Full text of Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor, Nos. 1 - 100 : November 1897 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor, No. 13, Volume II

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BULLETIN

OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
NO. 13—NOVEMBER, 1897.

ISSUED EVERY OTHER MONTH.

EDITED B Y

CARROLL D. WRIGHT,
COMMISSIONER.

OREN W. WEAVER,
CHIEF CLERK.

W A SH IN G TO N :
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1897.

0 OISTTEISTTS.
Page.

Editorial note.............................................. ................................... '..............
The Italians in Chicago......................................................... *.................... .
The anthracite mine laborers, by G. O. Virtue, Ph. D ..................................
Digest of recent reports .of State bureaus of labor statistics:
Maryland..... ............................................................................................
New Jersey............................................................................................ ..
North Carolina.............
Tennessee......................................... ............... ; ..................................
Tenth report on the annual statistics of manufactures in Massachusetts__
Digest of recent foreign statistical publications....................................... ..
Decisions of courts affecting labor................................................................
Laws of various States relating to labor enacted since January 1, 1896........
Recent Government contracts......................................................
in

689, 690
691-727
728-774
775, 776
777-780
780-782
782, 783
784-789
790-798
799-825
826-837
838

BULLETIN
OF THE

D E P A R T M E N T OF L A B O R .
No. 13.

WASHINGTON.

November, 1897.

EDITORIAL NOTE.

In Bulletin No. 3, for March, 1896, attention* was called to certain
erroneous statements being circulated in the press relative to produe
tion. The effect of the note convinces me that it is wise now and then
to use the pages of the Bulletin to correct false statements given on
the alleged authority of the official reports of the Department of Labor.
And so, hereafter, whenever the official Reports of the Department are
used as authority to support false statements, attention will be called to
them and the correct figures published.
During the last six months the following statement has appeared in
newspapers and been attributed to the Commissioner of Labor:
Two hours and fifteen minutes’ daily work by each able-bodied man,
if systematically applied, would produce all the food, clothing, and
shelter the people need.
The above statement sometimes appears in another form, as follows,
and is attributed to the Department of Labor, or to the Commissioner
of Labor :
In 1890 the labor force of the United States, working thirty-seven
and one-half days each year, could produce all the luxuries and neces
sities used by the population of the United States.
The foregoing statements have been very widely published and have
resulted in considerable correspondence seeking to know whether or
not the Department has been correctly quoted. Neither of them ema
nated either from the Commissioner of Labor or from any of the official
documents of the Department.
689

690

BU LLETIN

OF TH E

DEPARTM ENT

OF LABOR.

Another erroneous statement relating to the number of strikes in the
United States appears in some of the most reputable papers in the
country. I t is as follows:
Strilcers.
Year.

Number.

Average
per
strike.

4, Oil
5, 900
8,272
5, 854
12,900
23, 967
34,166
16, 951
25, 027

143
227
212
130
193
296
397
177
368

Strikes.

1879................... .........
1880...........................
1 8 8 1 ...,............. .
3882............................
1883............................
1884. J.......................
1885...........................
1886............................
1887............................

32
27
44
47
73
81
89
96
69

Strikers.
Year.

Strikes.
Number

1888..........................
1889..........................
1890..........................
1891............. .............
1892..........................
1 8 9 3 .................. .
1894................... .
1895..........................

101
126
139
132
119
131
109
126

Average
per
strike.

28,974
23, 322
38, 402
34,733
30, 800
32,109
27, 595
19, 307

293
187
289
271
263
253
265
153

It is impossible to find the source of this table or the disjointed and
fragmentary facts from which it could possibly have been constructed.
In the Tenth Annual Keport of the Commissioner of Labor (1894),
relating to Strikes and Lockouts, Volume I, page 1C, there appears .the
following table which contains the correct figures:
STRIKES, B Y Y E A R S, J A N U A R Y 1, 1881, TO JU N E 30, 1894.
Average
Employees
establish thrown out of
employ
ments to a
strike.
ment.

Strikes.

Establish
ments.

1881
...........................- .......................................................
1882.............................. ............................................................
1 8 8 3 .......... .......................................................................
1884............... ............................................. .............................
1885............................................................................................
1886...........................................................................................
1887 .........................................................................................
1888............. ............ ........................................................ .......
1889..........................................................................................
1890................................... \ ...................................................
1891 ................. ....................................... ..............................
1892..............................................................1...........................
1893..........- ....................; .........................................................
1894 (6 months).....................- ........................... ....................

471
454
478
443
645
1,432
1,436
906
1,075
1, 833
1,717
1, 298
1, 305
896

2, 928
2,105
2, 759
2,367
2, 284
10, 053
6, 589
3,506
3, 786
9,424
8,116
5,540
4, 555
5,154

6. 2
4.6
5.8
5.3
3.5
7.0
4. 6
3.9
3.5
5.1
4. 7
4.3
3.5
5.8

129, 521
154, 671
149, 763
147,054
242, 705
508, 044
379, 676
147, 704
249, 559
351,944
298, 939
206, 671
265,914
482, 066

T o ta l................................................................1..........

14, 389

69,166

4.8

3, 714, 231

Year.

C. D. W,

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

The Ninth Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, entitled
The Italians in Chicago: A Social and Economic Study, is the result
of an investigation commenced in April, 1896, by an agent of the
Department into the social and economic condition of Italian families
residing in the slum districts of Chicago. The statistics covering a year
are for the year preceding the date of the visit by the agent to the
respective families. In all, 1,348 families of this character were visited
and information secured for the 6,773 persons embraced therein. Of
this number 4,493 were born in Italy. According to the United States
census of 1890 there were 5,685 persons of Italian birth in the city of
Chicago at that time. The limited time and force available for this
investigation made it impossible to secure individual reports from the
whole Italian population of Chicago, and, indeed, such an extensive
canvass was not deemed necessary. It is believed that the data secured
for the 1,348 families visited is entirely representative of the conditions
existing in all Italian families of a similar character in that city. The
canvass was not confined to any particular portion of the city, but
represents families from all sections. The fo llo w in g streets and avenues
were canvassed, and each is represented by a number of families in the
tables: Armour, Austin, Canal, Carpenter, Clark, De Koven, Desplaines, Erie, Ewing, Fay, Fifth, Forquer, Grand, Green, Halsted,
Huron, Illinois, Indiana, Jefferson, Johnson, Kensington, Keuzie, Larrabee, La Salle, Law, Lincoln, Market, Morgan, Nineteenth, Ohio, One
hundred and sixteenth, Pacific, Page, Peoria, Philip, Polk, Purple,
Rockwell, Sangamon, Sebor, Sherman, Sixty-ninth, Taylor, Tilden,
Twelfth, Twentieth, Twenty-fifth, Union, Wentworth, Wood.
In the analysis of the tables comparisons have been made with the
facts given in the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of
Labor relating to the slums of great cities. That investigation was
conducted along the same general lines as this, and embraced data for
the year ending March 31,1893, for all families, of whatever nationality,
living within certain boundaries, which were designed to include the
typical slum element of the four cities of Baltimore, Chicago, New York,
and Philadelphia.
The first three tables show facts for individual persons and families,
while the remaining tables are almost wholly compiled from them, and

691

692

B U LLETIN

OF TH E

DEPARTM ENT OF LABOR.

bring the .'information given therein into a more concrete form. The
analyses follow:
Table 1.— General social and economic condition, by families and indi
viduals.—In this table each family and individual is represented. The

families are numbered from 1 to 1,348, inclusive, and a line given to
each individual embraced in them. The various columns of the table
give, for each individual, information as to the general social and eco
nomic condition.
Table I I .— General condition as to literacy and illiteracy, by families
and individuals.—In this table individuals under 10 years of age are

not included* but the family numbers correspond to those in Table I,
and the relationship to the head of the family, sex, and age are given
in likevorder, that a comparison of the facts shown in both tables may
be made for each individual.
Table II answers the inquiries as the ability of all persons in these
families 10 years of age or over to read and write their native language
and to read, write, and speak the English language.
Table I I I .— School attendance, by families and individuals.—This table
embraces all persons from 5 to 17 years of age, inclusive, as well as a
few persons below or above these ages reported as scholars, showing for
each the months of school attendance during the year and the kind of
school. The family numbers are the same as for Tables I and II.
Table IV .— Conjugal condition, by sex, nativity, and age.—This and the
remaining tables of the report are largely in the nature of summaries
of the facts already set forth in detail in the three preceding tables.
Table IY deals with the conjugal condition of the persons embraced®in
the investigation, showing the number of single, married, and widowed,
by sex, nativity, and age.
The following tables show the substantial facts to be drawn from
Table I Y :
PERSONS OF E A C H CONJUGAL CONDITION, B Y S E X A N D N A T IV IT Y .

Conjugal condition.

Males.

Females.

Males and females.

Native Foreign
Total.
born.
bom.

Native Foreign
Total.
born.
born.

Single................................
Married............................
W id ow ed.... ....................

1,141
3

1,012
1,726
49

2,153
1,729
49

1,089
16

382
1,255
100

1,471
1, 271
100

2,230
.19

1,394
2,981
149

3,624
3, 000
149

T otal......................

1,144

2, 787

3,931

1,105

1,737

2, 842

2,249

4,524 p

6,773

PER CENT OF PERSONS OF EACH CONJUGAL CONDITION, B Y SEX A N D N A T IV IT Y .

Conjugal condition.

Males.

Females.

Native Foreign
born.
born.

Total.

Native Foreign
born.
born.

Males and females.
Total.

Native Foreign
Total.
born.
born.

Single................................
Married ................. ........
Widowed ________ ______

99.74
.26

36. 31
61.93
1.76

54.77
43.98
1.25

98.55
1.45

21.99
72.25
5.76

51.76
44.72
3.52

99.16
.84

30.81
65.89
3.30

53. 51
44. 29
2. 20

T o ta l.....................

100.00

100. 00

THE

693

ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

It is here seen that 54.77 per cent of all males and 51.76 per cent of
all females were single, and of all persons 53.51 per cent were single.
Married males constituted 43.98 per cent of all males, while married
females constituted 44.72 per cent of all females. The aggregate of
married persons was 44.29 per cent of all persons. A small per cent of
all persons were widowed, while it is shown that no divorced persons
were found among these people.
The following table, reproduced from the Seventh Special Report of
the Commissioner of Labor, shows the number and per cent of persons
of each conjugal condition, by sex, found in the canvass of persons of
all nationalities living in typical slum sections of the four cities of
Baltimore, Chicago, Rew York, and Philadelphia:
NU M BER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS OF EACH CONJUGAL CONDITION, B Y SEX, IN
C ER TAIN SLUM DISTRICTS OF BALTIM ORE, CHICAGO, N E W YO RK, A N D P H IL A
D E L P H IA .
[From the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor.]
Males.

Females.

Total.

Conjugal condition.
Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
BALTIMORE.

Single........................................... ....... ............
Married........................................... ...............
W idow ed........................ ...............................
Divorced..........................................................
Not reported..................................................

5, 283
3, 437
245
12
19

58. 73
38. 21
2. 72
.13
.21

4,826
3, 425
788
10
3

53.31
37. 84
8. 71
.11
.03

10,109
6,862
1, 033
22
22

56.01
38.02
5.73
.12
.12

T o ta l....................................................

8, 996

100. 00

9, 052

100.00

18,048

100.00

Single...............................................................
Married ..........................................................
W idow ed....... ......... ...................................
Divorced....................................... ’ .................
Not reported..................................................

6, 359
3,827
193
23
249

59. 70
35. 93
1. 81
.22
2. 34

4, 859
3, 579
570
51
38

53.41
39. 34
6. 27
.56
.42

-11, 218
7, 406
763
74
2§7

56. 81
37.50
3.86
.38
1.45

T o ta l........................ ...........................

10, 651

100; 00

9, 097

100. 00

19,748

100.00

Single...............................................................
Married...........................................................
W idow ed........................................................
Divorced..........................................................
Not reported..................................................

8, 614
6, 044
278
1
898

54. 40
38.17
1. 75
.01
5. 67

6, 785
5, 411
947
3
15

51.55
41.11
7. 20
.02
.12

15, 399
11, 455
1, 225
4
913

53.11
39. 51
4.22
.01
3.15

T o ta l....................................................

15, 835

100. 00

13,161

100. 00

28,996

100.00

Single...............................................................
Married............................................................
W idow ed.......................................................
Divorced..........................................................
Not reported..................................................

5, 207
3,512
154
2
248

57. 07
38. 50
1. 69
.02
2. 72

4, 264
3,152
508
2
11

53.72
39.71
6.40
.03
.14

9, 471
6,664
662
4
259

55.52
39. 06
3.88
.02
1.52

Total .....................................................

9,123

100. 00

7, 937

100.00

17,060

100. 00

CHICAGO.

NEW YORK.

PHILADELPHIA.

As has been stated, these figures refer to persons of all. nationalities,
while the figures drawn from Table IY of the Rinth Special Report
refer to persons of Italian nativity or extraction only, although the
environment is very much the same in both cases. A 'comparison of

694

BU LLETIN

OF TH E

DEPARTM ENT

OF LABOR.

the figures for these two classes shows a larger per cent of married
persons among the families of Italian birth, whether compared with
the figures for Chicago or with those for the other cities embraced in
the Seventh Special Beport. It is seen that of all persons included
in the present report44.29 per cent were married, while of all persons in
the Seventh Special Beport, Baltimore shows but 38.02 jier cent, Chicago
but 37.50 per cent, New York but 39.51 per cent, and Philadelphia but
39.06 per cent married.
The following table, taken from the Eleventh Census of the United
States (1890), gives the number and per cent of persons of each con
jugal condition, by sex, of the total population of Chicago:
N UM BER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS OF EAC H CONJUGAL CONDITION, B Y SEX,
FOR TH E C IT Y OF CHICAGO.
[From the Eleventh Census of the United States.]

Males.

Females.

Total.

Conjugal condition.
Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. N umber. Per centS in gle...........................................................
349,795
Married......................................... .................. - 205,254
W idow ed.............................. ........................
10, 752
D ivorced............. ............................ ............
567
2, 034
Not reported.................................................
T o ta l..................................... „.............

568, 402

61.54
36.11
1.89
.10
.36

292, 515
203,069
34, 629
1,073
162

100.00

531,448

55.04
38.21
6. 52
.20
.03

642,310
408, 323
45, 381
1, 640
2,196

58.40
37.12
4.13
. 15
.20

100.00 1, 099, 850

100.00

This table shows that of the entire male population of Chicago at the
Eleventh Census 61.54 per cent were single and 36.11 per cent were mar
ried, while fQr the males embraced in the present report a much smaller
per cent of single persons and a much larger per cent of married
persons were found, the per cent being 54.77 and 43.98, respectively.
The same condition was found to exist for the female population. Of
the whole female population of Chicago, 55.04 per cent were single and
38.21 per cent were married. Of the persons included in this report,
51.76 per cent of the females were single and 44.72 per cent were mar
ried. Taking the total population of Chicago into consideration, the
Eleventh Census shows 58.40 per cent single and 37.12 per cent mar
ried. Of those included in this report, persons of Italian birth or
extraction, but 53.51 per cent were single, while 44.29 per cent were
married.
Of the Italians covered by the present report, 99.16 per cent of those
born in this country were single persons and of those born abroad 30.81
per cent were single. A similar disproportion was found to exist in
the figures shown in the Seventh Special Beport, and was there
accounted for by the fact that u foreign born persons coming to this
country are usually married or of marriageable age, while the native
born include a great number of children who have necessarily been
classed as single.”

THE

695

ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

The following summary, drawn* from Table IV of the present report,
shows the ages, by periods of years, subdivided by sex and nativity, of
the persons embraced in this investigation:
NUM BER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS OF EA C H A G E PERIOD, B Y SEX A N D
N A T IV IT Y .
Males.
Age periods.

Females.

Total.

Native born. Foreign born. Native born. Foreign born. Native born. Foreign bcrn.
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.

Under 5 years........
5 to 9 years.............
10 to 14 years.........
15 to 19 years.........
20 to 24 years.........
25 to 29 years..........
30 to 84 years.........
35 to 39 years. . . . . .
40 to 44 years. __
45 to 49 years__. . .
50 to 54 years
55 to 59 years__'__
60 to G4 years..........
65 years or over.. . .
A ge not reported. . .

648
344
115
20
10
5
2

56. 64
30. 07
10. 05
1.75
.87
.44
.18

14
113
185
234
275
384
438
827
326
215
136
47
48
34
11

0. 50
4.05
6.64
8. 40
9.87
13. 78
15. 72
11.73
11, 70
7. 71
4. 88
1. 69
1.72
1.22
.39

631
326
106
24
9
5
2
2

57.11
29. 50
9.59
2.17
.82
.45
.18
. 18

20
124
150
146
185
219
234
210
156
107
80
25
44
34
3

Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent.

1.15 1,279
670
7.14
8. 64
221
8. 40
44
10. 65
19
12.61
10
13.47
4
2
12. 09
8. 98
6.16
4. 61
1.44
2. 53
1. 96
. 17

56. 87
29. 79
9. 83
1. 96
.84
.44
.18
. 09

34
237
335
380
460
603
672
537
482
322
216
72
92
68
14

0.75
5. 24
7.41
8.40
10.17
13. 33
14.85
11. 87
10. 65
7.12
4.78
1. 59
2.03
1.50
.31

Total............. 1,144 100. 00 2, 787 100. 00 1,105 100.00 1, 737 100. 00 2,219 100.00 4, 524

100.00

Taking up the total number of persons in these Italian families as
shown in the total columns of the preceding table, it is seen that a very
large proportion of native-born persons, 5G.87 per cent, were under 5
years of age and 29.79 per cent were between 5 and 9 years of age,
making 86.66 per cent under 10 years of age. This becomes more
noticeable- when compared with the following table, showing similar
information for the inhabitants of the slum districts embraced in the
Seventh Special Report, where the proportion of native-born persons
under 5 years of age was but 21.73 per cent in Baltimore, 29.42 per
cent in Chicago, 35.80 per cent in New York, and 35.92 per cent in
Philadelphia, and the proportion of those from 5 to 9 years of age but
17.72 per cent in Baltimore, 17.30 per cent in Chicago, %0.69 per cent in
New York, and 18.08 per cent in Philadelphia. The largest proportion
of foreign-born persons in the Italian families included in the present
report, 14.85 per cent, was found between 30 and 34 years of age, 60.87
per cent of all having been between 20 and 44 years of age. Of the
slum population embraced in the Seventh Special Report, the largest
proportion of foreign-born persons was found in each of the cities
between 25 and 29 years of age, while the proportion between 20 and
44 years, though not so large as that found in the Italian families
embraced in this report, was quite large, amounting to 48.12 percent in
Baltimore, 55 per cent in Chicago, 54.96 per cent in New York, and
51.78 per cent-in Philadelphia. The table from the Seventh Special
Report follows.

696

B U LLETIN

OF TH E DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

N UM BER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS OF EA C H A G E PERIOD, B Y S E X A N D N A T I V
I T Y , IN C E R T A IN SLUM DISTR ICTS OF B AL T IM O R E , CHICAGO, N E W Y O R K , A N D
P H IL A D E L P H IA .
.

[From the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor.]
Males.

Age periods.

Females.

Total.

Native born. Foreign born. Native born. Foreign bom. Native born. Foreign bom.
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.

BALTIMORE.

Under 5 ye a rs..----5 to 9 years.............
10 to 14 years.........
15 to 19 years..........
20 to 24 years..........
25 to 29 years.........
30 to 34 years.........
35 to 39 years.........
40 to 44 years.........
45 to 49 years.........
50 to 54 years..........
55 to 59 years..........
60 to 64 years.........
65 years or over----Age not reported. . .
T otal.........

5, 357 100.00

64 1.76 1,211 22.29
172 4.73
995 18.31
244 6.70
634 11.67
275 7.56
548 10.09
313 8.60
536 9.87
404 11.10
386 7.10
423 11. 62
366 6.74
311 8. 55
300 5.52
331 9.10
185 3.41
269 7. 39
105 1. 93
259 7.12
65 1. 20
185 5. 08!
38
.70
156 4.29
22
.40
211 5.80
35
.64
22
.60
.13
,
7
3,639 100. 00 5, 433100.00

28. 07
17.17
10. 60
8.94
10. 65
7. 78
5. 98
4. 41
2.13
.98
.68
.26
.30
.09
1.96

!
2.46; 1,267 30.83
5. 75
717 17.45
6. 63,
452 11.00
8.04
442 10.76
11.29
432 10. 51
14. 90
296 7.20
12. 54
185 4.50
9. 66
136 3.31
8.49
69 1. 68
5. 51
41 1.00
4.18
22
.54
2.12
4
.10
1.76
9
~ 22
2.43
6
.15
4.24
31
.75

1,134
917
59*
558
495
443
386
299
. 207
133
86

30
36
31
4

21.17
17.12
11.16
10.42
9.24
8.27
7. 21
5. 58
3.86
2. 48
1. 61
.56
.67
.58
.07

CHICAGO.

Under 5 years..........
5 to 9 years..............
10 to 14 years..........
15 to 19 years.........
20 to 24 years..........
25 to 29 years.........
30 to 34 years.........
35 to 39 years..........
40 to 44 years..........
45 to 49 years..........
50 to 54 years.........
f>5 to 59 years..........
60 to 64 years.........
65 years or over----Age not reported. . .
Total . . . . -----

l, 202
735
454
383
456
333
256
189
91
42
29
11
13
4
84

157
366
422
512
719
949
799
615
541
351
266
135
112
155
270

51 1.41
169 4.67
204 5.64
359 9.92
404 11.16
403 11.14
345 9.53
259 7.16
300 8.29
237 6. 55
253 6.99
167 4. 61
173 4. 78
292 8.07
3
.08

2,345
1,912
1, 232
1,106
1,031
829
752
599
392
238
151

21.73
17.72
11.42
10.25
9.56
7. 68
6. 97
5. 55
3.63
2. 21
1.40
.63
. 54
.61
-r. 10

115 1.59
341 4.70
448 6.17
634 8.74
717 9.88
807 11.12
768 10.58
570 7.85
631 8. 69
506 6.97
512 7,05
352 4.85
329 4.53
503 6.93
25
.35

3,619 100.00 10, 790 100. 00

7,258 100.00

139 2. 79
318 6. 38
407 8.16
551 11.05
608 12.19
690 13.83
495 9. 92
449 9.00
382 7. 66
279 5. 59
220 4.41
127 2.55
108 2.16
158 3.17
.57 1.14

58
66
11

2, 469
1. 452
906,
825
888
629
441
325
160
83
51
15
22
10
115

29.42
17. 30
10.80
9.83
10. 58 /
7. 50
5. 26
3. 87I
1.911
.99
. 61
.18
.26
.12
1.37

4, 282100. 00

6,369 100.00

4,109 100. 00

4, 988 100. 00

Under 5 years.......... 1,902 33. 49
5 to 9 years.............. 1,117 19. 67
10 to 14 years...........
626 11.02
15 to 19 years.’. ........
431 7.59
20 to 24 years...........
356 6.27
25 to 29 years...........
284 5.00
30 to 34 y e a r s ...----174 3.06
35 to 39 years........... • 116 2.04
40 to 44 years........... *
65 1.14
45 to 49 years...........
30
.53
50 to 54 years............
23
.40
55 to 59 years...........
10
.18
60 to 64 years...........
.16
9
.12
65 years or over----7
A ge not reported. . .
530 9.33

209 2. 06
441 4. 34
616 6. 07
748 7. 37
950 9. 35
1, 307 12.87
1,333 13.13
1,141 11. 24
983 9.68
581 5.72
508 5.00
246 2. 42
230 2. 26
213 2.10
649 6. 39

1, 982
1,128
604
529
317
216
147
102
64
27
18
10
8
5
13

192 2.40 3,884 35.80
441 5. 52 2, 245 20. 69,
573 7.17 1, 230 11. 34
776 9. 71
960 8. 85
942 11. 79
673 6.20
500 4. 61|
960 12. 01
908 11. 36
321 2. 96
792 9.91
218 . 2. Ol!
658 8. 23
129 1.19
503 6. 30
57
.52
408 5.11
41
.38
279 3.49
.i s ;
20
263 3. 29
.!6 ,
17
225 2.82
12
.ll|
71
543 5. 00
.89
7,991 100.00 10,850 100.00

296 2.61
684 6.02
829 7.30
1,063 9.36
1,327 11.68
1,639 14.43'
1,294 11.39
1,064 9. 37
923 8.13
630 5.55
486 4.28
262 2.31
220 1. 94
313 2. 75
327 2.88

8,391 100.00 11,357 100.00

NEW YORK.

T otal.............

5,680 100. 00 10,155100. 00

38. 34
21.82
11. 68
10. 23
6.13
4.18
2. 84
1.97
1.24
.52
.35
.19
.16
.10
.25

5,170 100.00

PHILADELPHIA.

Under 5 years..........
5 to 9 years.............
10 to 14 years...........
15 to 19 years...........
20 to 24 years...........
25 to 29 years...........
30 to 34 years...........
35 to 39 years...........
40 to 44 vears...........
45 to 49 years...........
50 to 54 years.........
55 to 59 years-----. . .
60t o 64 years-----. . .
65 years or over----A ge not reported...
T o ta l.............

1,192 35. 92
618 18. 62
322 9. 70
263 7. 92
232 6. 99
172 5.18
152 4. 58
136 4.10
71 2.14
40 1. 21
33 1.00
.63
21
.42
14
26
.78
.81
27
3, 319 100.00

137 2. 36
374 6. 44
448 7. 72
487 8. 39
629 10.84
760 13.09
698 12. 03
547 9.42
467 8.05
287 4. 95
280 4.82
138 2. 38
118 2. 03
126 2.17
308 5. 31
5,804

100.

ooj

1,232 35. 93
602 17. 56
329 9. 59
258 7.52
272 7.93
187 5.45
153 4.46
125 3. 65
71 2.07
53 1.55
31
.90
i 70
24
.50
17
35 1. 02
40 1.17
3,429 ICO. 00

139 3. 08'
350 7. 76,
410 9.10
525 11.65
568 12. 60
545 12. 09
437 9.69
385 8. 54
303 6. 72
233 5.17
194 4. 30
106 2. 35
128 2.84
141 3.13
.98
44
4, 508 10 0. 00

2,424 35. 92^
1,220 18. 08
651 9. 65
521 7. 72
504 7.47,
359 5. 32
305 4. 52
261 3.87
142 2.10
93 1.38
64
.95
45
.67
31
.46
61
.90
.99
67
6, 748100. 00

401
882
1,189
1, 524
1, 892
2,267
2, 241
1, 933
1,641
1, 084
916
525
493
438
720,

2,21
4.86
6.55
8.40
10.43
12.49
12. 35
10.65
9.04
5.98
5. 05
2.89
2.72
2.41
3. 97

18,146100. 00
•
i
276 2 68
724 7. 02
858 8. 32
1,012 9.81
1,197 11.61
1, 305 12.65
1,135 11.01
932 9.04
770 7.47
520 5.04
474 4.60
244 2.37
246 2. 38
267 2. 59
352 3.41 ’
10, 312 100.00

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

697

The following table, compiled from the Eleventh Census of the United
States, shows similar facts for the total population of Chicago:
NUM BER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS OF EA C H A G E PERIOD, B Y S E X A N D N A T IV
IT Y , OF T H E TO TA L POPULATION OF CHICAGO.
[From the Eleventh Census of the United States.]
Females.

Males.
Age periods.

Total.

Native born. Foreign born. Native bom. Foreign born. Native born. Foreign born
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Nuin- Per
ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.

Under 5 years..........
5 to 9 years.............
10 to 14 years..........
15 to 19 years.........
20 to 24 years.........
25 to 29 years..........
30 to 34 years.........
35 to 39 years.........
40 to 44 years.........
45 to 49 years------50 to 54 years.........
55 to 59 years..........
60 to 64 years.........
65 years or over----Age not reported ..

68,619
50,908
36*645
34, 376
34, 830
30,937
25, 562
16, 253
10, 354
7,308
5,192
3, 056
2, 214
2, 761
1,864

20.74
15. 39
11.07
10. 39
10.53
9. 35
7. 73
4.91
3.13
2.21

1.57
.92
.67
.83
.56

2,571
7,489
11, 876
13, 643
26, 216
35, 891
33, 643
26, 732
22,726
18, 745
14, 269
8 , 516
6, 900
7, 806
500

1. 08 67,187 21.04

3.15
5. 00
5. 74
11.04
15.11
14.16
11.25
9. 57
7.89
6 . 01
3.59
2. 91
3. 29

50,848
37, 357
37, 063
35, 620
28, 916
21, 289
13, 352
8 , 518
6, 092
4. 465
2, 693
2,139
3,178
626
.21

2, 406 1.14 135,806
7,401 3.49 101,756
11, 946 5.63 74,002
15,390 7.26 71, 439
28, 364 13. 37 70, 450
30, 997 14. 61 59, 853
24, 951 11. 76 46,851
20, 825 9. 82 29, 605
18,437 8. 69 18, 872
14, 983 7. 06 13, 400
12, 336 5.82 9, 657
8,112 3.83 5, 749
6, 993 3. 30 4,353
8, 726 4.11 5, 939
.20
238
.11 2, 490

15. 92
11.70
11.61
11.15
9.05
6.67
4.18
2. 67
1.91
1.40
.84
.67
.99

20.89
15.65
11.38
10. 99
10. 83
9. 21
7. 21
4.55
2. 90
2. 06
1.49
.88

.67
.91
.38

4,977
14,890
23^ 822
29, 033
54, 580
66, 888
58, 594
47, 557
41,163
33, 728
26, 605
16, 628
13, 893
16, 532
738

1.11

3.31
5.30
6.46
12.14
14.87
13. 03,
10.58
9.15
7. 50
5. 92
3.70
3.09
3.68
.16

T otal............. 330,879 100. 00 237, 523 100.00 319,343 100.00J212,105 100.00^650, 222 100.00 449, 628jl00.00

Table Y .— P lace o f birth , b y se x . —This table shows the province or
country where born for all persons embraced in the -investigation. A
very few of the foreign-born persons (less than one-half of 1 per cent)
found in these families were of other than Italian origin. According
to the Eleventh Census of the United States, there were 5,685 persons
of Italian birth in the city of Chicago. As many as 4,493 persons of
Italian birth were found in the families embraced in this report; 2,249
were born in the United States, while 31 were born in other countries.
Of the 66.33 per cent of persons of both sexes born in Italy, the largest
proportion, 18.28 per cent, were born in the province of Campania.
Basilicata follows with 17.78 per cent, Calabria with 12.68 per cent,
Sicily with 7.83 per cent, Abruzzo with 5.18 per cent, etc. Those born
in the United States, mainly children, constituted 33.20 per cent of all
persons found in these families.
Table V I . — N u m b er and size o f fa m il ie s , by hind o f f a m i l y . —Three
classes or kinds of families were found in gathering the data for the
Mnth Special Beport, viz, private families, cooperative families, and
boarding and lodging houses. Every group of individuals living under
one roof and bearing some relation to one head, whether of kin or not,
has, according to the usual custom, been termed a family. In addition
to the private or normal family, in which all or most of its members are
related by ties of blood, and the boarding and lodging house, there has
been found, among these Italians, the cooperative family. The cooper
ative family is composed of a number of persons, usually males, living
together and sharing the household expenses. Very frequently they
do their own cooking and housework. Table VI shows the number and

698

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

per cent of families of eacli size, from one to eighteen persons, subdi
vided as to the kind of fdmily, as described above. Of the 1,348 fami
lies investigated, 1,265, or 93.34 per cent, were private; 68, or 5.05 per
cent, were cooperative, and 15, or 1.11 per cent, were boarding and lodg
ing houses. Taking into consideration all families of whatever kind,
it was found that those consisting of 4 persons predominated, embrac
ing 20.55 per cent of all families; those of 5 persons follow, embracing
19.51 per cent, while those of 6 persons embraced 13.43 per cent, and
those of 3 persons, 12.02 per cent.
The average size of all families in the present report is 5.02 persons.
In the Seventh Special Report, in which slum families of various nation
alities were included, the average size of the family was, in Baltimore,
4.4& persons; in Chicago, 5.09 persons; in hTew York, 4.90 persons,
and in Philadelphia, 5.15 persons. The average size of all families in*
Chicago, according to the Eleventh Census of the United States, was
4.99 persons. The figures for the Italian families included in the pres
ent report do not, then, differ materially in respect to size of family
from what has been shown in the Seventh Special Report and in the
Eleventh Census.
. ..
Table V I I .— N a tiv ity o f p a r e n ts .—This table classifies the nativeborn and foreign-born persons included in this investigation according
to parent nativity, with specified place of birth. The following table,
showing the number and per cent of persons of each parent nativity,
brings the figures into more convenient form for comparison:
NUM BER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS OF EA C H P A R E N T N A T IV IT Y .
Birthplace of—
Father.

Mother.

United States.........
United States.........
United Stated.........
Ahruzzo . . . . . . . . . . .
Abruzzo...................
Abruzzo.... ..............
A p u lia ____ _______
Basilicata........... .....
Basilicata.................
Basilicata.................
Basilicata........... .
Basilicata.................
Basilicata.................
Basilicata............. .
Basilicata.................
Calabria .1 ............:.
Calabria................
Calabria...................
Calabi i a ..................
Calabria....................
Campagua di Roma.
Campagnadi Roma.
Campania................
Campania............... .
Campania.................
Campania.................
Campania.................
Campania.................
Campania............... .
Campania.................
Em ilia.......................
Liguria..........s.........
Liguria.....................
L igu ria .....................

United States........
Basilicata...............
L igu ria...................
Abrnzzb______ ..
Basilicata...............
Campania________
A p u lia.....................
A b ru zzo_____ . . . .
Basilicata..... ..........
Campania..............
Lombardy__ _____
S icily.......................
Germany."___ . . . . .
Ireland...................
Sweden.....................
United States____
A b ru zzo............
Basilicata________
Calabria_________
Campania.
__
United States .
Campagnadi Roma
United States........
A b ru zzo______ . . .
Basilicata............__
Calabria...................
Campagna di Roma
Campania...............
S icilv......................
Ireland ...................
E m ilia................. .
United States........
Basilicata...............
L igu ria...................

Native born.

Foreign born.

Total.

Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Percent.
3
1

4
117
2

4
4
715

0.14
.04
.18
5.20
.09

.18
. 18
31.79
; 36

5
5

.22
.22

2
1
1
2
2

. 09
.04
.04
.09
.09
■' .62
8 . 89
. 04
i 04
.14
. 14
.09
2.31
.27
. 09
30.15
.31
. 18
.62

14
2001
1

52
6

678

7
4
14

6
3
73

3
1

365

8.07

1
12

. 02
.27

1,195

26.41

.02

859
1

18.99

2
1

16
4
1, 910

0.05
.01

.08
7.12
. 03
.0 1

.24
. 06
28. 20

.12

.07
./09
.03

6
2
1
1
2
2

14
1,059

.02

2
1

.13

3
2

.0 1
.0 1

. 03
. 03
.21

15. 64
. 03
101

.13
.05
.03
. 89

. 18

.02

60
7

.1 0

1, 238

27.36

1,916

. 03
28. 29

.71

.68

105

2. 32

178

.09
. 05
2. 63

.27. 14
3. 25

4
482

2
7
4
3

.10

.06

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

699

NUM BER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS OF EAC H P A R E N T N A T I V I T Y —Concluded.
Birthplace of—

Liguria...........
Lombardy----Lombardy---Lombardy----Lombardy —
Lombardy----Marches. . —
Marches........
Piedmont____
Sicily.............
Sicily.............
Tuscany.........
Tuscany.........
Tuscany........
Tuscany.........
Venetia.- . . . .
Venetia...........
Venetia......... .
France............
Germ any-----Ireland...........
Ireland...........
Sweden......... .
Not specified.
Not specified.
Total

Native horn.

Foreign born.

Total.

Number. Percent. Number. Per cent. Number. Percent.

Father.
Sentln/nd.................
Basilicata _________
Emilia .....................
L igu ria...................
Lombardy...............
Piedmont...............
Basilicata...............
Marches .................
Piedmont...............
Basilicata......... .
‘ S icily......................
L igu ria............. .....
T uscany__ . . . . . . .
France.....................
Not specified.........
United States........
L iguria...................
Venetia ............. .....
France.....................
Germany......... ..... .
United States........
Ireland....................
Sweden ...................
Campania...............
Not specified..........

9
1
2

17
3
1
1
2

213
4
29
3
2
1
10
2
1

0. 04
.40
. 04
.09
. 76
.14
.04
. 04
. 09
9.47
. 18
1. 29
.14
.09
.04
.44
.09
.04

1
1

. 04
.04

2, 249

100. 00

1
12

0. 01

.03
10.97
.06
1.61

0.02

.80

4
7

.05
.09
.15

53
3
3
4
8

530

11.72

80
4

1. 77
.09

.02

29
3

.64
.07

.02

1
1

.02
.02

4, 524

100. 00

743
4
109
7

1
1
39

.78
.05
.05
.06

.12
.10
.01

3
3

1
1
1
11
6 , 773

.03
.01
.58
.05
.01

.01
.01
100. 00

In Table V, showing the place of birth of persons included in the
present investigation, it was seen that the largest proportion were born
in Campania, that province being followed by Basilicata, Calabria,
Sicily, Abruzzo, etc. In the table immediately preceding, giving the
birthplace of the parents of those shown in Table V, it is seen that
Campania also shows the largest proportion, 28.29 per cent, and is fol
lowed by Basilicata with 28.20 per cent, Calabria with 15.64 per cent,
Sicily with 10.97 per cent, Abruzzo with 7.12 per cent, etc.
Table V I I I .— R ela tion sh ip to head o f f a m i l y , b y n a tiv ity and s e x .—
Native-born persons, foreign-born persons, and native and foreign born
persons combined are in this table classified according to their relation
ship to the head of the family in which they reside, and further classi
fied by sex. The table shows that of the native-born persons living in
these Italian families 95.02 per cent were children of the heads of their
respective families. This is accounted for in the same manner as the
disproportion existing between the number of native and foreign born
single and married persons in the analysis to Table T V . It was stated
there that foreign-born persons^coming to this country are usually mar
ried or of marriageable age, while the native born include a great
number of children. Native-born heads of families and their wives
constituted less than 1 per cent of all native-born persons living in
these families. Of foreign-born persons, however, 54.07 per cent were
heads of families and their wives, while sons and daughters of the
Lead constituted but 20.07 per cent of all foreign born. Considering
the facts for both native and foreign born persons combined, heads of
families and their wives constituted 36.35 per cent of all persons, their
sons and daughters 44.96 per cent, the remainder being fathers and

700

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

mothers, brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, nephews and nieces,
cousins, boarders, lodgers, persons belonging to cooperative families, etc.
Table I X .—Foreign-born voters and aliens, by years in the United
States.—This table classifies all foreign-born males 21 years of age or

over embraced in these families as voters or as aliens, and gives the
number of years they have been in the United States. All males of
foreign birth 21 years of age or over, not naturalized, have been con
sidered aliens. A residence of five years in the United States is neces
sary for a person to become a voter in the State of Illinois. Of the
foreign:born males 21 years of age or over who had been in the United
States five years, 45 per cent were voters. Of those who had been in
the United States a greater number of years, the proportion of voters
was considerably larger, and taking into consideration all persons
Included in the table, 53.81 per cent were voters and 46.19 per cent were
aliens. According to the Eleventh Census of the United States, 31.27
per cent of all foreign-born males 21 years of age or over in Chicago
were aliens. The considerably larger proportion of aliens among the
Italians embraced in this investigation, 46.19 per cent, shows that per
sons of this class to quite a large extent have not taken advantage of
the privilege of becoming naturalized citizens of this country. An
even larger proportion, 52.51 per cent, of the foreign-born persons 21
years of age or over included in the Seventh Special Report were
classed as aliens in Chicago.
There were 1,012 aliens in the Italian families included in this inves
tigation and a partial report was secured as to whether naturalization
papers had been taken out. Of a total of 939 persons reporting as to
this fact, 132, or 14.06 per cent, reported that they had taken out such
papers preliminary to becoming citizens of the United States, while
807, or 85.94 per cent, reported that they had not taken out naturaliza
tion papers.
Table X .— Weekly earnings and hours of work, by occupation and sex.—

This table shows the various occupations engaged in by the- persons
composing the Italian families canvassed, arranged under the following
general industry heads: Agriculture, fisheries, and mining; profes
sional; domestic and personal service; trade and transportation; man
ufactures and mechanical industries; nonproductive; housewives and
at work, and scholars and at work. The number and the sex of persons
working at each occupation are shown, together with their average
hours of work per week and their highest, lowest, and average weekly
earnings while employed. It is unfortunate that the information as to
working hours and earnings was so often impossible to secure, and is,
consequently, not reported in the table. It is believed, however, that
the data given on these points are representative and afford a very
fair idea of the conditions that exist. It is interesting to note the
occupations most frequently followed by the persons composing these
families: Under the general industry heading of agriculture, fisheries,
and mining, 28 worked as quarrymen; under professional, musicians

701

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

and organ grinders numbered 62; under domestic and personal service
were found 797 laborers, 126 street sweepers, 73 bootblacks, 45 barbers,
32 sewer diggers, 23 pavers, 22 saloon keepers, and 18 scissors grinders;
under trade and transportation, 186 worked as rag and paper pickers,
sorters, etc., 154 as small peddlers, 119 as railroad laborers, 78 as news
boys, news dealers, etc., 32 as small merchants or dealers in various
lines, 20 as salesmen, 15 as teamsters, and 14 as wood pickers; under
manufactures were found 60 hod carriers, 38 candy makers and candy
factory employees, 26 pants makers and finishers, 22 mosaic layers, 19
tailors and tailoresses, 16 shoemakers, and 14 tinkers; under the head
of nonproductive (by far the largest), 1,689 were classed as at home,
which in this table means all persons 9 years of age or under who were
not at school and unemployed during the year; 1,044 were housewives
and 113 were engaged in housework without pay; 361 were classed as
having no occupation, and include those 10 years of age or over who
were unemployed twelve months and who were not at school during
the year, and 876 were scholars. Under the division of housewives
and at work, which includes those performing their household duties
and, in addition, engaging in work for pay, were found 188 persons.
The occupations most common to them were the making and finishing
of pants and other garments, dressmaking, washing, and wood, coal,
and rag picking. Under the division of scholars and at work were
112 persons who, in addition to attendance at school, were engaged
in selling papers, blacking shoes, peddling, etc. It is seen that the
occupations are generally those requiring but a low grade of intelli
gence and little skill or muscular strength.
The following table, drawn from Table X, shows the number and per
cent of persons, by groups of occupations:
NUM BER A N D PE R CENT OF PERSONS, B Y GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS.
Males.

Females.

Total.

Groups of occupations.
Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining............. ...
Professional..........................................................
Domestic and personal service........................
Trade and transportation..................................
Manufactures and mechanical industries.' -.
Nonproductive........•-..........................................
Housewives and at w o r k ..............................
Scholars and at work........... ■.............................

32
63
1,194
655
306
1,581

100. 00

100

89. 29

Total............................................................

3, 931

58. 04

2, 842

95. 45
99.17
95. 34
81.82
38. 47

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.
32

3
10

32
68

2, 529
188

4. 55
.83
4.66
18.18
61.53
100. 00
10. 71

1, 204
687
374
4,110
188
112

41.96 1 6 ,773
1

Per
cent.

Per
cent
under
each
group.

100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00

0.47
.98
17. 78
10.14
5. 52
60.68
2. 78
1.65

100. 00

100.09

According to this table, the nonproductive class included 60.68 per
cent of all the persons in the families canvassed. Less than 1 per cent
of all were engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining or in profes
sional work. Those engaged in domestic and personal service consti
tuted 17.78 per cent of all, those engaged in trade and transportation
10.14 per cent, those engaged in manufactures and mechanical indus1453—Xo. 13---- 2

702

BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

tries 5.52 per cent, while those who were engaged in some work in
addition to their household duties constituted 2.78 per cent, and those
engaged in some work besides going to school, 1.65 per cent.
The small proportion of women at work at gainful ocqupations is
quite noticeable. In domestic and personal service, less than 1 per
cent were females; in trade and transportation, but 4.66 per cent of
all embraced under that head were females, and in manufactures and
mechanical industries 18.18 per cent were females.
The following table, taken from the Seventh Special Beport of the
Commissioner of Labor, relating to the population of typical slum sec
tions of four cities, is reproduced for comparison with the preceding
table relating to the Italian families embraced in the present report:
NUM BER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS IN C E R T A IN SLUM DISTRICTS OF B A L T I
MORE, CHICAGO, N E W YORK, A N D PH ILA D E L P H IA , B Y GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS.
[From the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor.]
Males.
Groups of occupations.

Females.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

63
95

82.89
84.82
82.92
90.11
70. 72
31. 80

13
17
347
183
873
7, 234
384

17.11
15.18
17. 08
9.89
29.28
68. 20
llOO. 00
25. 00

9, 052 | 50.16

Total.
Num
Per
ber. • cent.

Per
cent
under
each
group.

BALTIMORE.

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining.................
Professional.........................................................
Domestic and personal service......................
Trade and transportation................................
Manufactures and mechanical industries...
Nonproductive (not gainful)..........................
Housewives and at work......................
Scholars and at w o r k .......................................
Total............................................................

1,686
1,668

2,109
3, 373

3 | 75.00
8, 996 | 49.84

76
2,032
1,851
2,982
10, 607
384
4

100.00
100.00
100. 00
100.00
100. 00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00

0.42
.62
11.26
10. 26
16. 52
58.77
2.13

18, 048

100.00

100. 00

.05
.96
14.29
11. 29
14. 69
57. 04
.89
.79

112

.02

CHICAGO.

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining ................
Professional..........................................................
Domestic and personal service......................
Trade and transportation................................
Manufactures and mechanical industries.. .
Nonproductive (not gainful)................. .........
Housewives and a t work________ __________
Scholars and at work.........................................
T o t a l ........................................................

60. 26

7,512
176
62

39. 74

100. 00
100. 00
100.00
2,230 100.00
2, 901 ' 100. 00
11, 265 100. 00
176 100. 00
156 100. 00

10, 651

53.93

9, 097

46. 07

19, 748

100.00

27
237
3,454
2, 878
2, 930
6, 266

96.43
90. 80
88 . 52
90.93
67.17
37.83

3. 57
9. 20
11.48
9. 07
32.83
62. 17
100. 00
47. 56

28
261
3, 902
3,165
4,362
16,562
634
82

100. 00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00

.90
13.46
10. 91
15.04
57.12
2.19
.28

100.00

169
2,376
2,014
2, 235
3, 753

89. 42
84. 23
90. 31
77. 04
33. 32

445
216
666

10. 58
15.77
9. 69
22.96
66.68
100.00

189

2 , 821

NEW YORK.

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining.................
Professional............... .........................................
Domestic and personal service.........................
Trade and transportation..................................
Manufactures and mechanical industries - ..
N onproductive (not gainful)............................
Housewives and at work.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scholars and at work.........................................
Total................................................... .

.10

52.44

24
448
287
1, 432
10,296
634
39

15,835

54. 61

13,161

45. 39

28, 996

100. 00

100.00

13
135
1,625
1,740
2,286
3,305

92.86
88.82
82. 40
91.48
77.60
33.71

7.14
11.18
17. 60
8.52
22.40
66. 29

65.52

34. 48

14
152
1,972
1,902
2,946
9, 803
242
29

100.00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00

.08
.89
11.56
11.15
17. 27
57.46
1.42
.17

9,123

53.48

7,937

46. 52

17, 060

100.00

PHILADELPHIA.

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining.................
Professional........... .............................................
Domestic and personal service........................
Trade and transportation.......................... . . . .
Manufactures and mechanical industries...
Nonproductive (not gainful).......................... .' “
Housewives and at work
Scholars and at work.........................................
Total............................................................

17
347
162
660
6, 498
242

100.00

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

703

A comparison of these two classes of slam residents shows a uni
formly smaller proportion of Women at work among the families of
Italian origin. From 11.26 to 14.29 per cent of the persons embraced in
the Seventh Special Eeport were employed in domestic and personal
service, the largest per cent, 14.29, being for Chicago, while 17.78 per
cent of the persons included in the present report were employed
under this industrial group. The proportions engaged in trade and
transportation do not differ greatly, but while the Seventh Special
Eeport shows 1G.52 per cent engaged in manufactures and mechanical
industries in Baltimore, 14.69 per cent in Chicago, 15.04 per cent in
New York, and 17.27 per cent in Philadelphia, but 5.52 per cent of the
persons in these Italian families fall in this group. The proportion of
nonproductive persons is seen to be uniformly smaller for the persons
embraced in the Seventh Special Eeport.
The following two summaries, taken from Table X, show for each
group of occupations the average weekly earnings and average hours of
work per week of persons engaged in remunerative occupations. As
Table X show7s, a large number of persons engaged in productive or
remunerative occupations did not report earnings or hours of work.
The following summaries, of course, deal only with those who reported.
Out of a total of 2,663 persons engaged in remunerative occupations,
2,420, or 90.87 per cent, reported as to earnings, and 1,820, or 68.34 per
cent, reported as to hours of work:
A V E E A G E W E E K L Y EA E N IN G S OF PEESONS ENGAG ED IN E E M U N E E A T IV E OCCTJPATIONS.

Groups of occupations.

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining.........
Professional.................................................
Domestic and personal service.................
Trade and transportation..........................
Manufactures and mechanical industries

and fit work. ___________ _

Males.

Females.

Number Average

report

weekly

ing-

earnings.

32
52
1,115
562
297

$7. 64J
5. 09*
7. 27§
4. 47
8. 25i

Scholars and at work....................., ............

2. 29

T otal....................................................

2,154

6.41

report
ing.

3
8

26
64
153

Total.

Number Average
weekly report weekly
ing.
earnings.
earnings.

$3. 00
2 . 28J
2.15
3.02
1.72
1.95

32
55
1,123
588
361
153
108

$7. 644
4. 98
7. 234
4.37
7. 33
1. 72
2.25

2 .11 4

2,420

5. 934

266

A V E R A G E HOUKS OF W O E K PEE W E E K OF PEESONS EN G AG ED IN E E M U N E E A T IV E
OCCUPATIONS.
Males.
Groups of occupations.

Agriculture, fisheries, and m ining.. . . . . .
Professional..................................................
Domestic and personal service.................
Trade and transportation..........................
Manufactures and mechanical industries
Housewives and at work............................
Scholars and at w ork..................................
T otal....................................................

Females.

Total.

Average
Average
Average
Number
Number
Nnmber
report hours of report hours of report hours of
work per
work
per
work
per
ing.
ing.
ing.
week.
week.
week.
26
24
1,024
333
248 ,
6G

1,721

59.8
52.0
62.1
56.2
55.5
51.1

39.0
46. 1
54.6
52.1
44.9

59.4

51.2

15
34
40

26
24
1,026
348
282
40
74

§9.8
52.0
62.1
55.8
55 3
52.150.4

1,820

59.0

T04

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

It is seen that the highest earnings, $7.64J per week, were made by
those engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining, although but 32
persons reported under this class. In manufactures and mechanical
industries, with 361 persons reporting, the average earnings were $7.33
per week; in domestic and personal service, with 1,123 persons report- >
ing, they were $7.23£ per week. The average earnings for the 2,420
persons reporting in all industrial groups were $5.93J per week. The
average hours of work in the seven groups are shown to have varied
from 50.4 to 62.1 per week, the average for all groups being 59 hours.
The following summaries, from the Seventh Special Report, relating
to typical slum sections of Baltimore, Chicago, New York, and Phila
delphia, enable us to institute a comparison <as to earnings and hours
of work between the Italian families just mentioned and slum residents
of various nationalities:
A V E R A G E W E E K L Y E A R N IN G S OF PERSONS EN G AG ED IN R E M U N E R A T IV E OCCU
P A T IO N S IN C E R T A IN SLUM DISTR ICTS OF BALTIM O RE, CHICAGO, N E W YORK,
A N D P H IL A D E L P H IA .
[From the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor.]
Females.

Males.
Groups of occupations.

Total.

Number Average Number Average Number Average
report
weekly
weekly
report
Weekly
report
ing.
ing.
earnings.
ing.
earnings.
earnings.

BALTIMORE.
A g r ic u lt u r e , fisheries, an d m i n i n g ..........

Professional..................................................
Domestic and personal service.................
Trade and transportation..........................
Manufactures and mechanical industries
Housewives and at work..........................
Scholars and at w ork..................................
T otal...........................- ........................

61
78
1,654
1, 592
2,037
3

$5.49
15.57
9.00
11.58*
9.27*
3.00

5,425

9.91*

10.93*.
15.30*
9.93
11.03
11. 79*

13
17
332
176
854
378

$3. 73
9.02
4.41*
7.11*
4.49
4. 62*
3. 00

74
95
1,986
1, 768
2, 891
378
4

$5.18
14.40
8 . 23*
11.14
7.86
4.62*
3.00

4.80

7,196

8.65*

14.09*
5.97
5.90
5.53
4.71
3.15

132
2, 415
1, 764
2,679
142
143

10.93*
15.16*
9. 35
10.49
10. 31
4. 71
3. 69

1, 392

5. 60

7,283

9. 88*

1
12

4.00
11. 80

26
154
3,423
2, 386
3, 740
. 579

9.23
13.62
8.26*
9. 67*
8.28*
3.13
3.13*

1,771

CHICAGO.

Agriculture, fisheries, and m in in g ......
Professional.......................... .......................
Domestic and personal service............... .
Trade and transportation..........................
Manufactures and mechanical industries
Housewives and at work..........................
Scholars and at work..................................

117
2 , 060

1,578
2, 043
85

4. 06

5,891

10.89*

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining..........
Professional................................,.................
Domestic and personal service.................
Trade and transportation...................... .
Manufactures and mechanical industries
Housewives and at w ork..........................
Scholars and at w ork.......................... .

25
142
3, 080
2,168
2,441

9.44
13.77*
8.65*
10.16*
10.26*

T otal............................ .......................

7,891

T o ta l....................................................

15
355
186
636
142
58,

NEW YORK.

3.13*

343
218
1, 299
579
33

4. 74*
4. 82
4. 56*
3.13
3.14

9. 64

2,485

4.29*

10,376

8 . 36

PHILADELPHIA.

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining.........
Professional.............................. .
Domestic and personal service.................
Trade and transportation..........................
Manufactures and mechanical industries
Housewives and at work..........................
Scholars and at work.................................

79
1, 284
1,357
1,892
15

3.10*

597
158
7

T otal.....................................................

