot reported. c Irregular. d Contract work. « Boys. /A ll field work on this plantation is done by contract, there being about 600 men and boys and 30 females so employed. Men hired by the day earn from 50 to 60 cents, women 35 cents. 9 And breakfast of bread and coffee, estimated at 5 cents. h Heaping cane leaves. i Lining cane leaves. i Leveling land. * Weeding cane. 840 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, B Y OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES— Continued. S U G A R P L A N T A T I O N S — Continued. Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy ment ees. Sex. Nationality. per per per week. day. week. num ber. Firemen: Areeibo dept.'. 6 2 8 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 13 18 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 46 1 M. 42 3 46 1 43 44 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 46 46 47 Bayamon dept — Ponce department. Fireman, locomotive: Ponce department. Foremen, laborers, railroad: Guayama dept___ Foreman, laborers, yard: Ponce department. Furrow markers: Ponce department. Gardener: Ponce department. Grass cutters: Ponce department. 46 a a (») 1 47 Grass cutters and plowmen: Ponce department. Harrowers: Bayamon d ept___ Ponce department. Housekeeper: Ponce department. Housemaids: Ponce department. Laborers, distillery: Bayamon d ept___ Ponce department. Laborers, general: Areeibo dept.......... Ponce department. 6* 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 12 10 10 10 10 10 10 Porto Rican. 6 M. Porto Rican. 6 M. Porto Rican. M. Porto Rican. M. Porto Rican. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 (<0 7 Rates of wages. 6 78 60 60 60 60 60 60 57 57 54 54 36 10.70 per day......... $0.70 10.65 per day......... .65 10.55 per day......... .55 10.50 per day........ .50 10.45 per day........ .45 10.25 per day........ .25 10.20 per day........ .20 10.80 per day........ .80 .624 10.624 per day....... $0.75 per day......... .75 $0.55 per day......... .55 $0.65 per day........ .65 9 54 $0.62 per day........ .62 10 60 $2 per d ay............. 2.00 54 $0.70 per day......... 94 <4 9 9 9 <«) 12 (*) $0.45 per day(«) e.45 $1 per acre(d)....... $0.90 per acre(d).. $0.80 per acrefa).. $0.60 per a crefa).. $0.50 per acre(d).. ( 6) (b) ( 6) ( 6) (») («) $1.40 per acre(<*) .. $1,124 per acre(d) . $0,624 per acre(d) . ( 6) W («) (cl (c) $1 per acre(d)........ $4 per acre(d)....... $0,374 per acre(d) . $0.35 per acre(a) .. ( 6) ( 6) ( 6) ( 6) 84 46 46 46 46 46 ( 6) ( 6) ( 6) ( 6) M. M. M. M. M. 46 46 46 ( 6) ( 6) ( 6) M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. (<0 W 6 (cl ( Cl (c) 45 46 46 46 ( 6) ( 6) M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 (<0 ( c) 6 (cl (Cl (c) (c) 46 1 F. French.......... 7 12 84 $20 per month( / ) . /.6 6 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 1 1 F. F. F. F. F. F. F. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 $0.30 per d a y (/) . . /.3 0 $1.75 per week(/) . /.2 5 $0.25 per d ay( 7 ) / . 25 $1.50 per week ( f ) . /.2 1 4 $0.20 per d a y m / . 20 $0.35 per d a y (/) . . / . 35 $0,174 per d a y (/). . /.174 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 57 57 60 60 60 60 60 $0.50 per day........ $0.25 per day........ $0,624 per day....... $0.60 per day........ $0.50 per day........ $0.46 per day........ $0.40 per day......... M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 84 84 54 78 54 $3.50 per week___ $0.75 per day(fl') . . $0.60 per day......... $0.55 per d a y (/) . . $0.50 per day......... h ) h ) ( 6) 4 1 1 2 1 45 45 46 46 46 46 46 4 ol 43 46 46 46 46 1 1 1 1 2 2 5 7 4 7 Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. («) 6 6 6 6 7 7 64 6 (cl 1 Cl (cl (Cl (c) 94 9* 10 10 10 10 10 12 12 9 12 9 (c) ( Cl (Cl (Cl (c) («) w (c) Contract work. And house rent, estimated at $2 per month. / And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week. if And house. e .70 $1,124 per acre(d) . («) o Boys. b N ot reported. d Equiv alent rate per day. (&) .50 .25 .62, .60* .50 .46 .40 .50 if . 7 5 .60 /.5 5 .50 841 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. SU G AR PLA N T A T IO N S—Continued. Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. aay. week. num ber. Laborers, general— Concluded. Ponce department. Laborers, general, farming: Ponce department. Laborer, laboratory: Ponce department. Laborers, mul: Guayama dept — Arecibo dept. Bayamon d e p t___ Ponce department. 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 • C3 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 46 10 M. 46 1 M. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 84 84 54 55 84 84 84 84 54 Rates of wages. 10.50 per day(«) .. <*$0.50 $0.50 per day(6) -- 6.50 10.40 per day........ .40 10.40 per day(o) . . a.40 10.40 per day («) .. a . 40 $0.40 per day(&) .. 6.40 $0.37 per day(6) . . 6.37 $0.25 per day (<*) .. o.25 .15 $0.15 per day......... 7 7 6 5§ 7 7 7 7 6 12 12 9 10 12 12 12 12 9 Porto Rican. 6 12 72 $0.50 per day........ .50 Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $0.60 per day........ .60 42 6 40 M. Porto Rican. 10 60 $0.75 per day........ 42 6 10 60 $0.60 per day........ 110 M. Porto Rican. 42 6 10 60 $0.50 per day........ 50 M. Porto Rican. 42 6 10 60 $0.35 per day........ 20 M. Porto Rican. Q1 2 M. Porto Rican. 12 78 $0.85 per day........ 43 6£ 12 78 $0.60 per day........ 43 10 M. Porto Rican. 6£ 12 12 M. Porto Rican. 78 $0.55 per day........ 43 6§ 12 2 M. Porto Rican. 78 $0.40 per d ay........ 43 6£ 12 78 $0.30 per day........ 43 c6 M. Porto Rican. 2 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $0.60 per d ay........ 44 6 44 10 60 $0.55 per day........ 59 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $0.50 per day........ 44 17 M. Porto Rican. 22 M. Porto Rican. 6 10 60 $0.45 per day........ 44 6 10 60 $0.40 per day........ 33 M. Porto Rican. 44 6 10 60 $0.35 per day........ 44 «6 M. Porto Rican. 6 60 $0.25 per day........ 44 e ll M. Porto Rican. 10 e l l Porto Rican. 6 60 $0.20 per day........ 44 M. 10 6 57 $0.87§ per day....... 2 M. Porto Rican. 45 9£ 45 57 I0.62J per day....... 7 M. Porto Rican. 6 9f 6 57 $0.62 per day........ 45 8 M. Porto Rican. 9£ 57 $0.56£ per day....... 6 45 3 M. Porto Rican. 6 45 9& 57 $0.56 per day........ 15 M. Porto Rican. 9£ 57 $0.50 per day........ 6 45 28 M. Porto Rican. 57 $0.45 per day........ 6 45 1 M. Porto Rican. 9h 57 $0.40 per day........ 6 45 9£ 3 M. Porto Rican. 57 $0.25 per day........ 6 45 c6 M. Porto Rican. 9§ 9 2 M. Porto Rican. 6 54 $1 per d a y ............. 46 48 $0.87 per day(d) . . 8 2 M. Porto Rican. 6 46 54 $0.85 per day........ 9 6 46 1 M. Porto Rican. 48 $0.75 per day(d) .. 6 8 46 13 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $0.65 per d ay........ 46 2 M. Porto Rican. 48 $0.62 per day(d) . . 6 8 21 M. Porto Rican. 46 6 9 54 $0.62 per day........ 46 1 M. Porto Rican. 8 48 $0.60 per day(<*) .. 6 46 8 M. Porto Rican. 54 $0.60 per day........ 9 6 46 7 M. Porto Rican. 54 $0.55 per day........ 6 9 46 30 M. Porto Rican. 8 48 $0.50 per day(<*) .. 6 46 36 M. Porto Rican. 54 $0.50 per day........ 6 9 62 M. Porto Rican. 46 6 9 54 $0.45 per day........ 46 6 M. Porto Rican. 54 $0.40 per day........ 6 9 46 3 M. Porto Rican. 54 $0.35 per day........ 6 9 1 M Porto Rican. 46 12 72 $0.85 per day........ Porto Rican. 6 1 M 47 12 72 $0.80 per day........ Porto Rican. 6 47 1 M. 72 $0.70 per day........ 12 6 1 M. Porto Rican. 47 12 72 $0.65 per day........ 47 13 M. Porto Rican. - 6 12 72 $0.60 per day........ 6 47 13 M. Porto Rican. 12 72 $0.50 per day........ 6 36 M. Porto Rican. 47 72 $0.45 per day........ 12 6 47 11 M. Porto Rican. 72 $0.40 per day........ 6 12 47 5 M. Porto Rican. 12 72 $0.35 per day........ 6 47 1 M. Porto Rican. 72 $0.30 per day........ 12 6 47 «3 M. Porto Rican. 72 $0.25 per day......... 12 c l M. Porto Rican. 6 47 12 72 $0.20 per day......... 6 c2 M. Porto Rican. 47 a And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week. 6 And bouse. cBoys. <*Employed at setting up machinery in new mill. c Boys and old men. Equiv alent rate per day. .75 .60 .50 .35 .85 .60 .55 .40 .30 .60 .55 .50 .45 .40 .35 .25 .20 •S3 .62* .62 .56* .56 .50 .45 .40 .25 1.00 d .87 .85 <*. 7 5 .65 d .62 .62 <*.60 .60 .55 <*.50 .50 .45 .40 .35 .85 .80 .70 .65 .60 .50 .45 .40 .35 .30 .25 .20 842 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. S U G A R P L A N T A T IO N S —Continued. Occupation and lo cality. Laborers, pump: Bayamon dept___ Ponce department. Laborers, railroad: Quayama dept___ Laborers, skilled, mill: Guayama dept___ Laborers, tramway: Arecibo dept.......... Ponce department. Laborers, yard: Ponce department. Land dearers: Arecibo d ept.......... Ponce department. Land preparers: Ponce department. Lime burners: Ponce department. Machinists: Arecibo dept.......... Guayama d ept___ Ponce department. Estab- Em Bays Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. 45 45 46 2 1 2 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 42 42 20 20 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 3 4 3 4 14 10 25 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 44 44 44 45 46 47 1 3 62 4 2 2 M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 46 46 46 46 8 7 61 69 M. M. M. M. 44 44 44 44 46 1 4 13 61 (*) 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 U ) f Cl f c) 1Cl f Cl f Cl rci (c) (°) (c) (°) 47 43 43 43 43 44 44 44 44 42 42 42 42 46 46 46 46 46 Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 57 57 54 $0.62} per d a y ___ $0.62} 10.50 per d a y ........ .50 10.90 per d a y ........ .90 10 10 60 60 $1.25 per d a y ........ $0.75 per d a y ........ 1.25 .75 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 $2.75 per day ( « ) ... $2.50 per day (o ) ... $2.00 per day( « ) ... $1.75 per day( « )... $1.50 per day (a). . . $1.25 per day (a )... $1 per day (a )........ o2.75 o 2.50 o2.00 ol.75 ol.50 ol.25 a 1.00 Rican Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 5} 6 10 10 10 9* 10 12 60 60 60 57 55 72 $0.65 per day......... $0.60 per day........ $0.35 per day......... $0.62} per day.___ $0.50 per day........ $0.50 per day........ .65 .60 .35 .62} .50 .50 Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 9 54 54 54 54 $0.50 per day........ $0.45 per day........ $0.20 per day........ $0.15 per day........ .50 .45 .20 .15 M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 9 (<*) 54 54 54 54 $0.60 per d ay........ $0.55 per day......... $0.50 per d ay........ $0.30 per d ay........ $0.18f per acre(e).. .60 .55 .50 .30 ( c) M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. (d> (d) )d ) (d ) (d ) $1.22per acre( « ) . . $1 per acre(«)....... $0.90 per aere(«). . $0.80 per acre(«). . $0.75 per acre(«).. $0.73 per acre(«). . $0.60 per acre(«).. $0.50 per acre(<).. $0.40 per acre(e).. $0.37} per acre(«). $0.25 per acre(«). . ( c) (c) CCI 1C1 (c) 4 M. Porto Rican. 6 1 3 3 2 1 /I /12 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. American___ American___ Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6} 6} 6} 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 (d) ?di vV (d) (d) (d) (d ) (d ) 9} 9* 9 (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) 72 (C ) I c) ( c) (ci ( c) (c) $0.50 per day........ .50 12 72 $0.85 per day 12 78 $0.80 per day........ 12 78 $0.70 per d ay........ 12 78 $0.60 per day........ 11 66 $15 per week.......... 10 60 $7.50 per week___ 10 60 $0.65 per day......... n 60 $0.55 per day........ 10 i 60 $150 per month (0 ) 10 i 10 60 $3 per day ( o ) ........ 2 60 $2.75 per day (a )... 10 2 10 60 $2.50 per day(<*)... 2 8 48 $3.50 per day (ft). . . 2 8 48 $3 per day(ft)........ 1 9 54 $2.90 per day......... 1 48 $2.25 per day(ft). . . 8 7 8 48 $2 per day(ft)........ a And lodging, estimated at 13 per month. &Boys. cN ot reported. d Irregular. « Contract work. / Also act as engineers. Q And board and lodging, estimated at $4 per week, ft Employed at setting up machinery in new mill. .85 .80 .70 .60 2.50 1.25 .65 .55 if 5.75 03.00 02.75 0 2.50 ft 3.50 ft 3.00 2.90 ft 2.25 ft 2.00 12 « (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) vv (d) (d ) (d) (<*) 843 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. S U G A R P LA N T A T IO N S —Continued. Occupation and lo cality. Machinists—Conc’d. Ponce department. Machinist’ s helpers: Ponce department. Messenger: Arecibo dept.......... Overseers: Bayamon d ep t___ Ponce department. Overseers, field: Arecibo d ept.......... Guayama d ep t___ Overseers, field, asst.: Arecibo d ept.......... Guyama d ep t........ Overseer, gang: Arecibo dept.......... Overseers, general farming: Ponce department. Overseers, mill: Arecibo d ept.......... Guayama d e p t___ Ponce department. Ox feeders: Ponce department. Plowmen: Arecibo d ept.......... Bayamon d ep t___ Ponce department. Plumber: Ponce department. R attoon cultivator: Bayamon d ept___ Roller tenders: Ponce department. EstabHours Hours lish- Em Sex. Nationality. Days per per per ment ploy week. day. week. ees. num ber. Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 46 46 1 1 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 8 8 48 48 $1.25 per day(<*)... a$1.25 $1 per day ( « ) ........ <*1.00 46 46 46 1 1 2 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 9 9 9 54 54 54 $0.90 per day........ $0.85 per day........ $0.75 per d ay........ .90 .85 .75 43 1 M. Porto Rican. 7 8 56 $3 per week........... .43 45 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 5 3 2 3 1 5 1 1 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto R ican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 94 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 664 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 $30 per month (&) . 6.984 $0.80 per d a y (c)... c.80 $0.75 per d ay(<*}... <*.75 $0.70 per day(« )... «.70 $0.50 per day(« )... «.50 $0.50 per day (jQ. . . /.50 $10 per week (0) . . 01.43 $7 per week ( g ) . . . 01.00 43 44 42 42 1 1 1 2 M. M. M. M. Spanish........ Porto Rican. English......... German........ 6 6 6 6 11 11 10 10 66 66 60 60 $150 per m onth. . . 5.75 $20 per week......... 3.334 $150 per month (A) A5.75 $150 per month(A) A5.75 43 42 42 42 1 1 1 I M. M. M. M. Spanish......... Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 *6 6 11 10 10 10 66 60 60 60 $60 per m onth___ 2.30 $75 per month ( i ) . <2.87* $62 per month (t) . <2.374 $45 per month (*) . <1.724 43 10 M. Porto Rican. 6 11 66 $0.75 per d ay........ .75 46 46 46 2 1 1 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 7 7 7 $0.40 per day........ $0.33 per day........ $2 per week........... .40 .33 .284 44 42 42 47 47 47 47 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Rican American___ American___ Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 46 47 47 *16 *1 *9 M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 64 44 44 45 45 45 45 45 46 46 46 1 *2 2 1 1 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Mi M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 46 45 46 *3 *1 O) \m) Rican. Rican. R ican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. (J) 0) (j) M. Porto Rican. 6 (») M. Porto Rican. 6 (m ) M. Porto Rican. 6 1 « Employed at setting up machinery in new mill. 6 And house rent, estimated at 18 per month. « And house. 4 And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week. « And allowance of $0.50 per day for food. / And house and allowance of $3 per week for food. § And house rent, estimated at $2 per month. 7 7 (i) (i) 0) (j) (0 (1) 10 10 12 12 12 12 66 60 60 84 84 84 84 $10 per week......... 1 664 $100 per month (0 <3.83| $75 per month (* ). A2.874 $12 per week......... 1.714 $10 per week......... 1.43 $7 per week........... 1.00 $6 per week........... .854 10 12 12 55 84 84 $0.10 per day........ $0.20 per day........ $0,124 per day.___ .10 .20 54 54 57 57 57 57 57 $0.55 per day........ $0.25 per day........ $0.62 per d ay........ $0.50 per day........ $0.40 per d ay........ $0.20 per day........ $0.15 per day........ $1.75 per a cre(»).. $1,124 per a cre (»). $0.75 per a cre(»).. .55 .25 .62 .50 .40 .20 .15 11 9 9 9* 4 a y (i) 16 8 (i) 9 (f) 14 (4 48 (0 54 .1 2 4 (in's ( to) ( to) $3.50 per day (<*)... <*3.50 $0.40 per a cre(»). . (m) $0.04 per ton of cane. (») (TO) And house rent, estimated at $5 per month. <And lodging, estimated at $3 per month. Irregular. * And board and lodging, estimated at $4per week. * Boys. *» N ot reported. » Contract work. h i 844 BU LLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. S U G A R P L A N T A T IO N S —Continued. Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Stablemen: Arecibo dept......... Ponce department. Stenographer: Guayama d e p t___ Stock herders: Bayamon d e p t___ Ponce department. Storekeepers: Bayamon d e p t___ Guayama d e p t. . . . 43 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 47 Guayama d e p t___ Sugar boiler's assist ants: Arecibo dept......... Bayamon dept----- M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto P orto Porto P orto P orto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 7 7 6* 7 ‘ 7 6* 7 7 6* 7 7 7 7 7 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 10 42 1 M. American___ 6 45 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 47 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 62 61 3 61 61 </) 2 1 62 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto P orto P orto Porto P orto P orto P orto P orto Porto P orto P orto P orto P orto P orto P orto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 9* 7 12 6* 12 7 12 7 7 12 12 7 12 6* 12 7 6* 12 7 12 7 fa) 12 6* 12 7 12 6* 12 7 12 7 7 fa) 7 fa) 7 fa) 7 12 7 12 7 12 45 42 42 42 1 1 1 1 M. M. M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. American___ Porto Rican. 6 6 6 6 1 1 M. M. M. Cuban........... Porto Rican. Porto Rican. ? a American___ German........ Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. 6 6 6 6 6 6 Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Porto Rican. Sugar boilers: Arecibo dept......... » 43 44 Bayamon d e p t___ 45 Ponce department. 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 61 a 42 42 46 46 46 46 2 M. M. M. M. M. M. 44 44 45 1 2 1 M. M. M. i i i i i Rica*!. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 9* 10 10 10 $3.50 per week___ $0.50 $0.60 per day («) .. «.60 $0.50 per day (a) .. a .50 $0.50 per day (a) .. a .50 $0.45 per day (a) .. a . 45 $0.40 per day (a) .. a .40 $0.40 per day (a) .. o . 40 $0.40 per day........ .40 $0.25 per dayfa) .. a . 25 $0.25 per dayfa) .. o.25 $0.25 per day........ .25 $0.50 per day («) .. a.50 $0.45 per day (a) .. a .45 $0.25 per day (a) .. o.25 60 $40 per month ( c ) . c l. 53* 66* 78 84 84 84 84 78 84 78 84 fa) 78 84 78 84 84 fa) fa) fa) 84 84 84 57 60 60 60 (e\ 6 6 6 10 10 9 9 9 9 Equiv alent rate per day. 84 84 78 84 84 78 84 84 78 84 84 84 84 84 % 9* Rates of wages. 57 60 60 54 54 54 54 $1 per d ay............. $0.70 per dayfa) .. $0.64 per day fa) .. $0.60 per dayfa) .. $0.56 per day fa) .. $0.54 per day fa) .. $0.50 per day........ $0.50 per day........ $0.40 per dayfa) .. $0.40 per d ay........ $0.40 per d ay........ $0.30 per dayfa) .. $0.30 per d ay........ $0.25 per day........ $0.23 per d ay........ $0.20 per dayfa) .. $0.20 per d ay........ $0.18 per day........ fa) $0.50 per d ay........ $0.40 per day........ $0.20 per d ay........ 1.00 <*. 70 d .64 <*.60 <*.56 o.54 .50 .50 d .40 .40 .40 <*.30 .30 .25 .23 o.20 .20 .18 fa) .40 .20 $0.75 per day........ .75 $75 per m onth___ 2.87* $50 per month ( c ) . c 1.91* $40 per m on th fa ). c l. 53* $100 per m onthfa). 63.54 $25 per week......... 4.16* $0.08 per bag of *10.66* sugar. $75 per monthfa) . 62.87* $75 per monthfa) . k 2.87* $2.50 per d ay........ 2.50 $1 per day............. 1.00 $0.90 per day........ .90 $0.85 per d ay........ .85 10 60 $7 pftr waaIt 10 60 $5 per week........... 57 $0.87* per d ay ___ 9* ° And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week. 6 Boys. c And board and lodging, estimated at $4 per week. « And bouse. « Irregular. /N o t reported. 9 Contract work. Rate of pay not reported. h And bonus of 1 cent per 100 pounds of sugar. i Has general supervision over manufacture. i Estimated. * And lodging, estimated at 13 per month. 1.16* .83* .87* 845 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO, WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES^-Continued. SU G A R PL A N T A T IO N S —Continued. Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Sugar weighers: Ponce department. Sugar weighers and sackers: Ponce department. Superintendents: Bayamon dept___ Ponce department. Superintendents, as sistant: Ponce department. Superintendent, gen eral, farming: Ponce department. Superintendent, mill: Ponce department. Superintendent, rail road: Guayama dept___ Teamsters: Arecibo d e p t......... Bayamon d ept___ Ponce department. 46 46 1 1 M. M. French.......... Porto Rican. 6 6 9 9 46 <9 1 2 1 1 1 M. Porto Rican. (<9 M. M. M. M. M. D utch........... Spanish:___ Spanish........ Spanish........ Spanish........ 7 7 7 7 7 09 09 M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 45 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 2 2 46 1 1 M. (9 7 M. French.......... 6 42 1 M. American___ 43 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 5 3 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5* 6 54 46 3 1 2 2 22 7 1 i>3 9 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 10 (9 1 3 2 1 P i Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Rican. 7 6 7 6 6 7 5? 6% 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 <$ 09 09 09 54 54 09 § 09 09 09 12 11 12 11 11 12 84 09 12 09 10 12 10 10 10 10 10 94 94 94 10 12 9 9 10 9 12 12 09 12 12 12 12 Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. $30 per month (0 ) . «$1.15 $30 per month (6). 6 1.15 (9 (9 $180 per month (/) $100 per month (0 ) $100 per month (A) $80 per m onth (9 .. $50 per month (/) . /5.92 93.29 6 3.29 *2.63 J 1.644 $2 per day (* )------ * 2.00 66 $35 per month (1) . H.34 84 $35 per month (9 . 11.15 84 $25 per m onth(0 . 1.82 $150 per m on th .. . 4.93 66 $30 per m onth(«»). «*1.15 66 $25 per month (»»). ™.96 72 $200 per m onth(») »7.67 60 $175 per month ( 0) o6.71 72 60 60 60 60 60 57 57 57 55 72 494 49} 55 584 72 72 $0.55 per day........ $0.70 per day........ $0.60 per d ay........ $0.55 per day........ $0.50 per day........ $0.25 per day........ $0.50 per day........ $0.45 per day........ $0.20 per day........ $0.46 per day( 9) .. $2.50 per week(g) . $0.40 per day (9) .. $0.40 per day(n .. $0.40 per day (9) .. $0.40 per d ay........ $2.20 per week (9 ). $1.20 per week (9) . 72 72 84 72 $0.65 per day........ $0.60 per day........ $0.55 per day........ $0.45 per d ay........ 09 (9 .55 .70 .60 .55 .50 .25 .50 .45 .20 . 46 9.414 q 9.40 r .40 9.40 .40 9.364 9.20 (9 .65 .60 .55 .45 a And board and lodging, estimated at $15 per month, t And allowance of 50 cents per day for food. cN ot reported. d Irregular. e Contract work. Earnings not reported. /A n d house rent, estimated at $15 per month. 0 And house rent, estimated at $10 per month. A And house rent, estimated at $15 per month, and allowance of $16 per week for food for himself and two assistants. 1 And house rent, estimated at $10 per month, and allowance of $2.25 per day for food for himself and three assistants. i And house rent, estimated at $10 per month, and allowance of $11.20 per week for food for himself and two assistants. * And allowance of $7 per week each for food. 1And food, furnished oy superintendent. m And food, estimated at $3 per week. » And house rent, estimated at $20 per month, o And lodging, estimated at $3 per month. pB oys. 9 And house. r And breakfast of coffee and bread, estimated at 5 cents. « Contract work at rate of $3.75 per 44 cartloads of cane. 846 BU LLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OP LABOB. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Continued. S U G A R PLA N T A T IO N S—Concluded. Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Teamsters—Conc’d. Ponce department. Teamster’ s helpers: Ponce department. Timekeeper: Guayama dept — Top plant gatherer: Bayamon d ep t___ Waiter: Ponce department. Warehouseman: Ponce department. Watchmen: Ponce department. Watchmen, ditch: Ponce department. Watchmen, field: Arecibo d e p t......... Watchmen, m m : Arecibo d e p t......... Water boy: Bayamon d e p t___ Wiper, locomotive: Ponce department. W ood choppers: Ponce department. 47 47 47 1 1 1 M. M. M. 46 *3 42 42 1 3 Bates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day. 12 12 12 84 72 84 $0.45 per day(«) .. <*$0.45 .40 $0.40 per day........ $0.40 per day(o) .. <*.40 10 10 10 55 $0.20 per d ay........ 6 6 60 60 $75 per month ( c ) . c 2.874 $40 per month (<*) . 41.534 Porto Bican. Porto Rican. Porto Bican. 6 M. Porto Bican. H M. M. American___ Porto Bican. 7 7 .20 45 <«) M. Porto Rican. 6 </) $0.40 per car( 0) . . . (•) 47 1 1 M. Porto Bican. 7 12 84 $0.50 per day (ft) .. ft. 50 M. French.......... 6 9 54 $40 per month (*') . 1 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Bican. Bican. Rican. Bican. Rican. Bican. Rican. Rican. Rican. Bican. Rican. 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 12 12 12 12 12 12 6 12 12 12 12 84 84 84 84 84 84 42 84 84 84 84 $0.70 per d ay........ $0.60 per d ay........ $0.50 per day(ft) .. $0.50 per day (i) .. $0.50 per day........ $0.40 per day(i) .. $0.25 per day (ft) .. $0.86 per d ay........ $0.50 per day(«) .. $0.50 per day........ $0.45 per day........ .70 .60 ft.50 i.5 0 .50 i.40 ft.25 M. M. Porto Rican. Porto Bican. 7 7 12 12 84 84 $1 per week (ft)__ ft. 144 ft. 10 M. Porto Rican. 7 M. M. Porto Bican. Porto Bican. 7 7 12 12 6 6 94 57 $0.25 per d ay........ .25 9 54 $0.50 per d ay........ .50 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 46 46 43 43 44 45 46 46 3 3 7 8 4 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 (‘ ) M. Porto Bican. M. Porto Bican. M. Porto Bican. (/) (/) </) (/) </) 84 84 </) $0.70 per week (ft) . i 1.534 .86 <*.50 .50 .45 $8 par week .43 $4 par week _ . $3.50 per week___ .57 .50 $8 per 100 trees ( p ) . («) T A IL O R SH OPS. Apprentice: San Juan................ Tailors: (!) Ponce...................... San Juan................ 49 48 49 1 2 3 M. Porto Rican. 6 9 54 $1 per week........... $0,164 M. M. Porto Bican. Porto Rican. 6 6 10 60 54 $2 per day(*»)___ «» 2.00 $1 per d ay............. 1.00 9 ° And house rent, estimated at $2 per month. 6 Boys. c'And board and lodging, estimated at $4 per week. * And lodging, estimated at 13 per month. « N ot reported. /Irregular. 9 Contract work. ft And board and lodging, estimated at $2 per week. i And board and lodging, estimated at $15 per month, i And house. ft Employed on several plantations and receives pay from each, i Proprietors do all cutting. *» Average earnings, from piece rates, estimated by employer. 847 LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO, WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES, BY OCCUPATIONS AND LOCALITIES—Concluded. TOBACCO C U L T U R E . Occupation and lo cality. Estab- Em Days Hours Hours lish- ploy per per per ment ees. Sex. Nationality. week. day. week. num ber. Cultivators: Aibonito................. Field hands: Aibonito................. Harvesters: Aibonito................. Laborers, curing houses: Aibonito................. Teamsters: Aibonito................. Tobacco curers: A ibonito................. 50 435 M. Porto Rican. 50 600 <6) <«) 50 900 (b) Porto Ricane 50 30 M. 50 20 M. 50 30 M. Porto Rican. 6 <*) 10 60 $0.45 per day(«) .. « $0.45 $0.40 per day (a) .. a .40 60 $0.40 per day (a) .. a. 40 60 (d ) (<*) 6 10 Porto Rican. 6 10 Porto Rican. 6 (<*) Equiv alent rate per day. Rates of wages. $0.45 per day (a) .. a . 45 <*) (d) $0.40 per day (a) .. a . 40 <*) W $0.40 per day (a) .. a . 40 WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF SUPERINTENDENTS, PRINCIPALS, TEACHERS, AND JANITORS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. [Teachers employed in the public schools of the island receive, in addition to their salaries, which are >aid directly by the insular department of education, certain allowances for .house rent from the ocal school boards. These amounts vary from $3 to $8 per month in the rural districts and from $10 to $15 in the cities, and are presumably based upon the usual cost of house rent in the several localities, as well as the relative importance of the position held by the teacher. The salaries of teachers are paid in twelve monthly installments, although the school year consists of nine calendar months. During the three months’ vacation drafts in payment of salary are mailed to any address desired.] { Occupation. TTigh schools............................ Industrial schools................... Principals, acting: Common schools...................... Principal, supervising: Industrial schools................... Teachers: Common graded schools, Eng. Days Hours Hours per per per Rates of wages. week. day. week. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. American....... American....... American....... Porto R ican.. American....... Porto R ican.. Porto R ican.. 29 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 M. F. M. M. M. M. M. M. F. Porto R ican.. Porto R ican .. American....... American....... American....... American....... American....... American....... Porto R ican .. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 $675 per year. $675 per year. $1,500 per year. $1,200 per year. $1,000 per year. $1,500 per year. $1,200 per year. $1,000 per year. $9p0 per year. 18 3 M. F. Porto R ican.. Porto R ican.. 5 5 6 6 30 30 $540 per year. $540 per year. 1 M. American....... (/) 8 8 1 (/) 2 American....... 5 F. American....... 5 1 M. Porto R ican.. 4 M. 5 14 Porto R ican.. 5 F. American....... 5 F. 8 American....... 5 5 F. Porto R ican .. 5 Common graded schools, Span. 193 M. 162 Porto R ican .. 5 F. 5 5 M. Porto R ican.. 5 F. Porto R ican.. 5 « Average wages. 5 Males and females, c Principally Porto Ricans. «*Not reported. « About 2 per cent are of other nationalities. /Irregular. o Examinations and special work. 276—No. 61—06 M------- 9 $1,400 per year. $1,300 per year. $1,200 per year. $1,200 per year. $1,000 per year. $1,000 per year. 0 $1,800 per year 2 2 5 1 8 1 01 SSSSSSS Principals: Common schools...................... Nationality. s s s s s s s Superintendents: Common schools..................... Em ploy Sex. ees. (/) 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 $2,500 per year. $675 per $540 per $540 per $540 per $540 per $450 per $450 per $450 per $405 per $405 per year. year. year. year. year. year. year. year. year. year. 848 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF SUPERINTENDENTS, PRINCIPALS, TEACHERS, AND JANITORS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS—Concluded. Occupation. Teachers—Concluded. Common rural schools............ Common night schools........... High schools............................ Industrial schools................... Teachers of agriculture: Common schools...................... Teachers of drawing: Common schools...................... Teachers of English: Common schools...................... Teachers of kindergarten: Common schools..................... Teachers of music: Common schools...................... Janitors: Common schools...................... Em ploy Sex. ees. 2 332 135 45 36 26 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 19 1 6 4 4 2 2 1 2 3 2 6 6 1 1 1 3 3 3 M. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. M. F. M. M. F. M. F. F. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. F. M. F. M. F. F. M. F. F. F. 9 2 3 24 33 15 23 Nationality. Days Hours Hours per per per week. day. week. Porto R ican .. Porto R ican.. Porto R ican.. Porto R ican.. Porto R ican.. Porto R ican.. Porto R ican .. American....... American....... Porto R ican.. American....... American....... Porto R ican.. American....... American....... American....... American....... Porto R ican .. American....... Porto R ican .. American....... Porto R ican .. Porto R ican .. American....... American....... Porto R ican.. American....... American....... American....... American....... Porto R ican .. Porto R ican.. Porto R ican.. Porto R ican.. American....... Porto R ican.. Porto R ican .. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 M. Porto R ican .. M. F. American.-___ American....... M. F. M. F. American__ American....... American....... American....... 6 6 6 6 6 Rates of wages. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 30 30 30 30 30 (*) (&) 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 5 6 30 $540 per year. 5 5 6 6 30 30 $675 per year. $675 per y ea r.. 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 30 30 30 30 $540 per year. $54Q.per year. $450 per year. $450 per year. (? ) (&) “ $360 per year. $270 per year. $270 per year. $225 per year. $225 per year. $90 per year. $90 per year. $1,200 per year. $1,200 per year. $1,200 per year. $1,000 per year. $1,000 per year. $1,000 per year. $900 per year. $800 per year. $750 per year. $750 per year. $750 per year. $675 per year. $675 per year. $585 per year. $585 per year. $585 per year. $900 per year. $900 per year. $900 per year. $750 per year. $720 per year. $675 per year. $675 per year. $675 per year. $675 per year. $630 per year. $585 per year. $540 per year. $450 per year. $225 per year. 2 F. Porto R ican .. 5 6 30 $450 per year. 2 F. American....... 5 6 30 $675 per year. 2 1 1 2 1 1 M. F. M. M. M. M. Porto R ican .. Porto R ican .. American....... Porto R ican .. Porto R ican .. Porto R ican.. 5£ 54 5| 5£ 10 10 10 10 10 10 55 55 55 55 55 55 $360 per year. $360 per year. $360 per year. $240 per year. $180 per year. $168 per year. “ No allowance for house rent. &Not reported. 51 849 LABOR CONDITION'S IN PORTO RICO. WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN ROAD REPAIR ING BY BOARD OF PUBLIC WORKS. Occupation. Foremen.................. Laborers.................. Em ploy ees. Sex. 1 1 1 2 X 4 51 20 22 1 2 17 33 a 1 a 1 3 6 M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. Boy. & Irregular. Nationality. Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Porto Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... Rican......... R ican......... Days Hours Hours per per per week. day. ! week. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 ![ 8 | 8 8 ! 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 (&) (6) 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 (*) ( 6) Rates of wages. ! $0.12* per h o u r . $0.50 per d a y ... Ii $0.75 per d a y ... j $0.66 per d a y ... !; $0.64 per d a y ... :! $0.60 per d a y ... $0.50 per d a y ... $0.48 per d a y ... $0.40 per d a y ... $0.30 per d a y ... $0.25 per d a y ... $0.06 per h o u r .. $0.05 per hour .. $0.03 per hour .. $0.02 per hour .. (C) (<*) Equiv alent rate per day $1.00 .50 .75 .66 .64 .60 .50 .48 .40 .30 .25 .48 .40 .24 .16 ( c) (rf) c Crushing stone for road ballast at $0.55 per cubic meter. Crushing stone for road ballast at $0.50 per cubic meter. a d WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN TELEGRAPH SERVICE BY BUREAU OF INSULAR TELEGRAPH. Occupation. Clerks......................... Linemen..................... Messengers................ Operator, chief......... Operators.................. Receiving and dis bursing officer. Stenographer............ Superintendent......... Em ploy ees. Days Hours Hours per per per ! week. day. week. i Rates of wages. Equiv alent rate per day Sex. Nationality. 1 2 1 9 1 3 7 3 1 1 1 3 4 1 2 1 10 2 3 1 16 11 1 M. F. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. F. M. M. M. F. M. F. M. Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... American.............. American.............. American.............. American.............. Porto Rican......... American.............. Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... American.............. Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... Porto Rican......... American.............. 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 8 10 8 8 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 8 48 70 56 56 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 48 $400 per year... $480 per year... $720 per year... $480 per year... $240 per year... $180 per year... $120 per year... $60 per year__ $1,080 per year. $1,080 per year. $1,000 per year. $900 per year... $900 per year... $840 per year... $840 per year... $840 per year... $720 per year... $600 per year... $600 per year... $600 per year... $480 per year... $480 per year... $1,200 per year. $1.32 1.311 1.97* 1.31* .66 .49* .33 .16* 2.96 2.96 2.74 2.46* 2.46* 2.30 2.30 2.30 1.97* 1.64* 1.64* 1.64* 1.31* 1.31* 3.83* 1 1 M. M. American.............. American.............. 6 6 8 8 48 48 $900 per year... $1,800 per year. 2.87* 5.75 850 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. LAWS RELATING TO LABOR IN PORTO RICO. REVISED STATUTES AND CODES— 1902. R e v is e d S t a t u t e s . E m p lo ym en t o f children . Section 166. No child o f either sex, under sixteen years shall be compelled to work in agricultural factories and manufacturing establishments over six hours per day, three in the morning and three in the afternoon. All persons who shall violate this provision shall be fined in a sum o f from five to fifteen dollars, or imprisonment not to exceed thirty days for each offense. Sec. 167. No foreman, teacher or other person having under his charge the work, care or education of a minor under sixteen years of age, shall resort to inhumane treatment to compel such minor to work or to study. Any violation o f the provisions hereof shall be punished with a fine o f from five to fifteen dollars or imprisonment not to exceed thirty days for each offense. P rotection o f em p loyees as v o te r s . Section 289. ♦ * * if an employer o f laborers or an agent o f such employer threatens to withhold the wages of, or to dismiss from service any laborer in his employment, or refuse[s] to allow any such employee the time to attend at the place o f election and vote, [he] shall be guilty o f a felony, and disfran chised and rendered incapable o f holding any office of trust or profit for any determinate period. L ia b ility o f em p loyers fo r in ju ries to em p loyees. Section 322. Where, after the passage of this act, personal injury is caused to an employee who is himself in the exercise o f due care and diligence at the time: 1. By reason of any defect in the condition o f the ways, works, or machinery, connected with, or used in the business of the employer, which arose from or had not been discovered or remedied owing to the negligence o f the employer or of any person in the service of the employer and entrusted by him with the duty of seeing that the ways, works, or machinery, were in proper condition; or 2. By reason of the negligence o f any person in the service o f the employer entrusted with the exercising of superintendence whose sole or principal duty is that of superintendence; or 3. By reason of the negligence o f any person in the service o f the employer who has charge of, or physically controls, any signal switch, locomotive engine, car or train in motion, whether attached to an engine or not, upon a railroad, the employee, or, in case the injury results in death, his widow or children, or both o f them, and if there be no such widow and children, then his parents (pro vided that said parents were dependent upon such employee for support) may maintain an action for damages against the employer, pursuant to the pro visions of this act. S eo . 323. When an employee receives a personal injury under any o f the con ditions enumerated in section 1 hereof [sec. 322], he may bring an action against his employer before the proper district court to recover damages for such injury. The damages so recovered shall not exceed the sum o f two thousand dollars, and in assessing the amount of such damages the court shall take into consideration the degree of culpability o f the employer, or o f the person for whose negligence the employer is liable hereunder, the sums expended by the employee for medical attendance, for drugs, medicines and similar necessary expenses, and the loss o f wages while recovering from the in ju ry; the court shall also take into consideration the physical pain and suffering caused by the injury. I f the injury be of such character as to permanently impair the earning capacity of the employee, the court shall include in the damages awarded an allowance for such loss. In case the injury results in a temporary impairment o f his earn ing capacity, the court, in addition to pain and suffering and the expenditures for medical services and drugs, shall take into consideration the average rate of wages which, under ordinary conditions, he might have earned if not injured. Sec. 324. In case of the death of the employee before the termination of the action so brought against the employer, it may be continued in the name o f his LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 851 widow or children, and if there be no such widow or children, then in the name of his parents, if they, or either o f them, were dependent upon such employee for support at the time of the injury. If it shall appear in any action so con tinued in the name o f the widow, children or parents o f a deceased injured employee that the death was the result of the injury, damages shall be assessed by the court in a sum not to exceed three thousand dollars; and the court shall estimate such damages in accordance w ith : (a) The degree o f culpability o f the employer or of the person for whose negligence the employer is liable. (b) The material damage incurred by the claimant or claimants through the death o f the employee in accordance with the actual needs that said claimant or claimants had to depend upon the wages of such employee for their support, taking into consideration his earning capacity and his probabilities of life, at the time o f the accident. Sec. 325. When, before having commenced an action hereunder, an employee dies as the result o f personal injury received under any o f the conditions enumerated under section 1 hereof [sec. 322], his widow, children, or both of them, or if there be no such widow or children, then his parents, provided such parents were dependent upon such employee for support at the time o f the injury, may maintain an action against the employer before the proper district court, for damages caused by the death of such employee. Such damages shall not exceed the sum o f three thousand dollars and shall be fixed by the court in accordance with: (a ) The degree of culpability of the employer or o f the person for whose negligence the employer is liable. (b) The material damage incurred by the claimant or claimants through the death of an employee in accordance with the actual needs that such claimant or claimants had to depend upon the wages o f such employee for their support, taking into consideration his earning capacity and his probabilities o f life, at the time of the accident. S e c . 326. The court, when fixing the amount o f damages to be paid in case o f death by personal injury under this act, shall determine the amount due to each of the claimants in proportion to the material damages incurred by each o f them in accordance with the actual needs which each of them had to depend upon the wages of the employee whose death was caused by accident. S ec . 327. No action for the recovery of damages for injury or death under the provisions o f this act shall be maintained unless notice o f the time, place and cause of the injury is given to the employer within thirty days after the injury is received or unless it is commenced within six months from the date of the injury. The notice required by this section shall be in writing, signed by the person injured or by some one in his behalf; but if from physical or mental incapacity it is impossible for the person injured to give the notice within the time provided in said section, he may give the same within ten days after the incapacity is removed, and in case o f his death without having given the notice and without having been at any time after his injury of sufficient ca pacity to give the notice the person or persons entitled to claim compensation pursuant to the provisions o f this act, or their representatives, may give such notice within thirty days after the death o f such employee. But no notice given under the provisions o f this section shall be deemed to be invalid or insufficient solely by reason o f any inaccuracy in stating the time, place or cause of the injury: P ro vid ed , It is shown that there was no intention to mislead, and that the party entitled to notice was not in fact misled thereby. S e c . 328. Whenever an employee [employer] enters into a contract, either written or verbal, with an independent contractor to do part o f such employer’s work, or whenever such contractor enters into a contract with a subcontractor to do all or any part o f the work comprised in such contractor’s contract with the employer, such contract or subcontract shall not bar the liability of the employer for injuries to the employees o f such contractor or subcontractor, by reason of any defect in the condition of the ways, works, machinery, or plant, if they are the property of the employer, or furnished by him, and if such defect arose or had not been discovered or remedied through the negligence o f the employer or of some person entrusted by him with the duty o f seeing that they were in proper condition. S e c . 329. No employee, or his widow or children, or either o f them, or his parents, if there be no such widow or children, shall be entitled under this act to any right o f compensation or remedy against the employer in any case where such employee knew o f the defect or negligence which caused the injury, and 852 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR. failed within a reasonable time to give, or cause to be given, information thereof to the employer, or to some person superior to himself in the service of the employer who had entrusted to him some general superintendence. Sec. 330. Any employer wTho shall have contributed to an insurance fund created and maintained for the mutual purpose o f indemnifying an employee for personal injuries for which compensation may be recovered under this act, or who has insured the said employee in any insurance company against the accidents of labor, shall be entitled to have deducted from the sum which he shall have to pay as compensation under the provisions of this act, the amount that shall have been received by the person injured, or by his widow, or chil dren, or both o f them, or by the parents, if there be no such widow and children, from the aforesaid fund or from the insurance company, by reason of the same accident. S e c . 331. This act shall not apply to injuries caused to domestic servants, or farm laborers, by fellow employees. C ontracts o f em p loym en t — E n fo rcem en t. S e c t io n 369. Every person who shall bring an action for the fulfillment of any obligation, may obtain an order from the court having cognizance o f the suit providing that the proper measures be taken to secure the effectiveness o f the judgment, as the case may require it, should it be rendered in his favor. S e c . 370. The effectiveness o f the judgment shall be secured in the following manner: * * * * * * * (c) I f the obligation consists in the doing o f a thing an attachment shall be issued against the person who is under such obligation for a sum necessary to execute the work left undone or done otherwise than as provided in the agreement.' * ♦ ♦ * ♦ ♦ * Lahor com binations n ot unlawful. S e c t io n 553. The orderly and peaceable assembling or cooperation of persons employed in any calling, trade or handicraft, for the purpose of obtaining an advance in the rate of wages or compensation, or o f maintaining such rate, shall not be unlawful, nor shall it be unlawful for such persons to organize trade or labor assemblies or unions for the purpose o f bettering the mental and material condition of the members thereof by lawful peaceable means. In tim id ation o f em p loyees. S e c t io n 554. The employment o f force, violence, intimidation or menace, or any form of coercion, by any person, or by persons associated together, against any other person or persons, whether with the object o f preventing them from freely pursuing their employments, professions or trades or whether with the object o f influencing the price or remuneration paid for their work, shall be a misdemeanor, and any person convicted thereof shall be imprisoned not less than thirty days nor more than one year, or fined not less than ten dollars nor more than five hundred dollars, or both fined and imprisoned. H o u rs o f labor on public w o rk s — R esid en ts. S e c t io n 624. * * * no laborers shall be compelled to work more than eight hours per day, and they shall be, if possible, residents o f the municipality. E xa m in a tion and licensing o f plum bers. S e c t io n * * * 764. [It shall be the duty o f the board o f health] to establish rules for examination and licensing o f plumbers ♦ * ♦ P e n a l C ode . P ro tectio n o f em p loyees as voters. S e c t io n 188. * * * if an employer o f laborers or any agent of such em ployer threatens to withhold the wages of, or to dismiss from service any LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO. 853 laborer in his employment, or refuses to allow to any such employee time to at tend at the place of election and vote, [he] shall be fined not more than one thousand dollars nor less than twenty dollars, or imprisoned in the peniten tiary not more than five years nor less than one year, and disfranchised and rendered incapable o f holding any office of trust or profit for any period not exceeding ten years. E m p lo ym en t o f children— Certain em p loym en ts forbidden. S e c t io n 265. Any person, whether as parent, relative, guardian, employer or otherwise, having in his care, custody, or control any child under the age of twelve years, who shall sell, apprentice, give away, let out, or otherwise dispose o f any such child to any person, under any name, title, or pretense, for the voca tion, use, occupation, calling, [or] service of begging, or peddling, in any public street or highway, or in any mendicant or wandering business whatsoever, and any person who shall take, receive, hire, employ, use, or have in custody any child for such purposes, or either of them, is guilty of a misdemeanor. N egligence o f operators o f steam boilers , etc. S e c t io n 325. Every engineer or other person having charge o f any steam boiler, steam engine, or other apparatus for generating or employing steam, used in any manufactory, railway, or other works, who willfully, or from igno rance, or gross neglect, creates or allows to be created such an undue quantity of steam as to burst or break the boiler, or engine, or apparatus, or cause any other accident whereby human life is endangered, is guilty of a felony. Sec. 326. Every person having charge of any steam boiler or steam engine, or other apparatus for generating or employing steam used in any manufactory, or on any railroad, or in any vessel, or in any kind of mechanical work, who will fully or from ignorance or neglect, creates, or allow.s to be created, such an undue quantity o f steam as to burst or break the boiler, engine, or apparatus, or to cause any other accident whereby the death o f a human being is produced, is punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary for not less than one nor more than ten years. S e c . 327. Evdry captain or other person having charge o f any steamboat used for the conveyance o f passengers, or o f the boilers and engines thereof, who from ignorance or gross neglect, or for the purpose of excelling any other boat in speed, creates, or allows to be created, such an undue quantity o f steam as to burst or break the boiler or any apparatus or machinery connected therewith, by which bursting or breaking human life is endangered, is guilty of a felony. S e c . 328. Every conductor, engineer, brakeman, switchman, or other person having charge, wholly or in part, of any railroad car, locomotive, or train, which is used as a common carrier, who willfully or negligently suffers or causes the same to collide with another car, locomotive, or train, or with any other object or thing whereby the death of a human being is produced is pun ishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary for not less than one nor more than ten years. In toxica tion o f railroad e m p lo yees , etc. S e c t io n 344. Every person who is intoxicated while in charge o f a locomotive engine, or while acting as conductor or driver upon any railroad train or car, whether propelled by steam or electricity, or while acting as train dispatcher, or as telegraph operator, receiving or transmitting dispatches in relation to the movement o f trains, is guilty of a misdemeanor. P ro tectio n o f em p loyees as m em bers o f labor organizations. 465. Any person or corporation within Porto Rico, or agent or officer on behalf of such person or corporation, who shall hereafter coerce or compel any person or persons to enter into an agreement, either written or verbal, not to join or become a member o f any labor organization, as a condition o f such person or persons securing employment or continuing in the employment o f any such per sons or corporation, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor. S e c t io n S u n day labor. S e c t io n 553. On every Sunday commercial and industrial establishments, excepting public markets, pharmacies, bakeries, hotels, restaurants, cafes, and 854 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, places where refreshments only are served, excepting also public and quasi public utilities and works o f emergency, necessary to prevent unusual and seri ous financial loss, shall remain closed and do no business whatever after twelve o’clock noon. This prohibition shall not, however, extend to theaters and other places devoted exclusively to amusements or to charitable purposes; at all such places it shall be lawful to work at any hour on Sunday, but only in aid o f such charitable purposes or amusements. S e c . 554. The municipal council of any municipality may, by ordinance, re quire commercial and industrial establishments, including those excepted in section 553, or any o f them, to remain closed at all hours on Sunday, excepting the works of emergency therein mentioned. Sec. 556. Any person, firm or corporation violating the provisions o f this title, or any part thereof, or o f an order issued by an alcalde or ordinance passed by a municipal council under the authority o f this title, shall be fined in the police court for the first offense in a sum which shall not be less than five dol lars ($5) nor exceed ten dollars ($10) ; and for a subsequent offense, in a sum which shall not be less than ten dollars ($10), nor exceed twenty-five dollars ($25). And for this purpose, the police courts shall have jurisdiction to impose the fines herein provided; and in all cases in which the fine imposed shall ex ceed, excluding costs, the sum o f ten dollars ($10), an appeal may be taken to the proper district court in the manner provided by law for other appeals from the police courts. In default of the payment o f any fine imposed hereuuder [hereunder] within three days after the judgment shall have been entered or the appeal dismissed, the person convicted shall pay the said fine by imprison ment in the municipal jail, or in any other penal institution, at the rate o f one day for each half dollar o f said fine remaining unpaid. C i v i l C ode . E arn in gs o f m in ors. S e c t io n 225. Property acquired by an unemancipated child by labor or indus try, o f for any valuable consideration, belongs to the said child, but the usufruct thereof belongs to the parents having potestas over him whilst he lives in their company; but if the child, with the consent o f his parents, lives* independently, he shall be deemed emancipated for all effects as regards the said property, and he shall be the full owner and have the usufruct and administration thereof. E arn in gs , S e c t io n * etc., o f m arried w om en. 1314. The following is the separate property of each o f the spouses: * * * * * * 2. That acquired for a good consideration by either of them during the marriage. * * * * * * * E m p lo y m e n t o f labor— G eneral provisions. S e c t io n 1486. This class o f services [services o f paid servants and laborers] may be contracted without a fixed period, for a fixed period, or for a specific work. A hiring for life is void. S e c . 1487. A domestic servant hired for a fixed time and to be employed in the personal service of his master, or o f the family o f the latter, may leave the service or be dismissed before the expiration o f the term ; but if the master dismisses the servant without sufficient cause, he shall indemnify him by pay ing him the wages due and those for fifteen additional days. The master shall be believed, unless there is proof to the contrary— 1. With regard to the amount of the wages o f the domestic servant. 2. With regard to the payment o f the wages earned during the current year. S e c . 1488. Besides what is prescribed in the preceding sections with regard to masters and servants, the provisions o f special laws and ordinances shall be observed. S e c . 1489. Field hands, mechanics, artisans, and other laborers hired for a certain time and for a certain work can not leave nor be dismissed, without sufficient cause, before the fulfillment o f the contract. LABOR CONDITIONS IN PORTO RICO, 855 S e c . 1490. The dismissal o f the servants, mechanics, artisans, and other hired laborers to which the preceding sections refer gives the right to dispossess them of the implements and o f the buildings which they may occupy by reason o f their duties. Sec. 1491. The execution o f a work may be contracted for by agreeing that the person who is to execute the same shall give his labor or industry only, or that he furnish the materials also. Sec. 1492. I f the person who contracted for the work bound himself to fur nish the materials, he shall suffer the loss in case o f the destruction o f the work before it is delivered, unless there has been delay in receiving it. Sec. 1493. A person who has bound himself to give his labor or industry only can not demand any payment if the work is destroyed before it is delivered, unless there should have been delay in receiving the same, or if the destruction should have been due to the bad quality of the materials, provided that he may have given due notice o f this circumstance to the owner. Sec. 1495. A person who binds himself to do a work by piece or by measure may demand of the owner that he receive it in installments, and that he pay therefor in proportion. The part paid for shall be presumed as approved and received. Sec. 1498. When a certain work has been intrusted to a person by reason o f his personal qualifications, the contract is rescinded by the death of said person. In such case, the owner must pay to the heirs o f the constructor [con tractor?], in proportion to the price agreed upon, the value o f the part of the work executed, and that of the prepared materials, provided he may obtain any benefit from such materials. The same shall be understood if the person who contracted for the work can not finish it by reason of any cause independent of his will. Sec. 1499. A contractor is responsible for the work done by the persons he employs thereon. Sec. 1500. Those who furnish their labor and materials in a work agreed upon for a lump sum by a contractor have no action against the owner, except for the amount the latter may owe the former when the action is brought. Sec. 1501. When it should be agreed that the work is to be done to the satis faction o f the owner, in the absence o f his acceptance the approval is understood as reserved for the proper expert judgment. I f the person who has to approve the work is a third person, his decision shall be final. Sec. 1502. Should there be no agreement or custom to the contrary, the price for the work must be paid upon delivery. Sec. 1503. A person who has executed a work on personal property has the right to retain the same as a pledge until he is paid therefor. ACTS OF 1904. E igh t-h ou r d a y . (Page 81.) Section 1. Eight hours shall constitute the maximum length o f a working day for any work performed and paid out of funds from the municipalities, school boards, and all other dependencies o f the people o f Porto Rico. Sec. 2. In all contracts for work to be paid out o f the funds of the people o f Porto Rico, municipalities, or school boards, each o f said contracts shall contain a provision limiting a day’s work to eight hours. Sec. 3. In works of a public nature, a working day may be lengthened only in cases where the lives and property o f the inhabitants o f a municipality or o f the Insular government would be endangered, if same were not done. This act shall not apply to the Insular police force, internal-revenue agents, telegraph operators and telegraph messengers, nor to the clerks of the departments of the Insular government when, in the opinion o f the heads o f such departments, work beyond eight hours by them is necessary in the interest of the public service. Sec. 4. Any person who shall w illfully or m aliciously violate the provisions o f this act, except as specified in section 3 hereof, shall be guilty o f misdemeanor. Approved March 10, 1904. 856 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. CODE OF CIVIL PROCEDURE. E x em p tio n s o f w a g es from execu tion. S e c t io n 249. (As amended by act page 7, acts o f 1904, extraordinary session). In addition to the homestead exempted by the homestead law, the following property belonging to an actual resident of this island is exempted from execu tion, except as herein otherwise specially provided: * * * * * * * 7. The earnings of the judgment debtor for personal services rendered at any time within thirty days next preceding the levy o f execution, or levy o f attach ment, when it appears by the debtor’s affidavit, or otherwise, that such earnings are necessary for the use o f his family residing in this island, supported wholly or in part by his labor: P ro vid ed , This act shall not authorize the garnishment of the fees or salary of any public officer of employee. * * * * * * * A DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. («) B Y E T H E LB E R T S T EW A R T. IN TRODU CTION . That a number o f disconnected typographical societies existed in various parts o f the United States prior to the formation of the unions as now constituted, while not perhaps generally known, will not be new to students o f the history o f labor organizations. The references to these early organizations are usually hazy, containing no more than a mere statement that they existed at certain dates, with no evidence offered o f the truth o f even these statements. In this article it is believed the first attempt is made to be specific in the information presented about these early organizations. In this re spect at least the article represents pioneer work in its field, not only in the reproduction of documents, but in the resort to minute books o f these societies, as a source of information about other kindred societies. Thus the transcription of circular letters from other societies, upon the records o f the Columbia Society, or the New York or Philadelphia societies, has furnished documentary proof of the existence o f many printers’ organizations nowhere else referred to. So far as the documents could tell the story little else has been said. Such explanation as seemed absolutely necessary to an understanding o f the documents, as, for instance, the changing industrial conditions \yhich prompted the intense feeling against the professional editor or publisher who was not at the same time a “ practical printer ” has been given briefly in notes; while the effect of the great employ-your self movement socialism o f 1830 to 1850, so apparent in the radi calism o f the documents of that period, is briefly referred to in the text. The addresses “ to the trade ” or “ to the public ” have been re produced in full, and for the most part without comment, the one object always kept in view being to let the workingmen of that period tell their own story. Point o f view is everything, and as it is very difficult, if not impossible, to state another man’s point o f view ex cept from your own, the only way to be sure of getting the early printer’s point o f view is to let his documents present his case. Even then it is hard to realize why some things which seem so trivial to-day were so serious to men in 1815 or 1830. o Acknowledgments are due to Mr. R. H. Cressingham, o f New York, for the loan of valuable material in connection with the New York Typographical So ciety of 1809; to the officials o f the Library o f Congress for many courtesies; to the officers o f the International Typographical Union; to Mr. James C. Britton, o f the Bureau of Labor; and to the officers o f the Washington Typo graphical Union. 857 858 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR. Because o f this conviction, that in dealing with the affairs of a generation other than our own the best way to tell the workingman’s story is to let him tell it himself, no attempt to preserve literary style or unity has been made. In fact literary quality has been consciously sacrificed to include as many extracts from documents or minute books as possible, to the end that the workman himself should have the floor. No attempt has been made to present a consecutive sociological study. It has seemed more in consonance with the work o f the Bureau to present the raw material for an economic study of early printers’ organizations, rather than to make such study. No reference is had to statements in any of the general histories of the organized movements of American workmen, hitherto published as such. Not because such histories were not consulted, or are not valued, but because the restricted purpose o f this article was to be confined exclusively to the documents of the early organizations, and all temptations have had to be resisted which would have carried the article beyond a strict conformity to the title—“ A Documentary History.” There is here no pretense to completeness. Effort was made to locate as many as possible o f the old constitutions, price lists, and minute books, and copy or examine them. No thorough canvass was made or attempted. It is doubtful, however, if any thing missed would bring up any new problem or condition not touched upon in some of the documents found. The period covered by actual documents is from 1786 to 1858, the price lists extending to 1866. North, South, East, and West are represented, not equally, it is true, but sufficiently to make it more than probable that all the problems o f the printers in the early days are at least referred to. The origi nal purpose o f limiting the article to the period prior to the forma tion o f the National Union in 1852 has been deviated from only to include a few organizations that were outside the sphere o f influence o f the National Union. Histories of the National Union and its successor, the International, are easily accessible, and intrusions here have been studiously avoided, except when in footnotes it has seemed necessary to follow a subject to its final disposition; as, for instance, the woman compositor question and the uniform wage scale. The Cincinnati wage scale for 1853 was included because it represented a section o f the country not distinctively covered by earlier docu ments. Copies o f constitutions and price lists as far back as 1802 are pre sented in the appendixes, and are believed to represent every stage of growth from the benefit societies of the first part of the period and the associations o f the middle period, or from 1830 to 1840, to the pres ent unions as exemplified by the constitutions of 1850. Special effort was made to ascertain the numerical strength of these early organiza tions, with gratifying results in many cases. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 859 In a few instances copies of printed constitutions and price lists were found in libraries, particularly the Library o f Congress; but by far the greater number were copied from old minute books of the societies, and are not to be found in print except in these appendixes. Not only are the economic reasons for some of the things done by the unions (as limitation o f apprentices) to be found in a study o f their history; but the gradual transformation o f sentiments into customs, and the evolution of trade interests into “ union princi ples,” goes on so gradually before our eyes in these minute books that we can understand them better. In the early constitutions and minutes o f these organizations will be frequently found stated in terms those “ union principles ” which have since become a part of the subconscious thought life of the “ union man,” and no longer printed or stated, because nobody in the union supposes it necessary to state basic principles. Just as no man in introducing his wife specifies that a legal marriage ceremony has been performed, or in talking about his children stops to explain that they were born in honorable wedlock; and the man who asks for an explanation or a verification of these taken-for-granted and so cially fundamental assumptions, unless he represents some semi savage tribe where such status is not indubitable, is simply inviting trouble for himself. So much of this unrevealed ultimate principle exists; so much depends upon an understanding of this submerged or subconscious, and to the trade unionist axiomatic, hence never expressed thought life, that students o f organizations coming from u different mental atmosphere often fail to find in unions that which is the reason for their existence—the soul o f purpose by which they live. These “ fundamental principles of trade unionism ” are often the codified experiences o f former generations under industrial conditions that no longer exist, and can not now be understood by a mind not inheriting an intuitive perception of them, except by a study of the early organizations in which they were formulated and o f the con ditions which suggested them. O f no other institution is it more true than o f trade unions that they can only be read in the present by the light o f the past. BEGINNINGS, 1786 TO 1830. Whatever o f associated effort there was among printers prior to 1795 was temporary, having a single purpose, and when this was ac complished the compact was dissolved. It was the custom in all trades to call a “ general meeting ” o f the trade whenever a matter of importance to all presented itself. Such calls were signed by one or two men o f recognized influence in the trade. These meetings, usually held in private homes, were organized by the election o f officers, a statement was made of the purpose in calling the trade 860 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR. together, and after discussion resolutions were adopted embodying the views o f those present upon the question presented. When the meeting had decided what the attitude of the trade was to be, all those present, if willing to do so, signed an agreement to stand by each other during the difficulty. Committees were appointed, and frequent meetings were held during the trouble, especially if it proved to be a strike and of- some duration, thus creating the impres sion that a permanent association of journeymen had been formed. It is certain that some o f the strikes in colonial times were undertaken with no more o f an organization than this, and while there is noth ing inherently improbable about the existence of permanent unions in colonial times, since they had been in existence in England and Europe for many generations before, yet we should be cautious about concluding from such a statement as “ The journeymen bakers of New York went on strike in 1741,” that therefore there was an organi zation, other than a temporary understanding, among them. The first, probably, of such understandings among journeymen printers was in New York City in 1776, when a demand for an in crease o f wages was made by them and refused by their employers, with the result that a strike was called, which, proving successful, the association ceased. Again, in Philadelphia in 1786 an attempt by the employers to reduce wages to $5.83^ a week was made the occasion for calling the trade together. The statement issued by the printers at this meeting has fortunately been preserved and was as follow s: At a meeting of journeymen printers of Philadelphia held at the house o f Henry Myers on Wednesday evening, the 31st ultimo, the following resolutions were unanimously entered into and ordered transcribed for publication. In consequence of an attempt having been made by some of our employers to reduce our wages to 35 shil lings per week: Resolved, That we, the subscribers, will not engage to work for any printing establishment in this city or county under the sum o f $6 per week. Resolved, That we will support such of our brethren as shall be thrown out o f employment on account o f their refusing to work for less than $6 per week. P hiladelphia, June 7 ,1786. This document is signed by 26 printers, probably comprising a majority o f the competent men in the city at that time. There are indications that this struggle lasted for some time, but none what ever that the organization of printers had any purpose beyond the immediate one o f resisting that reduction of wages, or any existence after this single purpose was accomplished. The document is im portant, however, as showing that the sentiment of supporting each other in time o f a strike, out o f which the union strike-benefit fund grew, existed among printers long before unions as such were formed. In 1795 an organization was formed in New York City known as EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 861 “ The Typographical Society,” comprising in its membership most of those working at the trade at that time. It was the first known society devoting its energies to trade conditions and wage scales that existed for any appreciable length of time. (a) So far as known it was ° Tlie “ Company of Printers o f Philadelphia,” organized in 1794, was an asso ciation of employers and job printers, not of journeymen, as is so often stated. While it is not the purpose o f this article to go into the question of employers’ associations, yet this one o f 1794 is so frequently referred to as a labor organ ization, its constitution being listed in a very recent bibliography of trade-union publications as such, that it seems advisable to settle the matter definitely by reproducing the document, a copy o f which is preserved in the Library of Con gress. It will be noted that article 14 provides that the company shall “ regu late the prices at which its members shall execute printing work, determine the terms of employing journeymen, fix penalties for the violation of their regula tions,” etc., and is signed by 9 individuals and firms, among them some who were o f more than local importance as printers and publishers. (See Bishop’s History of American Manufactures, Vol. 1). The term “ printer” was applied only to employers in the earlier times, and, later, to both employers and jour neymen. Aside from the historical value o f the document itself and the importance of eliminating it from the literature of trade unionism, it is submitted as one of the few constitutions extant of a form o f association known as “ companies,” which formed a link between the merchant guilds of the late Middle Ages and the employers’ associations o f to-day. The document follow s: CONSTITUTION OF THE COMPANY OF PRINTERS OF PHILADELPHIA, 1794. Assured that the interests of every profession depend, in a high degree, on the union and cooperation o f its members; impressed with the necessity of asso ciating for the purpose o f securing those advantages which are at present at tached to the printing business, as well as for the purpose o f extending them ; and persuaded that such association will conduce to insure the harmony and good fellowship of those by whom it is composed; we, the subscribers, printers o f the city of Philadelphia, do hereby constitute ourselves a society, under the name o f the Company o f Philadelphia Printers. A r t ic l e I. The company shall be formed o f such printers o f the city and liberties, as are present at the adoption o f this constitution; of such as shall join the company within one month subsequent to said adoption, and o f such as shall be hereafter elected in conformity to the third article. A r t ic l e II. Every person previously to his being considered a member, shall subscribe the constitution, and by such subscription solemnly engage to comply with the arti cles thereof, as well as such regulations as may be made under the same. A r t ic l e III. A printer may become a candidate for admission into this company, either on application by letter or on the nomination o f a member; in either case his name shall be submitted to the company, at one regular meeting, and be balloted for at the next regular meeting; should, however,*an unanimous voice be ex pressed for proceeding to an immediate election, all delay shall thereby be sus 862 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, the first society not called into existence by an immediate exigency o f the trade, and ceasing to exist when that exigency was removed. pended. I f the votes o f two-thirds o f the members present be in his favor, he shall be elected a member. A r t ic l e IV. A member on admission shall pay, the sum of $2 and the sum o f $1 annually afterward during his membership. A r t ic l e V . There shall be four regular meetings in every year, viz, on the second Tuesday o f January, April, July, and October, and on such other days as the company shall fix by adjournment, or as shall be fixed by said meetings. A r t ic l e VI. Six members shall be sufficient to proceed to business. A r t ic l e VII. There shall be chosen by ballot, on the second Tuesday o f January in every year, a president, a secretary, a treasurer, and a committee o f three members, who shall be called the committee o f inquiry. A r t ic l e VIII. Should any vacancies occur in said offices, they shall be supplied at the next regular meeting. A r t ic l e IX. It shall be the duty of the president, or, in his absence, o f a chairman, to preside at all meetings; to preserve order among the members; to call a special meeting whenever he sees it expedient; or at the request o f three members, to sign orders on the treasurer, whenever the company shall so direct; and in case the members are equally divided on any question to have a casting vote. On the death, resignation, or absence from the city o f the president, such of his duties as are necessary to be exercised between the meetings o f the com pany shall devolve on the secretary. A r t ic l e X. It shall be the duty of the secretary, under the direction o f the president or chairman, to keep a fair statement of the proceedings o f the company. In the absence o f the secretary, a secretary pro tempore shall be chosen. A r t ic e X I. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to receive such sums o f money as shall accrue to the company; to pay the same on the order o f the president or chair man, and to keep a fair statement of the funds of the company, subject to the inspection o f any member. A r t ic l e X II. It shall be the duty of the committee o f inquiry to obtain all information in their power, respecting the adherence to, or violations o f this constitution, and the resolutions adopted in pursuance thereof, by the members o f the company; and to obtain information o f the state of the printing business in reference to printers not members and to report the same to the company. A r t ic l e X III. A motion made shall be addressed to the president, which, when seconded, shall be submitted by the president to the consideration o f the company. The question shall then be put, and be decided by a majority of votes. A r t ic l e XIV. When the company are organized, they shall have the power to regulate the prices at which its members shall execute printing w ork; to determine the terms of employing journeymen; to fix penalties for the violation o f their EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 863 The Typographical Society of 1795 lived two and one-half years, or until far into 1797, and succeeded in securing an increase of yvages to $1 per day for New York City printers. In 1799 the Franklin Typographical Society of Journeymen Printers, of New York, was organized. Mr. David Bruce, the famous type founder, was its first president. This society formu lated the first complete wage scale ever adopted by the printers of New York City, and went on strike for its enforcement. No copy o f this scale has been preserved. It demanded 25 cents per 1,000 ems, and not less than $7 per week in book and job offices, and $8 per week on newspapers. None of its records and no copy of its constitution could be found, but from contemporary newspaper files it is learned that the “ Franklin Typographical Society assembled at the house of Mr. P. Becanon, No. 87 Fair street, to celebrate the twenty-sixth anniversary o f American Independence July 4, 1801.” The Daily Advertiser, of New York, in its issue of February 4, 1803, printed the following notice: A regular meeting of the Franklin Typographical Society will be regulations; and, in general, to adopt such rules as may he considered con ducive to the prosperity o f the printing business. A r t ic l e XV. Any member may withdraw from the society by removal from the city; by a relinquishment of the printing business; or by signifying his disposition thereto at a regular meeting: P ro vid ed , That, in the last instance, he do not cease to be a member until the next regular meeting: A n d also p rovided , That on such secession he place in the hands of the treasurer the sum of ten pounds for use o f the company; should, however, two-thirds o f the 'members present dispense with the payment of this sum, it shall not be demanded. A r t ic l e XYI. Any proposition o f amendment to this constitution, shall be made at a regular meeting, and not be brought to decision until the next regular meeting: previ ously to which notice shall be given to the members by the secretary, that it is proposed to alter the constitution. A r t ic l e XYII. A member may be expelled for misconduct by a majority o f the company, pro vided that such expulsion be made at a regular meeting, and that such meeting be not the one at which it is proposed to expel him. A r t ic l e X VIII. On the adoption o f this constitution, the company shall proceed to the choice of officers, who shall hold their appointments until the day fixed upon for the annual election of officers. Adopted September 11, 1794. W . Y oung. R o bert C o c h r a n . R ic h a r d F o l w e l l . Sa m u e l H . S m it h . W i l l i a m G ib b o n s . H o ff a n d D e r r ic k . J acob J o h n s o n . W il l ia m W . W oodw ard. M o rd e o a i J o n e s . 276—No. 61—06 M ------10 864 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. held at*their rooms, 63 Stone street, on Saturday evening, February 5, 1803. Members are requested to be punctual in their attendance. By order o f the president: J ohn Collins, Secretary* It would appear from this that the society had grown too large to meet in the private homes o f its members and strong enough to have a hall, or at least rooms o f its own. In its issue o f September 19, 1803, the New York Evening Post had the following acknowledgment: The president of Franklin Typographical Society, o f New York, acknowledges the receipt o f $83.50 from the Philadelphia Typo graphical Society for the relief o f such o f our members as may be distressed in consequence of the prevailing epidemic. The minutes o f the Philadelphia Society show that at its monthly meeting in June, 1803, “ it was voted to contribute $83.60 to assist the printers in New York City who may be suffering from ravages o f the yellow fever.” The Franklin Typographical Society o f New York ceased to exist in 1804, but the bill of prices formulated by it remained the standard o f wages until September 20, 1809, when the New York Typograph ical Society, organized early in that year, formulated a new scale. As further tribute of a documentary character to the work o f this society o f 1799-1804, may be cited the first- paragraph of a letter written August 25, 1809, by the secretary o f the New York Typo graphical Society: N ew Y ork, August 25,1809. Gentlemen : The board o f directors of the New York Typograph ical Society, by a resolution passed the 19th instant, have directed me to inform you that the customary price per token for working super royal paper is 37J cents, and 48 tokens (which is supposed to be the number you work per week) at that price would be $18. The present society, however, have yet no established prices, either for presswork or for composition, but the price which is here mentioned is that which was instituted by a former association in this city, and which we believe is now generally conformed to. So much space has been given to this organization because to it belongs the credit of formulating the first detailed scale o f wages presented to employers in the printing business in the United States, and because, curiously enough, while the earlier society o f 1795 is sometimes mentioned by writers, this much more important one of 1799-1804 is not referred to by any of them. The Philadelphia Typographical Society was organized in 1802, and enjoys the distinction of being the oldest existing organization of the craft. Up to 1831 it existed as both a benevolent and a trade society, as was the rule among the.early societies. In 1831 it became a purely benevolent association, and as such exists to-day. 865 EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. February 22, 1802, this society formulated a list o f prices (which is believed to be identical with that o f the New York Typographical Society in 1800), and, prefacing it with a neat address to the em ployers, submitted it for acceptance. (a) A photographic reproduction o f the only copy o f this price list known to be now in existence is here presented. Philadelphia, February 22, 1802. T H E •• P hiladelph ia T y p o g r a p h ic a l S o c ie t y ,” take th e lib e r ty t o furnish y o u w ith th eir L ist o f Prices . W e h o p e that w e shall b e in d u lg ed w ith at least a can did exa m in a tion o f o u r d e m a n d s ....w e presu m e y o u are n o t u n acqu ainted \\ith m any o f them . W e w o u ld w ish to b e placed on a fo o tin g , at least, w ith m e c h a n ic s ....o u r w a g es have, in n o instance, k ep t p ace w ith them . W e have the m erit o f not b e in g the m ost dissatisfied, and in n o o n e instance o f d e m an d in g any th in g un ju st. W c have, j n the fo llo w in g statem ent, con fin ed o u rse lve s to w hat a m ajority o f the em p lo y e rs in this city g iv e . O u r o b je c t is, to have o n e u n iform p r ic e established. In d o in g this, w e shall a ct as m en tow ards m e n ....n o p erson w ill leave his e m p lo y until he has g iv e n a reasonable n o t ic e ....in return, w e e x p e c t that y o u r c o n d u c t tow a rd s u s w ill b e equ ally ca n d id . In d e e d , w e ch erish a h o p e , that the tim e is n ot far distant, w h en the employer and thfc employed w ill v ie w ith ea ch o th er, the o n e , in allowing a com p eten t salary, the Other, in deserving it. U n d er these im p ression s w e S ubm it the fo llo w in g p r ic e s to y o u r d e cis io n . COMPOSITION. * PRESS W O R K . Dot. Ctt. 3 J ht. Ctt 8 0 0 \ P e r w e e k , not less than . . . . . 8 P e r w e e k , n ot less t h a n ................. 2 _ s A ll paper b e lo w m e d iu m , p e r tok en E v e r y 1 0 0 0 m ’ s , fr o m B r e v ie r to * s D it t o a b o v e m e d i u m ................. E n g lis h , i n c l u s i v e ..................... 5 0 s B ro a d sid e s, p e r t o k e n ...................... ... C o m m o n R u le o r F ig u r e w o r k . . . <|C ards, p er p a c k .................................. . £ A sin gle p a ck o f c a r d s ......................... 3 A ll sm all j o b s ......................................... 00 30 371 75 m 30 30 G e o r c e W h i t e , President. J ohn C h i l d s , Vice-President. W i l l i a m L i t t l e , Secretary. W . W . W an d s, x el. W . S c o tt, E . C o n ra d , / Standing } A . S c o t t, B . G r e a v e s, t Committee. / P . D e n h a m , J. M ‘ liv a b le , ' George Tomlin, I n Jones, Francis Wrigley, John Claypoole, Edward Whitely, William P. Lane, Alexander Boland, James Winnard, John Kinsley, Nicholas Komfelt, George Philips, Allen Dowell, James Mearns, Charles I.ee. William Alexander, Isaac, Pitman, Benjamin Bickerton John W. Allen, Thomas B. Abercrombie, Francis Lauder, Henry Garson, Stephen Sewell, John Whitely, Silas B. Hand, Thomas Town, Samuel Akerman, John Pigeon, William Faithfull, Thomas Stewart, John Bernard, Jacob Benriman, William Comely, Horatio Boate, Samuel Starr. Joseph Bedford, George Thompson, John Dow, William Carle, Robert Maxwell, Patrick Mulligan, James C. Coveriy, William Hanley, Thomas Dalton, John Cooper, James M'Kibbin, Arthur Colerake, John Alexander, Hance H. Gibbs, Andrew Sn>der, John Robinson. The constitution of this society, which was not finally adopted until November 6, 1802, is given in full in Appendix A, No. 1, and is believed to be the oldest constitution of a labor organization extant in the United States. No printed copy o f the document was « The bibliography appended to Sidney and Beatrice Webb’s “ History of Trade Unionism ” in England gives “ the scale o f prices of the Edinburgh com positors for 1805 ” as the oldest printers’ scale. It may therefore develop that this Philadelphia price list is the oldest in the language. 866 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. found, but a transcript was made from the minutes o f the society for the purpose o f this article. While the constitution gives prominence to the sick and funeral benefit features of the organization, as did the early craft guilds and still earlier burial societies, nevertheless, unlike them, it does not entirely conceal its industrial purposes. The journeymen printers had secured the acceptance by the master printers of their price list of February 22, and under “ a desire to consolidate the present good understanding and harmony which now happily subsists among the brethren o f our profession,” the constitution o f November 6 was adopted. In addition to a sick benefit of $3 a week and a funeral benefit o f $10, “ in every case when a member may be thrown out o f employ, by reason of his refusing to take less than the established prices,” the board o f directors “ shall advance, if required, on his own security, in their discretion, such sum per wreek as will be sufficient to defray his ordinary expenses,” and, furthermore, if such person was unable to return the money so loaned, then an assessment should be levied upon the membership to repay the same. To this incipient strike-benefit fund was added an obligation upon the part of at least the officers o f the society to use their influence to secure employment for members in preference to nonmembers, and, above all, membership in the society was conditioned upon having “ served an apprenticeship satisfactory to the board of directors.” It is impossible to read the minutes o f the meetings o f these early societies, however, without being convinced that the serious purpose of their existence was not made prominent in their published documents. They had an exoteric and an esoteric side. To the public they pointed out their benevolent fea tures. The real work was done in executive session. However, a great many o f their members joined them because of these benevolent features, and thought their mission confined to this, so that there were always two factions, one demanding more and more of trade regula tion by the society, the other opposing any interference in trade mat ters, and constantly urging a further extension o f the mutual benefits, from an “ alimoner’s ” point o f view. A t its monthly meeting of December, 1802, the society appointed a committee to draft a memorial to Congress praying for an addi tional duty on all imported European books. April, 1803, it raised the price o f composition on daily newspapers to 30 cents per 1,000 ems, placed a charge of 20 cents on each alteration from copy after proofs were corrected, and passed a “ lost-time ” rule, as follow s: Whenever an employer agrees to pay for lost time it shall be at the rate o f 15 cents per hour. In June, 1803, the society raised the initiation fee to $2; voted $83.60 to the printers in New York who were suffering from yellow fever; then passed the following not at all eleemosynary measure: EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 867 Whereas several employers have taken laborers at presswork, and thereby the business has been materially injured: Therefore, Resolved, That no member o f this society shall be permitted to work at presswork with any person who is not regularly bred, bound apprentice till 21 years o f age, except under penalty o f expulsion. In 1806 it began expelling members on first offense for working below the scale o f prices, and in February, 1807, extended the obliga tion to all members, theretofore resting upon officers only, to aid members in securing employment in preference to nonmembers by the passage o f the follow ing: Resolved, That if any member of this society who shall procure employment for any person or persons who are not members of this institution in preference, and knowing at the time o f the procuring o f such employment that there are members o f this society then out o f actual employment, such member or members so offending shall on conviction be subjected to a fine o f $5, and for second offense be liable to suspension or expulsion, at the discretion o f the directors: Provided, nevertheless, That this resolution shall not be construed to the prejudice o f members interesting themselves in behalf o f stran gers in distress or emigrants from Europe. The year 1807 marks the development by the Typographical Society o f Philadelphia of much that has been thought to have origi nated with modern unionism, such as the demand for the exclusive employment of union men, the monthly “ working card,” and the adoption o f a system very suggestive o f the “ house o f call,” or union employment bureau. A t the meeting held April 4, 1807, the initia tion fee was raised to $4 and the funeral benefit increased to $25. After these concessions to the “ alimoners ” this resolution was passed and a committee appointed in accordance with its terms: Whereas many illegal practices and abuses hostile to the estab lished regulations o f this society, as well as injurious to the interests o f each and every industrial member thereof; and whereas, also, the said abuses and illegal practices on the part o f the employers are tamely submitted to, and in some instances connived at by the em ployed, to remedy which and to make such further inquiries as they may deem necessary, Resolved, That a committee be appointed to inquire into the pres ent state o f the art, and whether any and what abuses are practiced, and what regulations it may be expedient on the part o f the society to adopt, to check and do away with all such abuses and irregular practices hostile to the interests and well-being of its members, and that the committee report the results o f their investigations. Apparently there is a studied vagueness about this resolution so unusual that one is at a loss to understand it until it is learned from the report o f the committee that the resolution is aimed not at mem bers o f this society, but at the master printers, who were cutting prices and employing “ two-thirders,” or persons who not having 868 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. finished their apprenticeship were willing to work for anything they could get. The report o f the committee follows: In reviewing the present state o f the art, it is with considerable regret that we dissent from a very prevalent opinion, which we can not think was even true when it was first formed. To say that “ printing was in a highly flourishing condition ” may be well enough applied to themselves by the gang o f pettifogging master printers, but the great body of the journeymen and the few respectable master printers know it to be false. The prices received by the master printers six years ago were better for common work than what they receive at present. A t that time all common work gave them 64J cents, whereas at present they only receive 45 cents, and in some cases even less. The committee are of the opinion, that in order to maintain that harmony which as yet happily exists between the society and the master printers, it would be expedient to hold a conference with them on the subject, and make such regulations in the prices as the nature o f the times majr require and enable employers in all cases to give the preference, and if possible, never to employ any other than members o f this society, or at least men who have served a regular appren ticeship. September, 1807, the society adopted the following regulation: Resolved, That cards be printed by the society, to be renewed by the secretary every month, for the benefit of those out of employment, stating that they are not in arrears; and such persons who can not produce the same, on inquiring of a member for a berth, he is pro hibited from informing the said person under penalty o f $1 for every such offense. As yet no journeymen’s society had been strong enough to maintain, indeed none had had the temerity to advance any apprenticeship reg ulations. There was a customary apprenticeship rule that had come down from the masters’ guilds to the effect that a term o f six years between the ages o f 15 and 21 was necessary to constitute a journey man. But the old guild conditions were gone, and the new conditions were only form ing; neither the conditions nor the workmen’s societies were ripe for a definite stand on the regulation of apprenticeship. The Philadelphia society, at its meeting o f December, 1808, took such stand as it could on the problem by enacting that no member should teach an apprentice who was not bound before his eighteenth year; the penalty for violation being not only expulsion from the society but notices o f such expulsion to be sent to the other societies o f printers. This is the first intimation of the exchange of names of objectionable printers, which afterward developed into the “ un fair lists,” “ rat lists,” etc. The regulation as passed reads: That from and after the 1st day of January, 1809, no person, a member o f this society, shall teach or assist in teaching any person in the art o f printing who may have arrived at the age o f 18 years. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 869 And be it further resolved, That if any member or members o f the Philadelphia Typographical Society shall in violation of the rule in that case made and provided, undertake to instruct, or in any manner assist to instruct, in any branch o f the art of printing, any irregular person included in the foregoing resolution, such member or members shall, on conviction, be expelled from the society, and notice o f such expulsion shall be communicated to the different typographical asso ciations throughout the United States as the president o f the board of directors may think proper. The latter part of this resolution not only marks the beginning of the “ unfair list,” but raises the question as to what other typograph ical associations existed in the United States at that time. So far as can be definitely ascertained, from original records at this late date, there were no other such societies in existence in Decem ber, 1808. In “ Thomas’s History of Printing ” it is stated that “ The Boston Typographical Society was organized in 1803,” without giving any clue to the authority for the statement. In 1809 the Philadelphia society received a communication from the Boston Typographical Society, stating that it had just completed and presented a scale of prices to the employers. The letter gives an impression that the society had been but recently organized, though it does not say so. This society seems to have been short lived, as another o f the same name was organized November 25, 1815, as appears from a letter in the minutes of the New York society, a copy of which is transcribed elsewhere. The records of the Boston Typographical Society, after its demise, were placed in the library o f the Franklin Typographical Society, o f Boston, which was organized in 1822 as a purely beneficial society, admitting to membership both employers and employees, and prevented by its constitution from taking any part in trade matters. This society still exists, but the records of the journeymen’s organi zation have been lost. The latest mention o f the Boston Typograph ical Society is in 1826, when it sent a communication to the Colum bian Typographical Society, at Washington, D. C., as shown by the minutes of the latter society. The Faustus Association of Printers was organized in Boston in 1805, but this was an employers’ associa tion, to regulate prices of work done for the public. It can not therefore be confidently asserted that there were any societies, out side o f Philadelphia, in existence when the Philadelphia society passed its resolution in December, 1808; but it is not improbable that there were such in Boston and Baltimore. The Baltimore Typo graphical Society is referred to in 1815 as one o f the older societies. The date o f its organization has not been ascertained, and none of its records could be located. Unfortunately also the present typo graphical union o f Baltimore, organized in 1831, lost its records in the great fire o f February, 1904, just a few months before the collec tion of data for this article was begun. 870 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR. The condition o f the trade in New York City seems to have dete riorated rapidly after the collapse of the union in 1804. In June, 1809, a coterie o f printers met in the private house of Mr. David Reins, 49 Barclay street, to discuss the question of organization. A committee was appointed to draft a constitution and report Saturday evening, July 1. A t this meeting the constitution was presented, adopted, and an organization perfected by the election of S. W. Andrews, president, and David Reins, secretary. One of the most active men in the organization of this society known as the New York Typographical Society, was Mr. Samuel Woodworth, author o f The Old Oaken Bucket. A ll efforts to secure a copy o f this constitution for the present article have proved futile. From the start the society took what was at that time a radical stand along trade lines, though embodying in its plan the beneficial features common to all trade societies of the time. The first efforts of the society were directed toward the education o f the journeymen in the purposes of the organization, and inducing them to join. A t a meeting held July 29 two members (pressmen working at the office of the American Citizen) reported that when they notified their employer that they could not longer work for less than the customary standard of wages fixed by the scale of 1800, they were both discharged and their places given to “ two strangers.” A committee was appointed to wait on the “ strangers,” and later, when this committee reported, a letter was ordered to be sent them which so explicitly states the purpose of the society that it is tran scribed in fu ll: N ew Y ork, August 25,1809 . G entlemen : The board o f directors of the New York Typograph ical Society, by a resolution passed the 19th instant, have directed me to inform you that the customary price per token for working superroyal paper is 37| cents, and 48 tokens (which is supposed to be the number you work per week) at that price would amount to $18. The present society, however, have yet no established prices, either for presswork or for composition; but the price which is here men tioned is that which was instituted by a former association in this city, and which we believe is now generally conformed to. [This was the society o f 1799-1804.] The board o f directors, however, actuated only by motives o f inter est for the profession, have also directed me to inform you that, hav ing expressed your determination to use all honorable means to increase the wages, both o f compositors and pressmen, if necessary, and to support and maintain the honor and dignity of the trade, the best manner in which you could evince your sincerity would be by joining the society, whose objects and conduct you seem to have mis taken. To establish equitable prices for our labor is the principal object for which we have recently associated, and which we hope in a short time to accomplish. The first step toward this is an increase in our numbers, and we conceive it to be the duty and the interest of every journeyman printer in the city to come forward and unite with EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 871 his fellow-craftsmen in promoting an object which has for its end the benefit o f the wdiole. Should you, gentlemen, conceive the above observations satisfac tory and have a desire to promote the objects we have in view, I would observe that the board o f directors meet every Saturday even ing at the house o f Mr. Clark (Harmony H all), to whom an applica tion can be made at any of their meetings. D. H. Reins, Sec’y N. Y. T. S. The organizers o f this society began at once, as a part of their vig orous policy, to open communication with all similar organizations in the country, to which they mailed a circular letter dated Septem ber 9, 1809, and which proposed nothing less than an exchange, from time to time, o f what is to-day known as “ unfair lists; ” that is, that whenever a printer does what to the union is considered an unfair thing in trade matters, other unions shall be notified o f the fact. That this principle was then new, or practically so, is inferred no less from the arguments used in the circular to maintain it, than from the letter o f the Philadelphia society in reply. Both these letters follow : N ew Y ork, September 9, 1809. Gentlemen : In all classes of society experience has proven that there have been men who, laying aside those principles o f honor and good faith which ought to govern their conduct toward their brethren, and for a mere gratification of private interest, have set aside the obligations they were under by violating the ordinances which they had pledged themselves to maintain. It is for the interest o f the profession that such persons (if any there are) should be discountenanced; and to the end that the knowl edge o f their sins should follow them, the directors o f the New York Typographical Society have directed me to open a correspondence with you, by requesting, if compatible with your constitution, that in cases where members of your society or others o f the profession may have acted dishonorably toward it, and should leave--------- for this city, you would be so good as to transmit information to them, the favor o f which, on a like occasion, would be reciprocated. The directors o f the N. Y. T. S. sincerely hope that an instance o f this nature may never have to be recorded, yet it appears to them that the adoption of a rule like the above might be attended with mutual benefit. There is nothing which acts more powerfully on the human mind than shame. It makes the coward bold, the miser gen erous; and it is to be hoped that it will ever deter a journeyman printer from conducting unworthily toward his brethren when innate principle is wanting. Accept the assurance of my esteem for you gentlemen, and my sincere wishes for the prosperity o f th e --------- society. D. H. R eins, See'y N. T. T. S. To this elaborate argument for and cautious statement o f one o f the protective features o f unionism, so universally understood to-day that it is never stated in terms, the following equally remarkable reply was received from the Philadelphia society. The “ second let 872 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. ter o f the 23d ” referred to was one announcing the completion of the wage scale o f September 20 by the New York society. P hiladelphia, October 28, 1809. S i r : Your letter of the 18th ultimo and 23d instant came duly to hand, and I have to apologize for the delay in forwarding an answer. That o f the 18th embraced a principle which was not readily acceded to— and the consideration of it was twice referred to the opinion o f a select committee— a report was made this evening and finally adopted by the following words: “ The committee thinks proper to report that they have considered the letter referred to them, and are o f the opinion that the principle set forth therein is a good one, and will have a tendency to promote the interests of the two societies; therefore, Resolved, That whenever any member of this society shall act derogatory to the principles o f this constitution, and shall leave this city for New York, information shall immediately be forwarded to the New York Typographical Society.” As I am decidedly opposed to the principle, it can not be expected that I should dilate upon it. I beg leave, however, to assure you that the will o f the majority is my guide, and that I shall consider it my duty to act in strict conformity to the resolution. Your second letter of the 23d instant has given inexpressible pleasure to the members of the board and of the society in general. The energetic measure you have taken, had been so long wanting in the respectable city o f New York that the friends o f equal rights reflect with disgust upon the humiliating condition in which our brethren suffered themselves to remain there; and the following hope now held forth that they have broken their manacles with a determi nation that they shall never be riveted again, will be fostered and cherished, nay, assisted, as far as constitutionally may lay in their power. But the old adage will here apply, and should be attentively considered: “ He that will not help himself shall have help from nobody.” Persevere in your laudable struggle, and remember that no great end was ever yet attained without danger and difficulty. Be pleased to accept my best wishes and regards for your society, and believe that I am, with the sincerest respect, your humble servant, John C hilds, President Typographical Society of Philadelphia. September 20, 1809, the society adopted a scale of prices, no copy o f which has been found, but which it is known did little more than restore the scale o f 1800 on common work while providing for the classes o f work not covered by any former standard of wages. A circular letter was printed and sent to the master printers, of which a copy follow s: TO T H E M ASTER PR IN T E R S OF T H E C IT Y OF N E W Y O R K . Gentlemen : Between employers and employed there are mutual interests depending, mutual duties to perform. To the end that these may result in harmony, certain rules and regulations should be adopted. Therefore, we, the journeymen printers o f the city o f New York, having duly and deliberately taken into consideration the present irregular state of the prices in many of the printing offices, EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 873 and conceiving that they are inadequate to a comfortable subsistence, have united themselves into an association for the purpose of regu lating and establishing the same. The annexed list, framed with a due deference to justice and equit ability, is presented with a view that it may meet your approbation. Upon receipt o f the above the master printers formed an organi zation, and as a first move asked for a postponement of the date when the new regulations should go into effect. This the journeymen declined. To gain time, the masters’ association then agreed to the demands, but at once began to advertise in other cities and towns for printers, offering good wages and permanent positions. As an offset, the Typographical Society’s board of directors instructed the secre tary to— Inform the different typographical societies in the United States that this board have reason to believe that it is the object o f the master printers o f this city, by advertising for a great number of workingmen, to fill the city with hands and thereby be enabled to reduce the prices o f work in this city to their former standard. The members o f the society were instructed to send information of the situation by letter to all outside journeymen o f their acquaintance. Evidently the master printers were having some success with their plan, and, to bring the matter to immediate issue, the Typographical Society called a strike, beginning October 30, 1809, for the enforce ment of their scale. Most of the master printers soon agreed to the scale, but quite a number fought the issue bitterly, and what was for that time a strike o f considerable duration resulted. Strike benefits were paid weekly, and it is not until December 18 that the last entry on the minutes is found recording money appropriated to the “ breth ren who had been thrown out of employ in consequence of their refusing to work for less than the established prices.” During this strike the society discovered that one of its members had secretly arranged to work for less than the scale in an office ostensibly paying the society’s rate of wages. Immediately the other members o f the society refused to work in the office with him, and requested that he not only be expelled from the society but that his name be sent to the other societies. For some time the society was busy expelling members who had secretly worked below the scale during the strike. However, the struggle had cleared the atmos phere perceptibly. As showing the situation before the strike, it may be stated that the report o f a committee appointed by the society to “ investigate the state o f trade ” and “ list those working for less than the estab lished price ” showed compositors working at 20 cents per 1,000 ems, pressmen working at 25 cents per token (240 sheets), and numberless boys at from $4 to $4.50 per week. At one office they report: There is a man working at press who occupies the situation o f two 874 BULLETIN OP TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB. journeymen, who is said to have served no apprenticeship at the business. Out o f their experience came an amendment to their by-laws, passed December 23, within a week after the close of the strike : No person shall be admitted a member of this society unless he shall have duly and regularly served the term o f three years as an apprentice to one branch, namely, either as a compositor or as a pressman. On December 30, 1809, they issued a circular letter, going into the whole matter o f “ halfway journeymen,” afterwards called “ twothirders,” and the laxity o f apprenticeship regulations. It was addressed to the employers, and as it is the earliest survey o f the sit uation in the trade from the workman’s point o f view it is, notwith standing its length, given in full below: TO T H E M ASTEB P B IN TE B S OF T H E C IT Y OF N E W Y O B K . G entlemen : Viewing with deep concern the improper practices in many o f the printing offices in this city, the journeymen composing the New York Typographical Society have appointed the under signed committee to address you on the subject, and represent the many evil effects they have on the art of printing in general and its demoralizing effects on its professors. The practice o f employing what is termed “ halfway journeymen ” in preference to those who have served their time, while it holds out encouragement to boys to elope from their masters, as soon as they acquire a sufficient knowledge of the art to be enabled to earn their bread, is a great grievance to journeymen, and almost certain ruin to the boys themselves. Becoming masters o f their own conduct at a period o f life when they are incapable o f governing their passions and propensities, they plunge headlong into every species o f dissipa tion, and are often debilitated by debauchery and disease before they arrive at the state o f manhood. And it also tends to an unnecessary multiplication o f apprentices, inasmuch as the place o f every boy who elopes from his master is usually supplied by another, while at the same time the runaway supplies, after a manner, the place o f a reg ular journeyman, and one who, probably has a family dependent on his labor for support. W e would also beg leave to call your attention to a practice as illiberal and unjust as the former, and attended, perhaps, with evils o f a more aggravating nature. We mean that o f taking grown men (foreigners) as apprentices to some twelve or fifteen months, when they are to be turned into the situations o f men who are masters of their business; which men are to be turned out o f their places by mis erable botches, because they will work for what they can get. By these means numbers o f excellent workmen, who ought to be orna ments to the profession, are driven by necessity to some other means o f support. When a parent puts out a child to learn an art, it is with the pleasing idea that a knowledge o f that art will enable him, when he becomes a man, to provide for himself a comfortable subsist ence. Did he know that after laboring from his youth to manhood to acquire our art he would be compelled to abandon it and resort to EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 875 some business with which he was totally unacquainted to enable him to live, he would certainly prefer that he should in the first instance seek a livelihood on the sea, or by some other precarious calling, than trust to the equally precarious success of a trade overstocked by its professors. O f the number that have completed their apprentice ship to the printing business within the last five years, but few have been enabled to hold a situation for any length o f time. And it is an incontrovertible fact, that nearly one-half who learn the trade are obliged to relinquish it and follow some other calling for support. Under the direful influence of the unwarrantable practices, the professors o f the noblest art with which the world is blessed, have become “ birds o f passage,” seeking a livelihood from Georgia to Maine. It is owing to such practices that to acknowledge yourself a printer is to awaken suspicion and cause distrust. It is owing to such practices that the professors o f the noble art are sinking in the esti mation o f the community. And it will be owing to such practices, if persisted in, that to see a book correctly printed will, in a few years, be received as a phenomenon. To render an art respectable it is indispensably necessary that its professors should be perfect masters o f their calling, which can only be acquired by serving a proper apprenticeship. And, in our art, it is not always time that perfects the printer. For it is too often the case, that boys o f little or no education are taken as apprentices which the first services as devil frequently preclude the knowledge of, until they are bound, when the discovery is too late to be remedied. Owing to the deficiency, they make but sorry printers; whereas, had they learned some trade which does not particularly require a good educa tion, they might have been perfect masters o f it and better able to gain a livelihood. These are evils, gentlemen, which we sorely feel, and which it is in your power to remedy; and we sincerely hope that this appeal to your justice and humanity may meet with that consid eration which its importance demands.” (°) D. H. R eins. W . B tjrbridge. S. Johnson. ®It is impossible to read this circular, and the subsequent struggle the unions had for fifty years with the runaway-apprentice and “ two-thirder ” problems without recalling that oldest o f journeymen printers’ documents, pre served in the British Museum, and quoted in full by Brentano in his History and Development of Guilds (note to p. 97), as follow s: The case and proposals o f the free journeymen printers in and about London, humbly submitted to consideration. Licensed October 23rd, 1666. Whereas there are at this present in and about the City o f London, to the number o f one hundred and forty workmen printers, or thereabouts who have served seven years to the art o f printing, under lawful master printers, and are reduced to great necessities and temptations for want o f lawful employment, occasioned partly by supernumary aprentices and turn-overs, which have in creased the number almost to twice as many on the whole, as would be suffi cient to discharge all the public and lawful work o f the kingdom. The work men printers above-mentioned &c. propose; 1. That no foreigners (that is to say) such an one as has not served seven years to the art o f printing, under a lawful master printer, as an apprentice, may be entertained and employed by any master printer, for the time to come. 2. That a provision may be made to hinder the increase o f apprentices and a limitation appointed as to the number, &c. 3. That no turn-overs be received by any master printer, but from a master printer; and that no master printer turning over any apprentice to 876 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. A letter from the Philadelphia society in September, 1810, in formed the New York City organization o f the new wage scale, that o f September 20, and the strike for its enforcement in the former city. Immediately an extra meeting o f the New York society was called to act upon it. The following extract from the minutes shows how a feeling o f unity o f interest was rapidly growing among the workmen o f the neighboring cities o f that date. The minutes are those o f the special or called meeting: A letter was read from the journeymen printers of Philadelphia, accompanied with a circular list o f prices, which they are now stand ing out for, and urging us to cooperate with them in order to obtain their just demands; and the board, conceiving the nature o f the com munication o f the utmost importance, came to the immediate reso lution o f convening the general society, and the following was imme diately passed: Resolved, That a general extra meeting o f this society be called on Monday, the 24th instant, for the purpose o f giving general infor mation to the members o f the proceedings o f the journeymen printers o f Philadelphia. Resolved, unanimously, That we highly approve o f the proceedings o f our typographical brethren o f the city o f Philadelphia in the demand for a raise o f prices. Resolved, etc., That we pledge ourselves to each other that we will not take any situation vacated by any of our brethren in Philadelphia under the present circumstances. Resolved, etc., That it be recommended to the members of this society to make the proceedings o f this meeting known as general as possible. Resolved, That a copy o f these resolutions be transmitted by the secretary to the Philadelphia Typographical Society. On August 7, 1811, the society added an article to its constitution limiting the age at which apprentices at presswork may begin and prohibiting members from working with men receiving less than the scale. The words o f the amendment were: No member o f this society shall be permitted to take with him as a companion at press a person who is o f full age at the commencement o f his apprenticeship; nor shall any member o f the society work in an office where a person is employed for less than our established prices, under the penalty o f expulsion in either case. A side light is thrown on the conditions which furnish a justificaanother master printer may be permitted to take any other apprentice in his place, till the full time o f the said apprentice so turned over be expired; for otherwise, the restraint and limitation o f apprentices will be evaded, and the number supplied by turn-overs. It is significant to note that the remedy proposed by this first craft guild o f London printers in 1666—i. e., limitation on the number o f apprentices was' precisely the one eventually adopted by the typographical societies in the United States, beginning with the New Orleans society in 1889, and finally adopted by the Washington, D. C., union in its constitution o f 1867, the last of the local unions to adopt the measure. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 877 tion from the trade-unionist point o f view, for the first provision o f the above article, when on July 24, 1813, a committee reports on a proposition for membership. This applicant proves to have been a weaver by trade; but as weaving “ gave him a pain in the breast,” he got a situation in a livery stable. From that he went into a printing office as a pressman. Even his employer testified before the commit tee that when he came to work for him “ he did not know how to scrape a ball, and by his appearance and conduct thought he was never in a printing office before.” The society refused him admis sion “ since he is a weaver, not a printer.” Apprenticeship was felt to be their only protection, and as a safeguard the pressmen (who worked in pairs) were prohibited from taking as companion a man who had “ broken into the trade ” after he was 21 years o f age. Early in 1815 the society began debating the question o f a new wage scale. One was finally adopted October 7, 1815, a copy of which will be found in the Appendix hereto. (Appendix B, No. 1.) This scale further restricted the apprentices by requiring the em ployer to pay the pressmen an extra piece price where apprentices were being taught the trade. Not only did the society adopt a new scale, raising the rates to 27 cents per 1,000 ems and $9 per week, but at the same meeting, by unanimous vote, adopted a resolution that “ a committee o f three be appointed to confer with the different typo graphical societies in the United States, the duty o f which committee shall be to induce (if possible) the journeymen o f Philadelphia, and Albany in particular, to raise their prices to at least the same standard as ours.” The new wage scale was accepted by most of the employers, but involved the society in a strike for its enforcement in a few minor offices. From a clause in a letter the New York society sent to the societies in Albany, N. Y., and Washington, D. C., in 1816, in re sponse to notices o f the adoption of new wage scales by those societies, it will be seen that the employers o f New York were the first to insist upon or at least suggest the idea o f a uniform wage scale for the entire country, an idea which for other reasons agitated the various societies for nearly a half century afterwards. The clause referred to states: That you should pursue the measures you are now pursuing has been the desire o f both the journeymen and employers o f this city for the following reasons: It was urged by the employers last summer, when our journeymen made a demand for higher wages, that unless journeymen in other places would raise their prices to an equilibrium with those we had presented, it would induce the booksellers to send their work out o f the city, as the difference in the price for which work could be done elsewhere would more than pay for the transportation. It must be remembered that at this time and for nearly a quarter o f a century afterwards newspapers employed such a small percentage 878 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR. o f the printers that the societies paid little attention to anything else than the book and job offices. After the strike to enforce the wage scale o f 1815 the society had again to discipline a number of its members. Some of the early societies had admitted to membership employers who paid the scale. While this society had never done this, a member who had been ad mitted as a journeyman did not lose any of his rights in the society by becoming an employer. The obligation or pledge required mem bers not only to demand the scale o f prices as journeymen, but to pay it should they become 46masters.” The experiences o f the strike forced a new measure upon the organization. The temper of the society was to be tested by the trial o f an extreme case, and one mem ber who had become an employer subsequent to joining the society was brought up on a charge having six separate counts, three of which read as follow s: First. For an attempt, in combination with a few employing print ers, to lessen the established wages of journeymen. Second. For introducing into the printing business men wholly unacquainted with it to the exclusion of regular-bred workmen. Third. For refusing to give employment to members o f this society and employing one not a member in preference— a direct violation of the solemn pledge he has repeatedly given us. The other three charges were, in substance, that he had given cur rency among the masters to the plans and purposes of the society contrary to his obligation; that he had permitted his name to be added to the advertisement of other employers in advertising for 44strangers ” to come to New York and take the places o f the striking printers; and lastly, that he had injured his brother members of the society. On motion, a resolution of expulsion was passed, which resolution provided: 44And his name, with the nature o f his offense, be transmitted to the different typographical societies in the United States.” To safeguard the future and make permanent the lesson learned, the by-laws were amended by the addition of the follow ing: Experience teaches us that the actions of men are influenced almost wholly by their interests, and that it is almost impossible a society can be regulated and useful where its members are actuated by opposite motives and separate interests. This society is a society of journeymen printers, and as the interests of the journeymen are separate and in some respects opposite to that o f the employers, we deem it improper that they should have any voice or influence in our deliberation; therefore, Resolved, That when any member of this society shall become an employing printer he shall be considered without the limits of the society and not to vote on any question, or pay any dues in the same. No device was to be permitted to lessen the piece price o f a quan tity named in the scale. Under the old system o f printing playing cards but one was printed at a time. Some master printer devised a scheme o f setting up two cards in a form and then claimed a reduc EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 879 tion from the pressmen’s scale for presswork. The meeting of June 7, 1817, was devoted to a solution o f the problem: “ I f two cards of the same be set and worked two at a pull shall they be charged less than if they were worked singly ? ” The decision of the society was that “ every 52 cards so worked be charged a pack.” («) Members were held to honest work for their employers and expelled from the society for an unworkmanlike thing as surely as for an act prejudi cial to the interests o f other workmen. In November, 1817, a mem ber was expelled and his name sent to all known societies because he had “ turned wrong a half sheet of 24’s, and without mentioning the fact to his employers left the city, even neglecting to note down the signature letter in his bill— conduct highly derogatory to the New York Typographical Society and disgraceful to himself as a member.” Out o f the conditions in the industry were rapidly developed the measures which soon became the customs, which ossifying became the anatomy o f subsequent trade unionism—the bones and framework o f all modern organizations along trade lines. These “ fundamental principles o f trade unionism,” which are never now expressed in con stitutions, or elaborated in resolutions, because too thoroughly under stood to be expressed, or require expression, are but the successful ex periments o f the formative period in its life, made permanent by time; the sediment o f experience petrified. As witness to this de velopment it is worthy of note that at its meeting in November, 1817, the society resolved to keep a register of members, and their places o f employment. One member was appointed as the representative o f the society in each printing office, and at each meeting as their names were read they must give information “ as to the state of trade and the chances o f employment for more of our members.” A list o f those out o f work was also to be kept, and these in the order o f registration were to be notified of any vacancies or opportunities for employment reported at each meeting. How suggestive this is of the “ father o f the chapel,” the “ house of call,” and the “ waiting list,” and each o f the early societies developed similar features. The aggressive element was, however, being defeated in another direc tion. In 1816 the society had made application to the State legis lature at Albany for an act o f incorporation. The assembly passed the bill, but the senate inserted an amendment, which, while pre serving all o f the social and “ benefit ” features of the society, pro®The principle involved here has always been contended for by British trade unions, but not, as a rule, by those of the United States, at least until recently. The claim is that labor should have a once-established percentage share o f the product, regardless o f time involved in its production. This is now a dictum o f the unions that seek to maintain “ a competitive equality ” among employers, but is not a part o f the typographical union’s creed. 276—No. 61—06 m ------11 880 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR. hibited it from interfering in any manner with trade matters, or attempting to influence the wages of labor. This amendment to its bill the society declined to accept, and the matter went over for two years. In 1818 the bill came up in its original form again, and was again passed by the assembly. Mr. Thurlow Weed, who had joined the society in October, 1816, just after it had established its wage scale o f 1815, but before industrial peace had been entirely secured, had charge o f the society’s bill in Albany. Mr. Weed seems to have been thoroughly in sympathy with the trade regulation inter ests o f the organizations but the senate was not to be moved. After two years o f effort to secure what it wanted from the legislature, the society finally accepted the senate’s terms and adopted, as section 5 of article I o f its constitution, the follow ing: S ec. 5. In no case shall the society interfere in respect to the price o f labor. (a) The society exists to-day and is financially prosperous, but it passed out o f the class of organizations considered in this article by its acceptance o f this legislative charter in 1818. On its beneficial side it had a most elaborate system for the relief of needy members, going so far as to furnish and pay watchers for the sick. The large area of its jurisdiction was divided into sections with visiting com mittees for each. It was as active in matters o f mutual benefit and help as on its trade side. The mutual aid element in these early so cieties has been fully written up heretofore by scholars who, judging only from their printed constitution, and not having access to the minutes or records, have assumed that they were merely mutual aid and burial societies. There is no disposition here to question or even to ignore this element in these societies, but to bring to light from the minutes the evidence that whatever livery o f charitable clubs they wore in public, in their hall rooms they were labor organizations. Considerable space has been given to this New York society o f 1809 because o f its trade aggressiveness. In trade matters it was the stormy petrel o f the early societies, and but for the clipping o f its wings in 1818 the societies organized in the movement of 1815 to 1820 would probably, under its influence, have been as distinctively and as openly trade unions as were those organized from 1830 to 1850. In order to follow more closely the career o f this New York Typo graphical Society from its inception to the surrender of its trade influence, there has been some sacrifice o f strict chronological arrange ment. It remains, however, but to state that from the time of its organization, July 1, 1809, until it ceased to be a labor force in 1818, it had enrolled 237 members. During the war of 1812 the secretary o f the society, Mr. David H. o From a copy o f the constitution as printed in 1833, to be found in the Library of Congress. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 881 Reins, organized a company of artillery composed entirely o f printers for the defense o f the harbor of New Y ork; just as the Philadelphia society, by*unanimous vote in September, 1814, resolved to appropri ate one day’s labor for each of its members “ on the fortifications now erecting for the defense o f the city,” and on October 14, 1814, ap pointed a committee o f three “ whose duty it shall be to receive appli cations o f the wives o f such members o f this society now absent in the service o f the country, under the requisition o f the President thereof, as may stand in need o f assistance, and that they report at every meeting o f the directory the sum they think proper to be allowed to each.” The Philadelphia society, after passing the resolution o f December, 1808, forbidding its members to instruct an apprentice who was more than 18 years o f age at the commencement of his apprenticeship, and providing for the transmission to other societies o f the names o f ex pelled members, as elsewhere referred to, followed this up in March, 1809, by requiring all members to take the obligation formerly ex acted only from officers, including the pledge “ that I will procure employment for any member or members o f this society in preference to any other when occasion may require.” Early in 1809 the society began proceedings to secure incorporation. Some alteration in the constitution was required by the courts pre liminary thereto, though the exact character of the change does not appear on the minutes. In December, 1809, however, “ the commit tee appointed to procure an incorporation reported that the constitu tion had been handed to the judge o f the supreme court for signature on that day and that Mr. Franklin’s fee as counsel was $8, which he would not accept, but returned to the committee as a donation to the funds o f the society.” July 14, 1810, the initiation fee was raised to $5 and a clause added to its constitution which has caused the downfall of more societies than any other one thing with which they had to contend, to the effect that members who paid their dues for twenty years became “ free members,” entitled to all the benefits of the society for life without further payment. The effect o f this will be referred to elsewhere. In September, 1810, the society presented a new scale o f prices to the employers, which seems to have been unsatisfactory. No copy of this price list has been found. A strike for its enforcement seems to have been a disastrous failure, almost depleting the society’s treasury and greatly reducing its membership. A t the beginning o f 1810 there were 119 members in good standing, 14 joined during the year, and 78 resigned or were expelled, leaving the membership 55, or only one more than in 1802 at its close of the first year o f existence. Apart from its patriotic attitude in 1814, referred to above, the benevolent features o f the society occupied its energies until June, 882 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. 1816, when the pressmen formulated a scale and issued the following address to the employers. A similar statement was issued by the compositors, bearing the indorsement of the society, which* raises the question as to whether the pressmen belonged to the society or whether the society as such indorsed only the demands of the com positors and not those of the pressmen. The only copy of this ad dress and price list found was transcribed on the minutes o f the New York Typographical Society as a communication from Philadelphia. The document itself seems to emanate from a mass meeting rather than from the society. The Philadelphia society seems not to have become a purely benevolent association until 1831. Whether or not the pressmen acted independently o f the society in this matter the address and scale is worth preserving here. TO T H E E M P L O Y IN G P R IN TE R S OF T H E C IT Y A N D C O U N T Y OF P H IL A D E L P H IA . G e n t l e m e n : The pressmen are induced, from a duty which they owe to themselves, to call your serious attention to what they here present you. The general prices that they now receive for their work were established fourteen years since [by the scale o f 1802]; it will therefore appear obvious to every person that there has been a great increase since that period in the population o f our country, likewise a wide extension of our commerce, agriculture, and manu factures. The consequence has been a very considerable rise in the things necessary for the comfort of man. They are decidedly o f the opinion that almost all mechanics have had an advance m their wages in proportion to the rise in the necessaries o f life, taken in the aggregate; while the printer, whose profession is not second in point o f merit to any other, is left as it were to stem the torrent of adversity with an empty pocket. Heaven forbid that this should be the fate o f those whose labors tend so essentially to the promulgation o f knowledge throughout our extensive country. And they likewise believe it to be an indelible fact, long since established, that Philadel phia is famous for its workmen in the art preservative o f all arts, both in skill and faculty; but with shame they are compelled to say (notwithstanding our city is the emporium of art) that they receive a less award for their services than is awarded in any o f the other cities o f the Union. From a sense o f imperious duty incumbent upon them as respectable members o f society, they now make the demand, fully confident that it is moderate and just. The laborer is worthy o f his hire. They therefore anticipate that you will, with liberality becoming your profession, give your decided approbation to the annexed scale o f prices. Your opposition we ought not to expect. We are, however, directed by the meeting to inform you that we have been authorized and directed to correspond and confer with you indi vidually, or to meet any committee that may be appointed on your part for that purpose. You will therefore, gentlemen, please to inform us o f your determination as soon as possible, as we have to report to the next meeting. On our part we assure you that we will use our utmost endeavors in this conference to produce a good under EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 883 standing and to avoid as far as possible those inconveniences and altercations which invariably arise out of an imperfect understand ing, well aware that it is too often cherished by those whose position “ does not command a view of the whole ground.” (Signed by order o f the meeting.) J. C. D owden, P. M iller, G eo. H itner, John D ouglas, O. P. M errill, Committee on behalf of the Journeymen Pressmen. P hiladelphia, June 17, 1816. presswork. Pressmen to receive not less than $9 per week for 10 hours work per day. Paper—medium and below medium, not less than 33£ cents per token; when the number is less than four tokens, to be charged 35 cents per token; above medium 37^ cents per token; stereotype editions to be charged 35 cents per token; broadsides, medium, 60 cents per token; royal, 75 cents per token. Cards— for one pack and not exceeding two packs, 33£ cents; when the number exceeds two packs, to be charged 12^ cents per pack. The result o f this appeal is not known. In April, 1817, the society appointed a committee styled The Committee of Employ, Whose duty it shall be to receive the name or names o f such person or persons belonging to this society as shall from time to time be out o f employment, which committee shall thereupon take all just and honorable methods of procuring situations for such applicants. Said committee shall meet at least twice in every month, and shall make report to the board of directors at every meeting thereof of the number o f applicants (designating their names), and generally o f the progress made in the duties of said committee, which report shall be duly entered on the minutes by the secretary and read at each stated meeting o f the society. From time to time committees were “ appointed to investigate the state o f the printing business in this city ” until February 5, 1831, when, by resolution, it was decided “ that this society from and after the first day o f April, 1831, be dissolved,” and a committee was ap pointed to turn all its assets into cash and divide the funds among the members. Before the date set for dissolution arrived, however, namely, February 12, it was decided 66that we do now agree to form an association for benevolent purposes; ” and that while the cash on hand should be divided among the members, “ the library and book case and the burial lot ” should be given to the new organization, provided the donor o f the burial lot (Mr. Ronaldson) would consent to the transfer. Thus died the trade regulation features in one o f the oldest socie ties. As a society it still exists, as does the New York society o f 1809. Never so aggressively industrial as some o f the others, the Philadel 884 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, phia society was conservatively a trade organization from 1802 to 1831, and even after that, in 1832, it being rumored that one o f its members was about to employ women as compositors, and had offered a nonunion printer a situation as foreman in case women were em ployed, the feeling in the society was so strong that the member in question felt called upon to write a letter to be spread upon the min utes o f the society denying that he had ever intended to employ women. (a) The following table, compiled from the records of this society, shows the growth in membership and receipts and expenditures for half a century, from its organization in 1802 to the date set as the limit to this article, 1852: « This is the first mention found of women in the trade. Later the question became o f utmost importance to printers, and a brief summary of its history seems necessary here, since the final disposition did not occur until after the date set as a limit to the general text o f this article. January 17, 1835, a special meeting was called by the Washington, D. C., society because o f the alarm occa sioned by a statement published in a local paper “ that girls were being em ployed as compositors in newspaper offices in Philadelphia,” to break a strike. Resolutions were adopted and embodied in a circular letter sent to the typo graphical societies o f Philadelphia, Boston, New York, and Baltimore, asking if any girls were so employed, if so, how many, and what action these societies “ proposed to take to prevent the further progress of this e v il? ” The records do not show that any replies were received. The national convention of 1854 devoted much o f its time to a discussion o f the “ woman question,” as the Detroit union had asked for instructions in the matter. The proceedings o f the conven tion contain pages o f resolutions on all sides o f the problem, none of which passed. The matter was referred to a committee which recommended that the regulation of the subject be left to local unions, since “ the employment? of females, as compositors, can never become so general or extensive as to affect the trade materially.” At a meeting o f the Boston Typographical Union held June 14, 1856, a motion that “ any member working in any office that employs female compositors should be expelled from the union,” was “ laid over ” for future consideration, and April 11, 1857, the same union passed a resolution “ That all females be allowed by this society to work in all branches o f the busi ness, provided they receive the scale o f prices adopted by this union.” The Philadelphia delegates to the national convention o f 1855 were especially “ in structed to oppose any recognition o f the employment o f females as compositors.” Nearly every national convention debated, and every local union, in cities at least, had to adopt a policy in regard to this subject. Finally a “ union of women printers ” was organized in New York City in 1870 and sought admission to the national, and the national convention o f 1872 settled the matter by admitting women to full membership in local unions and demanding for her labor the same price paid to men. 885 EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, ST A T IS T IC S OF M E M B E R SH IP AND OF R E C E IP T S AND E X P E N D IT U R E S DU RIN G TH E F IR S T H A LF CEN TU RY OF TH E P H IL A D E L P H IA T Y P O G R A PH IC A L SO CIETY. M em bers. Y ear. R eceipts. Duest D ied, re In good fines, A d m itted . signed, or standing. in iti ations. expelled. 1802...................... 1803........... ......... 1804...................... 1805...................... 1806...................... 1807...................... 1808...................... 1809...................... 1810...................... 1811...................... 1812...................... 1813...................... 1814...................... 1815...................... 1816...................... 1817...................... 1818...................... 1819...................... 1820...................... 1821...................... 1822...................... 1823...................... 1824...................... 1825...................... 1826...................... 1827...................... 1828...................... 1829...................... 1830...................... 1831...................... 1832...................... 1833...................... 1834...................... 1835...................... 1836...................... 1837...................... 1838.............. ........ 1839...................... 1840...................... 1841...................... 1842...................... 1843...................... 1844...................... 1845...................... 1846...................... 1847...................... 1848...................... 1849...................... 1850...................... 1851...................... 54 13 1 6 22 9 24 14 6 7 6 3 10 11 14 7 2 2 9 2 9 10 6 12 4 6 1 52 22 45 29 39 26 19 19 21 25 37 11 9 16 15 24 11 14 18 7 15 5 1 2 2 78 2 2 3 4 4 3 6 2 4 5 4 4 3 6 2 1 4 3 3 3 a 114 14 23 33 28 19 12 18 15 6 9 8 10 6 7 1 9 6 9 ° R eorganization . 54 62 63 63 68 88 95 119 55 59 64 67 66 72 80 88 93 91 88 84 89 88 91 99 104 112 113 116 114 52 74 105 111 117 115 115 122 125 135 166 168 169 175 190 208 212 225 234 235 241 $80.64 70.94 162.00 52.62 116.87 229.38 109.78 168.00 333.00 209.88 172.00 193.00 138.37 251.38 232.62 247.50 203.87 130.25 128.50 118.50 123.87 161.88 128.87 154.63 115.50 199.25 114.75 137.91 158.25 463.35 429.36 473.84 840.19 831.00 620.49 688.13 569.56 729.24 835.24 1,030.04 1,008.04 1,156.21 1,161.15 1,221.00 1,340.76 1,642.34 1,533.53 1,630.42 1,564.50 1,508.12 E xpenditures. F rom oth er sources. D eath, sick , or ou t-ofw ork benefits. $3.00 ' $3.75 48.00 48.70 44.00 52.00 31.00 833.00 65.34 74.90 70.34 78.19 95.93 95.67 67.92 21.98 35.75 314.09 71.54 62.81 999.05 73.25 80.25 76.50 91.00 297.12 100.00 112.00 45.00 70.00 77.65 88.10 100.00 112.00 132.00 150.00 278.00 162.00 162.00 162.00 162.00 163.10 162.00 162.00 328.90 233.71 12.00 41.00 36.00 65.00 79.00 194.00 101.00 31.00 105.00 103.00 75.00 48.00 129.00 183.00 215.00 270.00 143.00 114.50 259.50 101.50 36.00 163.50 162.00 248.00 328.00 55.00 368.57 267.00 150.00 295.52 297.54 203.67 462.84 260.36 267.72 648.35 1,331.84 827.13 1,293.35 1,264.72 782.99 1,235.35 1,362.16 1,566.88 1,801.69 1,568.23 O ther ex penses. $59.00 9.00 9.00 44.10 30.37 45.25 165.37 255.02 57.50 32.50 46.50 33.00 38.18 91.24 160.84 44.00 256.25 192.34 27.75 13.88 271.01 27.84 259.26 118.19 130.87 25.00 51.30 106.00 21.58 34.35 79.94 257.78 305.92 22.12 180.09 109.75 147.45 131.33 130.04 172.27 258.92 234.02 165.55 123.30 132.00 141.20 150.85 85.50 99.90 Funds divided equally. The year 1815 was a memorable one for printers’ societies. Boston, Mass., Albany, N. Y., and Washington, D. C., organized during the year, and while the date of the organization of the Baltimore Typo graphical Society is not known, the first mention o f it is also found during this year. The first meeting o f the Washington printers for the purpose o f organization was held December 10, 1814, at the pri vate house o f Mr. H. L. Lewis, in whose parlor the society met, for some years paying him $1 per month for the privilege. A t this first meeting a committee was appointed to draft a constitution, “ with instructions to model the same as nearly as may be practicable by 886 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. that o f the Philadelphia Typographical Society.” This committee reported in January, 1815; the constitution was adopted, and the society organized with 19 members. Nine more were added during the year, making a total of 28 at the close of 1815. (a) A copy o f this constitution copied from the records o f the society for this report will be found in Appendix A, No. 2. As it is avow edly based on the later developments of that of Philadelphia, no copy o f which subsequent to 1802 was found, the reader should compare the two for himself. The fact should not be overlooked that the Washington society (called the Columbia Typographical Society) was modeled after the most conservative and largely beneficial of the earlier societies— that o f Philadelphia; while that of Albany, N. Y., evidently organ ized at the instigation of the emissaries from the New York City society, was patterned after that more aggressive body. But if the “ first object o f the Columbia society was benevolence,” it also pro posed to “ regulate prices,” and in the conflict of factions, almost evenly divided as to numbers (except under extreme provocation, as in 1836), it was at once liberally benevolent and conservatively per sistent in trade matters, being the only one of the old societies that has survived until to-day, and developed into a modern trade union, rather than a mutual benefit association. On June 15, 1815, a committee of correspondence was appointed, which reported July 1 that it had sent the following circular letter to the typographical societies o f Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, Albany, and Boston. The copy here given is from the minutes of the original society. It differs in phraseology on minor points from the copy made from the records of the New York society as received. W ashington, July — , 1816. To the President of th e --------- S ociety,---------- a t ---------- . S i r : By a vote of the Columbia Typographical Society, we were appointed a committee of correspondence: In pursuance o f which appointment it has become our duty, thro’ you, to address the society over which you preside, informing them o f the organization, in the District o f Columbia, o f a society under the above title: having for its object, first, benevolence, and, second, the establishment o f a regu lar system o f prices. In the obtainment of these views, we feel assured o f the good wishes o f your body, as well as o f every friend to the profession. « As no information has hitherto been obtainable relative to the membership of these organizations, the accessions to this society, by years, is here noted up to 1840. As stated above, it had 28 members at the close o f 1815. In 1816 it added 15 to its membership; 5 in 1817; 9 in 1818; 5 in 1819; 9 in 1820 ; 6 in 1821; 5 in 1822; 14 in 1823; 10 in 1824; 13 in 1825; 11 in 1826 ; 9 in 1827; n in 1828; 2 in 1829 ; 4 in 1830; 11 in 1831; 7 in 1832; 5 in 1833; 71 in 1834 ; 33 in 1835; 17 in 1836 ; 31 in 1837; 17 in 1838; and 17 in 1839, making a total o f recorded names in 25 years o f 365.. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 887 In the infancy o f associations of this nature difficulties will fre quently occur, tending to dampen the fondest expectations o f the most sanguine. That we Tiave had to contend with such difficulties we will not attempt to deny, but by a determined perseverance on the part o f each member, they have been caused to vanish, and we now indulge the pleasing hope that our society is firmly and permanently established. With satisfaction we have it in our power to state that, with but few exceptions, every journeyman in this District are now members o f this society. The few who are not, we have the strongest reasons for asserting, will in a short time attach themselves to us. We are also directed to state, for the information of journeyman in your vicinity, the wages given in the District, v iz : During the session of Congress, per week----------------------------------------------$10. 00 Working on a Sunday------------------------------------------------------------------------2. 00 During the recess, per week___________________________________________ 9. 00 For pressmen and compositors: Composition, per 1,000 ms. for brevier and upwards-----------------------------. 28 Composition, per 1,000 ms. for less than brevier_______________ *_______ . 33£ Presswork, per token_________________________________________________ . 33£ Presswork, per token, bn newspapers_________________________________ . 37£ Journeymen are altogether employed by the week during the session o f Congress. We give this notice with a hope that it may prevent journeymen at a distance engaging at less prices than those above quoted. With a request that reciprocal communications having a tendency to benefit the profession may at all times take place, We have the honor to be, sir, yours, &c., respectfully, (Signed) Jas. P ettigrew, J. G ideon, Jr. This letter brought but two replies, one from Baltimore (a) and that o f the president o f the New York Typographical Society, which soci ety sent a further communication, received October 7, notifying the « The letter from the Baltimore society makes so clear the fact that that organization was likewise as thoroughly economic in its purpose as were the others that it is reproduced here, since no other documents of this early Baltimore society have been discovered. B a l t im o r e , D ecem b er 8, 1815. T o the P resid en t o f the Colum bia Typographical S o c ie ty : Si r : I hasten to comply with a requisition o f the Baltimore Typographical Association, imposed on me by a vote o f that body at their last meeting, viz, a reply to a communication received from a committee of the society over which you have the honor to preside—under the name and title first mentioned. Previous, however, to entering into the performance o f this task it becomes a duty incumbent on me as a friend to a mutual interchange o f sentiments between associations o f this nature, as well as individuals, to explain, so far as is within my power, the causes which have produced this almost unpardon able delay— a delay so derogatory to the feelings and so contrary to the wishes o f every member of our body. Your communication bears date of June 30, 1815. It was, I believe, received in due season, and promptly laid before the next meeting after its receipt, which meeting empowered and required the then secretary to forward a reply, expres sive of the thanks of the association, for the attention you have shown them, the pleasure they always experience in the establishment o f any regulations which have the least tendency to promote the interest and happiness o f our brethren in every section o f the Union, their copgratulations that you have so 888 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. Columbian society of a strike in New York to enforce the scale of prices, and asking that no Washington printers be permitted to take situations in New York until the trouble was over. A t this meeting o f October 7 a “ committee was appointed to draft a list o f prices similar to that o f Baltimore.” This committee reported and the list was approved November 4,1815. It is reproduced herein (Appendix B, No. 2) and is to be understood as representing the wage conditions in both the cities (Washington .and Baltimore) at that time. The society ordered 150 copies of this price list printed. The Boston Typographical Society of 1809 had apparently ceased to exist, as another of the same name was organized November 25, 1815, and on March 2, 1816, on the eve of a demand for an increase o f wages, sent the following letter to the various societies: B o sto n , March 1816. S ir : A society bearing the name of the “ Boston Typographical Society ” was formed in this town on the 25th of November last past, o f which Mr. P. F. Quearean is president; Henry Nichols, vicepresident; and William Learned, secretary. On Monday next, 4th of March, the journeymen o f this town and vicinity calculate to receive the prices which they have adopted. The employers have already been informed of our determination and we doubt not they will be obstinate at first, but must eventually agree to give us the prices we ask, provided we are united and the journey men o f your city do not think proper to come to this town for work at the call o f the masters, as they will doubtless many o f them adver tise for workmen in a short time. We, therefore, earnestly request that you will give notice to the members o f your society o f our proceedings, and as it is all important that we should be left to manage our own affairs in our own way, completely succeeded in rebuffing the many obstacles naturally incident in the formation o f such associations, and their readiness at all times to cooperate with you in all and every measure which may have for its object the mutual interest of both associations and the profession generally. The above order, from causes not yet explained, has not been complied with, nor was known until the last meeting. Hoping that the above-recited fact will be sufficient to remove any unpleas ant sensations from your minds which may have been excited in consequence thereof, I embrace the present occasion o f complimenting you on the funda mental principles of your association— “ benevolence ” and the “ establishment of a regular system of prices.” The first is one of the noblest virtues o f the human heart and the last very essential to the promotion o f the interest and happiness o f every association o f a mechanical nature. To conclude, sir, you may be assured that we will always feel proud to receive any communication from the Columbia society which may, in the least have a tendency to favor the views or carry into effect the objects o f each association, and will ever be ready at any moment to act with alacrity in conjunction with it on any measure that might lead to our mutual benefit. I have the honor to remain, with the sentiments o f respect (on behalf o f the Baltimore association), your very obt. humble servant. J o h n R evell, P resid en t o f said A ssocia tion . Mr. A l e x a n d e r G r a h a m , P resid en t o f the Colum bia T ypographical S ociety. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 889 you will please give us every necessary aid in the present contest which “ try men’s souls.” We are, sir, with respect, yours, etc., E liakim F ish , Geo. S ingleton, W m . K erry, Jr., Committee. P. S.— Should you observe in the newspapers an advertisement for journeymen wanted in this place, we request you to advertise in our behalf that there are between 50 and 60 journeymen out of employ in Boston. October 4, 1816, the aggressive Albany society, which, as stated above, had been organized in 1815, sent the following letter to all societies: A lbany , Oct. 1816. To the 'president o f the ’Washington City Typographical Society, Washington. Sir : A ll bodies formed for the purpose o f maintaining the rights o f those concerned therein, while at the same time they afford relief in cases o f distress to which any of their members may be exposed, ought to possess the means o f holding up to the contempt of those societies who have the same just and benevolent ends in view, such persons as either from self-interest or perverseness endeavor to defeat the object o f such associations. Influenced by these sentiments, the Albany Typographical Society authorized the undersigned to communicate to the different societies in the United States their willingness to cooperate with them in the furtherance o f all lawful measures conducive with the interests of the business, and at the same time to forward the names o f several un principled persons to you, and through you to the Washington City Typographical Society, who for months past have been and are still working in the office o f Messrs.------ in this city below the prices es tablished by the society. Their names a re ------ , ------ , ------ , ------ , ------ , ------ . What renders their conduct the more censurable is the fact of their being several times warned o f the consequences which would result from their proceedings, but persisting notwithstanding. By order o f the society, J ohn B. N. S teinbergh, President. J ohn H enshall, Secretary. While this was recognized as a radical step to take at that time, there was no refusal to comply with the request o f the Albany society. It was, in fact, no more than the Philadelphia society had reluctantly conceded to the New York society in 1809. The Albany society seems to have refused to permit its members to work in offices with men receiving less than the scale almost from the first. This society seems to have been the first to give currency to the term “ rat ” as applied to a printer who works for less than the established wages, 890 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. and struck against the employment o f a man designated as a 44rat ” in 1821. To the credit o f this stormy little society in Albany, N. Y., let it be said that in a subsequent letter it took up the case o f at least one o f these men and rescinded its action. The letter gives an inside view o f the industrial conditions of the time which renders it preeminently worth preserving. We have become more fully acquainted with the causes which compelled Stephen Dorion to accept of the illegitimate prices. It appears he was among the first o f those who refused to comply with the views o f the employers and consequently lost his situation. He went to New York in pursuit o f work but could not procure any. He returned again to this city and after sacrificing all his property, amounting to about $100, besides contracting a heavy debt for the support o f his family, with starvation staring him in the face, with out the least hope or possibility o f procuring any assistance from our society, and, from the conviction that 44rats ” in abundance could be procured to carry on the work o f destruction, he chose rather to work at reduced wages than to become an inhabitant o f a gaol or a poorhouse. Therefore we hope he may be exonerated from the odious appellation o f “ rat.” Twenty years later (1888), St. Louis, Mo., protested against a too strenuous hounding o f 44rats,” and it was one o f the first acts o f the national organization o f 1852 to call a halt on the abuse o f this custom by local societies. From 1816 to 1827, so far as can be determined from the minutes o f the Washington society, communications between the various societies practically ceased, but each was active in its own field. The problem o f a uniform wage scale throughout the country, begun by the complaint o f the employers o f New York City in the strike of 1815, now became a serious question to the societies from another point o f view. The price lists were printed separately from the con stitutions, and the earlier constitutions in most societies made no direct reference to wage scales. Some members claimed that work ing for less than the wage scale was not a violation o f the constitu tion. Eoving printers also claimed that if they did not work below the scale o f the society they had originally joined they were not vio lating any obligation. The Washington society’s scale was higher than that o f any northern city, and, as the Government printing made the capital a sort o f Mecca for 46tramp ” printers, this society became the first serious victim o f this subterfuge. To settle the claim made by home members, who insisted that the scale was not a part o f the organic law, the society, February 1, 1817, ordered 250 copies of the constitution printed 64with the list o f prices annexed thereto.” This plan was adopted by Boston in 1825, and gradually by all societies, and the reason for it is as stated above. It EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 891 is kept up to this day by local printers’ unions. This however, only partially settled the trouble with itinerant compositors. (a) April 4, 1818, the society adopted an entirely new constitution, both in preamble and nearly every section. It broke away, practi cally, from the ultra conservatism of the Philadelphia model, and placed the Washington society more in line with that o f New York City prior to its acceptance of a legislative charter. A copy of this constitution, taken from the minutes, is reproduced (Appendix A, No. 3) as the best documentary evidence o f the development of this society, and as an excellent specimen o f the constitutions o f all the more aggressive societies of that date. The special agitation of the apprentice question began in Washing ton in 1818, and while the constitution o f that year does not go beyond requiring “ a satisfactory apprenticeship,” nevertheless from the minutes it is learned that candidates for membership were not only vigorously questioned on this point, but were required to prove by written statements from “ their masters ” that they had served u a four years’ apprenticeship.” Even after admission members were held liable to expulsion if it was discovered that there “ had been irregularities in his apprenticeship.” A case o f this character a The division of sentiment on the uniform wage scale was apparent in the call for the national convention of 1836, in which the Washington society sought to estop the convention from dealing with uniform rates by the very terms of the call, while Cincinnati had made the original request for a national con vention in the hope of securing uniform rates o f wages. In the convention o f 1854 a resolution was introduced that all members should consider the bill of prices a part of the by-laws, and the convention of 1855 formulated a pledge to be taken by all members, which covered the question in the following manner: I , ---------------------, hereby solemnly and sincerely swear * * * that I will without equivocation or evasion, and to the best of my ability, so long as I live, abide by the constitution and by-laws, ami the particular scale of prices of work acknowledged and adopted by this or other typographical unions o f the United States, of which I now am or may become a member, and that I will at all times, by every honorable means in my power, procure employment for members of our union in preference to all others. So help me God. Gradually the eastern and southern societies had educated the itinerant printers and gotten rid o f the uniformity question when it came up again from the river cities upon which it had been forced by the steamboat printing office. Even in the Chicago convention o f 1858 the demand for “ a uniform price list for all unions in the United States ” came up. The “ demand ” came from the river cities as usual. It was finally disposed o f at this convention of 1858 by the adoption o f the following resolution: R e so lv ed , That it is hereby recommended by the National Typographical Union that the subordinate unions o f Louisville, St. Louis, Memphis, and New Orleans confer with each other for the purpose o f establishing a uniform scale o f prices for work done by printers on steamboats running on the Ohio, Missouri, and Mississippi rivers, and that the united action o f the New Orleans, Memphis, St. Louis, and Louisville unions shall be regarded by the National Typographical Union as having full power and authority to regulate all matters pertaining thereto, provided that the representatives o f the unions named may admit to their councils representatives from other places interested. 892 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. came up July 16, 1818, when it was charged that one Fleming had no right to membership. Fleming proved that he had served two and a half years’ apprenticeship in Dublin, Ireland, and afterwards a short-term apprenticeship in Philadelphia, but this was claimed irregular, as the entire term must be under one master to protect the trade against “ runaways.” The vote on his expulsion being a tie, he was saved only by the casting vote o f the president. The consti tution o f 1818 provided for certificates of membership, especially traveling certificates, and remitted the dues of members while travel ing outside the District o f Columbia, provided they joined any other society while so traveling and brought back with them a clear record from the society so joined. February 16, 1819, the society ordered 250 certificates o f membership and made it obligatory for members to carry them when at work, whether in the District or out. The con stitution was again revised in 1821, when the faction opposed to any trade interference had again secured a majority in the society. This revision is not here reproduced, as there are no important changes, except that four years’ apprenticeship is made an “ indispensable qualification for all persons hereafter admitted.” A ll reference to other societies was stricken out, and a member absent from the Dis trict must pay dues upon his return precisely as though he had not been absent. The first clause of article 17, section 1, states that “ a majority of the society shall determine on all charges alleged against any member, whether they are of a nature cognizable by the rules o f the society.” As the event proved, it was under this provision that all interference in trade matters was to be ruled out of order by the “ alimoners,” who at that moment held a majority against the “ industrialists.” The society was not ready, however, to take a step which might compel the surrender o f its right to interfere in wage matters. A t a meeting held December 1, 1821, a resolution was introduced looking to the incorporation o f the society by Congress. The trade-regulating ele ment among members feared that this would result, as it had in New York City, in taking away all power to interfere in prices o f labor. It being pretty generally conceded that this might result, the debate was along that line. The vote was a tie, the president casting his vote against the project of incorporation. It was not until October 4, 1823, that a trade question was forced before the society, at which time the question as to whether or not setting minion for 30 cents a 1,000 ems on a newspaper was a violation o f the price list was decided in the negative. April 3, 1824, charges were lodged against three men— one a foreman, one a proprietor for whom the others worked, and the third a journeyman—all members of the society, charging the two former with paying the latter less than the scale, and the latter with working under the scale. The contention was that it was none EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 893 o f the society’s business, if all parties to the arrangement agreed to it willingly as individuals. The test o f strength between the two factions came on the question as to whether this was a charge “ of a nature cognizable by the rules o f the society,” under article 17 of the constitution, as quoted above, and a majority voted that it was. The membership of the society had been waning for some time—but 6 new members joined in 1821, 5 in 1822. Some improvement began to be noted, however, and in 1824 for the first time the society joined in a civic parade on the Fourth o f July as a society, wearing silver “ printer’s rules ” as badges. From the minutes it appears the society was out in full force, forming “ in front of the President’s house.” In the parade they had a press on a wagon “ printing and distributing from it copies of the Declaration o f Independence.” A t the June meeting in 1827 the spirit o f the progressive element began to stir anew, and a communication was ordered to be sent to the New York City and the Philadelphia societies. For ten years there had been no correspondence between these organizations. The letter o f the Washington society(°) brought replies from both the societies addressed. They .were faint-hearted letters, however, indicating that those societies as such were not more progressive than this one at that time. The letters are not of sufficient historical interest to reproduce them here. O f considerable more importance is a resolution intro duced by Mr. W. H. Blaney, January 5, 1828. Mr. Blaney was ®Copy of a communication to the presidents of the New York and Philadelphia typographical societies: W a s h i n g t o n C i t y , J u ly 9 ,1 8 2 7. P resid en t o f the N e w Y o rk T ypographical S o c ie ty . Si b : At a stated meeting o f the Columbia Typographical Society o f Wash ington, held on the 7th instant, the president was “ requested to forward a copy of our constitution and by-laws to the society over which you preside, and to request a reciprocation of favors on the part of your society.” In compliance with this request, I take pleasure in forwarding our consti tution and requesting that you will forward us a copy o f yours in return. The object o f transmitting this instrument is, to open a correspondence with our brethren o f New York, in the hope that, if kept up between the societies, it may be o f mutual benefit. Any facts or information that may have that tendency will be thankfully received on our part, and we shall not fail to notify you of all matters which may be of moment, or likely to prove interesting to you. Within the covers o f the constitution you will find our list of prices, and the names o f all the members o f our society, up to the time it was printed. This latter information will prove interesting to some o f our brethren of your city, if there shall be found among these signers of our constitution the names o f any of their friends. It naturally gives us pleasure to procure information of the com panions o f our earlier years, and to learn, after a long separation, whether they are yet alive or whether they have passed that bourn from which no traveler returns. This communication, and the constitution, will be handed you by our secretary, Mr. Francis G. Fish, who is on a visit to some o f the principal Atlantic cities, and to his friends at the eastward. He is recommended to your favorable regard, and will be the bearer o f any favor you may wish to send us in return. Very respectfully, sir, I have the honor to be, your obedient servant, W m . K ebr , Jr., P resid en t Colum bia Typographical S o c ie ty . 894 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. a member of both the Philadelphia and Washington societies. During 1827 he had been visiting in New York City and Phila delphia. His acquaintance with the views of the printers of these cities was wide, and the plan he proposed was without reasonable doubt approved by a strong minority in all three of the societies, though it must be remembered that the New York City society was prevented by its legislative charter of 1818 from embarking in such a project, nor is it entirely certain that the Philadelphia society had not as a society lost its control over price regulation. Mr. Blaney’s plan was embodied in the follow ing: Resolved, That a committee be appointed from this society to devise means to form a connection with the Philadelphia and New York typographical societies for the support of prices in each city, and report the same at the next stated meeting. The resolution was tabled, as the time was not yet come for this. Here, however, we have the first hint (unless it be true that the New York society did make the same proposition to Boston in 1816) o f a grouping o f printers’ organizations, such as was accomplished in 1886. From 1828 on the scrutiny of applicants for membership, on the point o f their having served a full term of apprenticeship, became more and more searching and jealous. The trouble with the printer to the United States Senate, Gen. Duff Green, which cemented the scattered societies and made new ones, and o f which much will be said later, began early in 1829. At a meeting held July 4, 1829, the president of the society reported that he had held several fruitless conferences with and had six let ters from “ Mr. Duff Green on the subject of a reduction o f the established prices.” At the meeting o f February 7,1829, a resolution to have the society incorporated by Congress was voted down by a decisive majority. This idea o f incorporation was always associated more or less with that o f surrendering control over wages, and the time for that had passed. A new impetus was coming to organization—new plans forming, a new opponent arising, who in an attempt to crush was destined to solidify the trade organizations. T H E P E R IO D FRO M 1830 TO 1852. The fatal mistake of the early societies was the “ free membership ” section in their constitutions. A member who paid his dues for a cer tain period— ten years in Washington, ten years in Baltimore, and twenty in Philadelphia, or who paid a lump sum equivalent to the accumulated dues o f such periods, became a free member, entitled to all the benefits o f the societies without further payment. When EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 895 this maturing period arrived the society found itself with a list o f nonpaying members which acted as a discouragement to new members, because on the latter must fall the entire expense of the organization while the “ free members ” got most of the benefits. The societies generally ceased to exist about the time the first list o f free members appears. Baltimore, organized in 1814 or 1815* ceased to exist in 1825 or 1826; Philadelphia, organized in 1802 (with a twenty-year paying period adopted in 1810), disbanded to reorganize on another basis in 1831, and so on. The reason the Wash ington society did not go down under the baneful influence o f this provision was that the printing business in Washington was so un evenly distributed. When Congress was in session the city was filled with itinerant printers who paid their dues while they stayed, but few o f them settled down so as to ever become “ free members.” This influx and exodus of printers, resulting from sessional work, made possible the preservation of the Columbia Typographical Society, notwithstanding this defect in its early constitution; and this society, by the preservation of its minutes, has made possible a fairly com prehensive study o f the character of these early societies, as well as furnishing a fair index, through its correspondence, o f the progress o f organization elsewhere. The older organizations, almost without exception, called them selves societies. The new organizations were adopting the term “ association.” In 1830 the New Orleans Typographical Association was organized, as appears from a notice of organization sent by it to the Philadelphia society. In 1832 this New Orleans association issued a price list radically increasing the scale of wages; no copy o f this list has been found. This organization seems to have collapsed within a year or two, and was reorganized, or another o f the same name organized, May 9, 1835. The printers o f New York City were becoming dissatisfied, and a strong element began to feel that the typographical society, hampered as it was with legislative restrictions, was not sufficient for their needs. On November 19, 1830, a mass meeting of printers employed on the daily papers o f the city was called, and the following resolu tion passed: Resolved, That it was never the intention o f the printers employed on the morning and evening papers to make a schism between them selves and the New York Typographical Society (some of whonf are members o f that society). So they disclaim and refute the many insinuations prepared to convey that idea. I t is n ot at a ll cle a r th a t th e o ld so cie ty a ttem p ted , as an o r g a n iz a tion , to ch eck th e m o v e to o rg a n iz e th e p rin te rs a lo n g tra d e lin e s ; a n d it is certa in th a t m a n y m em bers o f th e o ld so cie ty b eca m e m e m b ers o f th e n ew w h en it w as fo r m e d . 276—No. 61—06 m ------ 12 896 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. The formation o f a new association along strictly trade lines oc curred June 17, 1831. A price list was issued, for the enforcement of which the association seems to have become immediately involved in a strike. A copy o f this list, with a few changes made in 1833, more to clear up ambiguities than to change the scale, will be found in Appendix B, No. 4, of this report. The constitution, as revised in 1833, will also be found in outline in Appendix A, No. 5. The organ ization continued in existence until about 1840. It should be under stood that its organization was mainly due to the compositors on daily papers. There were 220 members in 1833. The constitution of 1833 was prefaced with a most remarkable doc ument, called “ Introductory remarks.” Probably no similar state ment covering the period will be found written by workmen them selves. They give their point o f view in language which, to put it mildly, must be considered vigorous. Some of the conditions complained o f were local to New York City, but many of their griev ances were general in the trade, and especially that of what would now be called child labor, out of which grew the apprenticeship restrictions later on. Notwithstanding its length, the undoubted historical value o f this document warrants its complete transcription here. It should be explained, perhaps, that in this, as in all the early documents, the term “ printer ” is often, though not exclusively, used to denote the employer, or proprietor, of the printing establishment, instead o f the journeyman or compositor. IN TRO DU C TOR Y R E M A R K S . The Typographical Association of New York was instituted on the 17th day o f June, 1831. It may not be deemed improper to state some o f the causes which led to its formation; and, in doing this, it will be necessary to revert to the condition of the printing business for some years past. In the year 1809, the New York Typographical Society was formed, for the purpose o f sustaining a uniform scale of prices, and of afford ing pecuniary relief to the sick and distressed of its own members, their widows and orphans. This institution has continued to the present time; but the principal object of its first formation has long since ceased to claim any part of its attention. In 1812, war occur ring between this country and Great Britain, the business suffered extremely, and continued in a depressed state until 1815 or 1816, when it was found necessary to call a general meeting of the journey men in the city, to take into consideration the propriety of revising the scale o f prices; and after considerable debate between employers and employees, a scale was agreed upon, which was adopted by the New York Typographical Society. The demands of the workmen were very generally acceded to, and for some three or four years business was very brisk. In the year 1818, the society was incorporated by an act o f the leg EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 897 islature, and, being prohibited by the terms of its charter from inter fering with the scale of prices, it became merely a mutual benefit institution. In the meantime, the seeds of declension in the trade were gradually sown, and the fruit began to appear in various ways. Some printers from a distance, having heard that business was good, and being determined to obtain it at all hazards, located themselves among us; and to secure a sufficient quantity of work commenced operations on terms that could not be afforded, if they wished to obtain a fair remuneration for their labor, or act honestly by the workman. The consequence was, that while a few grew rich at the expense of the journeymen, old established printers, who had before paid honorable prices, were obliged to reduce their charges for work, or lose much of their business; and as their receipts were diminished, the wages of the journeymen were by degrees reduced, until, instead of a uniform scale o f prices, every man was compelled to work for what he could obtain. Another cause of depression was the practice, which then pre vailed, and has continued more or less to the present time, o f employ ing runaway or dismissed apprentices for a small compensation. These were called two-thirds men, and have always proved a great pest to the profession. Added to this, roller boys, having gained admission to the interior of a printing office, have in a short time found their way from the rear to the front of the press, to the dis charge of the regular pressman. The trade, also, as far as pressmen are concerned, had suffered extremely by the applications of machinery to that branch of the busi ness; and while a few individuals were growing rich, as they asserted, for the benefit of the public at large, many who had spent from five to seven years of the flower of their lives in acquiring a knowledge of their profession, were left without employment, or were obliged to resort to some business with which they were unacquainted, and thus constrained to serve a sort of second apprenticeship. Matters continued in this condition for a number of years. Mean time the business of stereotyping had increased to a great extent; and the numerous improvements in the art, or rather the motto of multum in parvo literally reduced to practice, rendered it every year more and more difficult for compositors to support themselves and their families. To the disgrace of some employers, every advantage was taken of the necessities of the workmen, and impositions were continually practiced upon them. Men, however, when borne down by oppression, rise in their strength, and assert their rights. The journeymen printers of the city o f New York, from a sense o f justice to themselves, and those employers who had uniformly paid honorable prices, resolved to unite as an association for the purpose o f elevating the business to a proper level. Numbers of them were engaged on the several daily newspapers o f this city at prices deemed sufficient when there was little labor and scarcely any competition, but which were found totally inadequate when all vied with each other to present the latest news to their readers. To accomplish this, the workmen were almost entirely deprived of their rest for nights together. Scarcely any employment can be more laborious than that of pub lishing a daily morning newspaper. Many of the offices are in the 898 BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOB. most crowded parts of the city; and, not having been built for the purpose, are illy calculated to afford a good circulation of air, or what is next in importance, good light. To the injurious effects of these and similar causes, many o f the most worthy o f the profession have fallen victims; and others, after a short endurance, have found their faculties so impaired, and their constitutions so debilitated, as to be rendered incapable of undertaking any oth^r permanent employ ment for their future support. It requires the united exercise of the mental and bodily labor of the persons employed, for nearly the whole night, and a considerable portion of the day; being seldom able to allot more than seven hours to rest and refreshment. To be thus confined for such a length of time, inhaling the stagnant air o f a printing office, is sufficient to enervate a man or the most vigorous constitution. Under all these circumstances, a general meeting of the trade was called about the 1st of June, 1831, at which a committee was appointed to draw up a just and equitable scale of prices. The committee made their report to an adjourned meeting, which adopted it; and on the 17th day of the same month the Typographical Association o f New York was established, and a constitution and by-laws framed for its government. A circular to the employing printers was forthwith issued, cover ing the new scale of prices, and respectfully asking them to accede to it. Most o f them, to their honor, saw the justice o f the demand, and promptly awarded the wages asked for. There were some, however, both among the book offices and daily newspapers, who altogether refused, and have managed, from that time to the present, by a constant change o f workmen (for no honorable journeyman after a knowledge of the facts would remain a moment in such degraded employment), to evade the demands for a fair compensation. It is a source o f consolation, after all, that the expenses o f those establishments where the prices are not paid are greater than those where they are, owing to the incompetency and dishonesty o f those employed. Among the means made use of to depress the business by those who withhold from the workmen their just demands, has been adver tising in several o f the newspapers in Scotland, and elsewhere in Great Britain, that a great opening for printers existed in New York, thereby inducing many to leave the comforts of home in the old country, to seek for a precarious subsistence on this side of the Atlantic. Many, to their regret, can testify, of the truth o f this assertion; and the feelings of the man, by whose unprincipled con duct this breaking up of kindred and subsequent disappointment in obtaining the means of support have happened, are not to be envied. Perhaps the day may come, when remorse, like a subtle poison, may lurk about his heart, and cause him to do an act of justice to those who have been swindled by his deception. When the association was informed of the means taken by unprin cipled men to injure the business, a circular was immediately ad dressed to the printers o f the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and dispatched by one o f its members. The association has since learned, by letters from Europe, that the appeal has had an extensive circulation, and has tended in a great measure to counteract the evil contemplated by the original advertisements. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 899 Since its formation, the association has steadily advanced in strength and respectability, and has repeatedly been called upon to settle disputes arising between employers and journeymen; and it is gratifying, that, in all instances where it has been appealed to, its decision has been respected and acted on by the parties concerned. These repeated appeals, in cases of difficulty, have induced it again carefully to revise the scale o f prices, explaining those points which were before involved in doubt, and amplifying others, so that no other construction can be given to them than the true one. As the trade has for a long time, and particularly since the introduction o f stereotyp ing, been burdened with numerous grievances and vexations, which, while they employed much of the journeyman’s time, were never paid for, these things have in the revised scale been taken into consid eration, and a proper compensation awarded. In doing this, how ever, proper attention has been paid to the interest of the employer; for if any o f the vexations spoken o f arise from either carelessness or the want o f skill of the workmen, it shall be at his expense. It is intended that the revised scale of prices shall be for the benefit of both honorable employers and journeymen who know their business; but shall be o f no service to those unfledged apologies for humanity who obtrude themselves on a profession of which they know nothing, and to which they can be little else than a burden and a disgrace. Many o f the latter class of individuals have made their appearance in this city, in consequence of advertisements inserted in papers whose proprietors do not pay the prices; but they are found, on trial, to be too bad even for such infamous uses. Some o f them are runaway apprentices; others are destitute not only of honorable feeling but of all knowledge of their business, and generally trace their defects to the want or proper instruction from their masters. The conse quence to the good workman is, that he is frequently made to suffer from errors committed by these pretenders. As all institutions, in their infancy, are liable to imperfection, the Typographical Association could not expect to be exempt from the common lot. It was found that the constitution under which it has hitherto acted, was in many things defective; and it was deemed proper to appoint a committee to revise that instrument. This has been done, and the association, after a long and arduous discussion adopted the constitution, by-laws and rules of order published in the following pages. It now only remains for the members to be just to themselves and the printing business will take its proper stand in the community. To do this it is necessary that all journeymen coming within the juris diction o f the association should become members, and strictly abide by the principles o f the constitution. December 6, 1834, the Columbia Society at Washington received a letter from the New York Typographical Association containing a list of the 44rat offices,” and another of the individual 44rats ” in the city. The strike had not been entirely successful, but the association recovered and seems to have been strong enough in 1835 to prevent the employment o f nonunion printers in New York. The evidence o f this, such as it is, is to be found in the minutes of the Washington society, which show that September 26,1835, a former member o f the 900 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR. society, expelled for his connection with the strike o f March, 1835 (the Duff Green strike), plaintively asks to be reinstated, his princi pal reason being that he wants to go to New York. “ I have,” he says in his application, “ for a long time past wished to go to New York, but I can not procure employment there without I take with me a certificate from this society, which o f course I can not procure unless the society will reinstate me in my membership^ which I now most respectfully and earnestly request them to do.” Some doubt about the association’s power to prevent employment o f nonunion men in the city at least two years later is, however, sug gested by the impassioned address of June 29,1837, which it issued: To the journeymen printers o f New York City and vicinity: F ellow-C raftsmen : A t an adjourned meeting of the Typograph ical Association o f New York City held at the association rooms on Saturday evening June 24, 1837, information having been given of a regularly organized “ combination ” on the part of certain o f our employers to take advantage of the present depressed state of our trade, and business in general, in order to reduce our present prices, and to render us, if possible, obedient vassals to the nod o f the op pressor, a committee was appointed to address you in this particular, and urge you to a prompt and resolute resistance. That committee is of opinion, that the time has now arrived when you are to prove to the world one o f two things— either that you are •freemen and capable of understanding and maintaining your rights; or that you are base and servile sycophants, ready and willing to re ceive whatever compensation and terms your employers may choose to allow. You are now to show whether, in your judgment, your employers or yourselves possess the right of fixing a value on your labor. I f there yet remains one spark of the courage, manhood and determi nation which sustained you when forming the present scale o f prices, let the employing printers of New York and the United States, see that it still exists, and can be easily fanned to a flame; let them see that the insignificant and paltry pittance which you now obtain for your support shall not be reduced at their pleasure—that for them to grow richer you will not consent to become poorer. That a pressure exists, and that it is more difficult for all employers to procure money with which to meet expenses, we are all aware, but why should your wages be reduced on that account ? The prices for printing advertisements and for newspapers have not been reduced. \ The prices that are now paid to printers are no more than will barely support them, and the common necessaries o f life are even higher than when your present scale was formed. Then why should you submit to a reduction? W hy be the passive minion o f the will o f tyrants ? The committee can discover no reason why you should, and it is their opinion that if true to yourselves you will not be. Depend upon it, that if, in obedience to the mandate of grasping avarice— if because your employers say you must, you determine to EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 901 yield, and go to work for less than the scale demands, you will not only cover yourselves with the consequent odium but you will neces sarily involve yourselves in debt from week to week; for it is folly to suppose that if your wages are once reduced your employers will of their own accord advance them again, even though business should resume its accustomed course. No, having accomplished their pur poses, and brought you in submission to their feet, they will keep you there, and the iron hand o f oppression will be laid more heavily than ever. Your employer knows well, that without constant employment, your wages are not sufficient for your support, and those of the unholy alliance which is now raising its hydra head against you, are no doubt impressed with the belief, that by seizing upon the present period o f depression in the trade, they may compel you to work for whatever they may please to pay. The committee would not be understood to include all employers as coming under their just reprehensions. No, thank Heavens, there are honorable exceptions, there are employers who have an eye to the comfort and happiness of their employees, their reward no man can take away, for it consists in the pleasing consciousness of an exercise o f a measure o f justice and the performance of noble action. Our criticism applies to but a dishonorably combined few, whose object seems to be to shift the severity of the times from their own shoulders to the shoulders of their journeymen, caring little for their sufferings so that they escape— fattening on the profits of your labor, while your wives and children are denied many of the common neces saries o f life. The truth is your employers are much more able to pay the existing prices than you are to have your wages reduced, the pressure operates in a much greater degree to your disadvantage than to theirs, the depreciated “ shinplasters ” o f the banks, which are bought up, no doubt, with considerable profit to the purchasers, are palmed off upon you in requital for your toil, as though each rag was worth its face in gold, these rags you must take, though on every dollar you get for your labor you suffer a heavy loss. Patiently you have borne all this, and would continue still to bear it; but in the name of evenhanded justice, and for the sake of Heaven, your wives and your children, let the line of demarcation be here drawn— say to the over reaching oppressor, Thus far shalt thou come, but no farther. The committee are well convinced that the chief reason the unprin cipled combination of your employers have thus dared to invade your rights, and attempt the reduction of your wages, is because of a ru mored want o f the union spirit among yourselves. Without union nothing can be effected— with it, everything. Come forward, then, you who are not members of the association; and join in putting a shoulder to the wheel. Support the association, and the association will support you. There are some of you now in the city who are not members, why is this? You all receive the benefits "which result from it. Why, then, do you not join it, and thereby extend its benefits ? * The committee wpuld also respectfully impress on the minds o f the members the necessity of a strict attention at all meetings of the asso ciation and a firm support o f its principles. Let each and all of us 902 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB. determine upon union, strong and effectual union, and let the watch word be, The prices o f the association must and shall be sustained. C h a s . A . A d am s, H. D. B r ist o l , W . H. M c C a r t e n a y , G eo . H a t t e n , W. N. B ose , Gommittee. June 6, 1840, it sent out another “ rat list,” which seems to indicate that it went down in another strike during that year, and was fol lowed by the Franklin Typographical Association of 1844, which will be referred to further on. The Baltimore Typographical Society, being the second o f the name, began its existence November 26, 1831, with 25 original mem bers, adding 24 more names to its roll within a month. This seems to have been about all the journeymen printers in Baltimore, as dur ing the next six months, or up to June 30, 1832, it had added but 5 members,. At that date it had expelled 1, and 5 had forfeited mem bership. The constitution and scale of prices were not adopted until June 2, 1832. This constitution is fully outlined in Appendix A, No. 4, and the scale of prices given in full in Appendix B, No. 3. This organization still exists as Typographical Union No. 12, and, next to the Washington union, is the oldest existing trade organization among the printers, it being, of course, understood that while the Philadelphia organization of 1802, and that of New York of 1809 still exist, they have long since ceased to be labor organizations. In the minutes of the Columbia Typographical Society, under date o f February 3, 1832, is mentioned a communication from the Typo graphical Society o f Cincinnati, Chio, asking for the Washington list o f prices, and announcing the organization of the printers in Cincinnati. In November, 1833, the Philadelphia Typographical Association was formed, the-society of 1802 having become a purely benevolent institution in 1831. This organization immediately opened a corre spondence with all other known societies, as was beginning now to be the custom, ( a) and at its meeting held June 27, 1835, passed the follow ing: Resolved, That an advance of 2^ cents per 1,000 ems be demanded in addition to our present scale o f prices. «As the letter from the new Philadelphia organization to the older one in Washington is of something more than local interest, it is given here. P h i l a d e l p h i a , M a rch 0, 1834. Si r : I am induced to attempt this, intrusion on your attention in conse quence o f a resolution of the Philadelphia Typographical Association, author izing a correspondence to be established with the typographical trade societies throughout the Union. The ostensible object o f this scheme is to elicit and EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 903 Resolved, That work by the week in book and job offices and on afternoon papers be $9 per week (10 hours to constitute a day’s work) and 20 cents an hour for overwork—morning papers to be charged $10 per week where they work by the week. This association seems to have gone out o f existence in 1839 or 1840. Early in 1834 the Benevolent Typographical Society of Richmond, Virginia, was formed, and on March 1 issued a letter to all societies. This letter is here reproduced, not alone because of its value in describing labor conditions in the trade, but as further evidence that “ benevolence ” was not the most serious purpose of these organiza tions even when they put it first in their name. In reading the statement that no “ rat ” could obtain work in Richmond, it must be impart authentic intelligence connected with the interests of the members of our common profession, and it is hoped the imperfect manner in which the project may be commenced will not be suffered to occasion the end proposed to be disregarded. The society in whose name these paragraphs are penned was organized about five months since. Its primary and paramount intention is the determi nation and support of adequate wages for journeymen printers. That it must acknowledge so late an origin may appear singular; but as the exposi tion due this point might possibly demand a larger space than is. allowable at present, it is proposed (with your permission) to recur to it at proper length in a future communication. The outlines of a constitution have been agreed upon, but the details are still undetermined. A scale of prices is also under revision, copies of both which will be forwarded when sufficiently complete. The principles o f associ ation are literal and definite; the eligibility of candidates consisting in their being practical printers, not less than 21 years o f age, and in actual connection with the business. As respects numerical strength, the institution may be called feeble; but its originators were fully aware that the mental climate of our city might be found rather uncongenial to the rapid growth of suph a scion o f the liberty tree; and though they have not as yet had decided cause to exult in the result, there is certainly no cause for regret. Since the formation o f this association, a trades union has been commenced, and which now embraces a majority of the mechanics’ societies in the city. Its present objects appear rational and useful, and its progress thus far is reported as satisfactory. Business with us is, of course, dull; indeed, there is scarcely a volume in progress in Philadelphia. But the spring is dawning upon us, in whose very name there is relief; and since men’s perverseness can not mar the seasons or derange the sublime machinery o f the planet on whose surface their mad pranks are played, we think ourselves warranted in looking forward to better things— in the solemn determination (I would hope) that our next passover shall not find us unprepared. Having thus endeavored to fulfill my instructions as far as is practicable at this time, I have now to request that this sheet, or the substance of its contents; may be laid before your society at your earliest convenience; and we shall await advices of the order taken thereupon, and also of the general state o f affairs at Washington in the typographical department with equal respect and interest. Wishing you the perfect consummation of your best wishes and endeavors, I remain, with much respect, Yours, H. O. O r r . P. S. As our association commits its correspondence to the care of the vicepresident, any communications intended for the institution may be addressed to myself, at No. 227 Mulberry street, or at the office of the Daily Chronicle, Philadelphia. H. C. O. The P r e s id e n t o f t h e C o l u m b i a T y p o g r a p h ic a l S o c ie t y . 904 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. remembered that “ rat ” meant a man working below the scale, and not necessarily that a nonmember of the society could not secure employment. R ichmond, V a., March Jf, 188 D ear S i r : The journeymen printers in this city have recently formed a society. Previous to the formation of this society we had no regular prices. The highest price given was 25 cents for both MS. and printed copy. On the 1st of February o f the present year, we adopted a constitution (a copy of which I herewith commu nicate) ; together with by-laws for our government, and likewise a scale o f prices. This scale of prices, as you will perceive, fixes the price for the composition o f MS. at 30 cents— that for print at 28 cents— 5 cents for MS. and 3 for print more than the highest price previously given. There was no alteration made in the price for presswork, the wages previouslv given being generally consid ered sufficiently high—the demand for pressmen having always been so great as to put it out of the power of the employers to make deductions in that branch. The scale o f prices was adopted on the 1st February. A resolu tion passed requiring them to go into operation on the 10th o f that month. The employers were furnished with a copy of the list of prices on the 3d—very short notice. When the 10th arrived, the employers, without a single exception, gave the wages asked for. Things go on as smoothly under the new arrangement as before. A ll the printers here, with the exception o f four or five, have joined the society. These, however, receive the wages fixed by the society. So far we have no rats. Before the society was formed we did have a few, who did not receive the highest prices then given. A ll of these have joined the society "and promised to receive, in future, for their labor no less than the wages fixed by our scale of prices. I deem it unnecessary to say more at present than to desire you to send us a copy o f your constitution, &c., that we may see how our brethren in your city are driving on. I likewise desire that you will write me a few lines, giving a history o f the origin and progress, o f the society o f which you are a member, and to lay this communication before your society at its next meeting, that they may know we have formed a society here, and so on. Communicate, likewise, if you please, the fact o f the existence of our society to as many societies of this kind as you may know to have been formed. I desire this, not to put you to trouble, but to be sure o f giving the information desired. It is my intention to write to as many as I have yet heard of. I f you will be so kind as to comply with my request in this particular, be pleased not to omit to state that it is impossible to obtain work at our business in Richmond as a rat, so as to save those whose intentions were, to make the attempt the trouble and expense o f the voyage. Respectfully, R. S. R edford, ‘ Cor. Sec. Ben. Typ. Soc. of Richmond. The Corresponding SecY T yp . SocY at W ashington. N. B.— I should like to hear from you previous to the next meeting o f our society, which takes place on the 1st Saturday in April. R. S. R. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 905 It will be necessary here to relate the trouble that the Columbia Typographical Society at Washington had in 1834 with one of the local newspaper proprietors, Gen. Duff Green, who was also printer to the United States Senate. This difficulty drew the typographical organizations o f the country into closer touch than anything before had done, and led directly to the national organization of 1836. The apprentice question had been a source of infinite trouble to the societies from the very first. From time to time the term of appren ticeship had been lengthened by various societies increasing it from three to four, then from four to five years, in the vain hope o f reduc ing the competition from this source. But there was no effective means o f preventing apprentices from running away, and the longer apprenticeship only increased the temptation to do so, hence made matters worse. True, the master could legally compel the return of a runaway, if he could find him, but the supply of new apprentices and of other runaways willing to work for one-half or two-thirds the established price for journeymen made it unprofitable to search for escaped apprentices. The fact that a runaway apprentice could, and would, be so employed at rates higher, to say the least, than his apprentice rates, operated also to put a premium on running away. A ll o f the early societies had had more serious trouble with this than had that of Washington, which was exceptionally fortunate in many ways. In 1833, however, General Green began employing “ twothirders ” on his paper, the United States Telegraph, and later intro duced a large number of boys as apprentices in doing the Government printing. He now proposed (1834) to establish what he called the Washington Institute, but which was termed by the printers “ a manual-labor school.” In this institute he proposed to take 200 boys each year and teach them the printing trade, allowing them $2 a week each for their work, which $2 was not, however, to be paid to them, but kept as a trust fund and invested by their employer for such of them as should remain with him the full period. The first intimation of the excitement which this matter finally caused is found in the special meeting of January 11, 1834. A t this meeting its president stated that its object was to take into considera tion the subject o f Gen. Duff Green’s speech at the late celebration of the Columbia Typographical Society, and to adopt such measures as would more effectually protect the society against his plans, if at tempted to be carried into execution, and concluded by offering the following preamble and resolutions: Whereas, at a late meeting of the Columbia Typographical Society, Duff Green, editor of the United States Telegraph, did declare that he intended to monopolize all the work that was possible, and that he had intended to employ a large number of children to take the place of the journeymen now employed by him, and that he wished to raise up a respectable class of men to take our places; and 906 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR. Whereas the patronage of the press o f this city is almost wholly derived from the Government, and that we have a right, as men, to participate in its profits, which his views if carried out, would engross to himself, be it Resolved, That the Columbia Typographical Society are desirous o f adopting such measures as shall be advantageous to the employing printers, in this city, insure their own rights, and preserve the respect ability o f the profession. Resolved, That we look upon the proposed measure of Duff Green, editor o f the United States Telegraph, as visionary in its final results, subversive o f our rights, as journeymen printers, and destructive of the profession to which we belong: Therefore resolved, That a committee of ------ be appointed to take the subject into consideration, and prepare a report of their deliberations, which when they have completed, they shall submit to a general meeting of the printers of this district, to be called by them, at such time and place, as they shall deem fit and proper. After considerable discussion, Mr. Freeland offered the following as a substitute: Resolved, That it is the opinion of this society that the practice which has lately come into vogue, o f employing an undue number of apprentices, is destructive of the rights and interests o f journeymen, and detrimental to employing printers; Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed, whose business it shall be, whenever they shall think it necessary to do so, to call a general meeting o f the printers of this city to take the subject into consideration. The committee at this time reported against taking any action until something more definite was evolved. Up to this time no organiza tion o f printers had attempted to restrict the number o f apprentices. In nearly every city except Washington the custom of employing a few journeymen to direct the work of many so-called apprentices was firmly established. In a letter to the Columbia Typographical Soci ety March 21,1834, Gen. Duff Green takes the position that any objec tion to his “ school for printers ” by the society must be based upon an assumption o f the right of the society to “ regulate the number of apprentices which I may think proper to employ, and to otherwise interfere so as to defeat the end I have in view.” In reply the society denied that it “ assumes the right to regulate the number o f your apprentices or that of any gentleman.” In a letter dated April 7, 1834, General Green says to the society’s com mittee : Your society can have no right to inquire into the age o f the per sons whom I employ. * * * But, if instead of employing 50 journeymen, I find it to my interest to employ but 10, any attempt on your part to enter into a combination to drive those 10 out o f my em ployment, without I would give employment to the other 40, would be an offense against my rights, for which the laws have made ample provision, and which it would become my duty to enforce. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 907 A n elaborate “ prospectus of the Washington Institute ” was car ried on the first page of Mr. Green’s paper, the Telegraph, for some time, acting practically as an advertisement for boys to fill his school. The society appointed another committee to report on the matter. This committee was o f the opinion that Mr. Green would be able to fill his school (this being the point upon which the former committee had advised nonaction), and recommended that a protest be formu lated and given as wide a circulation as the prospectus had enjoyed. (a) This protest was accordingly issued, and sent not only to every printers’ society but to the unorganized printers employed on the principal papers throughout the United States. In addition to this protest, which was issued by the society as such, a pamphlet was pub lished containing the proceedings of a public mass meeting, together with an “ Address to the people of the United States,” emanating from the meeting (such addresses were common in those days), the expense o f printing the pamphlet being met by a collection taken up at the meeting. This pamphlet, a copy of which is in the Library o f Con gress, and the “ protest,” copied from the minutes o f the society, are here reproduced in Appendix A, No. 12. The Baltimore society had taken action on the subject from newspaper reports and sent a letter to the Columbia society in time to incorporate it in the proceedings o f the public meeting. It will be noted that the protest contained an appeal to journeymen printers not to come to Washington to act as teachers in the proposed school. It was the fear o f this that prompted the appointment o f a committee o f seven, under the following resolu tion, adopted March 7,1834: Ordered, That a committee of seven members be appointed by the chair, whose duty it shall be to confer with each other, and report to a One paragraph o f the committee’s report is here given as indicative o f social conditions. The committee have understood, also, that it is the intention of Mr. Green, in organizing his school, to draw a portion of his scholars from the houses o f refuge in the northern cities. Now, although the committee object not to the character o f any boy, when it is* affected only by his origin, believing that when he comes to man’s estate, he must stand or fall by his individual merit, yet there is no doubt, from the facility with which these boys may be obtained, by Mr. Green, the society will have a delicate and difficult matter on hand in attempting to prevent their employment in this school. With the principals o f these extensive institutions, the specious and deceptive arguments of the prospectus will, no doubt, have powerful weight and influence. So far, then, as the success o f the project o f Mr. Green shall depend merely on the attainment o f scholars, it is likely to be insured by the readiness with which, no doubt, the principals of those houses will supply him with the boys under their charge. The committee can conceive o f no other mode o f preventing this consummation, than by circu lating among these gentlemen a direct refutation of the principles laid down in the prospectus. It is in no degree their interest to aid Mr. Green in his schemes— they look only to the welfare o f their charge; and, if it shall appear to them, as in the end, should we adopt this course, it no doubt will, that, instead o f benefiting the boys for whose future welfare they are in a measure responsible, the scheme o f Mr. Green will be more likely to blast their prospects in life, be assured they will not be instrumental in aiding the establishment o f the Washington Institute. 908 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. this society, at their next meeting, what, in their opinion, would be the most proper and effectual course to pursue to bring about the establishment o f a national typographical society. Response was received from the typographical society at Louis ville, Ky., inclosing a copy of its constitution and resolutions against 44the Duff Green school for printers,” and on the same date from Charleston (S. C.) Typographical Society, indorsing protest against the school. This is the first reference found to these societies. Rich mond, Va., responded, and later other southern societies. December 13,1834, the Philadelphia association notified the Washington society that Gen. Duff Green was employing printers in Philadelphia and elsewhere 44on condition that they should have no connection with the society,” and that as fast as he secured 44strangers ” 44society men ” were being discharged. Matters went on from bad to worse until a strike was declared against General Green March 14, 1835, the causes alleged being 44against the employment of too many ap prentices,” for the society’s scale of prices (or against 44two-thirders” ), because o f discrimination against 44society men,” and for the discharge o f the foreman. W ith the details of this long strike itself we have nothing to do. It was, however, the occasion of bringing the scattered associations into closer touch with each other. For the first time in its history the Washington society sent out a 44rat circular.” Philadelphia and New York promised to restrain their members, from accepting employment in the Washington establishment, and the Philadelphia association expelled all its members who did so. Later the Washington society asked New York, Philadelphia, Balti more, and Boston for a list o f all 44two-thirders ” and names and description of a l l 44rats ” in those cities. This request seems to have been ignored. October 14,1835, the Washington society passed the following reso lution : Resolved, That the members of this society having heretofore deter mined not to accept employment in the office of Duff Green, do still adhere to that resolution, and will neither accept employment in that office, nor in any other office in which any hands or hand employed by the said Green since the 28th of March, 1835, or by his successor, E. R. Gibson, may hereafter be employed, until the obnoxious indi vidual or individuals be discharged. This sweeping resolution, exceedingly radical for that day, and certainly so for this society, was forwarded to all other societies in the United States and indorsed by most of them, thus foreshadowing the action o f the national convention of the next year (1836), making 44a rat ” so declared by one printers’ organization to be considered such by all. Two other societies are mentioned in 1835 for the first time. First, that o f the Mississippi Typographical Association, o f Natchez, Miss., EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 909 which sent out a “ rat list ” as a result of a strike September 19, 1835, and another communication November 6; and, second, the New Orleans Typographical Association, organized May 9, 1835, indica ting that the society organized there in 1830 had ceased to exist. In June, 1835, the Franklin Society, of Cincinnati, had a strike against a reduction of wages in one establishment. It seems that “ strangers ” were brought in from Pittsburg and elsewhere. No vember 6,1835, the Cincinnati society sent out a circular calling for a national convention. No copy o f this circular has been found, but upon its receipt the Washington society appointed a committee to report on the subject. This report, which was accepted and issued to other societies as a call for the convention, was as follow s: Mr. Wm. Walters, from the committee, to whom was referred the circular from the Franklin Typ. Society of Cincinnati, proposing a National Typ. Society, presented the following report: Your committee have carefully read the report and resolutions o f the Franklin Typographical Society, o f Cincinnati, Ohio. The resolutions propose— “ 1st. That each society in its own district be sustained by all others in the prices it may establish. “ 2d. That journeymen bringing certificates o f membership in any society, o f good standing, receive a preference over all others in the efforts made to procure them employment. “ 3d. That rats, pronounced such by one society, be considered as such by all other societies.” I f there be a community of men, which, more than another, has felt the necessity o f a closer union amongst the different typograph ical societies o f the United States, it is our own. During the two last years the society and many o f its members have been the victims of the most unrelenting persecution and proscription. Single handed they have encountered the force o f this opposition, for although one or two societies nobly cheered our efforts, the great body o f them stood aloof, apparently idle spectators of the controversy. Any other course, however, could scarcely have been looked for from them, when we consider the distance which separates them and the absence of any effective bonds of union between them. A close examination of the resolutions proposed by the Franklin Typ. Society has convinced your committee that they do not go far enough. Each o f the propositions has been in [a] degree, and is now enforced by almost every society in the Union. There is, however, no obligation to uphold them existing amongst any of the societies, and our own experience teaches us that the declaration we have all made “ to procure employment for a member o f the society in pref erence to any other person ” ]jas been but loosely observed; or, to use the more forcible language of the Franklin Typographical So ciety, “ the certificate of membership ought no longer to procure from us a mere assent o f the good standing o f the holder, but should call forth our active friendship for the bearer—our zealous effort to get him into employment in preference to all others.” A ll this and much more should be done; and the question for us to consider is, what are the means necessary for its accomplishment? 910 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. what additional measures are necessary in order to permanently, not merely transiently, to assent to such regulations amongst the differ ent typographical societies o f the United States as shall ensure to every member o f every society, a proper equivalent for his labor, and a good prospect o f constant employment while ever he shall remain within the pale o f the honorable members of the craft. Deeply impressed with the importance of the measure, your com mittee are about to propose, in order to accomplish these most desir able results, they beg leave to assure the society that it has not been without the most mature reflection that they have brought forward the resolutions which are appended, and which they believe will alone provide a remedy sufficiently ample for the widespread evils which are now felt. Resolved, That it be recommended to the different typographical societies o f the United States to form a union of societies, under such name as the convention to be held for that purpose shall designate. Resolved, That in order to form such union, a convention be held in the city o f Washington on the 3d day o f March next, to be com posed o f three delegates from every typographical society existing in the United States. Resolved, That the convention shall have powder to draft a consti tution, and such other regulations as shall be thought proper for the government o f the union, which constitution shall be submitted tc the local societies for their adoption; and whenever two-thirds ol the local societies shall agree to the said constitution, the government o f the union shall be considered as formed, and annual meetings take place accordingly. Resolved, That the power now possessed by the different societies to regulate the prices within their respective limits, shall not be infringed by any regulation of the convention. Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be forwarded to every typographical society in the United States; and that such o f them as shall agree to them, be requested to appoint delegates, without further notice, to attend the convention. (Signed) W m . W alters, J as. B rown, W m . W . Curran. The report and resolutions having been read, the second resolution was amended by inserting the first Monday o f June as the time of the meeting o f the convention, and as amended were adopted unani mously. Letters approving o f the convention and promising to send dele gates were received from Harrisburg (Pa.) Typographical Associa tion, August 26, 1836 (first m ention); Baltimore, July 30; Nashville, Tenn., August 26; Philadelphia, August 27; Cincinnati, August 28; Richmond, Va., October 14, and later letters along the same line were received from New Orleans, and from Mobile, Ala. (first men tion). New Orleans named two members of the Washington society and asked that they be permitted to act as proxy delegates from New Orleans, thus inaugurating from the very start that system of EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 911 proxy representation that has many times since so nearly disrupted organizations. October 14, 1836, the Washington society met to elect delegates to the convention and appoint a committee to arrange for the same, since it was to be held in Washington. A t the meeting the society decided to “ pay all the expenses o f the National Typo graphical Convention.” The first convention o f the National Typographical Society met in the aldermen’s chamber, city hall, Washington, D. C., November 7, 1836, the session lasting five days. Delegates were present from the typographical societies in Baltimore, New York City, Washing ton, Harrisburg, Pa., Philadelphia, and by proxy from New Orleans. The delegate from the Philadelphia association was excluded from the convention, not because of any objection to the association, but because the Washington society succeeded in proving that the delegate himself was one o f the men that had worked for a time in the Duff Green establishment during the strike. The Philadelphia association evidently was not aware o f this when it elected him, as he was immediately expelled by that association. The convention was welcomed in an address from the mayor of the city, Hon. Peter Force, (a) who had joined the New York Typo graphical Society in 1812, and was its president in 1815. In 1816 he joined the Columbia Typographical Society, and became its first “ free member ” in 1826. The convention adopted a constitution (which as amended in 1837 is given in the appendix hereto) and issued two addresses, one to the various typographical societies in the United States, the other to the printers o f the country in general. Both o f these documents appear in Appendix A, No. 9. To the local societies the convention appealed for a closer relation a Visitors going up in the Washington Monument may see carved in one of its largest stones the name “ Peter Force.” Students o f industrial history prefer, however, to remember him by a monument o f very different character. Mr. Force was for a number of years one o f the proprietors o f a job printing office in Washington. Here he executed many o f the “ broadsides ” so characteristic o f the time, and here was printed the constitutions o f many civic societies of all kinds. He seems to have had a keen intuition o f the historical value of things, and early began a collection of tracts, broadsides, constitutions, etc., which he ultimately gave to the Library o f Congress as the Force Collection of Tracts— a veritable gold mine o f industrial information, especially. as relating to the Southern States. In those days tracts and “ broadsides ” occupied relatively the position o f magazine articles and newspaper discussions o f to-day, and their preservation for future reference was o f utmost importance. Mr. Force was of great assistance to the typographical societies as an employer in their struggle with the apprentice problem. As indicated in the text he was mayor o f Wash ington, and was employed by the Government to plan or outline a system for a Government printing establishment. 276— No. 61—06 M ----- 13 912 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB. one with the other; proposing uniform regulations regarding appren tices ; that runaways from one office should not be permitted to work in any other; that members expelled from one society for any good cause shall not be admitted to membership by any other society; that no member o f any society should work in any printing office where such expelled member is employed, until he is reinstated by the orig inal society; there was to be an exchange of “ rat ” lists, and, most important of all, the societies were advised to open their doors to membership for all printers then working at the trade as journeymen, whether they served an apprenticeship or not; then after organizing all these, put up the bars and require a six-year apprenticeship. There had for years been two factions in the societies— one, seeing that the apprenticeship requirements were creating an army o f print ers sufficiently large to do all the work, outside o f the societies because o f ineligibility, wanted to temporarily let down the bars and organize the trade, and then increase the requirements; the other faction, stick ing to the old traditions, sought to remedy the evil by increasing the severity o f apprenticeship. It seems that the societies had elected delegates to the convention from the more radical factions in nearly every instance. This entire address should be carefully read as being a presentation by the workmen themselves o f their view o f the situation. The address to the printers of the United States in general, whether organized or not, is likewise of importance and interest. There are a few references in this document that require some explanation at the present time in order to be understood. The early printer expected to work a short while as a journeyman, then start a paper or job office for himself. His employer was “ a practical printer ” like himself. The appearance o f the publisher who simply owjied the plant and employed men to do the work of editing as well as printing the paper alarmed the early compositors. These tirades against the “ speculator on the labor o f printers,” and against “ the hireling editor,” are but the manifestations o f his natural alarm at the com mencement o f the changing conditions. The advent o f large capital into the printing business suggested to him the possible permanency o f journeymanship for him as an individual. What he said and did was his protest against the prospect o f being involved in a permanent wage condition. A ll the documents of this period must be read with this constantly in mind, and especially this address to the printers in 1836. (a) a Speaking to the toast “ The ‘ Practical Printer ’ Editor,” before the Franklin Typographical Society, o f Boston, at its twenty-third anniversary banquet (this society was organized in 1822, but was never a trade organization), Hon. J. T. Buckingham, editor of the Boston Courier, said that when he was a young man the printer considered it a reproach if he did not edit his own paper. “ Every EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 913 "A notice printed on the cover of the published proceedings o f this convention of 1836, and dated November 26, is of interest. It fol lows: Since the adjournment o f the convention the committee on publica tion have learned with much regret that two attempts have in the South been made to injure the journeymen. They would, therefore urge upon all printers in every city, town, and village where no society exists to establish one as soon as practicable to enable them to be represented in the National Typographical Society in September next. The “ two attempts to injure the journeymen ” referred, no doubt, to the strike in Richmond, Ya., in November, 1836, to enforce the ap-* journeyman expected to have a printing office and a paper o f his own. Originally, of course, the great printers— Caxton, Gutenburg, Faust—were all scholarly men.” Continuing, Mr. Buckingham sa id : “ In the year 1811, Messrs. Young and Miners, printers and proprietors o f the Massachusetts Mercury, at the sug gestion of the late Reverend Doctor Morse, of Charleston, engaged a gentleman from New Haven as an editor for their paper, which then took the name of the *New England Palladium ’ ; and this, so far as I can learn, was the first instance in Boston of employment o f a professional editor. At this time (January 15, 1848) I am the only individual now living in Boston, if not in the Common wealth, who unites the printer and the editor in one man.” Beginning thus in 1811 this “ innovation,” as the printers called it, spread until it became one o f the grievances complained o f by the New York Printers’ Association in 1831, and was made one o f the burdens of the address of the national convention of 1836. In 1838 a resolution was introduced in the Wash ington Typographical Society demanding that members be not permitted to work for proprietors not themselves “ practical printers.” And in 1839 a circu lar appeal was sent from an association in Mississippi to all printers’ organiza tions requesting them to refuse, after a given date, to work for the nonprinter who, as a capitalist, was merely “ speculating on the labor o f printers.” The immediate cause of this circular from the South was no doubt the fact that Gen. Duff Green had, after leaving Washington, attempted to organize “ The American Literary Company,” operating from Columbia, S. C., his plan still being to employ boys under the guise of teaching them a trade. The cooperative ideas of the time, or what may be called the great employ-yourselfmovement o f 1830 to 1855, which, among other things, produced the “ Brook Farm,” had something to do with it, too, as such ideas were in the a ir ; but the “ practical printer’s ” inbred fear of the “professional editor ” and the “ specu lator ” was the energizing thought. The reply o f the Washington society to this circular asking that journeymen refuse to work for men not themselves practical printers is full of historic significance and is quoted in full. It also shows that all hope of the national organization’s success had not been lost in 1839: W ashington , D. C., Septem b er 22 , 1839 . D ear Sir : I have laid before the Columbia Typographical Society the papers which you forwarded on the subject o f “ real and counterfeit printers.” Every member was furnished with a copy of it at a special meeting; and on the even ing of the last convention—the first Saturday o f the present month—the subject was laid upon the table, nem. diss. A resolution embracing the same subject was offered for our consideration 914 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. prentice section of the local constitution, and to fight the union in Augusta, Ga., was making against that printers’ Banquo, Gen. Duff Green, who had taken his boys’ school idea with him and gone to South Carolina to organize “ The American Literary Company.” The Augusta association had gotten out a circular, similar to the Washington society’s “ protest,” which circular was printed in the Washington papers at the expense of the local society. A t the re quest o f the Augusta association the Washington society had a trans cript o f its minutes, and all documents and letters relative to the Duff Green matter, made and forwarded to the former organization—no small nor inexpensive task in those pre-typewriter days. The second convention o f the National Typographical Society met about fifteen months ago. After some debate, it was indefinitely postponed. No one has since moved that its consideration be resumed. Some o f our mem bers, privately, thought the intentions o f the resolutions impractical. For in stance, they would say: “ How can you cause the mammoth establishments o f New York and other cities to be resigned to the practical printer? Where can you find practicals with sufficient capital or credit to undertake such establish ments? It is true some printers might refuse to work for the present employers, in expectation o f achieving the desired result; but in the present disunited con dition of the craft others could be found who would perform the labor required.” Such arguments as these are plausible, and the novelty of the proposition has not yet become familiar to those immediately interested. Should, however, the National Typographical Union ever go into operation and the printers be awakened to the true sense o f danger threatened by news paper speculators—when all of our profession shall be bound by a brotherly tie, united in the same cause, with a determination to make it prosper— then, only then, can we look with confidence to the consummation o f our wishes. But at present, when not one-fourth o f the printers north o f Baltimore belong to the local societies, and all means to induce those who are not members to join one, or create a society where none exists, have proved fruitless, it seems supererog atory to urge the measure at the time set forth in Mr. North’s circular. The great subject of the union should be the first to grasp and occupy our minds. We should persevere in urging concert of action and association. Without it, we can do nothing toward affecting the object communicated. It has occurred to many of us that if the Southern and Western States were to form a typographical union, it would soon extend to other portions o f the country. It would be more expedient in the direction named than elsewhere, as journeymen there are more free to act for themselves, not having much, if any, fear o f an army o f apprentices being thrust into their places if they should dare to assert their dearest rights. You, o f course, know that such has been the procedure in a few cities o f the North. Boys o f but a few months’ initiation in the profession, infest them from the neighboring towns, and in Philadelphia men are not considered rats if they get the prices exacted by the tariff, although at work in the same shop, where the two-thirders abound. Now, a great many printers from the Quaker City, and others who countenance the rat system, go South and W est; and if matters could be so arranged that the itinerants would be denied work in your and the other sections unless they could produce their certificates o f membership from local societies, it would make them, from neces sity, join associations and become interested in them. This might, with some additions or amendments, add strength to the infant weakness of the organic state of our union, and prepare a clear path for the progression of practical printers to the objects o f their special attention. With great respect, thanks for your attention, and a due appreciation o f Mr. North’s intentions, I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant, L. A. G obright, Cor. Sec. C. T . S ociety. Mr. T hom as P almer , R a ym on d , M iss. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 915 in New York Citj' September 4, 1837, with delegates from eight societies in the United States, and a fraternal delegate from Nova Scotia, who was seated with full powers, predictive of admission of Canadian unions into the National, thus forming the present Inter national Typographical Union in 1869. It is doubtful whether the proceedings o f this convention were ever printed. No copy has been found in the search for data for this report. The report of the Washington delegates will, hovrever, give an idea of the proceedings, and is here transcribed entire from the minutes of that society: W ashington,January 6 , 1838 . The delegates appointed by the Canadian Typographical Society, to attend the national association, which was to assemble in the city o f New York on the 4th Sept., 1837, beg leave to submit the following report : That your delegates have been prevented from making a report by the nonarrival o f the printed proceedings o f the meeting, which was left under the control of the New York members. Altho’ we have received a letter intimating that they would be soon sent on, we still have been disappointed. It is a matter o f regret to us, as we find it almost impossible to direct your attention to the necessary acts which require your immediate cooperation; and which alone can enable us to discharge our task satisfactorily to ourselves. That your delegation arrived in New York on the second of Sep tember, and were notified to meet at the sheriff’s room, in the city hall, on the 4th, which was kindly granted by the public authorities o f said city. Eight societies being represented, viz, New York, Philadelphia, Harrisburg, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Mobile, New Or leans, and Washington. The meeting was organized by calling to the chair one o f this society’s delegation, and appointing A. I. W. Jackson, o f Baltimore, as secretary. That their first act was to revise the constitution, adopted by the convention which met at Washington in November, 1836. That after a labored investigation of that in strument, they made some amendments, in order to accord with the views and instructions of the several members. That they continued in session till Saturday, the 9th, inclusive, when, severally, having subscribed the new constitution, they adjourned sine die, to meet again at Pittsburg, next September, and that they were then invited, and attended a public dinner given by the New York association, in courtesy to the members of the national association. Your delegates, not having the constitution to refer to, must, of course, be excused from entering into a detail of the several articles; but they would remark that, in article 10th, twenty-five per cent is to be levied o f the different societies, annually, by a prescribed rule, to defray all expenses incurred by the association; their instructions were for thirty per cent. Article 13 furnishes the mode of checking the practice o f employing two-third apprentices. This is of initial importance to the whole fraternity, and requires consideration commensurate with its impor tance; for all can realize the complete prostration which such a cus tom must create. The proposed check, adopted by the association 916 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB. appears as simple as it is easy of accomplishment, if judicious meas ures alone be pursued. This plan is by the granting to travelers the “ union card,” which was introduced into the convention’s constitu tion at Washington. Many duties are enjoined on local societies, which must be referred by you to committees, to mature and prescribe a mode o f operation for carrying them into effect. Your delegates are aware that the society will look for an expres sion o f their opinion as to the utility and future prospects of the asso ciation, and, therefore they will present their views in as brief a man ner as possible. From all they could learn from their intercourse with the gentlemen composing the assembly, they are o f the belief that no other plan coi^ld be adopted that would prove so efficacious and satisfactory to all concerned, and guard the craft against the innova tions which are daily arising to drive the regular and good workman out o f employment, or to reduce their wages to the standard o f the cupidity o f some employers who forget the rights o f their fellow-men. That the anticipated prospects of the association may be evidenced from the interest taken in it by all associations in the United States and Nova Scotia, whose delegate was admitted to a seat during the discussions. It is the opinion o f your delegation, that the employer and the journeyman were never on such amicable terms o f friendly feelings as they are at the moment, which certainly is ominous o f our success in this great cause. In closing the imperfect report they have made, they would con gratulate the society on the high respect in which they are at present held by both employers and journeymen, as well in Washington, as throughout the whole country; and they sincerely pray this band of union may never be severed by any untoward circumstance, originat ing on your part. They now conclude by recommending the follow ing resolution for adoption: Resolved, That a committee be appointed to receive the printed proceedings o f the association, and to report on their contents as soon as practicable, or on any matters concerning said association. (Signed) J am es C leph an e. J am es H andley. The national society did not hold a convention in 1838. In August o f that year the following announcement appeared in the papers in most of the cities where printers were organized: N A T IO N A L T Y P O G B A P H IC A L SOCIETY. Meeting postponed.— The undersigned, officers o f the National Typographical Association, composing the board of control, at the earnest solicitations o f a number o f delegates and societies forming said association, have, after mature deliberation, resolved on a post ponement o f the next meeting, and hereby give this public notice to the different societies of printers attached to said association, as well as those desirous of connecting themselves thereto, that the next meeting o f the National Typographical Association will be held in the city o f Pittsburg, Pa., on the first Monday of September, 1839, EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 917 at which time and place it is fondly expected the representatives from the different societies will be in attendance. A. I. W. Jackson, Baltimore, *President. W m . W ellington, Philadelphia, Recording Secretary. Chas. A lbert D avis, New York, Corresponding Secretary. James Clephane, Washington, Treasurer. Board of Control. A ugust 10, 1838. The publishers o f newspapers throughout the United States will confer a favor on the craft in general, by giving the above notice one or two insertions. Whether this postponed convention ever met is not known and may well be doubted. The general laws for the government of local societies appear to have been promulgated by the New York conven tion o f 1837. They were gotten out in leaflet form by the Washing ton society for its own use, as follow s: Columbla. T ypographical S ociety. “ Resolved, That the general laws recommended by the National Typographical Society to the local societies for their government be printed for the use o f the members. Test: W. A. K ennedy, Secretary. D ecember 1, 1838. GENERAL LAW'S. A rticle 1. Every apprentice shall serve until he be 21 years of age; and at the time o f entering as an apprentice shall not be more than 16 years o f age; and every boy taken as an apprentice shall be bound to his employer in due form of law. A rt. 2. No runaway apprentice shall be received into any office in the United States attached to the national association, either as an apprentice or journeyman. A rt. 3. That on the death of his master, or if, from any cause, the office wherein he was indented shall be discontinued, he may be taken into another office, and be regularly indented to finish the term of his apprenticeship. A rt. 4. After the 1st day of January, 1844, it shall not be lawful for any local society to consider any application for membership unaccompanied by sufficient proof that he had served the period of five years, as a regularly indented apprentice at the printing business. A rt. 5. That after the 1st day o f January, 1839, it shall not be lawful for any local society to permit members o f said society to work in any office where boys may be taken as apprentices to the printing business, to serve for a less period than five years. 9 18 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. A rt. 6. The local societies shall have the power to establish such tariff o f prices as may be suitable to the section o f country in which they may be located. A rt. 7. It shall be the duty of all local societies, working under the jurisdiction o f the national association, to sustain each other in their list o f prices or such other regulations as they may adopt for their government. A rt. 8. That all local societies suspend so much o f their constitu tions as requires a term of apprenticeship as a qualification for membership; and that they admit all who are at work at the business as journeymen so soon as it shall be ascertained that the proposed regulations o f the association upon this subject shall be adopted by two-thirds o f the societies. A rt . 9. A n y person presenting his union card from one society, under the jurisdiction o f the national association, to another society under the same jurisdiction, and paying the monthly dues called for by their constitution, shall be entitled to the trade benefits o f said society. A rt. 10. Local societies shall recognize but two classes of printers— employers and journeymen—that is, persons who carry on business solely as employers and those who work as journeymen, in the manner prescribed, and at the prices demanded by such society. A rt. 11. It shall be the duty of local societies to have prepared an annual report of their condition, showing the number of members admitted for the year preceding; the amount of receipts from initia tion, dues, and fines; the number o f newspapers and periodical publications, together with all offices o f whatever character, under the immediate control o f practical printers, at the time o f making such reports; also, those under the control of others than printers, and such other information as may be in possession of said local societies, in reference to the profession generally; said report to be transmitted to the national association at its annual meetings. A rt. 12. That the societies be requested to forward to the national association, annually, the number, as near as may be ascertained, of apprentices in the district of country over which the society has jurisdiction; also, of all the journeymen— distinguishing members of the society from others. A rt. 13. That men pronounced rats by one society, shall be con sidered such by all others, until reinstated by said society. A rt . 14. A local society, on the suspension or expulsion o f a mem ber, shall give information to all other societies as soon as practicable, and make annual report to the national association. A rt . 15. T hat it be made obligatory on the members o f the respec tive societies to solicit all printers in good standing to join some local society. A rt. 16. That every society which may henceforth be established, transmit the title, list o f officers, and its locality ? to the corresponding secretary o f the National Typographical Association. A rt. 17. The above regulations, when adopted by two-thirds o f the local societies, shall become binding upon the whole, as general laws, for the government o f the craft. To return now to affairs of the local societies, the Philadelphia Typographical Association sent out a letter dated June 16, 1834, on EARLY ORGANIZATIONS QF PRINTERS. 919 the state of trade, saying: “ For several months the book offices have not had work enough to employ even their apprentices, and when we may safely anticipate a favorable change we are unable to say as we are anxious to hear.” July 11, 1835, the same association wrote that it was having trouble as a result o f “ having taken meas ures to effect an advance in the price o f our labor;” that the employ ers were advertising in other cities, and asked the Washington society to “ prevent that influx o f strangers upon which the employers (a) rely in connection with the defection, which, in a small degree, we are sorry to say, they have effected for defeating the purposes of this asso ciation.” Later, August 30, 1835, the association sent out a circular saying the trouble was over.(6) August 6, 1836, the Nashville, Tenn., Typographical Society sent out its revised constitution and price list, both o f which will be found in full in the appendix. It will be noticed that this society binds itself by its constitution (art. 14) to “ cooperate with the « I t may be of interest to note that an employing printers’ association was formed just before this in Philadelphia, it being organized February 7, 1835. A scale o f prices for composition and presswork, by which all contracts for such work were made, was adopted and made a part o f the constitution. Mem bers violating the contract scale were subject to fine or expulsion. Evidently the “ Printers’ Company ” o f 1794 had ceased to exist. The steam press was beginning to alarm the pressmen, and curiously enough they proposed at first to meet it just as, in after years, the glass-workers’ unions and the coal miners’ unions proposed to meet the machine, i. e., by reducing their wages for hand work to a point where it would not pay the employers to install steam presses, except that the pressmen proposed to do it by exactly the methods they opposed when applied by the employers to type setting—by the introduction o f boys into the business through a subdivision of labor. A resolution was passed by the Washington society with this in view October, 14, 1835, as follow s: R e so lv e d , That a committee be appointed to inquire into the expediency of making such alterations in the price of presswork and the introduction o f rollers and roller boys as will enable employers to have their work done as cheap, better, and with greater certainty, by hand, than by the use o f steam or power presses, while at the same time pressmen will be able to make as good wages, if not better than under the present system. As showing the attitude o f the early printers toward machinery the two following remarkable letters are taken from the minutes of the Washington society: [Copy of a letter laid before the society by a member.] W arrenton , V a ., O ctober 6 , 1840. D ear Si r : Through you I woul<f respectfully inform the Typographical Society of Washington, that I have invented and made a machine for setting and distributipg typ e; which machine is now in complete operation in this place, and will, according to the estimate of practical printers, do the work o f four men; the cost not to exceed $20. Being poor myself, my object is to realize something like a compensation for my time, labor, and ingenuity; and being aware that it may perhaps conflict with the interest of your society, I have concluded to propose to sell them the exclusive right for the District o f Columbia. To effect this object, I propose that your society deputize some one 920 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. National Typographical Society ” and to be represented in its conven tion. This society had 35 members in 1836, and the 44chapel ” system was firmly established in all offices. During 1836 a letter was received from the Typographical Soci ety at Columbia, S. C. The letter, however, does not make clear whether the society had just been organized or not. This society sent out a “ rat list ” in 1842, and seems to have gone down in a strike o f that year. December 3, 1836, the Washington society, 44owing to the advance in the price o f products generally ” (by which is meant the cost Qf living) (a) asked for 44an advance of about 10 per cent on our present tariff prices for the employing printers of the D istrict;” and ap pointed a committee to revise the scale and call on the employers. January 7, 1837, the committee reported that the employers had agreed to the new scale, and it was ordered printed. (See Appendix B, No. 6.) It is impossible to ignore the evidence o f the slowness o f the world’s affairs in those days when we reflect that this was the first change in price list adopted by the society since the original one*I to decide upon the merits of the sam e; pledging myself to let them have it, as a body, for less thdn I can get from an individual proprietor. Let me hear from you early, or by the society. Respectfully, I. D. H ill . fRepiy.i W ashington , N o vem b er 18, 18^0. M r. I. D. H ill . Si r : In compliance with a resolution o f Columbia Typographical Society, I acknowledge the receipt of your letter, apprising it o f your invention and your desire to dispose o f it to said society. And, 1 am also instructed to say, that, while they wish you success in your undertaking, they do not feel them selves justified in offering you any pecuniary aid; nor do they feel willing to abet in bringing into operation anything that would encroach upon the rights o f those who have given years of labor and privation to acquire a knowledge o f a business which they had reason to believe would yield them a support in after life. You propose to distribute and set type by machinery! Shade o f the immortal Faust thou art forever eclipsed. But should your invention prove beneficial to the craft, we will hail you as a benefactor. Your professions o f regard for this society, and the craft at large, are duly appreciated. Yours respectfully, in behalf o f Col. Typo. So., D avid H. H anlon , Corresponding Secreta ry. a As indicative o f the cost of living, the prices quoted from the Central Mar ket at Washington, D. C., September 18, 1837, are here reproduced. “ Beef, from 64 to 124 cents per pound; cornecf beef, 8 cents; veal, 64 to 10 cents; pork, 12 cents.; mutton, 64 to 10 cents per pound; lamb, 50 to 75 cents per quarter; ham, 14 cents per pound; butter, 20 to 25 cents; butter, print, 314 to 374 cents; lard, 124 cents per pound; chickens $2 to $3 per dozen; eggs, 15 cents; corn (green) 124 cents per dozen; potatoes, 50 cents per bushel; sweet potatoes, 374 cents per peck; corn meal, $1,124 per bushel; rye meal, 80 cents per bushel.” EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 921 o f 1815, and that was but a schedule of prices already paid and had been in existence for several years. Wage scales that last twentytwo years without alteration will not be numerous in this century. February 4, 1837, the Typographical Society at Lexington, Ky., sent out a circular, which, like the one from Columbia, S. C., does not state clearly when the society was formed. In 1838 the St. Louis, Mo., Typographical Association sent out a protest against a perpetual “ ratting ” of printers who had conducted themselves honorably in other cities. The occasion o f this was that a printer who had worked in the Duff Green plant in Washington, D. C., in 1836 or 1837, went to St. Louis, Mo., and obtained a situa tion, when it was discovered he was on the rat list sent out from Washington. The St. Louis society testified that the man had “ con ducted himself honorably ” in St. Louis, and wanted to know how long the rat list was expected to last. The Washington society in reply granted its permission to the St. Louis association to accept this man as a member, and annulled its rat list o f 1836. May 4, 1839, the Washington society adopted the “ chapel system.” From Louisville, Ky., came a letter stating that the Louisville Typo1 graphical Association was formed April 1, 1839. “ There having been heretofore two societies m this city, which now exist no more, we have organized upon entirely different lines.” During the year sev eral societies were heard from for the first time, some only recently organized, while others appear to have been in existence for some time. Vicksburg, Miss., for instance, sent out a “ rat list ” and asked for an exchange o f same; Columbus, Ohio, was first heard of July 6, 1839, the letter not being preserved in the minutes. Detroit, Mich., sent out a strike notice stating that the association had been com pelled to strike for wages due and unpaid. Rochester, N. Y., reported that an organization had just been effected; as did Frankfort, Ky., and Tallahassee, Fla. The letter of the latter organization, with the reply o f the Washington society to that of Frankfort, Ky., are of sufficient importance to reproduce here in fu ll; as is also a letter of the Washington society to the Boston Typographical Society, which was organized in 1838. (a) a Below Is a copy of tlie letter received from the Tallahassee, Fla., association, giving rates of wages and cost o f living at that time : T allahassee , tfoveniber 80, 1839 . G entlemen : The journeymen printers of Tallahassee have formed themselves into an association for the purpose of regulating prices, as well as for their general benefit. They have also instructed me to address you, in behalf of the association, to beg that you will warn those who feel desirous of coming to this place, against the propriety o f doing so under an engagement for less than the prices we have adopted: which are $18 per week— that they will have to pay here, for board, from $6 to $10 per w eek; clothing and other expenses double, and oftentimes treble to that of the northern prices, and all other things in proportion. 922 BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. The most important event of this year (1839), however, in view of the continued apprenticeship troubles, was the action o f the New Orleans Typographical Association. September 1, 1838, this organi zation sent out a circular letter notifying all societies that it was on strike against one office in the city, that of David Felt & Co. August 3, 1839, it sent out a “ rat circular,” doubtless growing out of the same difficulty. In its constitution as revised September 14, 1839 (see Appendix A, No. 7, where this is reproduced in fu ll), this association prohibits (art. 12) any member from working “ on any English daily morning paper, on which any apprentices may be em ployed.” This is a far more radical solution than has been attempted by any typographical union of to-day, except that of New York City, where apprenticeship is abolished in daily newspaper offices by agreement, and in Philadelphia, where the union constitution pro hibits them. January 8, 1840, the Boston association sent letters asking for wage scale and stating it was making a list of wages paid in all4cities. Jackson, Miss., Typographical Association was organ ized in 1840. The collapse o f the National Society disheartened the local societies and gave the “ benefit ” faction, or the “ alimoners,” as they were called, the floor and the argument for a year or two. April 4, 1840, the Mobile, Ala., association, and June 6 of the same year the New York association, each sent out “ rat circulars ” as a result o f strikes in which both organizations seem to have gotten In craving the endeavors of your excellent association in our behalf, I am, sir, in the name o f the Florida Typographical Association, Most respectfully, your obt. ser’t., S. I. N ow lin , S ec’y. To the P resident and M embers of the W a s h . T ypo . Society . The following is in reply to a letter from Frankfort, K y .: W ashington , O ctober 6, 1889. D ear S i r : Mr. Jefferson laid your circular and letter before the Columbia Typographical Society last evening; and our members were much gratified on being informed o f a new auxiliary in the “ profession o f letters.,, We look to your section o f country with as much solicitude as we do to the North for the advancement of our interests; and are pleased to perceive in each a proper attention evinced to the subject. A new society was formed in Boston about a year ago and it now numbers 70 members. The old one was composed of a few journeymen and of master workmen, “ who now control its operations, thereby destroying the purposes for which it was established.” The Boston circular remarks that the journeymen are “ now prepared to assert their rights, w’hich they have too long neglected.” This may be called “ a ^ in the East.” Since that period three other societies have been established, o f which yours is one. While we are receiving such pleasing intelligence, we indulge the hope that the recommendations o f the national society have been regarded in framing the local constitutions. Among those the regulation o f apprentices is promi nent: Every boy to serve for five years, to be bound to his employer in due form o f law, and to serve until 21 years o f age. The employers o f Washington have sanctioned it, and those elsewhere will, also, if they be made to understand how important it will be to their interests and to ours. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 923 their death blow. Nowhere, outside of New Orleans, was the ap prentice trouble settled or even mollified, and even there it was con trolled only in the morning newspaper offices. The Washington society was permitting special exceptions to its apprentice regula tions ; and in Philadelphia, society members were working with boys and “ two-thirders ” until it was said there were just journeymen enough in an office to tell the apprentices what to do. The whole subject was chaotic. In January, 1842, the Washington society appointed a committee to go over the entire matter. The “ alimoners ” had,a majority o f the committee and were for the repeal of all laws attempting to regulate trade affairs of this kind. The minority report was for strict enforcement. Taken together, these reports form the most important document of this period on the subject. Not only do we get here an inside view o f the workings o f the two factions in the societies of the early printers, but we get In behalf of the Columbia Typographical Society, wishing you success and everything which may advance your prosperity, I am, gentlemen, Yours, respectfully, I. A. G obeight, Cor . S ec . C . T, S o c ie ty . Messrs. W m . B lanchabd and J. R. W atson , F ra n kfort, K y . The following is in reply to a circular sent out by the Boston society as reorganized in 1888: W ashington , O ctober 6, 1839. To the Members of the B oston T ypo. Society : Gentlemen : The circular from your association was read to our society last evening. The members were particularly pleased with its spirit, as much from the fact o f a new ally in our cause, as from the expression that a “ portion o f the journeymen, animated by the noble example set them by their brethren o f the South, have at last awoke from their supineness, and are now prepared to assert and maintain their just rights, which they too long have neglected.” It is from the North that we have most to fear— it is in that section o f country so many innovations are made upon the profession; and it is there where journeymen— many of them— have remained passive to the employer’s injus tice. But, happily, in this age of reform, the “ printer’s trade ” partakes o f its influence, and every day develops some improvement in his condition. Typo graphical societies are increasing everywhere, and all seem animated by the same principle of action. The employers o f this city have acquiesced in our proposition (suggested by the national society) that every apprentice shall be bound to his employer in due form o f law— to serve five years— till 21. In a few years, if this rule be generally adopted and adhered to, the important benefits resulting from it will be manifest. This is the great object to which we should direct our attention, as it will eventually extirpate rats, two-thirders, and runaway apprentices; and then we shall “ see the day when the craft, and every member of it, shall be respected, as we are convinced they possess the ability ” to effect the reforma tion. In behalf of the Columbia Typographical Society, wishing you every success, and hoping, with you, “ that a good feeling may pervade the journeymen printers o f the union,” I subscribe myself, Respectfully, yours, I. A. G obeight, Cor . Sec. C o l T. S. 924 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. a view o f the situation as seen by those most interested. For that reason the report, notwithstanding its length, is given below : The committee appointed upon the apprentice regulations at the last stated meeting submitted the two following reports, which were received: The committee o f the Columbia Typographical Society, to whom the following resolution was referred, v iz : 66Resolved That this society appoint a committee to inquire into and report upon, the expe diency o f either modifying, repealing or more rigidly enforcing the apprentice regulations o f the said society ”— ask permission of the society respectfully to present their views in the following report: That your committee, in accordance with the above resolution, have duly considered the matter referred to them, and given to it that attention which the importance o f the subject demands. That your committee consider the above-named regulations were recommended by the general convention o f printers, with the intention, (in connec tion with other measures,) to unite the societies o f the different cities for the advancement of the interests o f the craft; and could only be beneficial by general adoption. That such has not been the case is evident to everyone, for they have only been carried out by one society besides this. That, as said project of union has totally failed o f success, this society is under no obligations to other societies to enforce said regulations. That this society, itself, having violated the regulations in the case of the boy (Bailey) taken into the office of Mr. Allen, and failed to enforce them in numerous other instances where they have been openly violated, can not now, with any hope of success, resolve to enforce them. Can this society demand o f employ ers an adherence to regulations that the society was the first to violate? These regulations, by mutual agreement between them, were equally binding upon this society and employers; but, by your own act, in the opinion of your committee, you have absolved the employers from all obligation to adhere to them. When violations o f said regulations have occurred, and been reported to this society, you have, more than once, appointed committees to confer with the employers on the subject, but without any satisfactory result. Some have promised to comply with the wishes of the society; others have treated you with contemptuous silence, and all have continued to vio late the apprentice regulations, as long as it was their interest to do so. That, in the opinion of your committee, the aforesaid regulations operate in favor of the employer, and against the interests o f the journeymen: the long term o f apprenticeship and the legal power given to the master to make the apprentice serve the full term of five years, certainly offers greater inducements to employers to take ap prentices, and bring them in competition with journeymen, than the old system, under which—the term of apprenticeship depending alto gether on the will of the boy, the master possessing no legal power to detain him— there was less inducement to bring apprentices in compe tition with journeymen. In a word, the regulations, as they now stand, are a dead letter, and as long as they remain in, and are acknowledged by, this society, as a part of its constitution, without, at the same time, enforcing them, they are a disgrace and reproach to us. That, in the opinion o f your committee, it is inexpedient to modify or enforce said regulations. That, in the opinion of your committee, EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 925 if this society, in its wisdom, should see fit to repeal the said regula tions, it will settle all differences now existing between this society and employers in relation to apprentices, prevent future collisions of the same nature; still the murmurs and dissatisfaction o f a large and respectable minority of this society; and give peace and good feelings where we have long had agitation and angry contention. In conclusion, your committee would respectfully recommend the following resolution for adoption, and ask to be discharged from the further consideration o f the subject: “ Resolved, That the apprentice regulations o f the Columbia Typographical Society be, and they are hereby, repealed.” C. W . C. D un nin g to n , ) J ohn T. C. C lark , ' ] Com tee. A minority o f the committee of the Columbia Typographical So ciety, to whom was referred the subject of a repeal or modification o f the apprentice regulations o f said society, respectfully begs leave to report: That he has given the matter his most serious attention and weighed all the arguments that presented themselves to his mind; for and against these regulations, in the calm balance o f reflection. For the repeal o f the regulations, there appear to exist the following reasons: First, because the regulations were framed to meet a general law on the subject, to be in force in all cities throughout the Union, whereas said general law has only been complied with in one city besides this. Second, because the regulations were not made in ac cordance with long-established usage, either in this or in any other age and country, but were merely got up as an experiment, which experiment has failed to stand the test of five years’ successful appli cation. Third, because this society has itself specially authorized an infraction o f the regulations in one instance and not promptly condemned their infraction in other instances. Fourth, because a very respectable minority in this society, in number and character, have always regarded the regulations as irregular, and not within the purview o f the society’s original jurisdiction—a minority which has sufficiently increased o f late to call for some concession, or else (he most convincing arguments, from the majority. These reasons appear to be of such weight as to entitle them to great consideration. The closing part of the last season might seem to many particularly cogent as regards the mere expediency of repeal, from the fact that the regulations of a society o f operatives can scarcely ever be beneficial or effective, unless approved by two-thirds of those who are to carry them into effect. The undersigned has been mindful o f the strength of the reasons in favor of repeal, and also of the deduction which may be naturally drawn from the closing portion o f the last; but he has deemed it due to the investigation in which he is engaged, to turn to the other side, and see what reasons may be offered for the retention and maintenance of these regulations. They may be stated as follows: First, the regulations prevent a too rapid multiplication o f journeymen, by withdrawing from parents and guardians the inducement o f putting boys to the business as a temporary stay or relief, who, having served a couple o f years, are turned out to compete with journeymen o f more mature experience. Second, they improve the quality o f such apprentices as do serve, by 926 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. affording them ample time to learn their business, a complete knowl edge o f which always stimulates them, in every situation in life, to a regard for the honor of the craft. Third, masters will readily start the printing business with apprentices only, when they can transfer or abandon such apprentices at will. Fourth, boys who are initiated into the business from temporary expediency, besides excluding journeymen to a certain extent, while serving their ap prenticeship, frequently return, on the failure o f other business, at a time when those who have made it the business o f their lives can scarcely procure employment at it—thereby increasing the general distress among the craft. Fifth, this society, from its foundation up to a very short period before the adoption of these regulations, showed its partiality for long apprenticeships by requiring four years o f such service to be one o f the constituent qualifications o f member ship. Sixth, the small number o f apprentices now, in this city, com pared with what there were when these regulations were established, affords the most irrefragable evidence of the efficacy and good result o f the regulations. The undersigned, after such a hesitancy as is involved in the fore going citation o f the merits o f the case, has concluded to, and does, recommend an adherence to the apprentice regulations. He believes they have been productive o f much good to the master, the journey man, and the apprentice: to the master, by increasing his net profit on the apprentice’s labor; to the journeyman, by limiting the num ber o f his competitors; to the apprentice, by affording him a compe tent experience; and to all, through an amenity and congeniality o f sentiment engendered by the system. He thinks that their repeal would be but an entering wedge to split and divide our society on all the regulations which it has established for the general welfare. He also believes there is no middle ground. Modification would only multiply the attacks o f those interested in repeal, as well as the enemies o f the society. Special instances may occur where an ex ception to the regulations will be necessary—such as where the family to which an apprentice belongs is removing from one section o f coun try to another; but in such special instances the undersigned appre hends a vote o f two-thirds can readily be obtained to authorize such exception. In conclusion, the undersigned asks that the committee be dis charged from the further consideration o f the subject. (Signed) F. J e f fe rso n . Mr. Delano offered the following resolution: “ Resolved, That the apprentice regulations be enforced forthwith.” For which Mr. Drew offered the following as a substitute : “ Resolved, That a com mittee o f vigilance be appointed, to consist o f one member of this society in each office, in the city, to supervise the admission o f ap prentices into the respective offices in which the members of the com mittee may be engaged; and that, on the admission o f a new appren tice into an office, the committee be required to wait upon the em ployer, on the authority o f the society, and inquire whether such ap prentice has been taken in accordance with the regulations o f this society, and to report the same to the society; and that said com mittee also be authorized to pursue a like course with regard to those apprentices who are now working in offibes contrary to the rules of the society.” Nothing, however, came of it at this time. By resolution the EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 927 society had appointed a committee November 6, 1841, to make a list o f all the “ journeymen now employed in the several offices o f this city designating the number that are members of this society, the number that have been, but from any cause have ceased to be mem bers ; and the number that have never been attached to the society.” April 2,1842, a resolution to prohibit members from working with nonmembers after January 1,1843, was introduced, this being the first attempt in Washington to discriminate against merely nonunion men as distinguished, o f course, from 44rats,” or men working under the scale. The argument o f the resolution is identical with that used by unions against the nonunion man to-day: Whereas experience has clearly demonstrated that it has been only by the formation and continuance of the Col. Typ. So. that the craft have been enabled to attain their present prosperous condition, in a moral and pecuniary point o f view, in this city ; and Whereas a crisis has arrived in the affairs o f the profession, which calls for a rally o f all members of the craft in support o f the consti tution and regulations o f the society; and believing that all who work at the business in this city are benefited by the existence o f said society, and bound, both by honor and interest, to contribute to its support. Therefore, 1. Resolved, That every person working at the business will be required to make application to join this society within one month from the time o f his commencing work at any office in this city, at a regular stated meeting o f the society. 2. Resolved, That on the refusal or neglect o f any to comply with the regulation contained in the foregoing resolution, or in case of the rejection o f such applicant, the members o f this society shall cease to work in any office where such person may be employed. 3. Resolved, That the foregoing resolution go into effect, as an amendment to the constitution, on the 1st day o f January, 1843. As a similar resolution was introduced in 1847, this, i f passed (the minutes do not show whether it was or n ot), does not appear to have been very effective, but is none the less indicative o f the sentiment of the time. In New York City early in 1844 the Franklin Typographical Asso ciation had been founded for the purpose o f securing an advance in wages. The scale, which was 28 cents per 1,000 ems and $11 a week, was agreed upon at a meeting held April 13,1844, to take effect April 15. A t a meeting’ held on the latter date the following resolutions were passed: Whereas the Franklin Typographical Association have designated the 15th day o f April, 1844, as the time for the revised scale o f prices to go into operation; and Whereas it is necessary for the association, to protect those who may be thrown out o f employment in consequence thereof, Therefore, Resolved, That all persons who may be thrown out o f employment in consequence o f demanding the advance designated in the scale, be requested to report themselves to the board o f management at 276— No. 61—06 14 m --------------- 928 BU LLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. Stoneal’s Hotel, Fulton street, on Monday, April 15,1844, between the hours o f 10 a. m. and 10 p. m. to receive such information, instructions and assistance as circumstances may require. Resolved, That a committee o f three be appointed to make arrange ments for the firing a salute o f 100 guns on Monday, A pril 15, 1844, in honor o f the large number o f the generous and liberal employers who have already signified their willingness to pay the new scale. This firing o f guns was premature, i f intended as a celebration of victory. May 6, 1844, the association opened reading rooms and a house o f call at No. 109 Nassau street for the use o f all the journeymen printers, and where “ members o f the association out o f employment are requested to call and register their names and addresses.” It was, in fact, a “ headquarters o f the strikers ” such as we know to-day. Matters grew worse and worse for the association. July 22 the follow ing “ address ” was issued: The corresponding secretary o f the Franklin Typographical Asso ciation having been duly appointed by the board o f managers to con fer with certain printers concerning prices, respectfully submits the following report: Saturday morning, July 20, I called on John F. Trow, the corpo ration printer, and stated to him that I had been appointed by the association, to inquire o f him i f there was any truth in the rumor that he was about to reduce prices in his book office. He answered me very haughtily, “ Suppose there is ? ” I said that I did not come to ex plain why he should not reduce prices, but merely to ask what truth there was in the rumor. Again he replied, “ Suppose there is? ” I asked him i f that wa& his only answer. He replied that he acknowl edged no right in the association to ask him questions; that the asso ciation had been the cause o f difficulty in his office, and that he was determined to “ set his face against ” this or any other association that should assume the right o f dictation as to what men should receive for their labor. He should “ set his face against the association.” He held that he had the right to pay what he pleased for work, and that no one had a right to say a word in the matter; and he was “ determined to set his face against the association.” After this ebullition o f superfluous breath, the gentlemanly corpo ration printer set his back against me and I walked off. Printers o f New Y ork! have you no interest in this matter? A portion o f your number, by great exertion formed an association— upon a liberal and benevolent plan—have adopted a scale o f prices to which these very men acceded, and which every honorable employer considers fair and just. This scale o f prices will put more money in your pocket in a month than the association will take from you in a whole year. I f you who are not members o f our association would come up and join—if you would help yourselves fight your own battles—we might give such answer as would effectually convince Mr. John F. Trow, and others o f his belief, that free and independent men, men who earn an honest livelihood by the sweat o f their brow, have a right to dic tate to fellow-men—aye though their names be not blazoned six sev EAKLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 929 era] times in gorgeousness o f gold leaf and black paint upon the walls o f a four-story building. But i f the mass o f journeymen printers will remain idle in this business—i f they will shun all opportunity for benefiting themselves— then they must submit to be insolently told that they have no right to ask a fair return for their labor, that they must take what their masters choose to offer, and be silent; they must be content to cringe before the soulless tyrant who by any means may happen to possess control over a case of type and a rickety press; they must be content to live or die, to feast or starve, as the greed and avarice of the em ployer may dictate. Fellow-journey men! have you not as fair a right to sunlight and shade, to air and existence as any other breathing mortal? I f so, then protect that right, for it is in danger. The men who would de prive you o f a portion o f your hard-earned wages* were willing for their own interests to pay the scale at the time o f its adoption. Business was brisk then, work was plenty, and men were in demand. Now work is scarce, and for that reason these fellows would cut down your wages! as i f the laborer was responsible for the decrease o f busi ness, and his wife and children must be punished and starved so that the employer’s account o f profits and gain may foot up as they did when business was good. Oh, charitable, enlightened, benevolent logic that would reduce the compensation for work because work is scarce! In view o f these circumstances* we call upon the journeymen print ers o f New York to come up, not to help us individually, nor for the purpose o f parade or display, but come up for the benefit of your selves* for your own protection, for the protection o f your wives and children— for the protection o f their honor— for the protection o f the honor and the dignity o f labor, and the character o f freemen; all o f which are endangered by the illiberal, selfish and unjust actions o f a certain number o f purse-proud mortals. T. F. O t t a r s o n , Corresponding Secretary. The last meeting o f this militant association, so far as can be learned, was held December 21, 1844. About this time, or possibly in 1843, an attempt was made to found a national secret society, to be composed o f picked men from the local associations in all cities* and to be called “ The Order o f Faust.” The move was started in New York City, and it is said that such o f the leaders as were approached in Albany, Washington, Cincinnati, Boston, and Philadelphia were ready to join and to found coordinate branches. Only rumors o f it ever reached the surface, and if such secret society was ever really formed it did not get beyond New York, and never exerted any influence. The years from 1844 to 1847 were remarkable for nothing but the same old temporizing struggle over apprentices, and the ever-swelling army o f u two-thirders,” which was augmented continuously from the apprentices. In 1845, in Washington, a group o f printers forming a committee from the society were arrested upon a charge o f “ con spiracy,” as the result o f an attempt to enforce the society’s appren 930 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. ticeship regulations, which all o f the employers (including those causing the arrest) had agreed to for years, but which nobody, not even the society, had paid much attention to. The extent to which apprentices were substituted for journeymen, as compared with the present time, can be best realized by reference to an incident in De troit, Mich. In 1846 the apprentices struck on a Detroit newspaper, and publication was suspended for two days because there were not journeymen enough to do the work. November 22, 1847, the Albany (N. Y .) association sent out a letter stating that contractors had taken the State printing at 17 cents per 1,000 ems, and were hiring boys at $3 a week to do the work. The next year the Albany union limited the number o f apprentices. In 1847 the Baltimore association adopted a constitutional amendment limiting apprentices at the ratio o f one apprentice to each three journeyman. In the convention of 1850 the Baltimore delegates, as well as those o f Albany, urged limi tation, and referred to that o f their own unions, but without men tioning the ratio. Mr. H. T. Ogden, o f Cincinnati, Ohio, who was a delegate to the convention of 1850, in an interview for this report kindly supplied this important information. Mr. Ogden went to Cin cinnati in 1847, and his first employment was in a job office where there were 3 journeymen and 5 boys, called apprentices, but were only so in name. Mr. Ogden thinks that was about the ratio throughout the Middle West at that time. Few offices had more than one or two journeymen. He remembers that in the best office in Lexington, Ky., in 1836, there was 1 journeyman and 5 apprentices in the news com posing rooms and 1 journeyman and 1 apprentice in the job room. In 1847 Mr. Ogden corresponded with the Baltimore union and got its apprenticeship limitation rule, which was adopted by the Cincin nati union in 1848. In 1849 there seems to have been a rivalry between the radical and conservative elements, the former wishing to further restrict apprentices by increasing the ratio to 1 to 4. Mr. Ogden was the candidate of the “ 1 to 3 ” party, and was elected president o f the union. The Cincinnati scale in 1848 was $10 a week. The scale for 1853 will be found in Appendix B, No. 12. ' In 1848 the Typographical Union o f Boston was organized. A preliminary meeting to%discuss organization was held December 8, 1848, at the residence of Mr. Henry K. Oliver, who later became the first chief o f the first bureau of the statistics of labor. Final organi zation was effected December 16, 1848, with approximately 60 mem bers. The prices paid at that time were 25 cents per 1,000 ems to firstclass journeymen in the best offices and 16f cents to “ two-thirders,” who outnumbered the journeymen about two to one. The union issued a circular in December, 1848, in which it said : There are in Boston 156 journeymen working 12 hours each day, and 7 days each week who receive on an average of $9.25 per week. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 931 There are 325 journeymen working 10 hours each day and 6 days each week, who receive on an average o f $6 per week. The scale o f prices demanded by the union in 1849 was 28 cents per 1,000 ems, with a weekly rate o f $13 on morning papers; for evening and semiweekly papers, 28 cents per 1,000, and $10 for weekly rate. Job offices and weekly papers paid the same piece rate, or $9 a week on weekly rate; time work was 20 cents an hour. The Pittsburg (Pa.) Typographical Association, formed in 1849, issued a scale o f prices, which is reproduced in Appendix B, No. 8. This union proposed at first only a three-year indentured apprentice ship for all boys employed in offices; but in 1850 or 1851 adopted a limitation o f apprentices at “ 1 to 3.” The Boston union of 1848 tried to solve its problems by refusing to admit to membership any who had not served a four-year apprenticeship and had recommenda tions as a good printer. It is difficult to see how this would solve the problem of the “ two-thirder,” who was content to remain a twothirder and out o f the union, however, as it is not at all clear that members refused to work with nonunion .men at first, and certainly not with nonunion men who claimed to be only apprentices, as the “ two-thirders,” when driven to defense, invariably did. In 1849 the Boston union had a long and bitter strike to enforce its new scale. December 29, 1849, a meeting attended by 27 compositors from the daily newspaper offices was held in New York City to discuss organi zation and the prospects of securing a uniform scale o f wages throughout the city. This was accomplished January 19, 1850, by the organization o f the New York Typographical Union (now “ Big Six ” ) and the adoption of a scale calling for 32 cents per 1,000 ems, which the employers acceded to without friction. Hon. Horace Greeley, having accepted an invitation to do so, was elected its first president; “ working cards ” with his signature as president still exist and are greatly prized by their owners. (c) <*The New York Tribune of January 21, 1850, contains the following notice o f the organization and condensation of the constitution adopted: At a meeting of the New York Printers’ Union held on Saturday evening, January 19, 1850, the following officers were elected: President, Horace Greeley, vice-president, Edgar H. Rogers; recording secretary, William H. Prindle; financial secretary, R. Cunningham; corresponding Secretary, George Johnson; treasurer, Thomas N. Rooker. CONSTITUTION OF THE NEW YORK PRINTERS’ UNION. The objects of the union shall be the maintenance o f a fair rate o f wages, the assistance and encouragement o f good workmen, the support o f members in sickness and distress, the relief o f deserving printers who may visit our city in search o f employment, the establishment o f a library for the use and instruc tion o f members, and to use every means in our power which may tend to the elevation o f printers in the scale of social life. 1. The officers o f this union shall consist o f a president, vice-president, a recording secretary, a financial secretary, a corresponding secretary, a treasurer, a financial committee o f three to serve one year, a visiting committee o f seven 93 2 BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, A typographical union existed in San Francisco, Cal., and one in Trenton, N. J., in 1850; but whether organized in that year or not, is not known. The San Francisco scale of wages was $5 a day. Like wise the printers o f Savannah, Ga., and those of Syracuse, 1ST.. Y., report organization and trouble in September, 1850, but do not clearly indicate how long they had been organized. The present typographical union in Philadelphia was organized August 10, 1850, adopting a constitution and by-laws (reproduced in Appendix A , No. 8 ), and price list, which is given in full in Appen dix B, No. 9. This constitution limits apprentices, and prohibits its members from working with “ two-thirders.” The union was imme diately involved in a strike. September 18, 1850, there were 425 members enrolled and 30 journeymen who had refused to join, but were not working below the scale. September 21 the “ vigilance com mittee ” reported 55 u two-thirders 55 and 60 unbound boys in the to serve for three months, a relief committee o f five to serve for six months and a board o f five trustees to be elected annually. 2. The regular meetings o f the union are to be held on the first and third Sat urdays o f each month, and special meetings may at any time be called, at the request of six members, signified in writing to the president. 3. Eleven members shall constitute a quorum for the transacting o f business. 4. The initiation fee is $1, and application for admission may be made through any member, the applicant first depositing in the hands of the financial secretary the sum of $1. 5. At the next meeting after his proposition, the union shall take his request into consideration and it shall thereupon be balloted for by ball ballots, and if the applicant shall receive three-quarters o f all the ballots, he shall be entitled to a certificate o f membership. 6. Any printer who has attained the age o f 21 years, who is in sound health, and o f good moral standing in society, may become a member by complying with the requirements o f the constitution. 7. Members may pay their dues monthly if they prefer it, and should the lia bilities o f the union in consequence) o f benefits to sick and superannuated mem bers, exceed the receipts thereof, then three-quarters of the members present at a regular meeting, or at a special (in which not less than 20 members shall form a quorum) shall have power to lay an assessment not to exceed the sum o f $2 in any one year upon every member o f the union in addition to all other constitutional dues. 8. In addition to the initiation fee of $1, the sum o f $6.50 per annum will be required from each member as dues, payable quarterly on the first Saturday of April, July, October and January. 9. Members who are rendered unable to work by sickness, shall receive the sum o f $4 per week, and in case o f death o f a member's wife, $20. In case o f the death o f a member an assessment o f 25 cents upon each member will be made for defraying the funeral expenses. The surplus, i f any, to go into the general fund. 10. No member shall be entitled to receive any benefits until he shall have been a member one year. 11. Whenever a new member is proposed a committee o f investigation o f the members shall be appointed to inquire into the qualifications of the candidate and report in writing at the next regular meeting. 12. The widows and orphans o f members who are qualified at the time of their decease shall, upon the recommendation o f a committee appointed to investigate the circumstances, be allowed such assistances as the union may from time to time direct. 13. This union may at any future time adopt a scale o f prices for the gov ernance o f the trade; and any printer who may be working for less than such scale, shall not be considered a proper person to be a member o f this union. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 9S3 printing offices o f the city, and gave name and detailed personal description o f each. The strike lasted into December, when the com mittee reported to the union that it could not win the strike with the demands as they then stood; recommending the repeal of the limita tion on apprentices, that being the one demand most bitterly op posed by employers, and the one which alienated public sentiment, The sections o f the by-laws limiting apprentices were repealed, as the union was unable by strike to enforce them. September 28, 1850, the New York union issued a call for a national convention, Boston and Philadelphia joining in the call. The National Convention of Journeymen Printers of the United States met December 2, 1850, in New York City, with delegates from unions in the following cities: New York City; Albany, N. Y .; Bal timore, M d .; Trenton, N. J .; Philadelphia, Pa., and Louisville, Ky. The cities heard from by letters read in convention were Boston, St. Louis, San Francisco, Washington, and Cincinnati. The time o f the convention of 1850 was largely taken up with the discussion of a proposition to limit the number of apprentices. Mr. Conway, of Baltimore, started it by offering the following resolution: Resolved, That the principle now in successful operation in Balti more city, limiting the number o f apprentices in the various printing offices, be earnestly recommended to the trade throughout the country. A ll the delegates seemed to favor limiting apprentices, but some construed the resolution as committing the convention to the Balti more plan o f restriction, and others wanted the local unions to quietly adopt the plan without the publicity which the adoption o f the reso lution by the national convention would excite. This was the view of the Philadelphia delegates, one o f whom, Mr. Keyes, objected prin cipally to the Baltimore method and introduced the substitute reso lution which finally passed, as follow s: Resolved, That the limiting o f the number o f apprentices be earn estly recommended to the various unions throughout the country, for their adoption. The report says: “ A ll agreed as to its utility and justice; the only question was as to its expediency.” The Philadelphia delegate espe cially, “ though favorable to the principle in itself, was opposed to its being so openly proclaimed. He thought it would be employed to injure the trade.” It will be remembered Philadelphia had just lost a strike on this issue. The Baltimore delegates were divided on the wisdom o f openly demanding the restriction, Mr. Conway, however, carrying the question by an address in which he said: The gentlemen on the other side urge that it should be adopted by the different unions quietly, without exciting attention to the subject. He thought that the adoption of it by the different unions would 934 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. excite more attention and hostility than the mere recommendation of it, by this convention. But he did not think we could be injured by any opposition which either its adoption or its recommendation might provoke. The same objection might be urged to every measure o f reform which was proposed. I f we are going to be regulated in our actions by the opinions o f the employing class, and those whom they control, we might as well go home at once and submit ourselves entirely to established usages. * * * I f there were people hostile to this [limiting apprentices], so were there people hostile to the assembling o f this convention, or to the adoption o f any measure cal culated to redeem the trade from the control o f the capitalist. We are not here to consult their selfish views, but our own interests, in our actions upon this as well as all other measures. The New York delegates described the apprentice situation in that city and favored the resolution calling for a limitation. “ Too many printers have been manufactured of late years. New York City affords a miserable proof o f this fact. The system is prolific of 4rats.5 Let apprentices be limited and journeymen would be in demand. The price o f labor would be increased and placed in a posi tion which would enable it to compete successfully with the power of capital.55 The resolution was adopted, and the printers’ organizations from 1850 stood committed to the principle o f limiting the number of ap prentices as a defense against what had amounted to child labor, although the local unions of Baltimore, Albany, New Orleans, and Cincinnati had been acting upon this principle for several years previously. After debates and amendments, the convention finally agreed upon the following: Resolved, That this convention recommend to our brethren through out the country the formation o f unions on the following basis: Resolved, That a standing national executive committee, o f three from each State, be appointed to enforce the execution o f all resolu tions o f this convention, bearing upon the different sections here rep resented ; to gather information on all matters o f interest to the trade; to report the same quarterly to the different unions, and to the next convention when it assembles; to make arrangements for the assem bling o f the next convention, and also to attend to whatever else the convention may direct, during the interim between the adjournment o f this and the assembling o f the next convention. Resolved, That this convention strenuously urge the journeymen printers o f every city and town in the United States (provided there are six or more employed in such place), to form themselves into unions and establish connection with each other for the purpose of securing united action upon every question involving the interests of the trade; and that on and after the 1st day o f February, 1851, no journeyman printer, coming from any city or town known to contain the organization provided for above, will be allowed to work in any locality embraced within this organization unless he exhibit a certifi cate of membership from the society situated in the place from which he comes. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 935 This resolution was the result o f a compromise. The committee originally appointed by the convention to draft a plan had reported a very modest resolution, urging organization. One o f the delegates from Baltimore, Mr. M. F. Conway, who throughout the proceedings advocated the more radical measures, proposed as a substitute for the committee report one which would prevent any printer, after Feb ruary 1,1851, getting work in any city represented in that convention unless he was a member o f a union in the town he came from. This would compel every town where ten printers were employed to form a union if any o f the ten should ever desire to get employment in any other town or city where a union existed. The New York delegates declared such a rule could not be enforced in New York City; the union there was not strong enough. Mr. Conway was willing to ex cept New York City from the provisions of the resolution, owing to the weakness o f the organization there. Philadelphia likewise op posed this radical action, and finally Delegate Greene, o f Louis ville, Ky., proposed as a substitute the above compromise resolution, which was adopted. The interest in this debate is the side light it throws on the relative strength of the unions in the various localities then as compared with the present, and the exhibition of good sense by the convention in ruling against an extreme measure, which would doubtless have arrayed the employers and unorganized printers sol idly against it at its very inception. The basis upon which local unions were to be organized was stated by resolution, under seven headings, as follow s: First. Regulation and adjustment of the different scales of prices, so as not to conflict with each other. Second. Giving traveling certificates to their members, in good standing, to be legal for one year, which shall recommend the holders thereof to assistance and traveling expenses from the union in any city or town where they can not obtain w ork: Provided Said holders have done nothing in the meantime, by a course of intemperance or otherwise, to disqualify them from the same, o f which fact the national executive committee shall notify the unions or societies in other places. Third. Keeping a registry of the names o f “ rats ” , and other un worthy members o f the trade, and description o f their person, to be sent to every union or society in the country, and to be kept by each union for reference. Fourth. Receiving no stranger as a member o f any union or society, who shall not produce a legal certificate o f membership from the society or union o f the place to which he belongs. Fifth. Levying a monthly contribution upon each member, suffi ciently large to enable it to accumulate within two years a sum equivalent, at least, to $10 for each member, as a reserve fund, in view o f their being compelled to quit work in vindication o f their rights. Sixth. Establishing the right o f any sister union or society to call upon them for pecuniary assistance, if necessary, to the amount o f $1 from each member: Provided That all sums thus loaned shall be 936 BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR. repaid in monthly installments, equivalent to at least 5 per cent of the original loan; the first installment to be paid within one month after the difficulty calling for the loan shall have passed away. Seventh. Granting certificates from one union, to enable the mem bers thereof to become attached to any other, without paying an entrance fee, provided the holder intends residing permanently within the bounds o f the union into which he seeks admission. Another important move by this convention was to make a clearcut distinction between trade organizations and benefit associations. The early printers were not actuaries, nor had the fine adjustment of premium rates to risks and expectancy been made by anyone in those days; hence the inaccurate calculations at the base o f the old benefit societies naturally led to charges of bad management of funds, and the trade-regulating purposes of organization were swamped and lost with the collapse of the “ benefit system.” After the discussion of a resolution, in which every delegate par ticipated, a substitute resolution was offered and passed unanimously, as follow s: “ Resolved, That it be recommended to all typographical trade associations to abolish the so-called benefit system.” The contract system o f doing public printing was denounced, although the convention put on foot a plan by which the combined unions o f the country were to bid on the Government printing and execute the same in a national union office in Washington. The estab lishment o f a Government Printing Office was denounced, and Congres called upon to let the contracts only t o “ practical printers.” The jewel o f consistency did not at all times adorn the proceedings. Numerous plans for permanent national organization and extension o f the chain o f local unions were discussed. The convention issued an “ Address to the journeymen printers of the United States,” which will be found in full in Appendix A, No. 10. This address, which “ the committee took the liberty to append ” to the convention proceedings, and thus preserve, had, they state, “ already been published in many o f the newspapers.” It is not the purpose o f this article to comment on the documents submitted; but as this address would be considered extremely radical i f issued by the International Typographical Union to-day, and as it is extremely improbable that anything bordering on some of its sentiments could be passed in that organization, it is but fair to call attention to the fact that the lines between radicalism and a progressive conservatism were not so clearly defined or sharply drawn then as now. An attack upon the wage system of industry did not mean then what it means now. Such attacks had been and were being made by the humani tarians o f that day; and Greeley, Dana, Alcott, Thoreau, and all they o f the Brook Farm and countless other experiments, were decry ing the wage system without exciting anybody, even themselves. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 937 Their plan of establishing cooperative communities and groups, like the Brook Farm or the proposed printing office to do the Government printing, 44abolished the wage system ” for individuals and groups o f individuals. It did not matter that their idea was to extend these until all would eventually be in some group, since that wTas so pal pably impossible or infinitely remote in time that it was a perfectly safe subject for discussion. That these reflections upon the wage system in those days did not mean what the same language would mean to-day is shown from the fact that the same convention unani mously passed a resolution opposing a Government printing office. There was nothing inconsistent about this then, for the theory that the wage system can only be ultimately abolished for all by the final absorption o f industries by organized government had not been defi nitely formulated by any school of thinkers in this country at that time. The socialists of that day were St. Simonites, not Bellamyites, nor yet Carl Marxians. Nevertheless, it is well to note that the history o f the typographical union is marked by the gradual elimina tion o f general propositions from its councils; the progressively emphatic tightening of the lines on strictly trade matters. Its strength lies largely in its experience and the long line o f precedents established, which enable it to know the best thing to do and to do that quickly and with firmness. It is organized not vaguely at the top by the International alone, nor solely by the more compact local union; but in every union printing office there is a chapel, or office organization, and its discipline and control, as well as its attempt to adjust grievances, settle troubles, or make agreements begins at the chapel. The national executive committee was composed as follow s: New York.—T. J. Walsh, Albany; Edwin H. Rogers, Peter Mac Donald, New York City. Pennsylvania.— It. B. Smyth, John F. Keyser, W. B. Eckert, Phil adelphia. New Jersey.— Charles Bechtel, John Hartman, William Gillipsy, Trenton. Maryland.—M. F. Conway, Frederick Young, John W. Peregoy, Baltimore. Kentucky.— George E. Greene, J. L. Gibbons, Raymond Lynch, Louisville. The committee elected M. F. Conway, o f Baltimore, as chairman o f the national executive committee. The Second National Convention o f Journeymen Printers met in Baltimore September 12,1851, and organized with Mr. J. L. Gibbons, of Louisville, Ky., as chairman. Delegates were present represent ing unions in New York City, Albany, Utica, Boston, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Harrisburg, Baltimore, Louisville, Cincinnati, Richmond, and Trenton. A constitution was adopted which, when ratified by 938 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. the local unions in five States, was to be the basis for a new and permanent organization, to be called the National Typographical Union. A copy of this document will be found in Appendix A, No. 11. Methods for promoting organization among printers and denuncia tions o f the system o f letting public printing by contract to the lowest bidder occupied most o f the time in their discussion, and little besides the adoption of the constitution was done. A minority re port from the three strongest men on the general committee advised against permanent organization and the adoption o f a constitution at that convention. Only one part o f their report is important here. One principal reason the minority gave was “ that, inasmuch, as there are but 11 unions represented in this body while there must be at least 50 in active operation throughout the country, and the unor ganized material for as many more,” the minority did not believe it wise to attempt to construct a permanent organization until a larger number o f unions could be represented. Mr. Henry T. Ogden, of Cincinnati, was one of those signing this minority report, and he was interviewed on the statement made that u there must be at least 50 unions in active operation ” at the time o f this convention. Mr. Ogden’s wonderful memory, reading back from 1904 to 1851 with astonishing clearness, corroborated most emphatically the opinion forced by this investigation. He said: The use o f the number “ fifty ” was not the result of careful counting; in fact, was not based upon any actual knowledge* It was a mere guess. Mr. Conway, of Baltimore; Mr. Walsh, o f Albany, and myself thought we had better go slow on permanent constitutions, and, as one o f the arguments, called attention to the mass o f unrepre sented printers. Another thing is that, while the distinction between the old benefit society with nontrade-interference constitution and the union idea was very clear and strong in 1851, there was still a hope that all these benefit societies would unionize their membership bodily as soon as a strong national union was formed, and we were still counting on these. Nevertheless, I doubt i f all three o f us could have made a list o f fifty, even counting the benefit societies. The apprenticeship recommendations o f the convention o f 1851 were less radical than those o f 1850, the evident policy being to throw every important matter over to the convention o f 1852. When, how ever, the convention of 1852 assembled it was as the Third National Convention o f Journeymen Printers, as the unions from the necessary five different States had not yet signed the constitution of 1851 and paid the requisite $5. It was not until the fourth day o f that conven tion— that is, on May 6,1852— that the needed signatures were obtained and the National Union formed. By resolution, however, the conven tion on the third day o f its session declared itself as acting under the constitution o f 1851. There were delegates from Cincinnati, Indian apolis, New York City, Albany, Louisville, Baltimore, Pittsburg, Har EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 939 risburg, Philadelphia, Columbus, Boston, St. Louis, Memphis, Cleve land, and from Richland and Ashland, Ky. Not all o f these dele gates, however, seemed inclined to take part in the convention, and the permanent organization was formed upon definite assurances from but seven unions, as follows: New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Albany, and Pittsburg. Prior to the organ ization o f the National Union, hence within the scope of this article, the convention adopted a report o f the “ committee on business,” cov ering many o f the questions that have been brought down historically to this point. The two most important of these resolutions were the follow ing: Second. Resolved, That we discountenance the system known as the two-thirds system, and strongly recommend to the subordinate unions the propriety o f crushing an evil so prejudicial to our interests and our rights. Fourth. Resolved, That subordinate unions be recommended to use their influence as far as possible, to do away with the employment of apprentices on daily papers. It must not, however, be inferred that either o f these problems was solved by resolutions. As stated above, on May 6,1852, the organiza tion o f National Journeymen Printers passed into the present National Union, and the limit set upon this article is reached. Quite a number o f local societies and unions did not immediately join in this national movement. The Washington society, which was the prime factor in the national organization o f 1836, declined to enter that o f 1850 or 1852, and was the last o f the older organizations to join, which it did in 1867. In Appendix B will be found the wage scales o f this society down to 1866, which was the last issued as an independent society. The Washington union did not limit appren tices until it joined the National Union in 1867. No account is here taken o f the local unions that withdrew from the National and remained out for a few years. There was, however, an organization movement in the Territories of the extreme West that was entirely outside the sphere o f influence o f the National Union, and must be referred to. The only document left by this movement, so far as known, was found in 1904 in an old job printing office in Salem, Oreg. The original is the property o f the typographical union o f that city. There is a copy in the collection o f the Oregon Historical Society, at Portland. The original is on parchment, and is as follow s: J O U R N E Y M E N P R IN T E R S 5 C O N V E N TIO N . Pursuant to notice the printers of Oregon and Washington Terri tories met in convention in Portland, on Saturday evening, June 11, 1853, for the purpose o f organizing a typographical society. On motion, T. F. McElroy was called to the chair, and E. M. Waite appointed secretary. 