4, 433

9.67*

1,150

9. 71
13.70*
8.63*
9.83
10.16*

15
270
102

6.00

13.79
3.93
5. 82*
5.02*
4.41
3. 21*
4. 86

.7
94
1, 554
1,259
2, 489
158
22

5,583

9.18
13. 72
7.82
9.50*
8.93
4.41
3.14
8.68

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

705

A V E R A G E HOURS OF W O R K PER W E E K OF PERSONS ENG A G E D IN R E M U N E R A T IV E
OCCUPATIONS IN C E R T A IN SLUM DISTRICTS OF BALTIM O RE, CHICAGO, N E W
YORK, A N D P H IL A D E L P H IA .
[From the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor.]
Males.
Groups of occupations.

Females.

Total.

Average
Average
Number Average
hours of Number hours of Number hours of
report work per report work
per report work per
ing.
ing.
ing.
week.
week.
week.

BALTIMORE.

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining.........
Professional..................................................
Domestic and personal service................
Trade and transportation..........................
Manufactures and mechanical industries

60
81
1,624
1, 608
2, 067

73.97
54.33
64. 51
67.60
61. 40

66 . 00

16
290
176
850
225

97
1,914
1,784
2, 917
225
4

73.03
50. 82
65.77
67. 58
61. 33
64. 48
66. 38

Scholars and at w ork......... : ....................

64. 51

33.06
72.81
67. 41
61.16
64.48
72. 00

T otal....................................................

5,443

'64.19

1, 566

64.24

7, 009

64. 21

65. 50
50. 77
64. 84
61. 93
57.25

39. 00
71. 30
58. 34
57.19
57. 78
55. 81

128
2, 506
2, 006
2 , 821
123
139

65. 50
49. 39
65.71
61.56
57.24
57. 78
54. 62

CHICAGO.

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining.........
Professional...................................................
Domestic and personal service.................
Trade and transportation..........................
Manufactures and mechanical industries
Housewives and at work............................
Scholars and at work..................................
T otal.................................................-.

113
2,170
1,801
2,178
80

53.75

15
336
205
643
123
59

6,350

61.02

1, 381

60. 59

7,731

60. 94

27
173
3,201
2, 500
2, 717

61.52
53.69
66. 99
64. 86
59. 34

61. 47
52. 54
66. 96
64. 42
59. 01
55. 99
57. 22

NEW YORK.

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining.........
Professional..................................................
Domestic and personal service.................
Trade and transportation..........................
Manufactures and mechanical industries
Housewives and at work............................
Scholars and at w ork..................................
Total ....................................................

1
21

60.00
43.10
66.68

60.16
58. 34
55. 99
56. 96

28
194
3, 505
2, 759
4, 083
560
72

57.47

304
259
1,366
560
35

8, 655

63. 65

2, 546

58. 86

11, 201

62.55

66.55
46.59
64. 32
65.65
59. 78

66. 00
31.12
75. 40
64. 78
58. 38
60. 30
52.80

12*
98
1,578
1. 583
2, 747
- 181

66.50
43. 91

65. 58
59.46
60.30
52. 72

62. 54

6, 220

62. 47

PHILADELPHIA. *

Agriculture, fisheries, and mining.........
Professional..................................................
Domestic and personal service.................
Trade and transportation ........................
Manufactures and mechanical industries
Housewives and at work............................
Scholars and at work....................................
T otal....................................................

52.69

17
255
133
624
181
5

5, 004

62. 46

1,216

81
1, 323
1,450
2,123

66.11

The very considerably smaller earnings of the persons belonging to
the Italian families dealt with in the present report is noticed. Their
average earnings for all the classes of work engaged in, as has been
shown, were $5.93£ per week. For the general slum population shown
in the tables just given the average weekly earnings for the group were,
in Baltimore, $8.65£; in Chicago, $9.88£; in New York, $8.36, and in
Philadelphia, $8.68. This difference is doubtless due to the fact that
the persons embraced in these exclusively Italian families, as has been
previously shown, were employed as a rule at occupations of the lowest
grade, requiring no skill and but little manual dexterity or strength.
The average hours of work per week were shorter for the members of
these Italian families than for the general slum population.

706

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

Table X I . — P e r so n s u n e m p lo y e d , b y m onths u n em p loyed , sex, and age .—
This table includes all persons 15 years of age or over engaged in
remunerative occupations who reported that they were unemployed
during any part of the year, and shows for each sex and age the months
unemployed. It is proper to state that 90 males and 42 females., mak
ing a total of 132 persons, did not report whether employed or not, and
have consequently been omitted from this table. In the previous table
and the analysis, it was shown that of a total of 6,773 persons included
in this investigation, 4,110, or 60.68 per cent, were not engaged in any
remunerative or productive occupation. These persons were classed
as nonproductive, and consisted of those too young to work, those who
were unemployed during the whole year, housewives and persons
engaged in housework without pay, those who had no occupation,
retired persons, and scholars. In this table those who were unem
ployed fractional parts of months during the year have been classed
under the nearest whole month, while those employed less than half
a month have been excluded. Of the 2,663 persons employed in remu-.
nerative occupations, 1,517, or 56.97 per cent, were unemployed some
jiart of the year. Of this number, 40 were unemployed one month,
56 two months, 49 three months, 66 four months, 102 five months, 250
six months, 183 seven months, 232 eight months, 310 nine months, 161
ten months, and 68 eleven months during the year. The average time
unemployed for these 1,517 persons was, therefore, over seven months.
The following table, reproduced from the Seventh Special Iteport of
the Commissioner of Labor, shows the results of the investigation of
typical slum sections of Baltimore, Chicago, New York, and Philadel
phia so far as it relates to nonemployment. The figures are for the
year ending March 31, 1893:
PERSONS U NEM PLOYED A N D A V E R A G E M ONTHS U N EM PLO YED IN C E R T A IN SLUM
D ISTRICTS OF BALTIM ORE, CHICAGO, N E W YORK, A N D P H IL A D E L P H IA .
[From the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor.]

City.

Baltimore.............................. ............................................. .
Chicago........................................................ ...........................
New Y ork................................................................................
Philadelphia..........................................................................

Total pop
ulation of
the slum
districts
canvassed.
18, 048
19,748
28, 996
17,060

Slum population
unemployed.

IMonths unem
ployed.

Num
Per cent.
ber.

Total.

1,564
3,135
2, 615
2,591

8.67
15.88
9.02
15.19

a 5, 255
a 7, 327

a 6 ,116
a 5,132

Aver
age.
a 3.6
a 3.1
a 3.1
a 2.9

a Not including those for whom the months unemployed were not reported.

It is seen from this table that of the total persons included in that
investigation, both productive and nonproductive, 8.67 per cent in
Baltimore were unemployed some part of the year, 15.88 per cent in
Chicago, 9.02 per cent in New York, and 15.19 per cent in Philadelphia.
Of the total persons in the Italian families included in the present
report the very large proportion of 22.40 p e r cent were unemidoyed

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

707

some part of the year. The average time unemployed of those who were
shown to have been unemployed in the Seventh Special Eeport was 3.6
months in Baltimore, 3.1 months in Chicago and New York, and 2.9
months in Philadelphia. The present investigation shows that the
average .time of nonemployment of the unemployed in the Italian fami
lies was 7.2 months, or double the highest average of the unemployed
slum population shown in the Seventh Special Report.
As has been stated, 1,517 persons engaged in productive occupations
in these Italian families were unemployed during some portion of the
year. The question as to the means of subsistence .when unemployed
was answered by 1,486 of these persons. It was stated by 717, or 48.25
per cent, that they lived on their savings while unemployed; 287, or
19.31 per cent, had credit and went into debt for the* means of sub
sistence; 233, or 15.68 per cent, lived on their savings until they had
exhausted them and then resorted to credit; 96, or 6.46 per cent, lived
wholly on charity while unemployed; 26, or 1.75 per cent, lived on their
children’s earnings, while 127, or 8.55 per cent, subsisted in various
ways, the most common being stated as on savings and charity, rela
tives’ support, credit and charity, rents, wife’s earnings, savings and
wife’s earnings, etc.
Table X I I . —I llite r a te s , by s e x , age p e r io d s , and degree o f illiter a c y .—
This table includes all illiterate persons 10 years of age or over em
braced in the investigation. Those who can neither read nor write and
those who can read but can not write, the two classes of illiterates, are
shown by sex and nativity for each specified age period. The great
majority of native-born persons in these families, as has been shown,
were children under 10 years of age, and therefore do not appear in
this table. Qf the 2,752 illiterate persons found in these families, but
32 were native born, and of these 30 were under 21 years of age.
Dealing with persons, therefore, almost entirely foreign born, no com
parison of native and foreign born illiterate persons is possible or
desirable.
As regards the degree of illiteracy, it is seen that 2,684, or 97.53 per
cent, of the 2,752 illiterate persons could neither read nor write,
while 68, or 2.47 per cent, could read but could not write any language.
Similar data for the persons embraced in the Seventh Special Report
arc shown in the following table:
N UM BER A N D PER CENT* OF IL L IT E R A T E S OF E A C H DEGREE OF IL L IT E R A C Y IN
CER TAIN SLUM DISTRICTS OF BALTIM ORE, CHICAGO, N E W YORK, A N D P H IL A
D ELPH IA.
[From the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor.]

Degree of illiteracy.

Baltimore.

Chicago.

New York.

Philadelphia.

Num
Per cent.
ber.

Unable to read and w rite..
Unable to write.....................

2,411
203

92. 23
7.77

3, 609
157

95.83
4.17

9, 870
198

98. 03
1.97

4,485
117

97.46
2.54

T otal............................

2 , 614

100. 00

3, 766

100. 00

10, 068

100. 00

4,602

100.00

708

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

Of a total of 2,752 illiterate persons embraced in the present report,
I, 373, or 49.89 per cent, were from 31 to 50 years of age; 748, or 27.18
per cent, were from 21 to 30 years; 342, or 12.43 per cent, were from 10
to 20 years; 278, or 10.10 per cent, were 51 years of age or over, while
II, or 0.40 per cent, did not report as to age.
The following table, taken from the Seventh Special Report, shows
the distribution as to age of the residents of the typical slum sections
embraced in that report:
N U M BER A N D PER CENT OF IL L IT E R A T E S OF EA C H A G E PERIOD IN CER TAIN
SLUM DISTR ICTS OF BALTIM ORE, CHICAGO, N E W YORE:, A N D P H IL A D E L P H IA .
[From the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor.]
Baltimore.
Age periods.

Chicago.
Per cent.

Per cent.

253
364
1,103
1, 431
348
267

6.72
9.66
29. 29
38. 00
9.24
7.09

610
897
2, 674
, 4,157
1, 269
461

6.06
8.91
26.56
41.29
12. 60
4. 58

241
463
1, 376
1, 716
525
281

5.24
10.06
29.90
37. 29
11.41

3,766

100.00

10,068

100. 00

4, 602

100.00

10 to 14 years........................
] 5 to 20 years.........................
21 to 30 years.........................
31 to 50 years.........................
51 years or over.....................
Age not reported.................

160
250
646
1, 070.
469
19

T otal...........................

2,614

6.12

Philadelphia.
Num
ber.

9.57
24. 71
40. 93
17.94
.73

Per cent.

New York.
Num
ber.

Num
ber.

Per cent.

6.10

Table X I I I .—Literates, by sex, age periods, and language.—This table
deals with the literate persons 10 years of age or over embraced in the
families included in this report. The number of male and of female
native and foreign born persons falling under each age period are shown
and further classified as to whether they read and write the English lan
guage only, Italian only, or both English and Italian. Of the nativeborn literates, 265 could read and write English only and 3 could read
and write Italian only. No native-born persons in these*families were.
found who could read and write both English and Italian. Of the 1,533
foreign-born literates, 221 could read and write English only, showing
that the ability to read and write was probably acquired after their
arrival in this country; 984 could read and write Italian only, while 328
were able to read and write both English and Italian.
Table X I V .—Literates and illiterates, by sex.—This table brings into
comparison the information given in the two previous tables relating
to illiterates and literates. It is shown that o f the 2,812 males 10
years of age or over included in this report, 48.04 per cent were literate
and 51.96 per cent were illiterate. Of the 1,741 females 10 years of
age or over, 25.85 per cent were literate and 7415 per cent were
illiterate. Comparing the literate males and females, it is seen that
19.32 per cent o f the literate males could read and write English only,
while 50 per cent of the literate females were in this class; 60.55 per
cent of the males and 37.56 per cent of the females could read and
write Italian only, and 20.13 per cent of the males and 12.44 per cent
of the females were able to read and write both English and Italian.
Taking into consideration persons of both sexes, it is seen that of a

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

709

total of 4,553 persons 10 years of age or over 2,752, or 60.44 per cent,
were illiterate, while 1,801, or 39.56 per cent, were literate. The pro
portion of illiterate persons (60.44 per cent) is thus seen to be very
high in the families included in this investigation. It is shown in
Table X II that but 32 of the 2,752 illiterates were native born, a pro
portion too small to be considered. A comparison as to illiteracy is,
therefore, possible between these Italian families and the foreign-born
population of the typical slum sections of Baltimore, Chicago, Xew
York, and Philadelphia, as presented in the Seventh Special Report of
the Commissioner of Labor. The following table, drawn from that
report, shows the per cent of literates and illiterates of each foreign
nationality as given there;
PER CENT OE L IT E R A T E S A N D IL L IT E R A T E S BORN IN EA C H SPECIFIED FOREIGN
COUNTRY IN C E R T A IN SLUM DISTRICTS OF BALTIM O RE, CHICAGO, N E W YORK,
A N D P H IL A D E L P H IA .
[From the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor.]
Baltimore.
Place of birth.

Liter
ates.

Chicago.

Illiter Liter
ates.
ates.

New York.

Illiter Liter
ates.
ates.

Philadelphia.

Illiter
ates.

Liter
ates.

Illiter
ates.

26. 37

30.84

40.27
41.92
33.33

Austria-Hungary................................
63.55
British America............. ................. . 72. 73
China......................................................
66. 67
France.......................... .........................
90. 00
Germany............................................... 72. 50
Great Britain.......................................
94. 93
Ireland........................................... .
75. 73
47. 52
Italy........................................................
Netherlands......................................... 100.00
Norway and Sweden..........................
92. 50
Poland"....................................................
52. 69
70. 30
Russia......... .........1...............................
33.33
Spain and Portugal................. .......
Other foreign and foreign not spec
74. 42
ified ....................................................
T o ta l...........................................

69. 38

36.45
27.27
33. 33
10. 00
27. 50
5. 07
24.27
52. 48
7. 50
47.31
29. 70
66. 67

90.37
87.01
93. 94
90.48
87.62
93.42
84. 71
30.14
91. 67
91. 67
69. 80
71.31
100. 00

9. 63
12. 99
6.06
9. 52
12. 38
6. 58
15. 29
69. 86
8. 33
8 . 33
30.20
28. 69

25. 58

56. 39

30.62

66.14

73. 63
81.91
83. 33
92. 02
92. 23
60. 68
33.16
100. (JO
100. 00
49. 76
45. 65
57.14

50.24
54.35
42.86

69.16
80. 00
81. 25
100. 00
85. 26
91.41
74. 21
36. 37
59. 09
100. 00
59. 73
58.08
66. 67

43.61

66. 61

33.39

57.35

42.65

33.86

42. 31

57.69

53. 39

46.61

100. 00

18. 09
16. 67
7. 98
7. 77
39. 32
66. 84

20.00

18 75
14. 74
8. 59
25. 79
63. 63
40.91

This table shows that those of Italian birth were to an even larger
extent illiterate in the families included in the Seventh Special Report
than is shown by the present report, and that in each of the four cities,
with the exception of Baltimore, the proportion of illiterates among
persons of that nationality was greater than among those of any other
country.
Taking up again Table X IY , and considering the literates only, it is
seen that 26.99 per cent of all the literates could read and write English
only; 54.80 per cent could read and write Italian only, while 18.21 per
cent were able to read and write both English and Italian.
The following table, showing the number and per cent of persons able
and not able to speak English, by years in the United States, while
not bearing directly on illiteracy, is thought to be of interest in this
connection.

710

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

N UM BER A N D PER C E N T O F .PERSONS A B L E A N D NOT A B L E TO SPEAK ENGLISH,
B Y Y E A R S IN THE U N IT E D STATES.
[This table includes all persons 10 years of age or over.]
Able to speak English.

Not able to speak Eng
lish.

Per cent.

Males. Females. Total.

Males.* Females. Total.

Able to Not able
speak to speak
English. English.

Years in the United States.

Total native horn....................

146

298

147
178
163
133
166
128
828
14

4
7
30
35
42
44
43
57
57
264
4

15
33
140
182
207
176
223
185
1, 092
18

60
33
38
107
105
78
63
30
43
31
163
3

Total foreign born...........

1,906

587

2,493

754

A gg regate.........................

2,058

733

2, 791

754

Foreign born:
Under 1 year..........................
1 year.......................................
2 years.....................................
3 years......................................
4 years......................................
5 years......................................
6 years.... ................................
7 years?-..................................
8 years.....................................
9 years.....................................
10 years or over.....................
Not reported..........................

152
2
11

26
110

220

99. 33

0.67

49
29
43
107
126

109
62
81
214
231
199
161
79
118
401
5

1 . 80
19.48
28. 95
39. 55
44.07
52. 51
56. 25
69. 02
65. 40
64. 91
73.14
78. 26

98.20
80.52
71.05
60. 45
55. 93
47.49
43. 75
30. 98
34. 60
35. 09
26.86
21.74

1,006

1,760

58. 62

41. 38

1,008

1,762

61.30

38.70

121

98
49
75
69
238
2

100

Of native-born persons, practically all were able to speak English.
O f the total foreign-born persons, 58.62 per cent were able to speak
English, while 41.38 per cent were unable to do so. Of all the persons
in these families 10 years of age or over, both native and foreign born,
61.30 per cent were able to speak English, while 38.70 per cent were not
able to do so. The proportion of persons able and not able to speak
English who have been in the United States each specified number of
years is shown in the table. The proportion able to speak English of
those who have been in the United States less than one year is shown
to be but 1.80 per cent. This proportion gradually increases as the
years of residence in the United States increase, until 73.14 per cent of
those who had been in the United States 10 years or over were able
to speak the English language with reasonable clearness.
Table X V .—School attendance, by nativity, age, hind o f school, and
sex.—This table shows the native and foreign born males and females
o f each age attending public and private schools. O f a total of 988
persons in these families who attended school during some i>ortion of
the year, 582, or 58.91 per cent, were native born, and 406, or 41.09 per
cent, were foreign born. No comparison as to the proportion of native
and foreign born persons attending school can be made between these
families and those embraced in the Seventh Special Report, owing to the
fact that these families are exclusively Italian or of foreign extraction,
while those embraced in the Seventh Special Report are to a large extent
native, and would naturally show a larger proportion of native-born
persons at school.

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

711

The following table classifies all scholars according to sex and age:
N UM BEE A N D PEE CENT OE SCHOLAES OF EACH AG E.
Males.

Females.

Total.

Age.
Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
1

5 years........................ - .................. ................
6 years................................................ ..... . . . .
7 years.............................................................
8 years.............................................................
9 years.............................................................
10 years...........................................................
11 years............................................................
12 years............................................................
13 years............................................................
14 years...........................................................
15 years...........................................................
16 years.................................................. .
17 years...................................................
..........................................................18 years
19 years ..........................................................
20 years................................... ................. .
21 years...........................................................
24 years......... ................................- ..........
25 years................. .........................................
Total....................................................

0.18
2.45
6.83
15. 94
13. 66
11. 21
11. 73
7. 70
7.70
6. 83
4. 55
5. 25
1.75
2. 45
. 53
.18
.35
.35
.18
.18

14
39
91
78
64
67
44
44
39
26
30
10

14
3
1
2
2
1
1

100. 00 .

571

0.48
2.16
10. 79
15. 35
13. 67
15. 83
11.75
5. 99
10. 79
4. 32
5.51
2 . 61
.72

g
45
64
57
66

49
25
45
18
23
11

100. 00

417

3
23
84
155
135
130
116
69
89
57
49
41
13
14
3

0.30
2.33
8 . 50
15.69
13.67
13.16
11.74
6.98
9.01
5.77
4.96
4.15
1. 32
1. 42
.30

1
2
2
1
1

.10
.20
.20
.10
.10

-988

100.00

The largest proportion of scholars were 7 years of age, the per cent
for males being 15.94, for females, 15.35, and for both males and females,
15.69. Over one-half of all scholars were from 7 to 10 years of age,
inclusive, the proportion being 52.54 j>er cent of males, 56.60 per cent
of females, and 54.26 per cent of both males and females.
The following table, taken from the {Seventh Special Report and
embracing the scholars in families residing in typical slum sections of
Baltimore, Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia, shows the number
and per cent of scholars classified according to age periods:
NTJMBEE AND PEE CENT OF SCHOLAES OF EACH A G E PEEIOD IN C E E T A IN SLUM
DISTEICTS OF BAL T IM O E E , CHICAGO, N E W Y O EK , A N D P H IL A D E L P H IA .
[From the Seventh Special Eeport of the Commissioner of Labor.]

Age periods.

Under 5 yea rs.......................
5 to 9 years............................
10 to 13 years........................
14 to 19 years........................
20 years or over.....................
Age not reported.................
T otal............................

Baltimore.

Chicago.

New York.

Philadelphia.

Num Per cent.
ber.

Num Percent.
ber.

Num Per cent.
ber.

1,201

1,166
259
3
2, 629

45.68
44. 35
9.85
.12

«
1.................
100. 00

7
1,197
1,183
419
5
2, 811

0. 25
42. 58
42. 08
14.91
.18
100.00

0. 58
53.29
37.16
8 . 85
.07
.05

4, 340

100. 00

25
2, 313
1, 613
384
3

16
1,356
995
243
2

0 . 61
51.85
38. 05
9.29
.08

.12

2, 615 4!
i

100.00

A similar classification of the scholars included in the present report
shows that 3, or 0.30 per cent, were under 5 years of age; 527, or 53.35
per cent, were from 5 to 9 years; 331, or 33.50 per cent, were from 10 to
13 years; 121, or 12.25 per cent, were from 14 to 19 years; Avhile 6, or
0.60 per cent, were 20 years of age or over.

712

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

The following table classifies the scholars in these Italian families
according to the kind of school which they attended, whether public or
private:
N U M BER A N D PER CENT OF SCHOLARS A T T E N D IN G PUBLIC A N D P R IV A T E SCHOOLS.
Males.

Females.

Total.

Kind of school.
Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
P ublic............... .................................. ..........
Private............. .............................................

503
68

88.09
11.91

382
35

91.61
8 .39

885
103

89.57
10.43

T o ta l.....................................................

571

100.00

417

100.00

988

100.00

O f all male scholars 88.09 per cent attended public schools; of all
female scholars 91.61 per cent attended public schools, while the pro
portion of all scholars of both sexes attending public schools was 89.57
per cent. In Table X Y of the present report and the summaries drawn
therefrom the term private school has been made to include schools
variously designated as parochial schools, kindergartens, Italian pri
vate schools, and private night schools, as well as those termed simply
private schools. Table III of this report shows in detail the specific
kind of schools attended by the scholars in each of these Italian
families.
The following table, taken from the Seventh Special Report, shows
the distribution of the scholars included in that report, by kind of
school:
NUM BER A N D PER CENT OF SCHOLARS IN C E R T A IN SLUM DISTRICTS OF B A L T I
MORE, CHICAGO, N E W YORK, A N D P H IL A D E L P H IA A T T E N D IN G PUBLIC A N D PR I
V A T E SCHOOLS.
[From the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor.]
Baltimore.
Kind of school.

Num
ber.

Pnblie..................... ........
Pri va.te _______________
T o ta l............................

Chicago.

Per cent.

Num
ber.

1, 703
926

64.78
35.22

2, 62Q

100.00

New York.

Philadelphia.

Per cent.

Num
ber.

Per cent.

Num
ber.

2,181
630

77.59
22.41

2,743
1,597

63.20
36.80

2,241
374

85.70
14.30

2,811

100.00

4,340

100.00

2, 615

100.00

Percent.

This table shows that but 64.78 per cent of the scholars in the typical
slum families of Baltimore attended public schools and 35.22 per cent
private schools; in Chicago 77.59 per cent attended public and 22.41
per cent private schools; in Xew York 63.20 per cent attended public
and 36.80 per cent private schools, and in Philadelphia 85.70 per cent
attended public and 14.30 per cent private schools. As has been
shown, 89.57 per cent of the scholars included in the present report
attended public while but 10.43 per cent attended private schools.

713

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO,

In this connection the following table is given, showing the months
of school attendance during the year, by sex and kind of school:
MONTHS IN SCHOOL DTJBINGr Y E A R , B Y SEX A N D K IN D OF SCHOOL.

Males.
Months in school during year.

Females.

PUBLIC.
1 month....................................... ............
2 months.....................................................
3 months.....................................................
4 months.....................................................
5 months.............................................. .
6 months............ ........................................
7 months.....................................................
8 months....................................................
9 months.....................................................
10 months...................................................
Not specified..................................... ____

2
4
17
18
8
39
34
6
14
358
3

0.40
.80
3.38
3. 58
1.59
7. 75
6.76
1.19
2.78
71.17
.60

Total................................................

503

100. 00

Average number of months in school__
PRIVATE.
1 month................................... ^.
2 months.....................................................
3 months............................... ....................
4 months.............................................. ......
5 months..... .............................. ..............
6 months.....................................................
7 months....................................................
8 months....................................................
9 months.....................................................
10 months...................................................
Not specified..............................................
Total............................. ............. .

Total.................. ........... ................
Average number of months in school__

3
10
13
17
6
12
21
10
3
284
3
382 1

8. 80
1 1

1.47

1
3
1
3
4
3
2
50

1.47
4. 41
1. 47
4.41
5.89
4.41
2.94
73. 53

100. 00

Average number of months in school__
PUBLIC AND PRIVATE.
1 month.......................................................
2 months....................................................
3 months.....................................................
4 months.....................................................
5 months.....................................................
6months...................... ..............................
7 months.....................................................
8 months................. ..................................
9 months..... ..............................................
10 months...................................................
Not specified............................................

Total.

Number. Per cent. N umber. Per cent. Number. Per cent.

.53
.70
3.15
3.68
1.58
7. 35
6. 65
1. 58
2. 80
71.45
.53

571

100.00

3
4

42
38
9

16
408

8. 82

5
14
30
35
14
51
55
16
17
642
6

0. 57
1.58
3.39
3. 96
1. 58
5. 76
6.21
1. 81
1. 92
72.54
.68

100.00

885

100.00

8. 78

1
1
1

2. 86
2.86
2. 86

2. 86

1
1
29

2. 86
2. 86
82. 84

100. 00

8. 96

18
21

0.79
2.62
3.40
4. 45
1. 57
3.14
5.49
2. 62
.79
74. 34
.79

8.79
1
1
2
4
1
4
4
4
3
79
103 1

9. 20

.72
2. 64
3.36
4.31
1. 44
3.12
5.03
2. 64
.96
75. 06
.72

417

100.00

11
14
18
6
13

21
11
4

313

8. 81

.97
.97
1. 95
3.88
. 97
3. 88
3. 88
3. 88
2. 92
76. 70
100.00
9. 04

6
15
32
39
15
59
20
20
721
6

.61
1. 52
3.24
3.95
1. 52
5.57
5. 97
2.02
2. 02
72. 97
.61

988

100.00

8. 81

The first section of this table deals with those attending public schools,
the second section with those attending private schools, while the third
combines the data for both public and private schools. Of those attend
ing public schools 72.54 per cent were in school ten months, the full
school year, the average months in school of all attending public schools
being 8.79. Of those attending private schools 76.70 per cent were in
school ten mofiths, the average months in school of all attending private
schools being 9.04.. Taking into consideration the data for both public
and private schools, it is seen that 72.97 per cent were in school ten
months during the year, the average months of school attendance for
all scholars being 8.81.

714

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

These figures show very interesting results, taken in connection with
Table X Y I and its summary, which latter gives the per cent of persons
from 5 to 14 years of age at home, at work, at school, and both at work
and at school.
T able X Y I . — C on d ition o f all children f r o m 5 to 14 yea rs o f age , inclu
s iv e , b y n a tiv ity and se x . —This

table deals with the condition of all
children from 5 to 14 years of age, inclusive, showing the number of
males and females of each age and nativity who are at home, at work,
at school, and both at work and at school. The following table, drawn
from Table X Y I, shows the number and per cent of each condition, by
sex:
.
NU M BER A N D PER CENT OF CH ILD REN OF EACH CONDITION, B Y SEX.

A t home.

A t work.

A t school.

A t work
and at school.

A ll children.

Sex.
Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Male........................
Fem ale...................

199
271

26.29
38.38

52• 34

T otal............

470

32.12

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

6. 87
4.82

450
394

59.44
55. 81

56
7

7. 40
.99

757
706

100.00
100.00

5.88

844

57. 69

4. 31

1, 463

100.00

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Of the males from 5 to 14 years of age, 26.29 per cent were at home.
This designation includes all persons 5 to 14 years of age, inclusive,
who were not at school during the year and who had no occupation.
Of the females, a larger proportion, 38.38 per cent, were at home. The
greatest proportion of children, however, of both sexes were at school;
the per cent of males at school being 59.44 and o f females 55.81. Of
the males, 6.87 per cent were at work and 7.40 per centwboth at work
and at school, while of the females, 4.82 per cent were at work and 0.99
per cent both at work and at school. Taking up the totals for both
males and females, it is seen that of the 1,463 children from 5 to 14
years of age, inclusive, in these Italian families, 844, or 57.69 per cent,
were at school during some part o f the year; 470, or 32.12 per cent, were
at home during the year; 86, or 5.88 per cent, were at work during the
whole or some part of the year, while 63, or 4.31 per cent, were both at
work and at school.
The following summary, drawn from the Seventh Special Report,
relating to the slams of large cities, shows similar figures for the chil
dren from 5 to 14 years of age in families residing in typical slum sec
tions of Baltimore, Chicago, Xew York, and Philadelphia.

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

715

NUM BER AN D PER CENT OE CH ILDREN OF E A C H CONDITION, B T SEX, IN C E R T A IN
SLUM DISTRICTS OF BALTIM O RE , CHICAGO, N E W YO RK , A N D P H IL A D E L P H IA .
[ From the Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor.]
A t home.

A t work.

A t school.

A t work
and at school.

A ll children.

City and sex.
Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

BALTIMORE.
Male........................
Fem ale...................

545
651

28.22
32. 52

124
97

6. 42
4. 84

1,259
1,253

65. 20
62.59

3
.1

0.36
.05

2, 002

T o ta l...........

1,196

30. 41

221

5.62

2, 512

63.87

.10

3, 933

M ale........................
Fem ale...................

554
531

28. 02
28 04

117
73

5. 92
3.85

1, 257
1, 254

66.21

63. 58

49
36

2. 48
1.90

1, 977
1,894

T otal...........

1,085

28.03

190

4.91

2, 511

64. 87

2.19

3,871

Male........................
Female...................

445
569

15. 89
20. 72

209
204

7.46
7.43

2,117
1,918

75.61
70.94

29
25

1. 04

•91

2, 800 100. 00
2, 746 100.00

Total...........

1,014

18. 28

413

7. 45

4, 065

73. 30

.97

5, 546 .100. 00

Male........................
Fem ale...................

379
309

21.51
18. 27

175
109

9.93

1,192
1, 264

67.65
74. 75

16
9

.91
.53

1, 681

Total...........

688

19. 92

284

2, 456

71.13

.72

3, 453

1,931

100.00
100.00
100.00

CHICAGO.

100. 00
100. 00
100. 00

NEWYORK.

PHILADELPHIA.

6.45
8. 23

3,762

100.00
100. 00
100. 00

As just stated, 57.69 per cent of the children in the Italian families
included in this report were at school during some part of the year.
The table given above for the children in typical slum families shows
that the proportion of children at school was much larger, being 63.87
per cent in Baltimore, 64.87 per cent in Chicago, 73.30 per cent in New
York, and 71.13 per cent in Philadelphia. The proportion of children
at home in the typical slum families was, on the contrary, universally
smaller than in these Italian families. In the latter 32.12 per cent
were classed as at home; in the former 30.41 per cent were at home in
Baltimore, 28.03 per cent in Chicago, 18.28 per cent in New York, and
19.92 per cent in Philadelphia. The proportion of children at work in
typical slum families was 5.62 per cent in Baltimore, 4.91 per cent in
Chicago, 7.45 per cent in New York, and 8.23 per cent in Philadelphia,
while in the Italian families included in the present report it was 5.88
per cent. The proportion of children who were both at work and at
school during some part of the year was greater in the Italian families.
Table X V I I .— M a r r ie d w om en having a specified n u m ber o f Ita lia n -b o rn
children) livin g , by n u m ber o f children born to each in I t a l y and y ea rs o f
m a rried life in I t a l y .—This table is the first of a series of three tables
relating to married women and their children. As the title indicates,
this table deals with conditions in Italy, showing the number of chil
dren born in Italy and living, by years of married life in Italy.
Table X V I I I . — M a rr ie d w om en h aving a sp ecified n um ber o f nativeborn children livin g , by num ber o f children born to each in the U n ited

716

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

S tates and y e a r s o f m a rried life in the U n ited States.- —This

table, the
second relating to married women, etc., deals with conditions in the
United States, showing facts similar to those given in the preceding
table for Italy.
T able X I X . — M a r r ie d w om en h aving a specified n u m ber o f children
livin g , b y n u m ber o f children born to each and yea rs o f m a rried life. —In

this table the facts are shown for married women, children born and
living, and years of married life, regardless of locality.
The following table, drawn from Table X IX , shows the number and
per cent of married women who have had no children and who have had
children o f total married women, by years married:
N UM BER A N D PER CENT OF M A R R IE D W O M E N W H O H A V E H A D NO CHILDREN
A N D W HO H A V E H A D CH ILDREN OF T O TA L M A R R IE D W O M EN , B Y Y E A R S
M AR R IED .

Years married.

Married women
who have had no
children.

Married women
who have had
children.

Total married
women.

Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
Under 1 year............................................ . .
1 y e a r ..............................................................
2 yea rs........................................... ................
3 yea rs............................................................
4 yea rs...................................................... .....
5 y ea rs............................................................
6 y e a rs.............................................. ............
7 ye a rs.................................................. .........
8 y e a rs............................................................
9 years ............................................. .
10 ye a rs......... ...............................................
It years ..................- .....................................
12 years ..........................................................
13 y e a rs.......................................................
14 y e a rs ......... ............. . . . . .............. ............
15 ye a rs......................... - .............................
16 years ............................................. ............
17 yeari*.............................. ............................
18 y e a rs............... .........................................
19 y ea rs................................... *.....................
20 y e a rs ........................................................... ..
21 years .................................. .. ......................
22 years........ .. ................................................
23 y e a rs..........................................................
24 years . . i ....................................................
2 5 years . . . ' .....................................................
Over 25 years.................................................
Not, r e p o r t e d __ ________ ___________________
T o t a l ___________

100.00
70. 00

9
7

20. 45
12. 28
9.84
4.41
9. 43
8.16
8. 77
6. 35
6. 06
2 . 08
1. 82
2. 33

3
5
4
5
4
4
1
1
1

9
35
50
55
65
48
45
52
59
62
47
54
42
49
48
38
47
36
34
54
15
36
25

30. 00
79. 55
87.72
90.16
95. 59
90. 57
91. 84
91. 23
93. 65
93. 94
97. 92
98.18
97. 67

31
30
44
57
61
68

53
49
57
63
66

12.00

'2. 99
4.17

23
130
69

100.00

97.61
95. 83

48
55
43
49
51
38
48
37
35
56
16
37
25
25
23
134
72

122

8.90

1, 249

91.10

1, 371

5.88

1
1
1
2
1
1

2.08
2. 70
*

2.86

3. 57
6.25
2. 70

100.00

94.12
100. 00

97. 92
97. 30
97.14
96.43
93. 75
97. 30
100. 00
88. 00

100.00

• 100.00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
100. 00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00

loo. o o

100. 00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
100.00

Of the 1,371 women embraced in this table, including widowed as
well as married women, 122, or 8.90 per cent, have had no children,
while 1,249, or 91.10 per cent, have had children. Similar ratios are
given for those married each specified number of years. It will be
seen that it is stated in this and the following summary that no women
who have been married under 1 year have had children. That it was
so reported is probably due to the fact that some of those women who
have been married less than but nearly one year reported themselves
as married 1 year and have been so tabulated.
In the table immediately following is shown the number and percent
of married women who have had no children, by number of years mar

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

717

ried. A similar distribution according to years married is shown for
married women who have had children and for total married women.
NUM BER A N D PER CENT OE M AR R IED W O M EN W H O H A Y E H A D NO CHILDREN
AN D W H O H A Y E H A D CHILDREN, BY Y E A R S M AR R IED .

Years married.

Married women
who have had no
children.

Married women
who have had
children.

Total married
women.

Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
Under 1 year.................................................
1 year.. .........................................................
2 years.............................................................
3 years.............................................................
4 years.............................................................
5 years................... .........................................
6 years.............................................................
7 years.............................................................
8 years.............................................................
9years............................................................
10 years............................................................
11 years................................ ..........................
12 years............................................................
13 years............................................................
14 years............................................................
15 years............................................................
16 years............................................................
17 years............................................................
18 years............................................................
19 years............................................................
20 years...........................................................
21 years............................................................
22 years............................................................
23 years............................................................
24 years..........................................................
25 years............................................................
Oyer 25 years.................................................
Not reported..................................................
T otal....................................................

1
1
1

25.41
17. 21
7. 37
5. 73
4.92
2. 46
4.10
3.28
4.10
3. 28
3. 28
.82
.82
.82

2.46

1
1
1
2
1
1

.82
.82
.82
1.64
.82
.82

9
7
6

3
5
4
5
4
4

9
35
50
55
65
48
45
52
59
62
47
54
42
49
48
38
47
36
34
54
15
36
25

0.72
2 . 80

4. 00
4. 41
5. 21
3. 84
3. 60
4.16
4. 73
4. 97
3. 76
4. 33
3. 36
3. 92
3. 84
3.04
3. 76
2 . 88
2.72
4.33
1.20
2.88
2 . 00

31
30
44
57
61
68

53
49
57
63
66

48
55
43
49
51
38
48
37
35
56
16

2.46

4
3

3. 28
2.46

23
130
69

1. 76
1. 84
10.41
5. 53

37
25
25
23
134
72

122

100. 00

1,249

100.00

1,371

2. 26
2.19
3. 21
4.16
4. 45
4. 96
3. 87
3. 57
4.16
4.60
4. 81
3. 50
4. 01
3.14
3. 57
3. 72
2. 77
3. 50
2. 70
2.55
4. 09
1.17
2.70
1. 82
1.82
1. 68
9. 77
5. 25
100. 00

Of the married women who have had no children 25.41 per cent were
married less than one year, 17.21 per cent were married one year, 7.37
per cent were married two years, etc. Of the married women who
have had children 0.72 per cent were married one year, 2.80 per cent
two years, 4 per cent three years, 4.41 per cent four years, etc.
The following table summarizes the results of Tables X V II, X V III,
and X IX , showing the number and per cent of married women who
bore each specified number of children during their married life in
Italy, in the United States, and in both countries. Looking at the
table it will be seen that 96 married women bore no children during
their married life in Italy, 331 none during their married life in the
United States, and 122 none during their married life in both countries.
This last number, it will be noted, is not the sum of those who bore no
children in Italy and those who bore none in the United States, as many
women who had no children in one country had children in the other.
The figures for 1 child, 2 children, etc., should be read in like manner.
1453—Xo. 13------3

718

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

NUM BER A N D PER CENT OE M A R R IE D W O M E N W H O H A V E BORNE EA C H .SPECI
F IE D NUM BER OF CH ILDREN.
In the United
States.

In Italy.
Number of children born.

In both Italy and
the United States.

Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
No children.-....... ................. ......................
1 child....................................... ......................
2 children........................................................

3 c h i l d r e n .................................................
4 children........................................................
5 children........................................................
6 children.............................. ......................
7 children...................................................... .
8 children.................................................... .
9 ch ild re n .....................................................
10 children......................................................
11 children.............. .....................................
12 children............... ......................................
13 children
.......................................
14- clii1drou............................ ............. ...........
15 ehildren
_ __ _
.. ___
17 chi 1dren ............... ................ ....... .....
18 children......................................................
19 children......................................................
Not specified..................................................
T o t a l .................................................

9G
175
155
117
93
63
37
39
28
20
11
8
2
1

4
1
1

10. 95
19. 96
17. 67
13. 34
10.61
7.18
4. 22
4.45
3.19
2 . 28
1. 26
.91
.23
. 11
.46
. 11

331
174
236
181
144
95
67
44
23
14
5
4
1

24.61
12.94
17. 55
13. 46
10.71
7.06
4.98
3.27
1. 71
1.04
.37
.30
.07

122

108
148
166
166
161
137
95
90
71
34
24
11

5
6

8.90
7.88
10.80
12.11
12.11

11. 74
9.99
6.93
6.56
5.18
2.48
1. 75
.80
.37
.44

.11
2. 85

1. 93

.07
.07
.07
1.75

877

100.00

1,345

100. 00

1, 371

100.00

1
1
1

.11

Of the 877 married women who spent a portion of their married life
in Italy, 10.95 per cent had no children born in Italy, 19.96 per cent
had one child, 17.67 per cent had two children, 13.34 per cent had three
children, 10.61 per cent had four children, etc. Of the 1,345 married
women who spent the whole or a portion of their married life in the
United States, 24.61 per cent had no children born in the United States,
12.94 per cent had one child, 17.55 per cent had two children, 13.46 per
cent had three children, 10.71 per cent had four children, etc. Consid
ering the number of children born either in Italy or the United States,
of the 1,371 married women embraced in the table, 7.88 per cent had
one child, 10.80 per cent had two children, 12.11 per cent had three
children, 12.11 per cent had four children, 11.74 per cent had five
children, etc.
So far as conditions in Italy were concerned, 799 married women who
had spent a portion of their married life in Italy before coming to the
United States showed an aggregate of 8,455 years of married life spent
there. During this time there were born to them 2,505 children. It is
thus seen jhat while in Italy a child was born to each of these married
women every 3.38 years. The conditions in the United States show
that 1,280 married women who had spent the whole or a portion of their
married life in the United States aggregated 8,997 years o f married life
in the United States and had borne during that time 3,329 children—
that is, while in the United States a child was born to each of these
married women every 2.70years. Taking into consideration the results
for both Italy and the United States, 1,296 married women in these
families aggregated 17,466 years married and had 5,860 children, a
child for every 2.98 years of married life. These figures necessarily
include only those married women who reported both years married and
children born.

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

719

Table X X . — P e r so n s sick or p h y sic a lly d efective , by kind o f a ilm en t

or
table shows the various ailments and defective
physical conditions from which the members of these Italian families
suffered during the year. Out of a total of 6,773 persons 1,448, or 21.38
per cent, were reported as sick during the year or physically defective.
Excluding childbirth from consideration, the number of persons other
wise sick and physically defective was 1,185, or 17.50 per cent; exclud
ing childbirth, the proportions for the four cities canvassed in the slum
investigation were 1.85 per cent for Baltimore, 3.90 per cent for Chicago,
2.35 per cent for New York, and 2.03 per cent for Philadelphia. The
exceedingly small proportion of sick and physically defective persons
found among the general slum population embraced in the Seventh
Special Report was noticeable, the highest being 3.90 per cent for
Chicago. In the present investigation the proportion of sick and
defective, excluding childbirth, as has been shown, reached 17.50 per
cent.
As regards specific diseases or ailments, 301, or 20.79 per cent of the
1,448 persons reported as sick or defective during the year suffered
from childbirth, or childbirth and some other ailment; 203, or 14.02 per
cent, suffered from fevers, malarial, typhoid, etc., or fever and some
other ailment; 112, or 7.73 per cent, suffered from rickets, or rickets and
some other ailment; 114, or 7.87^per cent, suffered from bronchitis, or
bronchitis and some other ailment, while 100, or 6.91 per cent, suffered
from rheumatism, or rheumatism and some other ailment. Over onehalf (55.52 per cent) of all persons reporting ailments or defects suf
fered during the year from childbirth, fevers, rickets, bronchitis, and
rheumatism. Going further and taking up the other ailments most
frequently reported, 80, or 5.52 per cent of all ailing and defective per
sons, suffered from accidental injuries, etc.; 73, or 5.04 per cent, suffered
from female complaint, etc.; 42, or 2.90 per cent, from pneumonia, etc.;
41, or 2.83 per cent, from measles, etc.; 28, or 1.93 per cent, from diph
theria; 26, or 1.80 per cent, from inflammation of the eyes; 23, or 1.59
per cent, from dyspepsia, etc.; 19, or 1.31 per cent, from consumption,
etc.; 18, or 1.24 per cent, from miscarriage, etc., while the proportion of
those suffering from any other ailment or defect ranged from 1.24 to 0.07
per cent.
defect and se x . —This

DOMESTIC CONDITIONS, COST OF FOOD, ETC.
In connection with this investigation partial reports were secured
from the families and individuals involved relating to their domestic
conditions; their customs in the United States and in Italy as regards
baking bread, spinning, sewing, knitting, etc.; their food and the cost
of the same, and the padrone system, the commissions paid padrones,
and the prices of food bought from padrones as compared with market
prices, etc. These points are taken up and such data given as were
secured.

720

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

BAKING, SPINNING, SEWING, ETC., IN ITALY AND IN THE UNITED
STATES.

In answer to the inquiry, Do you bake your bread in this country?
out of 965 families reporting 675, or 69.95 per cent, stated that they
baked their bread. The number of families answering the inquiry, Did
you bake your bread in Italy? was 851. O f this number 777, or 91.30
per cent, answered in the affirmative, as against 69.95 per cent just
shown as baking their bread in the United States.
f
In answer to the inquiry, Do you spin in this country? out of 895
families reporting only 7, or less than 1 per cent, answered in the affirm
ative, while in answer to the inquiry, Did you spin in Italy? out of 834
families reporting 636, or 76.26 per cent, answered in the affirmative.
In answer to the inquiry, Do you sew in this country? 770, or 86.32
per cent, of the 892 families reporting answered in the affirmative) of
the 848 families answering the inquiry, Did you sew in Italy? 779, or
91.86 per cent, answered in the affirmative. O f those families report
ing as to whether or not they did sewing in this country, 892 in number,
the additional question, Do you sew for a boss? was asked, and an
affirmative answer given in 88 cases.
In answer to the inquiry, Do y 6u knit stockings in this country? 156,
or 17.73 per cent, of the 880 families reporting answered in the affirma
tive, while of the 842 families reporting as to whether or not they knitted
stockings in Italy 721, or 85.63 per cent, answered in the affirmative.
Of 849 families reporting, 633, or 74.56 per cent, stated they worked
in the fields in Italy. In answer to the inquiry, Did you use kerosene
lamps in Italy? 846 families reported, 571, or 67.49 per cent, o f which
answered in the affirmative. Of the 850 families reporting, but 27, or
3.18 per cent, had stoves in Italy. Coal is almost universally reported
as the fuel used for cooking in this country, 969, or 98.48 per cent, out
of a total of 984 families using that kind of fuel, the remaining 15
families, with the exception of one which used wood and one which used
coke, using coal in connection with some other fuel.
In these families 305 persons were found who reported that they had
sent money to bring relatives from Italy. The aggregate amount
involved was $19,384.75, or an average of $63.56 for each of the 305
persons reporting.
But 9 persons reported that they had invested in land in Italy. The
total amount was $2,440, or an average Of $271.11 per individual.
Seventy-six persons reported that they had invested in land in the
United States. The aggregate amount of their investments was
$260,665, or an average of $3,429.80 per individual.
Of the 271 male members of these families who were found to have
visited Italy since their arrival in this country, 245 had returned to
Italy once, 16 had returned twice, 8 had returned three times, 1 had
returned four times, and 1 had returned five times. Of the 39 females
who had visited Italy, 32 had returned to Italy once, 1 had returned
twice, 5 had returned three times, and 1 had returned five times.

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

721

FOOD.

The following general report from the agent of the Department who
canvassed these families and secured the data which form the basis of
the tables included in this report relates to the food of these people
and embodies the result of careful inquiry on this subject:
Three facts led to this inquiry concerning the food of the Italian
working people:
1. Italians are considered fitted for the lighter kinds of manual labor
only. In Chicago they are thought best fitted for street sweeping and
not strong enough for work in the waterworks extension department
and for sewer digging.
2. It is difficult to persuade an Italian to go to a hospital. He says
he starves in places where the food is known to be abundant and well
prepared. His absence from wofk is thus protracted by the unscien
tific care which he receives at home, and if he is suffering from a
contagious disease his reluctance often leads to concealment which
imperils other lives.
3. Rickets, a disease due to malnutrition, is exceedingly prevalent
among the children of Italian working people.
Considering the large number of causes which may have resulted in
this state of things—hereditary weakness, unhealthful housing, and
utter ignorance of all the laws of hygiene—it would be presumptuous
to attribute all these facts to the quality of food used. Indeed, one
great cause of the antipathy to hospitals is probably ignorance o f the
English language. It may not, however, be entirely profitless to look
to the food as one of the possible causes. Possibly the errors of diet
common among Italian workingmen are just as common among work
ingmen of other nationalities. Investigations show that the Russian
Jews and Bohemians market more judiciously and cook their food more
wisely than do the Italians. It may be for this reason—probably for
this and other reasons—that the workingmen of these nationalities are
in better physical condition than are the Italians.
It must be borne in mind that the following statements are true only
o f Italians of the poorer class—not of the richer classes nor of the very
poorest class. The food of the last named is obtained to a large extent
from garbage boxes. Reference here is made to the laborer who works
for $1.25 per day and to the fruit peddler or organ grinder with an
income of about the same amount.
As is the case with the poor of other nationalities in this country,
there is probably no fault to be found with the food from a purely quan
titative standpoint. It is probable that there are exceedingly few
Italian persons in the city of Chicago who do not spend enough money
upon their food to buy sufficient nutriment to keep their bodies in good
condition, providing only the money is judiciously spent and the food
properly prepared. Except in rare cases, the Italians certainly eat
enough. Immediately following this statement will be found brief
dietaries of Italian workingmen at hard labor. The fact that the quan
tities are not generally given does not seem to render them valueless,
for the reasons just given.
In connection with the first of the three points mentioned above, viz,
the bearing o f the food upon the capacity for labor, it must be remem
bered that the condition of the Italian laborer in this country, and par
ticularly during the last two or three years, is peculiar. Having only
the most unskilled labor to offer, he is the first to be thrown out of

722

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

employment during seasons of industrial depression. The result has
been that in the city of Chicago during the past two years the Italian
has worked on an average but little more than four months out of the
twelve. The other eight months were spent in idleness and almost abso
lute inactivity in poorly ventilated rooms. During these months the
laborer, helpless because of his ignorance of the English language,
hardly ventures farther than the nearest saloon. The food to which
he has been accustomed in his native land and to which he clings is
peculiarly ill adapted for this inactive period. In theory these eight
months o f idleness should be a preparation for the season of hard
work. The man having little outdoor life and no immediate necessity
for exertion has no need for large amounts of starches and fats, but
.he has the greatest need for the proteids or nitrogenous substances
which create muscle and give powers of endurance. The food of the
Italian fails to meet this requirement.
It must be mentioned, first, that the large expenditure for beer, which
takes the place in this country o f the light wines of Italy, seriously
curtails the amount of money available for food. Were it not for this
large outlay for beer, beef, which the Italian looks upon as a luxury,
might be substituted more often for pork. Another thing to be noted
is that the money available for food, after this unfortunately large sum
has been deducted, is not expended in such a way as to accomplish the
most-good. Pork, with its large amount of fat and small amount of
proteids, as compared with beef, is used much more than the latter.
Lard is tried out in large quantities in the fall for use in winter, and
enters into the preparation o f almost every dish. The beef used is
generally from the round. Wheat flour is used in very large quanti
ties and is made into bread and macaroni. It is not uncommon for a
family of five or six to use a barrel every six weeks. Oatmeal and
other prepared cereals, whole wheat, graham and rye flours, are almost
unknown. Beans, eggs, chickens, and cheese are the other more solid
kinds of food .. Green vegetables are used in very large quantities, but
unfortunately are seldom obtained in fresh condition. With the excep
tion of dandelion greens, which are cut by the Italians themselves, the
vegetables reach them only after rejection from the better markets.
Bed peppers and tomatoes are in the greatest favor, and are dried for
winter use. A paste, made by drying in the sun the pulp and juice o f
the tomato, is a characteristic Italian dish. Vegetables are used not
as an accompaniment of meat, but as a substitute tor it. It will be seen
by reference to the dietaries that the Italian laborer frequently takes
for his lunch only bread and peppers. The Italians use little butter and
milk. Cases could be cited almost without number of these people who
have 15 or 20 cents per day to spend for beer and only 3 cents for milk.
. With reference to the methods of cooking, meats are generally fried.
The Italian fries his round steak in lard, thus reducing it to its most
indigestible and innutritious form. He might well take a lesson from
his neighbor, the .Russian Jew, who by long, slow cooking makes a
most palatable, nutritious dish of his chuck beef, an even lower-priced
cut of meat. Eggs, an excellent though not an economical food even
when well prepared, are largely deprived of their food valuB by being
fried hard in lard. They are usually mixed with potatoes before frying.
Cabbage,’ peppers, and tomatoes are cooked in the same way with
potatoes. Macaroni is boiled in water, covered with a sauce of lard
flavored with onions, garlic, peppers, or parsley, and is served with
cheese. Beans are boiled with potatoes and served with lard sauce or
are used for salad.

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

723

The conclusion is that the amount of fat and starch taken in this diet
is enough for a man at hardest labor and far in excess of the needs of
an idle man, and that in the absence to so large an extent of beef, oat
meal, and other foods having large proportions of nitrogenous food
principles, tjiere is a deficiency of muscle-forming materials. Foods,
such as eggs and beef, having the greatest value for giving strength
of muscle and endurance, have their usefulness impaired by pernicious
methods of cooking. In view of these facts it seems fair to infer that
after a winter of inactivity, in bad air and on such a diet, the system
of the Italian laborer is in such a debilitated condition as to make him
entirely unprepared for the return of the working season. To this
physical unfitness may be attributed his unwillingness to make any
exertion to get work—a matter of surprise to his would-be benefactors
who consider only his poverty and indebtedness, and not his physical
condition. *
As to the second point, the aversion to hospitals, there is no doubt
that an Italian, taken from his food fried in lard, which attains and
retains a much higher temperature than food cooked in milk or water,
and which is highly spiced with peppers and highly flavored with garlic
and onions, really suffers when the plain, nutritious, and well-prepared
food of a hospital is set before him. We can learn more from the
instinctive action of a little child than from the protests of scores of
grown people. Italian children, when first taken to the hospitals, turn
with disgust from such foods as bread and milk or milk toast. It is
doubtless true that this change in diet is not only distasteful, but so
radical as frequently to disorder the digestive system. Perhaps the
treatment of an Italian during this period of change should be studied
much as the treatment of an inebriate being won from his strong drink
is studied. The sudden change certainly produces an abnormal physi
cal condition. A little more attention to this subject by hospital
authorities and a few harmless concessions to the tastes of the Italians
during the first few days of their stay in the hospital might result in
their greater willingness to go to hospitals and in their greater tracta
bleness while there. Many an Italian workingman, from pure aversion
to American food, lies sick in his own home for months, while unhealthful surroundings and bad food conspire against his recovery, who might
speedily return to health if taken to a hospital.
The third point, concerning the children, is of interest, because it
bears upon the condition of the future workingman. A sick child
may outgrow his diseases, but can hardly he expected to attain the
greatest vigor of manhood. The great prevalence of rickets among
Italian children may be seen by reference to the general tables.
Pickets never proves fatal, but a child affected with this disease is
especially subject to lung, bronchial, throat, and other troubles. The
frequent acute troubles of the children, traceable to rickets, produce
great drains upon the purse of the Italian laborer. The seeds of this
disease are often sown before birth. A poorly nourished mother often
nurses one child almost up to the time of the birth of her second child.
The second child, weak at birth, is nursed until the mother’s milk is
entirely unfitted for the demands of its system. The weakness thus
engendered is aggravated by giving the child the same unwholesome
food that its parents eat, and in addition large quantities of fruit in a
more or less decayed condition. Milk is used in very small quantities.
The question, Do you give your children milk! is usually answered in
the affirmative by the Italian mother, but further inquiry usually brings
out the information that she buys only about 3 cents’ worth per day

724

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

and gives it to the children in form of “ milk and tea” or “ milk and
coffee.” Beer is given to the very youngest children. Oatmeal and
other prepared cereals, whole wheat and graham flours, with their
wealth of mineral matters for the formation of bone, are as unfamiliar
to the child as to the father, to whom, as previously stated, they are
an unknown food. The food of the Italian, therefore, with its insuffi
ciency of proteids and its excess of the most indigestible of fats, has
an added fault, when considered as a diet for children, because of the
exclusion to so large an extent of milk, oatmeal, and other foods rich
in mineral matters.
D IETARIES OF ITALIAN LABORING MEN.
[Time, August, 1896.

Sunday bills of fare not taken.]

No. 1. Age, 29; married; sewer digger. Breakfast and lunch.: One pound round
steak (beef), three times per week, one-half for breakfast and one-half for lunch;
red peppers instead o f the round steak, three times per w eek ; every morning 5 cents'
worth o f beer; bread with all these meals. Supper: Macaroni and beans, or round
steak fried w ith potatoes; always bread and 5 cents' worth o f beer.
No. 2. Age, 19; single; sewer digger. Breakfast and lu n ch : One pound round
steak, three times per w eek ; peppers, three times per w eek ; always bread and 5
cents' worth o f beer. Supper: Fried potatoes and eggs, or boiled potatoes and
m acaroni; bread and 5 cents' worth o f beer.
Na. 3. Age, 35; married; sewer digger. Breakfast and lu nch : One pound round
steak; brea d ; 5 cents' worth o f beer for lunch. Supper: Round steak fried with
potatoes; macaroni and beans; potatoes and peppers fried together.
Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7. Day laborers. Food for each, breakfast and lu n ch : Five cents' worth
o f summer sausage; 1 pound bread. Supper: Three boiled eggs or head cheese;
bread.
No. 8. Age, 29; single; sewer digger. Breakfast and lunch: Coffee, bread, 10
cents' worth o f beer; pork chops, four times per w e e k ; fried eggs, twice" a week.
Supper: Beef fried w ith potatoes, or peppers fried with potatoes, or macaroni;
bread and 5 cents' worth o f beer.
No. 9. Age, 31; single; sewer digger. Breakfast and lunch: Bread; 10 cents'
worth o f beer; fried eggs, or potatoes fried w ith peppers or cheese. Supper: Maca
roni w ith beans, or peppers fried w ith potatoes or sausage; bread; 5 cents' worth
o f beer.
No. 10. Age, 33; single; sewer digger. Breakfast: Coffee or tea and bread.
Lunch: Five cents' worth o f beer; bread; pork chops tw ice a w eek; other days
fried eggs, ham, sausage, peppers, or cheese (always beer and bread, w ith choice o f
the other articles named). Supper: Potatoes fried w ith eggs, or sausage fried with
peppers.
No. 11. Age, 34; single; sewer digger. Breakfast and lu n ch : Five cents' worth o f
pork chops; 15 cents' worth o f beer; bread. Supper: Macaroni and beefsteak, or
peppers fried with potatoes, or cabbage fried with potatoes, or beans and m acaroni;
bread and 5 cents’ worth o f beer.
No. 12. Age, 21; single; day laborer. Breakfast: One pound round steak, fried,
three times per w eek ; peppers, three times per week. Supper: Macaroni only, four
times a w eek; fried potatoes with peppers tw ice a w e e k ; beer unknown.
No. 13. Age, 24; single; day.laborer. Breakfast and lu n ch : One pound pork chops
every morning, one-half for breakfast and one-half for lunch; peppers three times
per w eek; bread and 5 cents' worth o f beer daily. Supper : Macaroni and beans,
or peppers and potatoes, or beef and potatoes (beef three times per w e e k ); 5 cents'
worth o f beer.
No. 14. Age, 23; single. Eats no breakfast. Lunch: Ham or sausage w ith bread
and peppers. Supper: Occasionally, round steak; usually, macaroni only, or pota
toes and cabbage; beer unknown.

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

725

Inquiry was made as to the actual cost of food and milk among these
people, and replies were secured as to food from 742 families, embracing
3,711 persons, while 782 families, embracing 3,914 individuals, reported
as to the cost of milk. The result o f this inquiry is embodied in the
table which follows:
COST OF FOOD A N D M IL K , B Y SIZE OF F A M IL Y .

Cost of food per
week.

Cost of milk per
day.

Size of family.
Per
family.

Average

■ Ha
00
00

1 person.........
2 persons.......
3 persons.......
4 persons.......
5 persons.......
6 persons.......
7 persons.......
8 persons.......
9 persons.......
10 persons---11 persons
12 persons---13 persons-----

Per indi
vidual.

$1.884
2. 654
3 .18£
3. 60
3.97
4.28
4. 734
5.77
6. 824
8. 374
10. 22i
10. 90
17. 874

1. 33
1. 06
.90
•794
•714
.674
.72
.76
•834
.93
.91
1. 374

4.11

.82

Per
family.

Per indi
vidual.

$0. 003
.017
.023
.024
.027
.028
.039
.036
.024
.046
.038
.060
.045

$0. 003
.009
.008
.006
. 005
.005
.006
.004
.003
.005
.003
.005
.003

.027

.005

In this table is shown the cost of food per week and the cost of milk
per day, according to the size of the family. These costs are given for
the family and for the individual. In families of one person the aver
age cost of food per week was $ 1.88J, and the average cost of milk per
day about one-third of a cent. In families of two persons the average
cost of food per week per family was $2.65^ and per individual $1.33.
The cost of milk per day in these families was 1.7 cents per family, or
less than 1 cent per individual. The cost of food and of milk per
family naturally increases as the size of family increases, while the cost
per individual decreases. The average-cost of food per week per indi
vidual for the 3,711 individuals in the 742 families reporting as to the
cost of food was 82- cents. The average cost of milk per day per indi
vidual for the 3,914 individuals in the 782 families reporting as to cost
of milk was one-half of 1 cent. The average cost of milk per day for
each family reporting was 2.7 cents. Eeports were secured from 726
families as to the amounts expended for beer per day. Of this number
of families 533, or 73.42 per cent, reported that they used beer and that
the average cost of beer per day per family was 11.1 cents. The average
cost of milk per day per family was, as just stated, but 2.7 cents.
In answer to the inquiry, Do you give your children milk? 573, or
82.09 per cent, of the 698 families reporting answered in the affirmative.
In answer to the inquiry, Do you give your children beer? 498, or 71.65
per cent, of the 695 families reporting answered in the affirmative. The
inquiry as to whether, or not these families ate beefsteak was answered
in the affirmative in 858, or 89.84 per cent, of the 955 families reporting
as to this fact.

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

726

PADRONE SYSTEM.
The inquiry, Do you work for a padrone*? was asked of 1,860 persons
connected with these families, and 403, or 21.67 per cent, answered in
the affirmative. Of this number 24, or 5.96 per cent, reported that they
paid no commission to the padrone for securing the job, while 379, or
94.04 per cent, reported that they paid a commission. It was not found
possible to ascertain the amount of commission paid by each of these 379
persons, but quite a large proportion of them were able to report the
exact amount of commission paid for their last job and the length
of time said job lasted. An aggregate of $1,650.50 was paid to
padrones by the 341 persons reporting, or an .average of $4.84 per indi
vidual, for the last job at which they worked, and the aggregate time
worked on these jobs was 3,958£ weeks, or an average of 11 weeks and
4 days per individual. The average amount paid per week to padrones
for employment at the last job at which the 341 persons worked, as
shown by these figures, was 42 cents each. This commission to padrones
is a matter of no small moment to the workmen when the very low
wages at which they work is taken into consideration. This investi
gation has not shown that any large proportion of the workmen were
fed by the padrones, but it is known that in many cases where they
were taken out of the city to work they were compelled to purchase
the whole or part of their food from the padrones. A number of reports
were secured from workmen who were taken out of the city to work
and a comparison made between the prices paid for the food which the
workmen were compelled to purchase from the padrones and Chicago
market prices. The following table shows the results of these reports:
PRICES P A ID FOR C E R T A IN AR TICLES OP FOOD TO TH E PADRONE A N D IN
CHICAGO M A R K E T S.

THE

Macaroni
Macaroni
Cheese
Bread
Sausage
Bacon
(per pound).
(per box).
(per pound).
(per pound).
(per loaf).
(per pound).
W ork
man
Chi
Chi
Chi
Pa
Chi
Pa
Pa
Pa
Chi
Pa
Pa
num
Chi
ber. drone’s cago drone’s cago drone’s cago drone’s cago drone’s cago drone’s cago
price.
price. price. price. price. price. price.
price. price. price. price. price.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

$0. 07

$0. 04

.07
.06
.08
.06
.06
.08
.07
.06
.10
.07

.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
.04
.03
.04
.03
.03

.06
.07
.07
.08
.07
.06
.06
.08

.04
.04
.03
.05
.04
.04
.04
.04

$1. 50
$0

$ 1.00

$0. 06

.10
.12
.10

"i.’ oo 'i.'oo'
.16
1. 30
1.75
1.50

1.05

1.00

.12
I

$0.05

.16
.18
.15

.10
.08
.12

.15
.16

.08
.10
.07
.11
.11
.10
.08
.08
.10
.08
.08

.10
.08

1.00

$0.16

.08

1.60

1. 25

.12
.11

2.10

T25

. 08
.09
.14

.15
*13
.13
.18
.13
.14
.12
r-16

.12

.15

.15
.15

.10
.10

THE ITALIANS IN CHICAGO.

727

PRICES P A ID FOR C E R T A IN AR T IC L E S OF FOOD TO TH E PADRONE AN D IN THE
CHICAGO M A R K E T S—Concluded.
Sugar
Coffee
Lard
Tea
Beans
Tomatoes
(per pound).
(per pound).
(per pound).
(per pound).
(per can).
W ork (per pound).
man
Chi
Chinum
Pa
Pa
Chi
Pa
Pa
Chi
Pa
ChiPaChi
ber. drone’s cago drone’s cago drone’s cago drone’s cago drone’s cago |drone’s cago
price. price. price. price. price. price. price. price. price. price, j price. price.
4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
30
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

$0.13
.15
. 15

$0. 08
.08
.08

.15
.12

$0. 09
.06
.08
.10
.07

$0. 05^
.05
.05
.06
.05

$0. 40
.40

$0.25
.20

.07

I
. 12£j

.08
.08
.05
.07
.07
.10
.09

.06

.05

$0. 25
.20

I
i

.08
.06

.14
.11
.10
.10
.14.
.17
. 15

$0.50
.40

.35

.20

.05

.30

.40

$0. 06

•02£
.04

.08
.05

. 05
.04

.07

.05

.30

.18

.20

$0.09

. 15

.07

•I2i
.12

.10
.08

. 10

. 05

.20

.09
. 06

$0. 03

.03
.07

$0.15

.05

.15

The prices are given in this table, by each workman reporting, for
such articles of food as were for sale by the padrones. The quality of
the food for sale by the padrones was frequently reported as good,
although in the majority of cases it was reported as of unknown or of
bad quality. In each instance the prices of articles of food sold by
the padrones are compared with Chicago prices for the same quality of
food. Eeports were secured from 21 workmen. Of this number 15
stated that they were compelled to purchase from the padrones such
food as they kept for sale ; 2 reported that they were practically com
pelled to patronize the padrones because they had no money to pur
chase elsewhere; 2 reported themselves helpless to do otherwise
because of their distance from any other place where food could be
purchased, while 1 did not report, and 1 reported that he was not
compelled to patronize the padrones. All of these workmen were
taken from the city to work on railroads, probably at track repairing
or construction.
As will be seen from this table, the prices charged by padrones are
frequently double those charged in Chicago markets for similar arti
cles of food of the same quality. Considering each article embraced
in the table, and all combined, it is seen that the padrone’s prices show
an average increase over Chicago prices as follows: For bread, 82.19
per cent; for macaroni by the pound, 61.11 per cent; for macaroni by
the box, 50.33 per cent; for cheese, 46.02 per cent; for sausage, 72.40 per
cent; for bacon, 67.91 per cent; for lard, 77.04 per cent; for sugar, 44.58
per cent; for coffee, 74.70 per cent; for tea, 80 per cent; for beans,
61.70 per cent; for tomatoes, 65.38 per cent; and for all articles of food
combined, 59.55 per cent

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.
B Y G. O. V IR TU E , PH. D.

Practically all the anthracite coal produced in the United States
comes from those rich deposits in the State of Pennsylvania lying in
the hills and valleys of the Blue Ridge Mountains from the head waters
o f the Schuylkill and the Lehigh rivers northward and westward to the
Susquehanna. Those deposits occupy an area o f a little less than 500
square miles, chiefly in the counties of Schuylkill, Carbon, Luzerne,
Lackawanna, and Northumberland. Originally one vast bed of coal,
the area has by geological action been broken into three distinct;
fields known in trade circles as the southern or Schuylkill field, the
middle or Lehigh field, and the northern or Wyoming field. A t pres
ent the mines employ 143,610 men and boys and annually send to
market in the neighborhood o f 45,000,000 long tons of coal, about onethird the total coal product of the United States,
The industry has grown to its present dimensions within threequarters of a century. Coal was known to exist in the northern field
as early as 1768, and various efforts were made, especially after 1791,
when coal was discovered near the Lehigh, to introduce it into the sea
board cities. But the comparative plenty of wood for fuel, the easy
communication with the English and Virginia mines, and the lack of
means of transportation from the anthracite mines long stood in the way
o f their development. It was not till during the second war with
Great Britain that the growing scarcity of wood and the interruption
of the supply of soft coal led to the first successful efforts to send
anthracite to market.
The Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company and the Schuylkill Navi
gation Company began their canals about the same time, the one com
pleting an imperfect communication with Philadelphia in 1820 and the
other in 1825. The beginning o f the anthracite industry is usually
reckoned from the opening of the Lehigh mines in 1820. The develop
ment from that time was continuous and rapid. The shipments reached
1,000,000 tons in 1842, the year the Reading Railroad, the first of the
coal roads, was completed. What its growth has been since that time
is sufficiently indicated by the following table:
SHIPM ENTS, IN LONG TONS, OF A N T H R A C IT E COAL A T D E C E N N IA L PERIODS FROM
1850 A N D IN 1895.
Year.
1850..............................................................
I860............. ..............................................
1870.......................................................... .

728

Tons.
3, 358, 899
8,513,123
16,182,191

Year.
1880............................................................
1890............................................................
1895........................................................ .

Tons.
23,437,242
35, 855,173
46,511,477

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

729

It is with the social side of this great industry, and especially with
the history of the laborers for the last- generation, that this paper will
deal. The earlier history of the laborers can never be fully written.
It is only since the era of organization, which for the anthracite labor
ers begins with the closing years of the civil war, that they have been
deemed of sufficient importance to receive from chroniclers more than
a passing notice. Indeed, since that time they have not received from
writers upon the labor movement the attention which their importance
deserves. The reason for this neglect may, no doubt, be found in the
isolated position of the miners and the small part they have in conse
quence played in the labor movement. The different conditions of
employment, moreover, which obtain at the anthracite mines from those
found in the bituminous mines, have stood in the way of that degree of
cooperation with miners elsewhere which has long existed between
bituminous miners in widely separated districts. The history of the
anthracite miners, therefore, stands very much by itself. But the
example of 50,000 laborers for several years holding an important
industry firmly in their grasp, and the steps by which their power was
lost, furnish a subject of sufficient interest in itself to warrant a more
careful study than has yet been given it.
It istoften assumed that the deplorable condition of the anthracite
miners at the present.time has been produced by the large corporations
which dominate the trade. Such glimpses as we have of the laborers
before the extension of corporate control over the industry show much
the same conditions as now exist. To be sure, accounts (a) are not want
ing which tell of the contentment and happiness of the miners in the
early years of the trade. Contentment has not even now wholly
departed from the coal fields; but as the condition of equality which
marked the early years of the industry disappeared, discontent arose.
The miner was not satisfied with his rude house of logs or slabs when
he saw substantial towns built up about him showing every sign of com
fort and even luxury, and especially since this growing apart in signs of
material wealth was accompanied by the disappearance of that easy
familiarity between the employer and employed which belongs to the
small undertaking. The dullest man naturally asked why he could not
share in the comforts he saw increasing about him. His explanation
then as now was found in his hard conditions of employment.
The conditions were indeed hard. Employment was irregular, rents
wrere high, and wages low. Laborers were subject to all the impositions
practiced at the present day. On the whole the standard of living was
low. It was a standard that did not belong to the general conditions
of employment in America, but one that seemed to attend the occufiation everywhere. The miners were for the most part English, Welsh,
Scotch, and Irish, and had been used to the conditions of life described
in the report of the Children’s Employment Commission of 1842. They
a

For example see Hazard/s Register of Pennsylvania, May, 1828.

730

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

brought; with them to America the standard of living described there,
just as to-day European laborers of a lower type bring their habits and
ideas of life from less-favored countries to our own. Then, as now,
better terms of employment brought some of the improvements sought
by: immigration y but with all the opportunities afforded by expanding
industries in a rich, new country, the lot of the miners remained a hard
one. This was no doubt largely due to the remarkable lack of mobility
which has long been noticed as a characteristic of mine labor everywhere.
Not only do miners rarely leave the calling to which they have been
brought up, but to a remarkable extent their sons become miners. An
observer, speaking of a particular district in Pennsylvania, declared
that during the years 1802-1872 “ there were not half a dozen sons of
miners that engaged in any other business, or sought any other trade
for a livelihoodand the belief was expressed that the same state of
affairs existed throughout the mining region of the State, (a) SchulzeGavernitz notes that 90 per cent of the Durham colliers are the sons of
colliers, (b) This strong tendency for mining to become a family call
ing is no doubt due to the isolatiomof mining communities and to the
small opportunities offered to sons remaining at home to go into other
trades. Fortunately the causes which have held both father and son
to the mines are less operative than formerly. But for many years
each speculative movement and the steady stream of immigration
brought new numbers to the mines, and those who came stayed, as did
their sons. The result was a normal surplus of mine labor.
Taking advantage of this state of the labor market, the operators
were able to keep wages at alow level. In 1828, when the business was
getting fairly upon its feet, miners received $ 1 per day and laborers 80
cents 5 and this scale remained until the early forties, when the miners
received but 87J cents and laborers but 70 cents, (c) Meanwhile, by
the general introduction of the utruck store,” wages had been reduced
15 or 20 per cent below what they nominally were. (d) After the depres
sion following the panic of 1837, and the introduction of anthracite as
a smelting fuel in 1840, there was an upward movement of wages, and
the expansion of the trade in the early fifties on the opening of several
new lines of railway to the mines brought another slight improvement.
The very hard years 1857-1859 sent wages back to their old level, oldtime abuses were resorted to with renewed vigor, and new ones invented.
Even t>n the hard terms offered, the struggle for employment produced
a degree of suffering and bitterness never before known in the region.
The next decade brought remarkable changes, not only in the condi
tion of the laborers but of the whole industry. The transition from a
business of small undertakings to one of larger scope and involving
Report of the Secretary of Internal Affairs, 1876-77, Part HI, p. 599.
Social Peace, p. 170.
cThe Miners’ Journal, April 16 and June 20, 1846.
d l b i d . j February 11 and May 20, 1843.
a

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

731

larger means had begun during the fifties. During the sixties influ
ences chiefly traceable to the war greatly accelerated the change. It
was marked by an increased depth of the mines, a greater outlay for
machinery, both for working the mines and for the preparation of the
coal for market, and, above all, by a rapid consolidation of the owner
ship of lands and of the railroads leading to them. So marked were
the changes from 1863 to 1873, they may be said to have constituted a
revolution in the industry.
The period was no less important for the laborers. To them the war
was an event of the first importance. Immigration was checked. The
demand for troops and for labor in other directions stopped the driifc of
laborers to the mines, and even drew off some already there. As the
issue of paper money began to influence the currency the profits of the
■operators began to rise. Their royalties, already low, being payable in
currency, were thus made lower still. As the war advanced they were
able to secure very remunerative prices for their coal, though not for a
greatly increased product. The conditions of the labor market were
now changed. The operators could not afford to stop work, and the
laborers were able to secure a share in the prosperity which had come
to the trade. Wages for all kinds of mine labor rose with prices, and
miners working on contract were by 1865 receiving $150, $200, and not
infrequently $250 per month. Anthracite laborers, who at the begin
ning of the decade were as poorly paid as any in the United States, had
become perhaps the best paid.
In spite of the high wages paid, the operators had continued for a time
to make large profits. But as soon as capital was set free from provide
ing for the armies a considerable stream began to flow in the direc
tion of the coal fields. The stream soon became a flood. Nowhere was
the speculation characteristic of the period more rampant than in the
anthracite region. That speculation was carried so far was largelydue
to the fact that the railway companies were rapidly extending their
lines toward tide water and westward and northward to the lakes, and
at the same time were building new laterals within the region and
acquiring others by purchase or lease. Bailroads being built, the own
ers felt themselves-compelled to secure tonnage for them by purchasing
the coal lands from which it must come. The lands once bought must
now be developed; and so rapidly was this done that soon all the phe
nomena of u over production,” which from the beginning of the industry
had been more or less complained of, became more marked than ever
before. In 1860 the shipments had been but 8,500,000 tons. The next
year this was slightly diminished because of the lack of a market, and
in 1862 still further by a flood which affected the product of all the mines
of the region. By 1865 the capacity of the mines had been increased
but a million tons above that of 1860. In 1866 the shipments rose to
12,700,000 tons, in 1867To 13,000,000 tons, and in 1870 to 16,100,000 tons.
This increase came, too, at a time when the demand for anthracite was

732

BULLETIN,OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

somewhat weakened by the slackening of manufacturing activity and
the increasing use of bituminous coal, and before any considerable
extension of the market had taken place.
With the first indication of a weakening market the operators, by
general, though not concerted action, took steps to protect their profits
through a reduction of wages. The laborers, no longer in the favorable
position for making bargains which they had previously enjoyed, were
compelled, 1866-67, to submit to several sharp reductions. By 1868
they began to understand the logic of the situation, and when a further
reduction was proposed, met it with a counter proposition for a restric
tion of the output of coal.
It should be noted that up to this time there had been no general
organization among the workmen. Many years before (in 1849) a society
had been organized by an English miner named Bates, who gave his
naifie to the organization ; but a long strike carried on that year failed,
“ Bates’s Union’’ broke down, and Bates himself departed with the
funds of the society. The distrust naturally existing among the work
men was increased by this failure, and no further mention of an organi
zation is to be found till 1860. In that year the workmen at the collieries
of the Forestville Improvement Company formed a union, which lasted
till 1864. By that time a number of local unions were formed in various
parts of the coal region, (a) They no doubt had considerable influence
in the numerous strikes and threats of strikes by which the workmen
secured the advances in their wages during the war. But it was not
till 1868 that thesedocal unions were united in an organization for the
whole anthracite region. The movement in this direction was no doubt
partly induced by the cooperation of the employers, which, for a long
time suspected, became clearly evident in 1867, when the operators to
the north of Broad Mountain organized the Mahanoy Yalley and Locust
Mountain Coal Association.
It may be said in passing that several similar associations of opera
tors were formed in the southern district during the next two years, and
in the latter part of 1869 were ail brought together in the “ Anthracite
Board of Trade of the Schuylkill Coal Begion.” The organization
embraced practically all the operators of the southern field, and through
it for the next few years negotiations were carried on with the workmen.
It was believed by the workmen that the chief object of these associa
tions was to injure them. The operators, on the other hand, explained
their action by the existence of an organization among the workmen
and by the violence" with which their demands were accompanied. It
is to little purpose to quarrel over the question as to whether the pot
or the kettle began it. Organization was in the air, and by means of
it both sides during 1868 and 1869 were making preparations for the
struggle which it was foreseen must come.
Another cause operating to bring the men together was the effort
aBannan’s*Statistics of the Anthracite Coal Trade, 1869.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

733

made in the summer of 1868 to secure the adoption of an eight-hour
day. The State legislature that year made eight hours a legal day
where there was no agreement to the contrary, the law to take effect
the 1st of July. Probably as a means of restricting the production of
coal as much as to secure easier terms of employment, the miners of the
Mahanoy Valley demanded the adoption of a shorter day with the con
tinuance of their old wages. The operators refused the demand and a
strike ensued. Many of the leaders were themselves opposed to the
movement. The method of payment to many of the men made the
question of the length of the working day immaterial." About threefourths of the miners in Luzerne County and five-sixths in Schuylkill
County, for example, were working by contract—that is, they were
working on a u breast” at so much per car, or were driving tunnels,
gangways, or other passages at so much per yard. A miner working
on a “ breast” furnished his own tools, powder, fuses, etc., and paid a
laborer for loading the coal into the car. He was usually able, if his
place worked fairly well, to blow down as much coal in six or eight
hours as the laborer could handle in ten, and to him an eight-hour day
was of no consequence except, indeed, as it restricted the output and
thus maintained prices, upon which the continuance of the scale of
wages depended.
The u eight-hour” strike became quite general throughout the region
and lasted for several weeks. It was not successful in securing the adop
tion of the eight-hour day, but it did relieve the glut in the market
somewhat and checked the fall in prices. On the whole, the workmen
were well pleased with the success of the strike. It gave them their
cue in their contentions with the operators for the next few years, and
it aided greatly in securing the cooperation of workmen in all parts of
the region. In the early part of 1868 the Schuylkill County court gave
a charter to the Workingmen’s Benevolent Association of St. Clair, (a)
whose constitution formed the model for the new societies elsewhere.
In the latter part of 1868 and the early part of 1869 the whole region
was organized. When the operators now proposed a reduction of
wages the laborers proposed a restriction of the output. They said,
what was perfectly true, that if coal continued to be”produced at the
full capacity of the mines, prices would continue to fall. Any reduction
of wages would bring only temporary relief. If coal were brought to
the pit’s mouth for nothing, the difficulties of overproduction would still
show themselves, and in the end restriction would have to be resorted
to; the remedy might as well be applied before the reduction of wages
as after; if the operators were not wise enough or united enough to
a This association was modeled upon the Miners' Benevolent Society of Carbon
County, founded in 1864. The Workingmen's Benevolent Association was the name
under which all parts of the anthracite fields were organized. In 1870 the legis
lature gave the society a charter and the name was changed to the Miners and
Laborers’ Benevolent Association, but it continued to be called, except officially,
by its old name—the Workingmen's Benevolent Association.

1453—Ho. 13---- 4

734

BULLETIN OF T1IE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

take measures for the preservation of their own interests and those of
their employees, they* the workmen, would.
Indeed, one of the expressed purposes of the workingmen’s union was
to accomplish this end. Thus Article I of the constitution of the Sum
mit Hill branch of the association stated that “ The object of this
society is to make such arrangements as will enable the operator and
the miner to rule the coal market.” How this was to be done appeared
in the following order issued by the general council of the Workingnieu’s Benevolent Association: (a)
P o t t s v i l l e , P A ., A p r i l 2 9 , 18 6 9 .
We, the Executive Committee of the W. B. A., do hereby unani
mously adopt the following resolutions, to wit:
R e so lv e d , That*we, the Executive Committee of the W. B, A., do
hereby give due notice to all our employers and consumers of coal that
there will be a general suspension of work to take place Monday, the
10th of May, 1869.
R e s o lv e d , That all work will be suspended except rock work, tunnel
ing, and repairing, but no coal to be cut under any consideration.
R e s o lv e d , That the foregoing resolutions be published in the Miners’
Journal, the Pottsville Standard, and the Workingmen’s Advocate,
Philadelphia.
(Signed)
J o h n S i n e y , P r e s.
G e o r g e C o r b e t t , Semj.

Under this order the suspension became general throughout the
region and was continued till the middle of June. The official notice
that work might be resumed ran as follows:(b)
OFFICIAL NOTICE.
M a h a n o y C i t y , P a ., J u n e 9 , 1869 .
Whereas we, the Miners and Laborers’ Association of the anthracite
coal fields of Pennsylvania, suspended work on the 10th of May, ultimo,
almost unanimously; and
Whereas the object of our doing so has been to a great extent accom
plished, to wit, the reduction or depletion of the surplus*of coal already
in the market, together with the preventing, it possible, the enormous
oversupply that was going to the market, thereby not only keeping the
price of labor down to last winter’s prices, but would eventually compel
either local suspension or reduction of wages, and iii consequence local
strikes; and
Whereas the public press of the country, in most instances through
which the public opinion is formed and expressed, has denounced our
association, in this its first powerful movement, representing that we
had a design to run up prices to an exorbitant height, etc., and in
some instances even threatening to appeal to Congress to repeal the
tariff on foreign coal: Therefore be it
R e s o lv e d , That we do not nor have desired to run the coal too high in
the market, but, on the contrary, we prefer the steady, healthy market,

a The Miners’ Journal, May, 1869.
&Anthracite Monitor, June 12, 1869.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

735

which will afford to the operators and dealers fair interest on tlieir invest
ments and at tlie same time receive for our share a fair day’s wages for
a fair day’s work.
jResolved, That, taking into consideration the great risk and danger
the miner or laborer has to incur in pursuing his daily occupation, we
claim that we should receive pay commensurate to said work or danger,
and not be stinted down to the lowest prices given to common laborers
where employments are safe and free from all risks to life, limb, and
family.
R e s o lv e d , That on and after the 16th instant all districts or branches
which can agree with their employers as to basis and conditions of
resumption do then resume work.
By order of committee.
J ohn P a r k e r , C hairm an.
M. W il l ia m s , S ecreta ry.

This was an attempt, it will be noticed, to justify the action of the
Workingmen’s Benevolent Association to the public, not to the opera
tors. Strangely enough, the latter made but little opposition at this
time to the policy of the workmen. Some were, of course, injured
severely by being kept from mining enough coal to fill their orders.
But it was generally agreed that too much coal was being mined, and
many of the operators were glad to throw the responsibility for the
stoppage of the mines upon the laborers. Later, however, when the
workmen made other stoppages necessary, this first suspension was
bitterly condemned by the operators as an act of tyranny entailing
great loss upon them. During the suspension the question of provid
ing against overproduction in the future was much discussed by the
men -in their unions. In May a resolution of the general council
restricted the miners to one car less per day than had formerly been
considered a day’s work, and those doing yard work were similarly
restricted.
It was at this time, too, that the proposition was made to the oper
ators to base wages thereafter upon the selling price of coal. One of
the conditions of beginning work after the suspension, therefore, was
the adoption of a sliding scale of wages. In the Lehigh and Schuylkill
regions the men secured the sliding scale. In the northern region, how
ever, they failed. In fact, the suspension itself had been only partially
successful there. Two of the largest producers, the Delaware, Lacka
wanna and Western Bailroad Company and the Pennsylvania Coal
Company, by offering higher wages to their men, were able to keep them
at work while the other mines were closed; and now when the question
of a sliding scale was proposed, there was not sufficient strength in the
organization to secure its adoption, (a)
The scale adopted in the two lower regions differed. In the Lehigh
region wages were made dependentiipon the price of coal at tide water.
When the average price of coal at Elizabethport was $5 per ton the

aWilkesbarre Record, March 16, 1870.

736

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

u basis ” rate of wages (a) was paid. When the price of coal advanced
$1, wages were increased 15 per cent. For advances in price of a frac
tional part of a dollar a like part of the 15 per cent of wages was to be
added. The scale did not slide downward, i. e.} below the basis. (b)
In the Schuylkill region wages were based upon the price of coal at
Port Carbon, at that time an important shipping point on the Schuyl
kill, 2 mile^ above Pottsville. When the average price of coal of all
sizes above pea was $3 at Port Carbon, the basis rate of wages was paid.
For each 25 cents advance in the price of coal, wages were increased
5 per cent. The $3 at Port Carbon was called by the miners the u mini
mum” also j that is, there was to be no reduction in wages if the price.
of coal went below that point. Prices were well maintained throughout
the remainder of the year, and the workmen received some 12 per cent
more than the basis wages. The following figures, taken from Barman’s
Statistics of the Anthracite Coal Trade for 1869, show how the scale
operated for the chief classes of laborers and for miners working by
the week. The wages of the miners working on contract are not given,
since the deductions to be made from them make such quotations
misleading.
OPERATION OF THE SLID IN G SCALE EOR TH E SC H U YL K IL L REGION FROM JU N E
TO DECEMBER, 1869.
Wages per week.
Month.

Rate.
Miners.

June.........

J u ly .......

A ugust—
September
October...
November
December.

10per cent above basis.

15 per cent above basis.
35 per cent above basis
Basis .............................. .
10per cent above basis
15 per cent above basis
B asis..............................

$15. 40
16.10
18. 90
14. 00
15. 40
16.10
14. 00

Inside
Outside
laborers, laborers.
$13.20
13.80
16.20
12. 00
13. 20
13. 80
12. 00

$12.10
12. 65
14. 85
11.00
12.10
12.65
11.00

Long before the end of t,he year it became apparent that the conflict
between the operators and the workmen would be renewed. On the
side of the operators somfe dismissals were made which were regarded
as attacks on the Workingmen?s Benevolent Association. Certainly
there were not lacking bitter denunciations of that organization. It
must be said, however, the operators were not without provocation.
The impertinence and -arrogance which so often accompany the posses
sion of power, especially in the hands of those who have not been used
a The miners on contract received 57| cents per ton of 48 cubic feet when working
on the mammoth vein. Those working on more difficult veins received a percentage
above this# rate. From 12 to 14 tons could be mined under favorable conditions.
But the miner had to pay the laborer foi* loading, and other expenses, as for powder,
fuses, oil, tools, etc., had to be deducted. Miners working by the day received at
this time $16 per week; inside laborers, $14.
b Labor Troubles in the Anthracite Regions of Pennsylvania, 1887-1888.
House
Reports, 50th Cong., 2d sess., No. 4147, p. 39. Bannan?s Statistics of the Anthracite
Coal Trade, 1869.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

737

to wield it, were no doubt sufficient to provoke hostility from the em
ployers. In one case the use of the courts was sought, perhaps as
much to weaken the organization as to x>rotect the operators. A con
troversy arose over a case where the miners asked for, an advance of
wages on a vein that worked hard, and upon the refusal of the advance
by the operator the miners left the work, and in accordance with the
rules of the Workingmen’s Benevolent Association no one was allowed
to take their places. The strikers were arrested for conspiracy and
finally imprisoned theifeor.
This action on the one hand embittered the workmen and on the
other strengthened the hands of the operators. By the end of the year
both sides were ready for another test of strength. The initiative was
taken by the operators. In the latter part of December the Anthracite
Board of Trade resolved upon a readjustment of wages, changing the
basis to $2 per ton, and making reductions in wages amounting to from
25 to 40 per cent. Such a proposition the workmen did not deign to
consider. They looked upon it as an open declaration of war upon
their organization. The operators themselves could not hold together
on such ground, and tiie resolution which had been taken, not to let
the mines be worked till this proposition was agreed to, was, about the
middle of January, 1870, rescinded. A month later a more moderate
proposition was made, but still providing for -a considerable reduction.
The Workingmen’s Benevolent Association had, however, just suc
ceeded in getting the first mining law through the legislature, which
provided for inspection and safety appliances at the mines, and, flushed
with this success, they felt no disposition to yield anything. Those
operators who had been paying wages on the $3 basis were then induced
to cooperate with the Board of Trade. About the middle of March the
operators announced their intention of closing the mines of the Schuyl
kill region on the 2d of April if their terms were not acceded to.
On that date work in the southern district practically ceased, and
was not resumed till the 1st of August. An agreement was reached
in the latter part of July called, from the part taken in forming it by
the president of the Beading Bailroad, the “ Gowen compromise.” The
$3 basis was retained but the sliding scale was changed to 8 J ‘per cent
for each movement of 25 cents in price and was made to slide down
ward as well as upward. Provision was made also for a sharp reduction
in contract wages, which were complained of as being unreasonably
high. Under this agreement work was continued to the end of the year.
Meanwhile, in the northern and middle fields a conflict had been
avoided and the mines kept running during the whole year. With all
the collieries now at work, the price of coal was greatly reduced and
for the five months wages averaged more than 18 per cent below the
basis. In November and December the deduction amounted to 24| per
cent of the basis wages.
The low prices and short periods of production made the year a dis

738

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

astrous one for both operators and miners, especially those of the
Schuylkill district. Since the beginning of the trade that region has
never sent so small a proportion of the output to market. In 1866, 45.56
per cent of the total product came from there, 17.15 per cent from the
Lehigh, and 37.29 per cent from the Wyoming region. In 1870 the pro*
portion was 30.70, 20.02, and 49.28 per cent, respectively, for the three
regions. Nor was this loss to the southern region a mere temporary one;
for, as will be seen, it was upon the product of the mines during these
years that the combinations soon to be formed b^the operators based the
division of the tonnage to be mined by each. The small output during
these years of strife, therefore, stood in the way of the claims of the
southern district for the share it really deserved.
The Schuylkill operators had begun work in August protesting
against the terms of the Gowen compromise; but there was no course
left open to them but to continue at work, since they saw their markets
being occupied by the operators from the other regions. The laborers
themselves were convinced that the terms were two severe, and in
November, 1870, they received a proposition for an agreement for 1871
more favorable to the operators, (a) The committees of the Anthracite
Board of Trade and of the Workin gmen’sBenevolent Association agreed
to recommend the plan adopted by them to the bodies they represented.
Whether an agreement was really made is a disputed question. The
most probable account has it that before definite action was taken by
the Workingmen’s Benevolent Association the operators of the north
ern region, who, it will be remembered, had by paying higher wages
kept their men at work during the suspension in the other fields, found
themselves unable, now that all the mines were running, to pay the
wages agreed upon and announced a reduction, amounting in the case
of contract work to 34 per cent.
•.
The miners struck. On January 10,1871, work in the northern region
was generally suspended. An appeal was made to the workmen in the
other regions for aid. It will be easily understood why the workmen
in the lower fields were reluctant in joining in the strike. During the
last two years they had had two severe conflicts with their employers—
conflicts in which they had received scant support from those who were
now seeking their aid. Here was an opportunity for retaliation. On
the other hand, however, there was a chance for them to strike one
more blow at their employers. The existence of the union was threat
ened by the playing of the workmen of one region against those of
another. A sacrifice must be made, and so, in spite of the earnest
efforts of the leaders to hold their men to what they and the operators
alike regarded as at least a tacit agreement, the Workingmen’s Benevo
lent Association, in the latter part of January, resolved that they
uadhere to the $3 basis so long as Luzerne and Carbon.(the two north
ern counties) work with us in good faith. If Luzerne and Carbon men

a The Miners' Journal, February 25, 1871.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

739

do not work with, ns in good faith, that we then make such arrange
ments as will be for our own welfare.” (a)
It was thought by the miners that, with the general suspension, prices
would soon advance and the operators would once more be able to pay
the old wages. After a month, therefore, they offered to go back to
work. Some of the operators, now on the verge of ruin, were ready to
resume on the miners7 terms. But a new feature was introducedlnto
the situation to prevent these uguerrillas” from operating their mines.
The time had now come for harmonious action on the part of the
operators. If it could not be obtained in one way it must be in another.
When those operators who had resumed work offered their coal for
shipment they found that freight rates had on most of the roads been
doubled; on the Reading they were trebled. Such rates were of course
prohibitive, and all mining ceased. The Reading was not at this time
an owner of coal lands, but it had suffered from the frequent stoppages
of the mines which were the source of the greater part of its traffic,
and had, therefore, a very direct interest in the settlement of the con
troversy now being waged. Moreover, the company was at this moment
taking steps ‘for the purchase of coal lands, and it was afterward
charged that it had as great an interest in the destruction of the busi
ness of the small operators as it had in the settlement of the labor dis
pute. By this action of the railroad companies the working of the
mines was brought to a standstill. A legislative committee was
appointed to inquire whether the companies were not exceeding their
charter privileges in demanding such high rates.
The committee found that it had been decided (b) by the supreme
court of the State that u tolls” in the charters had reference to a charge
for passage, and not for carriage. There were, therefore, no charter
restrictions upon the rates that*might be made for u freight.” Whether
there existed an unlawful combination among the companies, the
committee did not undertake to say. That was a matter for judicial
inquiry, (e) '
The report of the committee was made April 15. In the meanwhile
the operators,.ignoring the officers of the Workingmen7s Benevolent
Association, had tried to come to terms directly with the workmen.
About the time the legislative committee made its report some of the
operators at Scranton attempted to put nonunion men to work. Three
of the men were shot by a mob, and others were driven away
with stones. The State militia was sent to put down the disturbance.
The strikers goo possession of the arms of the militia and, visiting
every colliery where work was being done, drove the workmen away, (d)
In spite of the investigating committees, the governors proclamation,
and the militia, the deadlock continued. But preparations had been
The Miners' Journal, February 25,1871.
Boyle v . The Philadelphia and Reading R. R. Co., 4 P. F. Smith, 310.
c Pennsylvania Senate Journal, 1&71, p. 787.
d Commercial and Financial Chronicle, April 15, 1871.
a

740

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

making for some time for a settlement, a form of settlement, too, which
brought with it the hope of more friendly relations between the miners
and the operators than had hitherto existed.
During the winter Mr. Eckley B. Ooxe, an operator at Drifton, in the
middle region, had written a series of articles for the Anthracite Moni
tor, a paper published by the miners7 union, in which he advocated
arbitration as a means of settling disputes between employer and
employed. Efforts were-made during February and March to get the
question in dispute before a board of arbitration, but it was not till
the strike had dragged off almost four months that the miners were
willing to submit the question. On April 17 a joint board composed
of an equal number of miners and of operators, representing each of
the anthracite counties, met at Mauch Chunk to pass upon the ques
tions in dispute. In case of nonagreement the final decision was to be
made by an umpire. For this position Judge William Elwell, of
Bloomsburg, was chosen.
The questions to be submitted were those pertaining to the general
relations between the miners and the operators—questions as to the
interference on the part of the workmen with the operation of the
mines and with nonunion workmen, the attitude of the operators
toward the miners7 unions and the like, and the more pressing ques
tion as to wages and the sliding scale. It turned out that some of the
miners did not have authority to submit the question of wages to an
umpire, and it seemed as though the arbitration would fail. The mat
ters relating to the attitude of the workmen and the employers were,
however, submitted to the umpire and by him defined April 19. Again
the operators sought to ignore the miners7unions by making directly to
the miners an offer of fair wages with no sliding scale for the remainder
of the year. This attempt, probably, had something to do with induc
ing the miners to submit the question of wages to arbitration. At any
rate this was agreed to May 11, and on the 17th Judge Elwell gave
his decision. The decision related only to wages in the Schuylkill
region. The sliding scale of 1 per cent for each 3 cents rise and fall in
the price of coal was retained. Two dollars and seventy-five cents was
taken as the basis, but wages were not to be reduced after coal had
fallen to $2.25 at Port Carbon. Contract work was reduced 10 per cent
upon the prices paid in 1869.
Ip the agreement of May 11, to submit the question of wages to arbi
tration, provision was made for the settlement of all future disputes,
except those concerning wages, by district boards composed of three
miners and three operators, these boards to have power, in case of dis
agreement, to appoint an umpire. This, so far as the writer is aware,
is the first noteworthy example of arbitration in .the United States.
The introduction of this mode of settling difficulties was looked upon
with great satisfaction by those who had seen the suffering and loss
occasioned by the strikes of the past half dozen years. Before the
mines had been running long, however, this feeling of satisfaction was

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

741

turned to one of chagrin. The price of coal went below $2.75 at Port
Carbon, and some miners demanded that no corresponding reduction
should be made in their wages. One operator acceded to the demand.
Every effort was made by the officers of the Workingmen’s Benevolent
Association to induce the men to stand by the agreement, and the
Anthracite Board of Trade, expelled the offending operator from mem
bership.. But in spite of the efforts made on both sides, other miners
and other operators, disregarding the award of the umpire, made such
terms as they could, and thus increased the causes of dissension between
the miners and their employers.
This exhibition of bad faith on the part of the workingmen stood in
their way when at the end of the year an agreement was made for 1872.
The operators did not refuse to meet.the committee of the Workingmen’s
Benevolent Association, as under the circumstances they might well
have done, but the miners wisely made concessions to the operators and
trouble was avoided. Wages per week were to be $10, $11, and $12,
respectively, for outside laborers, inside laborers, and miners, when coal
sold at $2.50 at Port Carbon. Contract wages were reduced 8J per cent
below those for 1871. The miners insisted, however, that, since it was
the fault of the operators if coal went below the basis price, they (the
miners) should not be made to suffer for it, and succeeded in getting a
promise that wages should not be at less than the basis rate for more
than two months during the year, and at no time were they to be
reduced more than 8J per cent, {a) This last provision worked unfavor
ably for the operators on account of the low price of coal during 1872. (b)
The next year saw the formation of the first combination of the oper
ators to restrict production and maintain prices, and, in spite of the
panic of that year and the depression which followed, prices and wages
were well maintained till 1875. (c) There were some difficulties, settled
often by strikes, but they did not become general. In one case at least
successful resort was made to arbitration. In 1872 the miners in the
employ of Ario Pardee & Co., near Hazleton, asked for an advance of
wages and were refused. The request was renewed in 1873, when it was
agreed to submit the matter to Judge Dargan as umpire. His decision,
though against the miners, was acquiesced in by them. (d ) The depres
sion which began in 1873 cut off a large part of the market for coal
used in iron furnaces and factories, and no attempt was made to
advance wages during 1874, and the operators, aided by their combina
tions, abstained from attempting any reduction.
In 1875, however, all this was changed. All over the region there
was a movement for lower wages. In the Lehigh district the reduction
offered amounted to from 15 to 20 per cent. In the Schuylkill region
a The Coal and Iron Record, March, 1872, I, p. 30.
b Saward, The Coal Trade, 1874, p. 60.'
c l b i d . y 1875, p. 27.
d Labor Troubles in the Anthracite Regions of Pennsylvania, 1887-1888.
House
Reports, 50th Cong., 2d sess., No. 4147, p. 40.

742

-BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

it was from 10 to 20 per cent. Another virtual reduction was also pro
posed. In 1874 the method of deciding upon the price of coal, upon
which wages depended, had been to choose five collieries by lot from all
those in the region shipping 30,000 tons or more. These were to return
to the joint committee of operators and miners making the drawing the
prices obtained for their coal at Port Carbon. The average of these
prices determined the wages for the month. It was now proposed by
the operators to include in these drawings only the white-ash collieries.
Inasmuch as coal from the red-ash veins, as for example the Lykens
Yalley coal, brought considerably higher prices than the white-ash, the
price of coal so far as wages were concerned would be reduced by this
exclusion of the red-ash collieries. Moreover, outside laborers were to be
paid specific wages, i.e., they were to be deprived of the questionable
advantage of the sliding scale, (a) In the northern region heavy reduc
tions were proposed, and there submitted to.
It is charged all through these troubles that the miners of the
northern district were not to be relied upon at critical moments. Their
faithlessness is often attributed to the policy of the large operators in
buying off the men with temporarily higher wages, or when it was
cheaper to do so, in making terms with the leaders. It was openly
charged, too, that these operators were as faithless to the operators in
the other districts as they induced their men to be to their fellowminers. In the strike of 1875, for example, it was charged that they,
by furnishing the Lehigh and Schuylkill strikers with funds, greatly
prolonged the struggle and reaped a handsome profit in the increased
business they were able to do. (&) In the Lehigh and Schuylkill regions
the miners refused the terms offered, and on January 1, 1875, went out
on what -came to be known in the anthracite region as the “ long
strike.”
It is not intended to give the details of the long and tedious struggle
which followed. For the most part it was carried on in an orderly way,
though in some places violence was occasionally resorted to, and at one
time the militia was called out to quell a disturbance. In the early
days of July the strike ended in the unconditional surrender of the
miners. Substantial reductions in wages were made all over the
region. The miners were compelled also to give up an advantage they
had won in the legislature. The measurement of coal in wagons had
long been a subject of dissension, and the miners had finally succeeded
in securing an act providing for the weighing of coal. (c ) The operators
now required as one of the conditions of resuming work that the rights
secured by this act be signed away. The sliding scale, it is true, was
retained. But it was no longer desired when the Workingmen’s Benev
olent Association was destroyed) and this was one of the most impor
tsThe Miners' Journal, January 4,1875.
1) The Engineering and Mining Journal, August 4, 1875.
c Laws of Pennsylvania, 1875, p. 38.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

743

taut results of the strike. The power of the union was completely
broken. Some local organizations were for a time maintained, but the
old order was gone, never to be restored.
It is perhaps worth while to note more carefully the work of this
remarkable organization and the causes of its breakdown. Brought into
the anthracite region by miners who had had experience in thd English
trade unions, it had the chief features of its prototype—the mainte
nance of a standard wage, the exclusion of nonunion workmen, and
provision for sick and death benefits for its members. One of the main
objects, as given in the constitution of the association, was, u that the
stranger might find the kind attention and fostering care of a brother
when needing assistance, and be encouraged in resolutions of morality
and sobriety at all times.” Liberal provisions were made for payments
to the sick and disabled, and for the care of widows and orphans.
Without doubt the u benevolent ” features of the society were intended
to be made a prominent feature of the work. But there is no record of
the administration of the funds for this or other purposes.
Benefit expenditures are, however, said to have been “ enormous,”
and they doubtless were considerable. The strikes in which the society
found itself involved from the very first necessarily absorbed most of
the energies of the miners and created in the iiublic mind the impres
sion that the union, was intended solely for purposes of warfare. The
strongest motive to union was the prevention of the further decline of
wages. Certainly such success as was gained in this direction was
dearly bought. But much of the advantage gained from the union was
not seen by the public. Bace prejudice and hatred were for the time
held in check, and a more humane and fraternal spirit, even in the
midst of strife and occasional acts of treachery, than had before ex
isted was exhibited in many an act of devotion and self-sacrifice. It
was through the direct influence of the union that cooperative stores
were started by the miners at various places—a venture, it must be said,
that was far from successful. Through it several newspapers were sup
ported for varying periods. Through it was secured the passage of the
first mine-inspection law which, though faulty, led to the enactment of
a more satisfactory one. Through it also was secured the passage of
the law to provide for weighing coal at the breaker, though this, through
the hostility of the employers, never became operative.
The example of successful organization here aided in effecting organ
izations elsewhere. John Siney, long prominent in the anthracite
region, became the first president of the Miners’ National Association,
organized at Youngstown, Ohio, in 1873. He was active in introducing
the Miners and Laborers’ Benevolent Association into the bituminous
fields of Pennsylvania, where he and Xingo Park with twenty-six
others were convicted of conspiracy in 1875 for trying to prevent non
union men from working—an event which contributed much to the
collapse of the miners’ organizations throughout the State and of course
to the downfall of the union in the anthracite region.

744

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

In politics, and especially in local affairs, the workingmen became a
ruling power. Indeed, to the active part taken by the union in political
affairs is sometimes attributed its loss of power. As soon as the politi
cal'field was entered, the officers of the union found themselves opposed
not only by the operators, but by the politicians. A part of the game
for both these elements was to destroy the confidence of the men in
their leaders. This is why no just conception of these men can be had
from the speeches and public prints of the time. They are always
depicted as unscrupulous and overreaching men, urging the miners to
make unreasonable demands upon their employers. As a matter of
fact, the leaders were far more conservative than the men they led.
Their failure lay where it so often lies in leading a labor movement, in
not being able to control the machinery they had set in motion. With
ordinary workmen and in ordinary circumstances the leadership exhib
ited might have been highly successful. As it was, both men and con
ditions were extraordinary; and the wonder is, not that the organization
broke down, but that it lasted as long as it did.
One of those conditions was- the united action of the operators. It
will be remembered that up to 1871 the lines of both operators and
workmen were constantly broken by those on both sides who sought a
temporary and personal advantage at the .expense of the permanent
interest of their fellows. In the beginning of this year it seemed the
miners had learned to act together. They had ordered a thirty days’
“ suspension.” It became general. No one could predict what might
not be accomplished if only moderation were practiced. It was at this
time that the railroad companies raised their freights to prevent work
from being begun till all began. The chief danger from the operators’
side was in the Schuylkill district, where the mining was done by
numerous individual operators. The Beading Railroad Company, not
relying upon the manipulation of.freight rates to control the “ guer
rilla” operators, determined at this time to become a purchaser of coal
lands. From being an owner of coal lands the company soon became
an operator. This furnished the condition precedent to a combination
of all the producers. By the latter part of 1872 the united front of the
workmen was, therefore, met by an equally united front oh the part of
the operators.
Another difficulty with which the union had to contend was the law
lessness and violence which prevailed in the region during its whole
history. Much of this violence was the natural attendant upon the
numerous strikes in which the workmen were engaged, and for which
the union should properly be held responsible. But this is by no
means true of the frequent burnings of breakers, and not less frequent
murders, which characterized the ten years from 1866 to 1876. This
kind of lawlessness is traceable for the most part to the secret society
kndwn as the “Molly Maguires” which flourished at this time. There
was no connection between this society and the Workingmen’s Benev

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

745

olent Association, except tliat tlie members of tbe one were also mem
bers of the other. But the work of the Molly Maguires, whatever its
stated purpose, was to satisfy personal vengeance rather than to
improve the condition of the miners. While some of the local unions
were doubtless dominated by these men, and the union as a whole was
in some degree influenced by them, the larger society had nothing to
do with their darker deeds. The most that can be said against the
union is that it did not prevent, though no doubt it checked, the law
lessness for which an undiscriminating public held it responsible. But
whatever the degree of blame justly resting upon the union, every
breaker burned and every murder committed told against it by bind
ing together more closely the operators and by weakening public
sympathy in the miners’ cause.
But after all is said, the real and sufficient reason for the downfall of
the Workingmen’s Benevolent Association must be sought in the
immoderate policy pursued in all its affairs. These affairs from the
first the men conducted unwisely. They were unreasonable in their
demands and arrogant and domineering when success came to them.
One must conclude, however strong his sympathy with their main pur
pose, that they brought upon themselves the failure they deserved.
One result attributed to the Workingmen’s Benevolent Association
should not be passed over in silence. It is sometimes said that to its
influence was due the consolidation in the ownership of anthracite
lands which took place at this time, especially in the Schuylkill district.
Mr. Gowen for several years was in the habit of referring 16 the tyr
anny of the laborers as the chief cause for his purchase of lands and
for embarking the Reading company in the business of mining coal.
With from 70 to 75 per cent of the company’s receipts coming from the
transportation of coal, it had suffered severely from the frequent stop
pages of the mines, and any means of controlling the labor organiza
tion, held to be responsible for these stoppages, was a matter of prime
importance to it. The substitution of the Reading’s single control of
the mines for the antagonism of many individual operators was expected
at the time to supply the means of effectually dealing with the miners.
But while the contests with the miners were a convenient excuse for
Mr. Gowen to urge at this time in* order to quiet the opposition to his
plans, and while his action may have been hastened somewhat by the
labor troubles, the sufficient reason for the Reading’s purchase of coal
lands lay in the necessity of protecting the company’s territory from
invasion by other railroads. In all parts of the region the companies
were extending their lines and buying lands to supply tonnage for them
in the period coincident with the life of the union. But that movement
began before the appearance of the union, and would, without doubt,
have progressed as it did whether there had been a union or not.