940 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. On motion, Ed M. Cowne, W. B. Affleck, H. S. Stipp, and R. D. Austin were appointed a committee to draft resolutions. The committee on resolutions reported the following, which were unanimously adopted: Whereas, we, the printers o f Oregon and Washington Territories, in considering the great disadvantage attendant upon the present system o f our labors m these Territories, and with a view o f obviating, as far as practicable, present evils, and establishing a basis upon which all connected or interested in the cause o f right can heartily indorse, consider the organization o f an association for mutual pro tection and advancement o f the journeymen printers o f the abovenamed Territories n e c e s s a r y ; therefore, be it Resolved, That this association shall be known as the “ Oregon and Washington Typographical Society,” and we, as members, consider ing the present rates o f labor disproportionate in comparison with other mechanical branches; therefore, be it Resolved, That after the 20th day o f June, 1853, we, as members o f this society, will not work at the printing business for less prices than the old-established rates o f $1,500 per year or $5 per day, and will use all honorable means in our power to prevent ratting by either employers or those employed. Resolved, That any printer belonging to this society accepting a situation and working for less than these rates shall be treated by us as a dishonorable man, and we hold it our privilege to publish him to the world as a rat. Resolved, That as members o f the craft known as the “ art preserva tive o f all arts ” we will protect each other in the same, and do all in our power to hinder any innovation among us. Resolved, That the proceedings o f this meeting be presented to the publishers o f the different papers in Oregon and Washington Terri tories for publication. On motion, a committee o f five was appointed to draft a consti tution and by-laws. The following persons were chosen by the chairman: W. B. Affleck, E. M. Waite, Ed M. Cowne, H. S. Stipp, and J. R. Thoman. On motion, the following corresponding secretaries were appointed: W. B. Affleck, Portland; Ed M. Waite, Salem, Oregon Territory, and T. F. McElroy, Olympia, Washington Territory. On motion the meeting adjourned to meet on Sunday, June 18, at 8 o’clock p. m. T. F. M cE lroy, Chairman. E. M. W aite, Secretary. To summarize, we find documentary evidence that New York City had an organization, probably temporary, in 1786; another formed in 1795 and existing until late in 1797; a third existing from 1799 to 1804; another organized in 1809 and existing as a trade organiza tion to 1818, and as a mutual benefit society still in existence. Again, in 1831 a trade organization formed principally by newspaper com positors, and existing until about 1840, the exact date of its dissolu tion not being known. Again, in 1844 an organization which seems to have continued only from April to the last o f December o f that EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OP PRINTERS. 941 year, and, lastly, the present union, which was organized in January, 1850. In Philadelphia the printers organized in 1802, continuing as a trade organization with benefit features until 1831, when it was reorganized as a purely benefit society and as such still exists; another association, organized in 1833, lasted until 1839 or 1840, and in 1850 the present union was organized. In Boston the evidence o f an organization in 1803 is not quite con clusive; one organized in 1809 lasted until 1826 (that o f 1822 being a nontrade-regulating society); another in 1838, the date of the dis solution o f which was not ascertained, and the present union, formed in 1848. Baltimore in 1814 organized a society which existed until 1826, the present union having been organized in 1831. Washington organized in 1815 the society which still exists as Union No. 101, and is the oldest existing union o f printers, if not the oldest union in any trade, in the United States. Albany, N. Y., had an organization from 1815 to 1827, another in 1847. New Orleans, one in 1830, which must have collapsed in a short time, as another was organized in 1835, existing until about 1845. The present union was formed in 1852. Cincinnati organized in 1832 a society which appears to have lasted until about 1840. The present union was organized in 1846, though not, o f course, under its present charter, as all charters were dated by the National Union and then reissued and dated by the reorganized international, which was not done until 1869. Richmond, Va., and Charleston, S. C., appear in 1834. Louisville, Ky., had an organization in 1834; another in 1839, which seems to have sur vived until 1847. In 1835 is found the first mention of or reports from organizations in Natchez, Miss., and Nashville, Tenn. In 1836 the first record is made o f organizations in Harrisburg, Pa., Mobile, Ala., and Augusta, Ga. The Columbia, S. C., society was also organized in 1836, the society existing until about 1842. An organization was formed in Lexington, Ky., in 1837. St. Louis had an organization in 1838, which appears to have been in existence some time when first heard from through a circular letter issued by it protesting against a continuous rat list. In 1839 first mention is noted o f organizations in Frankfort, K y.; Rochester, N. Y .; Talla hassee, F la .; Columbus, Ohio; Detroit, Mich., and Vicksburg, Miss. Organizations were formed in Jackson, Miss., in 1840; Pittsburg, Pa., in i849; San Francisco, Cal., in 1849 or 1850; Savannah, Ga., Syracuse, N. Y., and Trenton, N. J., in 1850. The organization in Oregon and Washington Territories o f what appears to have been a delegate union occurred in 1853. Lastly, two national organiza tions were organized, that of 1836 and that of 1850, which reorgan ized in 1852 as the present national body o f printers. 942 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. APPENDIX A, NO. 1.—FIRST CONSTITUTION OF THE PHILADEL PHIA TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ADOPTED NOVEMBER 0, 1802. P r e a m b l e .— The formation o f institutions for the mutual benefit and assist ance of one another having been found by experience to be attended with much good, when conducted with regularity, and supported with energy*; and it being wise and expedient to provide in the day o f prosperity for the exigencies o f adversity; we, the subscribers, with these ends in view, and a desire to consoli date the present good understanding and harmony which now happily subsists among the brethren of our profession— have naturally considered, adopted, and declared ourselves bound to each other, by the following articles: A r t i c l e 1. The society shall be called, and known by the name of the “ Phila delphia Typographical Society.” A rt. 2. The concerns o f the society shall be governed by a board to consist o f a president, vice-president, 12 directors, a treasurer, and secretary, the form er o f whom, to be elected by ballot, and to hold their respective offices as fo llo w s : A r t . 3. The president shall be elected in general meeting, on the first Satur day in the month of November in every year, by a majority of the members present, and shall hold his office during the term o f one year. A r t . 4. The vice-president shall be elected on the first Saturday in the months o f November, March and July, in every year, by a majority o f the directors present, and be chosen from among their own body, and shall hold his office dur ing the term o f four months. A rt. 5. The directors shall be elected by ballot, the first monthly meeting after the adoption o f this constitution; and immediately after their election and in stallation, shall divide themselves into four classes and the members o f the first class shall hold their office during the term o f one month—the members o f the second class during the term o f two months, the members o f the third class, during the term of three months, and the members o f the fourth class, during the term o f four months, so that at every monthly meeting there may be an election for three directors and in case of the death, resignation, or disability o f any director or directors, then the president for the time being, shall give notice thereof, and at the first monthly meeting thereafter, another person shall be elected to fill the vacancy occasioned by such death, resignation, or disability, aforesaid. A r t . 6. The treasurer shall hold his office during the term of one year, and be elected as follow s: On the first Saturday in November in every year in general meeting, or on the first Saturday thereafter, three candidates for this office shall be elected by ballot, and on the first meeting o f the board, thereafter, one o f the three persons as aforesaid, elected shall be appointed, by a majority o f voices of the directors (except the president, vice-president, and secretary, who shall not be permitted to vote upon this occasion) as treasurer o f the society, and the directors who shall vote for him, must become sureties for the faithful execution o f the duties o f his office in the manner, hereinafter mentioned. A rt . 7. The secretary shall be appointed by the president, by, and w ith the advice and concurrence o f the board, and hold his office during their pleasure. A r t . 8. All acts o f the board o f directors, shall be in the name of the Typo graphical Society of Philadelphia, and signed by the president for the time being, attested by the secretary. DUTIES OF OFFICERS. A r t . 9. It shall be the duty of the president, to preside at all general and special meetings of the society and board of directors, to keep order therein, and generally to do such things, as to his office may of right appertain and belong. A r t . 10. In the absence o f the president, or, in case of disability, death, or, resignation, the vice-president shall preside, until the removal of such or until another person to fill the vacancy shall be elected, and perform the like services as the president—and in case of the absence, disability, death, or resignation of the president, and vice-president, then the board of directors shall appoint a president pro tempore. A rt. 11. The directors shall have power to pass by-laws for the government o f themselves, and of the general meetings, resolutions and acts not derogatory to the true intent and meaning of the constitution, and generally to transact all and every such business for the good and well-being o f the society, and is not in this constitution determined to be done in general meeting. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 943 A r t . 12. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to receive all dues, fines and for feitures, collected by the secretary for the use o f the society— and receipt to the secretary therefor— to keep exact and true accounts o f all moneys received— and of his expenditures, and to make no disbursements, unless authorized to do so by a majority o f the directors who voted the appropriation, expressed in their own proper handwriting on the warrant directed to him for that purpose— and shall, also, when thereto required, by a majority of the board, or o f the society in gen eral meeting, make out, and present a just and true account of his receipts and expenditures, and the amount of cash in his hand— and on his disability, resigna tion, or expiration o f his term o f service, deliver over to his successor, in the presence of the board, or three o f their members, all the money and accounts in his possession, belonging to the society, under pain of forfeiting his and the directors’ security, aforesaid. And in case o f the death o f the treasurer, then the receipts and accounts o f the secretary shall be sufficient vouchers against his heirs, executors, or administrators. And on the death, resignation, or, disability of the treasurer, the vacancy occasioned in said office thereby, shall be filled as directed in the sixth article. A rt . 13. The secretary shall give regular attendance to all special, general, and stated meetings o f the society and board o f directors, shall keep an exact and plain minute o f their proceedings, collect all dues, fines, and forfeitures o f the m em bers; which, he shall immediately deliver to the treasurer, and take his receipt therefor, in a book to be provided for the purpose, and generally do all and every such things, when thereto required by the board ; or, the society in general meetings, as to them shall seem proper. F or all such services, if punctually perform ed, he shall receive at the rate o f $1 per month, at the dis cretion o f the board. INSTALLATION OF OFFICERS. A r t . 14. Immediately after their election the respective officers, shall be entitled to take their seats, on subscribing to the following declaration: I ----------------- do solemnly declare, that I will to the best o f my ability, execute the office of -------- - and that I will not divulge any o f the proceedings o f my brethren, required by them to be kept secret, and that I will to the utmost of my power, procure employment, for any member or members o f this society, in preference to any other, when occasion requires. ADMISSION OF MEMBERS. A rt. 15. No person shall be eligible to become a member o f this society, who shall not have served an apprenticeship satisfactory to the board o f directors, to whom he shall make application in person, and they shall thereupon proceed to the election by ballot, and i f the candidate shall obtain a m ajority o f twothirds o f the board present, he shall then be declared a member o f this society, and receive a certificate thereof. DUES, FINES, AND FORFEITURES. A rt . 16. Every person on subscribing to the constitution, shall pay into the hands of the secretary, to be by him delivered over to the treasurer, the sum of $1, which may thereafter be increased to any sum not exceeding $5; and in addition thereto the sum o f 25 cents per month until he shall have been ten years a member o f the society, or be rendered incapable, by sickness or other wise, in the opinion o f the board, to pay such an installment, and if any member shall neglect, or refuse to make his monthly payment, for three successive months, he shall not be entitled to vote at any election; to hold any office in the society, or, to receive any benefits therefrom, until such payments shall be made. All fines and forfeitures, levied by the board o f directors, in virtue of this con stitution, shall be paid into the treasury for the benefit o f the society, and if any person shall neglect, or, refuse to pay such fine or forfeiture, three months after the same shall have become due, the board shall thereupon issue a notice to the judges o f elections forbidding them to receive the votes of such delin quents, or, to make returns o f any vote which may be given for him to fill any office in the society, and in case such fine or forfeiture shall be incurred by the secretary, he shall be liable to expulsion; two-thirds o f the directors present, concurring in a vote for that purpose. 276— No. 61— 06 M-------15 944 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, JUDGES OF ELECTIONS. A rt. 17. It shall be the duty o f the society in general meeting, or, in case o f their neglect, then the president for the time being; to appoint three fit and qualified persons, to preside, at any election to be held in general meeting for officers of the society, and the said judges shall make out an exact and true return, certified under their hands, of the number o f votes given for every person voted for, and deliver such returns to the president, who, shall thereupon declare the person or persons having the greatest number o f votes, to be elected, and, in case of a tie, between any two or more candidates, the board shall declare, which of them is to exercise and hold the office. QUALIFICATION OF VOTERS. A * t . 18. No person shall be entitled to vote, without he shall have received a certificate of membership; nor then if he shall be three months in arrears in his monthly payments; or, a notice has been issued to the judges of election against him, as mentioned in the sixteenth article. ALIMONY. A r t . 19. When the funds o f the society shall have amounted to $100, the board o f directors may award, such sums to sickly and distressed members, their widows and children, as to them may seem meet and proper; provided, that such sum shall not exceed $3 per week. And in every case, where a mem ber may be thrown out o f employ, by reason o f his refusing to take less than the established prices, they shall advance if required, on his own security, in their discretion; such sum, per week, as will be sufficient to defray his ordinary expen ses, and if such member, by sickness, or otherwise, should be rendered unable to refund the amount, or part of the sum so advanced, the board may levy a tax upon every other member of the society; which shall be sufficient, or, in part sufficient, to defray the amount advanced as aforesaid. And further, no person shall receive the benefits arising from this article, until he shall have been six months a member of the society; unless he is a stranger, and in absolute dis tress. And furthermore, that the sum o f $10 be allowed, from the funds o f the society, to the widow or nearest relative o f any deceased member for the purpose o f defraying funeral expenses. TREASURER’S SECURITY. A r t . 20. Before the treasurer enters on the duties o f his office; he shall give obligation to the president, vice-president and secretary, for the time being; thereby promising to refund the amount of any moneys, which may be in his hands, belonging to the society, on his death, resignation, or removal from office, which obligation, shall be signed by, and equally obligatory on those directors, who by their votes, may have selected him for the office. BADGE. A r t . 21. The badge o f the society, when such a distinction shall be necessary, shall be a silver rule, to be procured at the expense of each member, of such size and dimensions as the board may direct, and on one side shall be engraved the member’s name and on the other side a press— and as soon as the distinction shall be established, a gold rule shall be provided for the president, and belong to him, to his successors, who may hereafter fill the office. GENERAL MEETINGS. A rt. 22. A general meeting of the society, shall be held the first Saturday in every month, for the purpose of electing officers, hearing the reports o f the board of directors, and making monthly payments. SPECIAL MEETINGS. A rt. 23. A special meeting o f the society, shall be held, whenever the board of directors shall think necessary, or, in case o f the failure o f their stated meet ings, the president for the time being, shall think proper. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 945 REVISION OF THE CONSTITUTION. A r t . 24. No alteration, or amendment shall be made to this constitution, unless two-thirds of the society present, shall concur therein: Adopted November 6, 1802. J o h n C h il d s , A l e x . S cott, W m . LrrTLE, S. S e w a l l , G eorge W h i t e , C o m m ittee . APPENDIX A, NO. 2.—ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION OF 1815, COLUM BIA TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. C. P r e a m b l e .— Whereas, experience having proven that the association of indi viduals, and the formation o f societies, for the express purposes o f benevolence, have seldom, if ever, failed to meet the sanction of both God and man, we, there fore, with these ends in view, and by this incontrovertible truth strongly impressed, with the hope, that our endeavors will, in like manner, merit the commendation of all good men, and draw down upon all our undertakings the be nign influence of our Creator, to unite, and form ourselves, as one body, for the mutual benefit of each, binding ourselves one to the other in manner follow ing: TITLE. A r t ic l e I. The society shall be called and known by the name of “ The Columbia Typographical Society.” OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY. A r t . II. The concerns o f the society shall be managed and conducted by a president, vice-president, treasurer, secretary, who shall be elected by ballot, and shall hold their respective offices for and during the term of one y ea r; from and after the first Saturday o f January next. A rt. III. In case of the death, resignation, or disability o f any officer, the president, or in his absence the vice-president for the time being, shall give notice thereof, and at the first monthly meeting thereafter, another election fehall be held to fill the said vacancy, occasioned by such death, resignation or disability as aforesaid. And in all cases where the election of officers does not taka place on the day specified in this constitution, it shall be equally binding if it takes place at the next meeting of the society thereafter; and the persons so elected as aforesaid, shall hold the said office until the first Saturday of January next ensuing. A r t . IV. All acts of the society shall be in the name of “ the president, on behalf of the Columbia Typographical Society,” and shall be signed by the presi dent, for the time being, attested by the secretary. DUTIES OF OFFICERS. A r t . V. It shall be the duty o f the president to preside at all stated and spe cial meetings of the society, and to keep [order] therein, and generally to do such things as to his office may of right belong— A r t . VI. In the absence o f the president, or in case o f his disability, death, or resignation, the vice-president shall preside,, until the removal of such dis ability or another person shall be elected to fill such vacancy; and in case o f the absence, disability, death, or resignation o f both the president and vice-presi dent, then the members present shall proceed to appoint, by ballot, a president, pro tempore. A r t . VII. The secretary shall give regular attendance at all special and stated meetings of the society; shall give an exact and plain minute of their* proceedings; collect all dues, fines, and forfeitures o f the members, which he shall immediately deliver to the treasurer, and take his receipt therefor, in a book to be kept for that purpose, and generally to do all and every such thing, when thereto required by the society, as to them shall seem proper— A r t . V III. It shall be the duty o f the treasurer to receive all dues, fines, and forfeitures collected by the secretary for the use o f the society, and give a 9 46 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. receipt to the secretary therefor; to keep exact and true accounts o f all moneys so received, and of his expenditures; and he shall make no disbursements unless authorized so to do by a majority o f the society; and shall also, when thereto required by a majority o f the society, make out and present a true and just account of his receipts and expenditures, and the amount o f cash in his hands; and on his disability, resignation, or expiration o f his term of service, deliver over to his successor, in presence o f the society, all the moneys and accounts in his possession, belonging to the society, under pain o f forfeiting the penalty of his bond. And in case o f the death o f the treasurer, then the receipts and accounts o f the secretary shall be sufficient vouchers. TREASURER’S SECURITY. A bt. IX. Before the treasurer shall enter upon the duties o f his office, he shall give bond to “ the president in the name of the ‘ Columbia Typographical Society,’ ” with such security as shall be approved by the society, thereby promising that the amount of the moneys which may be.in his hands, belonging to the society, shall be refunded on his death, resignation, or removal from office; and in all cases where the person elected to fill the office of treasurer, shall refuse or neglect to give bond, with such security as aforesaid, the treasurer, for the time being, shall hold the office until another person is chosen, who will com ply with the terms of this article. A rt. X. The society shall make all necessary by-laws, and rules for their government, in addition to this constitution: P ro vid ed , That nothing therein contained shall be construed in any way to contravene the provisions of the same. ADMISSION OF MEMBERS. A r t . X I. No person shall be eligible to become a member o f this society, who is not, at the time o f his application, a resident o f the District o f Columbia, and who shall not have served an apprenticeship satisfactory to the society; to a member o f which he shall make application in person, which application must lay over for consideration to the next stated meeting of the society, when they shall proceed, by ballot, thereupon; and if the candidate shall have a majority of two-thirds o f the members present, he shall then be declared a member of the society, and receive a certificate thereof. EXPULSION OF MEMBERS. A rt . X I I . W h en ever such satisfactory evidence o f the im m oral or improper conduct o f any mem ber o f this society shall be exhibited to the society, by a m em ber thereof, as m a y induce them to consider such person unfit to be con tinued a m em ber, they shall expel such person as aforesaid, tw o-thirds o f the m em bers present concurring in a vote fo r th a t purpose. DUES, FINES, AND FORFEITURES. A r t . X III. Every person subscribing to this constitution shall pay into the hands of the secretary the sum o f $2 each; and a monthly contribution of 25 cents, unless he shall have been ten years a member o f the society, or rendered incapable by sickness or otherwise, in the opinion o f the society, to pay the same. And if any member shall neglect or refuse to make his monthly pay ments for three successive months, he shall not be entitled to vote upon -any question, or at any election, to hold any office in the society, or to receive any benefit therefrom, until such payment shall be m ade; and if any member shall be nine months in arrears, for monthly dues, fines, or forfeitures, notice thereof shall be given him by the secretary o f such arrearages, and if he neglects or refuses to pay the same, within three months thereafter, he shall thereupon be expelled: P ro vid ed a lw a ys , That this article shall in no manner affect persons actually sick or absent from the District. All fines and forfeitures levied by the society, by virtue of this constitution, shall be paid into the treasury for the benefit o f the society. And if any person shall neglect or refuse to* pay such fine or forfeiture three months after the same shall have become due, the secretary shall inform the president, who shall thereupon declare the fact to the society, and refuse receiving his vote EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 947 until the same shall have been paid, and shall, therefore, make no return, (if he shall have been voted for, for any office,) o f such votes. And in case such fine, or forfeiture, shall be incurred by either of the officers, they shall be liable to be expelled two-thirds o f the society concurring in a vote for that purpose. ALIMONY. A rt. XIY. The society may award such sums to sickly or distressed members, their widows and children, as to them may seem meet and p rop er: P rovid ed , That such sums shall not exceed $3 per week. And no person shall receive the benefit arising from this article until he shall have been three months a member o f this society, unless he is a stranger and in absolute distress. A n d fu rth er , That the sum o f $15 be allowed, from the funds o f this society, to the widow or nearest relative of any deceased member, for the purpose of defraying funeral expenses, etc. BADGE. A rt. XV. Every member of this society shall furnish himself with a silver rule, o f such size and dimensions as may be established by the society; on one [side] shall be engraved the member’s name, and on the other a press; and a golden rule shall be provided for the president, for the use o f him and his suc cessors in office, on one side of which shall be engraved “ President o f the Colum bia Typographical Society,” and on the other side a press, over which shall be an appropriate motto to be hereafter designated and expressed verbatim by the society. At all processions o f the society the members shall wear their badge sus pended by a blue ribbon from the second buttonhole o f the coat. STATED MEETINGS. A rt. XVI. A stated meeting o f the society shall be held the first Saturday of every month. SPECIAL MEETINGS. A rt. X V II. Special meetings o f the society shall be called whenever any five members shall request the president to call the sa m e; and the president shall thereupon direct the secretary to n otify the members accordingly. CERTIFICATE OF MEMBERSHIP. A rt. X V III. As soon as practicable after signing this constitution the presi dent shall furnish each member with a printed certificate o f membership, in the following words, signed by him and attested by the secretary: B e it k n o w n , That A. B. having complied with all the provisions of our constitution, is hereby declared a member o f “ The Columbia Typographical Society.” Given under my hand and seal this — day o f --------- A. D. 181— at the city o f Washington, in the District o f Columbia. -------------------- P resident . A ttest: -------------------- S ecreta ry . BY-LAWS. A rticle I. Any member, duly elected to an office, or appointed on a committee, who shall refuse to serve therein, shall pay the sum of 25 cents; unless an excuse be given and accepted. A rt. II. No resignation *of office or membership shall be accepted without notice in writing being given thereof, and all dues, fines, and forfeitures, if any, being first paid. A rt. III. Any member who shall leave the room, during the session o f the society, without leave from the presiding officer; or who shall otherwise trans gress the principles o f decorum, dr violate the usages and rules o f order, in the opinion of the chair, or, on appeal, in the decision o f a m ajority; or who shall appear at any meeting in a state o f intoxication; or who shall introduce into the society’s room, or cause to be introduced, previous to adjournment, any drink 9 48 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, other than water; or who shall in any wise interrupt the business or harmony of such meeting; shall be fined, at the discretion of a majority present, in any sum not exceeding $5, or dealt with in any manner such majority may think proper. RULES OF ORDER. 1. The president, or in his absence, the presiding officer, shall decide all ques tions of order; subject, however, to an appeal to the decision o f a majority of members present; but any one member may call another to order, subject in like manner to the decision o f the chair, or to an appeal. 2. All committees shall be appointed by the presiding officer. 3. No debates shall take place on any subject or motion, which is not reduced to writing. 4. All unfinished business shall be first in order, unless otherwise directed by a majority of votes; the standing order shall then be the proposing of new members, and reports o f committees. 5. Any member of the majority may move for the reconsideration of a subject on the same or at the first stated meeting thereafter, on which the said subject has been determined, but not afterwards. 6. When two or more members rise to speak at once, the presiding officer shall name the one to speak first. 7. No member shall speak more than twice on one subject, unless to explain, with permission from the chair, in which case he is to confine himself strictly to such explanation. 8. No person shall be permitted to enter or remain in the society's room during its session except regular members. 9. If any petition or subject in writing be offered for consideration, a com mittee shall (if deemed necessary) be appointed to consider it and make report thereon. 10. A motion for adjournment, or an order for a subject to lie on the table, shall always be in order, and be decided without debate. 11. The president, vice-president, treasurer, and secretary shall not be liable to serve on any committee. 12. All resolutions, in waiting, shall be read first by the person offering the same, then to be handed to the secretary, and, by him, read again; when the question for consideration shall be put by the chair, and if agreed to consider it, it shall then be open for discussion and read a third time before its final passage. 13. The president shall not vote on any question unless there be an equality of votes on the same, in which case he shall have the casting vote. 14. The president may give his opinion on any question under debate, if requested; but not otherwise. 15. The presiding officer shall, during the hours o f business, have his head uncovered. 16. In debate, each member rising to speak, shall address “ Mr. President,” with his head uncovered, and shall remain so until he resumes his seat. 17. Any rule or by-law, in case o f necessity, may be suspended, for the time being, by the concurrence of two-thirds o f the members present. 18. No member shall serve on two committees at the same time. APPENDIX A, No. 3.—SECOND CONSTITUTION OF THE COLUMBIA TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1818. P reamble .— Whereas, the formation of societies, for the better securing and more effectually maintaining the privileges and prerogatives o f any well-disposed class o f men is consonant with, and sanctioned by, every principle o f justice and equity: And, Whereas, the association o f individuals, for the purposes o f benevolence, is, we have a right to believe, approved by the Deity, while, it meets with the wishes o f every liberal-minded member of the community— we, therefore, actuated by these motives, do unite ourselves as one body, for the mutual benefit of each, binding ourselves, one to the other in form and manner follow ing: A rticle I, S ection 1. The society shall be known and called by the name of the “ Columbia Typographical Society.” A rt. II, Section 1. The concerns o f the society shall be managed and con ducted by a president, vice-president, treasurer, and secretary, who shall be chosen annually— at the first stated meeting o f the society, in the month o f January, each succeeding year. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OE PRINTERS, 949 A rt. I l l, Section 1. All acts o f the society shall be in the name of the presi dent, on behalf of the “ Columbia Typographical Society,” and shall he signed by the president for the time being, attested by the secretary. A rt. IY, Section 1. It shall be the duty of the president to preside at all stated and special meetings of the society, and to keep order therein, and generally, to do such things as to his office may of right belong. A r t . Y, S e c t io n 1. In the absence of the president, or in case o f his disabil ity, death, or resignation, the vice-president shall preside, until the removal o f such disability, or another person shall be elected to fill such vacancy; and, in case o f the absence, disability, death, or resignation, o f both the president and vice-president, then the members present shall proceed to appoint a president pro tern. A rt. YI, Section 1. In case o f the death, resignation, or disability of the vicepresident, secretary, or treasurer, the presiding officer shall give notice thereof; and, an election to fill the vacancy thus occasioned shall be held at the first monthly meeting after such notice shall have been made known. And, in all cases where an election to fill such vacancy does not take place at the time above specified, it shall be equally binding if it takes place at the next meeting there after ; and the person then elected shall hold his office till the expiration o f the term to which his predecessor was appointed. A rt. YII, Section 1. The secretary shall regularly attend at all stated and special meetings of the society; shall keep exact and plain minutes of their pro ceedings ; collect all dues, fines and forfeitures of the members; and, generally, do and transact all and every such business, as the society may deem meet and proper. Sec. 2. All moneys collected by the secretary by virtue of this article, shall be immediately delivered over to the treasurer; (in the presence o f the presiding officer,) and his receipt taken therefor; which shall be entered in a book to be kept for that purpose. In the absence of the treasurer, he shall receipt for all such moneys to the presiding officer. A rt. VIII. Section 1. The treasurer, before entering upon the duties of his office, shall give bond to the president in the name o f the Columbia Typograph ical Society, with such security as may be approved by the society, thereby promis ing that the amount o f the moneys which may be in his hands, belonging to the society, shall be refunded on his death, resignation, or removal from office, and, in all cases where the person elected to fill the office o f treasurer, shall refuse or neglect to give bond, with security, as aforesaid, the treasurer, for the time being, shall hold the office, until another person is chosen who will comply with the aforegoing terms. Sec. 2. It shall be the duty o f the treasurer to receive all dues, fines and for feitures, collected by the secretary, for the use o f the society, and to give a receipt therefor; to keep exact and true accounts o f all moneys so received, and o f his expenditures; and he shall make no disbursements unless authorized so to do by a majority of the society, under a warrant of the president. And, on his disability, resignation, or the expiration of his term o f service, he shall deliver over to his successor, in the presence o f the society, all the moneys and accounts in his possession, belonging to the society, under pain o f forfeiting the penalty of his bond. In case o f the death of the treasurer, then the receipts and accounts of the secretary shall be sufficient vouchers. Sec. 3. A committee shall be appointed at every stated meeting o f the society in the month of December, to audit the treasurer’s accounts, and make report of the state thereof to the society: P ro vid ed , That the society may at any time, when, in the opinion o f a majority o f the members, it shall be expedient, cause the treasurer to make out and present a true and just account of his receipts and expenditures, and o f the amount of cash in his hands. A rt. IX. Section 1. Any person desirous of joining this society, shall make application to a member thereof; whose duty it shall be to make known such application to the society, with the applicant’s pretensions to membership; which shall lie on the table one month. Sec. 2. Such applicant being introduced at the next stated meeting o f the society, the presiding officer shall put to him such interrogatories, as, in his opinion, may be meet and proper; and, if he has served an apprenticeship to the satisfaction o f the society, and the investigation be otherwise favorable, the meeting shall then proceed to ballot fo r such candidate; and a m ajority o f the members present agreeing to his admission he shall be declared duly elected a member o f the society. A rt. X . S ection 1; Every person, on subscribing to this constitution, shall assent to the follow in g declaration, which shall be administered b y the pre- 950 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, siding officer: Y o u ---------------------, do solemnly pledge your word that you will conform to, and support, the constitution and by-laws laid down for the gov ernment o f :his society; that you will, at all times, procure employment for a member o f this society, in preference to any other person and that you will not divulge their proceedings required to be kept secret. Sec. 2. B efore the president, vice-president, secretary or treasurer, enter on their duties, they shall assent to the following declaration: Y o u -------------------- , do pledge your honor, that you will to the best of your ability, discharge the duties devol ring on you a s --------- o f this society. A r t . X I. Se c t io n 1. Every person, on subscribing to this constitution shall pay into the- hands o f the secretary the sum o f $2 each; and a monthly con tribution o f 25 cents each shall be assessed and required o f every member o f this society, until he shall have been ten years a member, or except he be ren dered incap ible, from sickness, or some other cause, in the opinion o f the society to pay the same; or unless hereinafter otherwise provided. And, if any member shall neglect to make his monthly payments for three successive months, or shall at any time, when requested, refuse to pay the same, he shall not be entit ed to vote upon any question, or at any election; to hold an office in the society, or to receive benefit therefrom, until such payments shall be made. S e c . 2. All fines and forfeitures, levied by this society, by virtue o f this con stitution, shall be paid into the treasury, for the benefit of the society. And if any person shall neglect or refuse to pay such fine or forfeiture, three months after the same shall have become due, the secretary shall inform the president, who shall thereupon declare the fact to the society, and refuse receiving his vote, upon any question, until the same shall have been paid; and shall, likewise, make no return (if he shall have been voted for to any office) of such votes. And in case such fine or forfeiture shall be incurred by either o f the officers; they shall be liable to be expelled; two-thirds o f the society concurring in a vote for that purpose. Sec. 3. Should any member be nine months in arrears, for monthly dues, fines, or forfeitures, notice thereof shall be given him by the secretary, of such arrearages; and if he neglects or refuses to pay the same, within three months thereafter, he shall, thereupon, be expelled: P ro v id ed , a lw a ys , That such part o f this article as relates to expulsion, shall, in no manner, affect persons actually sick or absent from the District. A r t . X II. S e c t io n 1.. Any member o f this society, who shall hereafter leave the District shall provide himself with a certificate of honorable membership; under hand o f the president, attested by the secretary; and shall, (if he join a similar association during his absence) on his return, be exonerated from paying all and every due, fine or forfeiture, which might otherwise have been incurred; and shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities which he would have been; had he not left the society as aforesaid; provided, he, on his return, proc.uce a certificate o f uniform correct conduct from the president of an association, as aforesaid, while a member thereof. Sec. 2. But should a member leave the District in any other manner than as before specified, and, on his return, wish again to join the association, he shall be charged svith his monthly dues, for and during the time he has been absent, unless, in the opinion of a majority o f the members of this society, after an in vestigation by a committee appointed for that purpose, he be considered unable to pay the sam e: P ro vid ed , That in this last instance, he pay the amount o f the initiation fee required by the preceding article o f this constitution: A n d , pro vid ed , fu rth er, That this article shall in no manner affect such persons as have been ten years a member of this society; or, having obtained a certificate from this association, as above prescribed, may have resided where a similar society did not exist. A r t . X III. S e c t io n 1. Such members as are charged with having forfeited their seats from a violation o f the constitution, by-laws or regulations o f this society shall have one month’s notice given them o f such charge by the presi dent, to enable them to make their defense; which not being made at the next monthly meeting o f the society, or, being made and not deemed satisfactory, the society shall expel any such person, two-thirds o f the members present concur ring in a vote for that purpose. A r t . X IY. S e c t io n 1. The society may award such sums to sickly or distressed members, their widows or children, upon representation being made by two or more members, o f the necessity therefor, as, in their opinion, may be meet and proper: P rovid ed , That such sums shall not exceed $5 per w eek; and no person shall receive the benefit arising from this article, until he shall have been three months a member o f this society, un!ess he is in absolute distress. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 951 Sec. 2. A n d fu rth er , That the sum of $20 be allowed, from the funds o f the society, to the widow or nearest relative, o f any deceased member: P ro vid ed , It shall appear upon proper investigation, they shall stand in need thereof; for the purpose o f defraying funeral expenses, etc. A rt . X Y . Section 1. A quorum o f the society shall consist o f eight members, at all stated or special m eetings; but, no money belonging to the society shall be appropriated unless sanctioned by six o f said eight members, if there shall not be more than eight presen t : P ro vid ed , h o w ever , That i f there shall be more than eight present, a m ajority o f two-thirds thereof, shall be necessary to make an appropriation. A rt . X Y I. S e c t io n 1. A stated meeting o f the society shall be held on the first Saturday o f every month. A r t . X VII. S e c t io n 1. Special meetings o f the society shall be called whenever any five members shall request the president to call the same; and the president shall thereupon direct the secretary to notify the members accordingly. A r t . X V III. S e c t io n 1. Additional to this constitution, the society shall make all necessary by-laws and rules for its better government: P ro v id ed , That the provisions o f this constitution be not affected thereby. A rt. X I X . S e c t io n 1. As soon as practicable after signing this constitution, the president shall furnish each member w ith a printed certificate o f member ship, under the society’s seal, in the follow ing words, signed by him, and attested by the secretary : S e p . 2. Be it known, that A. B. having complied with all the provisions o f our constitution, is hereby declared a member o f the Columbia Typographical Society. Given under our hand and the seal o f the society, this — day o f --------- , 181-, at the city o f Washington, in the District of Columbia. ---------------------, P resid en t . Attest: S ecreta ry . A r t . X X . S e c t io n 1. No alteration or amendment shall be made to this consti tution, unless four-fifths o f the members present, concur therein; nor then, unless all motions to that effect lie over for consideration one month. W a s h i n g t o n C i t y , A pril 18 18 . APPENDIX A, NO. 4.—OUTLINE OP CONSTITUTION OP THE BALTI MORE TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ADOPTED JUNE 2, 1832. The Baltimore Typographical Society (second organization with the same name) was organized November 26, 1831. The constitution was not adopted until June 2, 1832. It was, in outline, as follow s: “ P r e a m b l e .— We, the subscribers, members of the Baltimore Typographical Society, in order to form a union among ourselves, to preserve regularity and decorum in our proceedings, to awaken and reward emulation in our brethren, in the art and mystery of printing, to guard against those extremities of sick ness and sorrow, to which, without any fault of our own, we are, nevertheless, (from the infirmity of our common nature), daily and hourly subject, and to secure, after our departure from this world, some little provision for our widows and orphans, or others, endeared to us by the interesting ties o f blood or affinity, do enact, declare, and establish the following as our constitution and future rules of government.” Article I states that “ this society shall be known and called by the name of the Baltimore Typographical Society.” The territorial limits of its jurisdiction are not specified, as they are in other documents. The usual list of officers are provided for and their duties defined, the only difference being that this society had a preference for official committees rather than individuals, such as a “ committee of correspondence” o f three, a “ visiting committee ” o f five members. The powers o f the president were some what greater than in most of these societies, and point toward subsequent de velopments in later unions along this line. Article III o f the constitution says: “ S e c t io n 1. It shall be the duty of the president to preside, and preserve order and decorum at all meetings o f the society; to silence disorderly debate, govern the transactions o f all business appertaining thereto, and give a casting vote on any question which can not otherwise be decided; he shall have full power to call special meetings; sign all orders on the treasurer, and perform all other duties required by the constitution and by-laws. 952 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. “ S e c . 5. It shall be the duty o f the visiting committee to receive and act upon all applications for relief, visit the sick members, etc., check on the treasurer for the amount of aid, necessarily and constitutionally, to be afforded, which shall be indorsed by the president and secretary before payment, (subject al ways to deductions for dues, fines, and forfeitures:) with all other duties de volving upon them as a visiting committee, and make report of their whole proceedings at the next stated meeting.” The secretary was “ exonerated from the payment of monthly dues, and al lowed 50 cents for each meeting.” However, “ if the secretary shall absent him self from a meeting of this society, without being prevented by sickness of him self, or death in his family, he shall forfeit his monthly remuneration and an additional sum of 25 cents; and if he does not send the books, then he shall be amerced in a sum o f 50 cents for such omission of duty in addition to the first-named sums.” The initiation fee prescribed by the Baltimore society was $3, and monthly dues 25 cents, with a forfeiture o f membership when arrearages amounted to $1.50, unless the member was sick or absent from the city. Payment of dues for fifteen years made one a “ free ” member. Honorary membership for life could be secured for $5, but carried with it only the right to attend the meetings and vote for regular officers. It does not seem to have been necessary even to have been a printer in order to secure honorary membership. The qualifications for membership are declared by Article V I : ‘‘ The indispensable qualifications o f all persons hereafter admitted as mem bers o f this society are, a good moral character, industrious habits, and a practi cal knowledge o f the art and mystery o f letterpress printing, having acquired the same by an apprenticeship o f at least four years, during minority. “ ADMISSION OF MEMBERS. “A bt. VII. Any person desirous of becoming a member o f this society, may make application through any member thereof, whose duty it shall be to make known such application to the society, which application may, if not otherwise determined, lie over until the next stated meeting, when the society shall, if deemed expedient, proceed to ballot for the candidate; and if two-thirds o f the voters present agree to his admission, he shall be declared by the presiding officer to be duly elected. “ S ec. 2. No proposition fo r membership shall be considered as before the society, nor to be acted upon, until the applicant’s pretensions shall have been stated by the member or members proposing and recommending him. “ DECLARATION OF MEMBERS. “ A r t . VIII. Every person to be regularly admitted a member o f this society shall accede to the following declaration: “ Y o u ,--------------------- , do hereby pledge your honor, that you will conform to all the rules and regulations established by the constitution and by-laws of the Baltimore Typographical Society; that you will, on all occasions, procure em ployment for a member of this society in preference to any other person; that you will encourage, as far as in your power, a friendly feeling among the members; discountenance all vice and immorality in them ; and, as far as may be, endeavor by your actions and counsel, to urge in the members, generally, a spirit o f industry and fidelity— to the end, that a membership of this society, of which you [are] becoming a member, may be the best recommendation to employ ment, and the highest assurance for the faithful discharge of all confidence and trust reposed in y o u ; and you also pledge yourself not to divulge any of the pro ceedings o f your brethren in this society.” Article X is devoted to “ trials and expulsions.” Sections 3, 4, and 5 fo llo w : “ S ec. 3. Any attempt by a member to deprive another o f membership, or good standing in the society, by bringing false charges against a member before the society, w ith evidently a malicious intent, shall, on trial and conviction by the society, be punished by a fine— in a sum o f not less than $1, nor m ore than $5— suspension, or expulsion, as the society may determine, by a m ajority present. “ S e c . 4. Frequent intoxication, gross immorality, needless and frequent neg lect o f business, so that his employer is seriously injured, or the member’s family thereby reduced to a state of suffering, shall, upon information and con viction by the society, be punished with suspension or deprivation o f member ship, as the offense may b e : all questions o f suspension or deprivation o f mem EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 9 53 bership shall be, without debate of propriety, in all eases, by ballot, and a ma^ jority of legal voters present necessary to decide on such questions. “ Sec. 5. Any member guilty of an evasion o f the provisions of this constitu tion, by-laws, or list o f prices, for the purpose of working for a less sum than is therein determined; taking a boy to teach him presswork for less than his services for thirteen weeks, or half his wages for twenty-six weeks, if by the piece— or if by the week teach him for a less sum than $26, or $1 per week for twenty-six w eeks; procure the discharge o f a member from an office upon a false accusation, or injure the interests o f his employer by revealing the secrets of the office, unnecessarily, shall, upon conviction, be deemed expelled by the society. “ FORFEIT OF MEMBERSHIP. “ A rt. X I. No member, under forfeit o f membership, shall work in an office where a boy, not an original apprentice of that office, is employed for less than the list o f prices demands, unless the boy, so employed, is under 17 years of age, or shall have come from an office, the proprietor o f which shall have deceased or declined business; nor shall any member, under the same forfeiture, work in an office where any person or persons are employed for less than the list of prices calls for. “ FORM OF CERTIFICATE. “ A rt. XIY. Any member, on leaving the city, shall, upon application, have a certificate o f membership, bearing date at the period given, signed by the president and attested by the secretary, (or in the case o f the death, absence from the city, or resignation o f the president, signed by the vice-president) if it shall appear by the books o f the society, that all arrears are paid up, and no charges o f improper conduct are pending against him, in the manner follow ing:— “ C i t y o f B a l t im o r e , —------- 18— . “ This is to certify, that at a meeting of the Baltimore Typographical Society, held of the — day o f --------- , one thousand eight hundred a n d --------- , ----------------- was regularly admitted a member of the society, and is recommended to the typographical societies throughout the country, and to printers generally. Given under our hand, at the city of Baltimore, in the State o f Maryland, this — day o f --------- , one thousand eight hundred and --------- ; and in t h e ---------year of the institution o f the society. -------- ------- — , P resid en t . “ Attest. ------------- -------, S ecretary. “ BENEFITS. “ A rt. XV. Any person, after being one year a member o f this society, shall be entitled, upon written application, to receive the sum o f $2.50 per week, during his indisposition, whilst so much remains in the funds: P ro vid ed , His sickness does not arise from immoral conduct; but he shall not be entitled to any support for such affliction, unless the application be made during the time of its continuance; and the visiting committee shall, in no case, pay any mem ber’s claim for time elapsed, more than one week previous to application. The visiting committee shall have a discretionary power, and may require the aid of a physician, in all cases of doubt as to the capability of any member to attend to his usual business. “ Sec. 2. A t the death o f any member o f this society, (after having been one year a m em ber) the sum o f $30 shall be allowed by the society for defraying his funeral expenses; and, each and every member o f the society shall pay into the hands o f the secretary, at the next stated meeting, the sum o f $1, as an extra contribution, tow ards replenishing the funds. “ Sec. 3. On the death o f any member o f this society who has not been twelve months a member, the sum of $15 shall be paid toward defraying his funeral charges: and, at the next stated meeting o f the society, an extra contribution o f 50 cents shall be paid*by each and every member, to replenish the funds. “ Sec. 4. The society shall attend the funeral o f all deceased members. “ FEIGNING SICKNESS. “ A rt . XVI. Should any member feign himself sick or disabled, for the pur pose of deriving benefits from this society, or while he is deriving benefits there from, such member shall be expelled the society, and forfeit all rights therein. 954 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, “ RECEIVING MEMBERS FROM OTHER SOCIETIES. “ A r t . X V III. Any person presenting a certificate o f membership from any other typographical society to this, shall be entitled to a seat as a member, and enjoy all the benefits o f this society, if the society from which he comes recip rocates the same privilege.” Article 3 of the by-laws o f the Baltimore society says: “ A r t . 3. All members absent from a stated or adjourned stated meeting, when the roll is called, shall be fined 6$ cents; and, if absent from the meeting during the whole evening, to be fined 25 cents— and no exoneration from payment by any excuse, except confinement by sickness.” APPENDIX A, NO. 5.—OUTLINE OF CONSTITUTION OF THE NEW YORK TYPOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION OF JUNE, 1831, AS AMENDED IN 1833. An outline of the constitution of the New York Typographical Association o f June, 1831, as revised and amended in 1833, is here given. This is not intended as an outline in the ordinary sense, for the portions of the constitu tion having a bearing on subsequent developments are given in full. Only mat ter that is o f a merely antiquarian interest is omitted. The preamble of the constitution states that “ The journeymen printers o f the city o f New York, with a view to elevate the character and advance the interest of the profession, by maintaining a just and uniform scale o f prices for their labor, do hereby resolve to form themselves into a society under the name o f the Typographical Association of New York, and do enact for their government, the following constitution and by-laws: Section 1 o f Article I states: “ S e c t io n 1. The jurisdiction o f this association shall embrace the city o f New York and the villages o f Brooklyn, Jersey City, Williamsburg, and Hoboken.” The articles defining the officers and their duties do not require special notice, beyond the mention that the fiscal affairs and general management o f the association were delegated to a board o f directors consisting o f 12 mem bers, divided into four classes, the entire number o f one class to be retired and their successors elected each month. This made a four months’ tenure of office for each director, though he changed his class each month, and each month three, new men came in, except that members were not deemed ineli gible for reelection, i. e., a member going out o f office in the fourth class might be reelected in the first class. The secretary’s salary was to be a sum “ not exceeding $20 per annum to be regulated by the board, and be exempted from the payment o f monthly dues.” In case he neglected to attend a meeting of the association he was to be “ fined in a sum not exceeding 50 cents for each delinquency, to be deducted from his yearly salary.” The janitor, or door keeper was also exempt from monthly dues and to be awarded a salary by the board o f directors, but within a constitutional limit o f “ $G per annum.” The treasurer must never have to exceed “ $15 o f the funds of the association” in his possession at one tim e: all over this to be deposited in “ the savings bank ” subject only to the order of the board of directors. Each officer-elect on assuming his office affirmatively subscribed to the follow ing: “ Do you solemnly declare that you will, to the best of your ability, execute the office o f --------- ? That you will support the constitution o f this association, and all by-laws founded thereon? And that you will act in this capacity for the general benefit of the members thereof, when opportunity offers or occasion requires? ” No member in arrearage for dues or fines to the extent of 12$ cents or who had not been a member six months was eligible for election to any office. The initiation fee was $1.50, 50 cents o f which must accompany the application for membership, the balance paid on night o f election to membership. The monthly dues were 12$ cents, until this amounted to $20, when the party so paying was to be considered “ a free member.” Then, as now, the pledge o f the initiate bound him not only to demand the scale while working as a journeyman, but to pay it should he ever become an employing printer. Article 4, covering the subject o f membership is in full, as follow s: EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. “ A r t ic l e 9 55 IY .— E lection and initiation o f m em bers . “ Section 1. Applications for admission into this association must be made to the board of directors, either personally or through any member o f this asso ciation. The applicant must first deposit, or cause to be deposited, in the hands o f the secretary, the sum of 50 cents, upon which the board shall take his request into consideration; and if it shall satisfactorily appear that he is a regular journeyman printer, of the age of 21 years, and not working for less than the prices established by this association, the results of such inquiries shall be reported to the next meeting. “ Sec. 2. A person favorably reported to the association shall be balloted for, and the votes of three-fourths o f the members present shall entitle him to admission: when, having signed the constitution, and paid the additional sum o f $1, he shall be entitled to a certificate o f membership. “ Sec. 3. Candidates who do not come forward within three months after being notified o f their election, shall forfeit their deposit money, unless a satisfactory excuse for the delay be rendered. Should a candidate be rejected, his deposit shall be returned. “ Sec. 4. Newly elected members of this association shall be introduced, by the individuals who first proposed them to the board o f directors, or such other suitable person, or persons, as may be designated by the chair. The members o f the association will rise on the entrance o f the candidate and remain stand ing until he be conducted to the presiding officer, who shall address him as follow s: “ Sir —I have the pleasure of informing you that you have been elected a! member o f the Typographical Association o f New York. Before your name is added to the roll, it is my duty to ask, Do you understand the objects o f this association? Will you, both as a journeyman and an employing printer, sup port the constitution and scale o f prices of this association, and all by-laws founded thereon? Will you attend all meetings o f this association, and embrace every proper occasion to promote its reputation and enhance its prosperity? And where your influence is desired by individuals of the profession, and their claims as workmen are equal, always give the preference to members o f this association? “ As your answers are satisfactory, and trusting that you will ever bear in mind the principles upon which this association is founded, I now tender to you the right hand of fellowship. As an earnest o f the sincerity o f the declarations you have just made, you will sign this constitution, which defines your rights and duties.” The older typographical society o f New York admitted both employers and employees in the industry. Indeed this seems to have been the real source o f its undoing as a labor organization and the securing o f a charter which pro hibited it from interfering with rates of wages. The Typographical Association provides against splitting upon this rock by section 2 of Article Y, which says: “ Sec. 2. Any member o f this association who shall establish the printing business on his own account, will forfeit his title to membership; but in event o f his again becoming a journeyman, he shall be entitled to all his former rights and privileges.” Other important articles, covering the matter o f relief, containing the germs of the “ strike-fund ” idea, “ out-of-work benefits,” and establishing the “ chapel,” are the follow ing: “ A rticle V I .— O f th e fu n d s . “ Section 1. The funds shall not be appropriated to any other purpose than to defray the necessary expenses of the association, and the pecuniary relief of its members. In no case shall the allowance to members exceed $3 per week to single men, and $4 to married men, and the board o f directors shall determine the right o f applicants to the per week allowance specified in this section. “ Sec. 2. Any member who may be thrown out of employment in consequence of not obtaining a price for his labor that shall be in accordance with the scale and having a certificate to that effect from the *father o f the chapel/ in the office where he was last employed, shall be entitled to the weekly relief specified in the preceding section while he shall remain unemployed; but, if it shall satis factorily appear that he makes no effort to obtain another situation or refuses honorable employment when offered him, and continues to draw from the treas ury, his weekly allowance shall be immediately stopped, and his claim on the funds be suspended for the term o f six months. 956 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOR. “ Sec. 3. No member shall be entitled to the weekly allow ance above specified, who may be in arrears fo r fines or dues, exceeding the amount o f 50 cents. “ Sec. 4. Any sum that may be earned by a member during the week that he receives pecuniary relief, shall be deducted from his weekly allowance. “ Sec. 5. W henever the amount o f moneys in the treasury shall exceed $500, appropriations may be made for the relief o f sick members, and also for the burial o f deceased brethren. “ A r t ic l e YII.— O f th e chapel. “ S e c t io n 1. In each printing office within the jurisdiction comprised in Article I, section 1, where journeymen connected with this association are employed, there shall be established what is technically called a ‘ chapel,’ and an experi enced journeyman printer chosen to preside thereat, who shall be constituted and known in his official capacity as ‘ father of the chapel.’ To this chapel shall be referred for settlement any difference that may arise between employer and employed, or between journeymen; and the disagreements shall be ad judged by the chapel, and its decision acquiesced in and supported by its members respectively. “ Sec. 2. When doubts arise respecting the construction, which may be given to any article, or articles, in the scale o f prices, a chapel shall be immediately summoned, at w hich the father shall preside, when the difficulty shall be can vassed, and the decision o f the m ajority be binding upon all. “ Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of the father o f the chapel to report the nature o f the difficulty, and the decision thereon, to the president o f the board o f direct ors, who shall, if in their opinion necessary, bring the subject before the association. “ Sec. 4. Every member of* the association in the office shall have a voice in the chapel; but if the majority, in large offices, decide to delegate the trust to chapels consisting of five, seven, or nine members, of which the father to be always one, it shall be competent for them to do so. The father o f the chapel to be elected by a majority and continue in office three months. “ Sec. 5. No chapel shall be form ed in any printing office where there are less than three members o f the association em ployed; and any difficulty orig inating in, or any dem and fo r relief, emanating from such office, shall be laid before the board o f directors.” Article X on “ Impeachment and trial o f members ” provides that “ any breach of the constitution, by-laws, or scale o f prices o f this association, shall constitute just grounds for impeachment, admonition, fine, or expulsion o f any o f its officers or members.” It is also provided that “ conduct calculated to bring into contempt, or derision, the association as a body ” is punishable in like manner. Charges must be made in writing, a copy furnished the member against whom they are made at least one week before the date o f the meeting at which they are to be taken up. A majority vote convicts. Article X I “ Of the scale of prices ” says: “ S e c t io n 1. The scale of prices for labor, appended to this constitution, shall in all cases, be considered as a part thereof, and no member of this association shall on any pretense whatever, work, either directly, or indirectly, for prices less than those specified therein.” Article X of the by-laws establishes an employment office, or out-of-work register, with priority rights. The latter, however, would not appear to amount to a waiting list based upon establishments and priority rights therein. The article says: “ A book shall be kept at the association-room for the purpose o f registering the names o f such members as are in want o f employment, and also o f vacant situations, and any journeyman who may have placed his name on the book shall forfeit 6 cents for every twenty-four hours his name shall remain thereon after he has obtained a situation.” By-law X II requires: “ It shall be the duty o f the members o f this association to inform strangers, who come into the offices where they are employed, of the established prices, and also o f the existence of the association, and o f the necessity of becoming members.” EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 957 APPENDIX A, NO. 6.—CONSTITUTION OP THE NASHVILLE TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1837. P reamble .— Whereas, it is the duty o f every member o f a laudable calling, to use his best exertions toward enhancing and dignifying said calling, by adding to the quantum o f its virtue and intelligence— as well as for mutual pro tection and defense, as for the purpose o f cultivating a friendly feeling and intercourse toward each other; and Whereas these objects are more attainable by the formation o f societies com posed of the same class o f persons than by other means: Therefore we, the subscribers, printers residing in the city of Nashville, desir ous to forward the aforesaid ends, have agreed to form ourselves into a society, and for our government adopt the following constitution: A rticle I.— O rganization . Section 1. This society shall be called the “ Nashville Typographical Society.” Sec. 2. This society shall have fo r its objects the various purposes stated in the preamble and constitution. Sect. 3. The society shall hold its regular meetings on the first Saturday in each month, and seven paying members shall constitute a quorum to transact any business confided by this constitution. A rticle II .— O f th e officers. Section 1. The officers o f the society shall be a president, vice-president, sec retary, treasurer, and five directors, to be elected annually at the regular meet ing in April, by ballot. Sec. 2. The newly elected officers shall not enter upon the duties of their offices until the adjournment o f the meeting at which they have been elected; and before taking their seats, shall individually or collectively, as the case may be, make the following pledge, administered by the president. “ You, A B, do hereby pledge yoyr honor that you will endeavor, to the best of your ability, to discharge the various duties incumbent on you, (or each of you, as the case may be) by the constitution and by-laws o f this society; and that you will act impartially in all things pertaining to your duties whilst officers of this society.” A rticle III .— O f the president . S e c t io n 1. The president shall preside over the deliberations o f the society, but shall not, whilst in the chair, enter into debate, or give his opinion on any question except such as relates to order; but may at any time leave the chair for that purpose, and appoint a member to fill the same, P ro vid ed , He does not speak more than twice on the same question. Sec. 2. The president shall not vote on any question, except in case o f a tie, when he shall have the casting v o te ; but in elections? he shall have his vote as a member on ly . Sec. 3. The president shall have power to nominate all committees, but the nomination shall be confirmed by a vote o f the society. Sec. 4. The president shall have power to inflict fines for unnecessary absence, misbehavior, or neglect o f duty, not exceeding $1 for any single offense; but any member may appeal to the society for a release o f fines, P ro vid ed , His appeal have a second. Sec. 5. The president may call special meetings when he and the board of directors shall deem it necessary. A rticle IV .— O f the vice-president. Section 1. In the event o f the death, absence or disability o f the president, the vice-president shall act as president. Sec. 2. In the event o f the death, absence or disability of both president and vice-president, the society shall fill the vacancy by a pro tempore appointment. 958 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. A r t ic l e V .— O f the secreta ry. S e c t io n 1. It shall be the duty of the secretary to keep a true and legible record of the proceedings of each meeting in a well-bound book kept for that purpose. S ec . 2. The secretary shall act as collector, and all moneys received by him for the society, shall be paid over to the treasurer forthwith, taking a receipt for the same in a book kept by him for that purpose. S ec . 3. It shall be his duty to notify members o f the society of all special meetings; also, newly elected members o f their election. S e c . 4. He shall keep a box or trunk, in which all papers belonging to the society shall be deposited by him, and safely kept under lock. S e c . 5. In consideration of the ordinary duties o f his office, the secretary shall be exempt from the payment o f his monthly installments. S e c . 6. In case of the absence o f the secretary, his place shall be filled by a pro tempore appointment, and the person so appointed shall be exempt from the payment o f his monthly dues for the meeting he may act as secretary. A r t ic l e VI .— O f th e treasurer. S e c t io n 1. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to receive all moneys col lected by the secretary for the use of the society, and receipt to him for the same. Sec. 2. He shall keep a true and correct account o f all moneys received by him, and of all expenditures. S e c . 3. He shall make no disbursement unless by an order o f the society, which order shall be signed by the president and countersigned by the secretary. Sec. 4. The treasurer shall make a report of the state o f the finances to the society at the regular meetings in July, October and January, and at the April meeting he shall make his report in conjunction with the secretary and board o f directors, for which purpose, they shall have free access to the books o f the secretary and treasurer, as well as all other papers belonging to the society. Sec. 5. The treasurer shall be required to give bond and security to the presi dent, when the sum in the treasury shall amount to $100. A r t ic l e YII.— O f the directors. Section 1. The board o f directors shall, within ten days after their election, meet and choose one o f their' number to act as chairman, who shall also act as secretary of the board. Sec. 2. They shall inquire into the claims o f applicants fo r relief, and recom mend relief to indigent printers or their families, in such cases as in their ju dg ment they may deem p roper; and also have a general supervision o f the inter ests and concerns o f the society. S ec . 3. The board of directors shall act as a standing, corresponding and publishing committee, to transact such business as the society may from time to time direct. • Sec. 4. In case o f the death of a member o f the society, the board shall have the superintendence of the funeral. They shall likewise make strict inquiry into the circumstances of the deceased, and if they deem it necessary, shall recommend a sum not exceeding $30, to defray the expenses o f the funeral. S e c . 5. The board shall inform all journeymen printers on their arrival in this city, o f the existence of this society, and furnish each individual with a copy o f its constitution. Sec. 6 The chairman of the board shall have power to assess a fine o f 50 cents for nonattendance at their regular monthly meetings, when a satisfactory excuse is not given, which fine shall be reported to the secretary and charged on his book. Sec. 7. Any member of the board who shall neglect to attend their regular monthly meetings for three months successively, shall be reported to the society by the chairman of the board, and if said member can not give a satisfactory excuse for such neglect of duty, he shall be deprived o f his office, and the society shall go into an election to fill the vacancy. S e c . 