It may be said, in passing, since it throws some light upon after devel
opments, that the hostile attitude assumed by the companies at this

746

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

time toward organized labor has ever since been constantly maintained.
This is especially true of the Beading. Every effort has been made by
the company to prevent organized labor from gaining a foothold not
only at the mines but upon the railroad as well. Its hostility was shown
early in 1877 when, on being informed by Pinkerton detectives of the
movement which culminated in the great strikes of that year, Mr.
Gowen promptly gave notice to the engineers on the road to quit the
Brotherhood o f Locomotive Engineers or the service of the company.
It again showed itself in the contest of the receivers with the Brother
hood of Bailway Trainmen in 1894, when it appeared that employees
were required to sign an agreement not to join a labor union while in
the employ o f the company. With these facts in mind let us now
return to the course of events after the downfall o f the Workingmen’s
Benevolent Association in 1875.
The ten years which followed the “ long strike” have little for us to
consider and may be quickly passed over. Wages had been consider
ably reduced, but the condition of the trade during the industrial
depression was not such as to invite attempts to increase them. Dur
ing the ten years several organizations of local importance made their
appearance in various districts, but none became general. In the late
seventies, however, even before the lift that came in business conditions
in 1879, a society was organized on the lines of the old order, called the
Miners and Laborers’ Amalgamated Association, which gained some
strength during the early eighties, especially in the middle and southern
districts.' So, too, the Knights of Labor had gained considerable
strength in the vicinity of Scranton as early as 1878, when it was esti
mated that they were 15,000 strong, (a) Opposed by the Catholic
Church, the order grew slowly during the next six or seven years, then
in 1885 and 1886 it spread with great rapidity over the whole region,
absorbing or overshadowing all other organizations of miners.
As the strength of the organization increased attempts were made
to gain recognition for it and to correct abuses which, it was felt, had
been accumulating. First of all it was urged that there should be a
restoration of the wages paid prior to the “ long strike.” Nominally
there had been no material change in the rate since that time, but it
was held by the men that there had* been by various devices a virtual
decrease in wages. One device was by increasing the size of the mine
car,* another was by unfairly docking the miners for waste stone and
dirt sent to the breaker; another was by charging miners exorbitant
prices for supplies needed in the mines, as powder, cotton, fuses, and
the like. A ll the companies furnished such supplies to their men, and
certainly the door was open to abuse in this direction. So, too, since
the disappearance o f the Workingmen’s Benevolent Association, the
abuse arising from the “ company store,” which had during the life o f
a The Engineering and Mining Journal, April 15, 1878.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

747

the union been held in check, had come back, if not in so great a degree
as before the war, still in a form to create great annoyance and con
siderably to decrease wages. Since the destruction o f the union, too,
the deductions from “ basis” wages made through the operation of the
sliding scale was a source of complaint.
It bad been part of that plan that representatives of the miners
should be present at the drawing of collieries, on the returns of which
wages for the southern district depended. Since 1875 the miners were
not so represented. It was believed that false returns were made by
the Schuylkill Coal Exchange, only the ghost of which now remained.
In fact, it was on this point that a joint committee of Knights of Labor
and of the Amalgamated Association succeeded in gaining recognition
and in winning their first success in 1886. The committee told the
Beading Company that the men did not think they were receiving the
wages due them in view of the market price of coal, and for some rea
son or other there was an advance in the wages paid the next month.
Two great advantages were gained by this action of the joint com
mittee—the organization had been recognized and its power to increase
wages had been shown. The effect upon the organizations was greatly
to increase their strength.
In 1887 a demand for an advance of wages, which had for a year or
two been made in a half-hearted way, became decidedly bolder. The
price of coal had declined since 1875 and was normally below $5 at tide
water. It was, therefore, asked by the Lehigh miners that the advanced
wages should be paid upon a new basis of $4 at tide water and that
the sliding scale should be materially changed. In both districts
where the sliding scale was employed, it was asked that the miners
might be represented upon the committee for declaring the wages each
month. The attempt was made to secure the cooperation of miners
over the whole region. The Lehigh operators refused to consider
these demands or to treat with the organization. This led to a strike
in September, which lasted for many months. In the southern district
the miners were more successful. The Beading, in its usual precarious
financial condition, was anxious to prevent a conflict, and agreed to
advance wages from September 1, 1887, to January 1,1888, and to con
tinue them thereafter in case the Lehigh operators should consent to a
similar advance.
The outcome of the strike in the Lehigh district thus became a matter
of prime importance to the miners of the southern district. They there
fore did all in their power to strengthen the hands of the strikers, chiefly
by furnishing money for the strike. On the other hand, the Beading
attempted to give aid to the Lehigh operators by furnishing them with
coal with which to fill their orders. This was considered by the miners
as a breach o f faith, though why it was more so on the part of the
Beading than their own actions had been it is difficult to see. A t any
rate, in the closing days of the year, the miners, foreseeing that there

748

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

would be a reduction after tbe first of the year, made preparations for
a strike, (a)
It is worth noting how the strike was precipitated. When in
November, 1887, it was found that coal was being moved by the Reading
Company for Lehigh operators, a protest was sent to the company, but
the coal continued to be moved. In the latter part of December, how
ever, it was decided by the workmen that the time had come to stop
this kind of aid. This they attempted to do through the Knights of
Labor working for the railroad company. In fact that organization
had allowed itself to be used for similar purposes earlier in the year.
The Reading Company had received a consignment of flour to a firm in
Philadelphia which had refused to hire some Knights of Labor and the
Knights on the railroad refused to handle it. Now, during the holiday
season, when an attempt was made to load a barge belonging to a
Lehigh operator with Reading coal, the Knights of Labor refused to do
the work and were discharged. About the same time switching crews'
refused to handle coal intended for similar purposes and they were dis
charged. The company felt that since it was paying the high rate of
wages agreed upon it could brook no interference with the free disposal
o f its product. The workmen tried to get the company to submit thegathering difficulties to arbitration, blit the company could see nothing
to arbitrate. On the 6th of January work at the Reading collieries
ceased and was not generally resumed till about the 1st of March. At
that time there was an unconditional surrender on the part of the men.
They resumed work at the old scale of wages and their organizations
which had shown so much strength were again completely broken.
Since the failure of the strike o f 1887-88 there has been no organi
zation of importance among the anthracite miners. Efforts in that
direction have by no means been wanting, however, and at the present
time there seems to be a steady growth, especially in the middle dis, trict, o f the United Mine Workers, but an effectual organization has
almost insuperable difficulties to overcome. The great obstacle to
union here, as elsewhere, is lack of confidence and faith among the
members; and scarcely anywhere is that obstacle so great and so hard
to remove as among the coal miners* Here is ignorance, the parent of
distrust, in an unusual degree; a past full of failure to secure what
unfortunately is usually made the only object of such organizations; a
marked dissimilarity in race, language, and religion, making it difficult
to secure cohesion enough for any united effort; the danger, arising
from the same causes, that a movement once started can not be con
trolled; the existence of a normal surplus of mine labor; and over all,
the steady, united opposition of the operators to the rise of any sort of
labor organization.
It is expected that this last-mentioned difficulty will be removed by
a Labor Troubles in tbe Anthracite Regions of Pennsylvania, 1887-1888. House
Reports, 50tk Cong., 2d sess.. No. 4147.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

749

the so-called 44labor union intimidation” act, which became a law in
June, 1897, 44to protect employees of corporations in their right to form,
join, or belong to labor organizations by prescribing penalties for any
interference therewith.” But with a large mass of laborers at hand to
choose from, whose needs are pressing and whose prejudices are easily
played upon, and in view of the difficulty of proving that unfriendli
ness to laborers is due to their connection with a union, it may well be
doubted whether the obstacles in the way of effective organization will
be materially lessened by the law. Several of the difficulties mentioned
grow out of the remarkable change which has taken place in the char
acter of the mining population in recent years. This is a matter of
importance as bearing not only upon the question of organization but
upon the general conditions of employment in the region, and deserves
to be spoken of at some length.
As has been said before, the early miners in the anthracite region
were, for the most part, English, Welsh, Scotch, Irish, and Herman,
and the growth of the mining population down to the early seventies
was mainly through additions from the same stock, either by natural
increase or by immigration. It was these people who, putting aside
race and religious antipathies, acted together in the movement for the
ten years following the war in the Workingmen’s Benevolent Associa
tion. But about the time of the collapse of that society in 1875 immi
gration from another source began. It is at this time we first hear of
the Poles, Hungarians, and Italians coming into the mining region.
How far their introduction was due to the action of the operators under
a system of contracting for their labor before their importation is not
clear. It is quite certain, however, that this method of securing labor
ers was common at the time and had been for many years. Indeed, in
1864, Congress had openly sanctioned such a plan by passing the 44Act
to encourage immigration.” {a) By this act contracts, whereby the
wages of laborers were pledged for the payment of passage money or
other money advanced to them, were legalized, and such advances
were made a lien upon any property those receiving them might after
ward acquire. Immunity from military service was also expressly
guaranteed, and a commissioner and a superintendent of immigration,
whose chief functions seem to have been to facilitate the bringing of
laborers, were provided for. Thus encouraged, companies were not
wanting to 44assist in carrying out the intention of Congress.” One of
these was the American Emigrant Company, with an authorized capital
of $ 1,000,000. Among its references were governors of States, Con
gressmen, Senators, and Cabinet officers, and letters were written by
Henry C. Carey and Chief Justice Chase approving of the law and
wishing the company success, (b)
a
b

13 Statutes at Large, 385.
The American Emigrant Company, New York, 1865.

1453—NTo. 13-----5

750

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

There is no doubt that the anthracite operators made use of this
method o f securing workmen. But at this time and for ten years
afterward the laborers brought in were from the United Kingdom or
the northern continental countries, and, while from their presence in
large numbers they may have contributed to the defeat of the strikers
in 1875, they did not constitute a new feature in the mining population.
During the late seventies began that immigration to the United States
from southern and eastern Europe which has done more than anything
else to change public opinion on the subject of immigration and which
led, only twenty years* after the act to encourage the importation of
laborers, to a complete reversal o f the policy o f that act. Indeed, it is
difficult to see how a government which was using its power of taxation
for the avowed purpose of maintaining a high standard of wages
should so long have allowed employers to use so direct a means of
defeating the efforts of laborers in their own behalf. But before the
passage of the alien contract-labor law of 1885 a strong current of
Poles, Huns, Italians, and Bussians had already set toward the United
States, a large part of them finding their way to the coal mines; and
however well the law may have been administered, the current has
continued to the present time even stronger than ever before.
The presence o f this class of laborers no doubt contributed to the
defeat of the strike of 1887-88. It is said that the operators had been
making preparations for the conflict they saw approaching by inducing
these men, either before or after reaching the country, to come to the
mines. However that may be, there were, it is estimated, at the time
of the strike, about 5,000 Poles, Huns, and Italians in the Lehigh dis
trict, and double that number in the Wyoming district, (a) The United
States census of 1890 shows the total number of these nationalities in
the five anthracite counties to be 28,216. This is 10,307 less than the
foreign-born Irish in the same counties, 5,627 less than the foreign-born
Germans and Austrians combined, while of English there were 22,729
and of Welsh 23,104. There is no means of knowing the number o f the
various nationalities employed at the mines, but it is certain that a far
greater proportion of the Polish, Hungarian, and Italian population are
so employed than of the othep nationalities named. A fairly accurate
indication of the number and growth o f this class for the last half dozen
years may be had from the following figures furnished by the Philadel
phia and Reading Coal and Iron Company, showing the “ nationality
and. parentage,” but not the place of birth, o f the employees at their
mines in 1890,1895, and 1896:
a Labor Troubles in the Anthracite Regions of Pennsylvania, 1887-88. House
Reports, 50th Gong., 2d sess., No. 4147, p. 49.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

751

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF THE VARIOUS NATIONALITIES EMPLOYED AT THE
COLLIERIES OF THE PHILADELPHIA AND READING COAL AND IRON COMPANY,
1890, 1895, AND 1896.
1895.

1890.

1896.

Nationality and parentage.
Number. Per cent. Number. Percent. Number. Per cent.
Arpprjpflii ............................................. .
English............................................................
Irish........... ................. . . . . . . . . ____. . . . . . .
German............................ ..............................
Scotch............. ..............................................
P olish ............................................... - __ . . .
Hungarian......................................................
Italian................... ........................................
■ T otal............... ....................................

4,719
2, 088
6 , 887
3,709

19.1
8. 4
27. 8
15. 0
.9
5.2
17. 3
5.9
.4

5, 765
1. 960
6, 450
3, 471
223
i,m
5, 955
2,800
245

24,734

100.0

27,981

210
1, 282
4, 287
1, 466

10.0

5, 838
1, 799
6 , 025
3, 207
168
1, 037
6 , 895
3,180

211

100.0

28, 360

100. 0

20.6

•7. 0
23. 0
12. 4
.8

4.0
21. 3

20.6

6.3
21. 3
11.3
.6

3.7
24.3
11.2

These figures account for about 70 per cent of the mine laborers
of the southern field. Assuming the same proportions for the whole
region, there are not far from 50,000 of the class of which most com
plaint is made employed at the anthracite mines. The table shows a
rapid increase of this class since 1890. In that year the three nation
alities formed 23.6 per cent of the employees at the Beading collieries.
In 1896 they formed 36.2 per cent. It may be. said that the estimates
of this element of the population are invariably higher than here set
down. But those estimates are usually based upon impressions rather
than the actual returns from the collieries.
What will be the social consequence of the continued immigration
of this class of people it is difficult to foretell. The very name of Pole
and Hun has something o f terror in it for us, and yet one comes away
from the anthracite region by no means sure that the evils of such
immigration have not been greatly exaggerated. The Poles, and
especially the Lithuanians, who are not of Polish stock but are usually
grouped with them, are a docile and industrious people, and in some
respects might well be taken as examples by some of the Englishspeaking miners. They are compelled by the conditions under which
they live to be clannish, but they are perhaps not more so than the
Irish. They readily adjust themselves to the life about them, and if
the conditions were more conducive to fffaat end might be made into
excellent citizens, as many of them now are. Unlike many of the older
miners, they become owners of property when it is possible, as have the
Welsh, especially in the northern district. For this purpose they have
societies, similar to our building associations, to aid in acquiring
property, and in some localities, as at Sliamokin and Shenandoah, they
have made considerable progress. Unfortunately, they do not readily
learn the English language. Much of the ignorance attributed to the.
Poles is, in fact, only ignorance of English. It makes them less valuable
workmen, especially in the more dangerous places, than they otherwise
would be.

752

BU LLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
i

The incomplete returns of the mine inspectors, showing the nation
ality of those suffering accidents, do not, however, indicate that they
are.responsible for a disproportionate number of accidents. Neverthe
less, it is frequently proposed, ostensibly for the purpose of rendering
the mines more safe, to make a knowledge of English a necessary quali
fication for receiving a miner’s certificate. The Poles become natural
ized, as a rule, as early as possible. One great drawback throughout
_the anthracite region to the improvement.of the laboring population is
that of intemperance, and it is one by which the Poles are especially
hampered. Drunkenness is not an accomplishment acquired since their
arrival in America. u I think,” says the censor morum of his people,
writing in the early part of the seventeenth century, u that drunkenness
has made its nest in Poland,” and the Poles bring with them to America
this national characteristic. Shenandoah, with a population of about
15,000, o f whom one-third are estimated to be Poles, has 150 saloons.
O f these 85 are kept by Poles, only 3 by Americans.
Nevertheless, they are steady workers and are looked upon by the
operators as a valuable addition to the mining population. A few years
ago it could be said that the English, Welsh, German, and Irish still
did the skilled work about the mines, but each year this is becoming
less true. The Poles are rapidly passing from the position of laborers
to that of miners. It is interesting to note one of the processes by
which they have become miners. An English miner working upon a
breast finds, from a change in the dip or for other reasons, that he can
not make his usual wages and he asks for an advance. This not being
granted he leaves the place. Formerly, in the days of the Workingmen’s Benevolent Association, no one would be allowed to work the
breast; Now it is given to a Pole, and by harder work and longer
hours he is able to make fair wages. In like manner miners working
on contract and employing other miners at day wages often prefer the
Poles because they are willing to do more work than a u white” miner.
No doubt the preference often shown by the operators for such laborers
is likewise due to this cause and to their readiness to work where
other miners will not. The operators say that but for the willingness
of these people to do such ^ r k many places would have to be aban
doned long before all the workable coal has been taken out. It is not to
be supposed, on the other hand, that the Poles systematically underbid
the other workmen. They like high wages and are quite ready to join
labor organizations which have higher wages as their aim. Like other
Catholics at present they are kept from such organizations, however,
to a very great extent by the agitation over the American Protective
Association, which has done so much to disturb the work of the labor
unions at the mines and elsewhere.
O f the Huns and Italians not so favorable an account can be given.
They have ail the vices of the Poles with but few of their virtues.
With less intelligence than the Poles the Huns more rarely become miners,

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

753

and as common laborers their earnings are, therefore, less. The Italians
seem to have a dislike for underground work and are found almost
exclusively in the breakers or in those parts of the field where the coal
is laid bare by “ stripping?? and quarried like stone. Both nationalities
have the reputation for being more vicious than the Poles and far less
susceptible to such influences for good as are found about them* All
form an incongruous element of population, the attempt to assimilate
which will prove a most interesting but dangerous experiment.
What the ultimate effect of the continued influx of this class of popu
lation may be, no one can foretell. But there are certain immediate and
unmistakable effects that may be briefly noted. The very numbers
which continue to come to the mines are in themselves a menace to the
welfare of the mining population. A large surplus of laborers in the
region is not a new condition, but it is certainly more marked now than
ever before. It has resulted in the rapid displacement of the old class
of miners, not so much through a reduction in the nominal wages paid
as through the greater irregularity of employment now prevailing, and
consequently lower annual incomes. Here is one of the many cases where
the competition of intelligence and muscle is offset by the competition'
of standards of living. The Poles, Huns, and Italians have brought a
distinctly lower standard into the region, and there is every reason for
believing it will become the prevailing one. They are willing to live in
poorer houses and more in the same house than the English-speaking
miners, who have been forced, sometimes fortunately, into other busi
ness, or compelled to be content with a smaller income than they had
been used to receiving. The evidence seems to be that the newcomers
commit a disproportionate amount of crime, and it is complained that
they are responsible through want of knowledge of English for more
than their share of accidents in the mines, though the returns do not
show it. They certainly present a difficulty in organizing the miners to
secure more favorable conditions of employment, and there is little
wonder that the older miners despair of any improvement for the future.
The attempt to test the condition of the miners by the wages paid
them is one full of difficulties. In the different regions they are paid
on a different scale 5 and in the same* colliery will be found miners
working on contract at so much per car, others by the week; rockmen
working by the yard, the price varying according to the kind of passage
driven and whether it is timbered or not; inside laborers getting one
price, outside laborers another, while breaker boys receive still another
rate. But the time worked is as important to the miner as his rate of
wages, and this varies widely at different collieries and for different
classes of workmen at the same colliery.
The most recent investigation made of the subject of wages is that of
Mr. A. S. Bolles in 1888 and 1889, the results of which are published
in the Reports of the Secretary of Internal Affairs, Part III, for the
years named. It was found that in 1888 the 10 best jjaid contract

754

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

miners in each o f tlie 45 collieries making returns received for the two
hundred and forty-six days worked an average of $2.98 per day, or
$734.06 for the year, as compared with an average daily wage of $1.96,
or $465.27 for the year, for the 10 best paid miners in each of the 71
bituminous mines examined. The next year the scope of the inquiry
was extended to all the contract, miners at the collieries (18 anthracite
and 8 bituminous) making returns. Dividing the miners of each col
liery into 10 equal groups according to their earning capacity, the aver
age daily earnings for the different classes were found to be as follows:
A V E R A G E D A IL Y EAR NINGS OF COAL M IX E R S , CLASSED B Y E A R N IN G C A P A C IT Y .

Class.
F ir st..............................
SfiO O TU l ................... - ___
T hird ............................
Fourth..........................
F ifth ..............................

Anthracite
miners.

Bituminous
miners.

$3. 55
2.93
2.73
2 . 61
2.50

$3.24*
2.65*
2.41*
2.33
2.19*

Class.
Sixth............................
Seventh.. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eighth........................
N in th ..........................
Tenth................... ......

Anthracite
miners.

Bituminous
miners.

$2.38
2.29

$2 . 10*

2.20

1.91
1.79
1.60

2.06
1.79

2.02

In a few cases the yearly earnings of anthracite miners amounted to
more than $ 1,000, in one case to more than $1,400. But the great body
of miners working, apparently, about colliery tifiie received between
$400 and $600 for their year’s work. A considerable number earned
more than that, and another considerable number even less than $ 200.
But both extremes should be treated as exceptional cases. The largest
earnings do not indicate the superiority of these few miners over
the average, but are probably those of men who take contracts by
the yard or car and hire one or more miners by the day; This plan is
followed in most collieries for a small amount of work not easily super
vised by the foreman. It Is a subject of complaint by the miners, though
probably with little reason, since the contractors are required to pay
company wages. The lowest earnings are for men who worked only
part of the colliery time and, like the highest, throw no light upon
the possible earnings of contract miners. The following figures com
piled from the Bolles investigation show the average daily earnings, by
classes, of all the contract miners at 26 (18 anthracite and 8bituminous)
representative collieries for the year 1889 and the number of contract
miners in each class.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

755

A V E R A G E D A IL Y EAR N IN G S, B Y CLASSES, OF A L L TH E CONTE ACT M IN EES A T 26
R E PR ESEN TA TIVE COLLIERIES FOR 1889, A N D TH E NU M BER IN E A C H CLASS.
[To obtain the averages shown in this table, the whole number of contract miners in each colliery
were divided into ten classes, according to their wages. A s it was impossible to form ten equal
classes, the first nine were made equal, the remaining miners being placed in the tenth class. The
figures showing contract miners in each class are therefore for the first nine classes only.]

Class.
Colliery
number.
First.
al
a2
a3

a4
a5
a6
al
aS
a 9
a 10
all
a 12

a 13
a l4
a 15
b 16
b 17
618
619
6 20
6 21
6 22
6 23

a 24
a 25
a 26

Second. Third. Fourth. Fifth.

$2.64
3.62
3.00
2.98
4.34
4.58
2. 87
3.60
3.82
3. 63
4.43
4. 02
4.-22
3.19
3.92
3.16
2 . 68
5. 93
4. 20
2. 35
2. 56
2.65
2.41
2.92
3. 28
2. 81

$2.35
3.33
2.78
2.43
3.41
3.26
2. 23
3. 07
2.93
2 . 81
3. 96
3.26
3.74
2. 95
2.97
2.58
2.42
4. 30
3.49
1.97
2.16

$2.15
3.29
2.69
2. 32
3.09
3. 06
2.10

2. 92
2.64
2. 51
3.68
3.15
3.52
2.78
2.69
2. 31
2. 35
3. 70
2.»7
1.84

2.20
2.11

2:12
2.11
2 . 01

2. 33
2. 64
2. 30

2.19
2. 42
2.08

$2.00
3.25
2. 63
2.17
2. 90
2. 98
2 . 00
2.73
2.52
2. 33
3.47
3. 07
3. 42
2. 67
2.49
2.15
2.29
3.39
2.76
1. 72
2. 07
2.02

1.93
2.06
2. 32
1. 95

a Anthracite.

$1.92
3.20
2. 51
2. 07
2.75
2.87
1. 92
2. 64
2.39
2.19
3.12
3. 00
3. 35
2.59
2.36
2.02

2. 24
3.13
2. 63
1.62
2. 03
1.99
1.89
1.89
2.25
1.88

Sixth.
$1.85
3.14
2.42
1.97
2.57
2 . 81
1.82
2. 56
2.28
2. 09
2 70
2. 96
3. 24
2.48
2 . 22
1.93
2. 20
2.95
2. 47
1.53
1.98
1. 95
1.83
1. 77
2.18
1.82

Sev
enth.

Con
tract
miners
Eighth. Ninth. Tenth. in each
class.

$1.77
3.08
2. 34

$1. 69
3.01

1.88

1.78
2.23
2. 73
1.65
2.42

2. 38
2.77
1.73
2. 49
2.19
2.02

2. 46
2. 91
3.16
2. 38
2.11
1.86

2.14
2. 74
2.36
1. 41
1. 95
1.90
1.78
1.64
2.11

1.77

2.21

2.11

1. 94
2. 39
2.83
3.08
2.24
2. 03
1.75
2. 07
2.50
2 . 22
1.31
1.89
1.83
1. 72
1.52
2 . 00
1.71

$1.61
2. 88
2.07
1.66

2. 03
2. 64
1. 58
2.27
1.95
1.85
2 . 22
2. 70
2.91
2.12
1. 88

1.61
1.99
2. 27
2.07
1. 23
1. 85
1. 70
1.61
1.31
1. 85
1.61

$1/43
2.45
1.82
1. 49
1.64
2.49
1. 39
1.97
1. 55
1.68

2.13
2. 34
2 . 60

1.85
1. 53
1.45
1.82
1. 83
1. 84
1.10

1.74
1.58
1.46
1.12
1.21

1.28

14
7
8

7
12
20

7
9
9
3
15
14
8
10

33
17
11

4
19
2

5
2L
11

26
67

&Bituminous.

These contract miners, constituting about 30 per cent of the em
ployees, are the best paid workmen at the mines. Those working by
the day or week receive much lower wages. In the Schuylkill district
the miners not working on contract (about 10 per cent of the whole
number of miners) receive $12 per week, inside laborers $ 10.20, outside
laborers $8.10, when coal sells at $2.50 at Port Carbon. Wages rise or
fall at the rate of 1 per cent for each 3 cents increase or decline in prices
at the shipping point named. Thus, when coal sells for $2.5(3, 2 per
cent is added to the basis rate of wages; when it sells for $2.44, 2 per
cent is deducted from that rate, and so on. These prices are the aver
age received for the 4CprePare(I sizes,77 i. e., from lump to chestnut,
inclusive, from five collieries drawn each month by lot. The following
table shows the prices which have determined wages for the Schuylkill
district for each month for the nine years 1888 to 1896, inclusive.

756

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

A V E R A G E PRICE R ETUR NED FROM TH E COLLIERIES D R A W N TO D ET ER M IN E
THE M O N T H L Y R A T E OF W A G E S FOR THE SC H U YL K IL L REGION FROM 1888 TO 1896.
[To find the rate of wages for any month, add to or sab tract from the basis rate one-third as many
per Gent thereof as the number of cents by which the price given exceeds or falls below $2.50.]
Average price for the month of—
xear.
Jan.
1 8 8 8 .............. $2.96
2.54
1889.................
1 8 9 0 .............. 2. 37
1891.................
2. 33
2. 26
1892.................
1893...........
2.64
2 . 62
1894.................
1895.................
2.18
1896.................
2 . 26

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

$2.83
2.50
2. 32
2. 31
2. 22
2. 64
2.44
2. 22
2. 36

$2.53
2.39
2. 24

$2.52
2.39
2.16
2.24
2.29
2.42
2.35
2.19
2.49

$2. 37
2. 30
2.19

$2. 32
2.38
2. 24

2.20

2.22

2.30
2. 89

2.38
2. 45
2. 22
2.04
2.43

$2.43
2.40
2.19
2.23
2.50
2. 47

$2. 50
2. 36
2.19
2.24
2. 60
2.47
2.23
2. 04
2. 56

$2. 59
2. 33
2. 24
2. 29
2. 68
2. 55
2.27
1. 97
2.60

$2. 61
2. 35
2. 29
2. 30
2.74
2 . 60
2 . 26
2.17
2.63

$2. 63
2. 37
2. 29
2. 35
2. 67
2 . 60
2 . 22
2. 25
2.74

2.22

2. 29
2. 58
2.45
2.24
2.50

2.22

2. 05
2.46

2.22
2. 02

2.53

Dec.
$2.57
2.42
2.35
2.34
2.64
2. 58
2. 20
2.37
2.70

Between this plan of a sliding scale and that found in the Lehigh
district several important points of difference exist. Wages here are
based upon the price o f coal at Elizabethport, thus making the miner
a partner in the transportation business as well as in that of mining.
When coal sells at tide water for $5 per ton the basis rate of wages is
paid. Wages rise or fall at the rate of 1 per cent for each advance or
decline of 10 cents per ton, as is indicated in the table following. The
table shows the basis rate of wages in effect since 1875 for the principal
classes of workmen in the Lehigh district and the change in the rate as
prices, fall.
BASIS R A T E OF W A G E S FOR THE P R IN C IP A L CLASSES OF W O R K M EN IN THE
L E H IG H DISTRICT, A N D T H E CH ANGE IN TH E R A T E A S PRICES F A L L .
' Wages per week.
Price of Per centbelow
coal.
basis.

$5. 00
4.90
4.^0
4. 70
4. 60
4. 50
4.40
4.30
4.20
4.10
4. 00
3.90
3.80

Car
price.

0
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11
12

$0. 871
.862
.853
.845
.836
.827
. 819
4810
. 8C1
.792
.783
.775
.766

Miners.

$12. 60
12.47
12. 35
12. 22
12.10

11. 97
11.84
11.72
11. 59
11.46
11.34
11.21

11 09

Wages per week.

Firstclass
laborers.

Price of
coal.

$10.80
10. 69
10.58
10.47
10. 36
10. 26
10.15
10. 04
9. 93
9. 82
9.72
9. 61
9. 50

$3. 70
3.60
3. 50
3.40
3. 30
3.20
3.10
3.00
2.90
2.80
2.70
2 . 60
2. 50

Per cent
below
basis.

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

23
24
25

Car
price.

$0.757
.749
.740
.731
.723
.714
.705
.696
.688

.679
.670
.662
.653

Miners.

$10.96
10.83
10. 71
10. 58
10.45
10. 33
10. 20
10. 08
9. 95
9. 82
9.70
9.57
9. 45

Firstclass
laborers.
$9.39
9.29
9.18
9. 07
8.96
8 . 85
8.74
8.64
8.53
8.42
8.31
8.20
8.10

A t such collieries in the Lehigh district as do not employ the sliding
scale, and in the northern field where it has never been employed, wages
are somewhat lower than the basis rate, though not varying much from
the rates actually paid. The sliding scale, to secure which so much was
suffered, has long been a source of complaint from the miners. They
feel that the plan is no longer theirs. They have lost the right to be
present at the drawings upon which, in the Schuylkill district, wages
depend, and distrust the returns made. This natural distrust is
strengthened when any divergence is noted between circular prices

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

757

and basis prices. This difficulty ^as formerly avoided in the Lehigh
district by holding the operators to pay wages upon their published
prices. Since, however, it is the exception rather than the rule for the
circular prices to be fully maintained, this provision was very disad
vantageous to the operators.
For the same reason such a divergence as that noted is no evidence
of false returns. Moreover, even when circular rates are being main
tained there is room for misunderstanding, as in the case where old
orders at former low prices are being filled from one or more of the col
lieries drawn. A s a matter of fact, wages have often been paid above
the rate required by the scale. Thus in 1879, a year of free competi
tion and low* prices, the average rate below the basis was according to
the scale 24§ per cent, but the Beading Company jiaid only 15^ per
cent below. The Lehigh producers in 1881 ceased to make deductions
after 10 per cent had been reached, though coal went below $4 at tide
water. The Beading in 1886 made advances in order to avoid trouble
with their men, so it is generally understood, when the scale did not
require it. Whether for good or ill, the plan can be used arbitrarily
and for this reason is objectionable.
In the exorbitant freight rates charged for carrying anthracite it is
claimed that there is further ground for complaint. Bates are not so
high as they were in 1875, but they are above the level of the five years
following 1876. Consumers and individual operators who have to pay
the rates have long complained of them. The small operators have
during recent years been relieved in some degree from the high freight
charges by a plan of selling their coal to the large railway coal com
panies, taking therefor 60 per cent of the prices received at tide water.
This system was largely adopted in 1892, partly to aid the Beading in
its attempt to control the trade, and partly to quiet the complaints of
the small operators who were clamoring for lower rates. What the
freight charge now is is immaterial to them. So it is to such coal com
panies as the Beading Coal and Iron Company, whose stock is owned
by the railroad company, and any losses it incurs from high rates are
made good by the railroad company, which receives the benefit of high
rates. But the high rates, which are almost universally merely nomi
nal, bear heavily upon the miners under the sliding scale. With coal
at a given price at tide, the higher the freight charge, the lower the
price of coal at Port Carbon; and it is upon this price the miners7
vages depend. Likewise in the Lehigh region there is ground for com
plaint. Wages there are based upon tide-water prices, and these are
uniformly lower than prices in the interior, where two-thirds of the
product is sold.
The changes which have taken place since 1875 in the preparation of
coal are also believed by the miners to have worked to their disadvan
tage. One of the marked features of the industry during the past
twenty years is the great increase in the proportion of u small sizes ”

758

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

o f coal sent to market. With the decline of anthracite as a smelting
fuel, it became necessary to break down a greater amount to domestic
sizes. This results in the production of an increased amount of small
sizes which are sold at a lower price than domestic and large sizes.
They are not, it is true, included in the average prices upon which
wages are based in the Schuylkill region; but “ chestnut?Ms, and* the
proportion of this size which sells for 25 or 30 cents below stove coal
has greatly increased as compared with the higher-priced sizes. This
change, of course, operates against the miners, but probably not so
severely as against the operators.
It is further contended by the miners that the level of prices is nor
mally lower than when the sliding scale was adopted, and that the
present basis rate should be paid upon a lower price of coal. In a
word, the conditions prevailing in 1875 no longer exist. Such work
men as understand their situation, losing sight of the fact that the
operators have had many new and onerous conditions to meet, feel that
the changes all work against them and that the whole scheme should
be readjusted or abandoned; while those who do not understand it look
upon the deductions as an attempt of the companies to make good their
losses at the expense of their workmen.
But the question of earnings is as much one of time as of rate.
The daily earnings, though not high, are not unusually low for the
grade of labor employed. The great evil is in the irregularity of
employment. There are more than enough laborers in the region to
man the collieries at their full capacity. But, as is well known, they
are, and for years have been, kept idle a large part of the time to pre
vent over-production. The Beading collieries were operated an aver
age of 219.2 days for the six years 1885 to 1890; and for the six years
1890 to 1895 an average of 187.1 days. Of the 354 collieries whose
time was reported by the inspectors of mines in 1894, only 20 per cent.
ran 200 days and over; more than 30 per cent ran but half time apd
less. It is easy to believe that the estimate of 67,000,000 thus as the
capacity of the mines is not too high; while in 1896 only 43,200,000 tons
were produced.
A restriction of production is necessary if profits are to be earned
upon the investments made; but as now effected it is wasteful in the
extreme. Each company is compelled to maintain itself on a war foot
ing, and aggravates the difficulties by increasing its capacity each year
beyond the growth o f the market. A restriction which would bring
about the closing o f the poorest mines, and keep only the best run
ning at their full capacity, would have the advantage of a lower cost of
production and would also correct, though not remove, the evil of the
irregularity of employment. Owing to the periodicity of demand for
coal, it will always be present in some degree. This mode of restriction
would mean undoubtedly the departure' of many who are now held at
the mines by the vain hope of more work next month. But such a

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

759

mode of restriction can not be expected so long as the ownership of the
mines remains, as now, divided among the eleven carrying companies
which serve the field, each vitally interested in the question as to whose
collieries shall be closed.
With wages low and employment irregular, the lot of the anthracite
laborers might be supposed to be hard enough. But they have other
grievances not wholly fancied. Chief among these is the ever-present
complaint against the u order system ” and u comjmny store.*’ This is a
complaint as old as the industry. It was urged against the Lehigh
Coal and Navigation Company in the first decade of its operations, and
formed one of the subjects of inquiry of the Packer senate committee
which reported on the coal trade in 1834. So serious did the abuse
become in the years of depression following the crisis of 1837 that it
finally, in 1842, led to riotous strikes, (a) It still existed in 1863, when
Governor Curtin referred to it in his message (b) as a subject worthy of
legislative action. Buf the miners were never able to rid themselves
of the evil till they became masters of the situation in the day of
the Workingmen’s Benevolent Association. In some localities they
attempted to supply themselves by means of cooperative stores. All
these, with perhaps one exception, ended in failure. But everywhere
freedom of trade was made possible. After the downfall of the union
the old abuses were again complained of, and led to the enactment of
the antistore law of June 29, 1881, requiring that employees in mining
and manufacturing industries should be paid in lawful money, or by
order redeemable at its face value in latvful money within 30 days.
This was generally disregarded, however, and in 1886 was declared
unconstitutional, as an infringement upon the rights of persons who
were sui juris to make their own contracts, (c)
A more stringent law was passed in 1891, dealing only with corpora
tions of the State. By the corporation act of 1874 it had been made
unlawful for corporations to engage in any other business than that
named in their charters. But it was a common practice for officers and
stockholders of corporations to keep what was to all intents and pur
poses a company store and this was held hot to be forbidden by law. (d)
An act of 1891 forbids mining and manufacturing corporations of the
State, or their officers or stockholders acting in the interest of such
corporations, to carry on by direct or indirect means a general supply
store. Such corporations are also forbidden to grant, lease, or sell to
any person the right to keep a store upon their property, with the pur
pose of defeating the provisions of the act, and any rule or contract
with the keepers of any store whereby their employees are obliged to
trade at such places is made j wima fade evidence of the fact that the
store is under the control of the corporation
The Miners7Journal, February 11 and May 20, 1843; i b i d . , June 20, 1846.
January 8,1863. See, also, The Miners7Journal, March 7,1863.
c 113 Pennsylvania Reports, 431.
dMcManaman v . Hanover Coal Co., 6 Kulp, 181.
a

760

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

In spite of the law, however, the company store still exists. Indeed,
individual operators and uuchartered companies are not forbidden to
maintain them, while those which are have generally evaded the law.
It is difficult to tell the extent of the injury inflicted by the system.
The State factory inspector reported after an investigation in 1894 that
the average excess charged by the company stores over independent
stores (he was not speaking especially of mining companies) was 20
per cent, “ which, of course, indicates that some of the places are almost
intolerably high.” (a) One anthracite operator is reported to have said
recently that he could forego any profit on his mining business so long
as he had the custom of his employees at the store. A witness before
a legislative investigating committee in 1897 said significantly that the
stores were not run for the benefit of the miners. In the bituminous
region a quantitative expression, probably conservative, of the disad
vantage of the store was given in the autumn of 1895, when it was
agreed in a convention of miners and operators that a differential of 5
cents per ton should be given in the rate of wages paid by those
operators who kept no store. After January, 1896, operators who kept
stores were to pay 69 cents per ton for mining, while those having no
stores were to pay only 64 cents per ton. (b)
It should be said that the store evil is by no means so great in the
anthracite region as it is in the soft coal region of Pennsylvania.
Some of the large companies, like the Reading, have no stores, though
the Reading and all otlipr companies furnish mine supplies, as powder,
cotton, fuses, and the like.' Others, like Ooxe Bros. & Go., have stores,
but pay their men cash. This is one of the few companies having a
store of which it may be said that “ the pay office knows nothing about
the store.” Wages were paid in full to their men after they had gone
out on the strike of 1887. All deny that any compulsion is used to
secure the trade of their employees, and in some cases real freedom is,
perhaps, allowed. But the power of the company to secure patronage,
without resorting to competition, is obvious,* and the miners generally
feel that they are courting discharge when they trade at any but the
company store.
This last remark applies as well'to the use of the company houses.
The miners for the most part live in the company “ patch,” as the group
of houses about the colliery is called. These vary greatly in character.
Some are well-built, neatly painted, and pleasantly situated cottages,
while others, like those generally of the Mahanoy Valley, are the
reverse in every respect. The rents vary as much as the appearance.
In 1888 the houses of Coxe Bros. & Co. rented at the following rates:
a
b

Report of the factory inspector, 1894, p. 66.
Annals of the American Academy, January, 1896, p. 164.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

761

HOUSES OF COXE BEOS. &. GO. AND MONTHLY RENTAL RATES.
Number of houses.
4 ......................................................................
29.....................................................................
44.....................................................................
25.....................................................................
10.....................................................................
13.....................................................................
10.....................................................................

Rental per
month.
$1.00
1. 50
2. 00
2.75
3. 00
3.25
3. 50

Number of houses.
20..................................................................
348.................................................................
24...................................................................
28...................................................................
45..................................... ...........................*.
131.................................................................
119.................................................................

Rental per
month.
$3.60
4. 00
4. 50
4. 60
4.75
5.00
5. 50

The $4 houses are well built and neatly painted and have four rooms,
a cellar, and an outkitchen. Those renting for $5 per month are built
double, have five rooms each, and cost $850. The gross return of 14
per cent upon them, not including the value of the land and garden
patch, does not seem exorbitant. These are more favorable conditions
than the average. This company prefers that the men should own
their houses, as no doubt other companies do, not only because of the
trouble of keeping the houses in repair for a shifting population, but
because of the greater steadiness of a property-owning class of work
men. Mr. Gowen proposed terms favorable for the purchase of houses
upon the Reading lands in the troublous times of the early seventies,
but his plan was looked upon by the men merely as a scheme for tying
them to a locality and thus crippling their fighting powers. In the
northern region the Welsh have always been noted for their efforts to
own the houses in which they live.
One hears little complaint of the rents except at times of disturb
ance. While there is an opportunity in the present state of the labor
market for the companies to secure a rental above what competition
would fix, the company house has no such possibilities for plunder as
the store. In neither case is the whole evil to be measured by the
higher rates charged by the employer. It is worth something to men
to be free to trade and to live where they like without feeling that the
permanency of their position is at stake. Even if they were imposed
upon, as in many isolated localities they surely would be, by independ
ent stores or by private owners of houses, the imposition would be
more bearable than when coming from their employers.
One of the fruitful sources of complaint lies in the system of dockage
which prevails in the anthracite region. What the question of screen
ing and weighing is to the miners of bituminous coal this question is
to the anthracite miners. Each colliery has its u docking boss/ 7 whose
business it is to inspect coal as it comes from the mines and to make
deductions for any excess of slate and dirt he may find. That some
such check upon the miners is needed is obvious. Economy requires
not only that producers pay only for the coal mined, but that the
amount of waste lifted to thn surface and passed through the breaker
at great expense be reduced to the minimum. A rigorous system of
inspection, where no mechanical device is possible, is therefore neces
sary. It may, however, easily be used by unscrupulous employers to
deprive the miners of their just earnings. Complaints that this is done

762

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

are frequent and many of tliem are well founded. Even where opera
tors do not make dockage a systematic means of robbery, there is
always the possibility that they may and that the docking boss may
use it also to vent personal spite. It is not strange, therefore, that the
large opportunities now in the hands of the operators should be looked
upon with suspicion, and that the men should believe themselves injured
when only proper care is taken to guard against their own carelessness
or dishonesty.
At the bituminous mines where each miner’s coal is weighed, the
attempt has long been made to avoid a similar difficulty by allowing
the men to maintain a check weighman at their own expense. The
plan there has not, however, been an unqualified success. There are
obvious reasons why joint inspection by the representatives of the men
and their employers would prove still less successful at the anthracite
mines. The recognition of this fact has led a recent legislative inves
tigating committee to recommend the appointment of inspectors by the
county courts, who shall be the representatives of neither men nor
operators, though approved by both. There is little indication that any
such plan will be adopted, though its advantages would be great; if
not by way of any large saving to the miners, at least in producing
a better feeling between the laborers and the operators by removing
the suspicion now felt because of the arbitrary power in the hands of
the operators.
Turning how to a ‘different phase of our subject, let us consider
another condition of employment, namely, that which has to do with
the danger of the miner.
Everyone knows that mining is a dangerous occupation, but how
dangerous it is few people realize. In 1895 there were 422 fatal and
1,12 0 iidnfatal accidents reported by the inspectors of the anthracite
mines. The table following, showing the number of tons mined, the
number of employees, the number of fatal and nonfatal accidents, the
number of each per 1,000 men employed, and the number of tons of
coal mined for each kind of accident, will help to an understanding of
what these figures mean. For convenience of comparison similar fig
ures are given for the bituminous mines of Pennsylvania, Illinois, and
Great Britain.
TONS M INED, EM PLOYEES, F A T A L A N D N O N F A T A L ACCIDENTS, N UM BER OF E A C H
PER 1,000 EM PLOYEES, A N D N U M B ER OF TONS M IN ED FOR E A C H ACC ID EN T, FOR
VAR IO U S M IN ES IN 1895.
Accidents.
Mines.

Tons of
" Em
2,240 pounds
ployees.
mined.

Anthracite
51, 207, 000
Pennsylvania bituminous .. 46, 261,707
minoi's bituminous----- ------- 15,835,593
Great Bri ta-in.......................... 189, 661, 362

143,610
84,904
38,630
700,284

Fatal.

Nonfatal.

Per 1,000 Tens
Num Per 1,000 Tons
Num
em
mined
em
mined.
ber. ployees. for each. ber.
ployees. fereach.
422
155
75
1,042

2.9
1.8
# 1.9
1.5

121,344
298,463
211,141
182,017

1,120
419
605

7.7
4.9
15.7

45,721
110,410
26,175

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

763

It will be seen that for each 1,000 employees there were 2.9 fatal acci
dents in the anthracite mines, while in the bituminous mines of Penn
sylvania, where similar care may be presumed to be exercised, both in
point of safeguards against accidents and in reporting them, there were
only 1.8 fatal accidents per 1,000 employees, while the number of tons
mined for each death at the bituminous mines was 298,463, as compared
with 121,344 at the anthracite mines. This comparison, therefore, shows
that it is much more dangerous to .work at the anthracite than at the
bituminous mines; and if we make the comparison between those
Engaged in mining proper—that is, between those working underground
in the two kinds of mines—the relative danger will be more clearly
shown.
The figures are not available to show what proportion of the employees
in the Pennsylvania bituminous mines work underground, but the pro
portion is probably about the same as at the Illinois mines, where 90
per cent are so employed. In the production of anthracite only about
62 per cent of the employees are below ground, the remainder being
engaged in the preparation of coal, a part of the operation not espe
cially dangerous. This may be seen from the table following, showing
the number and percentages of accidents from various causes in 1895:
NUM BER A N D PER CENT OF F A T A L A N D N O N F A T A L ACCID EN TS IN A N T H R A C IT E
M INES, B Y P R IN C IPAL CAUSES, FOR THE Y E A R 1895.
Accidents.
Causes.
Fatal.

Nonfatal.

Percentages.
Fatal.

Nonfatal.

Explosions of ga s...............................................................................................
Falls of roof and coal............... .................................................. .....................
Falling down slopes, shafts, etc.....................................................................
Explosions of powder, blasts, e tc................................................................
Crushed by mine wagons, machinery, etc..................................................
Miscellan- ous, underground ( a ) .....................................................................
Miscellaneous, surface (a ) ................................................................................

31
191
14
59
66
29
32

164
374
6
145
243
79
109

7.35
45. 26
3. 32
13. 98
15. 64
e.87
7.58

14. 64
33. 39
.54
12. 95
21. 70
7.05
9. 73

T o ta l.................................................................... '....................................

422

1,120

100. 00

100.00

a Estimated.

Thus explosions, falls of roof and coal, and miscellaneous causes
account for 73.46 per cent of the fatal accidents; and these all belong to
underground working. Of the 15.64 per cent killed by mine wagons
and mackinery'a large part no doubt were underground. Certainly we
may say that the 89,000 employees who work inside furnish 80 per
cent, and probably more, of the fatal accidents. Por this part of the
work, therefore, the number of deaths was 3.8 per 1,000 employees,
while a similar computation for the bituminous mines of Pennsylvania
would give a result not greatly different from that shown in the table
for the whole number of workmen, namely, 1.8 deaths per 1,000
employees.
The extremely hazardous nature of anthracite mining, even as com
pared with other mining, is thus very evident. A partial explanation

764

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

of this fact lies in the greater depth of the anthracite mines with their
greater accumulations of gas, in the thick, pitching veins which make
it difficult to use props in a way to prevent falls of roof and coal, and
in the greater amount of blasting required to bring down the hard
coal. Thus in mining almost exactly the same number of tons of coal
in 1895, only 4 lives were lost in the Pennsylvania bituminous mines
from explosions of powder and blasts against 59 from this cause in the
anthracite mines. But the bituminous miners used only 149,268 kegs
of powder, while the anthracite miners used 1,320,686 kegs of powder
and 819,800 pounds of dynamite, (a)
*
Prior to 1870 no record of accidents at the mines was kept. The
following table presents some data of the fatal accidents reported by
the anthracite mine inspectors since that date:
FATAL

ACCIDENTS PER 1,000 EM PLOYEES IN A N T H R A C IT E M INES,
• M IN ED FOR EA C H D E A T H FROM 1870 TO 1895, IN C LU SIV E .

Year.

1870 ( a ) ............................................................
1871 (a )................................ ...........................
1872 ( a ) ........................................................ ..
1873 ( a ) .......................... .................................
1874
1875 ..................... ......................................... .
1876.................................................................
1877......................... ................................
1878 .................................................................
1879 .................................................................
1880 .................................................................
1 8 8 1 ..............................................................
1882 .......................................... ......................
1883 ........................................... ......................
1884 ............... ................. ...............................
1885 ..................................................................
1886..................................................................
1887 ............- ......................... .........................
1888 ...............................................................
1889...................................................... ...........
1890 .................................................................
1891..................................................................
1892......................................... ........................
1893 ........................................... i ....................
1894............................................................ . .
1895 .................................................................

Employees. Fatal acci
dents.

37,488
44, 745
48,199
53, 402
69, 966
. 70,474 *
66, 842
63, 964
68, 847
73,373
76, 031
83,242
91,411
101, 078
100, 534
103, 034
106, 574
117, 290
119, 007
109,166
123, 345
129, 797
138, 002
139, 655
143, 610

211
210
166
224
231
238
228
194
187
262
202
273
293
323
332
356
279
316
364
384
378
427
396
445
439
422

AND

TONS

Fatal acci
Tons
dents per
mined for
1,000 em Tons mined. each fatal
ployees.
accident.

5. 601
3. 709
4. 647
4. 325
3.401
3. 235
2.902
2. 923
3. 805
2. 753
3.591
3. 520
3.533
3. 284
3.541
2. 707
2.965
3.103
3.226
3.463
3.463
3.051
3.224
3.144
2.939

12,653, 575
13,868, 087
13, 899, 976
18, 751, 358
17,794, 857
20,895, 220
19,611, 071
22, 077, 869
18, 661, 577
27,711,250
24, 843, 476
30, 210, 018
30, 867, 301
33,200, 608
32,561,390
33,520, 941
34, 064, 543
37,137, 251
41, 638, 426
39, 015, 835
40, 080, 355
44, 320, 967
45, 738, 373
47,179, 563
45, 506,179
51, 207, 000

59, 970
66, 038
83, 734
83,711
77, 034
87, 795
86, 013
113, 803
99, 794
105,768
122, 987
110, 659
105, 349
104, 336
98, 076
94,160
122, 095
117, 522
114, 391
101, 604
106,033
103, 796
115, 500
106,021
103, 659
121, 344

a Returns incomplete.

The period covered by this table is coincident ^ith mine legisla
tion in the State. Prior to 1870 the loss of life, it is believed, was for
a lt may be interesting in passing to compare, the death rate in the mines with
that of railway employees. The railways of the United States employed, in 1895,
785,034 men, among whom there were 1,811 fatal and 25,696 nonfatal accidents. This
was at the rate of 2.3 fatal and 32.7 nonfatal accidents per 1,000 employees, which is
only slightly less in the matter of fatal accidents, but considerably greater in injur
ies, than in the most dangerous part of anthracite prodAfcion. But certain classes
of railway employees have very little risk to meet. In fact only about one-quarter
of them are in any special danger. This one-quarter, composed of 157,731 trainmen
and 43,158 switchmen, flagmen, and watchmen, suffered nearly 70 per cent of the
accidents recorded for the year. This gave the extremely high death rate of 6.3 pfcr
1,000 employees, nearly twice as great as the rate for inside workmen in the anthra
cite mines.

THE* ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

765

several years even greater than that shown in the table. Many of the
accidents were clearly traceable to f he want of proper means of escape
and ventilation. The operators were occasionally condemned for their
indifference to the safety of their employees, and some faint efforts
were made to secure by law the action which public opinion was not
strong enough to induce. No law was passed, however, till 1869, and
then, owing to the opposition from other ’counties, only to apply to
Schuylkill county.
In September of the same year a frightful disaster at the Avondale
colliery in Luzerne County, whence the opposition to the law had
chiefly come, brought prominently into view some defects of mining
practices which the legislature more hastily than wisely attempted to
remedy. Chief among these was the method of ventilation employed.
A common method had been by means of an updraft, produced by a
furnace at the bottom of the shaft. This method was in use at the
Avondale colliery, the ventilation shaft being separated from the main
one used for raising coal, and the only exit for the miners, by a board
partition. Some hay, on its way down the shaft to the mule stables,
was set on fire 5 the flames caught in the partition, and from that spread
to the breaker directly over the shaft. This cut off the only means of
escape from the workings, the intense heat over the shaft soon
exhausted the air in the mine, and 108 men perished.
The next legislature hastened*to pass the first general law providing
for the inspection of mines and laying down specific rules as to the posi
tions of buildings, ventilation, number of openings, and other means of
safety. The law was frequently amended and twice, in 1885 and in
1891, has been thoroughly revised. As it now stands, each mine must
have two openings suitably arranged for ingress and egress. Inflam
mable structures may not be built over these openings and no breaker
may be built within 200 feet of them. Minute provision is made for ven
tilation, both as to the method of supplying the air and the quantity to
be supplied, for the daily examination of dangerous places, for safety
appliances in entering and leaving the mines, and for the inspection
and care of machinery, besides some fifty-eight specific rules for the
guidance of miners and employers, the value of which one unskilled in
mining operations can not judge.
To see that the provisions of the law are complied with eight inspect
ors are provided for. They are appointed by the governor on the
recommendation of boards of examiners, of which there are three for
the anthracite region. These boards are composed of three reputable
miners in active practice and two reputable mining engineers, all
appointed by the judges of certain county courts. The inspectors are
charged with the further duty of keeping informed of the condition of
the mines of their respective districts as to ventilation, machinery,
drainage, method of lighting, use of lights, and so on, to investigate
all accidents and report thereon, and to make all needed suggestions
for providing for the health and safety of the employees.
1453—No. 13---- 6

766

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

BTo occasional inspection or regulations on paper can, however, take
the place of intelligent supervision of the mines. It might be supposed
that the operators could be trusted to provide such supervision, but the
State has undertaken to improve it by requiring mine foremen and
assistant foremen, usually called “ bosses,77 to hold certificates of quali
fication for their work. These certificates are issued by the secretary
of internal affairs upon the recommendation of a board of examiners, of
which there is one in each inspection district, composed of the inspector,
two practical miners, and an operator or mine superintendent. Appli
cants for these certificates must pass a satisfactory examination and
must give “ evidence of at least five years7 practical experience as a
miner, and of good conduct, capability, and sobriety.77
This provision, by requiring some reading and study on the part of
foremen, may be supposed to have had some beneficial influence. But
the zeal of the State for the safety of the miners has rather overreached
itself. Article 17, sec. 8 , of the law enacts—
That for any injury to person or property occasioned by any violation,
of this act or any failure to comply with its provisions by any owner,
operator, superintendent, mine foreman, or fire boss of any coal mine
or colliery, a right of action shall accrue to the party injured against
said owner or operator lor any direct damages he may have sustained
thereby; and in case of loss of life by reason of such neglect or failure
aforesaid, a right of action shall accrue to the widow and lineal heirs
of the person whose life shall be lost,#for like recovery of the damages
for the injury they shall have sustained.
Mine foremen havje uniformly been held by the Pennsylvania courts
to be fellow-servants with the miners, and in the absence of a liability
act employers have been relieved of responsibility for their neglect or
incompetence, (a) The provision just quoted specifically made the oper
ators responsible for the negligence of their foremen. But the courts
hold that as the law now stands the foremen are representatives of the
State, and that employers can not be made responsible for the acts of
employees whose duties are defined by statute and whose character
and competency are certified by the State itself. What the statute
practically declares to the mine owner, says the court, is that “ you can
not be trusted to manage your own business. Left to yourself, you will
not properly care for your own employees. We will determine what
you shall do. In order to make it certain that our directions are obeyed,
we will set a mine foreman over your mines, with authority to direct
the manner in which your operations shall be conducted and what pre
cautions shall be taken for the safety of your employees. You shall
take for this position a man whom we certify to as competent. You
shall pay him his salary. What he orders done in your mines you shall
pay for. If, notwithstanding our certificate, he turns out to be incom
petent or untrustworthy, you shall be responsible for his ignorance or
Lehigh Valley Goal Co. v , Jones, 5 Norris, .432; Delaware and Hudson Canal Co.
Carroll, 8 Norris, 374; Waddell r. Simpson, 112 Pennsylvania, 367.

a
v.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

767

negligence.” “ Incredible as it may seem,” continues the court, “ obe
dience on the part of the mine owner does not protect him; but if the
mine foreman fails to do properly what the statute directs him to do,
the mine owner is declared to be responsible for all the consequences of
the incompetency of the representative of the State. This is a strong
ease of binding the consequences of the fault or folly of one man upon
the shoulders of another. This is worse than taxation without repre
sentation. It is civil responsibility without blame and for the fault of
another.” (a)
The effect of this decision seems to be not only to declare that em
ployers can not be held liable for the negligence of certified foremen,
but to relieve them from the traditional requirement of exercising ordi
nary care in the selection of foremen. If the employers were, in any
way hampered by the law in the choice of bosses, as is implied by the
court, the ground for the decision would seem clearer. But no such
complaint is made. With hundreds of miners holding the State certi
ficate to be selected from, employers are as free in their choice as ever
they were, and stand in no danger of being tyrannized by a “ repre
sentative of the State with power to compel compliance with.his direc
tions.” Truly, the questionable advantage to the miner which comes
from the examination of foremen has been dearly bought, and the im
munity of employers has come to them without price, (b)
With all the requirements of the law, as to inspection and method of
working, and taking into accouilt the danger peculiar to the mining of
anthracite, the large number of accidents still seems unexplained.
The high death rate, as compared with that at the bituminous mines,
is in part accounted for, as before said, by the greater thickness of the
veins and their frequently heavy pitch, the depth of the mines and
their gaseous condition, and the great amount of explosives used on
firing down the coal. But the English mines do not differ greatly
from the anthracite mines in several of these respects, and there the
death rate is lower even than at the Pennsylvania bituminous mines.
The difference in the requirements of the law will not explain the dif
ference, though the closeness with which the law is complied with
doubtless does in a great degree.
By many it is believed that the chief explanation rests upon the
relative intelligence and care exercised by the men themselves. It
must have been a belief of this kind which impelled the legislature,
in 1889, to pass an act the purpose of which was “ to prevent the
a Durkin v , The Kingston Coal Co., 33 Atl. Rep., 237, supreme court of Pennsyl
vania, October 7, 1895.
b What is said here of the foreman is also true of the “ fire boss,"-the man whose
business it is to examine the chambers each morning before the men go to work in
order that dangerous gases may be removed. It is said the introduction of his name
into the act of 1891 was a blunder. A fire boss has simply to make oath that he has
had five years of practical experience as a miner, three of which were spent in mines
having explosive gases. (See Report of Inspectors of Coal Mines, 1895, p. 96.)

768

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

employment of incompetent persons as miners in the anthracite coal
mines.” The act provides for the establishment of a miners’ examina
tion board in each inspection district, consisting of nine skillful miners.
These are appointed by the courts. Persons wishing to become miners
must come before one of these boards and be examined. If evidence
of competency is given the board issues a certificate to that effect.
Without such certificate no person not. a miner at the time of the
passage of the act may be employed as such.
It may well be questioned whether valuable light as to the compe
tency of candidates could be gained by such examinations as are held,
even if they were conducted in good faith by all concerned. But it is
well known that they are not so conducted. I n many cases they are
mere fayces. Especially is this true in the examination of non-English
speaking candidates. In such cases an interpreter is usually employed,
and it often happens that it is by his aid that the questions are properly
answered. Moreover, it is complained that the certificates are made an
article of merchandise, many being held by persons who were never
before the examining board. Instances are not wanting where they
have been bought in Europe and brought to the region by immigrants.
This is done chiefly by the Poles and Huns, who are aided in such prac
tices by the strangeness of their names. The fact that little or no good
is accomplished by the law, that it is an unnecessary expense to the
miner, and that the operators seem disposed not to go back of the cer
tificate to inquire into the fitness of miners employed, sufficiently ex
plain the prevailing discontent with the law. One hears complaints
of it on every hand. Kowhere are they more strongly stated than in
the report of Inspector Williams for 1895, which says :
The law requiring a miner to have his certificate has been the cause
of keeping intelligent and experienced men from coming to the region,
and has enabled operators to employ every‘kind of men to mine coal
without their being responsible. Before the enactment of this law
incompetent men were not employed, but now they are employed by
hundreds. All that is asked of them is to have certificates and they
get them.
But it is not so much to lack of intelligence as to lack of care on the
part of miners that the high death rate is now chiefly attributed, '(a)
With the means of safety at the miner’s disposal the number of acci
dents could be easily reduced. Many of the falls of roof, for example,
the most prolific cause of accident, might be avoided with proper eare
in sounding the roof and in the use of timbers. The writer has heard
of cases where miners who were not allowed to carry matches into dan
gerous places or to have keys to their Davy lamps have deliberately
drawn the flame through the gauze to light a pipe in the midst of
explosive gas. Inspector Stein asserts that of the 59 lives lost in the
sixth district in 1895,21 were lost through u the most manifest recklessa See, e. g . , the Colliery Engineer, July, 1897; also the Report of Inspectors of
Coal Mines for 1895.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

769

ness of tlie victims themselves.” Such statements are frequently
heard, though it is by no means clear why anthracite miners should
show a greater contempt for danger than is shown by miners elsewhere.
That the law has proved beneficial is admitted on every hand. But
it is as generally believed that in a more stringent administration of it
there is still room for great improvement, while all agree that the
provisions for certificates for bosses and miners should be repealed.
However great care may be taken in mining operations, it has always
been and will continue to be an extfemely hazardous occupation. Some
consideration of the means adopted for giving relief to the injured will,
therefore, be a subject of interest.
As early as 1833 there was evidence of distress among the laborers.
At that time all coal was carried to market by canals, and during the
closed season work at the mines was practically suspended.. The miners
usually spent their wages as fast as earned, and were, therefore, left
destitute for the greater part of the winter. At this time the operators
discussed the advisability of keeping the men at work during the closed
season of navigation in order to relieve their distress, (a) The opening of
railroads to market brought relief from this evil without the expense
of piling up the product during the winter months. Accidents at this
time do not seem to have been specially numerous; but as the opera
tions were enlarged and lower measures were reached the work became
more and more dangerous. During the sixties, as we have seen, the
death rate greatly increased, and led, through the efforts of the Work
ingmen’s Benevolent Association, to the enactment of the first inspec
tion law in 1869. This association had been acting for some time in
another direction for the relief of its members. There is every reason
for thinking that one of the chief purposes of the organization was
benevolence. Care of the sick and aid to widows and orphans of the
members were prominent features of the organization.
But this side of the work was overshadowed by the struggles in
which the society found itself involved from the beginning, and no
record remains of the expenditures for beneficial purposes. #With the
destruction of the society, in 1875, all organization by the miners for
beneficial purposes was abandoned. The Knights of Labor, which,
during the eighties, gained so much strength in the region, did not
attempt any work of this kind. The Amalgamated Association did, but
it accomplished little. The United Mine Workers, now attempting to
organize the region, is not a benefit order, though it is expected that
the members will act together in establishing a benefit to be paid, as
deaths by accident occur, by a pro rata assessment upon the members
a Hazard’s Register, May, 1834, p. 311.
The coal-mining association of Schuylkill
County in its report for this year expresses the belief “ that a saving fund instituted
on a plan similar to those in our cities will have a beneficial effect and be the means
of preventing much distress/’ and citizens are asked to cooperate with the associa
tion in securing an act of the legislature for the formation of such an institution in
the county.

770

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OE LABOR.

of the u fund.’7 Some of the miners of the better class belong to bene
ficial orders, such as the Odd Fellows. Among some of the nationali
ties there are also maintained orders of a benevolent character, espe
cially among the Poles. But there is no organization of the miners as
such for the relief of distress. Such provision as is made for relief
has been made through the initiative of the operators.
The first action resulting in the establishment of a permanent fund
was taken by the Wilkesbarre Coal and Iron Company in 1869. At
thp time of a severe accident in tliat year it was proposed that the
employees give one day’s work for the relief of the sufferers and the
company would give the product of that day. This simple arrange
ment was continued for many years, benefits being paid at the rate of
$50 for funeral expenses and $3 per week to the widow for one year,
with $1 per week additional for each child under 12 years. For injuries
$Gper week during disability was allowed. The receipts were deposited
with the company and disbursements made upon warrant from officers
elected by the men themselves.
The Philadelphia and Beading Coal and Iron Company, when it
became a miner of coal in 1873, tried to make similar arrangements
with the employees. The proposition was looked upon with suspicion
by the men as an attempt to weaken their union and was rejected. (a)
In 1875, to be rid of frequent appeals for aid when accidents occurred,
the company announced a schedule of payments it would make in case
of death or disability. This plan was continued for two years; but as
the lines continued to tighten upon the finances of the company it
seems to have grown weary of well-doing alone, and in 1877 took steps
to secure stated payments from the men for purposes of relief. In that
year bonds worth $20,000 were deposited as an endowment fund for
the benefit of such of its employees as should comply with the condi
tions proposed by the company. The conditions were that the following
payments, to be deducted from the pay roll, should be made by the
employees: First class (miners and inside laborers), 30 cents per month;
second class (outside laborers), 20 cents per month; third class (old men
and boys), 5 or 10 cents per month.
The benefits paid in case of disability by accident while at work were
$5 per week, not to exceed six months, for the first and second classes,
and $2 per week for those in the third class paying 10 cents, and $ 1 for
those paying 5 cents. In case of death $30 were paid in cash for
funeral expenses, and $7 per week for one year to the families of those
in the first and second classes, while for those in the third class the
same funeral expense was paid and a weekly stipend given tp the family
of $2.80 or $1.40 according as the victim had paid 10 or 5 cents.
The company took full charge of administering the fund and agreed
to make good any deficiency that might arise. From the beginning the
a The Miners' Journal, March 3, 1873. Argument of F. B. Gowen before the
legislative investigating committee of 1875, p. 53.

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

income was insufficient to meet the demands upon it.
yeprs from 1877 to 1888 the account stood as follows:

771

For the twelve

Paid to contributors.................................. .............. ..................... $336, 660
Paid to families of contributors killed........................................... 156,126
Total payments.......................................................................... . . ..... $492, 786
Received from contributors . . ....................................................... 344, 016
Received from interest on investment.......... .......... ......................
17,495
Total receipts............................................... ..................... - ................

361, 511

Deficiency............... ............................. ; .............................. ..............

131,275

In 1889 the company undertook to make the fund self-sustaining.
The monthly contributions were considerably increased, as is shown by
the following new schedule: First .class (miners and skilled.laborers), 50
cents per month 5 second class (mechanics) 40 cents per month ; third
class (ordinary laborers), 30 cents per month,* fourth class (old men
and boys), 15 cents per month.
Greater efforts were also made to induce the employees to subscribe
to the fund. Hitherto this had been left optional with the men. Now,
though still theoretically optional, it is practically compulsory. All
employees are put upon the list, and the monthly dues deducted from
wages without asking the consent of the “ contributors.” No doubt the
full wages could be collected if it were attempted, but those who wish
to stay in the company’s employ did not think it advisable to make any
protest. The arrangement is generally acquiesced in and is indeed gen
erally regarded as an advantageous arrangement by the men. Occa
sional complaint is, however, heard that the rates are too high for the
kind of insurance given; that both sick and accident benefits could be
had in beneficial orders at a lower rate. The experience of the com
pany, however, is that if this arrangement were not practically forced
upon the men, no provision would be made for insurance.
The new scale of contributions went into effect May 1, 1889. As
will be seen, a slight change was made in the classification of employees,
and accordingly one was made in the benefits paid. For injuries
resulting in disability, $5 per week, not to exceed six months, is paid to
those in the first, second, and third classes, and $2 to those in the
fourth class. Thirty dollars in cash and $7 per week for one year is
paid to the families of those in the first three classes in case of death
by accident while at work, and the same funeral expenses and $2.80
per week for those in the fourth class.
Under this'new arrangement there was a slight deficit for the year
1889—$488.13. But since that time the fund has been self-sustaining,
and the total deficit which, up to the end of 1889, had reached
$131,763.50, has gradually been reduced to $57,129.51 in 1896.

772

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

The following table shows the operations of the fund for the last ten
years:
R ECEIPTS A N D DISBURSEM ENTS OF T H E B E N E F IC IA L FU N D OF THE P H IL A D E L
P H I A A N D R E A D IN G COAL A N D IRON COM PANY, 1887 TO 1896.
Receipts.

Disbursements.

Year
From contribu
ending
tors.
From
Novem
endow
ber 30 —
ment.
Num
ber. Amount.
1887
1888
1889..
1890........
1891........
1892.'....
1893........
1894..
1895
1896

To families of
contributors
killed.

To contributors
injured.
Total.

Balance.
Total.

N um
Num
Amount.
ber. Amount. ber.

16,376
$45,519.13 $1,470 $46,989.13 * 2,980 $45, 848.76
.....................
19,559
46, 632.75 1, 4701! 48,102.75 2,901 43, 752.15
.....................
19,789
72, 535. 53 1.470 74,005.53 3,089 51,942.42
...
21, 693 91, 6571. 83 1.470 ! 93,091.83 3,520 56, 622.01
22, 700 101,834.81 1.470 103, 304. 81 4,274 68,323.67
24,449 110, 213. 92 1, 460 111, 673. 92 3,838 66, 737. 57
24,260 109,949. 73 1, 460 111, 409.73 3,696 70,379.57
. . .940 117, 244.90 1.460 118,704.90 3,904 76,192.51
25,
26,422
.....................
120,251.04 1.460 121, 711.04 4,189 82, 205. 93
.....................
27,
626 125, 921. 64 1, 460 127,381.64 3,925 80,035.05

a Deficit.
.
_
b Including dues refunded, $67.45.
c Including dues refunded, $92.35.

95 $19,251.16 $65,099.92 a$18,110.79
109 22,197.72 65, 949. 87 al7, 847.12
111 22, 551. 24 74, 493. 66
a488.13
126 25, 522.67 82,144. 68 10,947.15
153 30, 077.14 98, 400. 81
4,904.00
152 28,079. 02 &94, 884. 04 16, 789.88
139 29,033. 64 c99,505.56 11,904.17
165 31, 549.14 dl07,875. 80 10, 829.10
164 34,134.15 el 16,534.77
5,176.27
169 33,116.17 /113, 298. 22 14,083.42
1
l

d Including dues refunded, $134.15.
e Including dues refunded, $194.69.

/Includ in g dues refunded, $147.

A more liberal policy has been adopted by several of the other com
panies. The Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company and their 5,000
employees have, since 1883, maintained a fund to which the company
contributes the interest on an investment of $20,000, and a fixed amount
for each ton of coal mined, while the men contribute a percentage of
their earnings. At present their contributions amount to one-half of 1
per cent for inside workmen, and one-fourth of 1 per cent for outside
workmen. In 1895 the fund received $14,143, of which $8,335 came
from the company, and $5,808 from the employees. I?rom it was paid
during the year in benefits $16,396. There is usually carried a balance
of some $35,000 or $40,000. The death benefits are $30 for funeral
expenses and halt pay for eighteen months to the family. Those dis
abled by accidents receive half pay for a period not exceeding six
months. This company, like the Reading, appoints the trustees of the
fund, and the payments are made on the certificate of a regularly
appointed physician.
,
The Lehigh Yalley Coal Company has helped to maintain a relief
fund at some of its collieries for about twenty years.* Those employed
who wish to become beneficiaries of the fund are invited to contribute
a day’s wages, the company agreeing to pay a sum equal to the contri
bution of the men. When the fund is exhausted another call is made,
and those wishing to continue members again contribute a day’s wages,
the amount being covered by the company. Inasmuch as this plan
obviates the necessity of carrying a heavy cash balance it is thought
to be fairer for the men, especially for those who are only temporarily
employed, than that of the Reading or the Lehigh Coal and Naviga
tion Company. The death benefits are identical with those given for
the Lehigh and Wilkesbarre Coal and Iron Company. An injured

THE ANTHRACITE MINE LABORERS.

773

member receives $ 1 for eacb working day he is disabled for a period not
exceeding* three months. In the northern region the fund is only fairly
maintained at the company’s collieries, while at all its collieries in the
Schuylkillregion, and at many in the Lehigh region, it has been entirely
abandoned.
The Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, and part of the compa
nies controlled by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, have funds
maintained on the same plan. In the case of the latter company, like
that of the Lehigh Yalley, success has been indifferent. The plan of
the Delaware and Hudson, adopted in 1887, is almost identical with
that of the Lehigh Yalley company. The fund is kept by the company
in both cases and is disbursed upon orders from a committee composed
at each colliery of the mine foreman and two employees chosen by the
contributors.
Besides the regularly organized relief funds, provision is made by
various operators for the relief of injured employees. Coxe Bros. &
Co. have always been liberal in this regard. Their practice is, and has
be&n for some years, to give $50 for funeral expenses in case of death
from accident and to contribute to the support of the widow, when there
was one, at the rate of $3 per week for a year and $ 1 per week addi
tional for each child under the age of 12. Regular payments were also
made to workmen disabled by accident. All this is gratuitous on the
part of the company. The Lehigh and Wilkesbarre Coal Company, con
trolled by the Central Railroad Company of IsTew Jersey, has neither a
fund nor an established rate of contributions for their injured employees.
In case of death, however, the company pays funeral expenses, and
makes a monthly allowance for all accidents according to the condi
tion of the injured person’s family.
In addition to the means provided by the relief funds spoken of, and
many other less regular contributions made by operators and work
men in case of accident, there are maintained in the anthracite region
two hospitals at the expense of the State. Attempts to secure such a
hospital were made as early as 1870 for the southern district and some
legislation was enacted, (a) But the plan of that legislation involved
a tax upon the tonnage of producers for the support of the hospital
and was never acted upon. In 1879 the legislature provided for the
incorporation of the u Trustees of the State Hospital for Injured
Persons of the Anthracite Coal Region of Pennsylvania,” and appro
priated funds for the purchase of site and erection of buildings. The
location chosen was Ashland, in Schuylkill County. The hospital was
opened to patients in 1883 and came under the control of the State
board of charities. That some such institution was needed is shown by
the fact that about 2,000 patients per year are treated there. Of these
90 per cent are workers about the mines. In 1891 a similar hospital
was opened in the middle district at Hazleton. Besides these two
institutions, supported wholly by the State, there are others in the

aLaws of Pennsylvania, 1870, p.919.

774

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

region which receive regular appropriations from the State. Such are
the Wilkesbarre Hospital at Wilkesbarre, the Lackawanna Hospital at
Scranton, and the Hospital Association of Carbondale.
It is generally thought that the means for the relief of workmen in
this highly dangerous employment are at present inadequate. It is an
employment in which the death and disability rate is not only invariably
high, but one in which the proportion of accidents due to others than
those receiving the injury is large. In view of these facts, attempts
have often been made to establish a fund by a tax on all coal produced
from which injured workmen could be paid, without reliance upon the
generosity of the operators or the foresight of the workmen. One of
the inspectors in his report a few years ago varied this proposition by
recommending a tax on tonnage, to be paid, not by the operators, but
by the owners of the coal lands. This would create no burden either
for the operators or for the consumers, but would fall upon those who
were amply able to bear it.
It will be seen from what has been said that the lot of the anthracite
laborers has never been an easy one, and that never has it been soliard
in most respects as at present. Wages are deplorably low for all but
the best paid workmen, though not so low as at many bituminous mines.
It is not, however, the low rate of wages so much as the irregularity of
employment that accounts for the small incomes of the laborers. Con
sumers also have a grievance in the irregularity with which the mines
are run, not so much because of the restriction of production as because
of the wasteful way in which the restriction is produced. For the
laborers who are kept idle half the time the method is a, sore evil. The
anthracite miners of a quarter of a century ago looked with favor upon
such a centralization of power as would make restriction possible, just
as the bituminous miners are doing to-day. But centralization so far
as it has now gone, while it has helped to maintain prices and perhaps
wages, has solved no real problem for either producers or workmen,
and certainly none for consumers. There are too many workmen in the
anthracite region trying to make a living by mining coal, and too much
capital seeking to earn profits. One may assert this with assurance
without being able to tell where either men or capital may be better
employed.

RECENT REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR STATISTICS.

MARYLAND.
F ift h A n n u a l R e p o r t o f the B u r e a u o f In d u str ia l S ta tistics o f M a r y la n d .

1896. Charles H. Myers, Chief of Bureau. 284 pp.
The following subjects are treated in this report: General industries,
pages; the iron industry, 8 pages; Maryland street railways, 12
pages; trade reports, 10 pages; female labor, 7 pages; sweat shops, 9
pages; employment agencies, 15 pages; chattel-mortgage associations,
11 pages; convict labor, 54 pages; strikes and the legal aspect of the
strike question, 40 pages; compulsory arbitration, 19 pages; counties
of Maryland, 51 pages; labor laws of Maryland, 25 pages; extracts
from proceedings of the National Association of Officials of Bureaus
of Labor Statistics, 5 pages; financial statement, 1 page.
General I ndustries.—Short accounts are given for each of 19
industries, showing the wages, weeks in operation, number of employees,
labor disturbances, etc. On account of a lack of voluntary coopera
tion on the part of industrial establishments the information is some
what meager.
The I ron I ndustry .—This chapter contains a review of the iron
industry in the State and detailed statements for each of eleven ironmanufacturing establishments.
Maryland Street R ailways .—A history and description is given
of the different street railways in the State, their locality, and oper
ations, and the amount of taxes paid. The street railways of Baltimore
are taxed 9 per cent on their gross receipts as a park tax, each car is
licensed at $5 per annum, and the companies have to pay in addition
the regular city tax on the assessed value of their property. During
the year 1896, the city of Baltimore received from street-railway com
panies $243,202.22 park taxes, about $5,000 licenses on cars, and $63,459
regular city taxes, or a total of $311,661.22. The companies received
$2,702,247 from car fares. The gross earnings for 1896 were $3,494,979171
and the assessed value of the plant in the city proper and annex was
$3,756,998. The companies possessed 891 cars, had 271 miles of single
track, and employed 630 motormen, 650 conductors, and 332 substitutes.
Motormen, conductors, and substitutes received $1.75 and $2 per day
of 12 hours’ work. Other street railways are operated in Baltimore
County, Hagerstown, Frederick and Middletown, and Cumberland.
Trade R eports.—Accounts are given of the condition of thirteen
trades, as reported by those engaged in them.
775
10

776

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

F emale L abor.—Attention is called to violations of tlie law requir
ing seats to be provided for female employees in mercantile and manu
facturing establishments. Piece wages of female employees in factories
are quoted, and other facts are shown exposing the hardships endured
by female wage earners.
Sweat Shops.—-In this chapter is quoted the act passed in 1894 in
relation to sweat shops, and attention is called to its violation on
account of the lack of proper facilities for its enforcement. The employment of a sufficient corps of factory inspectors is recommended.
Extracts are given from the article of Mr. Henry White, which appeared
in the May, 1896, issue of this Bulletin.
Employment A gencies and Chattel Mortgage A ssocia
tions.—Descriptions of the methods of operation of these institutions

are given, and their consideration by the State legislature is suggested.
Convict L abor . —This chapter discusses the question of convict
labor in general, and explains the advantages and disadvantages of the
various systems adopted in the different States. Especial attention is
given to the present status of convict labor in Maryland, and compara
tive prison statistics for the years 1893 to 1896 are presented. Portions
of the tables contained in the article on convict labor published in the
July, 1896, Bulletin are reproduced.
Strikes .—Eight strikes were reported for the year. Only one of
these, the strike of the garment workers, assumed any considerable
degree of magnitude. This strike involved 2,897 men and 968 women,
or a total of 3,865 persons. The reports as to the cause are conflicting.
The strike was a failure.
Of the 7 other strikes, 2 involving can makers and laborers were
successful, 3 involving newsboys, coal miners, and coal trimmers failed,
1 of longshoremen succeeded partly, and 1 of hod carriers remained
unsettled.
s
The greater part of the chapter is devoted to an elaborate article on
the strike question as viewed from the legal standpoint.
Compulsory A rbitration .—This comprises a discussion of the
question of compulsory arbitration together with the views of various
writers on the subject.
Counties of Maryland .—This is a revision of an article pn the
same subject contained in the report for 1893, and contains information
for each county regarding location, population, tax rate, assessed
values, size of farms, nature of soil, value of farm land, farm products,
timber, water, roads, industries, wages, labor, transportation, advan
tages, improvements needed, etc.

REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- NEW JERSEY. 7 7 7

NEW JERSEY.
N in eteen th A n n u a l R e p o r t o f the B u r e a u

o f S ta tistics o f L a b o r

and

In d u s tr ie s o f N e w J e r s e y .

For the year ending October 31, 1896.
Charles H. Simmerman, Chief, xii, 610 pp.

This report treats of the following subjects: The oyster industry, 45
pages; statistics of manufactures, 63 pages; laws and decisions of
New Jersey courts affecting the interests of wage earners, 32 pages;
cooperative building and loan associations, 468 pages.
T h e O y s t e r I n d u s t r y .— This inquiry relates solely to the com
mercial feature of the oyster industry in the State. The statistics pre
sented do not represent the whole value of the industry, but only that
part which is involved in direct production. The following is a sum
mary of the more important figures presented:
Number of establishments reporting..................... ...................................
664
Value of boats and outfit.................................. .........................................
$460, 977
12, 287
Acres of planting grounds.........................................................................
Number of hands, planting and marketing................................................
3, 592
Wages paid, planting and marketing......................................................
$328,197
Total receipts.......................... .................................................................. $1, 384,516
S t a t is t ic s of M a n u f a c t u r e s .—This investigation was conducted
upon a plan similar to that which has been pursued by the Massachu
setts bureau for the past nine years. To manufacturers in the State,
700 schedules of inquiry were mailed and distributed by agents of the
bureau. Of these, 405 were returned by the. manufacturers, but only
309 were sufficiently complete to be used for tabulation. Forty-eight
general industries are represented in the tables.
The following tables present a summary of the information returned
for each of the 13 industries which produced goods to the value of
$1 ,000,000 and over, and for the others collectively:
c a p it a l in v e s t e d

m a t e r ia l

Industries.

, a n d goods m a d e
INDUSTRIES, 1895.

used

t u r in g

Estab
lish
ments.

Capital
invested.

Estab
lish
ments.

v a r io u s m a n u f a c

Stock or
material
used.

Estab
lish
ments.

Goods made
or work
done.

Bar steel and iron............................
Brick and terra cotta.......................
Cotton goods..................................... .
Electric dynamos and lamps.........
Foundry, iron....................................
Hats, men’s .......................................
Knit goods..........................................
Leather.......................... - ....................
Machinery...........................................
Rubber goods.....................................
Shoes. . . ' ...............................................
Silk goods...........................................
Woolen and worsted goods............
Other....................................................

4
12
2
2
10
16
4
7
18
4
12
56
13
113

$3, 492, 378
2, 058, 540
575, 000
982, 516
1,090, 853
694, 470
1, 220, 000
950,000
1, 892, 630
1,900, 651
393. 546
9, 330, 444
4, 246, 373
8, 836, 800

4
9
2
2
8
14
3
7
19
3
12
50
14
115

$1,535,206
487, 559
2, 456, 591
551, 446
1, 048,122
802,752
411, 990
904,716
383, 702
431, 294
522, 944
7, 781, 515
3, 988,486
5, 021,104

12
2
2
9
15
3
7
16
3
12
50
13
113

$2, 707,035
1, 392, 222
2,760,910
1,191, 919'
1, 627, 592
1, 698, 524
1, 805, 984
1,617,135
1, 268, 011
1, 362, 983
1,609,865
14, 752, 857
6,166, 845
9,177,443

T o ta l.........................................

273

37, 664,201

262

26, 327,427

261

49,139,325

778

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

PERSONS EM PLOYED, W A G E S P AID , A N D D A Y S IN O PER ATIO N IN VAR IO U S
M A N U F A C T U R IN G INDUSTR IES, 1895.
[Officers, clerks, and salaried persons are not included in the returns shown in this table.]

Industries.

Bar steel and iron................................
Brick and terra cotta..........................
Cotton goods........- - ......................... .
Electric dynamos and lamps...........
Foundry, iron...................................
Hats, men’s ...........................................
Knit goods........... .................................
Leather.................................... ............
Machinery................................ ............
Rubber goods............................ - .........
Shoes .................................... ........ ........
Silk gends
-- ____________ Woolen and worsted goods...............
O t h e r ................ ........... .....................................

Total.............................................

Aggre
Aver
Average
Amount
gate
age
proportion
paid in
Estab
Estab average Estab
lish
days
in
wages
of
business
lish
lish
persons
ments.
ments. during the ments. opera done (per
em
tion.
year.
cent).
ployed.
1,516
4
12
1,517
2
579
1,081
2
10
821
1,320
17
4
1, 625
592
8
19
938
5
1,049
37 . 1,350
61 32,105
15
4,46 L
128
8, 637
304

37, 591

,4
9
2
2
10
15
3
8
18
' 4
15
60
14
116

$781, 828
588, 397
222, 25^
454,435
459,662
547,575
428, 950
327, 314
481,487
370, 985
585, 889
4, 672. 355
1, 319,775
3,065, 062

280

14, 305, 972

228.50
246.25
275.77
299. 00
243.50
229. 70
270.08
302.12
297. 69
237. 62
229. 83

57.61
78.28
99.87
84.01
04. Ofr
79.45
90.34
88.32
67.24
54.75
79.56

293 j 257.07

71. 06

4
12
2
2
10
15
4
8
37
5
13
61
15
125

As the answers to the questions in the returned schedules were not
all .complete, the number of establishments in the different columns
varies, and, therefore, makes a fair comparison of the items with one
another impossible. Of the establishments reporting on this point, 1 92
were owned by private firms and 106 by corporations. There were 430
partners and 1,643 shareholders. The total capital invested by 273
establishments was $37,664,201, of which $24,770,372, or 65.77 per cent,
was owned by corporations and $12,893,829, or 34.23 per cent, by pri
vate firms. The value of stock or material used in 262 establishments
was $26,327,427, and the value of goods made or work clone in *261
establishments was $49,139,325. In 280 establishments reporting as to
employees’ earnings, $14,305,972 were paid in wages during the year.
There were 37,591 persons employed in 304 establishments. In 293
establishments the average number of days in operation was 257.07
and the average percentage of business done 71.06.
C o o p e r a t iv e B u il d in g a n d L o an A s s o c ia t io n s .— At the close
of the year, October 31, 1896, there were 322 cooperative building and
loan associations in the State, throwing out the lapsed associations and
adding the incorporations not a year in operation. Of these 304 were
local associations, 10 were State, and 8 were national. The tabulations
give data for 316 associations, viz, 302 local, 9 State, and 5 national.

REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- NEW JERSEY.

779

The following statement contains a summary of the more important
data presented for each class of associations:
B U IL D IN G A N D LO A N ASSOCIATIONS, 1896.
Associations.
Items.
Local.
Associations...................................................
Free shares.. . .................................................
Pledged shares................................................
Shares issued during year..........................
Shares canceled during year......................
Shareholders......... .................. .......... ............
Shareholders who are borrowers...............
Houses acquired by borrowers during
year............................................................. .

National.

State.

302
392, 579*
194, 458*
131,933*
103, 806*
87,994
25,336

9
136,189
18, 517*
90,110
26, 448*
22,601
1,053

1, 922

Total.

5
7, 912
831
5, 062
1,911
980
103

316
536, 680*
213, 806f
227,105*
132,166
111,575
26, 492

321

2, 251

A ssets:
Loans.......................................................... $38,171, 895. 27
1,137, 679. 33
Cash on hand...........................................
1,658,049.50
Allother........................ ..........................

$1, 620, 999. 86
41, 000. 29
85, 712. 40

$600, 779.04
30, 628.17
32, 451. 38

$40, 39,3, 674.17
1, 209, 307. 79
1, 776, 213.2$

40,967, 624.10

1,747,712.55

663, 853. 59

43, 379,195.24

T o t a l ............................................... ..
Liabilities:
Bills payable.............................................
Undelivered loans........'...........................
Shareholders’ overpayments (dues,
interest, premiums)............................
Net assets..................................................
A ll other....................................................

646, 273. 78
257, 602.10

160, 678. 88
37, 730.30

21, 302. 57
7, 716.50

828, 255.23
303,4)48.90

322, 545. 80
39,128, 063. 34
613,139. 08

68, 368.17
1, 298, 732. 07
182, 203.13

6, 042. 67
628,420. 27
376. 58

396, 956. 64
41, 055, 215. 68
795, 718. 79

T o ta l.............................................. .......

40, 967, 624.10

1, 747, 712. 55

663, 858. 59

43, 379,195. 24

Total receipts for year......................
Total disbursements for yea r..........

16, 384,189. 52
16,265, 886.63

1, 066, 950. 89
1, 060,553.32

462, 651. 22
449, 091. 62

17,913,791.63
17, 775, 531. 57

The report shows that in all the associations in the State there were
750?487| shares in force. These were held by 111,575 shareholders, of
whom 26,492 were borrowers. Of the total number of shares, 1,8S5£
are full paid, or other than installment shares. The total gross resources
of all the associations amounted to $43,379,195.24.
The following statement is a comparative summary of the principal
data tabulated in detail for the years 1890 to 1896, inclusive, and shows
the aggregate condition of the associations for their respective fiscal
years. The data include outside business of the national associations.
SU M M AR Y OF B U ILD IN G A N D LOAN ASSOCIATIONS, 1890 TO 1890.
Associ ations.
Year.

1890....................................................
1891......................................... ..........
1892..................................................
1893....................................... ............
1894....................................................
1895....................................................
1896....................................................

Total
number.

Number
report
ing.

257
275
290
297
306
317
322

254
271
290
297
306
301
316

Shares in
force.

437,773
518, 777
571, 665
634, 163
689, 398
693,810
750,487

Sharehold
Borrowers. Net assets.
ers.

71, 726
78,725
87, 762
93,889
98.167
101, 619
111, 575

18,864
. 19,255
21, 752
22, 910
24, 670
25, 598
26,492

$22,043,892
25, 606, 373
29, 988, 767
33, 836,487
37, 339. 602
38,882,110
41,055, 216

This comparison shows a steady increase in the number of associa
tions and of their business operations in the aggregate. In no case was
there a falling off from one year to another, either in the number of

780

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

associations or in any of the items shown in the preceding table. While
the number of associations increased from 257. to 322 during the period,
the net assets of those reporting nearly doubled during the same time.
NORTH CAROLINA.
Tenth Annual Report o f the Bureau o f Labor Statistics o f the State of
North Carolina. For the year 1896. B. R. Lacy, Commissioner, vii,
254 pp.
The following subjects are treated in this report : Agricultural sta
tistics, 50 pages ; cotton and woolen mills, 56 pages 5 miscellaneous and
tobacco factories, 41 pages; trades, 62 pages,- organized labor, 13
pages; railroad statistics, 8 pages; newspapersj 13 pages; bureaus of
labor, 10 pages.
A gricultural Statistics.—The information presented in this
chapter was obtained by means of schedules of inquiry sent to farmers
throughout the State. Answers were obtained from 355 representative
farmers of the 96 counties in the State. These replies showed a decline
in the value of farm land in 60 counties, and in 84 counties there was a
tendency to have smaller farms. An improved mode of living was
reported in 71 CQunties. Cost of living increased in 8 counties, decreased
in 65 counties, and in the remaining 23 counties no change was reported.
In only 29 o f the 96 counties was a decrease in wages reported. In
68 counties labor was reported abundant, in 28 counties scarce, and
in 67 counties laborers could find employment all the year round.
In 18 counties an improved financial condition was reported. The
average price paid per month for farm labor was $8.50 for men, $5 for
women, and $3 for children, and laborers received in addition rations
and homes valued at $6.70 per month.
Cotton and W oolen Mills .—Reports were obtained from 189
mills, situated in 42 counties. Of these, 158 were cotton mills, 11 were
woolen mills, and 20 were for the manufacture of hosiery, knit goods,
rope, nets, and twine. They had a total o f 888,792 spindles and 20,742
looms, operated by 36,690 horse power. The estimated number of
employees was 23,435, of whom 6,822 were men, 10,567 were women, and
6,046 were children. Of the latter, 3,379 were under 14 years of age.
Eighty-one per cent of the adults and 66.5 per cent of the children wore
able to-read -and write. The length of a day’s work was from 10 to 12
hours. The average daily wages were as follows : Machinists, ;$1.68£;
engineers, $1.46; firemen, $0;86; skilled men (not including; superin
tendents and overseers), $0.99; unskilled men, $0.67; skilled women,
$0.66;, unskilled women, $0.47J; children, $0.31.
MiseELLANHOus and Tobacco F actories .—Under the head of
miscellaneous factories; reports are presented from 64 establishments
representing 38 industries. Of these, nearly 60 per cent worked full
time during the year. In 80 per cent of the factories 10 hours consti

REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- NORTH CAROLINA. 7 8 1

tuted a day’s work. A decreased cost of living was reported by 78 per
cent of tlie manufacturers. One employer reported an increase, and
the others no change. Sixty-four per cent reported no change in wages,
24 per cent a decrease, and 12 per cent an increase.
Reports regarding the tobacco manufacturing industry were received
from 45 establishments. Only 8 factories made full time during the
year. Of the others, 11 worked less than 150 days, 13 worked from
150 to 200 days, and 8 worked more than 200 days, but not full time.
Five did not answer this inquiry. The length of the working day
varied from 8to 13 hours. Eighteen factories reported an improvement
in the financial condition of the employees.
Trades.—Schedules of inquiry were sent to persons engaged in
skilled trades throughout the State. Responses were received from
261 persons, representing 53 occupations. Over one-half the number
were carpenters, bricklayers, blacksmiths, machinists, cabinetmakers,
tanners, and painters. Of the total number responding, 77.5 per cent
received their wages in cash and 22.5 per cent in trade and cash;
7.2 per cent reported an increase in wages, 45 per cent a decrease,
and 47.8 per cent reported no change; 48.1 per cent worked full time
during the year; 72.3 per cent worked 10 hours per day, 3.7 per cent
less than 10 hours, and 24 per cent worked over 10 hours per day; as to
cost of living, 7.7 per cent reported an increase, 64.1 per cent a decrease,
and 28.2 per cent reported no change; 24.5 per cent reported an im
provement in their financial condition.
Organized Labor .—Organization among the working people in .
North Carolina has not made much progress. Only 12 local branches,
representing 7 trade unions, are reported by the bureau. The follow
ing statement shows the membership of these organizations and the
average wages and hours of labor of the members :
M EMBERSHIP OE LABOR O R G AN IZATIO N S A N D W AGES A N D HOURS OF LABOR OF
MEMBERS.

Organization.

Local
branch
es.

Mem
bers.

Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers.........
Typographical Union...........................................
Order of Railway Conductors..........................
International Association of Machinists___
Brotherhood of Carpenters................................
Bookbinders’ U nion........................ ...................
Brotherhood of Railway Trackmen.................

5
2
1
1
1
1
1

213
89
36
32
32
9
8

T o ta l.............................................................

419

a Two branches report no limit.

W ages.
Per month.

Per week.

$90 to $115
(&)
75

$22. 50 to $27.50
12. 00 to 15.00
(&)
15. 00
7.50
12. 00
(&)

(b)
(b)

54
35

Daily
hours of
labor.
a 8 to 14

9
10
10
10
9
(f>)

b Not reported.

Two of the organizations made provision for sick benefits, and all
but two for death benefits. No strikes were reported in any of the
unions. One local branch reported a wage increase during the year,
but all others reported no change. In the case of nine local branches
the organizations were regarded favorably by the corporations, in one
1453—No, 13------7

782

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

unfavorably, and in the case of the two others this inquiry was not
answered.
B ailroad Statistics.—The number, occupation, and average wages
o f employees are shown for each railroad in the State. The number of
railroad employees in the State wag estimated at 9,417. The total mile
age was 3,701, or an increase of 85 miles over the preceding year.
B ureaus of Labor.—This chapter contains a list of the names of
all the bureaus of labor in the United States and of many o f the for
eign bureaus of statistics and labor, together with the names and titles
o f their chief officers.
TENNESSEE.
Sixth Annual Report o f the Bureau o f Labor, Statistics, and Mines to the
Governor and Fiftieth General Assembly o f the State o f Tennessee. 1898.
A. H. Wood, Commissioner. 318 pp.
The contents of this report may be grouped as follows: Statistics of
mines and mine inspection, 231 pages; the phosphate industry, 16
pages; the marble industry, 26 pages; the petroleum field of Tennes
see, 6 pages; mine wages and regulations, 15 pages; labor conditions,
15 pages; chronology of labor bureaus, 8 pages.
Statistics of Mines and Mine I nspection.—The report treatsmainly of the mineral resources of the State, it being impossible for the
bureau to collect statistics of manufactures. The amount and value
of mine products are shown, and in some instances comparative figures
are presented for Tennessee and other States, and for present and
past periods. The statistics relate to the production of coal, coke, iron
ore, pig iron, zinc, lead, and copper, and to casualties in coal mines.
A description of the location and general condition of the coal mines
in the State is also given.
During the year 1896, 58 coal mines were reported in operation. A
total of 2,663,714 tons of coal were mined, showing an increase of 343,994
tons over 1895. The coal mines gave employment to an average of
5,858 persons (during an average of 202 days in the year. The coke pro
duction amounted to 332,746 tons. The other mine products reported for
the year were 577,403 tons of iron ore and 109,987 tons of copper ore.
Lead and zinc were also mined, but the quantity was not reported.
The pig-iron production in 1896 was 246,998 tons, a decline of 1,131
tons over the preceding year. Twenty-seven fatal accidents, or one to
every 244 employees, were reported.
The P hosphate I ndustry.—The development of this industry in
the State began but a little over three years ago. A description is given
of the location of the phosphate deposits, their chemical composition,
and a history of their development. During the year 49,047 tons of
phosphate were produced.
T he Marble I ndustry .—Tennessee ranks third among the States

REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- TENNESSEE.

783

of the Union in the value of marble produced, Georgia being second
and Vermont first. The report contains a history of the growth and
development of the marble industry, a description of the different
varieties found, and an account of the production by counties. During
1896, 210,635 cubic feet of marble were produced in the State.
The P etroleum F ield of Tennesse^.—The drilling of oil wells
in the State has thus far been largely experimental. Oil was discov
ered in considerable quantities in 1894. O f 47 wells that have been
started, 32 have been completed,, and of these only 6 can be considered
producers. Experiments continue to be made, and it is expected that
the product will become, at no distant date, an important factor in the
commerce of the State.
Mine W ages and R egulations.—Under this head are given figures
showing the prices paid for mining at each of the coal mines in the
State, the thickness of the seam worked, and the nature of the top,
together with the prices of mine supplies. Specimens of rules govern
ing work and wage payments adopted by some of the leading mining
companies are also given.
Labor Conditions.—The principal features of this chapter are
statistics of wages paid to men employed in the trades in Nashville
and Memphis, a review of the general industrial conditions in the State,
a description of some of the leading labor organizations, and labor dis
putes during the year. During the past two years only three strikes
were recorded, namely, the journeymen plumbers in December, 1895,
building laborers in July, 1896, and saddle and harness makers in the
fall of 1896.

TENTH REPORT ON THE ANNUAL STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURES
IN MASSACHUSETTS.

The Annual Statistics o f Manufactures, 1895. Tenth Report, xxxiii,
293 pp. (Issued by the Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Horace G.
Wadlin, Chief.)
The statistics presented in this report are grouped as follows: Intro
duction, 21 pages; statistics of manufactures, 121 pages; selected indus
try presentations, 43 pages; analysis, 83 pages; industrial chronology,
1895, 43 pages.
The information contained in this work does not represent all the
industrial establishments in the State. It is computed from returns
made by 3,629 identical establishments, comprising 76 industries, for
the two years 1894 and 1895. The purpose of the presentation is to
indicate the trend of business from year to year, and not to give a
census of manufacturing industries.
The 3,629 establishments considered were conducted by 2,758 private
firms and 835 corporations in 1894. In 1895 the same establishments
were conducted by 2,738 firms and 855 corporations. This shows a
decrease of 0.73 per cent in the number of private firms and an increase
o f 2.40 per cent in the number of corporations. As some of the firms
and corporations conducted more than one establishment, the number
of establishments is greater than the total number of firms and corpo
rations.
The returns showing the number of partners of firms and stock
holders of corporations still further illustrate the tendency toward the
change from private to corporation ownership. The number of part
ners in private firms decreased from 4,420 in 1894 to 4,358 in 1895,
while the number of stockholders of corporations increased from 38,712
in 1894 to 40,096 in 1895. The average number of partners to a firm
was 1.60 in 1894 and 1.59 in 1895. The average number o f stockholders
to a corporation was 46.36 in 1894 and 46.90 in 1895. O f the partners,
95.53 per cent were males, 2.43 per cent were females, and 2.04 per
cent were estates, etc., in 1895, and of the stockholders, 54.70 per cent
were males, 33.79 per cent were females, and 11.51 per cent were banks,
trustees, etc.
In the following table the items of invested capital, wages, and value
of stock used and goods made are compared for the years 1894 and
1895. The 9 leading industries are given in detail, the 67 others being
grouped under other industries.
784

MANUFACTURES IN MASSACHUSETTS.

785

STATISTICS OF M A N U F A C T U B E S IN 76 IND U STBIES, 1894 A N D 1895.
Capital invested.
Estab
lish
ments

Wages paid.

1894.

1895

Per
cent of
in
crease.

1894.

1895.

544
Boots and shoes...................
Carpetings..........................
11
Cotton goods........................
157
119
Leather.................................
Machines and machinery.
292
278
Metals and metallic goods.
97
Paper and paper goods----110
Woolen goods......................
21
Worsted goods.....................
Other industries................. 2, 000

$23, 759, 720
7, 268, 249
121, 257,425
7, 618, 495
28, 298, 638
16, 716, 854
25,404, 250
22, 435, 934
14,411, 761
134, 348, 623

$22, 260, 312
5, 998, 958
115,236, 307
8, 254, 401
24, 700, 083
16,173, 763
23, 734, 206
22, 593, 849
14, 957, 015
121, 966, 280

<*6.31
<*17.46
<*4.97
8.35
<*12.72
a 3.25
a 6.57
.70
3.78
a 9.22

$17, 477, 665
1,329, 350
22, 728, 892
2, 518, 537
, 6,787.905
5,057, 851
4, 036, 013
4, 641, 991
2, 779, 095
37,200, 561

$17,436, 667
1, 696, 331
25, 505,781
2, 874, 938
8,165, 228
5, 843, 475
4, 275, 733
5, 662, 309
4,122,161
40,901,120

a 0. 23

8,629

401, 519, 949

375,875,174

a 6.39

104, 557, 860

116, 483, 743

11.41

Industries.

T otal..........................

Stock used.
Industries.

Estab
lish
ments.

Boots and shoes...................
544
Carpetings..........................
11
Cotton goods........................
157
L e a th e r.............................
119
Machines and machinery.
292
278
Metals and metallic goods.
97
Paper and paper goods___
W oolen goods......................
n o
Worsted goods.....................
21
Other industries................. 2, 000
T o ta l......................

3, 629

1894.

1895.

Per
cent of
in
crease.

27. 61
12.22
14.15
20. 29
15. 53
5. 94
21. 98
48. 33
9. 95

Goods made and work done.
Per
centof
in
crease.

1894.

1895.

Per
cent of
in
crease.

$42, 755, 762
3, 621, 574
43,806,152
10, 237, 253
7, 325, 980
8, 005, 071
14,133, 042
12, 306, 231
8, 233, 757
122,190, 097

$47,888,675 12.01
- 4,314,005 19.12
44, 575,179
1. 76
13, 966,349 36.43
9,019, 819 23.12
8, 923, 650 11. 47
13,807, 787 a 2.30
13, 659, 663 11.00
11, 843, 688 43. 84
122,012, 094
<*.15

$72, 755, 237
5,760,705
78, 233, 289
14, 491, 501
19, 858, 806
16, 799, 742
22,854, 947
21,219, 705
12, 760,163
204, 015, 083

$76, 882, 713
7,169, 018
86, 689, 082
19, 699,272
23, 785, 409
19, 247, 522
22, 791,452
23, 630, 934
18, 759, 463
213,142, 334

5.67
24.45
10. 81
35.94
19.77
14. 57
<*. 28
11.36
47. 02
4.47

272, 614, 919

290, 011, 509

6. 38

468, 749,178

511, 797,199

9.18

a Decrease.

The total amount of capital reported by the 3,629 establishments
was $401,519,949 in 1894 and $375,875,174 in 1895, a decrease of 6.39
per cent in the latter year. O f the 9 leading industries shown in the
above table, 3 had an increase and 6 a decrease in the amount of
capital invested. The greatest relative increase was 8.35 per cent, in
the leather industry, and the greatest relative decrease, 17.46 per cent,
in the carpet industry. Of the 76 industries, 24 showed an increase
and 52 a decrease in the amount of capital invested.
The total amount of wages paid in all the establishments considered
was $101,557,860 in 1894 and $116,483,743 in 1895, an increase of 11.41
per cent. Only 1 of the 9 leading industries shows a decrease in the
relative amount of wages paid, namely, the boot and shoe industry,
0.23 per cent. The greatest relative increase in the amount of wages
paid was 48.33 per cent, in the worsted-goods industry. The results
for all industries show that in 62 there was an increase, and in 14 a
decrease, in the amount of wages paid.
The term “ stock used” means all materials used or consumed in the
manufacture of goods, whether entering into the composition of the
fabric or consumed in the process of manufacture. The total cost of
stock used in all the establishments was $272,614,919 in 1894 and
$290,011,509 in 1895, an increase of 6.38 per cent. The cost of stock

786

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

used in 1895 shows an increase in all but one of the 9 leading indus
tries, the paper and paper-goods industry showing a decrease of 2.30
per cent. The greatest relative increase, 43.84 per cent, was found in
the worsted-goods industry. Fifty-eight of the 76 industries showed
an increase, and 18 a decrease, in the cost of stock used.
The aggregate value of goods made and work done in the 3,629 estab
lishments was $468,749,178 in 1894 and $511,797,199 in 1895, an increase
of 9.18 per cent. There was an increase in all but one of the 9 leading
industries in 1895, a relative decrease of 0.28 per cent of the value of
goods made being reported in the paper and jiaper-goods industry.
The greatest relative increase was 47.02 per cent in the worsted-goods
industry. Fifty-eight of the 76 industries showed an increase in the
value of goods made in 1895 over the preceding year.
Comparative statistics of the number of employees and their average
yearly earnings are presented in the three tables which follow. Officers,
clerks, and other salaried persons are not included in the tabulations.
A V E R A G E NU M BER OF EM PLOYEES A N D A V E R A G E W A G E S IN 76 IN D U STR IES, 1894
A N D 1895.