8. The chairman and two other directors shall have power to transact any business intrusted to the board by this constitution. In the absence of the chairman, a pro tempore appointment shall be made to fill the vacancy. S e c . 9. The board shall meet regularly on the last Saturday in each month, for the transaction of business that may be laid before them. . EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 959 Article V III .— O f the chapel. Section 1. There shall he a chapel in each office where there are three mem bers o f the society, (exclusive o f the foreman.) S e c . 2. The chapel shall choose one of the members to preside who shall be called the father o f the chapel. S ec. 3. The chapel shall have the supervision o f all disputes betw ixt journey men, and such other business as concerns their office alone, and w hich can not be brought immediately before the society. S e c . 4. Journeymen belonging to this society shall be under the regulation of their respective chapels, and each chapel shall have power to enforce the pay ment of all dues to the society. Sec. 5. In case any journeyman employed in this city, should neglect or refuse to present his name to the society for membership, it shall be the duty o f the chapel to refuse to work with him. S e c . 6. Any member o f the society who may be dissatisfied with the decision o f a chapel, will have the right to an appeal to the society, P ro vid ed , Said member is not in arrears. S e c . 7. Any decision made by one chapel shall be considered binding on the others, unless disapproved o f by the society. S e c . 8. All business done by chapels shall be in private. Ar t ic l e IX .— Qualifications. Section 1. No member shall be eligible to any office in this society who is in arrears to the society, at the time o f election, the sum o f $1 or upward, or who has not been a member at least six months. Sec. 2. The qualifications for membership shall be a good character, indus trious habits, and a good practical knowledge o f the art o f letterpress printing. Sec. 3. No person shall be admitted to membership in this society who is known to be a runaway apprentice, or has not served his apprenticeship. S ec. 4. Any person wishing to become a member of this society, must make the same known in writing to the chairman o f the board o f directors, whose duty it shall be to lay the same before the board at their next monthly meeting, and if the board shall deem the applicant worthy o f membership, the president shall present his name to the society, and if it be found that three-fourths o f the voting members present are in favor o f his admission, he shall be declared duly elected. S e c . 5. W hen any person is duly elected, he shall, before taking his seat, make the follow in g prom ise: “ You, C D, do hereby pledge your honor, that you will conform to all the rules o f this society, that you will not divulge any o f the proceedings that are not intended to be made public; that you will endeavor to cultivate a friendly feeling among the members, so that being a member o f this society, may give the highest assurance of the faithful discharge of all confidence and trust reposed in you.” A r t ic l e X.— D u es, fines , etc . Section 1. The initiation fee shall be $2; the monthly dues 50 cents, to fall due on the day before the regular monthly meetings. S e c . 2. Any member being absent at roll call without a sufficient excuse shall be fined 12£ cents, for absence the whole meeting, 50 cents, and for leaving the room whilst the society is in session, without permission o f the president, not less than 12£ or more than 50 cents. S ec. 3. Any person neglecting or refusing to pay moneys due the society for two months, shall be debarred all the privileges the society until all such dues are paid u p ; and if not paid up within four months, he shall be expelled, and shall not be again admitted unless he pays all dues and is elected as a new member. Sec. 4. The society may, at any time, raise or lower the initiation fee or monthly installments by a vote o f three-fourths o f the voting members present, 270—No. 61—06 M ------ 16 960 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, A r t ic l e X I.— L ife m em bership. S e c t io n 1. Any member who shall have resided in the city for twelve years, having paid np, regularly, all his dues and lines, shall have a right to member ship during life, without further installments; and any member on admission, or at any time afterwards, paying into the treasury, the sum o f $25, shall, also, in like manner, be considered a member for life. A r t ic l e X II.— B en efits. S e c t io n 1. The benefits and reliefs of this society shall be extended to its mem bers or their families, and to all the deserving o f the profession. A r t ic l e X III.— Certificate o f m em bership. S e c t io n 1. Any member applying to the president, and stating his intentions to leave the city, or quit the business, shall be entitled to a certificate, signed by the president and countersigned by the secretary: P ro vid ed , He is not in debt to the society, and is not lying under any charge of misconduct before the society. S e c . 2. On said member leaving and returning at any distant period, he shall be received as a regular member without the payment o f installments for the time o f his absence: P ro vid ed , He deliver his certificate to the president by the first regular meeting after his return to the city; but if he should neglect or refuse to comply with the above, he must be admitted in the same manner as though he had never been a member. A r t ic l e X IY .— M iscellaneous. S e c t io n 1. The anniversary of the society shall be celebrated by such suitable arrangements as the society may think proper to make, and any member re fusing to attend, without a reasonable excuse, shall be fined the sum o f $2, said fine to be charged to him on the secretary’s book. Sec. 2. Upon the death o f any member o f this society, the members shall fill the funeral train, and w ear crape on the left arm fo r thirty days in honor o f the deceased. S e c . S. This society shall, as far as practicable, cooperate with the “ National Typographical Society,” and endeavor to be represented at its annual meetings. Sec. 4. The society may, at any time, make such rules and regulations as they may deem expedient, relative to the wages, and their deportment tow ard w ork men who are employed under the regular wages. S e c . 5. No person published by the society as a “ rat,” shall be released without the unanimous consent o f the voting members present at a regular meeting. S e c . 6. Any attempt by one member to injure another member’s good standing, without sufficient cause, shall be punished at the discretion o f the society. So also shall gross immorality, frequent and needless neglect o f business to the serious injury of the employer, or the bringing the individual’s own family to a state of want or suffering, or any other act which is evidently wrong, and cal culated to injure or bring a stigma on this society or its members, shall be taken cognizance of, and every case of expulsion shall be made known to all societies in correspondence with this. S e c . 7. A charge of the violation o f the above section must be made in writ ing, with the name of the person making the charge, and the secretary shall notify the accused to appear at the next regular meeting, and should he neglect or refuse to appear for two successive meetings, the society shall proceed to try him, appointing a member to manage his case for him. S e c . 8. The president shall act as judge,* and the other members, with the exception o f the accuser or accused, shall act as jurors, and any member may be used as a witness. The accuser shall first produce his evidence, having a right to cross-question the witnesses. The accused shall then proceed in the same manner in his defense. After all the evidence has been laid before the society, the vote shall then be taken by ayes and noes— guilty or not guilty— and twothirds shall be required to convict. On conviction a majority may assess the penalty. All may vote except the accuser and accused. S e c . 9. Any member who shall reproach another, or any o f the family of a deceased member, with having received the benefits of this society, shall, for the first offense, be fined $5, and for the second, expelled. Sec. 10. Any member o f this society, on becoming an employer, shall forfeit his membership. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 96 1 Sec. 11. This constitution may be altered or amended in the follow ing manner. The alteration or amendment shall be offered at one monthly meeting, and en tered on the minutes, and shall lie on the table fo r further consideration until the next monthly meeting, when it may be adopted by three-fourths o f the vot ing members present. BY-LAWS. 1. All members shall address the chair standing, and in all cases where two or more shall rise, and a controversy or contention take place as to who shall have the floor, the president shall decide which member shall speak first, and the others standing shall take their seats or be subject to a fine. 2. The president shall have power to check any member addressing the chair, on any subject, who shall wander from the subject; he shall also order any member to take his seat who shall indulge in personalities. 3. Any member refusing to come to order when called upon to do so by the chair, or any member behaving disorderly or indecorously, shall be fined not less than 25 cents nor more than $1, and not permitted to take any part in the proceedings until the same is paid. 4. No member shall be permitted to speak more than twice on the same sub ject, without permission from the chair. 5. No motion shall be in order until the question before the house is disposed of, except a motion to adjourn, which shall always be in order. C. The minutes of each and every meeting of this society shall be signed by the president and secretary. 7. Whenever a member is constitutionally debarred the privileges of the society, he shall not be released until he makes a full settlement with the secretary. 8. Any member proposing a dissolution of this society shall be expelled. 9. Any member who may accept an appointment to serve on a committee, and does not attend to the duties o f that appointment, if he can not give a satis factory excuse, shall pay a fine of 50 cents, to be charged to him on the secretary’s book. 10. Reports o f committees and resolutions must be submitted in writing. 11. No member shall be entitled to a vote in this society, until after the pay ment o f his initiation fee. 12. No question shall be reconsidered, except on motion of one of the majority 13. No rule or by-law o f this society .shall be suspended for any purpose. 14. No amount shall be received from any member less than the full amount of his dues to the society. 15. The by-laws may be altered or amended at any stated meeting of the society, by a vote of three-fourths of the voting members present ORDER OF BUSINESS. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. The president shall take the chair and call the meeting to order. The secretary shall call the roll. Read the minutes o f the last meeting. Assessment o f fines. Collection of fines, dues, etc. Application for membership. Initiation of officers and members. Presentation of bills against the society. Reports of committees. Reports of officers. Vacancies in committees and offices to be filled. Unfinished business. Business of the evening. Discharge of members for absence, misconduct, etc. Adjournment. 96 2 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. APPENDIX A, NO. 7. —CONSTITUTION OF THE NEW ORLEANS TYPOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION, AS REVISED AND ADOPTED SEPTEMBER 14, 1839. P r e a m b l e .— The printers o f New Orleans, feeling the necessity o f organiza tion for the purpose o f securing a fair, just, and uniform compensation for their labor, and to provide for such of their craftsmen as may be unable through ill health to support themselves, have associated together. They deem it clearly established by experience, that the interests and prosperity o f the producing classes can only be sustained by the action o f the whole, concentrated and united. By union only, can they accomplish the object of their association. Therefore, fully believing that the best interests of the trade will be promoted— the respectability of the profession advanced—the harmony o f the whole secured by the establishment o f an umpire for the settlement o f disputes— we have formed ourselves into a body, to be styled the “ New Orleans Typographical Association,” and adopt the following constitution and by-laws for our government. A r t ic l e I .— Jurisdiction and govern m en t . S e c t io n 1. The jurisdiction of this association shall embrace the city and parish o f New Orleans and the city o f Lafayette. Sec. 2. The concerns o f this association shall be managed by a president, vicepresident, secretary, treasurer and six directors. S ec. 3. The president, vice-president, secretary, treasurer and six directors, shall be elected by ballot on the second Saturdays o f May and November and hold their respective offices for the term o f six months, or until their successors shall have been chosen. A majority o f votes shall constitute a choice. A r t ic l e II .— D u t y o f the officers. S e c t io n 1. It shall be the duty of the president to attend all meetings o f the association and o f the board o f directors; to preside at, and keep order therein; he shall be authorized to call extra or special meetings o f the association or board o f directors at any time he may think proper, or at the request o f a ma jority of the directors, or ten members o f the association. S e c . 2. It shall be the duty o f the vice-president to attend all meetings of the association and board o f directors, assist in keeping order therein, and to pre side in the absence o f the president. Sec. 3. It shall be the duty o f the secretary to attend all meetings o f the association and board o f directors, and keep a true and faithful record o f all the transactions therein; publish notices o f stated and special meetings, in such form and manner as may be ordered by the board o f directors; receive initia tion fees and monthly dues, collect all fines, etc., and immediately upon the receipt o f such moneys deposit the same with the treasurer, who shall receipt to him therefor. He shall likewise keep a book, in which each member’s name shall be inserted in such manner as to show when he was admitted, the amount o f dues he has paid, and when he withdrew, died or was expelled; which book shall be the register o f the association; and he shall also keep such other book or books, as may be, from time to time, directed by the association. At the opening o f each meeting, he shall read the minutes o f the preceding and intervening meetings o f the association and board o f directors, and perform such other duties as may be compatible with his office. For the faithful per formance o f these services, he shall receive a salary not exceeding $G0 per annum, to be regulated by the board, and be exempted from the payment of monthly dues. ‘ In case of nonattendance at meetings, he shall, at the option of the association, be fined in a sum not exceeding $3 for each delinquency, to be deducted from his annual salary. S e c . 4. It shall be the duty o f the treasurer to attend all meetings o f the association; to receive all moneys collected by the secretary, and to receipt to him for the same; and to keep a true and faithful account o f all the moneys received and expended. He shall not make any disbursements whatever, without a written order approved o f by a majority o f the board o f directors, and signed by the president, except in cases provided for under the head of relief. He shall render a detailed account o f all the financial affairs o f the association to the board of directors, at their regular meetings in May and November. Before EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 963 entering upon the duties o f his office, he shall give an obligation or bond to the association, backed by such surety or sureties as may be approved of, thereby engaging to refund all the moneys and other property of the association, which may have been intrusted to his care, at the expiration o f the time for which he was elected, or on his resignation or removal from office. The treasurer shall deposit all moneys in his possession over $50, and shall exhibit the certificate o f deposit to the board o f directors, at their monthly meeting. S ec . 5. The board o f directors shall meet on the first Saturday of each month, and shall have power to make their own by-laws, provided they do not militate against the spirit of the constitution, or such regulations as may be made from time to time by the association. It shall be the duty o f the directors to audit and settle the accounts of the treasurer, secretary and committee of relief. All appropriations o f the funds, except in cases provided for under the head of relief, shall be made through the treasurer, and an order to that effect, approved by a majority of the board and signed by the president, shall be considered a suffi cient warrant therefor. They shall render to the association, at its regular meetings in May and November, a true and faithful account o f all the affairs o f the association. They shall likewise receive all applications for membership, and report on the eligibility o f candidates for admission. Any member of the board of directors, who may fail to attend, shall be fined 50 cents for each neglect. A r t ic l e III .— O f election s . S e c t io n 1. A general election for officers o f the association shall be held on the second Saturdays o f May and November in each year, o f which previous public notice shall be given by the secretary. S e c . 2. The secretary and two members, to be named by the chair, shall officiate as inspectors or judges, at each election; and it shall be their duty to see that no member votes more than once, and to exclude from voting all such members as are in arrears for dues or fines. Immediately upon the closing o f the polls, they shall canvass the tickets that have been received, make out a correct report in writing of the number o f votes given for each person, and deliver it to the presiding officer, who shall thereupon declare the result o f the election. S ec . 3. Immediately after the election, the respective officers, previous to taking their seats, shall subscribe to the following declaration, which shall be administered by the presiding officer: “ Do you solemnly declare that you will, to the best o f your ability, execute the office o f --------- ? That you will support the constitution of this association, and all by-laws founded thereon? And that you will act in this capacity for the general benefit o f the members thereof, when opportunity offers or occasion requires it? ” S e c . 4. Any person who is in arrearage for dues or fines, shall not be eligible for election to any o f the offices before mentioned. A r t ic l e IV .— E lection and initiation. S e c t io n 1. Application for admission into this association, must be made to the board o f directors, either personally or through a member of this associa tion. The applicant must deposit in the hands o f one o f the members of the board o f directors, the sum o f $5; upon which the board o f directors shall take his request into consideration; and if it shall satisfactorily appear that he is a regular journeyman printer, o f the age o f 21 years, and not working for less than the prices established by this association, the result o f such inquiries shall be reported at the next regular meeting o f the association. S e c . 2. A person favorably reported to the association, shall be balloted for, and the votes o f three-fourths of the members present shall entitle him to admis sion ; when, having signed the constitution, he shall be entitled to a copy of it, and a blank certificate of membership, which blank certificate may be filled at the end o f three months from the time of his admission, or at the discretion of the board o f directors. Sec. 3. Candidates who do not come forward within two months after being notified o f their election, shall forfeit their deposit money, unless a satisfactory excuse for the delay be rendered. Should a candidate be rejected, his deposit money shall be returned. S e c . 4. Every newly elected member shall be introduced by the individual who proposed him to the board o f directors, or such other member as may be designated by the presiding officer; who shall addresss him as follow s: “ Sir, 964 BULLETIN OF TH E BUEEAU OF LABOE. I have the pleasure o f informing you that you have been elected a member o f the New Orleans Typographical Association. Before your name is added to the list, it is my duty to ask, Do you understand the objects o f this association? W ill you, either as a journeyman or foreman, support the constitution and scale o f prices o f this association, and all by-laws founded thereon? Will you attend all meetings o f this association, and embrace every proper occasion to promote its reputation and enhance its prosperity? Where your influence is desired by individuals o f the profession, and their claims as workmen are equal, will you always give the preference to members o f the association, and also pledge your self not to divulge any o f the proceedings o f the association? ” [ I f his answer be in the affirmative, the president will reply as follow s:] “ As your answers are satisfactory, and trusting that you will ever bear in mind the principles upon which this association is founded, I will now tender you the right hand o f fellowship. As an earnest o f the sincerity o f the declaration you have just made, you will now sign this constitution, which defines your rights and duties.” S ec. 5. Any member o f this association w ho shall establish the printing busi ness on his ow n account, w ill forfeit his title to m em bership;— but in the event o f his again becom ing a journeyman, he shall be entitled to all his form er rights and privileges. A r t ic l e Y.— O f m o n th ly dues. S e c t io n 1. Each member o f the association, with the exception o f the secre tary, shall pay into the treasury the sum o f 50 cents per month. A r t ic l e V I .— O f th e fu n d s . S e c t io n 1. The funds shall not be appropriated to any other purpose than to defray the expenses o f the association, and the pecuniary relief o f its members. S e c . 2. Any member who may be thrown out o f employment in consequence o f not obtaining the price for his labor in accordance with the scale o f prices, shall be entitled to a weekly allowance o f $5; and the board o f directors shall determine the right of applicants to the per-week allowance, specified in this section. I f it shall satisfactorily appear that he makes no effort to obtain another situation, or refuses honorable employment when offered him, and con tinues to draw on the treasury, his weekly allowance shall be immediately dis continued, and his claim on the funds be suspended for the term o f six months. Sec. 3. No member shall be entitled to the weekly allow ance specified, w ho may be in arrears fo r dues or fines. Sec. 4. Any sum that may be earned by a member during the week that he receives pecuniary relief, shall be deducted from his w eekly allowance. A r t ic l e YII. — O f th e chapel. S e c t io n 1. In each printing office, within the jurisdiction o f this association, wherein members o f it are employed, there shall be established a chapel, and an experienced journeyman from among them chosen to preside thereat, who shall be constituted and known in his official capacity as father o f the chapel. To this chapel shall be referred for settlement any difference that may arise be tween the employer and the employed, or between the journeymen, and the disagreement shall be adjudged by the chapel .; but in case either party should feel itself aggrieved after the matter in dispute has been eanvassed and decided by the chapel, it shall be the duty of the father to lay the case before the asso ciation, whose decision shall be final. S e c . 2. The father o f the chapel shall be elected by a majority, and continue in office for three months. S ec. 3. No chapel shall be form ed in any printing office in w hich there are less than three members o f the association employed. A r t ic l e V IIL — O f im peachm en t and trial . S e c t io n 1. Any breach o f the constitution, by-laws, or scale o f prices of this association, shall constitute just ground for impeachment, admonition, fine or expulsion o f any of its officers or members. S e c . 2. Impeachment and trial of members shall supersede all other business before the association, unless otherwise directed by a vote of two-thirds o f the members present EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 9 65 S e c . 3. Any member shall be competent to impeach another member, on either o f the following specifications: 1. Of any violation o f the constitution, by-laws, or scale of prices. 2. Of conduct calculated to bring into contempt or derision the association as a body. Sec. 4. All charges and specifications shall be reduced to writing, notice thereof given at a general meeting, and a copy or copies thereof served on the member or members against whom they are made, by the secretary or other au thorized officer o f the association, at least one week previous to its regular or monthly meeting. Sec. 5. No member shall be tw ice arraigned upon the same charges and speci fications. A m ajority o f votes, exclusive o f the party implicated, shall, in all cases, determine the innocence or delinquency o f the accused. A r t ic l e IX .— O f r elief o f m em bers. S e c t io n 1. Any member who may become sick, or otherwise incapacitated from pursuing his business, shall be entitled to the sum o f $8 weekly. S e c . 2. In the event o f death o f any member o f this association, the sum of $80 shall be drawn from the treasury, to defray his funeral expenses. S e c . 3. It shall be the duty o f the president, at the first meeting o f the board o f directors, after their election, to divide said board into three committees, to act as committees o f relief. The committees shall serve alternately for the period o f two months. S e c . 4. It shall be the duty o f the committee of relief to visit the members who may be unable to attend to their business through ill health, so soon as such inability may come to their knowledge, and ascertain if they need the assistance of the association; if so, the committee shall visit such members at least once a week during their illness, and pay to them the sum allowed by the constitution, and take receipts therefor, in a book provided for that purpose. S e c . 5. It shall be the duty o f the committee o f relief to make a detailed statement of the moneys expended, to whom paid, etc., at the expiration o f their term of office; which report shall be incorporated with the proceedings o f the board. S e c . 6 No member shall be entitled to the benefits o f the preceding provisions, who may be in arrearage for dues or fines. . Sec. 7. Any member who may feign illness, for the purpose o f receiving the benefits o f the foregoing provisions, shall be expelled, on proof thereof. Sec. 8. Any member w ho may speak in derision o f another, for receiving the assistance o f the association, shall be reprimanded for the first offense, and ex pelled fo r the second. Se c . fi. The committee o f relief shall make a statement of the moneys wanted for carrying out the foregoing provisions, from time to time, as found necessary, to the secretary, who shall examine the same, and certify to its correctness— upon* which certificate, the president shall draw on the treasurer for the amount. S e c . 10. The treasurer shall pay the drafts o f the president for all purposes coming under the head o f relief, without the intervention of the board; and such order shall be deemed a sufficient voucher for such payments. S ec. 11. The secretary shall assess on each member the sum o f fifty cents extra, on the meeting next succeeding, that on w hich appropriations are made to inter members. A r t ic l e X .— T im e o f m eetings. S e c t io n 1. A general meeting o f this association shall be held on the second Saturday o f every month, for the purpose o f hearing the proceedings o f the board o f directors, collecting dues, and transacting such other business as may come before i t Sec. 2. At all the meetings of the association, eleven shall be a quorum to proceed to business. A r t ic l e X I .— O f the scale o f prices. S e c t io n 1. The scale o f prices appended to this constitution, shall, in all cases, be considered as a part thereof; and no member o f this association shall, on any pretext whatever work, either directly or indirectly, for prices less than those specified therein. 966 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR, A rticle X II.— O f apprentices . Section 1. No member o f this association shall work on any English daily morning paper, on which any apprentices may be employed. [This article is not considered applicable to any apprentice now in such offices.] S ec . 2. No member o f this association shall work on any English paper, or in any book or job office, where any apprentice is employed, who may not be bound for a term o f not less than four years during minority.—{T his clause is not to apply to any existing contracts.] S ec. 3. In order to find proprietors o f evening papers and job offices an oppor tunity to test the capacity o f boys intended for apprentices, the latter shall be allowed a novitiate of two months. A rticle X III.— General provision s . 1. No additions, alterations, or amendments shall be made to this constitution, or scale of prices thereto appended, unless one month’s notice shall have been given o f such intention at a general meeting o f the association, and three-fourths o f {he members present concur therein. 2. No French journeyman, (not a member) within the jurisdiction o f this association, shall be amenable to its rules or regulations, except he interfere with the English compositors or pressmen. BY-LAWS. 1. The hours of meeting of this association shall be as follow s: From the 10th o f March to the 10th o f October, at 8 o’clock in the evening, and from the 10th o f October to the 10th of March, at 7 o’clock. The board o f directors to meet on the Saturday evening preceding the meetings o f the association. 2. No member shall speak more than twice on the same subject, except by leave of the association. The speaker shall in all cases address himself to the presiding officer. He shall not be interrupted while speaking, unless by the presiding officer, when he shall think proper to call him to order, or to admonish him to a closer adherence to his subject. 3. When two or more members rise at once, the presiding officer shall decide who is to speak first. 4. All resolutions and amendments shall be presented in writing. When a question, resolution or motion, is under debate, no other motion shall be ad mitted by the president, unless to postpone the further consideration thereof, to divide the question, to amend or to adjourn; and no amendment shall be ad mitted that shall appear to the president to destroy the spirit or principle o f the resolution or motion under consideration. 5. Questions o f order shall be decided by the president; but in case o f appeal from his decision, the association shall determine by vote, without debate. 6. A motion to reconsider any former resolution or vote, can only be made by a member who voted ,in the majority. 7. Any officer or member o f this association who shall fail of attending a special or regular meeting, without sending or rendering, at the next meeting, a satisfactory excuse for such neglect, shall be subject to, and pay a fine of 50 cents. 8. Any person who may be in arrears for dues and fines, shall not be entitled to vote on any question coming before the association. Any member o f this association who may be in arrears for dues and fines one year, shall be expelled. 9. No member shall leave the room during the meeting o f the association, without leave of absence from the presiding officer, under the penalty o f 25 cents. 10. In case any director or other officer shall refuse or neglect to take his seat at the board for two successive meetings, his seat shall be considered as vacated, unless he shall give a satisfactory excuse therefor. 11. The secretary shall furnish the chairman of every committee with a list o f the names o f the respective members; and any member o f a committee, who shall neglect to attend to the duty assigned him, he having been notified by the chairman, shall forfeit and pay the sum o f $1, unless he can render sufficient reason to the association for such neglect. 12. The secretary shall make out the account of each member, and present the same for payment at the end o f each quarter. 13. It shall be the duty o f the secretary to make out lists o f members who may be in arrears for six months, (whose bills have been regularly presented,) EABIiY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 967 and furnish the same to the several fathers of chapels, who are directed to have the same affixed in some public part of the office. 14. It shall be the duty o f members of this association to inform strangers, who may come into offices where they are employed, o f the established prices, and also o f the existence o f the association, and the necessity o f their be coming members. 15. In no case shall a member o f this association be allowed to work with a free man o f color, either as compositor or pressmen. 16. No member o f this association shall reveal any part o f its proceedings, under penalty o f impeachment and expulsion. 17. Members leaving the city shall not be charged with dues or fines during their absence, provided they notify the secretary o f the same. For neglect o f such notification, they shall be fined $2. RULES OF ORDER. 1. At the time appointed, the president shall call the meeting to order, and request the secretary to call the roll and collect the monthly dues and fines. 2. The minutes of the preceding meetings o f the association and the board o f directors shall be read by the secretary. 3. Business remaining over from former meetings shall be acted on, or further postponed. 4. Candidates shall be balloted for. 5. Reports o f committees shall be read and considered. 6. Communications shall be read and new motions received. 7. The secretary shall report the amount of money received, as also the names of those who have not paid the full amount o f their dues and fines. APPENDIX A, NO. 8.—CONSTITUTION OF PHILADELPHIA TYPO GRAPHICAL UNION, ADOPTED AUGUST 10, 1850. A r t ic l e I.— T itle and acts. S e c t io n . 1. This institution shall be known by the name o f “ The Journey men Printers’ Union, o f Philadelphia.” S e c . 2. All acts shall be in the name of “ The Journeymen Printers’ Union, of Philadelphia,” and shall be signed by the president and secretary for the time being. A r t ic l e II .— M a nn er o f votin g . S e c t io n 1. On all questions or motions, except the election of officers, and the election and expulsion o f members, the members shall vote viva voce. S e c . 2. In the election o f officers, and in the election or expulsion o f members, the members shall invariably vote by ballot. Sec. 3. All questions or resolutions in reference to prices shall be debated and adopted in committee o f the whole. A r t ic l e III.— M em bersh ip. S e c t io n 1. An indispensable qualification o f all persons admitted members o f this union, shall be a practical knowledge of the art o f letterpress printing. Sec. 2. All applications for membership in this union, shall be presented by members, at the stated meetings, at which time the pretensions o f the applicant shall be distinctly made known; and, if a majority o f the voters agree to the admission o f the applicant, he shall be declared to be duly elected. But any person elected to membership, who shall neglect to sign the constitution for one month after his election, (provided notice in writing be given him,) shall be considered to have forfeited his right to admission, unless he shall show satisfactory cause for such neglect. Sec. 3. All candidates for initiation shall be waited upon outside of the door of the place of meeting of the union, by the vice-president, or such other member as shall, for the time being, fill his place, who shall inform such candidate that there is nothing in the constitution o f the union conflicting with his religious or political principles, be they what they m ay; and, should he be satisfied to proceed, shall read to him the following pledge, and if he should consent to take the same in the presence o f the assembled members o f the 968 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR. union, lie shall be introduced to the president, and requested to raise his right hand whilst repeating these words :— “ I, (repeating his own name) hereby sol emnly and sincerely pledge my honor as a man, that I will not reveal any business, or proceedings o f any meeting of this union; and that I will, without equivocation or evasion, and to the best o f my ability, so long as I shall remain a member thereof, abide by the constitution and by-laws, and the particular scale o f prices of work acknowledged and adopted by i t ; and that I will, at all times, by every honorable means within my power, procure employment for members of this union, in preference to persons not connected therewith.” S e c . 4. Members-elect, on signing the constitution, shall pay to the financial secretary the sum o f $1, (which may at any time hereafter be increased to a sum not exceeding $2,) together with the further sum o f 25 cents in each and every month thereafter. Sec. 5. Should any member neglect to pay his dues and fines for three suc cessive months, or refuse to make payment when requested by the financial secretary, he shall not be entitled to receive the quarterly password; and should any member be six months in arrears in said payments, it shall be the duty o f the financial secretary to notify him of the same, and o f the penalty attached to further neglect; which penalty shall be set forth in the by-laws: P ro v id ed , That no penalty shall attach when sickness is the cause o f the delin quency. S e c . 6. Absence from the city shall in no case exonerate a member from dues during such absence; but any member may draw his certificate of absence, by paying all dues and fines standing against him; and, upon again presenting his certificate, shall be reinstated in the union: P ro vid ed ,,H e shall have been guilty of no acts in violation of the constitution and by-laws o f the union during his absence. Sec. 7. A m ajority o f the members present shall decide whether charges alleged against a member are o f such a nature as to be cognizable by the rules c f the union. Sec. 8. All accusations against the character o f a member must be made in writing, and referred to a committee o f five, who shall examine into the same, and recommend to the union w hat order shall be taken upon them. A r t ic l e IV.— Officers. S e c t io n 1. The officers of the union shall consist o f a president, vice-president, recording secretary, financial secretary, treasurer, business committee, (consist ing of 15 members) and a doorkeeper. S e c . 2. It shall be the duty of the president to preside at all meetings, and preserve order therein, draw all orders on the treasurer authorized by the union, and transact such other business as may appertain to his office. S e c . 3. It shall be the duty o f the vice-president to perform all the duties appertaining to the office of the president, in case of his absence, resignation or death. S ec 4. The recording secretary shall attend all meetings o f the union, and keep correct and plain minutes of the proceedings; notify all persons elected members, and also all persons elected to office, not present at the time of elec tion, and transact such other business as the union may, from time to time, assign him. For the performance of these duties he shall be allowed the sum o f $1 for each meeting. S ec . 5. The financial secretary shall attend all meetings o f the union, and shall keep accurate accounts o f all dues and fines, and shall collect them. And all moneys he may collect shall be immediately paid to the treasurer, in the presence of the presiding officer. He shall also keep a list of those members who shall be more than three months in arrears, and may hand their names to the presiding officer. He shall notify all members who may be six months in arrears, and of the penalty attached to further neglect. He shall furnish to any member who may desire it (provided said member shall first pay all arrear ages a'gainst him) a certificate o f absence, certifying he is in good standing in the union. He shall also perform such other duties pertaining to the financial business as the union may from time to time direct. For the performance o f these duties he shall be entitled to the sum of $1 for each meeting: P ro v id ed , That it shall be the duty o f both the recording secretary and the financial sec retary to deliver over, within seven days after the expiration, o f their terms of office, resignation or removal, all books, papers, or other property belonging to the union. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 969 S e c . C. It shall be the duty o f the treasurer to receive all sums o f money in behalf o f the union from the financial secretary, and give his receipt therefor. He shall keep true and accurate accounts o f all the money received and ex pended on behalf of the union. He shall make no disbursements without a warrant from the president, attested by the financial and recording secretaries. He shall also give such security for the safe-keeping o f all moneys belonging to the union as the business committee shall deem necessary. He shall also, within seven days after the expiration o f his term of office, or in the event o f his resignation or removal, deliver over to his successor all moneys or property in his possession belonging to the union. S e c . 7. It shall be the duty o f the business committee to attend to the general correspondence of the union. They shall receive reports from all committees connected with the state o f the trade in this city and county, and elsewhere, and all statistics in connection therewith, and perform such other business as the union may from time to time direct. They shall make reports to the union at every meeting. S e c . 8. It shall be the duty of the doorkeeper to attend at the door, and he shall admit no member without the password. He shall announce the name of any member at the door without the password to the president, who shall admit him and give him the password: P rovid ed , He shall be in good standingin the union. a r t i c l e V . — E lection s. S e c t io n 1. The election for all officers of this union shall be held, annually, on the second Saturday in August. S e c . 2. The judges o f the election (to consist o f two) shall be appointed by the president on the evening o f the election, which election shall be held by general ticket. They shall announce the result of the election to the president, who shall declare to the union the names o f the successful candidates. S e c . 3. Should a vacancy occur among the officers of the union, (not other wise provided fo r) the presiding officer shall give notice of the fact, and an election shall be immediately held to supply the vacancy for the remainder of the term. A r t ic l e Y I .— T h e funds. The funds of the union shall be applied to defraying the necessary expenses, and for such other purposes as may be provided for in the by-laws. A rticle VII.— M eetin gs. S e c t io n 1. The stated meetings of the union shall be held on the second Sat urday in each month. S e c . 2. In the recess a special meeting o f the union may be called by the appli cation of a majority o f the business committee to the president, in writing, when he shall direct the recording secretary to give public notice calling the union together. S e c . 3. Eleven members shall constitute a quorum. A r t ic l e V III.— D isp u tes . Should difference or disputes occur between the employer and employed, or between the journeymen in an office, in which members of this union are em ployed, (relative to any matter within the jurisdiction of this union,) it shall be the duty of such members to adjudge, if possible, the matter in dispute; and in case either party shall feel aggrieved, the difference may be brought before the union, whose decision shall be final. A r t ic l e IX .— A m en d m en ts , dissolution , and “b y-law s. S e c t io n 1. No alteration or amendment shall be made to this constitution, without the concurrence o f two-thirds of the members present at a* stated meet ing ; and the proposed alteration or amendment, which must be in writing, shall he read by the president at two successive meetings before final action shall be had thereon. Sec. 2. No resolution o r motion, tending to dissolve the union, shall he in order, w hile eleven members require its continuance. BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR, 970 Sec. 3. In addition to the constitution, the union shall make all necessary by laws and rules of order: P ro vid ed , They contain nothing inconsistent with the constitution: A n d provided also , That no fine or other penalties imposed by the constitution and by-laws shall, in any case, be remitted, excepting only that o f expulsion, which may be commuted by the votes of a majority present to a fine o f not less than $3, nor more than $5. A r t ic l e X.— P a ssw o rd and pledge. S e c t io n 1. The president shall, at the end o f every quarter, change the pass word, which he shall give to every member who may be in good standing in the union, separately and in a whisper to each; and no member shall make use of the password for other purpose than to enter the union. Sec. 2. Should the printers o f any or every other city in the Union form them selves into similar unions, and desire to connect with this union, it shall be the duty o f the president to establish such connection; and he shall, provided the majority present assent, establish a traveling password, which shall be legal for one year, and grant traveling certificates to members, certifying that the holder is in good standing in the union, and recommending him to the kindness and protection of all unions with which this union may connect. Sec. 3. Should a convention or congress o f delegates from the different trades or bodies o f workingmen in this city and county, or elsewhere, be at any time held, it shall be the duty o f the union to elect tw o or more delegates fo r the pur pose o f representing this union. A r t ic l e X I.— H o n o ra ry m em bers. S e c t io n 1. Any person of a good moral character, who may have learned the art and mystery of printing, may be proposed for honorary membership, if at the time of such proposition, he shall be out of the business, and known as a friend to the principles of this union; and if elected by a majority o f the mem bers present, he shall receive from the president such certificate of the fact, as may be provided for the purpose. S e c . 2. Honorary members shall be admitted to all the meetings o f the union, and enjoy the same privileges as members, with the exception of the right to vote or hold office, and the title to benefits. BY-LAWS. A r t ic l e I.— M eetin gs. The hour of meeting shall be, from the 1st o f October to the 1st o f April, at 7.30 o’clock ; from the 1st o f April to the 1st of October, at 8 o’clock. A r t ic l e II.— Installation o f officers. S e c t io n 1. All officers-elect shall be installed on the first stated meeting after the election; and it shall be the duty o f the president to install all newly elected officers. Sec. 2. All newly elected officers, upon being requested to do so by the pre siding officer, shall range themselves in front of his desk, and subscribe to the following pledge, which he shall dictate to them :— “ I do hereby pledge myself to faithfully perform the duties of the office to which I am elected, to the best of my ability, and for the benefit and honor of the union.” A r t ic l e III.— C o m m ittees— H o w and tchen appointed , duties , etc. S e c t io n . 1. The president shall appoint all special committees, and fill all vacancies, unless otherwise provided for. Sec. 2. The business committee shall, in addition to the duties prescribed in the constitution, perform the follow ing:— They shall keep accurate accounts of the number of men and boys employed in each office in the city and incorpo rated districts, as well as o f any suspicious circumstances in connection there with, which may be reported by the chairman of any office; they shall also have charge of all correspondence of the union, and keep, as nearly as possible, a correct account of the state of the trade in other cities with which we may con nect ; they shall also, whenever they deem the interest of the craft demands it, EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 971 call special meetings o f the union. It shall also be their duty to recommend to the union any course o f action which, in the performance o f their duties, they believe to be beneficial to the union and craft in general. For the better per formance o f these duties, the chairman may, at his option, divide the committee into subcommittees, each to consist o f at least two, for the management o f par ticular branches o f the business. Sec. 3. The business committee shall elect from their number three auditors, fo r the purpose o f auditing and settling the accounts o f the financial secretary and treasurer, w ho shall make report thereof in w riting quarterly, to the busi ness committee. Sec. 4. The business committee shall be constituted as follow s:—Five mem bers from hands on daily papers, and ten from those in book and job offices and on weekly papers respectively ; and it shall be the duty of the judges o f the elec tion to select from the list voted for, the five hands on daily papers having the highest number of votes, and the remaining ten from the book and job offices and weekly papers respectively, having the highest number o f votes, who shall be declared duly elected: P ro vid ed , No two o f said committee shall be elected from one office. Sec. 5. All special committees shall report in writing at the next stated meet ing, unless otherwise ordered. Sec. 6. No member shall be appointed on a special committee, unless present at the time o f appointment; nor shall any member be compelled to serve two successive terms on any one committee. A rticle IY . — R e lie fs , etc. Section 1. When the hands in any office shall be called upon to quit work in vindication o f their just rights, as prescribed in the scale of prices adopted by this union, each housekeeper and married man shall be entitled to receive $5 per week, and each single man, not a housekeeper, $3, until he obtain employ ment : P ro vid ed , That no hand or body of hands shall so quit work without the sanction o f the chairman of the business committee; but should he not deem the matter o f sufficient importance to warrant him in sanctioning the strike, he shall, if requested to do so by the parties interested, call a special meeting of the union, when the decision o f a majority present shall be final: P ro vid ed , also , That this section shall not go into effect until the present difficulty with the employers be settled. S ec. 2. I f any member on a strike shall refuse employment when offered to him, he shall forfeit all claim upon the union for the weekly allowance: P ro vid ed , That if such member do not earn by such employment a sum equivalent to that provided for in the preceding section, the balance shall be made up to him by the union; his bills and receipts being considered sufficient vouchers o f the amount he earns by such employment. Sec. 3. I f any member shall be discovered attempting to impose upon this union, by making false returns o f the amount he has earned while on a strike, he shall be debarred from further benefits for the period o f six months, and shall be incompetent to fill any office, or take part in any debate in this union for one year. Sec. 4. It shall be the duty o f the president, when any hand or body of hands are legally on a strike, to keep a list o f their names, and to draw weekly an order on the treasurer, attested by the recording and financial secretaries, in favor of each hand, for the sum which may be due him under these by-laws. Sec. 5 Strangers arriving in the city shall be allowed to work, until the next stated meeting of the union, when they must become members. Should he or they neglect or refuse to join the union, it shall be the duty o f the hands em ployed in the office to quit work, and insist upon his or their discharge. S ec. 6. I f any stranger, a member o f our craft, shall not obtain employment within one week, and decides to leave, he shall be entitled to receive a sum not exceeding $4, to defray his expenses out of the c ity ; an order for which may be drawn by the president attested by the recording and financial secretaries, on the treasurer: P ro vid ed , The union from which he holds his certificate creates a similar provision in favor o f members of this union. 972 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR. A r t ic l e V.— M e m b e r s , their du ties , etc. S e c t io n 1. It shall be the duty o f the hands employed in every office to appoint from their number a chairman, whose duty it shall be to report to the business committee, in writing, once a month, the condition of the office in which he may be chairman; the number o f men and boys employed, and such other matters as he may deem of importance to the union. He shall also be the medium o f communication between the hands and the employer, in all questions cognizable by the rules of this union. It shall also be his duty to announce to all strangers going to work in the office the necessity of becoming members of the union, as prescribed by section 5, Article IV, o f these by-laws. He shall also keep a schedule in which members o f this union who are unemployed may Inscribe their names and residences, and, should any vacancy occur, he shall notify them o f the same immediately. Should he neglect to perform any of these duties, he shall be fined in a sum not less than 25 cents, nor more than 50, at the option o f the union. S e c . 2. I f any member accept work in any office where the hands have struck on any question involving the rules o f this union, and shall refuse to quit work when ordered to do so by the chairman o f the office, he shall be expelled from the union. Sec. 3. In no case shall members o f this union work in any office, after the 2d day o f September, 1850, where hands are employed who refuse to join the union; and should any member do so, he shall be fined or expelled, at the option o f the union. S e c . 4. No member expelled from this union shall be readmitted for a sum less than $3; and his monthly dues shall be charged to him from the time of his expulsion to his readmission, and he shall not be eligible to any office in this union for one year after his readmission. S e c . 5. All journeymen printers residing in Philadelphia at the time o f the formation o f this union, who shall refuse to join on or before the 2d day of September, 1850, shall be charged $2 initiation fee: P ro vid ed , That on appli cation o f any member of the craft, who is conscientiously opposed to the princi ple of secret association, and who may signify his disposition to adhere to our scale of prices, rules, etc., he shall, if the majority present consent, be deemed an honorary member o f this union, and shall be entitled, should he desire it, to receive from the president a certificate, by paying such sum as may be directed by a vote of the union: A n d provided fu rth er , That persons admitted to mem bership under the first provision o f this section, and who have been receiving the advanced rates, shall be willing, for the whole time thus employed to pay such percentage o f the advance as may be decided upon by the union. S e c . 6. Any member six months in arrears for dues and fines, who shall not pay such arrearages at the next stated meeting shall be suspended; and it shall be the duty of the hands employed with him to quit work, and insist upon his leaving the office or paying such arrearages: P ro vid ed , He shall be previously notified by the financial secretary, as provided in the constitution. A r t ic l e VI.— A p p ren tices . S e c t io n . 1. Any apprentice in the last year o f his time, who may express a desire to become a member of this union, may do so by paying the initiation fe e ; but no monthly dues shall be exacted from him, nor shall he have the right to vote or take part in any debate until he attains his majority when he shall be considered a full member. S e c . 2. No member of this union shall work in any office where the number o f apprentices ranges over the following ratio:— Book and job offices shall be entitled to 2 apprentices; where more than 9 and less than 15 journeymen are permanently employed, 3 apprentices; where more than 15 and less than 20 journeymen are permanently employed, 4 apprentices; and in no case whatever shall more than 5 apprentices be allowed in any one office: P ro v id ed , That this section shall not apply to offices where a greater number of legal apprentices are employed at the time of the formation o f this union. Sec. 3. Should attempts be made to introduce apprentices into any office where the above ratio are already employed, it shall be the duty o f the chair man of said office to report the fact to the business committee; and should they, after an investigation, be satisfied that the spirit o f the preceding section has been violated, it shall be their duty to order the hands employed in such office to quit work and protest against the introduction o f such apprentice or appren EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 9 73 tices; and should such hands, or any one or more o f them, refuse to quit work when so ordered by the business committee, he or they shall be fined or expelled at the option of the union. Sec. 4. No member o f this union shall w ork m any office where a boy shall leave his employer after he is 16 years o f age, unless said employer shall die or decline business, or said boy shall be otherwise legally discharged. S ec. 5. No member o f this union shall work in any newspaper office where an apprentice or apprentices are employed. A r t ic l e VII.— T w o-th ird ers, etc. S e c t io n 1. Any individual working for less than the scale o f prices o f this union, who is not bound by indenture or by contract for a term o f five years, shall be deemed a r a t; and a list of such individuals, with a description of their persons, shall be kept by the business committee; and it shall be their duty to furnish any body o f printers in other cities or towns, who may connect with us, a copy of the same, with a request to transcribe and retain it for reference. A r t ic l e VIII.— F in e s, etc. S e c t io n 1. Any officer absent at roll call shall be fined 12£ cents; if absent over half an hour 25 cents. Sec. 2. Any officer having charge o f books, who shall fail to have them in the meeting, at roll call, shall be fined 25 cents. Sec. 3. Any member appointed on a committee, who shall refuse or neglect to perform , his duty shall be fined 25 cents for each neglect or refusal. S e c . 4. The recording secretary shall be subject to a fine o f 25 cents for neg lecting to perform properly the duties of his office. S e c . 5. The financial secretary shall be subject to the following fines; For neglecting to notify members when in arrears for dues or fines, each offense 12£ cents; for neglecting to make quarterly or other reports, 50 cents; for neglecting to perform such other duties as the constitution or union may require, for each offense 25 cents. S e c . 6. The treasurer and auditors shall- each be subject to the following fines; For neglecting to make quarterly or other reports, 50 cents each ; for neg lecting to perform such other duties as may be required of them by the union, 25 cents for each offense. Sec. 7. Any member intoxicated, or making use o f profane language in the meeting, or refusing to obey the president when called to order, or using disre spectful language tow ard the officers or members o f the union, shall be subject to such fines as may be imposed by the union. S e c . 8. Members neglecting to notify the financial secretary when they change their residences, shall be fined 12^ «ents. S e c . 9. Any member o f the business committee, who shall neglect business or luties intrusted to him, shall be fined 25 cents for each offense. A r t ic l e I X . — M iscellaneous. P r o p o s it io n fo r M e m b e r s h i p :— Every member proposing a candidate for ad mission shall do so in writing, with his name and address; and, provided no ob jection be made, the candidate may be elected and introduced the same evening. P a y m e n t o f B il l s :— All bills against the union must be presented to a meet ing before being paid, unless the bill contracted has been ordered by the union. C h a n g e o f R e s id e n c e :—Members changing their residence, shall give notice to the financial secretary within one month. D iv u l g in g P r iv a t e B u s i n e s s :— Any member revealing business o f this union ordered to be kept secret, shall be subject to such punishment as the union may direct. The doorkeeper shall receive $1 per meeting for his services, and shall admit no one without the password, except by order o f the president. Should any member be at the door without the password, he shall announce the. fact, together with the name of the member, to the president. A l t e r a t io n o f B y - l a w s :-^-No proposition to alter, suspend, or annul these by-laws, shall be acted upon until it shall have been submitted, in writing, to a previous regular meeting o f the union; nor then, without the concurrence o f twothirds of all the members present. 974 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR. APPENDIX A, NO. 9.—CONSTITUTION AND DOCUMENTS OF THE FIRST NATIONAL CONVENTION OF PRINTERS, 1836. CONSTITUTION OF THE NATIONAL TYPOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION, OF NOVEMBER 11, 1836, AS AMENDED SEPTEMBER 5, 1837. («) Whereas experience has proved that the interests and prosperity of the typographical profession o f the United States can not be maintained and pro moted but by the united efforts of the whole body, nor its character and standing properly elevated by the feeble efforts o f individual societies: And whereas it has become necessary for the welfare of the craft that a bond of friendship, feeling, and obligation, should exist amongst all societies through out the Union: Having in view the accomplishment o f these desirable results, and of meting out equal justice to our employers and ourselves, the several local societies at present organized, do agree to form themselves into a united society, to be denominated The National Typographical Association, and enact for their government the following constitution: A r t ic l e I .(& ) S e c t io n 1. This association shall be known and called by the name of the “ National Typographical Association,” and shall be composed o f such local associations as shall acknowledge this constitution and its accompanying by-laws. S e c . 2. Each local society shall be entitled, for twenty contributing members or less, to one delegate to this association; over twenty and not exceeding forty, two delegates; above forty, three delegates; to be duly elected from the contributing members o f said society: P ro v id ed , Nothing herein contained shall prevent any society from filling up their delegation by proxies, if said proxies be contributing members or members of some society attached to this association. A r t ic l e II. A convention, consisting o f delegates from the several local associations, shall be held annually— the convention in session having pow er to appoint the place o f meeting o f its successor. A r t ic l e III. The convention shall have power to pass such general laws for the govern ment of local societies as may not conflict with any regulations o f said so cieties, so far as they exercise, or may hereafter exercise, the right to establish prices for the district of country over which .they have jurisdiction. A r t ic l e IV. S e c t io n 1. The officers o f this association shall be a president, vice-president, recording and corresponding secretaries, and treasurer, who shall be elected annually, by ballot, and hold office until their successors shall be chosen. A • • This constitu tion was originally adopted at the W ashington m eeting o f the National Typographical Society in 1836, but is given here as amended the follow in g year, when the name was changed to N ational T ypographical A ssociation. b B elow w ill be fou nd noted the changes made from the constitution o f 1836: A rtic le I, section 1. This society shall be known and called by the name o f “ The N ational T ypographical S ociety,” and shall be com posed o f delegates from each regularly organized society in the United States. Section 2 did not contain the proviso o f that o f 1837, but did contain after the words “ contributing members o f said society ” this se n ten ce: “ The delegates thus elected shall have pow er to enact all general laws fo r the governm ent o f local societies,” which is clearly inconsistent w ith A rticle II o f 1836 and A rticle II I o f 1837. A rticle X . The constitu tion o f 1836 le ft the per cent blank and there was slightly different w ording. A rticle X I o f constitution o f 1836 i s : “ The first m eeting o f the N ational Society shall be in the city o f New York, on the first M onday o f September n e x t ; [1 837] and thereafter at such tim e and place as the society shall annually determ ine.” A rticle X I I o f 1836 said “ an engraved card, to be called the union card.” Section 2 o f A rticle X I I o f 1837 does not appear in constitution o f 1836. A rticle X V o f 1836 does not appear in that o f 1837, and was as f o llo w s : “ So soon as any local society shall ratify this constitution, they may, immediately thereafter, elect a delegate or delegates, under the provision o f the same, to meet, as is provided fo r in A rticle X I o f this constitution, fu lly empowered to act on any o f the propositions em anating from this convention fo r the consideration o f local societies.” EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OP PRINTERS. 975 majority o f the votes of all the members present, being necessary to constitute an election. Sec. 2. The officers of this association shall constitute a board of control, for the adjustment o f any difficulties which may arise during the recess o f the convention, subject to the supervision o f the said association at their next meeting. Sec. 3. The board o f control shall also have power to originate all corre spondence necessary for the management and welfare of the profession. It shall be their duty also to hold correspondence with local societies, and such European societies as may desire to correspond with them. They shall solicit from said societies in Europe and America information o f the condition o f the trade; and lay before the association, at each annual meeting, a message, ac companied by all correspondence and documents which they may have received in their official capacity. They shall give a statement o f the expenses incurred by them; also, such plans for the future management o f this board as experi ence may suggest. Sec. 4. The board shall have power to fill all vacancies that may occur in their body during the recess of the convention. A rticle V. Section 1. The president shall preside at all meetings o f the convention, and preserve order therein—shall put all questions and announce the decision; he shall be entitled to vote upon all questions. Sec. 2. The president shall sign all bills passed by the convention, and all drafts upon the treasury. S ec . 3. In case of the absence o f the president the vice-president shall pre side. A rticle VI. Section i. i t shall be the duty o f the recording secretary to keep correct minutes o f the proceedings o f the convention, file and preserve all papers in trusted to his care. Sec. 2, •He shall receive and pay over to the treasurer all moneys that may come into his hands for the use o f the National Association, and take receipts from that officer for the same; also, attest all drafts upon the treasury. A rticle VII. It shall be the duty o f the corresponding secretary to carry on all correspond ence with European societies, and to answer calls for information from local societies in the United States. He shall preserve a correct copy o f his cor respondence, and lay the sarnie before the association at its annual meetings. A rticle VIII. The treasurer shall receive all moneys from the recording secretary, and re ceipt to him for the same ; pay all bills passed by the convention, signed by the president, and attested by the secretary; keep a true account o f all moneys re ceived and disbursed, and make a report at each annual meeting o f the asso ciation. He shall, when legally directed by the president, immediately deliver over to liis successor in office all moneys, books, etc. in his possession belonging to the association. He shall give such surety for the faithful performance of his duties as the convention may deem satisfactory. A rticle IX. Immediately after their election, the president, vice-president, secretaries, and treasurer shall assent to the following declaration : “ You, A B, do solemnly pledge your word and honor, in the presence of this convention, that you will, to the best o f your ability, discharge the various duties Incumbent on you a s --------- o f The National Typographical Association during your term o f office.” 276—No. 61—06 m ------ 17 976 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. A rticle X. Each society, or association, shall annually pay into the treasury o f this asso ciation, 25 per cent, on the whole amount received into their treasuries, for defraying the expenses o f the attendance o f their delegates, and other necessary expenditures; but should the amount in the treasury be insufficient, an addi tional tax shall be levied on the local societies, proportioned on each according to amounts last paid in. A rticle XI. A majority of the societies represented shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business; no money to be appropriated but by a vote of two-thirds of the delegates in attendance. A rticle X II. S ectio n 1. There shall be issued by the officers o f the National Association, in blank form, (under the control o f that body) to local societies, for the use of their members, a card, to be called the “ union card,” with suitable designs and inscriptions; and it shall be the duty of the local societies to issue one of these cards to every member in good standing, when about to leave the section of country over which they may have jurisdiction; and on the member’s arriving under the jurisdiction o f another society, and depositing his card with the presi dent, or in his absence with any other officer, and receiving a certificate o f such deposit, it must secure for him the confidence and good offices o f that b od y ; and, in case of his departure, in good standing, from said place, the proper officers of the society will give him another similar card, which shall be his passport with the next society. The card to be as follow s: “ This is to certify that the bearer h ereof,-------------------- , is a member o f the -------------------- ; and, at the time of issuing this card, is in good standing, and as such will receive the confidence, friendship, and good offices of all societies under the jurisdiction of the National Association. “ Given under our hands a t --------- , this — day o f ---------, 18— . “ -------------------- , P residen t. “ -------------------- , S ecreta ry .” S ec . 2. It shall be the duty of every member of any association or society, on arriving in a place from another section o f country, to wait on some one connected with the association, and show his card. And that it be further the duty of said member waited on, to introduce (as soon as practicable) the stranger among his craftsmen o f the association, for examination o f card. A rticle X I I I . This constitution may be altered or amended at any meeting o f the National Association, to suit a majority o f the local societies then represented: P ro vid ed , No alteration shall be made unless notice be given at the previous annual meeting. ADDRESS TO LOCAL SOCIETIES BY THE CONVENTION OF THE NATIONAL TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY IN 1886. In proposing the general rules for the management o f the local societies, the committee deem it a matter o f so much importance to the permanency and effi ciency of the contemplated union, that they can not forego the opportunity to impress upon the members o f such societies the strong necessity which exists for yielding so much o f opinion, of power, and of government, as shall be required to give harmony, stability, and efficacy to the whole system. To accomplish the great purposes aimed at, and to secure a good organization, something of concession— much o f resolution and determination— will be needed. The prin cipal object should never be lost sight of—the glorious result thereof should for ever be kept in view, and a comparison should be drawn between our present inefficient, unorganized, and, in too many respects, deplorable condition, with the energetic discipline and strength constituting its reverse. The advantages which will accrue to the profession from the adoption o f some equitable plan o f union, are incalculable; and the recommendations o f the com mittee are such as, in their judgment, will be most feasible, provided a proper spirit o f conciliation, allied to an unshaken firmness o f purpose, shall be ob served on the part o f the local societies. Our employers, though some o f them EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 97 7 may be opposed to us a while, will eventually become convinced that, in endeav oring to ameliorate our own condition, we have not forgotten their interests, but have, on the contrary, consulted and secured them; and your committee conceive that, in no recommendation o f theirs, is the least principle o f right in fringed or reason violated, but strict and impartial justice extended to all concerned. I f it be made obligatory upon the parents or guardians of boys to have them bound as apprentices for a certain term, (not less than six years), does the employer suffer injustice? By no means. He is benefited. The employer, the journeyman, and the apprentice, are all benefited by this regulation, and the provision made to bring into membership, in one or the other of the several local societies, all who may not be connected therewith—and after a distant specified period to admit none who have not served six years at the trade, will be found, upon proper reflection, to be productive of the happiest results, as it will secure to the employer the whole time o f the apprentice, and prevent those from working as journeymen who have not served a regular apprenticeship. The committee would, therefore, again urge upon the local societies the pro priety of deep and mature deliberation, and they confidently hope that, when the few innovations upon long-established usages, which the nature o f the subject necessarily imposed, shall come before them for consideration, they will receive that approval to which their merits may entitle them. [The regulations below, when adopted by the respective societies, throilgh their representatives, will become binding upon the whole, as general laws, for the government o f the craft.] A bticle 1. Every apprentice shall serve until he be 21 years of age; and at the time of entering as an apprentice shall not be more than 15 years o f age; and every boy taken as an apprentice shall be bound to his employer in due form of law. Abt. 2. No runaway apprentice shall be received into any office in the United States attached to the National Society, either as an apprentice or journeyman. Abt. 3. Any boy who may be legally released from his master, may be received into another establishment to serve out the remainder o f his apprentice ship, provided he has not been legally released for his own bad conduct. A bt. 4. That on the death o f his master, or if, from any cause, the office wherein he was indented shall cease to be, he may be taken into another office, and be regularly indented to finish the term o f his apprenticeship. A bt . 5. After the — day o f --------- , 18— , it shall not be lawful for any local society to consider any application for membership unaccompanied by the cre dentials of the applicant that he had served the period o f six years as a regu larly indented apprentice at the printing business. A b t . 6. That after the — day o f --------- it shall not be lawful for any local society to permit members of said society to work in any office where boys may be taken as apprentices to the printing business, to serve for a less period than six years. A bt. 7. The local societies shall have the pow er to establish such tariff o f prices as may be suitable to the section o f country in which they may be located; always having a due regard to the wants o f the profession. A bt . 8. It shall be the duty of all local societies, working under the jurisdic tion o f the National Society, to sustain each other in their list o f prices, or such other regulations as they may adopt for their government. A bt. 9. That any individual violating the constitution or regulations o f the local society o f the district in w hich he resides, shall be summoned to appear before the society to which he is attached; and if it should be proved to the satisfaction o f said society that the individual has committed the offense, that he shall be forthw ith exp elled ; and that no member o f any society be permitted to w ork in an office where he may be employed, unless said individual shall be reinstated by the society from w hich he had been expelled. A bt. 10. That all local societies repeal so much o f their constitutions as requires a term of apprenticeship as a qualification for membership; and that they admit all who are at work at the business as journeymen, so soon as it shall be ascertained that the proposed regulations o f the convention upon this subject shall be adopted by two-thirds of the societies. A bt. 11 Any person presenting a certificate o f membership from one society, under the jurisdiction of the National Society, to another society under the same jurisdiction, and paying the monthly dues called for by their constitution, shall be entitled to the trade benefits o f said society. I f he shall pay in addi 9 78 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. tion the usual initiation fee, he shall be entitled to the full benefits o f the society. A rt . 12. In case it shall be necessary in any local society to strike for an ad vance o f wages, it shall be the duty o f all other societies to contribute such sum as may be necessary to sustain them : P ro vid ed , The board o f control o f the National Society previously sanctions the strike. A rt . 13. No member o f any society shall contract for more work than he can perform in person on one machine or press (whether for a master printer, publisher, or bookseller) at the same time. A rt . 14. Local societies shall recognize but two classes o f printers— employers and journeymen—that is, persons who carry on business solely as employers, and those who work as journeymen, in the manner prescribed, and at the prices demanded by such society. A rt . 15. It shall be the duty of local societies to have prepared an annual report o f their condition, showing the number o f members admitted for the year preceding: the amount o f receipts from initiation, etc., said report to be transmitted to the National Society at its annual meeting. A rt . 16. That the societies be requested to forward to the board o f control, or to the National Society, when in session, the number, as near as can be ascer tained, o f apprentices employed in the district of country over which the society has jurisdiction; also, o f all the journeymen— distinguishing members of the society from others. A rt . 17. That men pronounced rats by one society, shall be considered such by all others. A rt . 