Industries.

Estab
lish
ments.

Average number of em
ployees.
1894.

1895.

Boots and sliocs. . - ................... ....................Carpetings . ........................... - ........................
Colton goods......... ...........................................
Leather..............................................................
Machines and machinery............. ...............
Metals and metallic goods................. ..........
Paper and paper goods..................................
Woolen goods . . . .............................................
Worsted goods.................................................
Other industries.............................................

544
11
157
119
292
278
97
110
21
2, 000

34,749
3, 744
72, 093
5, 317
12, 916
10,124
9,916
13, 659
8, 889
82, 029

35, 741
4, 583
77, 341
6, 003
15, 277
11, 343
10,470
15,176
11,548
88, 815

Total........................................................

3,629

253,436

276, 297

1Percent
of in
crease.

Average yearly earn
ings.
1894.

1895.

2.85 $502.97 $487.86
22.41 355. 06 370.14
7.28 315.27 329. 78
12.90 473. 68 478. 92
18.28 525. 54 534.48
12. 04 499. 59 515.16
5.59 407.' 02 408. 38
11.11 339. 85 373.11
29.91 312. 64 356. 96
8. 27 453.50 460. 52
9.02

412. 56

421. 59

Percent
of in
crease.
a 3.00

4.25
4.60
1.11
1.70
3.12
0.33
9.79
14.18
1.55
2.19

a Decrease.

The 3,629 establishments considered gave employment, in the aggre
gate, to an average of 258,436 persons in 1894 and 276,297 persons in
1895, an increase of 9;02 per cent. A ll of the leading industries show
an increase in the number of persons employed. The greatest relative
increase was 29.91 per cent in the worsted goods, and the least, 2.85
per cent, in the boot and shoe industry. O f the 76 industries, 46 show
an increase, 12 a decrease, and 18 no change in the average number of
employees.
The returns also show an increase in the average yearly earnings of
employees of all establishments, taken in the aggregate. In 1894 the
average per employee was $412.56 and in 1895 it was $421.59, or an
increase of 2.19 per cent. The boot and shoe industry showed a decrease
o f 3 per cent in the average earnings. The other eight leading indus
tries reported an increase. The greatest relative increase was 14.18 per
cent in the worsted goods industry. Of the 76 industries considered^

MANUFACTURES IN MASSACHUSETTS.

787

54 report an increase and 22 a decrease in tlie average yearly earnings
of employees.
The following statement shows for the 76 industries tlie percentage
of males and females of the whole number employed at each specified
weekly rate of wages:
PEE CENT OF M A L E S ANT) F E M A L E S OF TH E W H O LE N UM BER EM PLO YED A T
SPECIFIED W E E K L Y W A G E S I N 76 INDU STR IES, 1894 AN D 1895.
1894.

1895.

W eekly wages.
Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Under $5..................................................................................... ...........
$5 or under $6....................................................... ............. ...............
$6 or under $7..................................... .................................................
$7 or under $8.......................................................................................
$8 or under $9................................................................... ...................
$9 or under $10 ............................................................... .................
$10 or under $12....................................................................................
$12 or under $15............... ..................................................................
$15 or under $20............. ....................................................................
$20 or over..................................... ■_.....................................................

37. 03
35. 46
48.24
58. 36
66. 07
81.69
87. 53
93. 70
96.89
98. 88

62.97
64. 54
51.76
41. 64
33. 93
18. 31
12. 47
6. 30
3.11
1.12

39.25
36.86
47.45
58.14
66.14
80. 33
86. 77
93. 41
97.13
99. 01

60.75
63.14
52. 55
41.86
33.86
19.67
13. 23
6. 59
2. 87
.99

T o ta l...........................................................................................

65.05

34.95

65. 88

34.12

The statement shows that in both years females were paid lower
•wages than males. Comparing the figures for the two years, it is found
that the proportion of females increased in the following five wage
groups, namely, “ $6 or under $7,” “ $7 or under $ 8,” “ $9 or under
$10,” u $10 or under $12,” and u $12 or under $15.”
The following statement shows for the 76 industries the proportion
of the males, females, and employees of both sexes, respectively, in
each wage group, the total number of males, females, and employees
of both sexes being each represented as 100 per cent:
PER CENT OF TH E T O TAL M A L E S A N D F EM AL ES A T SPECIFIED W E E K L Y W A G E S
IN 76 INDUSTR IES, 1894 A N D 1895.
1894.

1895.

Weekly wages.
Males.

Females.

Total.

Males.

Females.

Total.

Under $5..........................................................
$5 or under $6................................................
$6 or under $7............. ...................................
$7or under $8............................................
$8 or under $9 ...............................................
$9 or under $10...............................................
$10 or under $12.............................................
$12 or under $15...................................
$15 or under $20.............................................
$20 or over.........................*.......................... .

8.98
5.98
9.16
9.87
8. 80
12.18
14. 04
15. 61
11. 37
4.01

28.43
20. 24
18. 30
13.10
8. 41
5. 08
3. 72
1.95
.68
.09

15. 78
10. 96
12. 35
11. 00
8. 67
9. 70
10. 43
10.84
7. 63
2.64

8. 70
5. 85
8. 85
9. 75
9. 38
12.40
14.16
15. 68
11. 30
3. 93

25.99
19. 35
18. 94
13. 55
9. 28
5.86
4.17
2.14
. 64
.08

14.60
10. 46
12.29
11. 05
9. 35
10.17
10. 75
11. 06
7. 66
2. 61

T otal....................................................

100. 00

100.00

100. 00

100.00

788

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

The following table represents the average proportion, of business
done by the establishments represented in the 76 industries. The
greatest capacity or maximum production is considered as 100 per
cent, and the figures given indicate the average proportion of business
done on this basis.
PER CENT OF BUSINESS DONE A N D A V E R A G E D A Y S IN
TRIES, 1894 A N D 1895.

Industries.

Estab
lish
ments.

Per cent of business
done of maximum
capacity of estab
lishments.
1894.

Boots and shoes................................................................
Carpetings.........................................................................
Cotton goods.......................................................... ..........
Leather........................................... ..................................
Machines"and machinery..............................................
Metals and metallic goods . . ........................................
Paper and paper goods............. - ...................................
Woolen goods..................................................................
Worsted goods.................................................................
Other industries..............................................................
T o ta l....................................... ......................... .

544

O PER ATIO N IN 76 IN D U S

1895.

Average days in
operation.
•
1894.

1895.

157
119
292
278
97

110
21
2,000

60.48
61.55
80.12
64.47
53.49
56. 94
74.18
66. 45
73. 33
57.60

60. 26
71. 36
88.33
65. 38
58.91
61.16
77. 22
83.32
88. 57
59. 85

282.98
259.15 '
272. 74
292.92
280. 02
266.11
276. 31
265.19
270. 22
278. 59

282.13
299. 33
296.93
294. 26
297. 95
280. 98
290. 61
291.14
306. 34
288.19

3,629

59. 67

62.73

276. 01

291.42

The average proportion of business done by the 3,629 establishments’
was 59.67 in 1891 and 62.73 in 1895, an increase of 3.06, or 5.13 per cent.
Ho industry produced to its full capacity, the nearest approach being
88.57, in the worsted-goods industry.
The average number of days in operation was 276.01 during 1894
and 291.42 during 1895, an increase of 15.41 days, or 5.58 per cent. Of
the nine leading industries, only one, that of boots and shoes, exhibited
a decrease in the average number of days in operation. O f the 76
industries, 56 show an increase in the average number of days in oper
ation, 19 show a decrease, and in one case the number of days was the
same for both years.
The next table presents the actual industry product per $1,000 of
capital invested in each of the nine leading industries, the average
product per employee, the percentage o f industry product paid in wages
and the percentage devoted to other expenses. By industry product
is meant the actual result of the productive force in the industry; that
is, the added value created above the value of stock and materials
consumed.

MANUFACTURES IN MASSACHUSETTS.

789

IN D U ST R Y PRODUCT, W A G E S, ETC., IN 9 SPECIFIED IN D U STRIES, 1895.
[By industry product is meant the actual result of the productive forces in the industry; that is, the
added value created above the value of stock apd materials consumed. The values presented in this
table under the designation “ Industry product” are obtained by deducting from the total value of
goods made and work done in each industry the value of stock used, the difference being added
value or actual product due to the industry. In the division of the proceeds of each industry, one
part of this industry product is paid to the labor force in the form ot' wages, this being labor’s share
of the product. The balance constitutes a fund from which are paid freights, insurance, interest on
loans (credit capital), interest on stock (fixed or invested capital), rents, commissions, salaries, etc.;
in fact, all expenses other than those for stock and wages. The remainder, if any, is the profit of
the employer. The entire balance of the industry product remaining after the deduction of the
amount paid in wages becomes a “ Profit and minor expense fund,” and is thus designated in the table.
Of course, it will be understood that the term minor expense is relative. The expenses, paid out of
this balance, are in themselves considerable in amount, and are only to be classed as minor in com
parison with the generally larger amounts expended for materials (stock) and wages.]
Industry product.
Industries.

Industry
product.

Boots and shoes............. $28,994,038
Carpetings.....................
2,855, 013
Cotton goods...................
42,113, 903
Leather............................
5, 732, 323
Machines and machin
ery .................................. 14, 765, 590
Metals and metallic
10,323, 872
goods ............................
8, 983, 665
Paper and paper goods.
9, 971, 271
Woolen goods.................
6, 915, 775
Worsted goods...............

Wages.

Percentage of in
dustry product.

Profit and
minor ex
Average
pense fund. Per $1,000 per em Paid in
of capital. ployee. wages.

Devoted
to profit
and mi
nor ex
penses.

$17, 436, 667
1, 696, 331
25, 505, 781
2, 874, 938

$11, 557,371
1,158,682
16, 608,122
2, 857, 385

$1, 302.50
475. 92
365. 46
694.46

$811. 23
622. 96
544.52
954. 91

60.14
59.42
60. 56
50.15

39.86
40.58
39.44
49.85

8,165, 228

6, 600, 362

597.80

966. 52

55.30

44. 70

5,843, 475
4. 275, 733
5, 662, 309
4,122,161

4, 480, 397
4,707,932
4, 308, 962
2, 793, 614

638. 31
378.51
441.33
462. 38

910.15
858.04
657. 04
598. 87

56. 60
47. 59
56. 79
59. 61

43.40
52.41
43. 21
40. 39

The percentage of the industry product devoted to wages is greatest
(60.56) in the cotton-goods industry, and least in that of paper and
paper goods (47.59).
A comparison of the value of goods made and work done in identical
establishments is shown in the following statements:
V A L U E OF GOODS M A D E A N D W O K E DONE IN 789 ID E N T IC A L ESTABLISH M ENTS,
1886 TO 1895.
Value of
goods made
and work
done.

Year.

Increase.
Amount.

Per cent.

1886.............................................................................................................. $226,135, 840
1887 .............................................................................................................. 240,053, 323 $13, 917,483
1888 ............................................................. ...............................................
246, 448, 882
6, 395, 559
1889 .............................................................................................................
256, 203, 005
9, 754,123
1890 ...................................................... ......................................... ............
266, 471, 202
10,268,197
1891.............................................................................................................
271,349,483
4, 878, 281
1892 .............................................................................................................
283, 862, 237
12, 512, 754
1893 ................. ............................................................................................
260, 285, 327 a 23, 576,910
1894 ......................................... ....................................................................
230, 913,149 a 29,372,178
1895 .......................................................................... ................................... 254, 222, 996
23, 309, 847

6.15

2.66

3.96
4. 01
1.83
4. 61
a 8. 31
a ll. 28
10.09

V A L U E OF GOODS M A D E A N D W O R K DONE IN 3,109 ID E N T IC A L E STABLISH M EN TS,
1891 TO 1895.
Value of
goods made
and work
done.

Year.

Increase.
Amount.

1891............................................................................................................. $492, 467, 718
1892 .......................................................................... ................................... 525, 744, 008 $33, 276,290
1893 .............................................................................................................. 484, 590, 768 a41,153,240
1894 ............................................................................................................
435, 937,044 a 48, 653,724
1895 .............................................................................................................. 474, 540, 739
38, 603, 695

a Decrease.

Per cent.

6. 76
a 7.83
a 10.04
8. 86

RECENT FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.

Travail du Dimanche: JEtabUssements Industrials (non eompris les mines,
minieres et carrieres). Volume II, Belgique. Office du Travail, Ministere de l’Industrie et du Travail. 1897. xlii, 481 pp.
In Bulletin No. 7 of the Department a notice was given of the com
prehensive investigation undertaken by the Belgian bureau of labor
concerning Sunday work, the first volume of the report of which was
analyzed. The present volume is a continuation of this report, and, like
the first, relates to industrial establishments in Belgium exclusive of
mines and quarries. The information presented relates to the same
establishments comprehended in the first volume, but is given either in
a different form or embraces additional points.
The bulk of the report (481 pages) is devoted to a series of brief
monographs, each relating to an individual establishment and showing
the character of the industry carried on, the number of employees ac
cording to the main classes of occupations, the extent and cause of
Sunday work, and whether such work is regular or irregular. A resume
of these facts is given for the principal industries, and generally for all
the industries. The following four points are subjected *to a specific
analysis: Work during the first hours of Sunday in order to complete
Saturday night’s shift; the causes for Sunday work; the employment
of women and children on Sunday, and the number of days during the
year and the number of Mondays that workingmen are unemployed.
Work on Sunday morning in order to finish the shift of Saturday
night occurs in those establishments which run day and night, the
most important of which are engaged in the manufacture of iron and
steel. This work scarcely belongs to Sunday work as usually consid
ered, since, for the most part, work ceases at 5 or 6 o’clock in the
morning and no work is performed for the remainder of the day. The
general conclusion reached by the Belgian bureau is that this labor is
not an absolute necessity, since in each industry there are establish
ments which, though running night and day, do not extend the work
on Saturday night into Sunday morning.
The causes for Sunday work are different according to whether the
work relates to production, maintenance and repair, or guarding and
transportation. It has been shown in Volume I of this report that
about nine-tenths, or 89.17 per cent, of the 41,079 workingmen employed
on Sunday are engaged in productive operations, nearly one-tenth, 9.75
per cent, in maintenance and repair, and but the small proportion of
790

FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.

791

1.08 per cent in guarding, transportation* and shipment. The problem
of Sunday work is, therefore, chiefly concerned with operations of pro
duction. The most important cause of Sunday work in this branch is
the technical difficulty of interrupting certain operations of production.
This cause is responsible for Sunday work in 40 per cent of all the
establishments. In most of the establishments, however, the work is
so organized that the same workingmen are employed only on alternate
Sundays. A great many establishments employ only a sufficient num
ber of workingmen on Sundays to prevent the deterioration of material
being used or manufactured. Another most important cause of Sunday
work in production is the necessity for completing orders within a limited
space of time. This cause is responsible for Sunday work in two-thirds
of the establishments and embraces nine-tenths of the employees in
establishments working only occasional Sundays.
The reasons for Sunday work for maintenance and repairs and for
guardhig and transportation need little explanation. For the first
kind of work the reason usually assigned is that the work can not be
done during the regular operations of production.
Of the 1,459 establishments investigated, but 427 employed women,
and of these 80 per cent never employed women on Sunday. In the
establishments employing women on Sunday, such work was for the
most part irregular and was for commercial reasons. Twenty-seven
establishments employed women every Sunday, and 20 others, princi
pally metallurgical and textile works, employed women every other
Sunday until 5 or 0 o’clock in the morning.
Of the 1,459 establishments, 780 employed labor protected by the
factory laws, that is, boys and girls under 21 years of age; and of these
establishments 80 per cent never employed this class of labor on Sun
day. In the establishments prosecuting Sunday work by this class of
labor, work was chiefly irregular; there were but 22 establishments
prosecuting work every Sunday.
In all but 29, or in 1,430 establishments, information was obtained
concerning the number of days that the establishments were not in
operation. It was found that 123 establishments, or 8.60 per cent, did
not shut down a single working day; 232, or 16.22 percent, were closed
less than 6 days; 630, or 41.06 per cent, were closed from 6 to 9 days;
434, or 30.35 per cent, from 10 to 19 days; and 11, or 0.77 per cent, 20
or more days. It will be seen, therefore, that in the case of more than
half the establishments work was stopped on less than 10 days during
the year, not including Sundays, and that in about a tenth of these not
a day’s work was lost.
As regards the number of absences on the part of workingmen on
Mondays, it was found that of the 1,423 establishments reporting on
this question, 981, or 68.94 per cent, reported no absences; 211, or 14.83
per cent, that such absences rarely occurred, and the other establish
ments that but a small proportion of the workingmen were absent on
that day. In three-fourths of the establishments absences on Monday

792

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

occurred to but au insignificant extent. The bureau failed to discover
any relationship between the proportion of absences on Monday and
the intensity of Sunday work.
Statistique des Graves et des Recours a la Conciliation et a VArbitrage
Survenus Pendant VAnnee 1896. Office du Travail, Ministere du Com
merce, de ^Industrie, des Postes et des Telegraphes. xiii, 358 pp.
The official record of strikes and lockouts in France, as reported by
the labor bureau, dates from the year 1890. Bulletins Nos. 1 and 5 gave
a resume of the reports for the years 1890 to 1895. The present volume
continues this record and relates to labor disturbances during the year
1896. The following summary, as far as possible, follows the plan of
former notices. A comparison of the results of 1896 with those of
former years, therefore, can easily be made.
In 1896 there were reported a total of 476 strikes, 4 of which, how
ever, were of the nature of lockouts, being collective dismissals of
workingmen. These 476 labor disputes affected 2,178 establishments;
49,851 workingmen participated as strikers; and 644,168 days of labor
were lost, in which last figure, however, are included 170,262 days lost
by 12,952 persons who were not strikers but were thrown out of employ
ment as the result of strikes.
In 1895 there were but 405 strikes, involving 1,298 establishments
and 45,801 workingmen, and causing a loss of 617,469 days of labor.
While the year 1895 showed a slight decrease in industrial disturbances
as compared with 1894, it will be seen that in 1896 there was not only
an increase in the number of strikes over 1895, but of the number of
establishments and employees affected as well. This increase is stated
to be wholly due to strikes occurring in the textile industries in the
department of the Nord. This department alone was responsible for
165 strikes, of which 140 were in the textile industries. Of these the
two cities of Boubaix and Tourcoing were responsible for 100.
! The number of days lost per striker was 13 in 1896 as against 13£
for the preceding year. In 234 of the 476 strikes, or in nearly one-half
o f the cases, the strikers were organized into trade unions.
As regards the results of the strikes, success was achieved by the
strikers in 117 strikes, involving 11,579 persons; partial success in 122
strikes, involving 17,057 persons; and a failure resulted in 237 cases,
involving 21,215 persons. The following statement shows the per cent
o f strikes of total strikes and the per cent of ^strikers of total strikers
which succeeded, succeeded partly, and failed, as compared with simi
lar figures for 1895. From it it will be seen that the proportion of
strikes resulting in a compromise and the proportion of strikers involved
were distinctly smaller in 1896 than in 1895. A greater proportion of
strikes were failures in 1896 than in 1895, and a greater proportion of
persons were engaged in strikes resulting in this way. A slightly
smaller proportion of strikes were successful in 1896, but a larger

FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.

793

proportion of strikers participated in successful strikes. On the whole,
less success was achieved by strikers in 1896 than in 1895.
RESULTS OE STRIKES, 1895 AN D 1896.
Strikes.

Strikers.

Results of strikes.
1895.

1896.

1895.

24. 69
29.14
46.17

24. 58
25. 63
49. 79

18.72
45.18
36.10

23. 23
34. 21
42. 56

T otal......... ........................................................................ ........................ 100. 00

100. 00

100.00

100. 00

Succeeded...................................................... . .................. ................... .
Succeeded partly................................................................................................
Failed ............. ..................................................................................................

1896.

As in 1895, the great majority of strikes involved but one or two
establishments. Of the 476 strikes, 384 involved but 1 establishment,
28 from 2 to 5 establishments, 27 from 6 to 10, 21 from 11 to 25, and but
16 over 25 establishments.
The two tables that follow show the number of strikes, strikers, and
establishments involved, according to the results of the strikes, as well
as the number of days’ work lost, and the proportion that the number
of strikers is to the total number of working people, according to 18
groups of industries:
STRIKES IK 1896, B Y INDUSTR IES.
Succeeded
partly.

Succeeded.
Industries.
Strikes.

Agriculture, forestry, and fish
eries.............................................
.Mining................. .........................
Quarrying.....................................
Food products..............................
Chemical industries...................
Printing.........................................
Hides and leather.. . ...................
Textiles proper............................
Clothing and cleaning...............
Woodworking..............................
Building trades (woodwork). . .
Metal refining..............................
Metallic goods..............................
Precious-metal w ork .................
Stone cutting and polishing,
glass and pottery work.........
Building trades (stone, earth
enware, glass, etc.).................
Transportation and handling..
Other..............................................
Total .

3
4

Failed.

Total.

Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
lishStrikes. lish
Strikes. lish
Strikes. lish
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.

3
4

1
20
2

1
3
1

2
711
1
5
57
2
9
130
1
102

3
9
2

46
9
7

2
11
12
111
7
15

2
11
31
112
7
38

5
29

7
118

19
4
5
5
13
28
397
13
27
10
7
62

19
10
731
5
13
47
216
14
73
157
9
286

2
2
11
43
4
7
2

2
11
47
5
26
27

5
43
2
5
8
1
15

14
3
3

176
3
77

12
9

103
28

37
13
3

360
32
77

117

308

122

1,305

237

565

476

2.178

1
1
1

1
1

794

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
STRIKERS A N D D A T S OF W ORK LOST IN 1896. B Y INDUSTRIES.

strikers inIndustries.

Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries-----M ining............................................. - ............
Quarrying.....................................................
Pood products.............................................
Chemical industries..................................
Printing........................................................ .
Hides and leather.........................................
Textiles proper........................................... .
Clothing and cleaning................................
Woodworking...........................................
Building trades (woodwork)...................
Metal refining.............................................
Metallic goods..............................................
Precious-metal work...............................
Stone cutting and polishing, glass and
pottery work........................................... .
Building trades (stone, earthenware,
glass, etc.).................................................
Transportation and handling................. .
Other.............................. ...............................
Total

Suc
Partly
Strikes
cessful successful which
strikes.
strikes.
failed.
915
3,027
247

Strikers
Total
per 1,000 Days of
strikers.
work
work lost.
people, (a)

958
1,832
75
102
374
32
735
3, 555
256
212
145
400
1,629
19

3,698
3, 519
30
397
484
284
4,125
110
256
844
120
1,105

141
2,314

196

466

2, 313

999
60

1, 341
122
156

1, 257
482

11,579

17, 057

21, 215

49, 851

83
156
500
9, 080
2Q7
493

5, 571
8,378
352
499
941
188
1, 519
16, 760
573
961
989
661
5, 048
19

1.23

6.93
16.64
.26

32,735
109,963
5,234
2, 460
2, 544
3, 937
12, 013
127,625
7,529
10,118
12, 373
3, 944
149, 597
380

2, 975

28. 60

109,882

3, 597
664
156

el0.65
2. 80

49, 497
1,681
2, 656

b42.12
(c)
3. 80
15. 53
1. 94
12.19
23.20
.81
6.71

' (d)

/1 2 .4 2

644,168

a Census of 1891.
&Includes quarrying.
c Included in mining.
dIncluded in building trades’ (stone, earthenware, glass, etc.).
e Includes building trades (woodwork).
/K elates to all industrial workingmen of Prance.

It will be seen from these tables how largely the textile trades were
responsible for the industrial disturbances of the year. One hundred
and ninety-seven, or 41.4 per cent, of all strikes must be credited to this
one industry. Next in importance was the group of metallic goods, fol
lowed by the two groups of building trades. As regards the number
of persons striking, the textile trade with 16,760 strikers was followed
by mining with 8,378 strikers, agriculture, forestry, and fisheries with
5,571, metallic goods with 5,048, and the two building trades with 4,586.
Probably the best test of the relative prevalence of strikes in the
different branches of industry is that of the proportion of the total
number of employees in each branch that took part in strikes. Accord
ing to this showing the mining and quarrying industry appears to be the
one in which the employees engaged to the largest extent in strikes,
42.12 out o f every 1,000 employees having taken part iu strikes during
the year. Stonecutting, etc., comes next with 28.60 strikers per 1,000
employees, then textiles with 23.20, metallic goods with 16.64, and
chemical products with 15.53.

FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS,

795

The information given in the two preceding tables is shown in the
tables which follow according to the causes or objects for which strikes
were undertaken, instead of by industries:
STRIKES IN 1896, B Y CAUSES.
[A considerable number of strikes were due to two or three causes, and the facts in such cases have
been tabulated under each cause. Hence the totals for this table necessarily would not agree with
those for the preceding tables.]
Succeeded
partly.

Succeeded.
Cause or object.
Strikes.

For increase of wages.................
Against reduction of wages___
For reduction of hours of labor
with present or increased
w age s.........................................
Relating to time and method of
payment of wages, e tc ...........
For or against modification of
conditions of work...................
Against piecework.....................
For or against modification of
shop rules........... .....................
For abolition or reduction of
fines.............................................
Against discharge of workmen,
foremen, or directors, or for
their reinstatement.................
For discharge of workmen,
foremen, or directors.............
Against employment of women.
For discharge of apprentices
or limitation in number.........
Relating to deduction from
wages for the support of in
surance and aid funds...........
Other..............................................

Failed.

Total.

Estab
Estab
Estab
Estab
lish Strikes.
lish Strikes. lish Strikes.
lish
ments.
ments.
ments.
ments.
126
20

413
25

247
57

1, 705
121

132

878

1, 205

123

215

3
1

13
16

19
67

26
21

32
72

15
5

15
45

. 37
5

38
5

54
10

55
50

5
8

29
7

5
13

123
37

13
24

182
770

53
23

216
39

68
14

1, 076
57

17
15

195

10
4

11
9

3
3

30
726

STRIKERS A N D D A Y S OF W O R K LOST IN 1896, B Y CAUSES.
[A considerable number of strikes were due to two or three causes, and the facts in such cases have
been tabulated under each cause. Hence the totals for this table necessarily would not agree with
those for the preceding tables.]
Strikers in—
Cause or object.

For increase of wages..................................................
Against reduction of wages.......................................
For reduction of hours of labor with present or
increased wages..........................................................
Relating to time and method of payment of
wages, etc................................................ ....................
For or against modification of conditions of work.
Against piecework........................................................
For or against modification of shop rules...............
For abolition or reduction of fines............................
Against discharge of workmen, foremen, or direc
tors, or for their reinstatement..............................
For discharge of workmen, foremen, or directors.
Against employment of women........... ....................
For discharge of apprentices or limitation in num
ber..................................................................................
Relating to deduction from wages for the support
of insurance and aid funds.....................................
Other................................................................... .............

Success
ful
strikes.

Partly
success
ful
strikes.

Strikes
which
failed.

4,081
3,029

11, 835
1,749

12, 425
1,124

Total
Days of
strikers. work lost.

28, 341
5, 902

453,415
45, 802

1, 290

379

2,812

4, 481

99, 004

2, 907
1,316
124
573
740

755
2,164
49
160
901

3, 381
2, 490
1,862
1, 213
2,129

7,043
5, 970
2, 035
1,946
3, 770

163,453
51, 268
71,542
28, 286
35,591

111
2,149
1,541

125
252

4, 602
5,128
86

4, 838
7, 529
1,627

842
439
1,044

864
1, 064

72, 863
52, 225
43,632

175

1,017

24,192

2, 344
908

3, 647
3, 016

114,762
49,103

796

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

As in former years, the demand for higher wages or the refusal to
accept a reduction of wages alone or in connection with some other
cause was the provocation of the greatest number of strikes. This ques
tion was responsible for 304 strikes, involving 34,243 strikers. The
question of the employment or nonemployment of certain workingmen
or superintendents came next. There seems to be a slight tendency.
for this cause to increase in importance, since 91 strikes were entered
upon on this account in 1896, as against 85 in 1895 and 78 in 1894.
There were 44 strikes for reduction of hours of labor. For the most
part they occurred in the building trades, where the twelve-hour day is
tending to disappear.
The two tables that follow are similar to ones given in the notice of
strikes in 1895, and show the results of strikes according to their
importance; that is, according to the number of strikers involved and
the duration of the strikes:
STRIKES A N D STRIKERS IN 1896, B Y D U R A TIO N OF STRIKES.
Strikes.
Days of duration.

Strikers.

Succeed Succeed Failed.
ed.
ed partly.

7 or under..........................
8 to 1 5 ...............................
16 to 3 0 ............. .................
31 to 100................. ............
101 or over____ ______

Total.

82
23
8
4

75
30
10
7
•

149
45
21
21
1

306
98
39
32
1

7, 292
2, 976
1, 204
107

9,535
5, 035
1, 799
688

8, 344
3, 976
4,364
4,438
93

25,171
11,987
7, 367
5, 233
93

117

122

237

476

11, 579

17, 057

21, 215

49, 851

T o ta l................. ^ ...

Total.

Succeed Succeed
Failed.
ed.
ed partly.

D U R ATIO N OF STRIKES IN 1896, B Y NU M BER OF STRIKERS IN V O L V E D .
Days of duration.

Strikes.
Strikers involved.

Suc
ceeded.

Suc
ceeded
partly.

Failed.

Total.

1 to 7.

8 to 15

16 to 30.

31 to
100.

25 or u n d e r ____________
26 to 50..........................
51 to 100............... .........
101 to 200.......................
201 to 500
.................
501 to 1 000...................
1,001 or over.................

38
25
24
20
6
3
1

29
26
27
24
13
1
2

103
61
26
27
12
5
3

170
112
77
71
31
9
6t

121
76
48
40
18
1
2

28
20
19
20
7
2
2

14
7
7
4
1
5
1

7
9
2
7
5
1
1

Total...................

117

122

237

476

306

101 or
over.

It will be seen from these two tables that but relatively few strikes
were of great importance, whether measured by their duration or by
the number of strikers involved. But 33 of the 476 strikes lasted a
month or over, and but 72 over 15 days. There were 6 strikes, how
ever, in which over 1,000 persons were involved. One of these lasted
over a ‘month, 1 from 16 to 30 days, 2 from 8 to 15 days, and 2 less than
8 days. There were also 9 other strikes in which from 501 to 1,000
persons took part. It is impossible to trace any tendency for strikes
to either succeed or fail according to whether they last for a longer or
shorter time or involve few or a good many persons.

FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.

797

During the year the conciliation or arbitration of labor disputes, as
provided for by the law of December 27, 1892—the x>rovisions of which
were given in Bulletin No. 5—was attempted in 104 cases, or 21.85 per
cent of all labor disputes. This percentage in 1895 was 20.74. The
initiative in demanding the application of the arbitration law was taken
57 times by the workingmen, 4 times by the employer, 4 times by the
employer and employees jointly, and 39 times the justice of the peace
intervened in virtue of his office. In 7 cases work was resumed with
out waiting for the outcome of the demand for arbitration. Of the
other 97 cases, the demand of one party for conciliation was refused in
44 cases, of which 41 were by the employers and 3 by the workingmen.
As the result of these refusals the workingmen abandoned their de
mands in 8 cases. A strike was declared or continued in the remaining
36 cases. The results of these strikes were 5 successes, 9 compromises,
and 22 failures.
In 53 cases the demand for conciliation or arbitration was acceded
to, and 53 committees of conciliation were constituted. In 21 cases the
difficulty was immediately adjusted, and one other case was finally
settled by arbitration. In the remaining 31 cases attempts at arbitra
tion were abortive. These strikes resulted in success for the workin gmen
in 5 cases, partial success in 11 cases, and failure in 15 cases.

O nderzoek naar de gescliiedenis en werTczaamheid der V akvereenigingen.

Bijdragen tot de Statistiek van Nederland. IV. Uitgegeven door
de Oentrale Oommissie voor de Statistiek. 1896. lxvi, 234 pp.
This report on the history and operations of trade unions is one of a
series of publications of the central committee on statistics, known as
Contributions to the Statistics of the Netherlands. It includes only
such labor organizations as are strictly trade unions or federations.
The report consists mainly of a detailed account of each of the national
and other federated trade unions, giving its history, object, operations,
funds, contributions, etc., and a less comprehensive description in
tabular form of each of the independent trade unions.
There were in 1895 a total of 668 trade societies reported, of which
28 consisted of national and other larger unions and federations having
local branches, and 640 were independent trade unions. Of the 668
trade societies, 13 were founded from 1811 to 1855, 7 from 1855 to 1865,
37 from 1865 to 3875, 23 from 1875 to 1885, 245 from 1885 to 1896. In
the case of 343 societies this information could not be ascertained. The
following table gives the names of the national unions and federations,
the year of establishment, the number of local branches, the total mem
bership, and the annual dues paid by members. Unions and federa
tions from which the information could not be obtained are not included.
A second table gives the number of independent trade unions.
1453—No. 13----- 8

798

BU LLETIN OF THE DEPARTM ENT OF LABOR.
NATIONAL AND OTHER FEDERATED TRADE UNIONS.
Tear es
Local Members. Annual dues
per member.
tablished. branches.

Names of trade unions.

1866

•

1,600

$1.05

Netherland International Cigar Makers and Tobacco

Netherland Railway and Tramway Employees’ U nion...
Antisocial Democratic Union of Netheriand Railway
Employees__" .................................. ................... ..... ...............
Netherland Diamond Wbrkers’ Union..................................
Netherland Confectioners Employees’ Union.....................
Netherland Journeymen Bakers’ U nion.............................
Netherland Journeymen Bakers’ Sick Fund.... ..................
Netherland Stevedores’ Union................. .............................
Netherland Paper Hangers and Furnishers’ Union...........
Weavers and Spinners’ Union.......................................... .
Trade Unions of the Roman Catholic National Feder
ation :
Bakers and Confectioners’ Union...................................
Woodworkers ’ Union.........................................................
Lime and Stone Workers’ Union......................................
Tjfinthftr Workers’ Union............. ............... ......................
"Metal W orkers’ Union............... ............. ...................

Painters’ Union .

_____

_______

_________

Cigar Makers and Tobacco W^orkers’ Union...............
Typographical Union......... ................. - ..........
Trade" Unions of the Roman Catholic Federation of the
Archbishopric of Utrecht: .
Ua.et.ory Workers’ Union__ _______ _____________ __
Tobacco Workers’ Union....................................... ............

1887
1871
1892
1886
1886
1889

27
12
25
14
6
32

600
2, 500

.21
(a)

.14

3894
1895
1891
1894
1895
1893
1895
1895

18
10
3
14
19
1
2
c

3895
1894
1895
1894
1894
1894
3896
1894

6
9
5
3
8

380
500
170
63
296

150

1891
1895

6
5

164

1,260
(b)
7,500 $12. 54 to 22. 99
cl. 21
180
.10
931
1. 25 to 2. 09
200
.42
.42

.10
.04
.10
. 14
.21
.21
.21
.10
.10

a Two hours’ regular wages, besides $0.21 for the official organ and 1 cent per number of same, which
appears every fortnight.
b Twenty-five per cent of the contributions of donors.
c For those in rural districts contributions are $0.96.

IN D EPEN D EN T T R A D E UNIONS.

Trade.
Diamond workers......................................
Glass grinders........- ................ ...........
Porcelain and earthenware workers...
Stonecutters............................... .
Bookbinders....................................... .
Photographers...................................
Lithographers........................ . . . . . ______
Printers................... .....................................
Paper hangers.................................... .
Combined building trades......................
Fireproofers................. ...........................
Excavators..................................................
Pile drivers.................... . . . . ............ . . . .
Lime and stone workers......................
Painters................. ................ ................ .
Painters and paper hangers............... . _
City laborers................. - ...........................
Stucco workers.......................................
Carpenters............................................ ..
Carpenters and wagon makers...............
Chemical works’ employees............. .
Brush makers................... .........................
Woodworkers................................. .
Coopers.................................................... ..
Cork makers............... ........ _.....................
Cabinetmakers.......................... ..... . . . . . .
Mirror and frame makers.................... .
Tailors ....................................................
Painters and sculptors...... ............ ...........
Leather workers........................................
Boot and shoe makers................................
Gold and silver smiths............... .............
Copper and tin sm ith s.... ...... ................
Lead and zinc workers..............................
Machinists and metal workers___ _____
Metal workers. .............................. .............

Organiza
tions.
14
1
2
3
1
1
1

Trade.

1
1

Emery-wheel makers........... ......................
Blacksmiths and coppersmiths______ _
Pasteboard workers ..................................
Carriage and wagon makers................ .
Shipbuilders............. i .................. .............
Tool, instrument, etc., makers.................
Cotton-goods workers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gas-works employees................................
Candle makers.............................................
Oil-mill hands..............................................
Bread linkers____________ ____________
Bakers (sick fund).....................................
Bread and cake bakers and confectioners
Cake bakers and confectioners...............
Brewers................................................
Distillers ................................ ......................
Butchers................................ .....................
Tobacco workers and cigar m akers----Tree planters...............................................
A gricnltnrists and gardeners
...........
Fishermen...................................... .............
Grain handlers ............- .............................
Dairymen._____. . . ___................ ................
W ine and distillery hands
Stevedores...............................................
Ore handlers__ t ______ ________________
Office and shop employees.........................
Omnibus drivers and conductors............
Seamen..................................... - ..................
Railway employees .............................. .....
Turf haulers........................................ .
Carriers and messengers.......................
Office clerks .
...................................
Various trades combined........... ...........

T o ta l.......................... _. _..................

56
6
15

5
2
1
32
18
3

5
7

1
1
1

1
19

21
1
7
10

2
6

Organiza
tions.

1
1
1
1
4
1
19
1
2
1
31
19
4
6
1
2
g
54
1
9
3
1
2
1
4
1
2
1
6
48
•4
5
9
7
640

DECISIONS OF DOUBTS AFFECTING LABOR.
[This subject:, begun in Bulletin No. 2, will be continued in successive issues, deal
ing with the decisions as they occur. All material parts of the decisions are repro
duced in the words of the courts, indicated when short by quotation marks, and
when long by being printed solid. In order to save space, immaterial matter, needed
simply by way of explanation, is given in the words of the editorial reviser.]

DECISIONS UNDER STATUTORY LAW .
C o n s t it u t io n a l it y o f P r o p o s e d S t a t u t e R e o u l a t in g - P a y
of W a g e s — P o l ic e P o w e r of t h e S t a t e —In re House

ment

Bill Ho. 147, 48 Pacific Reporter, page 512 — Interrogatories were sub
mitted by the senate of the State of Colorado to the supreme court of
said State as to the constitutionality of House bill No. 147, regulating
the payment of wages.
Said court delivered its opinion March 30, 1897, and the following,
quoted therefrom, sufficiently shows the nature of the bill and the
opinion of the court, so far as it was expressed, upon its constitution
ality :
The bill submitted is entitled “ A bill for an act to abolish and pro
hibit the use of scrip, and to regulate what is known as the ‘truck sys
tem 7in the State of Colorado, and to provide penalties and forfeitures
for the violation of this act.77 The first section makes it unlawful for
any person, firm, company, or corporation to sell, give, or deliver, or in
any maimer issue, directly or indirectly, to any person employed by
him or it, in payment of wages due for labor, or as advances on the
wages of labor not due, any scrip, token, draft, etc., payable or redeem
able otherwise than in money, and provides that any violation of these
provisions shall be punished by fine of not less than $25 nor more than
$100, or by imprisonment, or by both such fine and imprisonment. By
section 3 it is provided, inter alia, that “ Whoever shall sell goods or
supplies of any kind, directly or indirectly, to his employees, or pay the
wages of labor of his employees in goods or supplies of any kind,
directly or through the intervention of scrip, order or other evidence
of indebtedness, at higher prices than the reasonable or current market
value in cash of such goods or supplies,77shall be liable to certain pun
ishments and penalties designated in the act. The interrogatories pro
pounded call for an examination and construction of eleven sections of
the State and one section of the Federal Constitution, and present
very important questions, upon which the decisions of the courts of
last resort in this country are in irreconcilable conflict.
Here the court states that it can not undertake to answer questions
of such serious character, touching the constitutionality of pending
legislation, before such legislation has at least passed the committee of
the whole and assumed the shape in which it may be finally acted upon,
and then continues its opinion as follows:
W c may, however, with propriety say that, as at present advised, a
majority of the court are of the opinion that the legislature may, in the

799

800

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

exercise of the police power, enact laws of this character when neces
sary to prevent oppression and fraud, and for the protection of classes
of individuals against unconscionable dealings. As we said in .White
v. Eeservoir Co., 22 Colo., 191, 43 Pac., 1028, while it is difficult to define
the boundaries of the police power, it admittedly extends to the protec
tion of the lives, health, and property of the citizens, and to the preser
vation of good order and the public morals. W e may properly take
cognizance of the fact that the most serious disturbances which have
occurred in this country for the last twenty-five years have grown out
of controversies between employer and employee. No one doubts the
authority, or questions the duty of the State to interfere with such
force as may be necessary to repress such disturbances and maintain
the public peace and tranquillity; and as well may the State provide in
advance against certain kinds of fraud and oppression which lead to
these outbreaks.
But we all concur in holding the present bill, in some respects, obnox
ious to some of the constitutional provisions specified in the interroga
tories submitted. For example, in so far as section 3 undertakes to
regulate the price at which goods and merchandise shall be -sold to em
ployees for cash, it is unwarranted and not germane to the title. Since
this and other objectionable features may be eliminated, as above indi
cated, we respectfully return herewith the interrogatories submitted.

C o n s t it u t io n a l it y

St a t u t e — A

n t it r u s t

Texas—

In re Grice, 79 Federal Reporter, page 627.—William Grice having been
indicted for a violation of an act of the legislature of the State of Texas
passed March 30, 1889 (chapter 117, acts of 1889), known as the anti
trust act, and having been restrained of his liberty by the sheriff of
McLennan County, Tex., by virtue of a capias issued out of the district
court of the fifty-fourth judicial district of the State of Texas for over
two years without trial, petitioned the United States circuit court for
the northern district of Texas for a writ of habeas corpus. In said
petition it was claimed, among other things, that the act above named
was unconstitutional. The United States circuit court rendered its
decision February 22, 1897, in which it sustained the claim of the
petitioner as to the unconstitutionality of the statute and discharged
him from the custody of the sheriff.
The opinion was delivered by District Judge Swayne, and the follow
ing, quoted from the syllabus of the same, shows the principal points
of the decision:
The provision in the Texas antitrust law of 1889 that persons out
side the State may commit offenses under the statute, and be liable to
indictment therefor, is null and void.
It is not every restriction of competition or trade that is illegal or
against public policy, or that will justify police regulation, but only
such as are unreasonable or oppressive, and a State statute which pro
hibits combinations formed for the purpose of reasonably restricting
competition violates the rights of contract guaranteed by the Federal
Constitution.

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.

801

A State statute, such as the Texas antitrust law of 1889, which
makes it criminal for two persons to combine as partners, corporators,
or otherwise, in the ordinary business of life, to increase or reduce the
price of commodities, or fix the standard thereof, or for two persons to
agree to limit or reduce the production of commodities, or for two per
sons to combine for the purpose of limiting competition, or to make
any agreement in relation to the price of an article, so as to preclude
free and unrestricted competition between them, or themselves and
others, or for two persons to create or carry out restrictions in trade,
violates the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United
States, because it denies to citizens of the United States the right to
make valid contracts with respect to their business and property.
By “ equal protection of the laws,” as used in the fourteenth amend
ment to the Constitution of the United States, is meant equal security
under them to everyone under similar terms—In his life, liberty, prop
erty, and in the pursuit of happiness.
A State statute, prohibiting all combinations in restriction of compe
tition or trade, which exempts from its provisions “ agricultural prod
ucts or live stock while in the hands of the producer or raiser” (the
Texas antitrust law of 1889) is class legislation, and violates that part”
of the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States
which declares that no State shall deny to any i)erson within its juris
diction the equal protection of the laws. And the fact that the persons
thus exempted are not in a position to combine does not remove the
objection to the discrimination' in their favor.

C o n s t it u t io n a l it y
m ade

Sta tu te — Sale

F o r e ig n C o n v ic t -

G o o d s — A r n o ld v. Y a n d ers , 4 7 N orth ea stern R e p o r te r , p a g e 5 0 .—

Frank P. Yanders was arrested upon a warrant issued by a justice of
the peace of Cuyahoga County, Ohio, based upon an affidavit charging
him with unlawfully exposing for sale in said county certain convictmade goods, made and manufactured by convicts confined in the peni
tentiary of the State of New York, without having first obtained from
the Ohio secretary of state a license to sell such goods. Thereupon
Yanders applied by petition to the court of common pleas for a writ of
habeas corpus, on the ground that the statute of Ohio under which he
had been arrested was in conflict with the Constitution of the United
States. The writ of habeas corpus was issued, and upon a hearing of
the case the statute was held unconstitutional and he was discharged.
Upon appeal to the circuit court the judgment of the court of common
pleas was sustained, and thereupon a petition in error was filed in the
supreme court of Ohio, which rendered its decision May 11, 1897, and
affirmed the decisions of the lower courts.
The opinion of the supreme court was delivered by Chief Justice
Burket, and reads as follows:
The arrest was based upon the act of May 19, 1894 (91 Ohio Laws,
346), the first section of which is as follows:
“ S e c t i o n 1. Be it enacted by the general assembly of the State of
Ohio, that it shall be unlawful for any person, persons, or corporation
to expose for sale within the State of Ohio, without first obtaining from

802

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

the secretary of state a license to sell, any convict-made goods, mer
chandise or wares, as hereinafter provided .77
By the subsequent sections of the act, a party desiring to deal in
convict-made goods is required to obtain a license from the secretary of
state, at a cost of $500 per annum, which must be posted up in his place
of business, to give bond with two good sureties in the sum of $5,000
to make an annual report of his purchases and sales, stating prices of
purchase, and giving names, residences, and street numbers of all pur
chasers. But the act provides that it shall not affect products of the
prisons of this State. The penalty for a violation of the act is a fine
not exceeding $1,000 nor less than $5, or imprisonment not exceeding
1 year nor less than 10 days, or both fine and imprisonment, at the dis
cretion of the court; one-half of the fine to go to the commissioner of
labor statistics to aid in such prosecutions.
It is urged by counsel for defendant in error that the act is in con
flict with that part of section 8 o f article 1 of the Constitution of the
United States which provides as follows: “ The Congress shall have
power * _*' * to regulate commerce # * ■* among the several
States. * * *77 Counsel for plaintiff in error claims that eonvict•made goods do not come within the meaning of “ commerce,77as. that
word is used in the above section, and that the State has the right to
protect its own citizens, laborers, and markets against an invasion of
convict-made goods. This leads to an inquiry as to the meaning of the
word “ commerce,77 as used in the Constitution of the United States.
The proper construction to be placed upon the word as applied to dif
ferent transactions has often been before the Supreme Court of the
United States, which court alone has power to declare, finally, its legal
meaning. In the case of Kidd v..Pearson; 128 U. S., 1, 9 Sup. Ct., 6, it
is*said that the buying and selling, and the transportation incidental
thereto, constitutes commerce. And in Mobile Co. v. Kimball, 102 U.
S., 691, 702, commerce is defined as follows: “ Commerce with foreign
countries and among the States, strictly considered, consists in inter
course and traffic, including in these terms navigation, and the trans
portation and transit of persons and property, as well as the purchase,
sale, and exchange of commodities.77
It is not competent for a State legislature to declare that convictmade goods are not articles of traffic and commerce, and then to act
upon such declaration, and discriminate against such goods, or exclude
them from the State by unfriendly legislation. Whatever Congress,
either by silence or by statute, recognizes as articles of traffic and com
merce, must be so received and treated by the several States. There is
no act of Congress declaring that convict-made goods are not fit for
traffic and commerce, and it therefore follows that such goods are the
•subject o f commerce, and, when transported from one State to another
for sale or exchange, become articles of interstate commerce and enti
tled to be protected as such; and any discrimination against such goods
in the State where offered for sale is unconstitutional. That convictmade goods are articles of traffic and commerce, is not only shown by
the failure of Congress to legislate on the subject, but is conceded by
the act in question; because, after taking out and paying for his license,
no restraint is laid upon the dealer, but he is left free to buy and sell
as he pleases, only so that he reports his purchases and sales annually,
to the end that the public may know who purchase and use such goods
and, if need be, boycott them for. so doing.
The act, therefore, by its terms, concedes that such goods are articles
o f traffic and commerce. It is well settled that in legal effect the money
paid for a license to sell goods is a tax upon such goods. As the act in

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.

803

question provides that it shall not affect products of the prisons of this
State, the license fee of $500 is a tax or duty imposed by this act upon
such goods when imported from another State, and is clearly a regula
tion of commerce among the States, and an attempt to exercise a power
which belongs to Congress alone. The act is therefore clearly uncon
stitutional. The mere silence of Congress is not sufficient to authorize
a State legislature to legislate upon a subject vested by the Constitution
in Congress, but such silence is to be regarded as evincing the intention
of Congress that the power shall remain where the Constitution has
placed it. To give a State legislature power to legislate in such cases
requires an act of Congress to that effect.
The police power is reserved to the States, and they have the right
to regulate internal trade so as to protect the health and public wel
fare of the people, but this power can not be so extended as to encroach
upon interstate commerce; and whether any particular act does so
encroach or not is a question for the courts, and in the determination of
that question the Supreme Court of the United States refuses to be bound
by the opinion of the State legislatures or the State courts. 'If the act
is, in its effect, an encroachment upon interstate commerce, though
expressed to be a regulation under the State police power, the Federal
courts hold it unconstitutional.
- The act in question is not a police regulation, but an attempt to pre
vent, or at least discourage, the importation of convict made goods
from other States, and thereby protect our citizens, laborers, and mar
kets against such goods. But, if we are in a condition to require such
protection, the appeal for relief must be made to Congress, which body
alone has the power to grant such relief. In holding the act in ques
tion to be in conflict with the Constitution, we obey that instrument,
and follow a long line o f decisions of the Supreme Court of the United
States. Judgment affirmed.

C o n s t it u t io n a l it y of S t a t u t e — S e r v ic e of P r o c e s s in S u it s
S e r v ic e s a n d L a b o r — O’ C onnell v. M en om in ee B a y Shore L u m b er

for

Co., 71 N o r th w este rn R e p o r te r , p a g e 4 4 9 . —The action was commenced
injustice’s court and taken on appeal to the circuit court of Dickinson
County, Mich., by Patrick O’Connell, as plaintiff, against the Menomi
nee Bay Shore Lumber Company, as defendant. There was a judgment
for theplaintiff and the defendant brought the case on writ of error before
the supreme court of the State, which rendered its decision May 28,
1897, and reversed the decision of the circuit court. In this case the
constitutionality of section 7317 of Howell’s Annotated Statutes was
questioned, and the supreme court decided adversely thereto. Said
section reads in part as follows:
Se c t io n 7317. * * # In all actions wherein the demand shall be
principally for labor or services performed by any individual or company,
or commenced in any court of competent jurisdiction in the county
* # * wherein the labor or services were rendered or performed, or
in which the plaintiff or plaintiffs reside, the process or declaration
by which such action shall be commenced may be served in any county
within this State adjoining the county wherein such action shall be com
menced, against any individual, company, or the proper officer of any
corporation in this State. # * * P r o v id e d , That the provisions of

804

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

this act shall not be construed to apply to actions commenced before
justices of the peace by any company or corporation.
From the opinion of the supreme court, delivered by Judge Hooker,
the following is quoted:
Next it is said that this is class legislation. The obvious purpose of
this statute is to afford special privileges to suitors upon specified
classes of claims, by permitting a different and more effective use of
the courts and their process than is permitted in other cases. It is true
that it permits everyone (except as hereinafter shown) who may possess
a claim that falls within the classes mentioned to avail himself of the
privilege, but the design and practical effect is plainly to give to one
class in the community special facilities for the collection of money
which others do not enjoy. Under this act, one who has a claim for
services rendered by an individual or company (but not corporation)
may have the jurisdiction of a justice extended to half a dozen or more
counties, while merchants, manufacturers, and others can not. A farmer
or other person who sells a load of wood in an adjoining county cannot
have the benefit of this act, though the man to whom he sells it may
compel him to answer a claim for services away from home.
It has always been the rule that an alleged debtor could not be com
pelled to go away from his own county to defend a personal action
under ordinary circumstances, and it is one of the unfortunate signs of
the times that special advantages, especially to the extent of discrimi
nation between the suitors of one and the same court, should be
deemed necessary. It is true that anyone can have the benefit of this
act (except as indicated) who chooses to perform service, or, perhaps,
to purchase such a claim; and so, in a technical sense, it may be said
to apply .to everyone, and therefore not to be class legislation. But
whatever may be thought of this, the act itself excepts from its bene
fits to a certain extent all companies, thus denying to firms or other
associations, as well as to corporations, the privilege which is given to
single suitors. It discriminates against the persons who unite in their
labor or in purchasing such claims. It first gives the privileges to
companies as well as individuals, and afterwards, by a proviso, limits
its application to companies, by excluding the right in actions before
justices, another indication that the design was to give to certain
classes special privileges.
Mr. Justice Morse indicated a doubt of the constitutionality of this
act in the case of Antcliff v. June, 81 Mich., 492, 45 N. W ., 1019. We
think it unconstitutional. The judgment is reversed.

C o n s t r u c t i o n o f S t a t u t e — A l i e n C o n t r a c t L a b o r — United
States v. Gay, 80 Federal Reporter, page 254.—This was an action
brought in the United States circuit court for the district of Indiana to
recover the penalty of $ 1,000, prescribed for the importation of aliens
under contract to perform labor and services in this country, in vio
lation of the acts of February 26,1885 (chapter 164, acts of 1884-85),
and March 3, 1891 (chapter 551, acts of 1890-91). The defendant
demurred to the declaration on the ground that it did not state facts
sufficient to constitute a cause o f action. The United States circuit
court rendered its decision April 30, 1897, and sustained the demurrer.

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.

805

In the course of the opinion of said court, which was delivered by
District Judge Baker, it was said:
The statute in question is highly penal, and must be so construed as
to bring within its condemnation only those who are shown by the
direct and positive averments of the declaration to be embraced within
the terms of the law. It will not be so construed as to include cases
which although within the letter are not within the spirit of the law.
It must be construed in the light of the evil which it was intended
to remedy, which, as is well known, was the importation of manual
laborers, under contract previously entered into, at rates of wages with
which our own laboring classes could not compete without compelling
them to submit to conditions of life to which they were unaccustomed.
(U. S. v. Laws, 163 U. S., 258, 16 Sup. Ct., 998; Church of Holy
Trinity v . U. S., 143 U. S., 457, 12 Sup. Ct., 511; TJ. S. v. Craig, 28
Fed., 795.) It is settled by these and other cases that the statute must
be construed as limited to cases where the assisted immigrant was
brought into this country under a contract to perform “ manual labor
or service.”
The declaration does not state the character of the labor or service
which the immigrant was under contract to perform, and hence fails to
bring the case within the terms of the statute, as construed by the
Supreme Court. The court can not indulge the presumption that the
labor or service which the immigrant was under contract to perform
was manual in the absence of such averment. The declaration does
not set out the advertisements or otherwise state the terms of the con
tract or agreement alleged to have been entered into. The pleader has
contented himself with a mere statement of conclusions, without stating
either the advertisements or contract in hsec verba, or even attempt
ing to set- forth the substance of either. A t least, the substance of the
advertisements and contracts should be set out to enable the court to
determine whether they bring the defendant within the condemnation
of the statute. There is no direct allegation that the immigrant named
in the declaration actually came to this country, pursuant to the alleged
contract, for the purpose of performing manual labor or service. Such
an averment is essential.
There is no statement of the acts done by the defendant to assist or
procure the immigration into this country of the person named in the
declaration. It is not averred that the defendant prepaid the expenses
of his passage. It is averred that the defendant agreed to refund the
passage money and cost of transportation from Scotland 4o the United
States, but it fails to allege that the agreement to refund was made
before the person alleged to have been assisted came to this country.
The court is not at liberty to infer that the agreement to'refund was
made before the immigrant came here. Indeed, it can only be gathered
by inference that the alleged immigrant ever came to this country.
The declaration is clearly insufficient, and the demurrer is sustained.

Construction

Statute—Fellow -servant A ct

Culpepper v . In te r n a tio n a l and G rea t N o r th er n B

;B.

Texas—

C o., 4 0 S ou th w est

ern B e p o rter, p a g e 3 8 6 .— This case was brought before the supreme
court of Texas on writ of error from the court of civil appeals of the
State/

806

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

The supreme court rendered its decision April 26, 1897r and the
following, quoted frpm the opinion of said court, which was delivered
by Chief Justice Gaines, shows the facts in the case and the reasons
for the decision:
This suit was brought by the plaintiff in error [Alice Culpepper] for
the benefit of herself and her minor children against defendant in error
[The International and Great Northern Railroad Company] to recover
damages for injuries resulting in the death of J. J. Culpepper, her .
husband and the father of her children. She recovered a judgment in^
the trial court, but upon appeal that judgment was reversed, and the
cause remanded by the court of civil appeals. The latter court held
that the trial judge should have instructed a verdict for the defendant.
It was alleged in the petition for the writ of error that the decision of
the court of civil appeals practically settled the case, and, such appear
ing to be the fact, the writ was granted, and the cause is now before us
for disposition.
When the accident occurred which resulted in the death of Culpep
per he was the engineer running a freight train of the defendant com
pany, which was immediately followed by another train, known as the
“ second section.” For the purpose of working on a hot box on the
engine, he stopped it over a cattle guard *in a deep cut, near a curve in
the track, and, while so working under the engine, the train was struck
by the rear section, and injuries thereby inflicted which resulted in his
death. The ground upon which a recovery was sought was that the
conductor of the front train was negligent in not putting out a brakeman
to signal the rear section. The collision occurred on the 5th day of
November, 1892, while the act of March 10, 1891, in relation to fellowservants of railroad companies, was in force. That act was repealed
by that of May 4,1893 (Laws 1893, p. 121), but the court of civil appeals
correctly held, as we think^tliat the repeal did not affect the question
o f liability in this case. They, however, held also that the evidence
indisputably showed that under the rule established by the former
statute the conductor and engineer were fellow-servants; and it was
upon this ground that they determined that a verdict for the defendant
should have been directed. In the latter ruling we think they were in
error.
So much of the act of 1891 as applies to the question under consid
eration reads as follows:
“ S e c t io n 1. That all persons engaged in the service of any railway
corporation, foreign or domestic, doing business in this State, who are
intrusted by such corporation with the authority o f superintendence,
control, or command of other persons in the employ or service of such
corporation, or with the authority to direct any other employee in the
performance of any duty of such employee, are vice principals of such
corporation, and not fellow-servants with such employee.
“ S e c . 2. That all persons who are engaged in the common service
of such railway corporations and who, while so engaged, are working
together at the same time and place to a common purpose, of same
grade, neither of such persons being intrusted by such corporations
with any superintendence or control over their fellow-servants, are
fellow-servants with.each other; Provided, That nothing herein con
tained shall be so construed as to make employees of such corporation,
in the service of such corporation, fellow-servants with such other of
such corporation engaged in any other department or service of such

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.

807

corporation. Employees who do not come within the provisions of
this section shall not be considered fellow servants.”
The question shows that under the rules of the defendant company
the conductor had general superintendence of the movements of the
train and command of all the employees engaged in its operation; but
it also tended to show that when the safety of the train became involved
the engineer was no longer subject to the absolute control of the con
ductor, but was empowered to act upon his own judgment. The con
tention seems to be that whenever a risk became involved, and the
engineer saw proper to stop his train in order to avoid it, for the reason
that he was not then subject to the control of the conductor, they
became fellow-servants, and so remained as long as that state of affairs
continued to exist. But, as we have previously intimated, we are of the
opinion that this position can not be maintained. Merely because, by
reason of the engineer’s superior technical knowledge and skill in
operating the machinery, it was not deemed advisable to empower the
conductor to direct the action of the engineer in certain contingencies,
it does not follow that the latter was not under the general superintend
ence and control of the former. The exception emphasizes the rule.
The first section of the act quoted, in defining who are to be deemed
vice principals, uses the language, “ intrusted # # * with the
superintendence, control, or command over other persons,” etc. The
second, in declaring who are to be considered fellow-servants, excepts
those who are “ intrusted * # # with any superintendence, control,
and command,” etc.; and, in our opinion, makes it maniiest that the
extent of the control is not to govern in determining the question.
The mere- fact that upon the happening of some contingency the
engineer may act independently of the conductor does not, for the occa
sion, change the general relation of subordination existing between
them. The conductor still has the general control, subject, for the
time, to the engineer’s power to act upon his own judgment during the
emergency. As soon as the danger is obviated, the power of the con
ductor again comes into play. To hold that, because the conductor
may temporarily be deprived of the power to control his subordinate,
the rule of the statute is not to apply, would be, in our opinion, to con
fine its operation within limits which the legislature did not intend to
prescribe. We conclude that the court of civil appeals was in error in
holding that the trial court erred in its charge to the jury upon the
question whether or not the conductor and engineer were fellow-servants.

C o n s t r u c t io n

S t a t u t e — F e l l o w -s e r v a n t A

Texas—

P a tte r so n v, H o u s to n and T ex a s Central R , R , C o,, 4 0 S ou thw estern R e
p o r te r , p a g e 4 4 2 , —Action

was brought in the district court of Travis
County, Tex., by John Patterson against the above-named railroad
company to recover damages for personal injuries received by him
while in the employ of said company. The evidence showed that
Patterson, a brakeman, stepped out from between two cars which he
had uncoupled and walked along a track, looking, in accordance with
his duty, to see that the rear end of the train with which he was con
nected was following the cars that he had uncoupled; that a switch
engine came along and struck him on the back and hip, knocked him
over, and ran over his foot, which had to be amputated, and that said

808

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

accident was caused by the negligence of the employees running the
switch engine in not notifying Patterson of its approach. A judgment
was rendered by the district court in favor of the railroad company,
and the plaintiff appealed the case to the court of civil appeals of the
State, which rendered its decision February 17,1897, and reversed the
judgment of the district court.
The opinion of the court of civil appeals was delivered by Judge
Key, and the following is quoted therefrom :
Appellant brought this suit to recover damages for personal injuries
caused by the alleged negligence of appellee’s employees in handling a
switch engine in its yards in the city of Austin. Among other defenses,
the railroad company interposed that of fellow-servant, and the court,
trying the case without a jury, held that the plaintiff was not entitled
to recover, because, if there was any negligence shown, it was that of
a fellow-servant. This ruling is the only question presented for deci
sion.
Articles 4560/and 4560# of the Revised Statutes of 1895 (sections 1
and 2 of chapter 91, acts of 1893) prescribe who are and who are not.
fellow-servants as among railway employees. Said articles were con
strued by the supreme court in Railway Company v. Warner, 35 S. W.,
364, where, among other things, it is said : “ The distinctive character
istics prescribed by the statute as essential to be found concurring and
common to two or more employees in order to constitute them fellowservants are: First. They must be ‘ engaged in the common service.’
As here used ‘ service’ means the thing or work being performed for
the employer at the time of the accident, and out of which it grew, and
‘ common’ means that which pertains equally to the employees sought
to be held fellow-servants; and therefore, ‘ common service’ means the
particular thing or work being performed for the employer, at the time
of the accident, and out of which it grew, jointly, by the employees
sought to be held fellow-servants. The members of a crew running a
train, though each be in the performance of different acts in reference
thereto, are all ‘ engaged in the common service,’ for they are jointly
performing the thing or work of managing the train for'the employer;
but they would not be ‘ engaged in the common service’ with the mem
bers of a crew running another train for the employer over the same^
road, for one crew would be jointly performing the thing or work of
managing one train, while the other would be jointly performing the
thing or work of managing the other train.”
The burden of proof fin this case] was on the defendant to show that
the plaintiff was a fellow-servant with the employees operating the •
switch engine, and not on the plaintiff to show that he was not such
fellow-servant; and we think the facts of this case fail to bring it within
the first test prescribed in the Warner case. The evidence indicates
that the train on which the plaintiff was a brakeman had been made up,
and was about ready to leave the yard and start on its regular trip, and
fails entirely to show that the switch engine by which the plaintiff was
injured was at the time engaged in any service or performing any act
in reference to the plaintiff’s train. Therefore the members o f the two
crews were not shown to be engaged in a common Service, and hence
w,ere not fellow-servants. The judgment is reversed, and the cause
remanded.

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
E m p l o y e r s ’ L i a b i l i t y — C o n s t r u c t io n
H and,

809

S t a t u t e — M c K a y v.

47 N o rth ea stern R e p o r te r , page 104.—Action was brought in the
superior court of Norfolk County, Mass., by John H. McKay against
James B. Hand to recover damages for personal injuries received while
he was in Hand’s employ. McKay, with others, was engaged in painting
the outside of a house owned by Hand. Three men, including McKay,
were employed by Hand, who furnished a load of ladders for the job.
One of the men selected two ladders, and the three spliced the ladders
together and then raised them against the house. McKay went up the
ladders with a pot of paint in one hand and a paint brush in the other,
when one of the ladders broke and he fell to the ground and was
injured. A judgment was rendered for the defendant, Hand, and the
plaintiff, McKay, brought the case on exceptions before the supreme
judicial court of the State, which rendered a decision affirming the
judgment of the lower court. One-point decided was that the ladders
above referred to were not part of the defendant’s “ ways, works, or
machinery” within the meaning of chapter 270 of the acts of 1887, the
first section of which reads in part as follows:
When, after the passage of this act, personal injury is caused to an
employee, who is himself in the exercise of due care and diligence at
the time, (1) by reason' of any defect in the condition of the ways,
works, or machinery connected with or used in the business of the
employer, which arose from or had not been discovered or remedied
owing to the negligence of the employer or of any person in the service
of the employer and intrusted by him with the duty of seeing that the
ways, works, or machinery were in proper condition, * # # the
employee * * * shall have the same right of compensation and
remedies against the employer as if the employee had not been an
employee of nor in the service of the employer, nor engaged in its work.
The opinion of the supreme judicial court was delivered by Chief
Justice Field, and the following is quoted therefrom :
It is unnecessary to determine whether a ladder sometimes may not
be a part of the ways, works, or machinery within the meaning of
St. 1887, c. 270, and its amendments. The splicing of the ladders and
the placing of them in position were done by the plaintiff and his
fellow-workmen, and the connection was a temporary structure, put up
by the workmen out of materials selected by them from the ladders
furnished by the defendant. W e think that the ladders so fastened
together did not constitute a part of the ways, works, and machinery
of the defendant. As the selection of the particular ladders, the
method of fastening them together, and of placing them against the
house, was the work of the plaintiff and his fellow-workmen, if they or
any of them were negligent in any of these things the defendant is not
liable for that at common law. The case resembles the common one
where, so far as appears, the defendant furnished a supply of suitable
materials, and the workmen put them together and used them, undone
of the parts broke. From the description of the ladder which broke,
it is difficult to see from the evidence that the defendant was negligent
in keeping it among his lot of ladders and in permitting it to be used;
and, if the sole negligence was that the ladders were fastened together
and improperly placed against the house, that was the fault of the

810

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

plaintiff and his fellow-workmen, and it was known to and appreciated
by the plaintiff at the time. A ladder may be a sound, light ladder, of
sufficient strength to be used by itself, but not suitable to be made the
butt of two ladders fastened together. Exceptions overruled.

E m p l o y e r s ’ L i a b i l i t y — NTe g l i g e n c e

M in o r

E m ployees—

8. Higgms
Carpet Co. v. O'Keefe, 79 Federal Reporterxp. 900.—This was an action
at law brought by O’Keefe, by guardian, in the United States circuit
court for the southern district of Kew York, against the E. S. Higgins
Carpet Company, to recover damages for personal injuries. The evi
dence showed that the plaintiff, a boy of 15, entered the service of the
defendant, and, after working for several months in the room where a
machine fun by steam, known as a “ wool picker,” was in constant use,
was assigned to the duty of feeding the machine,* that said machine
had cogwheels at the side, in plain view, not protected by any guards
or covering, and that on the second or third day after he had been
assigned to the machine his right hand was caught in the cogwheels
and so severely crushed that amputation became necessary. The
plaintiff testified that he was feeding the machine when he was injured,
while the evidence for the defendant tended to show that he was
cleaning the machine at that time, although he was aware that the rules
o f the defendant prohibited him from cleaning it while it was in motion.
Judgment was rendered for the plaintiff and the defendant brought
the case on writ of error before the United States circuit court of
appeals for the second circuit, which court rendered its decision April
8,1897, and reversed the judgment of the lower court.
Among the several points decided the following, quoted from the
opinion of the circuit court of apj>eals, which was delivered by Circuit
Judge Wallace, appear to be the most important:
Error is assigned of the refusal of the trial judge to instruct the jury
to find a verdict for the defendant. We are of opinion that upon the
facts the defendant was entitled to this instruction, and that there was
no evidence to justify the leaving of the ease to the jury.
The plaintiff, although a minor, was of sufficient age and experience
to be fully aware that his hand would probably be crushed if it were
caught between the cogwheels while the machine was in motion. He
knew that the cogwheels were not guarded in any way* and testified
that when he was assigned to feed the machine he was told by the fore
man that he must look out for himself, and be careful. He entered upon
and continued in his employment with full knowledge of the risks inci
dent to feeding or working about the machine consequent upon the
location and condition of the cogwheels and the absence of guards. I f
he had been an adult, it is plain that he would have had no cause of
action. W e think the circumstance that he was a, minor is of no impor
tance. The rules which govern actions for negligence in the ease of
children o f tender years do hot apply to minors who have attained
years of discretion.
A

p p l ic a t io n

the

New

ork

actory

c t —F.

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.

811

If-the plaintiff was injured while cleaning the machine, he had no
cause of action, because he was willfully violating the express instruc
tions of his employer. If he was. injured while feeding the machine,
and in the due course of his ordinary duties, he had no better cause
of action, because the risk was obvious and he had accepted the hazard.
If he was injured by reason of his own inadvertence or inattention, he
had no better cause of action than he would have had if injured while
he had been properly and carefully attending to his duties.
The provisions of the statute known as the u Factory act” (chapter
398, Laws N. Y., 1890), requiring cogs to be properly guarded, have no
application to the case, except as regards the question of the negligence
of the defendant. As Construed by the highest courts of the State,
the statute does not impose any liability upon an employer for injuries
received by a minor in his service in consequence of the fault of the
employee, or arising from the obvious risks of the service he has under
taken to perform.
In Graves v. Brewer (recently decided), 4 App. Div., 327, 38 2L Y.
Supp., 566, the court held that the liability of the employer was not
changed by reason of the factory act requiring cogwheels to be covered,
because such protection could be waived and was waived by a person
accepting employment upon the machine with the cogs in an unguarded
condition, as the danger was apparent, and one of the obvious risks of
the employment. For these reasons the judgment is reversed.

E m p l o y e r s ’ L i a b i l i t y — R a i l r o a d C o m p a n ie s — C o n st r u c t io n
OF S t a t u t e —Andrews v. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul By. Co., 71

Northwestern Reporter, page 372.—This action was brought in the circuit
court of Iowa County, Wis., under chapter 220, laws of 1893, by James
Andrews, an employee of the above named railroad company, to recover
damages for an injury sustained by him, while in the line of his duty,
in consequence of the alleged negligence of the foreman of the day
switching crew, one Roach, by reason of which the plaintiff’s left hand
was crushed, and it became necessary to amputate his arm above the
wrist. The complaint charged, as the cause of the injury, negligence
on the part of the plaintiff’s fellow-servants, and in particular of Roach,
for failing to follow the rules and custom governing switching in the
yard, and that such negligence was the proximate cause of the plain
tiff’s injury, and asserted that the plaintiff was free from contributory
negligence. Judgment was rendered for the plaintiff, and the railroad
company appealed the case to the supreme court of the State, which
rendered its decision May 21,1897, and reversed the judgment of the
lower court.
Chapter 220, Laws of 1893, above referred to, in so far as it relates to
this decision, reads as follows:
Se c t io n 1. Every railroad or railway company operating any rail
road or railway, the line of which shall be in whole or in part within
this State, shall be liable for all damages sustained within this State
by any employee of such company, without contributory negligence on
his part; # # * and which injury shall have been caused by the

812

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

carelessness or negligence of any other employee, officer, or agent of
such company in the discharge of, or for failure to discharge, his duties
as such.
The defendant had asked that the following questions.be severally
submitted to the .Jury as a part of the special verdict, but they were
rejected, namely: (5) “ Ought a man of ordinary intelligence and pru
dence, engaged in the business then followed by said Roach, to have
.reasonably expected, under the attending circumstances, that such viola
tions of said custom at the time and place in question would result in a
bodily injury of some kind to the plaintiff ? ” (7) “ At the time 4he
plaintiff* was injured had it, for a great many years, been the uniform
custom of all helpers in switching crews in defendant’s yard at Madison,
who have gone between cars to couple them, to come out again imme
diately, if they failed to make the coupling the first time, and look for
coming cars?”
The opinion of the supreme court was delivered by Judge Pinney,
and the following is quoted therefrom :
The question presented by the special verdict is whether it is fairly
and substantially found by it that the negligence of Roach, the fore
man of the switching crew, imputable to the defendant, was the*proximate cause of the plaintiff’s injury. Unless this appears from the
verdict no judgment could be given on it, and a new trial would become
necessary. It is found “ that the plaintiff’s hand was crushed ' *' * *
by reason of, and as the direct consequence of, the negligence of Roach;”
that is to say, that the plaintiff’s injury was the natural consequence
of the negligence of Roach, the foreman, and without the intervention of
any independent agency or cause for which the defendant was not
responsible. Was it necessary that it should also appear from the
verdict not only that the plaintiff’s injury was the direct, but the proba
ble, result, as well, of the defendant’s negligence? The real test of
the defendant’s liability for the plaintiff’s injury is whether the negli
gence of its foreman was the proximate cause of the accident. “ The
negligence is not the proximate cause of the accident unless, under
all the circumstances, the accident might have been reasonably fore
seen by a man of ordinary intelligence and prudence. It is not
enough to prove that the accident was the natural consequence of the
negligence. It must also have been the probable consequence.” (Block
v. Railway Co., 89 Wis., 378, 61 N. W., 1101.) This subject underwent
a careful consideration in Atkinson v. Transportation Co., 60 Wis., 141,
150-155, 18 H. W., 764. It was there held “ that generally, in order to
warrant a finding that negligence, or an act not amounting to wanton
wrong, is the proximate cause of the injury, it must appear that the
injury was the natural and probable consequence of the negligence or
wrongful act, and that it ought to have been foreseen in the light of
the attending circumstances.”
Here the court quotes to practically the same effect as the above from
other cases, and then continues as follows:
These remarks are strictly applicable to the present case, and show
that the fifth question the defendant asked to have submitted to the
jury was‘improperly refused.

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.

813

The evidence of six of the defendant’s witnesses was such as to
properly require the defendant’s seventh question to be submitted to
•the jury. It related entirely to the custom and duty of helpers, and
had a material bearing upon the question whether the plaintiff, in the
course he pursued in remaining between the cars, endeavoring a second
time to couple them on turning the link when they were coming together
again, was guilty of negligence which materially contributed to his
injury. We think the defendant was entitled to an answer to this
question, and that it was error to refuse to submit it.
There is nothing in chapter 220, Laws 1893, which to our minds indi
cates that it was intended to exclude from a case within its provisions
all question as to the assumption of the risks or perils naturally and
usually incident to the plaintiff’s employment as a railway operative.
It was not the design of the act to make the railroad company an in
surer against injuries thus received by the plaintiff. There is no ques
tion in the case as to the assumption by the plaintiff' of any unusual or
extraordinary risk.
The contention that under chapter 220, Laws of 1893, contributory
negligence on the part of the plaintiff was required to be pleaded as a
defense, is not maintainable. The defense of contributory negligence
arises out of the facts and circumstances of the alleged injury. Before
the statute, it was not necessary that it should be pleaded. It was not
within the plan or purpose of the statute to make any change in the
law of pleading. The statute relates only to questions of liability.
The defense of contributory negligence would be sustained to an action
under this statute, had it been silent on the subject. The mere fact
that the words uwithout contributory negligence on his part” are in
the act, when the courts would have supplied them if omitted, can not
operate either to change the rule of pleading or evidence. The judg
ment of the circuit court is reversed, and the cause is remanded for
further proceedings according to law.
DECISIONS UNDEK COMMON LAW .
Contract

E m p l o y m e n t — C o n s i d e r a t i o n — S tearns v. L a k e

Shore and M ich ig a n Sou thern B y . G on 71 N o rth w estern R e p o r te r , p a g e
1 4 8 . —Action was brought in the circuit court of Lenawee County,
Mich., by George C. Stearns against the above-named railway to
recover damages for breach of contract of employment. A judgment
was rendered for the plaintiff, and the defendant company brought the
case on writ of error before the supreme court of the State, which ren
dered its decision May 11, 1897, and affirmed the judgment of the
lower court.
The opinion of the supreme court was delivered by Judge Mont
gomery, aud the following, quoted therefrom, shows the facts in the
case and the principal points of the decision:
The plaintiff brought this action to recover damages for the breach
of a contract of employment. The declaration averred that, in the
year 1872, plaintiff, while in the employ of the defendant, received
serious personal injuries; that a claim was made against the defendant
company; that in settlement of this claim the plaintiff [defendant?]
paid him the sum of $175, and at the same time entered into an agree
ment to employ him in the capacity of train baggage master on the
1453;—No. 13----- 9

814

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

train, running between Jackson and Adrian, at a salary, of $47.50 per
-month, during liis natural life or his ability to do the work ; that the
defendant had, on the 1st of April, 1895, discharged plaintiff from •
employment, and has ever since refused to employ him or to pay him.
The case was tried before a jury, and a verdict rendered sustaining the
plaintiff’s claim. Defendant moved for a new trial, which was refused,
and has now brought the case here for review on error.
It is insisted that the contract is not enforceable, because not mutual.
The plaintiff* was not bound to work for any stated time for the defend
ant. In a case where no consideration passed for the employment there
might be force in this contention; but in this case, under the proofs, a
valuable consideration was paid to the defendant for the conditional
agreement which the defendant saw fit to enter into, leaving it optional
with the plaintiff to continue in defendant’s employ, the engagement
of the defendant resting, not upon the consideration of any promise by
the plaintiff, but upon a consideration actually paid in hand at the time
of the engagement, namely, the compromise of the disputed claim.
In 1889 the plaintiff entered the Railway Mail Service, and at that time
tendered his resignation to the defendant, which was accepted. A t the
expiration of four months he applied for reemployment, and was again
employed, and continued in the employment until his final discharge,
1895. The defendant insists that this had the effect to terminate the
contract relied upon by plaintiff. This would undoubtedly be true
were it not for the fact that the plaintiff testifies that, prior to entering
the mail service, he had a talk with the division superintendent upon
the understanding and agreement that, if he did not like the service, he
should return right back to the same job he had, upon the same conditions
that he quit, and that he would not have gone into the mail service had
it not been for this reservation of rights accorded him by the company.
It is contended by the defendant that the division superintendent had
no power to make such a contract, but the answer to this is that he is
the person with whom the plaintiff was required to deal, and that the
engagement did not amount to the making of a new contract, but was,
in effect, granting an indefinite leave of absence to the plaintiff, the
plaintiff reserving his rights under the former contract. The judgment
will be affirmed.

ployers’

L ia b il it y — A

mount

R e c e iv e d

c c id e n t

P o l ic y

Missouri,
Kansas and Texas By. Go. v. Bams, 40 Southwestern Beporter, page
635.—Action was brought in the district court of Grayson County, Tex.,
by J. R. Rains against the above-named railway company to recover
damages for injuries received while in its employ. A judgment wa£
rendered for the plaintiff, and the defendant company appealed the case
to the court of civil appeals of the State, which rendered its decision
May 12, 1897, and affirmed the decision of the lower court.
But one point decided is of special interest, and the following, quoted
from the opinion of the court of civil appeals, delivered by Chief Justice
Fisher, shows the same:
It appears from the facts that, as a result of his injuries, the plain
tiff will receive on an accident policy the sum of $430. It is con
tended by appellant that the court erred in refusing to instruct the
not

C o n s id e r e d

M it ig a t io n

am ages—

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.

815

jury to tlie effect that they could consider this sum in mitigation of the
damages which the plaintiff may be entitled to. There was no error
in this ruling. The rule upon this subject, which is sustained by the
weight of authority in this country and in England, is to the effect that
a payment upon a policy of insurance can neither be considered as a
defense or in mitigation of an action for damages against a wrongdoer,
We find no error in the record. Judgment affirmed.

E m ployers’

L i a b i l i t y — C u s t o m — C o n c u r r in g

N e g l ig e n c e —

Sincere v. U n ion C om press and W a reh ou se C o., 4 0 .S ou th w estern R e p o r te r ,
p a g e 3 2 6 . — Suit

was brought in the district court of Harris County, Tex.,
by Nelson Sincere against the above named company to recover damages
for personal injuries sustained by him while engaged, as the servant of
the company, in assisting in unloading cotton bales from a car. Sincere
alleged that, through the negligence of said company, a bale of cotton
was thrown against him, whereby his foot was broken and he was
severely and permanently injured. Judgment was rendered for the
defendant company and the plaintiff, Sincere, brought the case on writ
of error before the court of civil appeals of the State, which rendered
its decision April 14, 1897, and reversed the judgment of the lower
court.
From the opinion of the court of civil appeals, delivered by Judge
Neill, the following, showing the points decided, is quoted:

There was no error in the court’s sustaining the special exception to
that part of the plaintiff in error’s [Sincere’s] petition wherein he
alleged “ that it was, and had been for a long time, the custom among
the various compresses of Houston to have stationed at the side of the
car being unloaded two men to catch the cotton as it rolled from the
car, and thereby prevent any danger of the bales of cotton rolling on
workmen who were employed in removing the cotton from the side of
the car.” Negligence must be established by the facts in each particu
lar case, and can not be shown by the failure of the party charged
with its commission to observe a custom, unless the facts show that
ordinary care and prudence required that to be performed which was
alleged to be the custom. I f such care and prudence required the per
formance of work in a certain manner, it is immaterial whether its mode
of performance had become a custom or not; for in either event a party
who has injured another by failing to exercise ordinary care and pru
dence to secure his safety would be responsible. It is the duty of an
employer to use ordinary precaution to reasonably secure the safety of
his employees in the performance of his service, and if ordinary prudence
would have required the defendant in error, in order to reasonably
secure the safety of its hands engaged in unloading the cotton, to have
two men stationed at the side of the car to prevent the bales of cotton
from rolling on them, such duty should have been performed, whether
it was customary or not. I f it was the custom, such custom might
have been shown, in connection with other evidence as to what trans
pired when plaintiff in error was injured, as a circumstance for the
purpose of enabling the jury to determine whether defendant in error
was at that time exercising such ordinary care as was reasonably
necessary to secure the safety of its employees,

816

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

It was error for the court to so instruct the jury as to make the
plaintiff’s right to recover depend on the absence of contributory neg
ligence of his fellow-servants, and to charge them that if any of his
fellow-servants contributed wholly or partly to his injury, by negligence
on their part* to find for defendant. The principle is universal that,
where negligence of the principal and that of a fellow servant together
produce injury, the principal is liable therefor; The fact of the con
currence of the negligence of a fellow-servant with that of the master
can not relieve the latter of the consequence of his wrongful act caus
ing the injury. The servant assumes the risk of the negligence of his
fellow-servant, but not that of the master. For the errors in the
charge indicated, the judgment is reversed and the cause remanded.

ployers’

L ia b il it y — R

a il r o a d

R i s k : b y E m p l o y e e s —Swanson v.

C o m p a n ie s — A

s s u m p t io n o f

Great Northern By. Go., 70 Northwest
ern Reporter, page 978.—Action was brought in the district court of
Hennepin County, Minn., by Jacob Swanson against the above-named
railroad company to recover damages for injuries received while in its
employ. The evidence showed that plaintiff, a section hand, was put
to work on a large hill from which defendant was removing gravel;
that he was ordered up the slope of this hill to assist other workingmen
in loosening the material, that it might fall down to the bottom of the
pit, there to be loaded upon cars by a steam shovel, and that in some
way from the sliding of the earth he was injured. The defendant com
pany filed a demurrer to the complaint on the ground that the complaint
failed to state a cause of action, and the district court issued an order
overruling the demurrer. From said order the railroad company ap
pealed to the supreme court of the State, which rendered its decision
May 10, 1897, and reversed the order of the lower court.
The opinion of the supreme court was delivered by Judge Collins,
and contains the following language:
It is the universal rule that, in performing the duties of his place, a
servant is bound to take notice of the ordinary operation of familiar
natural laws, and to govern himself accordingly. Failing to do so, he
takes the consequences. He can not charge such consequences upon
the master, when he can see that which is open and apparent to a person
of ordinary intelligence.
The progress of the work necessarily changed the character of the
place and enhanced the danger, and under such conditions it has never
been held that it is the absolute duty of the master to furnish the serv
ant a safe place in which to work.
Any man of ordinary capacity would know that, as a place to work
in, the slope of a gravel pit is more or less dangerous, especially when
the work is to loosen the material; that the laws of gravitation may
operate, and precipitate such material to the bottom of the pit. The
work of plaintiff and his associates was to release the gravel and earth,
to cause it to break away and to slide or fall down; and they should,
and undoubtedly did, realize that the sliding or falling was attended
with danger to any person in the way. The only difference in the
danger to be apprehended and guarded against between the falling of

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.

817

gravel or eartli from overhead because of an excavation, and its falling
or sliding because released or loosened upon the face of a slope, is
merely one of degree. The complaint failed to state a cause of action,
and the demurrer should have been sustained. Order reversed.

E m p l o y e r s ’ L ia b il it y — R
R

is k

a il r o a d

E m p l o y e e s —R e l i e f A

C o m p a n ie s — A

s s o c ia t io n s

s s u m p t io n

—Chicago ,

B u rlin g to n

and Q u in cy R . R . Co. v. C u rtis , 71 N o rth w estern R e p o r te r , p a g e 4 2 .—

Action was brought in the district court of Jefferson County, £7ebr.,by
William H. Curtis against the above-named railroad company to recover
damages for injuries received while in its employ. Judgment was ren
dered for the railroad company, and the plaintiff, Curtis, brought the
case on writ of error before the supreme court of the State, which ren
dered its decision May 5, 1897, arid affirmed the judgment of the lower
court. The evidence showed that the plaintiff, while attempting to
couple two freight cars belonging to another railroad company, had his
right hand crushed between the deadwoods and so bruised that ampu
tation was necessary and was performed; that he was a member of
the Burlington Voluntary Relief Department; that in joining said
department he had signed a contract which contained the following
language: UI also agree that, in consideration of the amounts paid and
to be paid by said company for the maintenance of the relief depart
ment, the acceptance of benefits from the said relief fund for injury or
death shall operate as a release and satisfaction of all claims for dam
ages against said company arising from such injury or death which
would be made by me or my legal representatives ;” that after his injury
the plaintiff applied for and received benefits, and that at various times
the railroad company had contributed to the relief fund when it fell
short of the amount necessary to satisfy claims. The plaintiff claimed
negligence on the part of the company in the equipment of its cars,
and that the contract he had signed in joining the relief department
was of no effect and could not bind him.
The opinion of the supreme court was delivered by Judge Harrison,
and from the syllabus of the same, which was prepared by the court,
the following is quoted :
1. It is one of the duties of a railroad company as a common carrier
to receive, and transport over its line of road, cars of other companies,
if the gauge of the road is suitable, and the cars are not defective or
out of repair, or of such unusual and peculiar construction as to be
unreasonably hazardous or dangerous to work w ither handle.
2. That a car belonging to a road other than the one on which a
brakeman is employed is equipped with double deadwpods or buffers
is a fact which is open, apparent, and obvious to any person attempt
ing to couple the car; hence, any risk attendant on such coupling is
of the hazards incident to the duty, and assumed by the employee;
and this is true notwithstanding the cats in general use on the road

818

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

on which the brakeman is employed are equipped differently, or with
single dead woods.
4.
The contract signed by an employee of the railroad company on
becoming a member of what was known as the 64Burlington Voluntary
Relief Department,” to the effect that if he should be injured, and
receive moneys from the relief fund'of said relief department on account
thereof, the acceptance of such moneys should operate as a release of
such employee’s claim against saici railroad company for damages
because of such injury, construed, and held (1) that such contract of an
employee did not lack consideration to support it; (2) that the promise
made by the employee to the relief department for the benefit of the
railroad company was available to the latter as a cause of action or
defense; (3) that such contract was not contrary to public policy; (4)
that the effect of such contract was not to enable the railroad com
pany to exonerate itself by contract from liability for the negligence of
itself or servants; (5) that the employee did not waive his right of action
against the railroad company in case he should be injured by its negli
gence by the execution of the contract; ^6) that it is not the execution
of the contract that estops the injured employee, but his acceptance of
moneys from the relief department on account of his injury after his
cause of action against the railroad on account thereof arises.

E m p l o y e r s ’ L i a b il it y — R a il r o a d C o m p a n ie s — D

uty

Mas

— Texas and Pacific By. Go. v. Barrett, 17 Supreme Court Beporterr
page 707.—Action was brought in the district court of Tarrant County,
Tex., by one Barrett against the above-named railway company, to re
cover damages for personal injuries sustained while he was in the
employ of said company. Said case was removed, on the application of
the railway company, to the United States circuit court for the northern
district of Texas. Judgment was rendered for the plaintiff, Barrett, and
the defendant company carried the ease on writ of error to the United
States circuit court of appeals for the fifth circuit, by which court said
judgment was affirmed. The defendant company then brought the
case on writ of error before the United States Supreme Court, which
rendered its decision April 19, 1897, and also affirmed the judgment of
the circuit court.
The opinion of the Supreme Court was delivered by Chief Justice
Fuller, and the following, quoted therefrom, sufficiently shows the facts
in the case and the reasons for the decision:
On the trial there was^evidence tending to show that Barrett, while in
the employment of the company as foreman in charge of a switch engine,
and at work in the company’s yard, was injured by the explosion of
another engine, with which he had nothing, and was not required to
have anything, to do, and which had been placed by the foreman of the
roundhouse on a track in the yard, with steam up, to take out a train;
that the boiler of the locomotive, at the time it exploded, and for a con
siderable time before that, was and had been in a weak and unsafe state,
by reason of the condition of the stay bolts, many of which had been
broken before the explosion, and some of them for a long time before;
that there were well-known methods of testing the condition of stay
ter

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.

819

bolts in a boiler engine; and that, if any of these tests bad been properly
applied to this boiler within a reasonable time before the explosion, the
true condition of the stay bolts would have been discovered.
The circuit court instructed the jury, at defendant’s request, “ that
the master is not the insurer of the safety of its engines, but is required
to exercise only ordinary care to keep such engines in good repair, and,
if he has used such ordinary care, he is not liable for any injury result
ing to the servant from a defect therein not discoverable by such ordi
nary care; that the mere fact that an injury is received by a servant
inconsequence o f an explosion will not entitle him to a recovery, but
he must, besides the fact o f the explosion, show that it resulted from
the failure o f the master to exercise ordinary care, either in selecting
such engine, or in keeping it in reasonably safe repair; and that a railway
company is not required to adopt extraordinary tests for discovering
defects in machinery, which are not approved, practicable, and custom
ary, but that it fulfills its duty in this regard if it adopts such tests as
are ordinarily in use by prudently conducted roads engaged in like
business, and surrounded by like circumstances.”
And thereupon further charged that a railway company is bound to
use ordinary care to furnish safe machinery and appliances for the use
of its employees, and the neglect of its agents in that regard is its
neglect; that it is not bound to insure the absolute safety thereof, nor
to supply the best and safest and newest of such mechanical appli
ances, but is bound to use all reasonable care and prudence in provid
ing machinery reasonably safe and suitable for use, and in keeping the
same in repair; that “ by ordinary care is meant such as a prudent
man would use under the same circumstances; it must be measured
by the character and risks of such business; and where such persons,
whose duty it is to repair the appliances of the business, know, or
ought to know by the exercise of reasonable care, of the defects in the
machinery, the company is responsible for their neglect;” that “ if the
jury believe from the evidence,sunder the foregoing instructions, that
the boiler which exploded and injured the plaintiff was defective, and
unfit for use, and that defendant’s servants, whose duty it was to
repair such machinery, knew, or by reasonable care might havefenown,
of such defects in said machinery, then such neglect upon the part of
its servants is imputable to the defendant, and if said boiler exploded
by reason of said defects, and injured the plaintiff, the defendant
would be responsible for the injuries inflicted upon plaintiff, if plain
tiff in no way, by his own neglect, contributed to his injuries;” but
that “ the burden of the proof is on the plaintiff throughout this case
to show that the boiler and engine that exploded were improper appli
ances to be used on its railroad by defendant; that, by reason of the
particular defects pointed out and insisted on by plaintiff, the boiler
exploded and injured plaintiff. The burden is also on plaintiff through
out to show you the extent and character of his sufferings, and the
damages he has suffered by reason thereof. You must also be satisfied
that plaintiff was ignorant of the defects in the boiler that caused its
explosion, if the evidence convinces you that such was the case; and
that he did not by his negligence contribute to his own injury.”
We think that these instructions laid down the applicable rules with
sufficient accuracy and in substantial conformity with the views of
this court as expressed in Hough v. liailway Co., 100 17. S., 218, etc.
J udgment affirmed.

820

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

G a r n is h m e n t — L i a b i l i t y
Court

w it h

C onsent

m ployer

for

ages

P a id

in t o

E m p l o y e e — B a ltim o r e and Ohio Sou th

w estern R . R . Go. v . M a n n in g , 4 5 N o rth ea stern R e p o r te r , p a g e 5 2 6 .—

Suit was brought in the circuit court of Knox County, Ind., by Arthur
Manning against the above-named railroad company to recover an
amount alleged to be due him for services rendered, and for a penalty
for its nonpayment as provided by sections 7056 and 7057 of Burns’s
Bevised Statutes of 1894, making provisions for the payment of wages.
A judgment was rendered for plaintiff, and the defendant company
appealed the case to the appellate court of the State, which rendered
its decision December 2,1896, and reversed the judgment of the circuit
court.
.The opinion of the appellate court was delivered by Judge Boss,
and the following, quoted therefrom, sufficiently shows the facts in the
case and the reasons for the decision:
Under the specifications of error assigned, several questions are urged
for our consideration, which we deem it unnecessary to examine or decide,
in the view we take of the case as presented by the record. Whether
or not the judgment rendered in the Kentucky court against the appel
lant [the railroad company], as garnishee defendant, was regular, we
need not determine, for it is apparent that the appellee [Manning] has
no standing in court. It appears from the uncontradicted evidence that
the appellee consented that the appellant should pay into the Kentucky
court the amount of the claim and costs for which his wages in the
appellant’s hands had been garnisheed, and he agreed that, upon such
payment, he would accept from appellant the balance due him. The
balance was tendered him, and he refused, and brought this action. We
think, under these circumstances, he is estopped to question either the
regularity o f the.proceedings of the Kentucky court, or whether appel
lant was legally bound to pay the money into court. The money was
paid in^p court with his knowledge and consent, and upon an agreement
that, when so paid in, he would accept the balance due him from the
appellant. The appellant has apparently acted in good faith, and it
would be inequitable to permit the appellee to recover anything except
the balance in appellant’s hands after the payment into the Kentucky
court o f the claim and costs. The judgment of the court below is
reversed, With instructions to sustain the appellant’s motion for a new
trial.

overnm ent

C o m p e n s a t io n

Em ployees— B
for

T im e

ig h t

w h il e

P e r -D ie m

under

E m ployee

S u s p e n s i o n — M u r p h y v.

U n ited S ta tes , 79 F e d e r a l R e p o r te r , p a g e 2 5 5 . —This case was brought
before the United States circuit court of appeals for the ninth circuit
on a writ of error from the United States circuit court for the northern
district o f California.
The decision of the court of appeals was rendered February 8, 1897,
and its opinion, which was delivered by Circuit Judge Boss, shows the

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING* LABOR.

821

facts in the case, the decision made, and the reasons therefor, and reads
as follows:
This was an action by the plaintiff in error [Murphy] as plaintiff* in
the court below, under and by virtue of the act of Congress entitled
“ An act to provide for the bringing of suits against the Government of
the United States,” approved March 3, 1887 (24 Stat., 505). To the
third amended petition the Governments demurrer was sustained, and,
the plaintiff* declining to further amend, his petition was dismissed.
The writ of error brings up for review the ruling of the court below in
*the respect stated.
The petition contains two counts:
In the first, the plaintiff* alleged, in substance, that.on or about July
23, 1885, he was regularly appointed, by the commandant of the United
States navy-yard at Mare Island, Cal., foreman mason of the yard and
dock department thereof “ at the understood and agreed compensation
of six dollars per day;” that under and by virtue of that appointment
the plaintiff entered upon the performance of his duties as such fore
man mason, and continued in the performance thereof to and including
September 29, 1885, when he was, by the commandant, suspended from
his position by reason of certain charges preferred against him by the
civil engineer of the yard; that thereafter, on November 19, 1885,
the Acting Secretary of the Navy appointed a board to investigate
the charges, and ordered that it meet at the yard at Mare Island,
November 30, 1885, for that purpose, and report to the Department at
Washington all the facts deemed to be established by the evidence
taken; that the board of investigation met in accordance with the order
of the Secretary, and, after various sessions, at which witnesses were
examined, made its report to the Department, recommending the dis
missal of the plaintiff* from his position of foreman mason. “ But,”
proceeded the petition, “ said recommendation was never carried into
effect, and said plaintiff has never been discharged from his said posi
tion, but has been, and still is, deprived from fulfilling the duties
thereof.”
It will be thus seen that the petition itself showed that at no time
after September 29, 1885, did the plaintiff render any service to the
United States as foreman mason of the Mare Island Navy-Yard. The
allegation, also contained in the petition, that he has, ever since his sus
pension, held himself in readiness to perform the duties of the position,
is of no force or effect, so far as concerns the first count of his petition,
by which he seeks to recover “ compensation as such foreman mason”
from October 1,1885, to the time of the bringing of the suit, September
28,1891. As he never rendered the defendant any service during that
period, it is plain that he is not entitled to any compensation. Com
pensation for such services only follows services rendered. Such, too,
is the declaration of the statute applicable to and controlling such posi
tions as foreman mason of a navy-yard. Section 1545 of the Revised
Statutes reads: “ Salaries shall not be paid to any of the employees of
the navy-yards except those who are designated in the estimates. All
other persons shall receive a per-diem compensation for the time during
which they may be actually employed.” The plaintiff not being an offi
cer or a salaried employee, but, as shown by the petition itself, a person
engaged at a per-diem compensation, he was, under the express provision
of the second clause of the section of the statute quoted, entitled to such
compensation for the time during which he was actually employed, but
to that only.

822

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

Moreover, his suspension by the commandant of the navy-yard was,
as was held by the court below, in effect his discharge from the employ
ment in which he was engaged. It is not pretended that he was
employed for any definite time, but, on the contrary, according to the
express allegations of the petition, he was engaged at the agreed com
pensation of $6 per diem, which was, in legal effect, an employment
by the day. The fact that subsequent to Ins suspension the Secre
tary of the Navy appointed a board to investigate and report upon the
charges against him was no recognition of his status as a then em
ployee of the Government, and certainly could not operate to confi r
upon him the right to compensation for the time during which he was
not actually employed.
The second count of the petition embodied the averments already
considered, and therefore also showed that the plaintiff was, in effect,
discharged from his employment as foreman mason o f the navy-yard
in question September 29,1885. That being so, the further allegation
contained in the second count that the plaintiff*, “ while such foreman
mason as aforesaid, and while acting under the orders of the Acting.
Secretary o f the Navy of the United States, was ordered by said A ct
ing Secretary of the Navy to, and did, travel from the city of Wash
ington, D. 0., to the said Mare Island Navy-Yard, in California, for the
purpose of being in attendance upon said so-called <board of investi
gation,’ and that he was thereby compelled to, and did, expend in
obeying said order the sum of $240 as traveling expenses,” is ineffectual
to create a valid demand for such expenses against the Government.
As the specific allegations embodied in the second as well as in the
first count of the petition showed that the plaintiff was suspended, and,
in effect, discharged from his position, the allegation last quoted is far
from showing that there was any order of the Secretary to the plaintiff
in his capacity of employee of the Government, or that the plaintiff
was then under any obligation to obey any order, or that he expended
any money in the service of the United States. The judgment is
affirmed.

I ssu e
Sam e

w hen

N ontransfer a ble
P resented

a r t ie s

Ch eck s— R efu sal
.o th e r

than

Cash

E m ployees—

a m a g e s —Robison v. Texas Pine Land Association, 40 Southwestern
Reporter, page 843.—Action was brought by James Robison against the
above-named association in the district court of Hardin County, Tex*
The suit was for damages growing out of the conduct of the defendant
in issuing checks at its store in Silsbee, Hardin County. The evidence
showed that the Texas Pine Land Association opened its store in 1894,
and was engaged in cutting and shipping logs to sawmills at Beaumont,
and issued said checks in payment of wages to its employees, who then
took the same to the store and purchased such goods as were needed;
that the words ’“ Not transferable” were upon each check, yet the
employees of said association bought country produce of the people
and paid for the same in checks, and that these people, who were not
employees of the association, and never had been, bought goods of the
association at its store and paid, for them in checks; that the associa
tion knew of this trade in its checks and did not object thereto until

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.

823

the plaintiff liad a great many of tliem, and then refused to take the
cheeks from him in payment of goods and refused to take checks from
persons who had bought or traded for same with plaintiff; that said
association stated to its employees that it would discharge each and
every one of them from its service in case they should buy goods,
liquors, etc., from, or trade in any maimer with, the plaintiff, and that
it also stated to ite clerks and other employees that it would not
take up any checks and receive the same in payment of its goods,
wares, and merchandise from any person whomsoever, when and wliere
said checks had passed through the hands of Eobison, the plaintiff.
Judgment was rendered for the defendant association and the plaintiff
appealed the case to the court of civil appeals of Texas, which rendered
its decision May 12, 1897, and sustained the judgment of the district
court.
The opinion of said court was rendered by Chief Justice James, and
from the same the following is quoted:
According to plaintiff’s allegations, competition in trade existed
between plaintiff and defendant, and it was legitimate for defendant to
appropriate to itself all the customers it could command, even to the
extent of driving plaintiff out of business, provided the means used for
that purpose did not contravene any law, or violate a definite legal
l ight of the plaintiff. The latter had no legal right to protection against
competition. He had no superior right to the trade of defendant’s
employees, or that of other persons. The statute in reference to con
spiracies against trade does not apply to the case, where there is no
combination, and when the acts complained of as affecting competition
are the acts of defendant alone. I f the defendant could so control its
employees as to prevent their dealing with plaintiff, or so control their
wages as to divert them from the channels of plaintiff’s business in
favor of its own, we know of no rule making it actionable. Had the
defendant no proper interest of its own to subserve in so doing, but had
acted wantonly in causing loss to plaintiff, the rule would be different.
The fact that defendant’s purpose, by its acts, was to break plaintiff
up in business would not give the cause of action, for that is the natural
result of successful competition. Defendant might at any time have
stopped the issuing of checks, and plaintiff could not have complained.
It had a right, if the employees were satisfied to work on such terms,
to pay the latter directly in goods, and he could not complain, or in
checks redeemable in goods only by them and certain other persons.
It could not be required to treat the checks as money in the hands of
other persons, which is practically a contention of plaintiff. If they
could stop the system altogether without giving a right of action in
tort, it would follow that they could place restrictions on the use of
checks without incurring such liability. This is not a suit to recover
the value of checks taken by appellant, but one in which he seeks to
recover in tort for the invasion of a right, when he fails to show the
existence of any right. A system whereby such checks would be
honored in the hands of anyone except plaintiff was calculated to
insure trade at defendant’s store, and diminish that of its rival; and,
as plaintiff has no definite right to the public trade, he has no legal
right to complain that defendant absorbed it by the manner of man
aging its business, and its relation with its employees. The judgment
is affirmed.

,8 2 4

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

M aster
and
S e r v a n t — R i s k s o f E m p l o y m e n t —Larsson v.
McClure, 70 Northwestern Reporter, page 662.—Action was brought by
Lewis Larsson against William C. McClure, surviving partner of the
firm of Mitchell & McClure, in the circuit court of Douglas County,
Wis., to recover damages for a personal injury sustained by him while
working as a common laborer in a gravel pit for said firm. The evi
dence showed that there was frost in the ground and that they had to
blast the bank so as to get the crust off and take the bank down in
order to get the sand and gravel; that after a number of blasts had
been set off the plaintiff was at work shoveling, about 6 or 8 feet from
the edge of the frozen crust, when the bank fell down and struck him
on the left leg, so that he fell over and received the injuries complained
of. A judgment was rendered for the plaintiff in the circuit court and
the defendant appealed the case to the supreme court of the State,
which court rendered its decision March 16, 1897, and reversed the
judgment of the circuit court.
The opinion of the supreme court was delivered by Judge Pinney,
and from the same the following is quoted:
The plaintiff, in entering upon the employment in which he was
engaged when injured, assumed all risk or danger of injury ordinarily
and fairly incident to such service. When the danger is alike open to
the observation of all, both the master and the servant are upon an
equality, and the master is not liable for an injury resulting from the
dangers incident to the employment.
The plaintiff was familiar with the kind of work he was required to
perform, and had had considerable experience in working in gravel pits,
and had worked on railroads. He knew that blasting was being resorted
to to break down the frozen bank, and to get at the sand and gravel
where he worked; and five or six blasts for that purpose had been set
off on the day in question, and before he was injured. He had wit
nessed and understood the effect they produced in shattering the bank
in front of which he was working, and which was not more than 100
feet in length, rendering it insecure, and liable to fall down as excava
tion proceeded at the bottom. The situation itself suggested to him
the dangers incident to the service, and the necessity of proper caution
for his own protection,
He chose, notwithstanding, to continue work under the circumstances,
instead of declining the service, and it is entirely well settled that he
must be held to have assumed the risk or danger, so far as it was open
for his observation. He testified that after the last blast had been set
off where he had been set to work, “ I did not see any cracks in the
bank; I did not look to-see.” He was bound to-take ordinary care to
observe whether any, and what, dangers were incident to his service.
' “ Where the defect or danger is open or obvious, the knowledge of it,
on his part, will be presumed or imputed to the servant, as a matter of
law ; and an adult servant is presumed to possess ordinary intelligence,
judgment, and discretion to appreciate such danger, so as to regulate
his conduct, and avoid it; and, if he continues in the service, and suffers
injury from such danger, he has no right of recovery against the master.”
(Luebke v. Machine Works, 88 Wis., 448, 60 N. W., 711.)
The present case does not seem to fall witbin the rule that the mas
ter must furnish the servant a reasonably safe place in which to work,

DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.

825

inasmuch as the plaintiff and his fellow-servants practically created
the place and its attendant perils from hour to hour, in the prosecution
of their labors; and the condition was constantly shifting by reason of
their own acts, of which, as well as their probable consequences, they
must be held to have had notice. The negligence, if any, in this view
of the case, would be that of the plaintiff and his fellow-servants, and
the risk of it must be regarded as assumed by the plaintiff as incident
to his employment; and, in any view that may be taken of the case, it
must be regarded as a risk assumed by the plaintiff, as incident to his
employment.
W e think, from the undisputed evidence, that the plaintiff must be
held to have assumed the risk of the injury of which he complains, and
that the circuit court erred in refusing the motion for a nonsuit, and
afterward in refusing to direct a verdict for the defendant. The judg
ment of the circuit court is reversed and the cause is remanded for a
new trial.

LAWS OF VARIOUS STATES RELATING TO LABOR ENACTED SINCE
JANUARY 1, 1896.
KANSAS.

ACTS OF 1897:
Chapter

120. —

P r o te c tio n

o f e m p lo y e e s

a s

m em b ers

o f

la b o r

u n io n s .

Section 1. It shall he unlawful for any person, company, or corporation, or the
agent, officer, manager, superintendent, master mechanic, or foreman of any person,
company, or corporation, to prevent employees from joining and belonging to any
labor organization, and any such person, company, or corporation, or any agent,
manager, superintendent, master mechanic, or other officer of any person, company,
or corporation that cderces or attempts to coerce employees b y discharging or threat
ening to discharge said employees because of their connection with such labor organi
zation, shall be deemed, guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof shall
be fined in any sum not less than fifty dollars nor more than five hundred dollars.
S ec . 2. Any person, company, or corporation doing any of the acts prohibited by
section one of this act, shall be liable to the person injured, in exemplary or puni
tive damages not to exceed two thousand dollars, to be recovered by civil action,
and in addition thereto a reasonable attorney fee to be recovered in said civil action
for damages.
Se c . 3. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its publication in
the statute book.