18. N o person shall be adm itted into a society until he attains the age o f 21 years. A rt . 19. A local society, on the suspension or expulsion o f a member, shall give information to all other societies, and make annual report to the National Society. A rt . 20. That it be made obligatory on the members of the respective soci eties to solicit all printers to join some local society. The foregoing constitution, etc., o f the National Typographical Society was adopted by the undersigned delegates, representing the societies attached to our several names, at the City Hall, in the city o f Washington, on the 11th day of November, 1836. C h ar les A . D a v is , J o h n L. B r o w n , A u gustus H . K r a u t h , From New York. E zr a C r o s s m a n , W m . Sh ar pless, J a s . F . H a l id a y , From Harrisburg, Pa. J o h n F. C o o k , G eo . J o h n s t o n , W m . H o l l id a y , From Baltimore, Md. J no . S t o c k w e l l , Ja m e s Cle p h a n e , W. W . C u r r a n , From Washington, D. C. A. F . C u n n i n g h a m , C harles F. L ow rey, From New Orleans, La. ADDRESS TO THE PRINTERS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES ISSUED BY NATIONAL TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, CONVENTION OF 1836. C i t y H a l l , W a s h in g t o n C i t y , N o vem b er 1 1 ,1 8 8 6 . F e l l o w -C r a f t s m e n : The delegates from the different societies which were invited to meet at Washington on the 7th day o f November instant, to form a convention, to take into consideration the present condition o f the printing business, being about to close their labors, they feel desirous to address you, in order to lay before you the motives which induced the call, and which urged them to adopt meas ures to form a constitution for the originating and management o f a general association, under the denomination of " The National Typographical Society,” EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 979 to be held annually, and to be composed o f delegates from all societies in the different sections o f the United States, proportioned* to the rate o f their sitting members. From recent attempts at encroachments on the rights of journeymen, and to prevent such in future, it has been judged most prudent to seek safety in union. This concert o f action becomes the more imperative, since we daily perceive the rapid strides which printing is making over a vast extent o f country, and the measures which may be adopted to injure us. It is a lamentable fact that the newspaper press has almost entirely passed from under the control o f members o f the profession, into the hands of speculators and partisans, who, ignorant o f the feelings and sympathies o f the craft, create dissensions and difficulties when they can not make them subservient to their will and interest. As nothing o f a permanent nature could be undertaken by this convention, it confined itself solely to recommendatory measures, such as were suggested during the several meetings which were held, leaving much important matter to the societies to accomplish before they confirm and ratify the constitution. But in the meantime, it is incumbent on us to make you acquainted with the various topics which engaged our time and attention, and the results at which we have arrived. In looking back but a few years, we may almost* say a few months, associa tions by men in the humbler spheres of life were regarded, even by men o f sound legal knowledge, as a departure from common usage, which ought to be considered as a combination against wealth and rank, and contrary to common law, for which opinions they pretended to have many strong judicial precedents to sustain them. But already have the true principles o f political knowledge spread almost with the celerity o f sound, and stamp the improvements o f the age. All that dread o f danger has disappeared, and given place to more con genial feelings. So much so, that it has now become the duty o f the working classes to watch the employment o f capital in the hands of the speculator. Indeed, it is an important object for the study o f legislators, to restrain the capitalist in his wild career o f gain, that he may not injure the poor mechanic in the line o f his profession. Should this maxim be overlooked, the wealthy o f the land may increase in riches, but the most abject poverty and distress will be sure to follow in the track. Does it not then become the industrious mechanic to protect himself and family from pauperism, by adopting a mode o f defense which will cause a more general distribution of that property which is produced by his hard earnings? To you, fellow-craftsmen, who take a pride in your profession, and look upon the present degraded state of the press as a public misfortune, which must eventually corrupt the morals o f the mmmunity, and destroy our free institu tions, we would appeal to arrest this e v il; or, before many months pass over, the art o f printing will no longer give support to its professors. The demon o f misrule has entered the sacred temple of liberty, corrupted its officiating priests, and profaned the holy altar. This picture is too true, and has already alarmed the fears, and occupied the attention o f many good men of our land, and among that number, the patriotic and enlightened Noah W ebster; as a proof o f which, we give the following living picture o f the press from the pen o f this great m an: “ The press, when judiciously managed, is one o f the greatest blessings o f a civilized people; when abused, it is the most powerful instrument o f mischief. Probably no civil privilege in this country is so much perverted and abused. In no country is reputation held so cheap. Slander, like the scythe o f death, levels all worth and distinction; the press, one o f the noblest instruments of improve ment, is converted into an instrument o f deception, and the means o f making citizens hate and oppress each other. The moral effect o f this abuse is lamen table ; for it seems to have become a ruling belief o f partisans that a man has a right to defame those who differ from him in opinion." Thank God, but few o f these corrupt conductors of the press are practical printers! Unfortunately, however, they manage to carry on this warfare by the service o f boys, raising six or eight at a time for a few years, to subserve their nefarious purposes, and then cast them on the profession for support By this means, they continually keep the stream flowing into the larger cities, driv ing the journeymen from their positions to make room for those youths who will labor for a mere pittance to obtain a livelihood, and hence become an object to some avaricious employers—inconsiderate men. This we consider a cruel and an unjust practice, and are determined, as far as lies in our power, to meet the evil with energy and! firmness. We call upon each local society to unite with us in denouncing it, *and upon every parent or 980 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. guardian to protect the interest of their charge, by compelling their boys to be regularly bound as apprentices, and to be taught a full knowledge of their busi ness, and not to allow them to be thrown into the company o f immoral and profligate youths, encouraged by receiving more money than they are acquainted with the value of. We would earnestly advise every society not to lose one day in adopting some specific act on this head, that all may feel the benefit. The suggestions o f the National Society’s constitution will point out a mode to regulate you in this all-important and long-complained-of evil, which has already ruined the business in more than one city; we must congratulate those societies who have under taken to check this wicked custom, and we hope they will expose those who traffic at their neighbors’ cost. We can not embrace, in this brief address, the one-half o f the objects brought before this convention; but one serious evil we must not omit, because, if longer persisted in, it will reduce us to the wretched condition of the servile tools o f party, which must deprive us o f the most distant hope o f ever benefiting our selves by our profession. This evil exists in a country, too, where the press is considered free, and the principles of liberty are well known. We have allusion to that unjust and pernicious practice o f the legislatures of many States, as well as o f the Federal Government, o f bestowing all their printing and binding in such a manner as to reward their zealous partisans, even to the smallest job, when they are not only not printers, but entirely unacquainted with the art, to the exclusion and utter ruin of the practical man. This ought not to be submitted to, and we must endeavor to have it altered, if necessary, by means o f the ballot box, in calling on all whose interests may be concerned to unite with us. It is the duty of all upright and honest legislators to protect all classes, and not to oppress one class of citizens to elevate another. We may compete with capital, but can not contend against the powerful influence of a State. Security in the right o f what we possess is the principal object o f the social compact, and the property o f the working man consists in the knowledge of his calling, and any infringement o f that right is at once subversive of all civil institutions. We can not overlook what has been pointed out to us since we assembled here, through the public papers. A joint stock company, we understand, is about being formed in Boston(«) to carry on printing by means o f boys; and we also perceive, from a prospectus published in the United States Telegraph, that a more formidable inroad is about to be made by a joint stock company with a capital o f $500,000 under a pretended charter. This chimerical plan, o f itself, could not excite one uneasy sensation in the breast o f any practical m an; but, in this age of speculative mania, others may attempt the same or similar projects. The following simple extract will at once exnibit the manner by which our interests might be destroyed by the failure or success o f such undertakings: “ It is proposed (says the prospectus) to manufacture the paper used in printing, and thus save the expense o f drying it for market, putting it into bundles, transportation to market, commission, interest, and guaranties, equal at least to 20 per cent. “ A greater saving can be made by the employment o f boys in composition, printing, and binding. This, with the profits on periodicals, reprints, and ele mentary books, will secure to the stockholders a good dividend.” Our efforts, in endeavoring to enlist your feelings and cooperation, are in tended for the benefit of all, individually and collectively. We are aware that our friends will expect from this convention some regulation with respect to the price of labor; but we believe it bad policy to meddle with the concerns of local societies— and, therefore, can fix no standard o f wages; but we judge it better to obligate ourselves to sustain each other in our general interests, when prudence may dictate the interference. We, therefore, call upon you, through your associations, to concert measures to have delegates sent to “ The National Typographical Society,” that its exertions might be felt, simultaneously, from one end of the Union to the other, in sustaining the honor and interests o f our profession. In those sections o f the country where no society is as yet estab lished, we trust the craft will see the necessity o f immediately uniting them selves in some bond o f union. Where members of the profession may be but few and scattered, a chapel, or some such meeting, may be concerted to appoint a delegate or proxy.• • We understand that the Boston company has already gone into operation. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 981 To the rising profession o f the West, we would particularly address our solicitations, as they promise to become the future guardians of the people’s press, and the protectors of the freemen’s rights. To them the present is a most important era. However small their numbers may be they ought now to concen trate and unite themselves together, for the least procrastination may perhaps prove an insuperable obstacle to their progress. They have no ancient preju dices to contend against—no inveterate habits to overcome; which must make the task to them a pleasant and easy one, and on which might be predicated many a useful and valuable institution. Libraries or reading rooms might be got up, and made the channel o f much friendly intercourse between them. Through this means o f acquiring information, they might, with a giant’s arm, protect the yet almost uncorrupted West from the hireling editor’s contaminat ing pen, and become the true recorders of the nation’s progress to greatness and glory, in the peaceful pursuits of civil life, or in encouraging the citizen soldier when called on to battle against the oppressor for liberty and independence. Although we do consider it the duty of all printers to join and lend their aid to some association, we would rather invite than use coercive measures to induce them to become members. We would do this in the best o f faith, that we might have all the good and moral men of the craft enrolled as brothers of one family, and none to stand aloof but the unworthy and debased. We hope the different societies will, accordingly, so amend the qualification articles in their respective constitutions as to make all who are now ineligible from want of certificate, etc., o f apprenticeship, good members, who may be at the same time working at the business as acknowledged journeymen. When the Na tional Sociey’s constitution is ratified, then six years will be the minimum standard o f apprenticeship for boys to be bound. This regulation the employ ing printer will find to be of primary importance to his interest and welfare. And thus, reciprocally blending our interests, we may stand united, and oppose the efforts of the selfish speculator, or the partisan politician. Under such a union, we will make our press to be heard, whether in the turmoil o f a Republic or in the dead calm o f a despotism. Through the agency of the various delegations a statistical table will be annually furnished, and regularly published, of the number o f newspapers and periodicals in the United States; the names and professions o f editors: men employed, members or not members o f a society; boys bound, etc., so that we may possess all necessary information concerning the management of the pal ladium o f our rights, which the public, as well as the craft, should know. We fear we have transcended our limits for publication, and must omit much of what we would wish to suggest. We would remark, however, that the union we are about to form is but an association o f social feelings, to ascertain the condition o f our trade, and make regulations for the government o f ourselves; we have encroached upon no man’s rights, nor committed an act that we shall ever have cause to regret. The interests of the employer and journeyman have been assimilated, and, we hope, rendered permanent for the time to come. The convention transacted its arduous duties with the greatest harmony and good feeling towards each member; and perhaps never did a meeting take place under more propitious auspices than this convention did, and which promises much to the future of the profession at large. With great respect, and good wishes to all the profession, we bid you adieu. APPENDIX A, NO. 10.—ADDRESS ISSUED BY THE CONVENTION OF 1850 TO THE JOURNEYMEN PRINTERS OF THE UNITED STATES. For some time past the project o f calling together a national convention of journeymen printers has met with considerable attention and favor from the trade in various portions o f the country. Aware of this fact, and partaking also in the general desire, the unions o f New York, Philadelphia, and Boston about a month since issued a circular, requesting the different societies throughout the country to send delegates to a national convention, to be held in New York, on Monday, December 2, 1850. In consequence o f the very short space o f time intervening between the receipt o f the circular and the meeting o f the con vention, but five States have sent delegates, v iz : New York, New Jersey, Penn sylvania, Maryland, and Kentucky. These delegates met in convention at the time and place specified, and, through their committee, now address you. It is useless for us to disguise from ourselves the fact that, under the present arrangement of things, there exists a perpetual antagonism between labor and 982 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. capital. The toilers are involuntarily pitted against the employers: one side striving to sell their labor for as much, and the other striving to buy it for as little, as they can. In this war o f interests, labor, o f itself, stands no chance. The power is all on the other side. Every addition to the number o f laborers in the market decreases their pow er: while the power o f capital grows in a ratio commensurate with the increase of the capital itself. On the one side, the greater the number of dollars, the greater the ability to succeed in the conflict: on the other the greater the number o f laborers, the less the ability to succeed. Add to this the fact that wealth accumulates, on the one side, much faster as the laborers accumulate on the other, and the utter impotency o f unorganized labor in a warfare against capital becomes manifest. To remedy the many disastrous grievances arising from this disparity of power, combination, for mutual agreement in determining rates of wages, and for concert o f action in maintaining them, has been resorted to in many trades, and principally in our own. Its success has abundantly demonstrated its utility. Indeed, while the present wages system continues in operation, as an immediate protection from pressing calamities, it is clearly the only effective means which labor can adopt. So far as it extends, it destroys competition in the labor market; unites the working people, and produces a sort of equilibrium in the power of the conflicting parties. This being the case, it appears evident that an extensive organization, em bracing the whole country, would secure to our own, or any other trade, a power which could be derived from no other source. The delegates here assem bled have come together deeply impressed with this conviction. They regard such an organization not only as an agent o f immediate relief, but also as essen tial to the ultimate destruction of those unnatural relations at present subsist ing between the interests of the employing and employed classes. All their activities have accordingly been regulated with a view to the establishing of such an organization. They have recommended the formation o f societies in all the cities and towns throughout the country. They have rendered it obliga tory upon all members of the profession traveling to any point embraced in the representation here, for work, to have with them certificates of membership from the society located in the place from which they come. They have estab lished a national executive committee, to urge the enforcement of their recom mendations and requirements. They have also instructed that committee to use their utmost exertions to have a full representation o f the whole country in the next national convention, which they have ordered to be held in Baltimore, Md., on the 12th of next September. The members o f this convention are well assured that, to secure the adoption o f the measures they recommend, they must recommend those alone which are best calculated to effect the immediate well-being o f the individual members of the trade. The establishment o f a general organization must be effected upon certain principles. In proportion as the advantages o f the operation o f those principles are felt and observed, the establishment o f that organization will be rendered certain or doubtful. The principles, therefore, recommended by the convention, upon which it urges the formation o f societies throughout the country, are such as can not fail to enlist in their favor the most potent consider ations o f self-interest. Among them are— First. An understanding in the regulation o f scales o f prices in different localities, so that those in one place may not be permitted to become so com paratively high as to induce work to be sent elsewhere. Second. The enforcement o f the principle o f limiting the number o f appren tices; by which measure a too rapid increase in the number o f workmen, too little care in the selection o f boys for the business, and the employment of herds of half men at half wages, to the detriment o f good workmen, will be effectively prevented. Third. The issuing o f traveling certificates, by which the distresses o f brother craftsmen, incurred in journeying from one place to another, in search of work, may be relieved. In this we have one o f those means of attracting and attach ing to our societies men who, not troubled largely with abstract principles of strict duty, are nevertheless willing to become “ repentant prodigals ” for the sake of the “ fatted calf.” Besides, it is eminently calculated to produce a warmer attachment on the part o f superior men, inasmuch as it will bind them in ties o f gratitude, and in the luxurious fellowship o f good deeds. Fourth. Measures to prevent disgraced members of the profession enjoying, anywhere in the United States, those privileges which belong exclusively to honorable printers. They consist in keeping a registry o f “ rats,” to be sent by EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 983 the executive committtee to every union in the country, for reference; and ad mitting to membership no stranger, who does not produce evidence o f his having been a member in good standing o f the society, if any existed, in the place from which he comes. Fifth. The gradual collection of a sum o f money by each union sufficient to enable it to hold out successfully against the employers, in the event o f a con tention for higher wages. Sixth. The recognition o f the right o f a union to borrow from any other, when necessary, a sum o f money to the amount o f $1 for each member thereof, to be repaid in a manner prescribed. This is intended, in conjunction with other matters proposed, to strengthen each individual society in the struggles which it may be called on to make, from time to time, against unjust employers. Its efficacy needs no explanation. Seventh. Measures for the attainment of several other objects of less impor tance, which are calculated to give efficacy to the whole. Such has been the main work o f the convention; and, while the members thereof are aware that it is but the commencement of an undertaking which in its full completion, must necessarily be more or less protractive, they look with confidence to those who shall follow them, in subsequent conventions, to conduct it to a successful consummation. The project o f establishing a joint stock office, at Washington City, for the purpose of executing the printing o f the United States Government, was intro duced into the convention; but its newness, as a matter o f practical concern, to the great body o f journeymen printers, with the necessity of having a thorough deliberation on so important a matter, and the propriety o f delegates being elected with special regard to its consideration, prompted its reference to the next convention. The practicability o f the working people* employing themselves, and realizing the profits of their own labor, there can be no doubt might be illustrated and established, if the journeymen printers o f the United States would resolve to try the experiment. In fact, our Philadelphia brethren have already, to a great extent, succeeded in an effort of the kind. A publish ing establishment has been instituted in that city, by the union there; and thus far has answered the most sanguine expectations of its projectors and friends. I f a similar concern, on a large scale, could be instituted in Washington, a similar result might be reasonably apprehended. The subject is, at least, well worthy a full and deliberate consideration: and may be regarded as one of the most important and interesting which will engage the attention o f the next convention. Combination merely to fix and sustain a scale o f prices, is o f minor impor tance, compared to that combination which looks to an ultimate redemption o f labor. Scales o f prices, to keep up the value o f labor, are only necessary under a system which, in its uninterrupted operation, gives to that value a continued downward tendency. But when labor determines no longer to sell itself to speculators, but to become its own employer; to own and enjoy itself and the fruit thereof, the necessity for scales o f prices will have passed away, and labor will be forever rescued from the control o f the capitalist. It will then be free, fruitful, honorable. The shackles o f a disastrous convention alism will have fallen from its limbs; and it will appear in the character which nature designed it to sustain. This is certainly a consummation most devoutly to be wished; and, however difficult it may be to attain, if within the range of possibility, ought to constitute the great end to which all our other aims and efforts should be made subsidiary. The journeymen printers o f the United States are earnestly invoked, by their brethren here, to employ their most effective endeavors in the prosecution o f this work. Its success now rests with them; and it is to be hoped they will feel the full weight o f the responsibility. We beg them to take into favorable consideration the measures we .have recommended for their adoption. We beg them to assist the national executive committee, by every possible means, in the fulfillment of its duties. We beg them to circulate the official proceedings of this convention, (published in pamphlet form by the union o f Philadelphia) wherever such circulation will be calculated to excite an interest in the move ment. And we beg them finally to send a full representation to the next con vention, from every section o f the country. They owe a duty which they are thus called upon to discharge, not only to us, who have commenced in this move ment— not alone to themselves, who are so deeply interested in it—but also to the laborers o f all trades and vocations, who are anxiously awaiting the devel opment o f some sure plan o f amelioration, which they can all adopt. Public 9 84 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. opinion places us at the head o f the mechanical professions. Let us not belie that opinion, by falling behind it. Something is expected of u s : and when the next convention assembles, let its numbers and its actions justify and realize the public expectation. Let something be evolved, during its deliberations, which will redound to the benefit o f our own trade, and, by way o f example, to the benefit o f all others. Respectfully, M. F. Co n w a y , G eo. E. G reene, A&d. J. A tkin son , J. T. N afew , C h a s . B echtel , C om m ittee. By order o f the convention: J ohn W. P eregoy, P resid en t. Geo. E. Greene, M. C. B rown , V ice-P resid en ts. F. J. Ottarson , J ohn H artm an , Secretaries. N ew Y o r k , D ecem b er 7, 1850. APPENDIX A, NO. 1 1 .—CONSTITUTION OF 1851, NATIONAL TYPO GRAPHICAL UNION. We, the representatives o f the typographical associations o f the States of Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Kentucky, Virginia, Massachusetts and New Jersey, in national convention assembled, for our government, do ordain and establish the following: CONSTITUTION. A rticle I. Section 1. This body shall be known by the name of “ The National Typo graphical Union,” and shall be acknowledged, respected and obeyed as such by each subordinate union in the country. It shall possess original and exclu sive jurisdiction in all matters pertaining to the fellowship of the craft in the United States. All subordinate unions shall assemble under its warrant, and derive their authority from it, enabling them to make all necessary local laws for their own government. It shall be the ultimate tribunal to which all matters o f general importance to the welfare o f the members o f the different unions shall be referred, and its decision thereon shall be final and conclusive. To it shall belong the power to regulate, fix and determine the customs and usages in regard to all matters appertaining to the craft. It shall possess inher ent power to establish subordinate unions who shall always act by virtue o f a warrant granted by authority o f this body. A rticle II. The members o f this National Union shall be composed of its elective officers and the representatives from subordinate unions, acting under legal, unreclaimed warrants granted by this National Union. A rticle III. Section 1. The elective officers shall be a president, two vice-presidents, (who shall be chosen from different States), a recording secretary, a corresponding secretary, and a treasurer— all o f whom shall be elected annually, by ballot, and be installed and enter upon the duties o f their offices at the termination o f the session at which they are elected. They shall attend each meeting o f the Na tional Union, and perform such other duties as may be enjoined by its laws and regulations. No officer, who is not also a representative, shall be permitted to vote, except the president, in case o f equal division. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 985 A rticle IY. Section 1. The president shall preside at the meetings o f the National Union, preserve order, and enforce the laws thereof. He shall have the casting vote whenever the National Union shall be equally divided; but shall not vote at other times. During the recess o f this National Union, he shall, in conjunc tion with the vice-president, have a general superintendence over the interests of the craft; and make report, immediately upon the assembling o f the Na tional Union, of his acts and doings in relatioh thereto. He shall not hold any office in a subordinate while acting as president o f this National Union. Sec. 2. The vice-presidents shall assist the president in the discharge of his duties, and shall take precedence of rank in proportion to the votes received in the election of each (i. e. the officer receiving the highest number o f votes shall rank before the one receiving the lower number). In the absence o f the president and first vice-president, the second vice-president shall preside. Sec. 3. The recording secretary shall make a just and true record o f the pro ceedings o f the National Union, in a book provided for that purpose; keep accounts between the National Union and subordinates under its jurisdiction; read all petitions, reports and papers to be laid before the National Union, and perform such other duties as may from time to time be required o f him. Sec. 4. The corresponding secretary shall conduct the correspondence o f the National Union, and transact such business as appertains to his office. Copies of all communications transmitted or received by him shall be laid before the National Union. Sec. 5. The treasurer shall keep the moneys of the National Union, and pay all orders drawn on him by the president and attested by the recording secre tary, under the seal of the National Union. He shall lay before the union at each regular session a full and correct statement o f his accounts, and before entering upon the duties o f his office give such security as the National Union may require. A rticle Y. Section 1. Representatives from subordinate unions must be actual members, in good standing. They must be elected by the body they represent for the term of one year— and furnished with a certificate of election. S ec . 2. Each subordinate union shall be entitled to three representatives in the National Union, and each representative shall be entitled to one vote. The expenses of the attendance o f said representatives shall be defrayed by the unions they respectively represent. A rticle VI. The National Union shall meet annually on the first Monday in May, at such place as shall from time to time be determined upon. A rticle VII. The revenue of the National Union shall be derived as follow s: For a war rant for a subordinate union, $5, and 5 per cent upon the total receipts o f sub ordinate unions. A rticle VIII. In case o f death, resignation, disqualification, or refusal o f the president elected to serve, the duties o f the office for the remainder o f the term shall be performed by the vice-presidents in the order designated by this constitution. And in case o f death, resignation, disqualification or refusal of the above offi cers to serve, then a president pro tern shall be elected. In case o f the death, resignation, disqualification, or refusal to serve, of any officer, the preceding officer for the time being shall appoint some qualified person to perform the duties until the next regular meeting o f the National Union. A rticle IX. A majority o f the representatives o f the several unions under the jurisdiction of this National Union, shall be necessary to form a quorum for the transac tion of business. All questions, unless otherwise provided for, shall be decided by a majority of the votes given. 986 BULLETIN OP T H E BUREAU OP LABOR. A rticle X . Section 1. General laws for the government o f the craft throughout the juris diction of this National Union, may be enacted and enforced by this bod y ; and any union within its jurisdiction refusing to abide by its laws and decisions shall be expelled. The National Union shall also upon the request o f any subordinate union under its jurisdiction, establish ceremonies o f initiation into the ranks of such subordinates. Sec. 2. The National Union shall from time to time enact such by-laws as it may deem necessary: P ro vid ed , That such by-laws will not conflict with this constitution. Sec. 3. Any alterations or amendment o f this constitution must be offered to the National Union, at a regular session thereof; and, if seconded, it shall be entered on the minutes. At the next stated meeting the amendments may be con sidered, and if agreed to by two-thirds o f the vote given, shall become part of the constitution. All alterations o f the laws of the National Union shall be made in like manner; and no law o f a general application shall be adopted, un less submitted and entered on the minutes at the regular session previous to being adopted. J. L. G ibbons , L ou isville, K y . H. A. G uild , N e w Y ork. E. H. R ogers, N e w Y ork. T hos . J. W a l s h , A lb a n y , N. Y . M. F. C o n w a y , B a ltim ore, M d . R obt. J. B ruce, B a ltim ore , M d . G eo. H. R andell , B a ltim ore, M d . W ashington A shton , B a ltim ore , M d . M yron H. R ooker, N e w Y ork. W m . C. F igner , Philadelphia. Pa. W m . B. E chert , Philadelphia, Pa. J. B. S m it h , Philadelphia. Pa. G eo. W . J ones , Philadelphia, Pa. J ohn H. F a s y , Philadelphia, Pa. Geo. W a d h a m , B o sto n , M a ss. C h a s . A. R andell , B o ston , M a ss. H. H. B oardman , B o sto n , M a ss. J. R ichard L ewellen , R ichm ond , Va. J ames H. W alford, R ichm ond, Va. A ug. D onnelly , B a ltim o re, M d . W. G. W ill ia m s , Cincinnati, Ohio. H enry T. Ogden, Cincinnati, Ohio. H iram H. Y oung, Cincinnati, Ohio. C h a s . B echtel , T ren ton , N. J. J ohn W. Cassedy , T ren ton , N . J. A lex . W. R ook, P ittsbu rg, Pa. W. J. I rvin , H arrisburg, Pa. A. C. P ool, H arrisburg, Pa. SCHEDULE. First. This constitution being adopted, shall be signed by the members o f this convention, published by its authority, and forwarded by the national executive committee to the different typographical unions and associations, for their ratification. Second. As soon as the unions of five different States shall signify to the ex ecutive committee their willingness to comply with the principles and requisi tions of the constitution, and accompany the same with the regular fee o f $5, the said executive committee shall issue their circular, announcing that the Na tional Typographical Union has been formed, and request all subordinates who have ratified the constitution, to elect representatives in pursuance o f its pro visions, who shall assemble on the first Monday in May, 1852, in the city o f Cincinnati, Ohio. Third. I f five-unions, as specified above, do not ratify the convention as early as the 15th day of May next, then the national executive committee shall call a national convention, to assemble at such time thereafter as they in their judg ment may deem proper, to be held in the city where the first session o f the National Typographical Union would have been held, had it been formed as above. Also, R e so lv e d , That a national executive committee o f one from each typograph ical society here represented be appointed, to enforce the execution o f all reso lutions adopted by this convention, collect information on all matters in rela tion to the trade, and report the same to the next convention. R eso lved , That the Secretary from New York be authorized and required, in conjunction with the national executive committee, to take charge o f the proceedings o f the convention together with the address o f the executive committee, and have them printed, subject to orders for the same, from all local typographical associations, or societies, at a price to be fixed by said secretary. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 9 87 R e so lv e d , That the various local societies be earnestly requested to order, for circulation in their respective localities and districts, such number o f copies of the above-mentioned proceedings as may be necessary to supply all newspapers and printers in their own district, or elsewhere, as they may deem proper. R e so lv e d , That the officers and members o f the various societies throughout the country are hereby requested to have the proceedings o f this convention, or an outline thereof, published in all newspapers within the circle o f their influence. APPENDIX A, NO. 12.—PROTESTS AGAINST THE WASHINGTON INSTITUTE. PROTEST OF THE COLUMBIA TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, AUGUST 19, 1834. P rotest of the typographical society, addressed to the public generally, and particularly to the printers o f the United States, against the Washington Insti tute, a school about to be organized in the city o f Washington, by Duff Green, which proposes to substitute, in the printing business, the labor o f boys for that of journeymen. Columbia T ypographical Society , A u g u st 19, 1884 • The Columbia Typographical Society of the District of Columbia, solemnly impressed with the responsibility under which it rests, and the duty which it owes to the interests o f its members, and to the welfare o f the profession generally, has deemed it its duty to make public the statements which fol low, under the hope and belief, that, as the segis of the law is powerless for the protection of the occupation of its members, the stern voice o f public opinion may aid in accomplishing the overthrow o f the evil which threatens the prosperity of the printing business, and o f which it is the purpose o f this paper to treat. For the first time since its organization this society now appears at the bar o f the public. During the entire period which has elapsed since its formation, which took place in the year 1815, nearly twenty years ago, it has never had occasion so to appear. Considerations of a high character, from which it must not shrink, involving, it may be, its own existence, has prompted the step which it has now taken; and which must stand as its apology before an enlightened and just community. The course of the society, since its origin has been strongly marked by pros perity ; from a number not exceeding 20, who were present at its organization, it has extended its members tenfold; 200 names being now enrolled upon its constitution, as living and active members, some o f whom are conductors o f the public press at different points o f the Union, contributing, it is believed, a solid reputation to its character and standing. This course of unexampled prosperity, the society is perfectly aware is mainly owing to the just character of its pro ceedings, which will be found to prevail throughout its history; its funda mental rule o f action, which it has never broken, has ever been to infringe in no degree on the rights of the employer: and, should the occasion ever demand it, to maintain, with steady and determined purpose, the rights and interests o f its own members. The main object of the formation of the society, however, was benevolence. No difficulty between the employers o f that day and the journey men organizing the society could have been the cause o f its formation, because the society adopted the prices throughout as they found them. The wages o f the journeymen were established by the employers themselves, before the forolation o f the society, and has never been changed, or attempted to be changed to the present time, by either party, except in two instances, which we may have occasion to notice hereafter. But although benevolent purposes were the immediate occasion o f the forma tion o f the Columbia Typographical Society, that other interests o f the members composing it were taken into consideration o f at that time, is plainly apparent, by the fact that the society did adopt and merge in its proceedings a list o f prices for the government o f its members in this city. It has always been the understanding o f members that the price received for their labor must conform to that adopted by the society. The employers themselves seem to hate yielded to the justice of this arrangement as no serious difficulty, requiring the exercise o f whatever o f power the society possessed, has ever arisen since its formation. 98 8 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. Beyond this point, however, it has never been claimed heretofore, that the power o f [the] society should be extended. How far it would be justified, in endeavoring to maintain, where they have been wantonly attacked, the per manent interests of the members composing the society, or o f the business which they pursue, is a question which we shall pass by, until we shall have stated more fully the immediate occasion o f the publication o f this paper. It is with feelings of the most painful regret that the society has now to an nounce to the public that a scheme is in agitation, if not already organized, the operation of which, it is confidently believed, will destroy the occupation o f the great body o f its members, and vitally injure the business which they pursue. The scheme referred to was announced by its author (Mr. Duff Green) on the 1st of January la st: since which time, the society, through a committee ap pointed for that purpose, has endeavored to dissuade him from carrying it into operation. The correspondence which took place on that occasion will be found at the close of this expose. («) On perusing the letters o f Mr. Green, the reader will perceive that he pro poses to organize in the city of Washington, an establishment to be called the Washington Institute. The prospectus o f this institution, which has been pub lished and circulated by its author, to what extent or amongst whom is not known, discloses the following as its prominent features: From 100 to 200 boys are to be engaged, whose duty it shall be to work at the printing business, under regulations therein prescribed. Preceptors, to be drawn from the ranks o f the journeymen, and from other sources, are to be employed to superintend the education of the boys. The amount o f the labor of each shall be put down in a book to be kept for that purpose; and, at the period o f his graduation, whatever amount shall ap pear to his credit, beyond a certain daily task to be fixed for him, shall be loaned to him on interest, for a certain term o f years, to enable him to commence the publication of a newspaper or some other business. These are believed to be the only features o f the institution which it is necessary to portray at this time, in order to a fair understanding o f its charac ter. Some o f its details, o f minor importance we may have occasion to notice hereafter. The object o f the institution is declared to be “ the regeneration of the American press, and the improvement o f the character of the members o f the craft ” ; but, as during its operation, the proprietor contemplates discharging from his employment the journeymen at present in his office, except such as may be required to act as preceptors to the b o y s; and judging also, from the following facts which the occasion has compelled the society to make public, we are bound to believe that the main object of the formation of the Washington Institute is the personal aggrandizement o f the proprietor. It is scarcely necessary to state that the great body o f the printers o f this city are now, and have always been, employed upon work, emanating from the Government. Up to the year 1819, the printing o f Congress had been given out by contract; but that body, becoming dissatisfied by with the manner in which the work had been executed, appointed a committee on the subject who reported a joint resolution, the provision o f which required that each House should elect its own printers, by ballot, for the subsequent Congress, and fixed upon a scale of prices to be given for the execution o f the work based upon the prices given by the employers to the journeymen. This resolution was adopted by both branches o f Congress, and has the form as well as the force o f law. It remains in existence at the present moment. The prices o f the labor o f the journeymen were thus, in a measure sanctioned by law, and both the printers in Congress, and the journeymen employed upon the work seem to have considered themselves as bound in honor and justice not to interfere with the established wages. No interference o f the kind was ever made by the journeymen up to the present moment, nor by any one of the em ployers until the period of the election o f Mr. Green as Printer o f the House of Representatives in 1828. Within a year after the election o f this gentleman he attempted to reduce the wages of journeymen from $10 to $8 per week throughout the year, although his pay as printer was regulated by the same law, and was precisely the same in every respect as that of his predecessors. This attempt was o f course resisted by the journeymen, and successfully resisted. « These letters are om itted, as the text makes their contents sufficiently apparent. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 989 The next attempt o f Mr. Green to reduce the price o f the labor o f journey men, which took place during the progress o f the following year was as follows. The nature o f that reduction we will briefly describe: In executing the printing for Congress it is frequently necessary to work to a late period o f the night. The regular working hours o f the journeymen were from 8 a. m. to 8 p. m. After the last-mentioned hour, if their services were required, it was customary to pay them at the rate o f 20 cents an hour. This sum had been uniformly paid by the former printers to Congress, and was considered the fixed price through out the city. No regulation on the subject, however, had ever been adopted by the society, and Mr. Green, having ascertained this fact, immediately reduced the price of this portion o f the labor o f the journeymen in his employ to 16§ cents the hour— that sum being the rate per hour at $10 per w eek; and at this moment, actually pays but this sum. The journeymen acquiesced in this reduction solely because although the rate was below the customary price, it infringed no regulation o f the society. It is true that the nature of “ extra work,” as it is called exposed those who had it to perform to great fatigue, at the risk of the loss of bodily health; but this sacrifice the journeymen were willing to make rather than break that peace which had existed for such a number of years between themselves and their employers. Not satisfied with effecting this reduction in their wages, the aggregate of which amounted to a considerable sum, Mr. Green struck yet another blow at the interests o f the journeymen; not this time by reducing the rate o f their wages, but by excluding a great number o f them from employment through the agency of b oy s; 40 or 50 o f whom he employed about the period o f his second Congres sional term as printer. This unjust and ungenerous policy, although submitted to, as were his other measures, without any public complaint from the journey men, defeated itself in less than two years; it contained the seeds o f its own destruction. The boys themselves, seeing the use that was thus attempted to be made o f them, held a meeting on the subject, and one and all abandoned his employment. To us this was no matter o f surprise. They had become, in a measure initiated in the business, and had begun to feel the full throb o f those principles o f honor, magnanimity, and justice the germ o f which, we are proud to believe is planted in the heart o f the practical printer. We have thus followed the course o f Mr. Green in his connection with the printing business in this city, up to the period prior to his late election by the Senate as printer to that body. The facts which are here enumerated, and others which could be enumerated, o f similar character, are truths, susceptible o f proof, it is believed, before a court o f justice. The society has no motive in detailing them other than that which springs from the overruling dictates of stern necessity the preservation of the rights of its members, and o f the busi ness whereby they earn their bread. And now, we ask any candid man to say, if he have attentively perused the foregoing facts, whether the Washington Institute is not another scheme, springing from the fruitful mind o f its author, to oppress and injure the journeymen— another link in the chain which he has constantly been engaged in forging, during the whole period o f his residence amongst them intended to oppress their rights, and bend down, with iron force the prosperity of their profession. In short a scheme, the main object o f which is to promote the personal aggrandizement o f the proprietor, at the expense o f the journeymen, and in utter disregard o f their interests. All, or nearly all, the internal regulations o f the Washington Institute, will be found to corroborate the truth o f the view just taken o f its object. The first and most prominent o f these regulations is, that the money to which the student is entitled at the period o f his graduation is not handed to him as property which is legally his own but is loaned to him as the property of the proprietor. Now, the practice which custom has sanctioned in the printing business, during the whole period of which we know anything of its history is that whatever sum an apprentice has earned beyond a certain daily task which is set for him, seldom exceeding that fixed by the regulations o f the Washington Institute, is not loaned, but paid to him as the fruit o f labor to which he is justly and honorably entitled. We venture to say, that there is scarcely a practical printer now living who can not remember the feeling o f delight with which, when a boy, he received from the hands of his employer the amount o f his weekly “ overwork.” Another regulation of the institution, and which will further confirm the view we have taken of it, is, that any student becoming sick, or otherwise unable to attend to his duties, shall be “ dismissed from the school ” , and sup 990 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR, ported till the restoration o f his health by his parents or guardian, if he be so fortunate as to possess either. This regulation, which we are almost ready to pronounce inhuman, as it is uncharitable and unjust, is another infringement of the practice which custom has sanctioned in our business. These two regulations, taken in connection with the fact, that $15,600 will be annually saved, according to the estimate o f the proprietor, by the substitution of the labor o f boys for that of journeymen, prove, we think, beyond a doubt, that in framing the project o f the Washington Institute, its proprietor had almost a single eye not to the objects o f philanthropy but to his own pecuniary welfare. There are other features of this institution, not however connected with this view of it, to which the philanthropist must object. Solitary confinement is the punishment to which the students are liable, “ substituted ” as the proprie tor remarks for “ corporal punishment.” Now, it is a matter o f great doubt in the minds o f enlightened men, whether the substitute here mentioned has contributed in any degree, to the moral im provement of society in this or any prior age. But can it be possible that the proprietor o f the Washington Institute has now to be informed that the brutal punishment of flagellation has almost entirely ceased in all well-regulated offices in this country, and without the substitution in any instance, o f the more odious punishment o f solitary confinement? The application o f such a system to youth, the season of buoyancy o f spirit and innocency o f thought, can have no other than the most deleterious effect upon the ripening attributes of the mind, gradually hardening it against the common sympathies o f our nature. ‘‘ The end o f this school (says the prospectus) is to educate men that they may have intelligence to think for themselves and,” (as the effect o f such educa tion) “ independence to act up to the principles which their judgments approve. What would be the condition of the public mind, if the press o f the United States was under the guidance o f such men now? ” («) Passing by the imputation here cast upon a free and enlightened people that are under the dominion, and follow the lead o f the newspaper press, we venture to express a doubt, whether, if the end here proposed were obtained, it would advance, in any degree the character o f the American press. Judging from the experience o f the past, we believe that no improvement which this institution can possibly accomplish, is demanded in the ranks o f our profession; for it is be lieved to be an indisputable fact, that that portion o f the newspaper press in this country, which is in the hands o f those who have been journeymen printers, is conducted with as much, perhaps more respect to the feelings o f individuals, and with a greater regard for the character o f the press itself, than that portion o f it conducted by other persons. In his course heretofore as an editor, what stable claim can the principal o f this institution advance to be a regenerator o f the American press? Has the newspaper o f which he has been for many years the proprietor, been conducted either with regard to its doctrines and senti ments, or in the morality o f its language, with that soundness and purity which, we should suppose, ought to characterize that journal whose conductor holds himself up as a regenerator o f the American press? We leave the reader to answer these questions according to his judgm ent; believing that there can be but one reply to them, especially from those who are patrons o f the journal in question. Instead of regenerating the American press, we think the Washington Insti tute rather calculated to inflict a lasting injury upon it. The imagination of man could scarcely have devised a better or more effectual scheme for the prostration of its usefulness, its morality, and its independence. The gradu ates of this institution are educated by hundreds in the same school, imbibing from this common fountain o f instruction the principles and opinions o f the proprietor, when they come to be conductors of the press, they will be governed by those opinions, be they good or be they evil. Being indebted to the principal o f the institution in the sum which has enabled them to commence business, the tone o f each paper will through fear o f the screws of the law, be regulated by the chord which is struck at the institution at Washington. Indeed, upon a close examination o f all the circumstances connected with its organization, we °As a com m entary on this passage we w ill take the liberty to make an extract from the United States Telegraph o f November, 1826, wherein the same writer, in reply to an article which appeared in the N ational Journal, expresses the follow in g sen tim en t: “ Education, honorable motives, and integrity are high qualifications, but are your educated men the m ost u sefu l? W ill not Mr. F orce’s rule cut off that large portion o f respectable editors, scattered over the country, who, like Mr. Force, are printers by pro fession ?— W as Franklin or Thom as Paine e d u c a te d ? ” EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS- 9 91 are confident in the belief, and feel justified in announcing it to the public, that the second, if not the first, great leading object o f the formation o f the Wash ington Institute, is the establishment of a league o f presses throughout the United States through the instrumentality o f the students whom it shall grad uate. No such purpose is o f course avowed in the prospectus o f the institution, yet in confirmation o f its truth is the fact, currently reported and believed in this city, that eminent leading politicians o f the country have countenanced the design of the institution, and have loaned heavy sums o f money to its proprietor in aid of its formation. The extent o f the power which will be thus concentrated in the hands o f the proprietor o f this institution, and o f those with whom he acts, after it shall have gone fully into operation the imagination can scarcely limit— its disastrous effects upon the morality and independence o f the press, extending throughout the Union, must either bring it into irretrievable disgrace in the estimation o f an enlightened community, or fasten on the liberties o f the people a disease as loathsome to the eyes of the patriot as dangerous and incurable. Another interest which this institution is calculated to injure, is that o f the employers generally. After it shall have gone into successful operation (o f which, however, we are perfectly sensible there is strong doubt) what employer, under the present system can compete with the Washington Institute? Accord ing to the calculation o f its principal, $15,600 will be annually saved by the operation of the institution— that is, by the employment o f boys instead o f jour neymen; which sum, it must be remembered, is exclusive o f the ordinary profit o f the employers. With such an immense fund as this at his command, what will prevent the proprietor o f this institution from reducing the present prices o f the employers to such a standard as must compel them to close their respective offices? An entire monopoly of the business according to the ordi nary operation of trades, will thus be effected, unless similar institutions are established by the employers generally, which must ultimately take place if the present institution shall go into successful operation. But the injury which the Washington Institute is calculated to inflict upon the interests o f the journeymen, as well as upon the printing business generally, is, to us, one of its most objectionable features. The very first step in its career thrusts the great body o f the journeymen from its proprietor’s employment: and if the principles upon which it is founded should obtain throughout the country, the very name o f a journeyman printer would be unknown, or known only as a title of reproach and degradation; and a large body of men who now depend upon their labor as journeymen for the support of themselves and their families must seek new channels for the prosecution o f labor, or be exposed to all the miseries which attend the want o f employment. The extent o f distress, however, which would fall immediately upon the journeymen, by the successful prosecution o f this institution, great as it un doubtedly will be, would be even less than that which must be felt by the pupils themselves, when they become o f age, after the institution shall have numbered a few years in its existence. The sphere in which they were designed to be placed having been abundantly supplied by their predecessors, they will be launched forth into the world with but little regard to the direc tion which they may pursue. We will suppose what is very improbable that each one o f them will be seriously disposed to commence the business he has learned, or some other. He would first attempt most probably, to embark in his own business. He looks around him in the city in which he has been edu cated, and finds every avenue to its successful operation already filled; he goes abroad from place to place, but everywhere finds the opening so small that his limited means and experience can not push him through. Thus in fruitless attempts to enter his profession, he gradually sinks the small capital which was loaned to him at the period o f his graduation. And now, what is his con dition? What has he gained by the labors and studies o f his boyhood? The money which he possessed, and for which he is amenable to the law, is gone! He can not enter his business as an employer, and there are now no journey men printers—the baneful school which generated him having destroyed their occupation. The business which he has learned is now, for all practical pur poses, altogether useless to him; and he now finds too late for any efficient remedy, that, if he wishes to be numbered among the honorable o f the land, he must begin the business o f life anew! That this picture will prove to be a true one, we confidently believe. Can parents or guardians, then, lend their aid to the establishment of this institu 276—No. 61—06 m -----18 992 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. tion, by enrolling their children, or others, under their charge, on the list o f its incumbents? Are you willing that the children, for whose future welfare you are responsible, in so far as giving its proper direction to their early career can make them so, shall waste the prime of that period o f life which the God o f nature evidently designed for instruction, in the attainment o f the knowledge o f a business which they can never pursue or, if pursued, pursued under the tremendous disadvantages which must necessarily result from a competition with the myriads o f their fellow-graduates— a disadvantage which will be daily growing worse, and which must ultimately overwhelm them in ruin. In every view which can be taken o f this institution, it is strongly objection able; and it ought not, we think to go into operation. What means then can be used consistent with the spirit o f the laws, to prevent its organization? The society is perfectly aware of the delicacy o f the situation in which circum stances have placed it. It knows very well that there is no law for the protec tion of the occupation o f the laboring community. The rights of journeymen, and o f the working classes generally, have, indeed, been wonderfully overlooked or disregarded in the United States. A high state o f prosperity, necessarily accompanying the prosperity of the country has hitherto, no doubt, caused them to overlook those rights, which, in other countries, have long since received the protection o f the laws. All combinations, where the rights or property of individuals are intended to be operated upon, we are compelled to acknowl edge, are founded in a principle which is erroneous; but it is surely the duty o f a good government to prevent their occurrence, by extending the powerful hand o f the law to the protection o f those interests which are now altogether un guarded. The occupation o f the journeyman is, with a very few exceptions, his only estate; it is to him as invaluable in a certain sense, as the property o f the rich m an; it enables him to live, to support his family, and to lay by the means which shall support him in sickness, or when the withering hand o f age shall be laid upon him. It is, indeed, a species of property; and as such, demands the protection o f the laws. Combinations amongst the working classes, it may be confidently asserted, would never take place, if their employment were protected by la w ; and where they do occur, are but the necessary consequence o f keeping that employment out o f the pale o f the laws. One o f the main objects for which government was instituted amongst men, is the security o f property. The laws which guard it, where it is guarded at all, are even more comprehensive than those which protect life. The homicide, by crossing the boundary line o f his country, is, in the eyes o f the laws o f the country in which he has taken shelter, a guiltless m an; but the debtor may seek refuge amid the glaciers o f Switzerland; bury himself beneath the snows of Siberia; or hide in the jungles o f In d ia ; he is everywhere insecure— everywhere the debtor, while within the boundaries o f civilized society. Comprehensive and extensive indeed are the laws which secure to the citi zen the inviolability o f his property. After the journeyman has earned $10, the powerful hand of the law secures it to his u se; but the means whereby he earns that sum are left entirely unprotected. His business, to learn which he has de voted the whole period o f his minority, may be entered, to his exclusion, by any one and at any moment, and is constantly liable to innovations destructive to its very existence; in proof o f which the organization o f the Washington Institute need only be named. The impotency of the laws, in regard to this subject being thus manifest, what course is left for this society to pursue, with an evil o f such fearful magnitude hanging over the vocation o f its members? The dangerous hand o f empiricism is tampering with the best interests of their profession; and can it be expected that they will stand tamely by, the silent spectators of its overthrow? Fellow-craftsmen o f the union! It is in your ears, then, that this appeal must sound loudest and strongest. Without your powerful aid, the Washington Institute, and the principles upon which it is founded must be fastened upon u s ! There are no means o f escape from the crisis which awaits us— it must be met, and met fearlessly, whether in the conflict we survive or fall. Repeatedly have we implored its principal to abandon his enterprise, but we have asked in vain. The organization of the institution has already commenced, and without a prompt and vigorous effort, united as one man throughout the whole union, boys will usurp your places, and our honorable occupation will be numbered among the things which are gone. Can you—will you submit to this humiliating condi tion? Shall a single individual, not numbered among you as a practical printer, who, since he has been connected with the business in this city, has, at different periods endeavored to reduce, and in one instance has actually reduced the price 9 93 EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. o f your labor, and who, in his intercourse with those in his employ, has, on some occasions, conducted himself toward them like the master to the slave— shall Mr. Duff Green be permitted, without an effort from you to prevent it, to estab lish the Washington Institute—the last, most effectual and most deadly blow at the interests o f your profession? Aside from your pecuniary interests, which this institution is intended to subvert, have you not the feelings o f printers for the honor and character of your profession, which it is also calculated to destroy? You are, to a certain extent, responsible for the character o f the American press:— as practical printers you are the natural guardians o f its liberty; its purity and its honor— will you then lend your aid in establishing this manufactory o f editors— pen sioned conductors o f that press, the integrity o f which it is your interest as well as your duty, should all other classes o f society desert it, to uphold and main tain with jealous regard and sleepless vigilance? And now, fellow-craftsmen in concluding this appeal, we ask your united co operation in the attempt which will be made by the printers of Washington to discountenance this institution. Lend not your services to its principal as in structors or teachers o f the institution. This negative part is all that is now required of you. By a contrary course, at the present moment, you may become the unwilling instruments of its successful organization, and in after years, when you come to partake o f its bitter fruits, the mortifying reflection that you contributed to the establishment o f the institution will goad y o u ; for its organi zation will be, in part, your own act, if by no timely interference to turn aside the blow you suffer it neglectively to fall upon you. PROTEST OF PRINTERS ASSEMBLED IN PUBLIC MEETING, 1834. of the meetings of the printers o f the District o f Columbia relative to the Washington Institute, a school about to be organized in the city of Washington by Duff Green; which proposes to substitute, in the printing busi ness, the labor of boys for that o f journeymen. At a meeting o f the printers of the city of Washington, held on the 19th of August, o f which Mr. A. F. Cunningham was appointed chairman, and Mr. James F. Haliday, secretary, the following resolutions were adopted: “ R e so lv e d , That it is recommended by the printers of this meeting, that there be called, on Friday evening next, 22d instant a general meeting o f all the employing and journeymen printers o f the District o f Columbia, at the City Hall, at 7 o’clock p. m., for the purpose o f taking into consideration the proposal of General Duff [Green] for the establishment o f a manual-labor school, entitled by him the “ Washington Institute.” “ R e so lv e d , That the proceedings o f this meeting be signed by the chairman and secretary, and that the publishers o f the newspapers of this district be requested to publish them. “ A. F. C u n n i n g h a m , Chairm an . “ J a m e s F. H a l i d a y , S e c r e t a r y ” P r o c e e d i n g s M E E T IN G O F T H E P R IN T E R S O F T H E D IS T R IC T , A U G U S T 22. In pursuance of the above call, the largest meeting of printers (about 300) ever convened in this city, was organized in the council chamber, City Hall, Mr. A. F. Cunningham being called to the chair, and Messrs. J. T. Towers and J. F. Haliday, appointed secretaries. On being conducted to the chair, Mr. Cunningham said: “ In taking the chair this evening to preside over this enlightened meeting, I feel much my own weakness, and solicit the indulgence and aid o f every gentle man, in preserving order and decorum. I trust that no expression will be allowed to escape from the lips o f any which will cause regret on the morrow. Let cool judgment preside over your minds, and direct your councils. The object we have in view may not be accomplished in a week nor a month; let us therefore so act that we may hold out to the end. This meeting is for the purpose o f taking into consideration the proposed plan o f Gen. Duff Green to establish a manuallabor school, in pursuance o f a call which has been published in some o f the daily papers, emanating from a meeting held on Tuesday last, in this city. The meet ing is now organized, and waits for your action.” On motion o f Mr. E. B. Robinson, a committee o f five was appointed, con sisting o f Messrs. E. B. Robinson, G. C. Smoot, John Finch, Z. Wade, (o f Alex 994 BULLETIN OF TH E BUBEAU OF LABOB. andria) and W. W. Curran, to draft resolutions, expressive of the views of the meeting. After being absent for the space o f half an hour, Mr. Robinson, in behalf of the committee, presented the following preamble and resolutions, which were read and unanimously adopted. “ Whereas, a plan is proposed by Gen. Duff Green, editor of the United States Telegraph, which, if carried into execution, must vitally injure the interests of the profession, and tend to the depreciation o f prices, so much so that no other employer can compete with him, and must finally throw the youth, who may be taught in his institute, upon the world, without labor, and consequently, without support: And whereas, self-preservation being the first law o f nature, the journeymen printers feel it incumbent upon them to take such steps as will prevent the consummation o f an oppressive monopoly, that is designed to ruin them and their families, by depriving them o f all chance o f participating in the benefits which flow from the public printing, the prices for executing which were based on the wages paid to the journeymen, and which was never con templated by Congress should be performed by any other than them: And whereas, the benefits which General Green contemplates will accrue to the boys who shall be educated in his proposed institute can never be realized to them, nor redound to his honor or profit, the printers feel it their duty, under standing the subject as they do, to use their best endeavors to warn him o f the evils which await his undertaking, and to dissuade him from farther prosecut ing a scheme which must forever break up the friendly relations that have heretofore existed between him and them ; and they feel sanguine he will relin quish it, when he is made aware that the “ little community ” which claimed so much o f his solicitude a year ago, will be scattered and left destitute, in order to make room for another and an untried “ community ” which must carry ruin and disgrace with it to those who may foster and uphold it, and finally wither and become extinct; but if he be determined to persevere, they feel it their sol emn duty to protect themselves, by using every legitimate means in their power to prevent him from accomplishing his ruinous and ungenerous design.— Therefore, “ 1. Be it R e so lv e d , That as journeymen printers, we feel deeply interested in all movements of the employers which have a tendency to injure the business, and look upon the prospectus lately issued by Gen. Duff Green as going directly to destroy the profession to which we belong. “ 2. R e so lv e d , That a committee o f seven be appointed to draft an address to the people o f the United States, giving a full expose o f his connection with the press in this city, and the probable result o f his institute, the very elements of which are fraught with destruction to the independence o f the present printers, and which has for its object the prostration o f the minds o f the future guar dians o f the press to the dictation of one man.” [The chair appointed as the committee under this resolution, Messrs. J. Clephane, G. C. Smoot, J. Stock well, W. W. Curran, E. B. Robinson, John Finch, and E. Laporte.] “ 3. R e so lv e d , That we believe it will be impossible for Gen. Duff Green to prosecute his theory without the patronage o f the Government; and that should he remain determined to go on, the committee be authorized to draw up a memorial, which shall be sent to every town and printing office in the United States for signatures, praying Congress to withhold their patronage from a man who is only desirous o f self-aggrandizement, and of breaking down that spirit o f equality which has always characterized the journeymen printers and their employers, by the erection o f an odious monopoly in the heart o f the country, that shall be sustained by the Congress o f the United States. “ 4. R e so lv e d , That we will, individually, do all in our power to aid the com mittee in carrying into effect the foregoing resolutions; and we do hereby pledge ourselves to sustain each other in all legal steps which may be taken to circumvent the scheme that is intended to deprive us o f our living, by taking from us the means o f pursuing our profession. “ 5. R e so lv e d , That having the fullest confidence in the Columbia Typograph ical Society, we pledge ourselves, to the extent of our ability, to aid it in the measures it has already taken, or any other it may think necessary to adopt, in order to defeat the establishment o f said ‘ Manual Labor School, or Washing ton Institute.’ “ 6. R e so lv e d , That we request the cooperation o f all the printers, both employ ing and employed, throughout the United States, in discountenancing the estab lishment of the Washington Institute. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 995 “ 7. R e so lv e d , That every journeyman printer who shall be known to aid or instruct in any manner, any apprentice in the said institute, be held up to uni versal contempt by the printing community throughout the United States. “ 8. R eso lved , That all reasonable expenses to which the committee may be subjected, shall be defrayed by the members of this meeting, who cordially pledge themselves to contribute their quota whenever called on.” Mr. Baldwin offered the following, which was unanimously adopted: “ R e so lv e d , That the thanks o f this meeting be tendered to Reuben Burdine, esq., for procuring the use o f the council chamber for the accommodation o f this meeting.” On motion of Mr. G. C. Smoot, it was “ R e so lv e d ,. That the secretaries forward a copy of the proceedings of this meeting to Gen. Duff Green, and to every typographical society in the United States.” On motion of Mr. Pratt, it was “ R e so lv e d , That the proceedings of this meeting be signed by the chairman and the secretaries, and that the newspapers in this District, and throughout the United States, be requested to publish them.” “ A. F. Cu n n in g h a m , Chairman . “ J no. T hos . T owebs , “ J ames F. H aliday , S ecreta ries .” A D J O U B N E D M E E T IN G . An adjourned meeting o f the printers o f the District o f Columbia, was held (pursuant to public notice) at the aldermen's room, City Hall, on Tuesday evening, 2nd September. The proceedings of the last meeting having been read, the chairman pre sented the following communication: G en tlem en : In perusing General Green's answer to the protest of the Co lumbia Typographical Society, your chairman noticed a reference to a part o f the proceedings of the journeymen printers held on the 22d ultimo, which is erroneous, both in letter and in fact, which, as your chairman, he has thought it his duty to bring to your notice, that publicly it may be denied. General Green insinuates throughout his answer, that we are actuated in this measure by others behind the scenes, who are his competitors for the Senate's printing. This insinuation is all we could expect from an individual who has proclaimed the men by whom he has become enriched “ ignorant journeymen.” We throw back the charge, and inform him that, however others may be induced to sell themselves for gold, the members of this meeting, although united as one man to stay the hand of encroachment and oppression, are composed of political materials too various to be dictated to by any individual. General Green also takes exception to some remarks made at the late meeting of this body, which, according to your order, were published as part o f the pro ceedings of this meeting, and after giving the names o f several Catholic clergy, says that he “ makes this correction, that the meeting may revise the published account o f their proceedings.” Believing that the meeting intended doing jus tice to all, your chairman conceived it to be his duty to call on such authority, referred to by General Green, as his time and means permitted. He did so, and has to state, that at first, the gentlemen referred to were struck with the plausi bility of his plan, and looked upon it with favor, but that they never approbated it; that each hour’s reflection on his scheme convinced them that it was fraught with incalculable evils to all whom General Green designed to employ; and that instead o f proposing to engage them in the female labor, “ necessarily employed in so large an establishment,” the idea conveyed to said clergy was, that the children were to be taught in the art and mystery of the male labor of a printing office. The committee appointed at the last meeting to draft an address to the people o f the United States, submitted the following, which was unanimously adopted: To the P eople of the U nited States . Believing that, in the history of the press in this country, there never was a more critical period than the present, whether as it respects the freedom o f the people, or the liberty of the press itself, this meeting, impressed with the impor tance o f the subject, have considered it their duty to address their fellow-citizens 996 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR. throughout the Union, and to lay before them a development o f the plan by which their interests are about to be affected. Upon us, as printers, the imme diate injury will fa ll; but we will not be the only victims of this innovation, for, from the many ramifications o f the scheme we are about to examine, it will appear that injury, more or less, must accrue to the whole community. In corroboration o f the above, we lay before the public, in the spirit o f truth and candor, the following brief statement o f facts. Gen. Duff Green, Printer to the Senate o f the United States, and editor o f the United States Telegraph, is about commencing the erection o f a manual-labor school in this city, under the name o f the “ Washington Institute,” in which he proposed to bring up 200 boys, continuously, to the printing business, and to edu cate them accordingly, by their own labor. This he means to do under the specious pretext of “ regenerating the morale o f the American p r e s s w i t h which he has been but a few years connected and who has but a superficial knowledge o f the art, or the men employed by him in the business. Yet he pretends to have dis covered a radical defect in its management; and by a pompous prospectus, he endeavors to enlist the sympathies o f the people in his behalf, in order to enable him to accomplish his purpose. The great tendency o f this scheme will consequently be, the prostration of the journeyman, and to deprive him o f the just fruits o f his labor, the only inher itance o f which he can boast; and by creating a monopoly, to turn to his own advantage the profits o f the printing, publishing, and binding o f this District, thus destroying those now engaged in business, and throwing all those branches o f the profession under the sole direction of one man— a thing much to be deprecated at all tim es; “ and though printers are but men ” and must yield to the pressure o f circumstances, yet the man may burst forth in the printer, and, proudly feeling his right to liberty and equality, he may spurn the attempts of any individual to lay him under restraint or coercion, or deprive him o f the means of existence. This is not the only evil to be apprehended. It portends incalculable dangers, as we believe, to the liberties o f our country. When inno vations o f this nature upon our long-established customs are proposed, they are sufficient to awaken our fears, and to arouse us in defense o f those blessings which we have long enjoyed, and which have so essentially conduced to the prosperity of this favored country. The Columbia Typographical Society has already issued a protest against this encroachment upon their rights, in which they have fairly exhibited the inju rious consequences which must result to the community, as well as to the printers. We heartily join them in their reprobation o f this singular and unprecedented theory. It is not for us to dictate to any man what course he ought to pursue, or to set limits to the field o f his action, whether his efforts be directed to the forwarding o f his own interested views, or to the line of conduct which he may adopt for him self; but we do contend, that we have an inalien able right to protect ourselves and our interests from encroachments of any and every kind, and to sound the alarm when we apprehend danger. It is not to be disguised, that the motive for establishing this school is of a “ peculiarly ” political character. This may be drawn from the whole tenor of the prospectus. Although pains have evidently been taken to clothe it in ambiguous language, so as to leave it liable to different interpretations, yet to those who are acquainted with the nature o f the undertaking, as well as with the former views o f General Green, it is as clear as noonday, and capable of easy demonstration. There is no better way to arrive at the truth o f the problem, than to trace up the chain o f events which led to the point at issue. As far back as 1828, General Green communicated to his then partner in business, that he intended to have his work performed by boys, by which means he would be enabled to carry on his business at a cheaper rate than those who employed journeymen. Indeed, General Green’s course, since his connection with the press, in this city, in 1826, has been one continued effort o f innovation; and to get his work done at a less price than the established tariff, appears to have been, as it is now acknowledged to be, his great desideratum. The brief history o f that connection follow s: The Washington Gazette for a long time printed by J. Elliott, was purchased by the party opposed to John Quincy Adams, for the main purpose o f opposing his reelection. That paper was discontinued, and the United States Telegraph was established. About this period General Green made his appearance in Washington. He imme diately became acquainted with the selected editor, Mr. J. S. Meehan, a man of unquestionable integrity, o f respectable talents, and possessing a thorough knowledge of the printing business, both in theory and in practice. Through EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 997 this means General Green soon became acquainted with the leading members o f the Jackson party, and proving his ability to take charge of such an estab lishment, by his contributions to the editorial department, he very soon super seded Mr. Meehan, and became the sole editor and proprietor. Nothing, however, could be inferred from hence that Mr. Meehan was not willing that the change should be made, or that every measure thereof did not meet his cordial appro bation. No circumstance worthy o f note took place, until the winter o f 1827-28, when the party in the Senate opposed to Mr. Adams, and in favor of the elec tion o f General Jackson, united and elected General Green printer to that body. Shortly after this event, General Green appears to have conceived the idea of reducing the prices paid for labor, and also o f reducing the expenses of his office by the introduction of boys, which he increased by the latter part o f the year 1828, to the number o f 30 or 40. The allurements of education, and the great personal advantages were then as now, held out to them. They were told that a library would be procured for their use—that instruction would be given them in the professional departments; and that, by the expiration o f their term o f service, they might, by study and attention, fit themselves either for editors, doctors, or lawyers. This system was indeed commenced. Each boy was required to write a treatise upon some subject; and one evening in each week was set apart for receiving those productions, and passing judgment upon their merits. This was continued for a short period; but his plan for raising a library failing, the scheme was abandoned. General Green’s plan for raising a library for the use o f the boys, was as singular as it was novel— no other than that o f laying a tax of 25 per cent on that part of the wages o f the journeymen, denominated “ overwork.” General Green, who never willingly abandons a position once taken, discovering that the prices paid for overwork were greater than what the journeymen could actually claim by their tariff o f prices, reduced that item from 20 (a price still willingly paid by other employing printers in this city), to 16| cents per hour, pro rata with their weekly wages which is $10 per week, thus exultingly putting in his own pocket what had been denied him to raise a library. About the same period of making this encroachment upon the journeymen, he attempted to reform his boy system. But such of the boys as considered his reform an innovation upon the contract by which they had entered the office to the number of between 19 and 20, (with but one solitary exception) left his employ. By this scheme General Green met heavy loss; for before an understanding took place, the most valuable portion o f them had engagements elsewhere. He did not stop here, for during the last winter, even the females in his office felt the weight of his economizing schemes. General Green states, in his attempted reply to the protest o f the Columbia Typographical Society, that no person who has ever been in his employ has lost a cent by him. The fact is, that during the past winter, he, so far from paying the females in his establishment, has reduced their wages below what is paid in every other office, from 20 to 40 per cent, thus extending his grinding oppression to those who have no protectors, and who can not help themselves. It will not be amiss to notice here the circumstances o f his proposals to several charitable institutions to obtain female labor for his office, as a substi tute for that of m en; and all under the ostensible object of performing a benevo lent a c t: in this also he was disappointed. The establishment of the manual-labor school is but a concentration o f his various schemes to lower the prices o f labor, in his establishment, and to add to his already enormous profits, a portion o f the hard-earned pittance o f the operative. The amount o f printing given to General Green by both Houses o f Congress and the several departments o f the Government since his connection with the press, has been unparalleled in the annals of this country; and we venture nothing in saying, although the exact amount can not be ascertained, that his actual profits therefrom does not fall short o f $300,000; and that notwithstand ing his reiterated declarations, that he pays too much for labor, and that the wages paid to journeymen are too high, no printer in this or any other country has ever realized the same profits in the same period of time, from the same number of hands. Had we been satisfied that his motive in establishing this school was either patriotic or philanthropic, not one opposing word would have escaped our lips. But we can not shut our eyes to the fact, that this institution calls for no personal or pecuniary sacrifice. He proposes to sustain it by the labors o f the 9 98 BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OP LABOR, students, without expending one cent of the profits o f the works to be executed by them. This fact must show that benevolence has no share in the plan designed. Where or when did pure philanthropy barter its sympathies for gold? Did a real benefactor of mankind ever distribute charity with one hand, and grasp at gain with the other? From what has been above stated, we leave it to the public to say, whether it be not plain that monopoly o f some kind is in view, to drive competition out o f the market, and by this means to effect the ruin of the workman. And we ask whether it be consistent with the feelings of human nature, calmly to survey the approaching ruin o f ourselves and our families, or to sit contented under the caprice of a destroyer o f all our comforts and happiness? The world will never believe, that by ruining the present generation, he will benefit the next; or that he who educates the son and starves the father, is a true benefactor. Should this plan o f General Green prove successful (which we believe will not be the case), where would be found the individual capital sufficient to sustain itself against such fearful odds? The same system must be adopted by others, and the productive classes, already sufficiently numerous, would become too abundant to insure public safety. Casuistry may discredit our reasoning, and sophistry may be used to our disadvantage; but we appeal to the plain understanding of every honest man, and request an attentive and unbiased perusal of the prospectus itself. Let us examine his plan as we may, in every line we see something militating against the interests o f our country. What must be the surprise of the freemen of America, to be told o f this man, and at this late day, that we, the “ people,” are incapable o f self-government; and that our press, which has so long sus tained our liberties, is radically diseased? Is General Green the man to cor rect this radical defect?— he who tells the public that his connection with the press commenced so recently, and who, till 1823, had, perhaps, never been within the walls of a printing office; and who, to this day, has but a vague and theoret ical idea o f the business? Does he pretend to say that he has been favored with some divine inspiration— some talismanic power? That he, a stranger to the profession, has discovered the ignorance o f the men who conduct it, and can apply the remedy? Why the very means which he proposed to use, show how little knowledge he has o f its operation. For instance he has enumerated vari ous comprehensive works for publication, and would induce belief that those who take a share in their composition must thereby have a knowledge o f their contents. Now the contrary is the fact; for articles, o f any length are divided into various parts, and each compositor is furnished with a small portion ; which instead o f giving him any information on the subject, tends, if it have any effect at all, to obscure its sense and create false impressions. But General Green is to “ elevate the morale o f the press.” How? By establishing a system o f ethics for its government—to educate boys to be its rulers and gov ernors, and to dictate to printers what they shall d o! Thus hoodwinked, we are to submit to students o f this institution, and to receive lessons in politics and morals from the regenerated press! Strip the language o f the prospectus o f its ambiguity, and the above is the interpretation o f it. We seriously believe that some political movement is at the foundation of this embryo school. Look at the facilities which the plan would throw into the hands o f a political partisan, to enable him to have overwhelming influence on elections. Suppose, for example, he wished to control the elections o f any particular State, he might establish as many presses in that State as he chose, at a very trifling expense, because the boys labor for the money for this purpose, and are by pecuniary ties bound to obey his orders, or be thrown destitute upon the world, being rendered obnoxious to his powerful institution. Still farther, we are convinced that this is the real motive o f this institution, from the fact that large numbers o f his prospectus have been circulated in the South, amongst those who lean to the same political principles that General Green advocates, while the vast North and West have not even heard a whisper from him of this regenerating press school. Next to liberty, we value the profession we have adopted; and we shall use our best endeavors to maintain it in its purity and in its freedom. Never, we hope, will it be under the control of any one man, however great or wealthy he may be. The march o f mind will regulate the emanations o f the press; and if this pro jector has the welfare o f the country at heart, much better would it be to leave it where he found it,— in the hands o f the “ schoolmaster,” whose exertions only can regulate the “ m orale” o f the press. The press is but the mirror o f the m ind; it no more than reflects the im age which is placed before it, and exhibits EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OE PRINTERS. 999 it for the public benefit. General Green may be a profound politician; but, as a political economist, he betrays his ignorance in his plan o f education. The plan o f the institute has a specious aspect. It promises to give constant employment and a thoroughly classical and scientific education to 200 boys, who are to defray the expenses o f their board, education, and clothing, and even medical attendance, by their own labor, and when free, to have placed to their credit $728 each. What a beautiful picture of benevolence is drawn here! But how is the fact? The boy is to labor mentally and physically, for thirteen hours each day—three hours more than the regular time of work. He is to earn, out o f journeymen’s rate of wages, $2 per week, after paying all expenses, which $2 are to be deposited in a fund till he is 21 years o f age; and then what is to be done with it? Given to the freed student, to enable him to commence business? No! It goes to the coffers of the principal o f the institution, who realizes, by this means, in seven years, $145,600! There is a provision, indeed, by which this sum may probably be loaned to the students, to be paid back in small annual installments, when a “ prudent investment ” may offer. Thus the General is the judge and disposer of the fund— he may lend it or not— he may refuse or accept securities, just as the investment may suit his pleasure. Does it look like a benefaction to withhold from the boys all the earnings of their industry? Why not place it, bona fide, to their credit, when o f age and allow them to follow the bent o f their own inclinations? But it will be seen that the independence o f the pupil is not his object; but, on the contrary, to secure the lasting dependence of the youth upon him, that he may direct his labors to the advancement of his own particular ends, whether political or mercenary. General Green labors to impress on the public mind, that the printer must be ignorant, from being brought into the office as a “ devil ” — a “ mere drudge ” — “ an errand boy ”— “ to do the menial services o f the establishment.” This low sarcasm is unworthy o f a serious reply. But we would tell him, that the day has gone by when servitude o f this kind was exacted from the youngest appren tice— and tell him, too, that no corporal punishment is put in practice in any office— a circumstance which he must have known. To talk of substituting “ solitary confinement ” for flagellation, is so ridiculous, that we deem it un worthy o f serious consideration. General Green, has, in public and in private, asserted that the press o f this country was a disgrace, owing to its being conducted by “ ignorant journeymen printers; ” and he proposed at the anniversary supper of the Typographical Society, in January last, to regenerate it by the institution which he was then about to set on foot. He said, in proposing this institute, that his object was not to realize anything from it; that his highest ambition was to record his name as a public benefactor, and after he was dead to be placed in a plain cemetery, with a marble slab thus inscribed: “ Here lies Duff Green, the Regenerator of the American Press,” or in other words, more beautifully described by the p oet: “ When he dies, he’ll leave a lofty name, A light and landmark on the cliffs o f fame.” Those present felt the audacity o f this remark, though not a harsh word was used while they considered him their guest; but they took immediate steps to repel the indignity offered to them, which were arrested by his having author ized an individual to recall his words, and to state that he was ashamed of his language, and that it was not his intention to have offended the gentlemen pres ent. The apology was accepted; but the quiet which has reigned from that time has emboldened him to come forward and publish his prospectus to the world. As another method o f elevating the “ morale o f the press,” he says, “ One great object has been to enlist in aid o f the institute the great interests o f society, and to connect it with each, by the publication o f a paper deserving their continuous support; ” and he has connected the United States Telegraph with the “ interest of politics,” which paper has been long under his control, and we leave it to the people to say, how much it has contributed toward redeeming the fallen morality of the press. We feel it our duty as American citizens, having the interest o f our country at heart, to warn the parent and guardian o f youth of the error which they are likely to fall into, by sacrificing the liberty and happiness o f their charges, and being led away or infatuated with General Green’s project, which, if it could be successful, would tend to lower the press in the estimation of the people, by inculcating doctrines which are calculated to destroy the vital principles o f our free institutions. 100 0 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. In closing our address, we would call upon the printers throughout the United States to examine the prospectus for themselves— to consider the motives which could induce any man to engage in such a scheme as “ regenerating the Amer ican press,” under the flimsy pretext o f the low estimation in which it is held on account of being under the control o f “ ignorant printers.” In contradis tinction to this, we place the press conducted by practical printers far above the whole mass of those ephemeral papers that are sustained by party. We call upon you as printers, as freemen, to rally round the shield o f our liberties, to protect it in its republican form, its purity, and its privileges, and to frown into insignificance the man who is base enough to use it for the degradation of his fellow-beings. The Rubicon is passed, and we now proceed to the object we have in view—to protect our rights. No political motive urges us o n : we merely desire to maintain those rights o f equality which are intrusted to our care, and to keep and protect them unsullied. To you we look for an approval, and friendly cooperation in our exertions in resisting the encroachments o f power, and w e shall never flinch from the duty we have imposed upon ourselves. The freedom of the press must not be touched by unhallowed hands. We conjure you by all that is dear, not to suffer our efforts to be paralyzed by apathy. The following letter was received from the Baltimore Typographical Society: B altimore , S ep tem b er i , 183If. “ T o the P rin ters o f the D istrict o f C olu m bia : “ G entlemen : The proceedings o f the meeting of the printers of the District o f Columbia, held in the city o f Washington on the 22d ultimo, relative to the infamous project o f Gen. Duff Green, was laid before the Baltimore Typo graphical Society, at its meeting on Saturday last, and they came to the conclu sion that a general meeting o f the printers o f this city should be held for the purpose of taking the subject into consideration on Saturday evening next. We have no doubt, from the spirit manifested upon the reading o f the pro ceedings, by the members of the Baltimore Typographical Society, that you may rest assured you will receive the aid, countenance and support of the frater nity in this city, in your just and laudable effort to put down this scheme of Duff Green's; a scheme which, if suffered to be brought into existence and complete operation, will do more to injure the journeymen and employing printers o f the United States, than any that has been thought o f since the days o f Faustus. “ We only wish, gentlemen, you could have been present at our meeting, and have seen the spirit that was manifested, and the determination, as far as in their power, and is compatible with the laws o f our country, to nullify the ungracious, ambitious, and ungenerous designs o f said Duff Green. “ Gentlemen, wishing you, and all o f us, success in the cause in which we are mutually engaged, and hoping our efforts may be crowned with success, we subscribe ourselves, “ Yours, in fellowship, “ J osiah B ailey , “ J. N. M illington , “ T hos . R. G eddes, “ C o m m ittee o f C orrespondence .” On motion of R. H. Pratt it was “ R e so lv e d , That the thanks o f the journeymen printers be tendered to the editors of the Globe and American Mechanic, for publishing their proceedings, and to the editor o f the Alexandria Gazette, for his able defense o f those proceedings.” On motion, it was “ R e so lv e d , That the chairman and secretaries be authorized to call a meeting of the printers o f the District o f Columbia, when, in their opinion, circumstances require it.” On motion, it was “ R e so lv e d , That the proceedings o f this meeting be signed by the chairman and secretaries, and that the newspapers in this District, and throughout the United States, be requested to publish them.” A. F. C u n n in g h a m , Chairm an . J no. T hos . T owers , l t e r ( ,torfes J ames F. H aliday , j ^ c r e t a n e s . EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 1001 APPENDIX B, NO. 1.—SCALE OF PRICES ADOPTED OCTOBER 7, 1815, BY THE NEW YORK TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. COMPOSITION. 1. All works in the English language, common matter, from English to minion inclusive, 27 cents per 1,000; in nonpareil, 29 cents; in pearl, 371 cents; in diamond, 50 cents: in all cases headlines and directions, or signatures and blank lines to be included. An odd en in width or length, to be reckoned an em ; if less than an en, not to be counted. 2. All works done in foreign languages, common matter, to be paid 4 cents extra per 1,000 ems. 3. Works printed in great primer, or larger type, to be computed as English.— script, 30 cents per 1,000. 4. All workmen employed by the week, shall receive not less than $9 in book offices and on evening papers, and on morning papers not less than $10. 5. Works done in the English language, in which words o f Greek, Hebrew, Saxon, etc., or any of the dead characters occur, should they average one word per page, it shall be considered sufficient to become a charge, which shall be settled between the employer and employed. 6. Works done in Hebrew and Greek, without points, shall be paid 15 cents per 1,000 ems higher than common m atter; with points, to be counted half body and half points, and paid double. 7. That making-up a set o f furniture for a work o f five sheets or under, if an octavo, be paid 25 cents. All other impositions to be 3 cents extra, progressively, in proportion to the size— a single form shall constitute a set. 8. Works done partly in figures and partly plain, such as arithmetical works, etc. to be paid 30 cents per 1,000 ems. Rule and figure work to be paid double. 9. Broadsides, such as leases, deeds, etc. done on English or smaller type, to be paid 27 cents per thousand ems. Play bills, posting bills, etc. to be paid for at the rate of 15 cents per hour. 10. Algebraical works, or those where characters o f music are the principal part, and works composed principally o f medical, astronomical, or other signs, to be paid double. 11. Time lost by alteration from copy, or by casing or distributing letter, to be paid for at the rate o f 15 cents per hour. 12. All works composed from manuscript copy, 2 cents extra. 13. Side, bottom, or cut-in notes, to be agreed on between the employer and the employed. PRESSWORK. 1. Bookwork, done on brevier or larger type, on medium or smaller paper, 33 cents per token; on smaller type, 35 cents. Royal paper, on brevier or larger type, 35 cents per token; on smaller type, 371 cents per token. Super royal paper, on brevier or larger type, 36 cents per token; on smaller type, 39 cents per token. 2. A token o f paper, if on bookwork, to consist o f no more than 101 quires; and if on a daily paper, no more than 10. For covering tympans, 371 cents each ; tympan and drawer to be considered as two. 3. Jobs, folio, quarto, etc. to be paid 33 cents per token. 4. Cards, if 100 or under, 30 cents; for each additional pack, if not more than 5, 121 cents; if over 5, 10 cents. 5. Broadsides, on bourgeois or larger type, 45 cents; on smaller type, 50 cents per token. 6. Three cents extra to be paid on forms containing wood engravings. 7. No journeyman working at press on a morning daily paper, shall receive a less sum than $10 for his weekly services; nor those on an evening paper a less sum than $9. I f the quantity o f work should exceed 8 tokens per day, the whole to be charged, if on a morning paper, at the rate o f 45 cents per token; if an evening paper, 40 cents per token. Daily papers not exceeding 6 tokens per day, if a morning paper, $9 per week, if an evening paper, $8 per week. 8. All works done on parchment to be settled between the employer and em ployed. 9. Working down a new press to be settled between the employer and em ployed. 10 0 2 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. 10. I f at any time a pressman should be obliged to lift his form before it is worked off, he shall be allowed 33 cents for the same. 11. A pressman shall receive, for teaching an apprentice presswork, for the first three months, 5 cents per token, and for the three months following, 3 cents per token. P eter F orce, P resident. T hos . S nowden , S ecreta ry. APPENDIX B, NO. 2 .—LIST OP PRICES OP THE COLUMBIA TYPO GRAPHICAL SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. C., ADOPTED NOVEM BER 4, 1815. COMPOSITORS. During the recess of Congress, in book or newspaper offices, to receive not less than $9 per week. During the session, in offices engaged on Congressional work, or in newspaper offices, to receive not less than $10 per week, and $2 for each and every Sunday. By the piece.—For every 1,000 ems, from brevier to pica, 28 cents; for smaller letter than brevier, 331 cents; on newspapers, not less than 30 cents per 1,000 em s; above pica, to be charged as pica. Rule or figure work.— All common rule or figure work, from brevier and upward, not less than 45 cents per 1,000 ems; below brevier, 50 cents per 1,000 ems. Rule and figure work.— All common rule and figure work, from brevier and upward, not less than 561 cents per 1,000 ems; below brevier, not less than 65 cents per 1,000 em s; above pica, to be charged as pica. For all foreign languages, printed in the Roman character, an addition o f 5 cents per 1,000 ems. All words printed in Greek, or other foreign characters, to be paid for at the rate of 60 cents per 1,000 ems. Side notes to be calculated separate from the text. An addition of 3 cents on each 1,000 ems for pronouncing dictionaries. Alterations.— Compositors to receive, for alterations from copy, at the rate of 25 cents per hour. PRESSMEN. During the recess of Congress, shall receive not less than $9 per w eek; by the piece, in newspaper offices, not less than 271 cents per token, for royal or super royal ; nor less than 45 cents per token for imperial. During the session, in offices engaged on Congressional work, or in newspaper offices, not to receive less than $10 per week, and $2 for each and every Sunday. Paper.— Medium, and below medium, when the form consists of brevier, or larger letter, 331 cents per token; below brevier, not less than 35 cents per token; royal and upward, on brevier or larger letter, not less than 371 cents per token; all under brevier, not less than 50 cents per token. Quarto, on medium paper, above 44 pica ems in width, to be paid as roy a l; octavo, above 24 pica ems, to be paid as roy a l; 12mo. above 21 pica ems, to be paid as roy al; 18mo. above 17 pica ems, to be paid as royal. Jobs not less than 35 cents per token. Cards, for one pack, and not exceeding two packs, 35 cents; when exceeding two packs, to be paid at the rate of 15 cents per pack. Broadsides shall be paid for double, according to the size o f the paper. All work on parchment, if one pull, 64 cents; if two pulls, 121 cents. For taking down or putting up a press, $3. For working down a new press, $6. For lifting a form before completed, 331 cents. For covering a tympan and drawer, $1, or 50 cents for either. When an alteration in a form takes place, each pressman shall be paid 161 cents per hour. No pressman shall teach an apprentice presswork, without the benefit o f his work for 13 weeks, or half his wages for 6 months; nor shall he teach an apprentice who is more than 18 years old, and who is bound for less than three years. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 1003 APPENDIX B, NO. 3.—LIST OP PRICES OP THE BALTIMORE TYPO GRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ADOPTED JUNE 2, 1832. COMPOSITION. I. Works done in the English language, common matter, from pica to minion, inclusive, 25 cents per 1,000 em s; nonpareil, 30 cents; agate, 3l| cents; pearl, 33£ cents; diamond, 50 cents. The headline, with the blank after, and the foot line, in all cases to be counted not less than three lines; an odd en in width or length, to be counted an em ; if less than an en, not to be reckoned. II. Works printed in pica, or larger type, to be counted as if done in pica. III. Works printed in Latin or Spanish, 3 cents extra per 1,000 ems; in French, 5 cents extra. Dictionaries in the above languages to be advanced as in Art. VI. IY. Works in which Greek, Hebrew, Saxon or other foreign characters may occur, when they amount to one line per 1,000 ems, 2 cents extra, and in propor tion for a greater or less quantity. V. All works done in Greek and Latin, or Greek and English, to be charged a price and a half. YI. English dictionaries, printed with figured vowels and accents, 5 cents advance; without figured yowels, but with accents, 2 cents advance. Geo graphical, biographical, and medical dictionaries, gazetteers, dictionaries o f the arts and sciences, and works o f a similar character, are not included in this article, unless they be attended with extra trouble, beyond the usual descriptive matter. VII. Arithmetical works, 5 cents advance per 1,000 ems; rule work to be charged a price and a h alf; rule and figure work, double; algebraical works, and works composed principally of medical, astronomical, or other signs, to be charged double price. VIII. Works done in Hebrew, without points, 15 cents advance per 1,000 em s; with points, (to be counted half body and half points) double price. IX. Works done in Greek, without accents, 40 cents per 1,000 ems; with accents, 50 cents; the asper and lenis not to be considered as accents. X. Spelling books, and works of that description, 5 cents in advance per 1,000 ems. XI. Side and center notes in Bibles and Testaments, to be counted the full length of the page, (including the lead or one rule) according to the type in which they are set, and charged 5 cents extra per 1,000 ems. Cut-in notes in the above works to be cast up according to the type in which they are set, and charged a price and a half. X II. Side notes, in law and historical works, to be counted the full length of the page, and charged according to the type in which they are set; and when cut into the text to be charged 4 cents extra per 1,000 ems. X III. Quotations, mottoes, contents of chapters, and bottom notes, in smaller type than the body, to be paid for according to the size of type in which they are set. XIV. Works where the measure does not exceed 14 ems in width, to be paid 2 cents in advance per 1,000 ems. XV. Time occupied by alterations from copy, or by casing or distributing let ter not used by the compositor, to be paid for at the rate of 15 cents per hour. XVI. When compositors, in book and job offices, shall be required to work after regular hours, they shall be allowed 20 cents per hour, or 5 cents advance per 1,000 ems. XVII. All letter cast on a body larger than the face, to be counted according to the face of the typ e; and all letter cast on a smaller body than the face to be counted according to the body. X V III. For all matter made up and imposed by the employer, no more than 2 cents per 1,000 ems shall be allowed. The compositor in all cases to furnish the head, blank, and foot line, and count the same. X IX . Making up a set o f furniture, to be charged for by the time occupied, at the rate o f 15 cents per hour. X X . Compositors shall, in all cases, charge for every blank page at the end of a work imposed— each form to be graduated by the following ru le: In octavo forms, if less than 2 pages, to be charged as 2 ; for 3 pages, 4 to be charged; for 5, 6 or 7, a full form, etc. X X I. Compositors employed by the week shall not receive less than $8 per week. Ten hours shall be considered a day’s work in book and job offices. 10 0 4 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, PRESSWORK. With balls or rollers before the press. P er token. Medium and royal----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- $0. 30 Super r o y a l----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. 37$ Im p e ria l______________________________________________________________ . 45 Job w ork ______________________________________________________________ . 33$ B roadsides____________________________________________________________ . 60 Cards, two packs and under to be considered a token, all over, 12$ cents per pack. With rollers behind the press. Per token. Medium and royal----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- $0. 23 Super r o y a l------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.25 Im p e ria l_______________________________________________________________ . 27 All fine works to receive an extra price, to be determined by the employer and pressman, according to its quality. All book work under four tokens to be charged 2 cents extra per token. All broadsides to be 45 cents per token. Job work, 25 cents per token. Cards, two packs and under, 25 cents; all over two packs, 10 cents per pack. All colors to be charged double. In all cases, where the employer finds the roller boy, 4 cents to be deducted on book or job w ork ; on cards, 2 cents per pack. Machine rollers.— Medium, four tokens or less, 30 cents per token; over four tokens, 27 cents. Other works in proportion. Fine work, extra price. Lifting forms.— When there are not more than eight tokens, the pressman shall receive the price of one token extra for every form he shall be necessitated to lift. Standing.— After a form shall have been put to press, the pressman shall receive 15 cents for the first half hour, and 20 cents for every subsequent hour that he is delayed by corrections or alterations. Pressmen working by the piece, required to count the paper from the press, to be paid 2 cents extra per token. Pressmen employed by the week to receive not less than $8 per week. Ten hours shall be considered a day in book and job offices. When pressmen, in book and job offices, shall be required to work after regu lar hours, they shall be allowed 20 cents per hour, or 4 cents extra per token. Pressmen employed on morning papers, to be paid not less than $9; on evening papers, not less than $8 per week. For covering tympan or drawer, 50 cents. APPENDIX B, NO. 4.—SCALE OF PRICES OF THE TYPOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION OF NEW YORK, ADOPTED JUNE 15, 1833. COMPOSITION. 1. Works done in the English language, common matter, from English to non pareil, 25 cents per 1,000 ems; agate, 27 cents; pearl, 30 cents; diamond, 37$ cents. The headline, with blank after, and the foot line, in all cases to be counted not less than three lines. When a measure exceeds even ems in width, and is less than an en, an en only to be counted; but if an en, or over, to be counted an em. Where guard lines are required to pages, they shall be furnished by the employer in a solid shape, or shall be charged by the compositor. 2. Works printed in great primer, or larger type, to be counted as if done in English. 3. All jobs done in plain script, to be counted as English, and charged at 30 cents per 1,000 em s; those in analytical or combination script, on inclined bodies, to be counted as above, and charged 374 cents. 4. Works printed in Latin or Spanish, 3 cents extra per 1,000 em s; in French, 5 cents extra. Dictionaries in the above languages to be advanced in proportion, as in article 7. 5. Greek, Hebrew, Saxon, etc., or any o f the other characters not in common use, if amounting to one word, and not exceeding three words per 1,000 ems, to be charged 2 cents extra. Where the characters are o f a different size from the EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 1005 body o f the matter, and are to be justified in, they shall be charged 4 cents extra. All exceeding three words to be charged in proportion. 6. All works done in Greek and Latin, or Greek and English, to be charged a price and a half. 7. English dictionaries, printed with figured vowels and accents, 5 cents advance; without figured vowels, but with accents, 2 cents advance. Concord ances, and works of a similar description, where figures and points predominate, or any work where capitals, small capitals, or italic, are profusely used, 3 cents advance. Where superior letters or references are used, as in Bibles, or works o f that character, 1 cent extra per 1,000 ems, shall be charged. Geographical, biographical, and medical dictionaries, gazetteers, dictionaries o f the arts and sciences, and works of a similar character, are not included in this article, except they are attended with extra trouble, beyond the usual descriptive matter. 8. Arithmetical works, 5 cents extra per 1,000 ems. Rule work, part plain and part figures, and figure work, where no rules are used and figures are required to be placed in columns, to be charged a price and a h alf; rule and figure work, double. Algebraical works, and works composed principally of medical, astronomical, or other signs, to be charged double. 9. Works done in Hebrew, without points, 15 cents advance per 1,000 ems; when with points, the body and the points to be cast up each according to its size, and to be charged double. 10. Works done in Greek, without accents, printed copy, page for page, 37i cents; other reprints, 40 cents per 1,000 em s; with accents 50 cents; the asper and lenis not to be considered as accents. 11. Church music, whether analytical or solid, to be charged a single price, according to the size o f the type in which it is set. Piano music to be charged a price and a half, according to the size, except where it is condensed, when it shall be charged double. 12. Works done from manuscript copy, to be charged 2 cents extra per 1,000 ems, except foreign languages, which shall be 5 cents; printed copy, with fre quent interlineations, to be considered as manuscript. 13. Spelling books, and works o f that description, 5 cents advance per 1,000 ems. 14. Side and center notes in Bibles and Testaments to be counted the full length o f the page, (including the lead, or one rule, which shall count at least one em) according to the type in which they are set, and charged 5 cents extra per 1,000 ems. Cut-in notes, in the above works, to be charged 4 cents extra each note, and the whole page to be counted as text. 15. Side notes in law and historical works, to be counted the full length of the page, according to the type in which they are set; and when cut into the text, to be charged 4 cents extra each note. 16. Quotations, mottoes, contents o f chapters, and bottom notes, in smaller type than the body, to be paid for according to the size o f the type in which they are set. 17. Works where the measure does not exceed 16 ems in width, to be paid 2 cents advance per 1,000 ems. 18. Time occupied by alterations from copy, by casing or distributing letter, not used by the compositor, or other work appointed by the employer, to be paid for at the rate o f 15 cents per hour. 19. When compositors are required to work more than regular hours, they shall be allowed 20 cents an hour, or 5 cents advance per 1,000 ems. 20. All letter cast on a body larger than the face, (as bourgeois on long primer) to be counted according to the fa ce; and all letter cast on a body smaller than the face, (as minion on nonpareil) to be counted according to the body. 21. In all cases where a companionship may deem it necessary that matter should be made up by one person, the compositors may either appoint, from among themselves, or authorize the employer to appoint, a person to perform that duty, on terms to be agreed upon between themselves and the person employed to make u p : P ro vid ed , h o w ever , That no more than 2 cents per 1,000 ems shall be allowed to the employer for making up, imposing, taking the necessary proofs, and keeping the schedule. 22. When a compositor is required to take out bad letters, and replace them, in consequence o f faults in the founder, miscasts, or worn-out fonts, he shall be paid at the rate o f 15 cents an hour. 23. For imposing forms, no more shall be allowed than 3 «^ents per page for quarto, 2 for octavo, 1} for duodecimo, l i for sexadecimo, and the like sum for 1006 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR, all forms o f a larger number o f pages— the compositor, in all cases, to lay the pages in regular order, or to be responsible for their being so done. 24. It shall be the duty of the compositor imposing, to take two proofs of each form. All proofs taken afterwards, shall be paid for at the rate o f 8 cents each, for letterpress forms, and for stereotype forms and small jobs, 2 cents each. When an extra proof, or proofs, are required by the carelessness of the composi tor, they shall be at his expense. 25. Making up furniture for a quarto form, 18 cents; an octavo, 25 cents; and 3 cents extra for all other impositions progressively. 26. Compositors employed on morning newspapers shall receive not less than $12 per w eek; on evening papers, and in book and job offices, not less than $9 per week. Ten hours shall be considered a day in book and job offices. PRESSWORK. With balls.— Medium, 30 cents per token; royal, 33£; super royal, 37$; medium, and a half, 39; imperial, 40 cents; and everything above imperial, 45 cents. Cards, the first hundred, 30 cents; for all over one hundred, 10 cents a pack. The charge with hand rollers to be the same as with balls. With rollers.— Medium, when there shall be but 4 tokens or less on a form, 25 cents per token; if over 4 tokens, 23 cents. Royal, 4 tokens or less, 27 cents, over 4 tokens, 26 cents. Super royal, 4 tokens or less, 30 cents; over 4 tokens, 28 cents. Medium, and a half, 4 tokens or less, 32 cents; over 4 tokens, 30 cents. Imperial, 4 tokens or less, 35 cents; over 4 tokens, 33 cents. For any size above imperial, the charge shall be, when there are 4 tokens or less, 40 cents; over 4 tokens, 35 cents. All broadsides, 40 cents per token. Cards, the first hundred, 25 cents; all over one hundred, 15 cents per hundred. All fine work to receive an extra price, to be arranged between the employer and journeyman. Work done after regular hours, to receive an advance o f 5 cents per token. Roller boys.— When the employer shall furnish a roller boy, there shall be 18 per cent, deducted from the wages of the pressman until it amounts to $2 per week, when the deduction shall cease. Machine rollers.— Medium, 4 tokens or less, 21 cents per token; over 4 tokens, 20 cents. Other sizes in proportion. Fine work, extra price. Lifting forms.— When there are not more than 8 tokens, the pressman shall receive the price of 1 token extra for every form he shall be required to lift. Covering tympans.— The sum of 37$ cents shall be allowed for covering a tymp'an; and the like sum for covering a drawer, or inner tympan. For putting up or removing presses.—Twenty cents per hour shall be allowed. Standing.— After a form shall have been put to press, the pressman shall receive 15 cents for the first half hour, and £0 cents for every subsequent hour, that he is delayed by corrections or alterations. When a pressman is employed by the week, he shall receive not less than $9 per w eek; ten hours, in all cases, to be the limit o f a day’s work. Overwork, 20 cents an hour. SCALE OF V A R IA T IO N FOR TH E SIZES OF FORMS. O ctavo pages o r smaller. P ic a em s. Medium, to contain_______________________________________________ R oyal, to c o n ta in ________________________________ ________ ________ Super royal, to contain...................... ...................................................... Medium and a half, to contain____ ______ ___________________ _____ Im perial, to co n ta in _______ _______________ ____ ____ ______ ______ 9,000 11,000 13,600 16,000 18,000 Quarto or larger pages. P ica em s. 11,000 18,500 16,000 18,000 23,000 Any form exceeding either o f these, by 250 ems, to be charged as the next highest. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 1007 A P P E N D IX B, NO. 5 .—B IL L OP PRIC E S OP T H E N A S H V IL L E , T E N N ., T Y P O G R A P H IC A L SOCIETY, ADOPTED 183 7 . COMPOSITION. Compositors to receive per week_______________________________________$11. 00 Bookwork, MS. copy, per 1,000 ems___________________________________ . 35 Bookwork, reprint___________________________________________________ . 33$ Newspaper, manuscript and reprint___________________________________ . 32 Pamphlets, (100 pages, or less,)_______________________________________ . 37$ Rule or figure work, to be counted price and a half. Rule and figure work, double price. For all works in foreign languages, an advance o f______________________ . 12$ Dictionaries, arithmetics and algebraical works, an advance o f_________ .12* Side notes to be calculated separate from thetext, an advance o f_______ . 02 All measures under 12 ems pica, an advance o f_________________________ . 02 Letters cast on a different body from the face, to be counted by the body one way and the face the other. Alterations from copy, per hour_______________________________________ . 25 All sizes larger than pica, and not exceeding double pica, to be counted pica. Larger than double pica to be charged by the time. All type smaller than nonpareil, an advance o f_________________________ . 02 Dressing furniture for book or pamphlet form_________________________ . 50 Ten hours shall be considered a day’s work. All extra work to be charged per hour. PRESSWORK. Pressmen to receive per week_________________________________________$12. Mammoth or elephant, (book or news), per token______________________ Imperial and super ro y a l______________________________________________ Royal and medium___________________________________________________ J o b s _________________________________________________________________ Cards, first pack_____________________________________________________ Cards, each additional pack on same form_____________________________ Hat tips, same as cards. Jobs on silk or bank-notepaper________________________________________ Broadsides, on medium paper, or smaller_____________________________ Broadsides, larger than medium----------------------------------------------------------Lifting forms before finished, to be charged a token. All jobs with colored ink, per hour-----------------------------------------------------Parchment, each pull--------------------------------------------------------------------------Covering tympan and drawer, each-----------------------------------------------------All works containing woodcuts, an advance of^-----------------------------------Corrections made in a form, after being put to press, to be charged per h o u r _______________________________________________________________ Ten hours considered a day’s work. Ten quires to be considered a token on a newspaper form—10$ quires on a book form. 00 . 40 33$ . 25 .37$ . 37$ . 18| .50 . 37$ . 50 . 25 .06$ .75 . 10 . 25 A P P E N D IX B, NO. 6 .—L IST OF PRICES OF T H E COLUM BIA TYPO G R A P H IC A L SOCIETY, W A SH IN G T O N , D . C., A M E N D E D A N D A D O PTED J A N U A R Y , 1 8 3 7 . COMPOSITION. 1. Compositors, during the recess o f Congress, in book, or newspaper offices, to receive not less than $10 per week. Ten hours to constitute a day’s work. 2. During the session o f Congress, in offices employed on the current Con gress work, and in all offices engaged on other work done for, or by the authority o f that body, or in newspaper offices, to receive not less than $11 per week. 3. In all offices, and at all seasons to receive not less than $2 for each and every Sunday, (to consist o f eight hours,) and for extra hours on Sunday, 25 cents; and at all other times, 20 cents per hour. 276—No. 61—06 M------ 19 1008 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR. P IE C E W O B K . 1. All works done in the English language, common matter, from pica to minion, 31 cents per 1,000 ems; minion and nonpareil 37 cents; agate 39 cents; pearl 41 cents; diamond 50 cents. The headline, with the blank after it, and the foot line, in all cases, to be counted as three lines. An en, in length or width, to be counted an em ; if less than an en, not to be reckoned. Above pica to be charged as pica. 2. Newspapers.— Brevier and upward, 33£ cents per 1,000 ems; minion and nonpareil, 37 cents; agate 39 cents; pearl, 41 cents; diamond, 50 cents. 3. Rule or figure work.— All rule or figure work a price and a half, accord ing to the type in which it is set. All matter in which two or more rules are inserted, to constitute rule w ork ; and two or more columns o f figures, without rules, to constitute figure work. 4. Rule and figure work.— All rule and figure work to be paid double the price of common matter. One column o f figures and one rule in a page of other matter, shall constitute rule and figure w ork: P ro vid ed , h o w e ve r , That on works, the pages of which are uniformly made up of two or more columns, (as on periodical publications,) no charge beyond that o f common matter shall be made for, or on account o f the rules separating the columns. 5. All heads and foot lines attached to rule or figure work, or rule and figure work, to be reckoned the same as the body of the matter. 6. For all foreign languages, printed in the Roman characters, an addition o f 6 cents per 1,000 ems. 7. All works printed in Greek or other foreign characters, to be paid for at the rate of 66 cents per 1,000 ems. 8. Arithmetical works to be paid an advance of 6 cents per 1,000 ems on the price of common matter. 9. Algebraical works to be charged double price. 10. Spelling books, or other work containing more than two columns in a page, to be paid an advance o f one-half on the price o f common matter. 11. Music, double price. 12. Side notes to be counted the full length of the page, and charged accord ing to the type in which they are set. 13. Cut-in notes to be cast up according to the type in which they are set, and charged 10 cents extra per 1,000 em s; and the whole page to be counted as text. 14. All bottom notes, contents of chapters, etc. in smaller type than the text, to be paid for according to the type in which they are set. 15. All letter cast upon a larger body than the face, as bourgeois on long primer, to be counted according to its fa ce; and all letter cast upon a smaller body than the face, as minion on nonpariel, to be counted according to the body. 16. All works where the measure does not exceed 14 ems in width, to be 3 cents per 1,000 ems advance. 17. For making up a set of furniture, not exceeding 16 pages, 31 cents; when exceeding, 55 cents. Alterations.— Compositors to receive for alterations from copy, at the rate of 25 cents per hour. PRESSWORK. 1. Pressmen, during the recess o f Congress, shall receive not less than $10 per week— ten hours to constitute a day’s work. 2. During the session o f Congress, in offices employed on the current Congress work, and in all offices engaged on other work done for, or by the authority of that body, or in newspaper offices, to receive not less than $11 per week. 3. In all offices, and at all seasons, to receive not less than $2 for each and every Sunday, (to consist o f eight hours,) and for extra hours on Sundays, 25 cents, and at all other times, 20 cents per hour. 1009 EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, PIECEW ORK. K ind o f w ork—p er token. W ith balls or hand rollers. W ith rollers and roller b oy s or m achine rollers. («) $0.37 .39 .41 .43 .45 .47 .46 .48 .50 .52 .50 .41 .60 $0.27 .29 .31 .33 .35 .37 .36 .38 .40 .42 .40 .31 .50 1. Paper.—Medium and below medium, when the form consists o f brevier, o r larger letter......................................................................................................... Below brevier, not less than...................................................................................... Royal, on b revier or larger letter............................................................................ Royal, below b r e v ie r ................................................. — ........................................... . Super royal, on b revier or larger letter................................................................ Super royal, below b re v ie r......................................................................................... M edium ana a half, on brevier o r larger le t te r ................................................... Medium and a half, below b re v ie r.......................................................................... Im perial, on brevier o r larger l e t t e r ..................................................................... Im perial, below b r e v ie r ............................................................................................. Newspapers, when printed on im p e ria l................................................................ Newspapers, when printed on royal o r super r o y a l........................................... F or any size above imperial, the charge shall b e ................................................. a Pressman to find his ow n roller boy. 2. SCALE OF V A R IA T IO N FOR T H E SIZE OF FORMS. O ctavo o r Quarto or smaller. larger. P ic a , em s. Medium, to contain.................................................................. ............................ R oyal, to contain..... .................................................................. .............................. Super royal, to c o n t a in ......................................................................................... Medium and half, to contain................................................................................. Imperial, to contain. ............................................................................................... 9,000 11,000 13,500 16,000 18,000 P ic a em s. 11,000 13,500 16,000 18,000 22,000 Any form exceeding either of these by 250 ems to be charged as the next, highest. S C A L E F O B J O B S . Inches. Medium to measure____ 18 by 22 Royal to measure_______ 19 by 24 Super royal to measure. Imperial to measure----- 20 by 27 21 by 31 3. All bookwork less than 4 tokens to be charged 2 cents extra per token. 4. Jobs, 39 cents per token, when worked on medium, or paper below medium; when on royal or upward, on brevier or larger letter, not less than 43 cents; below brevier 45 cents; when on imperial, 50 cents per token. 5. Work done in colors, double price. 6. Cards, for 1 pack, and not exceeding 2 packs, 39 cents; when exceeding 2 packs, to be paid at the rate of 16 cents per pack. 7. Broadsides shall be paid for double, according to the size o f the paper. To constitute a broadside, the matter to extend across the sheet without a break. A foolscap sheet, and all above, to be considered a broadside. 8. All work on parchments, when not done by the piece, to be paid $2.20 per day, and no charge to be made for less than half a d a y ; when done by the piece, if 1 pull 7 cents; if 2 pulls, 14 cents. 9. All matter that is required to be made up and imposed in pages, to be con sidered bookwork. 10. Tokens.— On newspaper work, not over 10 quires, or 240 sheets; and on other work, not more than 250 sheets; or 10$ quires to constitute a token. 11. For taking down or putting up a press, 20 cents, per hour. 12. For working down a new Ramage press, $6. 13. For lifting a form before completed, 37 cents. 14. For covering a tympan and drawer $1.10, or 55 cents for either. 15. When an alteration in a form takes place, each pressman shall be paid at the rate of 18 cents per hour for the time occupied, or 25 cents per hour if but one pressman, with roller boy. 10 1 0 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. 1G. No pressman shall teach an apprentice presswork, without the benefit of his work for fifteen weeks, or half his wages for six months; nor shall he teach an apprentice who is more than 18 years old, and who is bound for less than four years. No alteration or amendment shall be made to the foregoing list o f prices, unless two-thirds of the members present concur therein; nor then, without one month’s previous notice having been given. REGULATIONS RESPECTING APPRENTICES. 1. Every apprentice shall serve until he be 21 years o f a g e; and, at the time of entering as an apprentice, shall not be more than 16 years o f age; and every boy taken as an apprentice shall be bound to his employer in due form o f law. 2. No runaway apprentice to be received into any office in the District o f Columbia, either as an apprentice or journeyman. 3. That on the death of his master, or if, from any cause, the office wherein he was indented shall be discontinued, he may be taken into another office, and be regularly indented to finish the term of his apprenticeship. 4. After the 1st day o f January, 1844, the Columbia Typographical Society will not consider any application for membership unaccompanied by sufficient proof that the applicant has served the period of five years as a regularly indented apprentice at the printing business. 5. That after the 1st day of January, 1839, the Columbia Typographical Society will not permit members o f said society to work in any office where boys may be taken as apprentices to the printing business to serve for a less period than five years. 6. The Columbia Typographical Society recognizes but two classes o f print ers— employers and journeymen: that is, persons who carry on business solely as employers, and those who work as journeymen in the manner prescribed, and at the prices demanded by this society. APPENDIX B, NO. 7.—SCALE OF PRICES OF THE NEW ORLEANS TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ADOPTED SEPTEMBER 14, 1889. COMPOSITION. Compositors employed on morning newspapers to work by the piece only, at the following rates: Plain matter, in the English, French, or Spanish language, 62£ cents per 1,000 ems, for manuscript or printed copy; pearl, 75 cents per 1.000 em s; ruby, 81£ cents per 1,000 em s; diamond, $1 per 1,000 em s; rule and figure work, $1.25 per 1,000 ems; rule or figure work separately, 93f cents per 1.000 ems. A foreman not to receive less than $25 per week. On evening papers, and in book and job offices, compositors not to receive less than $19 per week, ten hours constituting a day’s w ork ; and all extra hours to be charged at the rate o f 40 cents per hour. Work done by the piece to be charged the same as morning papers. Foremen on evening papers not to receive less than $22.50 per week. Where two foremen are employed on one paper in two languages, the foreman on the English side not to receive less than $20 per week. On bookwork, the running title, white line under it, and the foot line o f the page, to be considered as regular matter. An odd en in width or depth to be counted an em ; but if less than an en, it is not to be reckoned. Bookwork and jobs done by the piece, with pica or larger letter, to be charged as pica. Bookwork and jobs done by the piece, in which Hebrew, Greek, or other for eign characters occur, to be charged when they amount to one line, 16 cents extra per 1,000 ems. Bookwork done by the piece in the dead languages, to be charged at the rate o f $1.25 per 1,000 em s; but work done in the dead and modern languages, (an equal proportion of each,) to be charged at the rate o f 93-f cents per 1,000 ems. Bookwork with side notes, to be charged as follow s: The text and side notes to be charged separately, and the notes to be charged according to the letter in which they are set, and calculated the full length o f the page; when they are cut in the text, 16 cents extra to be charged. Music $1.25 per 1,000 ems. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS, 1011 Letter cast on a body smaller than the face to be charged according to the body; and letter cast on a body larger than the face to be charged according to the face. Compositors making up a set of furniture, to charge at the rate o f 40 cents per hour. Compositors, in all cases, to charge the blank pages which may occur in a work. For alterations from copy, if a single one, 25 cents; per hour, 40 cents. PRESSWORK. [With halls or rollers.] Bookwork done on medium, royal or super royal paper to be charged per to k e n _______________________________________________________________ $1.00 Imperial ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.25 Broadside, posting bills, super royal or imperial________________________ 1. 50 Broadside, posting bills, under super royal_____________________________ 1.00 Cards: Plain, two packs or under__________________________________________ . 75 G la zed ____________________________________________________________ 1. 25 For each succeeding pack, if plain-------------------------------------------------. 25 For each succeeding pack, if glazed_______________________________ . 37$ Work done on parchment, each impression_____________________________ . 12$ Standing after a form shall have been put to press, per hour____________ . 40 Covering tympan and drawer, each____________________________________ 1. 00 Putting up a press------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5. 00 Taking down a press---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. 50 Pressmen working on morning and evening papers, or other periodicals, by the piece, to charge for medium, or super royal, per token________ . 75 Imperial or larger------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LOO For all extra fine work an additional price to be charged, to be agreed on between the employer and employed. All work done in colors, to be charged according to the time employed thereon. Lifting a form before the whole impression is worked off, to be charged as one token. When a roller boy is furnished by the employer, no more than 25 per cent shall be deducted. When a pressman may be employed by the week in a book or job office, or on an evening paper, he shall not charge less than $19 per week, ten hours consti tuting a d a y ; and all work done after the regular hours, 40 cents per hour. On morning papers, pressmen working by the week, not to receive less than $22. J a m e s P ir n ie , P resid en t. W il l i a m P ic k e t t , V ice-P resident. J a m e s O ’D o w d , S ecreta ry. R obert M cC o u l l , Treasurer. A. H. H ayes, H . L. K e l s e y , E. B. K e l l y , J. P. L y n c h , Ja m e s D y e r , Ja m e s T aylo r , D irectors. 1012 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. APPENDIX B, No. 8.—SCALE OF PRICES OF THE PITTSBURG TYPO GRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION, ADOPTED NOVEMBER 21, 1849. Pittsburg Typographical Association, organized in 1849, issued a bill of prices together with apprenticeship recommendations, November 21, 1849, as follow s: REPORT ON BILL OF PRICES. T o the Officers and M em b ers o f the P ittsbu rg T ypographical A ssociation. Your committee appointed to fix a bill o f prices, respectfully offer the follow ing for the consideration o f the association: COMPOSITION. 1. Composition, manuscript and reprint, per 1,000 ems________________ $0. 25 2. Any size smaller than nonpareil___________________________________ .28 (The headline, with the blank after, and the foot line, in all cases to be counted three lines; over an en in length or width, to be counted an em ; if less, not to be reckoned.) 3. Work done in foreign languages, in Roman characters, extra per 1.000 ems________________________________________________________ . 10 4. Work done in foreign languages, and not in Roman characters, except the German, which shall be the same as English, per 1,000 ems____ . 50 5. Algebraical work, and works having a great number of astronomical, medical, and other signs_________________________________________ . 50 6. Spelling books and similar works, advance per 1,000_______________ . 05 7. Arithmetical work, advance________________________________________ . 05 8. English dictionaries with figured vowels and accents, advance______ . 10 9. English dictionaries without figured vowels, advance----------------------. 05 10. Side and center notes in Bibles, Testaments, and other works, to be counted the full length of the page, (including the lead or rule) according to the type in which they are set, and an advance per 1.000 o f_________________________________________________________ . 03 11. Cut-in notes to be cast up according to the type in which they are set, and charged an advance o f----------------------------------------------------.05 12. Quotations, notes, mottoes, etc., in smaller type, to be counted accord ing to the type in which they are set. 13. Works where the measure does not exceed 14 ems, advance per 1,000 o f ______________________________________________________________ .03 14. All letter cast on a body larger than the face to be counted according to the fa c e ; and all letter cast on a smaller body than the face, to be counted according to the body. 15. Composition on music to be done as agreed upon by the employer and journeyman. 16. Rule and figure work, per 1,000------------------------------------------------------. 50 17. Rule or figure work, per 1,000--------------------------------------------------------. 37$ 18. Letter list, or names set two or three in newspaper column, per 1,000. . 37$ 19. Time lost in alterations from copy, extra casing of letter, or anything not coming legitimately under the preceding articles, to be charged by the h ou r_____________________________________________________ . 20 20. Journeymen working by the week, (ten hours a day’s work) to re ceive not less than______________________________________________ 8. 00 21. Journeymen working on morning papers, per week not less than____ 9. 00 22. Foremen shall not receive less per week than_______________________ 10. 00 JOB WORK. F o r m s to be distributed b y th e jou rn eym a n. Common medium sheet b ills----------------------------------------------------------------- $1.00 Common medium sheet-bills (with border,)____________________________ 1.25 Common medium half-sheet bills_______________________________________ .50 Common medium half-sheet bills (with borders)-----------------------------------. 75 Common medium quarto bills--------------------------------------------------------------. 37$ Programmes, (eight to a sheet)-----------------------------------------------------------.50 Posters for theater, circus, etc__________________________________________ . 50 Bills o f lading_________________________________________________________ .50 Circulars for balls, etc., (scrip t)_______________________________________ .25 Business cards or exhibition tickets____________________________________ .25 EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 1013 Plain composition in script to be counted as pica. All job work not above enumerated, or any the before mentioned with an extra quantity o f matter, to be agreed upon by the parties. PRESSWORK. Office to find the roller hoy. Medium, or under, per token___________________________________________ $0.20 Imperial, per token___________________________________________________ . 25 Double medium, per token-------------------------------------------------------------------. 28 Music, per token______________________________________________________ . 23 Steamboat bills, per token, (black )___________________________________ .25 Steamboat bills, per token, (colored)__________________________________ .35 Alterations on steamboat bills_________________________________________ . 10 Bills o f lading, circulars, invitations, billheads, checks, drafts, etc., per token________________________________________________________________ . 25 Colored work, per token_______________________________________________ . 30 Cap or quarto post, per token__________________________________________ . 25 Cards, first pack----------------------------------------------------------------------------------. 12$ Cards, every additional p a ck __________________________________________ . 06$ Posters, 100 or less-----------------------------------------------------------------------------. 25 Posters, each additional 100 or less_____________________________________ . 12$ Books o f not more than one token an advance o f_______________________ . 05 All work done on parchment, each pull-------------------------------------------------. 04 Covering ty m p an --------------------------------------------------------------------------------.50 Covering d r a w e r --------------------------------------------------------------------------------.50 Making r o lle r _________________________________________________________ .25 Lifting forms before their completion, an extra token to be charged; provided, the full complement does not exceed 8 tokens. Extra charges on engravings. Pressmen employed by the week, ten hours to constitute a day’s work, $9 per w eek; power pressmen, $10. Your committee, without wishing to be considered as dictating to employers, would earnestly recommend that hereafter no apprentice shall be taken for a less period than three years, and that regular and formal indentures be made between the parties, that justice may be done both. Respectfully, G. T. Myebs. J oseph Martin . D . P. W ork . A l e x . W . R ook . W . H . C appe . B. SlNGERLY. J. R e isin g e r . P ittsb u r g , ’N o vem b er 21 , 1849, APPENDIX B, NO. 9.—SCALE OF PRICES OF THE JOURNEYMEN PRINTERS’ UNION OF PHILADELPHIA, UNANIMOUSLY ADOPTED AUGUST 10, 1850. MORNING NEWSPAPERS. 1. Composition in agate, and in all larger type, o f regular body and face, 30 cents per 1,000 ems. 2. Composition in type smaller than agate, o f regular body and face, 35 cents per 1,000 ems. 3. Letter cast on a body larger than the face, to be charged according to the fa c e ; and letter cast on a body smaller than the face to be counted according to the body. 4. Rule and figure work, double price. 5. Composition requiring three justifications, such as three columns o f figures, lists o f letters, as at present published, etc., a price and a half. 6. Work by the hour, and all waiting after 8 o’clock, p. m. for mails, or for any other purpose, 25 cents per hour. 7. On each occasion where a hand shall be called to go to work, after being through the regular work, $1 shall be charged extra. 1014 BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR. 8. Every hand employed upon a morning newspaper shall be entitled to 24 consecutive hours' intermission from labor in each week, and if called upon to work during such intermission, he shall be paid $1 extra, whether the said intermission occurs on Saturday*, or any other day o f the week. 9. Work by the week, $12 per week, 10 hours constituting a day’s work. WEEKLY AND AFTERNOON NEWSPAPERS. 1. Composition, 28 cents per 1,000 ems. 2. Hour work, 20 cents per hour. 3. Ten dollars per week, 10 hours constituting a day’s work. BOOK AND JOB WORK. 1. Work in the English language, printed copy, from pica to nonpareil inclu sive, 27 cents per 1,000 ems; from agate to diamond, 30 cents per 1,000 ems. Manuscript copy, 2 cents per 1,000 ems extra. Printed copy, with 10 interlinea tions or alterations per 1,000 ems, to be charged as manuscript. 2. Work in foreign languages, Roman characters, printed copy, 5 cents per 1.000 ens extra; manuscript, 7 cents per 1,000 ens extra. 3. Work in the Hebrew language, 35 cents per 1,000 ems. Where points are used, they shall be counted according to their body, and charged 40 cents per 1.000 ems. 4. Work in the Greek language, 45 cents per 1,000 ems. 5. Work in which Hebrew and Greek words, and words in other than Roman characters occur, 1 cent extra for every three words. 6. Spelling books, dictionaries, primers, and all works in which figured vowels and accents are used, printed copy, 33 cents per 1,000 em s; manuscript, 35 cents extra per 1,000 ems. 7. Arithmetical work, 10 cents extra per 1,000 ems. 8. Algebraical work, 50 cents per 1,000 ems. 9. Work in which cuts, excepting initial letters, are run into the matter, 2 cents per 1,000 ems extra on the pages in which such cuts occur. 10. Quotations, mottoes, contents o f chapters, footnotes, descriptions, under cuts, to be charged according to the type in which they are set. 11. Jobs in script to be counted as pica, 33 cents per 1,000 ems. 12. Work in which the lines or paragraphs are in different sized type alter nately, 2 cents per 1,000 ems extra. 13. All matter in which there are a number of braces, requiring more than two justifications, a price and a half. (In this section reference is made to tables of classification, as a botanical work, etc.) 14. Side and center notes, or references to Bibles, Testaments, law and his torical works, and work of a similar description, to be counted according to the type in which they are set, and measured the whole length o f the page, includ ing the leads and rules, 3 cents per 1,000 ems extra. 15. Cut-in notes, 2 cents per note, and the matter to be counted as text. 16. In letterpress offices, cuts and blank pages to be charged by the composi tor ; and all cuts to be charged according to the type o f the page in which they respectively occur. 17. Letter cast on a body larger than the face, to be charged according to the fa ce ; and letter cast on a body smaller than the face, to be counted accord ing to the body. 18. The headline, the blank after it, and the foot line, to be counted three lines. An en in width to be counted an e n ; if more than an en, to be counted an em ; if less than an en, not to be counted. 19. When the measure does not exceed 14 ems in width, 3 cents per 1,000 em s. extra. 20. When the measure does not exceed 18 ems in width, 2 cents per 1,000 ems extra. 21. When the measure does not exceed 21 ems in width, 1 cent per 1,000 ems extra. 22. The compositor shall not be required to correct alterations (including alterations of punctuations) from printed copy. 23. In tabular work, three or more columns of rules and figures to constitute rule and figure work. Three or more columns of rules to constitute rule work. Three or more columns o f figures to constitute figure work. Rule and figure EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF PRINTERS. 1015 work, double price. Rule work, a price and a half. Figure work, a price and a halt 24. No work shall be measured by any type larger than pica. 25. Making up a set o f furniture to be charged for according to the time occupied. 26. In stereotype offices, the forms to be revised, or prepared for molding, at the employer’s expense, and reimposed matter to be in the care o f the office. 27. The lowest charge for any piece o f work, 27 cents. 28. All work on time, (except week work) 20 cents per hour. 29. Compositors employed by the week, $10 per week; ten hours to consti tute a day’s work. MUSIC. 1. Plain choral music, 18 cents per 1,000 ems; plain choral music, contain ing two parts on a staff, or with organ accompaniment, 22 cents per 1,000 em s; where a single staff on the page contains two parts, 20 cents per 1,000 ems. . 2. Piano and other instrumental music, 20 cents per 1,000 ems. 3. Rudiments to be counted as music. 4. Music jobs, containing less than 15,000 ems, 3 cents per 1,000 ems extra. APPENDIX B, NO. 10.—LIST OF PRICES OF THE COLUMBIA (WASH INGTON, D. C.) TYPOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ADOPTED NOVEMBER 2, 1850. COMPOSITION. 1. Compositors to receive not less than $12 per w eek; ten hours to constitute a day’s w ork ; and for extra hours, 25 cents per hour. 2. In all offices, and at all seasons, to receive not less than $2.50 for each and every Sunday, (to consist of eight hours;) and for extra hours on said day, 30 cents per hour. PIECEWORK. 1. All works done in the English language, common matter, from pica to non pareil, 40 cents per 1,000 ems; nonpareil, 44 cents; agate, 47 cents; pearl, 49 cents; diamond, 60 cents. The headline, with the blank after it, and the foot line, in all cases, to be counted as three lines. An en, in length or width, to be counted an em ; if less than an en, not to be reckoned. Above pica, to be charged as pica. 2. Rule or figure work.— All rule or figure work a price and a half, according to the type in which it is set. All matter in which two or more rules are inserted to constitute rule w ork ; and two or more columns o f figures without rules, to constitute figure work. 3. Rule and figure work.— All rule and figure work to be paid double the price o f common matter. One column of figures and one rule, in a page or other mat ter, shall constitute rule and figure work: P ro vid ed , h ow ever , That on works the pages o f which are uniformly made up of two or more columns, (as on periodical publications,) no charge beyond that o f common matter shall be made for, or on account of, the rules separating the columns. 4. All heads and foot lines attached to rule or figure work, or rule and figure work, to be reckoned the same as the body o f the matter. 5. All foreign languages, printed in Roman characters, an addition of 6 cents per 1,000 ems. 6. All work printed in Greek, or other foreign characters, to be paid for at the rate o f 79 cents per 1,000 ems. 7. Arithmetical works to be paid an advance of 6 cents per 1,000 ems on the price o f common matter. 8. Algebraical or mathematical works to be charged double price. 9. Spelling books, or other work containing more than two columns in a page, to be paid an advance of one-half on the price o f common matter. 10. Music double price. 11. Side notes to be counted the full length o f the page, and charged according to the type in which they are set. 12. Cut-in notes to be cast up according to the type in which they are set, and charged 10 cents extra per 1,000 em s; and the whole page to be counted as text. 13. All bottom notes, contents o f chapters, etc., i