.Approved February 18, 1897.
C h a p t e r 129,— P

r o te c tio n

o f

e m p lo y e e s

a s

v o ters.

S ection 24. Any person entitled to vote at a general election in this State, shall,
on the day of such election, be entitled to absent himself from any service or employ
ment in which he is then engaged or employed for a period of two hours, between
the time of opening and closing the polls, and such voter shall not, because o f so
absenting himself, bo liable to any penalty, nor shall deduction be made on account
of such absence, from his usual salary or wages: P r o v i d e d , h o w e v e r , That application
for such leave o f absence shall be made prior to the day of election. The employer
may specify the hours during which said employee may absent himself as aforesaid.
Any person or corporation who shall refuse to an employee the pri vilege hereby con
ferred, or shall subject an employee to a penalty or deduction of wages because of
the exercise of such privileges, or who shall, in any manner, attempt to influence or
control such v(fter as to how ho shall vote, by offering any reward, or by threaten
ing his discharge from employment, or otherwise intimidating him from a full and
free exercise of his right to vote, or shall, directly or indirectly, violate the provis
ions of this section, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and bo fined in any
sum not less than fifty dollars or more than one hundred dollars.

Approved March 13, 1897.
Ch a p t e r

144.—B

la c k lis tin g .

S e c t io n 1. Any employer of labor in this State, after having discharged any
person from his service, shall not prevent or attempt to prevent by word, sign or
writing of any kind whatsoever, any such discharged employee from obtaining em
ployment from any other person, company or corporation except by furnishing, in
writing, on request, the cause of such discharge.

Se c . 2. Any employer of labor in this State shall, upon the request of a discharged
employee, furnish, in writing, the true cause or reason for such discharge.
Se c . 3. Any employer o f labor, his agent or employee who shall violate the provi
sions of this act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and shall, upon conviction, be
fined for each offense the sum of one hundred dollars and thirty days7 imprisonment
in the county j ail.

826

LABOR LAWS---- KANSAS---- ACTS OF 1897.

827

Se c . 4. Any person, firm, or corporation, found guilty of tlie violation of sections
one and two of this act, shall he liable to the party injured to an amount equal to
three times the sum he may be injured, and such employers of labor shall also be
liable for a reasonable attorney fee which shall be taxed as part of the costs in the
case.
S e c . 5. This act to be in full force and effect from and after its publication in the
statute book.

Approved March 12, 1897.

C h a p t e r 145.—

P a y m e n t

o f w a g es,

e tc.

Se c t io n 1. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm, company, corporation, or
trust, or the agent, or the business manager of any such person, firm, company, cor
poration or trust to sell, give, deliver, or in any way directly or indirectly to any
person employed by him or it, in payment of wages due or to become due, any scrip,
token, check, draft, order, credit on any book of account or other evidence of indebt
edness, payable to bearer or his assignee, otherwise than at the date of issue, but
such wages shall be paid only in lawful money of the United States, or by check or
draft drawn upon some bank in which any person, firm, company, corporation, or
trust, or the agent, or the business manager of any such person, firm, company, cor
poration, or trust, has money upon deposit to cash the same.

Sec . 2. All contracts to pay or accept wages in any other than lawful money, or
by check or draft, as specified in section one, of this act, and any private agreement
or secret understanding that wages shall be or may be paid, in other than lawful
money, or by such check or draft, shall be void, and the procurement of such private
agreement or secret understanding, shall be unlawful and construed as coercion on
the part of the employer.

S e c . 3. If any person shall violate any of the provisions of either section one or
two of this act, or shall compel, or in any manner attempt to compel, or coerce any
employee of any corporation, or trust to purchase goods, or supplies, from any par
ticular person, firm, corporation, company or trust or at any particular store or
place, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall bo
fined not less than one hundred dollars nor more than five hundred dollars, or bo
imprisoned in the county jail not less than thirty or more than ninety days, or by
both such fine and imprisonment for each violation.
Sec . 4. This act shall apply only to corporations or trusts or their agents, lessees,
or business managers, that employ ten or more persons.
S ec . 5. The county attorney of any county upon complaint made to him shall
proceed to prosecute the violators of this act as prescribed in other cases of misde
meanor.
Se c . 6. Sections 2441, 2442 and 2443 of the General Statutes of Kansas, of 1889,
and all acts and parts of acts in conflict with the provisions of this act are hereby
repealed.
S e c . 7. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its publication in
the official State paper.

Approved March 2, 1897.

Published in official State paper March 12,1897.
Ch a p t e r

159. —

M in e r e g u la tio n s

a n d

in s p e c tio n .

Se c t io n 1. It shall be unlawful for any mine owner, agent, lessee or operator of
any coal mine, or any other underground workings, where any kind of material is
mined or excavated, in either shaft mine, slope mine, or drift mine, by system of
room and pillar, to mine or cause to be mined by any employee therein, in any of said
mines, any minerals mined by bushel, ton, or other rates, to excavate coal or other
minerals, in an advance space of forty feet, unless break-throughs are made, ranging
in distance as follows: Forty feet shall constitute the distance between break
throughs, which shall be made through the pillar which divides either rooms, air
courses or entries, where any of said rooms, air courses, or entries are in operation,
and in no case shall the distance exceed the aforesaid distance, namely, forty feet,
irrespective of thickness or distance of the pillar or pillars which divides such
rooms, air courses or entries.
Se c . 2. Said break-throughs shall be at least six feet wide and the full height of
coal strata, or other minerals mined which does not exceed six feet in height, and in
no case shall the air courses have less than twenty-one feet of an area, where mines
are operated on room-and-pillar system. And the compensation for making such
break-throughs shall be regulated by or between the employer and employee and any
room, air course or entry, or any other working places where miners or others are
employed, shall cease operations at the working faces until said break-throughs
are perfected as herein specified, iji section one, of this act. And said break

828

BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR.

throughs shall be filled with either slate, rock, or closed by brattice, to make the
same air-tight, as soon as the second or succeeding break-throughs are made. And
in any case any of such break-throughs are partly opened or torn down, by the con
cussion of shots, or blasts, or by premature explosion, or otherwise, the foreman, or
superintendent, or agent in each of any of the said mines, shall immediately cause
any of such break-throughs to be properly closed and made air-tight, as soon as noti
fied by any employee.
Sec. 3. Every mine owner, agent, lessee or operator of coal mines of underground
workings of the character mentioned in section one of this act, shall provide and
hereafter maintain for every mine, ample means of ventilation, affording not less
than one hundred cubic feet of air in every such mine, per man, per minute. Said
volume of air shall be directed or circulated where any person or persons may be
working in any of said mines.
Se c . 4. The inspector of mines shall cause the volume of air to be increased when
necessary to such an extent as will dilute, carry off, and render harmless, the noxious
gases generated therein. And mines generating fire-damp shall be kept free of stand
ing gas, and every working place shall be carefully examined every morning with a
safety lamp by an examiner, or fire-boss, before miners or other employees enter their
respective working places. Said examiner or fire-boss shall register the day of the
month at the place of the workings, and also on top in a book which shall be kept
in the weighmaster’s office for such special purpose, and as proof of inspection, he
shall daily record all places examined, in said book, and in case of danger when fire
damp may have accumulated during the absence of any person or persons, employed
therein, said examiner or fire-boss, must notify the miners or those employed therein,
or those who may have occasion to enter such places. And the hydrogen or fire
damp generated therein must be diluted and rendered harmless before any person or
persons enter such working, or abandoned part of the mine with a naked light.
S e c . 5. It shall be the duty of the owner, lessee or operator, of any mine where
the natural strata is not Safe, in or around all workings, pumping, and escaping shafts,
to securely case line, or otherwise make said places secure, and all escapement
shafts shall be provided with stairways securely fastened, so as to bear the combined
weight of not less than fifteen men, ascending or descending the same. Said stair
ways shall be so constructed as not to exceed forty-five degrees of elevation, by each
section of said stair, and each section shall have substantial guard rails securely
fastened, and the stairways shall be separately partitioned from the parts of such
shafts used as upcasts or downcasts, and the traveling ways between the bottom of
the main shaft, and the escaping shaft, or stairways shall be at least five feet in height.
Said traveling ways shall be kept clear of all obstructions, and standing or stagnant
water shall not be allowed to accumulate in any traveling way between the upcast
and downcast shafts. And in case of mine shafts which are over one hundred and
fifty feet in depth, where stairways can not be conveniently constructed, other safe
means of hoisting the persons employed in any such mine must be kept ready at all
times, so as to be available in case of accident to the regular hoisting shaft, or
machinery in use at the same.
Se c . 6. It shall be the duty of the foreman, eager, or whosoever may have charge
of the bottom of any shaft, to give the proper signal to the top man and engineer,
whenever any six employees who work therein are ready to ascend, by day or night,
and for the making of such ascent it shall be the duty of the bottom eager to give
them an empty cage by which they can ascend. And every road on which persons
travel underground when the coal is drawn by mules, or other power, shall be pro
vided at intervals of not more than thirty feet with sufficient manholes for places of
refuge.
Se c . 7. It shall be the duty of the owner, lessee or operator of every mine to pro
vide and maintain airways of sufficient dimensions, and in no case shall the area
of the air course be less than twenty-one feet in mines operated on room-and-pillar
system.
Se c . 8. Standing or stagnant water shall not be allowed to remain in air courses,
entries, traveling ways, or rooms. Obstructions of any kind must not be placed in
cross-cuts, rooms or entries used as airways. And in case of a fall of a roof, or
where the sides of such airways cave in, it shall be the duty of the mine boss or agent
in any such mines to cause such falls or obstruction to be removed immediately and
the roof and sides made secure.
Se c . 9. All main airways in any of the underground workings in the State of
Kansas, shall be examined at least twice a week by the mine boss or agent, or some
other competent person so directed by said mine boss or agent, and a report of such
inspection shall be forwarded to the office of the State inspector of mines at least
once a month.
S e c . 10. It shall be the duty of the mine boss or agent; in charge of any mine
where coal dust or any other inflammable ingredients may accumulate, to cause the
same to be properly sprinkled or saturated once a day, and oftener if necessary, in
either air courses, entries, rooms, or cross-cuts.

LABOR LAWS---- KANSAS---- ACTS OF 1897.

829

Se c . 11. No employee or ofcher person in mines is allowed to leave trap-doors or
air-gates open any longer than while passing through said gates or doors. And any
person who accidentally or otherwise tears down any brattice cloth must immediately
notify the mine boss or the individual having supervision of the air in such mine,
and the same must be replaced as soon as notice thereof is given to the mine boss or
person in charge of the air.
S e c . 12. In order to facilitate the inspector of mines in his duties, it shall be the
duty of all coal operators and coal companies or lessees or other persons engaged in
mining or producing coal, to make a quarterly statement to the mine inspector, of the
amount of all coal mined, the number of miners employed, number of day men, number
of boys, and all other persons employed in or around said mine or mines, not later than
ten days after the end of each quarter, and they shall also state the price paid miners
per ton or bushel, the price paid to day hands per day, the number of days worked
by miners and by day men, the number of accidents, deaths resulting from injuries
in and around the said mine or mines. It shall also be the duty of the mine inspec
tor to furnish all coal operators and all coal companies or lessees or other persons
engaged in mining or producing coal, with printed blank forms every quarter, for
the purpose of making out said report as this act herein provides for.
Sec. 13. No person employed in any mine shall use any kind of oil other than lard
oil for lighting purposes, except when repairing downcast or upcast shafts.
S e c . 14. The inspector of mines is duly authorized to enforce the provisions of this
and all other acts relating to mines or mining; and he is hereby empowered to insti
tute proceedings in the name of the State of Kansas against any miner, owner, agent,
lessee, operator of any mine, or any employee employed therein, who refuses to com
ply with the provisions of this act, after ten days’ notice. The inspector is hereby
empowered in all cases where mines are not worked or operated in strict accordance
with this act, to order the employees employed in such mine to suspend operations,
and if, in his judgment, there is immediate danger, he can order such mine to suspend
operations until the matter of which he complains in relation to this act, is complied
with.
S e c . 15. The inspector is hereby authorized to furnish every mine owner, agent,
lessee or operator of every mine, which he knows to be in operation, with a printed
copy of this act, which shall be kept conspicuously posted at or near the top of any
of said mines, and it shall be the duty of the mine boss or agent in charge, to call
the attention of the miners or others employed, to the provisions of this act.
Sec. 16. In case of non-compliance with sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11,12,13,14
and 15 of this act, by any owner, operator, agent or lessee of any mine,or any miner
or other employee working therein, upon whom any duty is cast by any of said
sections, he shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall, upon conviction of
the same, for each offense, be punished by a fine of not less than one hundred dol
lars, and not to exceed three hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail
for a period of not less than thirty days, and not to exceed ninety days, or by both
such fine and imprisonment, in any court having competent jurisdiction: P r o v i d e d ,
That this act shall be construed as to effect [affect] or apply only to coal-mines of
this State, or any person or persons operating or owning such coal-mines.
S e c . 17. And chapter 171, session laws of 1895, and all other acts and parts of acts
in conflict with this act, are hereby repealed.

Se c . 18. This act shall take effect and bo in force from and after its publication in
the statute book.

Approved March 13, 1897.
Ch a p t e r

172. —

P r o te ctio n

o f s tre et-r a ilw a y

e m p lo y e e s

S e c t io n 1. It shall be unlawful for any street-car company, or other person, asso
ciation, or corporation, who own, control, or operate any street-car system in the
State of Kansas, to run or operate its cars in the regular service of carrying passen
gers, during the months of November, December, January, February, or March of
each year, without first providing a vestibule or other sufficient shelter for the
motorman or other employee, used by said company to guide or operate the propel
ling power used on said car: P r o v i d e d , This act shall not apply to any horse or cable
car.
Sec. 2. Every corporation, officer, owner, or manager of any such street-car com
pany, who shall fail or refuse to comply with the provisions of this act, shall be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction, shall be punished by a fine of not
less than five dollars nor more than twenty five dollars for each offense, and the opera
tion of a car at any one time during any one day during said months, without provid
ing the vestibule or other shelter, shall be deemed a single violation of this act.
Sec. 3 This act shall take effect and be in force on and after its publication in the
statute book.
Approved March 6, 1897.

1453—]So. 13-— 10

830

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

M IS S O U R I.

ACTS OF 1897.
F e llo w -8 e r v a n i s.

(Page 96.)
S e c t io n 1. Every railroad corporation owning or operating a railroad in this State
shall he liable for all damages sustained by any agent or seryant thereof while
engaged in the work of operating such railroad by reason of the negligence of any
other agent or servant thereof: P r o v i d e d , That it may be shown in defense that the
person injured was guilty of negligence contributing as a proximate cause to pro
duce the injury.
'
Se c . 2. All persons engaged in the service of any such railroad corporation doing
business in this State, who are intrusted by such corporation with the authority of
superintendence, control or command of other persons in the employ or service of
such corporation, or with the authority to direct any other servant in the perform
ance of any duty of such servant, or with the duty of inspection or other duty owing
by the master to the servant, are vice-principals of such corporation, and are not
fellow-servants with such employees.
Se c . 3. All persons who are engaged in the common service of such railroad cor
poration, and who while so engaged, are working together at the same time and
place, to a common purpose of same grade, neither of such persons being intrusted
by such corporation with any superintendence or control over their fellow employees,
are fellow-servants with each other: P r o v i d e d , That nothing herein contained shall
be so construed as to make any agent or servant of such corporation in the service
of such corporation a fellow-servant with any other agent or servant of such cor
poration engaged in any other department or service of such corporation.

Se c . 4. N o contract made between any railroad corporation and any of its agents
or servants, based upon the contingency of the injury or death of any agent or serv
ant, limiting the liability o f such railroad corporation for any damages under the
provisions of this act, shall be valid or binding, but all such contracts or agreements
shall be null and void.
Approved February 9, 1897.
P r o te c tio n

o f

s tre et-c a r

e m p lo y e e s

—S c r e e n s .

(Page 102.)

1. Every electric street car, other than trail cars, which are attached to
motor cars, shall be provided during the months of November, December, January,
February and March of each year, at the front end, with a screen composed of glass
or other material which shall fully and completely protect the driver, motorman,
gripman or other person stationed on such front end and guiding o t directing said
car from wind and storm.
Sec. 2. Any person, agent or officer of any association or corporation violating
any of the provisions of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon
conviction Bhall be fined in a sum not less than twenty-five dollars or more than one
hundred dollars for each day that any car belonging to -or used by such person, asso
ciation or corporation is permitted to remain unprovided with the screens Required
by section 1 of this act. And it is hereby made the duty of the prosecuting attorney
of each county in the State to enforce the provisions of this act, for which he shall
be entitled, in addition to his ordinary fee or salary, one-fourth of the fine recovered.
Approved March 5, 1897.
S e c t io n

P r o te c tio n

o f e m p lo y e e s

a s

v o ter s.

(Page 108.)

1. Any person entitled to vote at any election in this State shall, on the
day of such election, be entitled to absent himself from any services or employment
in which he is then engaged or employed, for a period of four hours between the
times of opening and closing the polls; and such voter shall not, because of so absent
ing himself, be liable to any penalty: P r o v i d e d , h o w e v e r , That his employer may
specify the hours during which such employee may absent himself as aforesaid. Any
person or corporation who shall refuse to any employee the privilege hereby con
ferred, or shall discharge or threaten to discharge any employee for absenting him
self from his work for the purpose of said election, or shall cause any employee to
suffer any penalty or deduction of wages because of the exercise of such privilege,
S e c t io n

LABOR LAWS— MISSOURI---- ACTS OF 1897.

831

or who shall directly or indirectly violate the provisions of this section, shall bb
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof he fined in any sum not
exceeding five hundred dollars.
Se c . 2. It shall not he lawful for any corporation organized and doing husiness
under and hy virtue of the laws of this State, to directly or indirectly, hy or through
any of its officers or agents, or hy or through any person or persons for them, influ
ence or attempt to influence the result of any election to he held in this State, or
•procure or endeavor to procure the election of any person to a public office hy the
use of money helouging to such corporation, or hy subscribing any money to any
campaign fund of any party or person, or hy discharging or threatening to discharge
any employee of such corporation for reason of the political opinions of such
employee, or to use or offer to use any power, effort, influence, or other means what
soever, to induce or persuade any employee or other person entitled to register
before or vote at any election, to vote or refrain from voting for any candidate, or
on any question to he determined or at issue at any election. Any violation of the
provisions of this section hy a corporation shall he deemed and held as a forfeiture
of its charter or franchise, as granted or derived from the State, as for willful
misuser thereof, and such corporation shall he enjoined from transacting any husi
ness in this State; and such forfeiture or injunction may he adjudged hy any cir
cuit court of any county in which such corporation is located, in a suit instituted
for that purpose, in the name of the State of Missouri, hy the prosecuting attor
ney of any County, and in the city of St. Louis hy the circuit attorney or hy the
attorney-general.
Se c . 3. Every officer or agent of any railroad or other corporation, company or
association, and every individual conducting or carrying on any husiness in this
State and having under his control or supervision, or in his employ any servants,
agents or other employees entitled to vote at any election in this State, who shall
either directly or indirectly, or hy or through any person or persons for him, dis
charge or offer or attempt to discharge from any employment, service, or position,
any such employee for reason of the political opinions or belief of any such employee,
or who shall coerce or attempt to coerce, intimidate or bribe any employee, or who
shall hy or through any unjust, corrupt, or unlawful means, procure or attempt to
procure or influence any employee entitled to register before or vote at any election,
to vote or refrain from voting for any candidate for any public office at any election,
or on any question to ho determined or at issue in any election held in this State,
shall he deemed guilty of a felony, and on conviction thereof, shall he punished by
imprisonment in the penitentiary not less than two nor more than five years.
Approved March 20, 1897.
F a c to rie s

w o rk sh o p s,

e tc .—

E m p lo y m e n t

o f ch ild re n .

(Page 143.)

S ection 1. No child under the ago of fourteen years shall ho employed in any
manufacturing or mechanical establishment in this State wherein steam, water dr
any other mechanical power is used in the manufacturing process carried on therein,
or, where the work to he done hy such child would, in the opinion of two reputable
physicians in the locality where such work is to he done, he dangerous to the health
of such child.
Sec . 2. Any person, firm or corporation, or its agent, who employs, and any parent
or person in charge of such child who permits the employment of such child in viola
tion of this act, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall, upon conviction,
he fined not less than ten nor more than one hundred dollars, or imprisonment in the
county jail for a period of not less than two days nor more than ten days, or both
fined and imprisoned, for each offense: P r o v i d e d , That extreme poverty of the parent,
or person in charge of such child, shall he a good defense to such proceeding.
Approved March 23, 1897.
F a c to rie s

w o rk sh o p s,

e t c .— H e a lth

o f

e m p lo y e e s .

(Page 143.)
Se c t io n 1. Section 14 of an act entitled “ An act relating to manufacturing,
mechanical, mercantile and other establishments and places, and the employment,
safety, health and work hours of employees,” approved April 20, 1891, [page 159,
Acts of 1891] is hereby amended hy inserting between the words “ act” and “ shall,”
in line three of said section, the following: “ Or the labor commissioner or his dep
uties,” and hy striking out the words “ where practicable,” in line five of said sec
tion ; so that said section, when so amended, shall read as follows:
Section 14. In all establishments in this State wherein labor is employed, where
any process is carried on hy which dust or smoke is generated, any one of the

832

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

inspectors provided for in this act, or the labor commissioner or his deputies, shall
have the power and the authority to order that a fan or some other contrivance be
put in to prevent the inhalation of such dust or smoke by employees.
Approved March 9, 1897.
M in e

r e g u la tio n s

(Page 199.)
Se c t io n 1. Section 7067, chapter 115, article 2 of the Kevised Statutes of 1889, is
hereby amended by inserting between the words “ age” and “ and,” in the fifth line
of said section, the following words: “ Nor shall such engineer be permitted to oper
ate the hoisting machinery unless he be located in such close proximity to the engine
and drum as will enable him to continuously have supervision and control of both
engine and drum;” so that said section, when so amended, shall read as follows:
S e c t io n 7067. No owner, agent or operator of any mine operated by shaft or slope
shall place in charge of any engine whereby men are lowered into or hoisted out of
the mines any but an experienced, competent and sober person not under eighteen
years of age; nor shall such engineer be permitted to operate the hoisting machinery
unless he be located in such close proximity to the engine and drum as will enable
him to continuously have supervision and control of both engine and drum; and no
person shall be permitted to ride upon a loaded cage or wagon used for hoisting
purposes in any shaft or slope, and in no case shall more than twelve persons ride on
any cage or car at any one time; nor shall any coal be hoisted out of any mine while
persons are descending into such mine, and the number of persons to ascend out of
or descend into any mine on one cage shall be determined by the inspector; the
maximum number so fixed shall not be less than four nor more than twelve, nor shall
he lowered or hoisted more rapidly than five hundred feet to the minute.
Approved March 15, 1897.
M in e

r e g u la tio n s .

(Page 199.)

Section 1. Section 7063, chapter 115, article 2, Laws of Missouri, 1889, is hereby
repealed and the following new section enacted in lieu thereof, to be known as sec
tion 7063:
Se c t io n 7063. It is unlawful for any owner, agent or operator of any coal mine
worked by shaft to employ or permit any person to work therein unless there are to
every seam of coal worked in each mine at least two separate outlets, separated by
natural strata of not less than three hundred feet in breadth, by which shafts or
outlets distinct means of ingress and egress are always available to the persons
employed in the nr^e; but it is not necessary for the two outlets to belong to the
same mine if the persons employed therein have safe, ready and available means of
ingress and egress by not less than two openings; the communication or roadway
between the two openings, or the two openings furnished by a connection between
two distinct mines, shall at all times be kept clean and of such width and height as
to make the same safe and available for a speedy exit in case of accident. The
escapement shaft shall be fitted with safe and available appliances by which the
persons employed in the mine may readily escape in case an accident occurs derang
ing the hoisting machinery at the main outlets, and such means or appliances for
escape shall always be kept in a safe condition, and in no case shall an air shaft
with a ventilating furnace at the bottom be construed to be an escapement shaft
within the meaning of this section. The cage or cages and other means of egress
shall at all times be available for the persons employed when there is no second out
let. To all other coal mines, whether slopes or drifts, two such openings or outlets
must be provided within twelve months after shipments of coal have commended
from such mine, and in case such outlets are not provided as herein stipulated, it
shall not be lawful for the owner, agent or operator of such slope or drift t >permit
more than five persons to work therein at any one time. All mines oaerated prior to
the passage of this new section, having furnaces located in the bottom of the air
shaft, shall have one year’s time from the passage of this act in which to comply with
the requirements therein.
S e c t io n 7063a. Any owner, agent or operator of a coal mine in this State violating
the provisions of the preceding section shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor,
and for each offense, on conviction, shall be fined not less than fifty nor more than
two hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county j ail not less than three nor
inore than twelve months, or by both such fine and imprisonment.
Approved March 24, 1897.

LABOR LAWS---- MONTANA---- ACTS OF 1897.

833

M ONTANA.

ACTS OF 1897.
I n te r n a tio n a l

T y p o g ra p h ica l

U n io n

la b e l

be u sed

o n

a ll

S ta te p r in tin g

(Page 58.)

Section 1. AIT printing for which the State of Montana is chargeable, including
reports of State officers, State boards, pamphlets, blanks, letter heads, envelopes,
and printed matter of every kind and description, save and except certificates of
appointment and election to office, shall have the label of the branch of the Inter
national Typographical Union of the city in which they are printed.
Sec .
Any officer of the State who shall accept any printed matter, save and
except certificates named in section 1, for which the State is chargeable, which does
not bear a label indicating that it was printed in an office under the jurisdiction of
the International Typographical Union, shall be subject to a fine of fifty dollars
for each and every oifense.
Sec . 3. This law shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage.
Approved March 3, 1897.
M in e

r e g u la tio n s — E s c a p e m e n t s h a fts .

(Page 66.)

1. It is the duty of any person, company or corporation, who shall have
sunk on any mine a vertical or incline to a greater depth than one hundred feet, and
who shall have the top of such shaft or hoisting opening covered or enclosed by a
shaft or building which is not fire-proof, and who shall have drifted on or along the
vein or veins thereof, a distance of two hundred feet or more, after cross cutting to
the same, and shall have commenced to stope, to provide and maintain to the hoist
ing shaft or the opening through which men are let into or out of the mine and the
ore is extracted, a separate escapement shaft, raise, or opening, or an underground
opening or communication between every such mine and some other contiguous mine,
P r o v i d e d , That in case such contiguous mine belongs to a different person, company,
or corporation, the right to use the outlet through such contiguous mine, in all cases
when necessary, or in cases of accident must be secured and kept in force. Where
such an escapement shaft or opening shall not be in existence at the time that
stuping is commenced, work upon such an escapement shaft or opening must be com
menced as soon as stoping begins and be diligently prosecuted until the same is com
pleted, and said escapement shaft, raise or opening shall be continued to and con
nected with the lowest workings in the mine. The exit, escapement shaft, raise, or
opening provided for in the foregoing paragraphs must be of sufficient size as to
afford an easy passageway, and if it be a raise, or shaft, must be provided with good
and substantial ladders from the deepest workings to the surface. Whenever the
exit or outlet herein provided for is not in a direct or continuous course, sign boards
plainly marked showing the direction to betaken must be placed at each departure
from the continuous course.
Sec . 2. This act shall apply only to quartz mines in which nine or more men are
employed underground, and shall not apply to mines not actually extracting ores,
by stoping, nor to mines in which the shaft or hoisting opening, or hauling way is
not covered by a shaft house, and has no building structure within thirty (30) feet
of the shaft or opening, nor to mines in which the hoisting shaft or opening shall be
covered by or enclosed in a fireproof shaft or building.
Se c . 3. The penalty for violating any of the provisions of the preceding sections
is the same as provided in section 705 of the Penal Code.
Sec. 4. All acts and parts of acts in conflict with this act are hereby repealed.
Sec . 5. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage.
Approved March 1, 1897.
Section

M in e

r e g u la tio n s —

H o u r s

o f

la b o r f o r

h o istin g

e n g in ee rs .

(Page 67.)

Section 1. It shall hereafter be unlawful for any engineer or other person to run
or operate for more than eight hours in twenty-four hours, any first motion or direct
acting hoisting engine, in use in any mine, or to run or to operate for more than
said length of time any geared or indirect hoisting engine at any mine in which ~
fifteen or more men are employed underground.
This act shall only apply to such plant or plants as are in operation sixteen or
more hours in twenty-four hours.

834

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

Se c . 2. It shall hereafter he unlawful for any mine owner, lessee, company or cor
poration, operating or conducting any mine, to hire or employ any engineer or other
person to run or operate for more than eight hours in twenty-four hours, any first
motion or direct acting hoisting engine in use at any mine. Or to hire or employ
any engineer or other person to run or operate any geared or indirect acting hoisting
engine, at any mine employing fifteen or more men underground. This act shall
only apply to such plants as are specified in section one of this act, P r o v i d e d , h o w
e v e r , That the provisions of this act shall not apply to any engineer or person, who
temporarily operates any of the engines mentioned, for more than eight hours in one
day, when from sickness or other unforeseen cause the person regularly employed is
unable to operate the same.
Sec . 3. Any person, company or corporation, violating the provisions of this act,
shall upon conviction, be punished by a fine of not less than ten nor more than one
hundred dollars; and each and every day that any person, company or corporation
violates the same shall constitute a separate and distinct violation and shall be
punishable as such.
Sec . 4*. Sections 3370, 3371, and 3372, of Article II, of Chapter XX, of Part III,

Title VII of the Political Code, and all acts and parts of acts, in conflict with this
act, are hereby repealed.
Approved February 19, 1897.
I n s p e c to r

o f m in es .

(Page 109.)
S e c t io n 1. Section 580 of the Political Code of the State of Montana [shall] be
amended so as to read as follows, vfz:
S ection 580. The governor, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, must
appoint an inspector of mines, who shall beat least thirty years of age, a resident of
Montana at least one year, who shall be theoretically and practically acquainted
with mines and mining in all its branches, and he shall hold his office for four years
unless sooner removed by the governor. No person shall hold the position of in
spector ofjnines while an employee or officer of any mining company or corporation.
The inspector of mines must devote his entire time to the duties of his office, and
his salary is two thousand, four hundred dollars.

Se c . 2. Section 581 of said code [shall] be amended so a ^ to read as follows, viz:
Section 581. The governor by and with the consent of the senate must appoint a
deputy inspector o f mines who shall possess like qualifications to those required of
the inspector o f mines, who shall hold his office for four years unless sooner removed
by the governor. No person shall hold the office of deputy inspector of mines while
an employee or officer of any mining company or corporation.

The deputy inspector of mines must devote his entire time to the duties of his
office under the supervision and direction of the inspector of mines, and his annual
salary is one thousand, six hundred and fifty dollars.
Se c . 3. Section 582 of said code [shall] be amended so as to read as follows, viz:
Section 582. It is the duty of the inspector of mines by himself or his deputy to

visit every mine in the State once every six months and inspect its workings, timber
ing, ventilation, means of ingress and egress and the means adopted and in use for
the preservation of the lives and safety of the miners employed therein; for this pur
pose the mining inspector and his deputy shall at all times have access to any mine
and all parts thereof. All mine owners, lessees, operators or superintendents must
render such assistance as may be necessary to enable the inspector or his deputy to
make the examination.
S e c . 4. This act shall be in effect from and after its passage and approval.
Approved March 4, 1897.
B u re a u

o f a g ric u ltu r e

la b o r

a n d

in d u s try

(Page 110.)
S e c t io n 1. Section760 shall read as follows:
S e c t io n 760. A bureau of agriculture, labor and industry is hereby established
for this State, whose executive officers shall be a commissioner, appointed by the
governor, and a chief clerk, who shall be appointed by the commissioner. The term
of office of the commissioner shall be four years, and he may be removed by the gov
ernor for incompetence, neglect or malfeasance in office. The commissioner shall
execute a bond in the penal sum of five thousand dollars, to be approved by the
governor, and to be filed with the state auditor for the faithful performance of his
duties.

LABOR LAWS---- MONTANA— ACTS OF 1897.

835

Sec . 2. Section 761 shall read as follows:

761. The commissioner shall collect, assort and arrange, systematize and
present in an annual report to the governor on or before the first day of December
in each year, statistical details relating to all departments of labor and industry in
the State of Montana, especial!}' in relation to the agricultural, commercial, mining,
manufacturing, educational and social interests and sanitary condition of the labor
ing classes and to the prosperity of all the productive industries of the State.
S e c t io n

Se c . 3. Section 762 shall read as follows:

762. The commissioner shall have the power to administer oaths, have
and use a seal, with power, to examine^ witnesses under oath, to take depositions or
cause the same to be taken by anyone authorized to take depositions, and said com
missioner may deputize any male citizen over the age of twenty-one years to servo
subpoenas upon witnesses who shall be summoned in the same manner as witnesses
before the district court, and any person or owner, operator, or lessee of any mine,
factory, workshop, smelter, mill, ware-house, elevator, foundry, machine shop or
other establishment, any agent or employee of such owner, operator, manager or
lessee, who shall refuse to said commissioner admission therein for the purpose of
inspecting, or who shall when requested by him willfully neglect or refuse to furnish
to him any statistics or other information relating to his lawful duties, which may
be in their possession or under their control, or who shall willfully neglect or refuse
for thirty days to answer questions by circular or by personal application, or who
shall knowingly answer such questions untruthfully or who shall refuse to obey any
such subpoenas and give testimony according to the provisions of this act, shall for
every such willful neglect or refusal be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon convic
tion thereof shall be punished by a fine not less than fifty nor more than one hundred
dollars. P r o v i d e d , That no witness shall be compelled to answer questions respect
ing his private affairs nor to go outside of his own county to give testimony.
Se c . 4. Section 763 shall read as follows:
S e c t io n 763. The commissioner of said bureau shall receive an annual salary of
twenty-five hundred dollars and the chief clerk an annual salary of fifteen hundred
dollars.
S e c . 5. Section 764 shall read as follows:
Se c t io n 764. The office of said commissioner shall be at the capitol of the State
where all the books, records and statistics of the bureau shall be kept. The rent,
salaries and other expenses of the said office shall be paid by the State in the same
manner as is provided by law for the payment of the salaries and expenses of other
State officers.
S e c . 6. Section 765 shall read as follows:
Se c t io n 765. The commissioner may incur such expense as is necessary in the dis
charge of the official duties of said bureau, provided that such expense, including
pay of commissioner and chief clerk, shall not exceed the amount appropriated
therefor in each year.
Sec . 7. Section 766 shall read as follows:
S e c t io n 766. It shall be lawful for the common counsel (council?) of any incorpo
rated city within this State to provide for the establishment of a free public employ
ment office to be conducted pn the most approved plans, and to provide for the
expenses thereof out of the revenues of the city in which the same is established.
The*annual report of the commissioner of agriculture, labor and industry shall con
tain a detailed account of the transactions of all free employment offices "within the
State, showing the number of applicants for help, the number of applicants for
employment, male and female, the number securing employment through said officers
and the expenses thereof.
Sec . 8. Sections 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 769, 770, 771, 772, 773, 774, 775,
776, and 777 of the Political Code of Montana are hereby repealed.
Approved March 4,1897.
S e c t io n

M in e

r e g u la tio n s —

C a g es

s h a fts

e tc.

(Page 245.)
S e c t io n 1. Section 705 of Title X of the Penal Code of the State of Montana, of
an act concerning crimes against the public health and safety, approved March 15,
1895, is hereby amended to read as follows:
S e c t io n 705. It is unlawful for any corporation or person to sink, or work, through
any vertical shaft where mining cages are used, to a greater depth than three hun
dred feet, unless said shaft shall be provided with an iron-bonneted safety cage, to
be used in the lowering and hoisting of the employees thereof, said cage to be also
provided with sheet iron or steel casing not less than one-eighth inch in thickness,
or wire netting of not less than one-eighth inch in diameter; doors to be made of the
same material, shall be hung on hinges, or may be made to slide and shall not bo less
than five feet high from the bottom of the cage, and said doors must be closed when
lowering or hoisting men.

836

BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

The safety apparatus, whether consisting of eccentrics, springs, or other device,
must be securely fastened to the cage, and must be of sufficient strength to hold the
cage loaded, at any depth to which the shaft may be sunk.
The iron bonnet of the aforesaid cage must be made of boiler sheet iron, of good
quality, of at least three-sixteenths of an inch in thickness, and must cover the top
of such cage in such manner as to afford the greatest protection to life and limb from
anything falling down said shaft.
It shall be the duty of the mining inspector and his assistant to see that all cages
are kept in compliance with this section and to also see that the safety dogs are kept
in good order.
*
Every person or corporation failing to comply with any of the provisions of this
section is punishable by a line not less than three hundred dollars, nor more than
one thousand dollars.
All acts and partB of acts in conflict with this section are hereby repealed.
This act shall-be in effect from and after June 1, 1897.
Approved March 1, 1897.
NEW MEXICO.
ACTS OF 1897.
Ch a p t e r

16. —

P r o te c tio n

o f

e m p lo y e e s

e n g in es

e tc

.— U

a n d

n la w fu l

c a r s

a n d

m a lic io u s

in te r fe r e n c e

w ith

e tc.

Se c t io n 1. Any person or persons who shall unlawfully and without authority
remove, take, steal, change, add to, take from, or in any manner interfere with any
journal bearings or brasses or any of the parts or attachments of any locomotive,
tender or car or any fixture or attachment belonging thereto, connected with and
used in operating any locomotive, tender or car, owned, leased or used by any rail
road, railway or transportation company in this Territory, shall be deemed guilty
of a felony and upon conviction thereof before any court or competent tribunal,
shall be subject to imprisonment in the Territorial penitentiary for not less than
one year nor more than five years.
P r o v i d e d , That if the malicious and unlawful removal of any such journal bear
ings or brasses, fixtures or attachments, or the unlawful and malicious change
thereof or interference therewith, shall be the cause of wrecking or derailing any
locomotive, car or cars, shall result in the injury or death of any employee, pas
senger or other person, such person or persons guilty of such removal, change,
alteration, Or interference with such journal bearing or brasses or other parts or
attachments of any such locomotive, tender or car, or any fixture or attachment
belonging thereto, connected with or used in operating such locomotive, tender or
car, shall be deemed guilty of an assault with intent to commit murder, or guilty
of murder as the case may be, and upon conviction thereof shall be punished as in
other cases of assault with intent to commit murder and murder.
Se c . 2. Any person or persons who shall unlawfully and knowingly buy, receive,
or aid in the concealment of any link, pin-bearing journal or other articles used
exclusively for railroad purposes without the consent in writing of the president,
general manager, or superintendent of the railroad owning such property within
this Territory, such person shall be guilty of receiving stolen property knowing
the same to be stolen, and be subject to the penalties prescribed under the laws of
this Territory in other cases of knowingly receiving, buying and concealing stolen
property. And any such property so purchased, received or concealed by any per
son or persons within this Territory, upon which is stamped the name or initials of
any railroad company operating a railroad within this Territory, shall be p r i m a
f a c i e evidence on the trial of any such offense of the true ownership of such prop
erty and of knowledge on the"part of any such person or persons buying, receiving
or aiding in the concealment of the same, that the same was or had been the prop
erty of the railroad company, the name or initials of which is, or are stamped or
marked on such property.
Sec . 3. A ny person who shall unlawfully and without authority remove any waste
or lubricating packing from the journal boxes of any engine, tender, passenger
coach, freight or way car of any railroad operating lines in this Territory, shall be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be fined in a sum
of not less than five dollars nor more than twenty-five dollars, or by imprisonment
in the county jail for not less than ten days, nor more than thirty days, or by both
such fine and imprisonment.

S ec . 4. Any person or persons who shall unlawfully or maliciously remove, carry
away, destroy, break or injure any switch lamp or signal lamp or shall unlawfully
change or extinguish the same while in place and. being used as a signal along the
line or at the switches or side tracks of any railroad company operating a railroad

LABOR LAWS---- NEW MEXICO---- ACTS OF 1897.

837

in this Territory, and within this Territory, shall he deemed guilty of a misdemeanor
and upon conviction thereof shall he punished hy a fine of not less than five dollars,
nor more than one hundred dollars, or to imprisonment in the county jail for not
less than ten days, nor more than one hundred days, or hy hoth such fine and
imprisonment.
This act shall take effect and he in force from and after its passage.
Approved February 17, 1897.
Ch a p t e r

71. —

E x e m p tio n f r o m

e x e c u tio n

e tc

.— W

a g es.

Subdivision 6 of section 1, of Chapter XXXYII of the Laws of 1887, entitled, “ An
act to provide for the exemption of property from forced sale under execution v be so
amended as to read as follows:
6. The personal earnings of the debtor for Sixty days next preceding his applica
tion for such exemption, when it is made to appear hy the affidavit of the debtor, or
otherwise, that such earnings are necessary to the support of such debtor, or his
wife or his family, P r o v i d e d , That such exemption shall not apply to debts incurred
for mantial labor, or for the necessaries of life furnished the debtor or his family.

RECENT GOVERNMENT CONTRACTS.
[The Secretaries of the Treasury, War, and Navy Departments have consented to
furnish statements of'all contracts for constructions and repairs entered into "by them.
These, as received, will appear from time to time in the Bulletin.]

The following contracts have been made by the office of the Super
vising Architect of the Treasury:
P hiladelphia , P a .—September 3,1897. Contract with Allen B.
Borke for trench excavation, portion of general excavation, concrete
foundations, footing stones of terrace columns, stone and brick work
of basement, yard and terrace walls, ironwork, brick arches, ancl con
crete filling of terrace floors, etc., of the United States Mint building,
$138,400. Work to be completed within nine months.
I e w T o e i , N. Y.—September 13,1897. Contract with D. S. Hess
& Co. for fitting up library room, etc., in the court-house and post-office,
$11,475. Work to be completed within three months.
N e w L o n d o n , C onn .— September 21,1897. Contract with John A .
Holland, Norwich, Conn., for heating and ventilating apparatus for the
post-office and custom-house, $1,987. Work to be completed within
sixty-four days.
S a v a n n a h , G a .—September 21, 1897. Contract with Charles B.
Kruse Heating Company, Milwaukee, Wis., for heating and ventilating
apparatus for court-house and post-office, $4,962. Work to be com
pleted within one hundred* working days.
N e w Y o r k , N. Y .— September 22, 1897. Contract with James C.
Wilson for rolling iron shutters for all windows above second story of
appraisers7 warehouse, $32,690. Work to be completed within four
months.
B o st o n , MASS.— September 27, 1897. Contract with Mosler Safe
Company, New York, N. Y., for, money vault and burglar-proof steel
and iron plates for post-office and sub treasury, $7,596. Work to be
completed within one hundred working days.
L y n n , M a s s .— September 30,1897. Contract with Lynch & W ood
ward, Boston, Mass., for low-pressure, return-circulation steam heating
and ventilating apparatus for post-office, $3,230. Work to be com
pleted within sixty days.
P a t e r s o n , N. J.—October 5,1897. Contract with Mcllvain, Unkefer Co., Pittsburg, Pa., for erection and completion (except heating
apparatus, vault doors, and tower clock) of post-office, $130,755. Work
to be completed within eighteen months.
New Y o r k , N. Y.—October 21,1897. Contract with James Harley,
Brooklyn, N. Y .,for plumbing and gas piping in appraisers warehouse,
$29,985. Work to be completed within one hundred and twenty-five
working days.
838

I N D E X .

Page,
Anthracite mine laborers............................................................................... 728-774
1-38
Arbitration and conciliation in tbe boot and shoe industry..........................
Arbitration and mediation, ninth annual report of the board of, of the State
of New York.................................................................................................
159
Building and loan associations........................................................................ 370-374
Conciliation and arbitration in the boot and shoe industry..........................
1-38
Condition of the negro in various cities......................................................... 257-369
Decisions of courts affecting labor:
Alien contract-labor law not applicable to a chemist........ .................... 173-175
Beneficial associations—not partnerships—ownership of property........ 528, 529
Chinese exclusion act—imprisonment at hard labor—constitutionality
of provision........................................
175-177
Chinese laborers—deportation.................................................................. 386, 387
Claim for wages—preference of same over prior mortgage .................... 177-179
Conspiracy—strike—injunction—illegality of a “ patrol” ...................... 197-201
Constitutional provision—when self-executing—enforcement of foreign
law..................... ............................................ .................................... . 185-187
Constitutionality of proposed statute regulating payment of wages—
police power of the State.................... ................................................. 799,800
Constitutionality of statute—
antitrust act of Texas................................
800,801
attorneys7fees in suits for wages, etc.......... ........................ ......... 504-508
boiler inspectors act—exemptions........ ................................... .
179,180
claims for wages preferred..................................................
630-632
eight-hour law......................................................... . ........................ 387-391
hours of labor................................. .................................................... 508, 509
injuries to railroad employees—application of statute to railroads
in hands of receivers...................................................................... 632-635
involuntary servitude—sailors in the merchant service.................. . 509-516
laborers7liens on threshing machines............................................... 635, 636
licensing of laundries................................................. ......................
517
mechanics7lien act..................................................
517-520
mine regulations................................................................................ 636, 637
sale of foreign convict-made goods................................................... 801-803
service of process in suits for services and labor.............................. 803,804
Sunday labor—barbers
.......................................... .. 180-182, 520, 521
Sunday labor—running of freight trains................................. ....... 182-185
Sunday labor—running of railroad trains................................. .
521
wages preferred................................................................................... 637-639
Construction of statute—alien contract labor........................................ 804, 805
Construction of statute—fellow-servant act of Texas............................ 805-808
Contract compelling employee to join labor union unlawful.................. 529-532
Contract of employment—consideration...... >............................. .......... 813, 814
Contract of employment—statute of frauds........ ............................. ....
522

839

840

IN D E X .

Decisions of courts affecting labor*—Continued.
Page.
Contract of service to work out fine and costs—modification of such
contract illegal..................................................................................... 187,188
Definition of “ wages” under law exempting same from garnishment... 188,189
Employers' liability—
amount received on accident policy not to be considered in mitiga
tion of damages................................. ......... .................................. 814, 815
assumption of risk............................................................................ 654, 655
competency of physician as witness..... ..................................... .
522-524
construction of statute......................................................... 639, 640, 809,810
construction of statute—discontinuance of suit by administrator... 524-526
custom—concurring negligence.......................................................... 815,816
duties of master................................................................
655
duties of master—assumption of risk^by employee......................... 201, 202
duties of servant—duties of master .............................................. 202, 203
electric railway company........ .......................................................... 203,204
electric railway companies—duties of the master.......... .......'......... 656, 657
fellow-servant act of Texas....................................................... ....... 657-659
fellow-servants.............................................. ....................... 204-206, 659-662
fellow-servants—principal and agent—scope of authority
....... 662-665
84-87
masters' duty, e tc................................. ............................................
measure of damages.......'...-................................................................ 206, 207
negligence............................................................................ 640, 641, 665-667
negligence of minor employees—application of New York factory
a c t.................. ............................................................................... 810,811
railroad companies........ .................
80,81, 87,88, 207, 208, 641-645, 667-670
railroad companies—assumption of risk—contributory negligence.. 208-211
railroad companies—assumption of risk—negligence....................... 211,212 ,
railroad companies—assumption of risk by employees.................... 816,817
railroad companies—assumption of risk by employees—relief asso
ciations........................................................ ............................. ...... 817,818
railroad companies—construction of statute.................................... 811-813
railroad companies — disobedience of rules — contributory negli
670
gence ............................................................................. .................
railroad companies—duty of master.................... . . . . . ........212, 213,818,819
railroad companies—duties orf the master—assumption of risks by
employees ......................................... ‘.............................................
674
railroad companies—employees' contracts of service—fellow-serv
ants .................... ....................................................... 1.................. 213, 214
railroad companies—fellow servants....................... 189-191, 214-217,671, 672
railroad companies—masters'negligence, etc.................. ................. 218-220
railroad companies—negligence of company's surgeon......................
220
railroad companies—negligence of the master—assumption of risks
by employees................................................................................... 672, 673
release of claim for damages.................................... ........................ 220-222
relief associations.......................................................................... ... 222-224
retention of incompetent foreman...................................... ............. 645, 646
street railway companies—fellow-servants........ ......... .................... 224,225
substitution by employer.................................................................. 225, 226
temporary danger............................................... ..............................
226
unblocked railway frog—contributory negligence...........................
81, 82
validity of contracts making the acceptance of benefits by employ- (
ees from railway relief fund a waiver of claims for personal injury. 646-649
Exemption from garnishment—wages......................................... 526, 527, 649, 650
Fellow-servant act of Arkansas .............................. ................................ 651,652

INDEX.

841

Decisions of courts affecting labor—Concluded.
Page.
Fellow-servant act of Texas—street railroads.........................................
83,84
Garnishment—liability of employer for wages paid into court with con
sent of employee.................................................................................. .
820
Government employees—right of per-diem employee to compensation
for time while under suspension.............................................. ............ 820-822
Issue of nontransferable pay checks—refusal to cash same when pre
sented by parties other than employees—damages............................... 822, 823
Jurisdiction of Federal courts—injunction—contempt.......................... 532-536
Labored lien on crops—enforceable against purchaser without notice. 527,528
Laborers’ liens—who entitled t o ............................................................. 191-193
Logging liens—construction of statute...................................................
82
Maritime liens—employees on steam dredge........................................... 227, 228
Master and servant—contract of hiring................................................... 228,229
Master and servant—degree of ca re........................................................
230
Master and servant—interpretation of contract of employment............. 230, 231
Master and servant—risks of employment................................................ 824,825
89
Measure of damages for wrongful discharge............................................
Mechanics’ liens—applicability of act to street railways—constitution
ality of a ct............................................................................................ 193,194
Mortgages on crops—laborers’ liens on same—priority.......................... 194-197
Negligence of employees—liability to fellow-servant.......................... . 673,674
Seamen—allowance of wages upon discharge before beginning of voyage. 652, 653
Unauthorized discharge of servants—damages. ....................................
89, 90
Digest of recent foreign statistical publications:
Report of the Departmental Committee on the Importation into the
United Kingdom of Foreign Prison-made Goods................................
70,71
Yierteljahrshefte zur Statistik des Deutschen Reichs. Erganzungsheft
enthaltend Hauptergebnisse der Berufszahlung vom 14. Juni 1895 im
Deutschen Reich......................................................................................
71,72
Geschichte und Organisation der amtlichen Statistik in Ungarn...........
73
Report on the Strikes and Lockouts of 1895 in Great Britain and Ireland 160-165
Lois et reglements concernant le travail des femmes et des enfants, la
police des ^tablissements classes, le payement des salaires aux ouvriers, les reglements d’atelier et l’inspection du travail (Belgium)___
165
Congres National des Habitations Ouvrieres et des Institutions de Prevoyance, Antwerp, 1894........................................................................ 165,166
Erstellung billiger Wohnungen durch die Gemeinde Bern..................... 166,167
Publications of the Mus6e Social, Paris, France........ ........................... 167-172
Die Arbeitseinstellungen und Aussperrungen im Gewerbebetriebe in
Osterreich wahrend des Jahres 1895 ...................................................... 381-384
Neuvieme rapport annuel du Comity Directeur de la Federation Ouvriere Suisse et du Secretariat Ouvrier Suisse pour l’annee 1895............. 384, 385
Travail du Dimanche. Vol. Y, Pays etrangers (Allemagne, Autriche,
Suisse, Angleterre)................................................................................ 495-498
Yierteljahrshefte zur Statistik des Deutschen Reichs. Erganzung zum
vierten Heft. Die beschaftigungsiosen Arbeitnehmer im Deutschen
Reich am 14. Juni und 2. Dezember 1895 ..................... .................... 498-503
Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Industries for the Province
of Ontario, 1895..................................................................................... 614, 615
Eighth Report on Trade Unions in Great Britain and Ireland, 1894 and
1895 ...................................................................................................... 615-622
Documents sur la Question du Chdmage (France)............................ ...... 622-624
Berufs- und Gewerbezahlung vom 14. Juni 1895. Berufsstatistik fiir das
Deutsche Reich im Ganzen. Erster Theil........................................... 624-627

842

INDEX.

Digest of recent foreign statistical publications—Concluded.
Page.
Statistiea degli Scioperi avvenuti nell’Industria e nelFAgricoltura
durante l;anno 1895 (Italy)..... . . .................................................. . 627-629
Travail du Dimanche: Etablissements Industrlels (non compris les
mines, minieres et carrieres) (Belgium)........................................... . 790-792
Statistique des Greves et des Kecours & la Conciliation et a FArbitrage
survenus pendant FAnn6e 1896 (France)........ ................... .................792-797
Onderzoek naar de gescbiedenis en werkzaamheid der Yakvereenigingen. Bijdragen tot de statistiek van#Nederland. IY ..................... ' 797, 798
Digest of recent reports of State bureaus of labor statistics:
California............... ....... ...........................-- - - ..................................... . 602-604
Colorado ........................................................... . .............................. . 375-377
Connecticut................................................-.................................. - ........149-151
Indiana....................................................................................................... 487-491
Maine............................................................. . ..........- .............. .............. 492-494
Maryland............................................................
...................... ......... 775, 776
Massachusetts .............
58-67
Michigan.......... .................... .............................. .............................. . 604-606
Minnesota .....................
67-69
M issouri............................................ ............... ................................. 377-379
Montana...................
606-608
Nebraska.......... .............................. ............................................. .......... 379, 380
New Hampshire.......... ...... ............................ ......... - ........................ ...... 608-611
New Jersey........................
777-780
New Y ork ............................................................................................... - 151-156
North Carolina......................... ................. ............................................ 780-782
156-158
Ohio....................
Khode Island........... ..................
611-613
Tennessee.................. ............. ........... ....... ............................................. 782,783
Dutch Society for General Welfare.........................................
130-148
Editorial note concerning strikes in, and the productive power of the laborers
of, the United States.......................... ............................ ........................... 689, 690
Factory inspection in the United States........ ................................................. 549-568
Government contracts .....................................................^... 112,236, 392,548, 688, 838
Industries, population of the German Empire in 1895 engaged in various___
71,
72, 624-627
Inspection of factories and workshops in the United States.......................... 549-568
Insurance of workingmen against idleness in Switzerland.......... ................ 169-172
Italians in Chicago..................................................................................
691-727
Labor bureaus, official bulletins of foreign:
Belgium........................................
76-79
France........................................................................ ................... ........
75, 76
Great Britain............................................................................................
74, 75
New Zealand...............................
79
Laws relating to labor:
Alabama............................................
675-679
California .......................................................... .................. .................. 679, 680
District of Columbia................
91
Idah o........................
681-684
Indiana.......... ........................................................................ *.............. 537-547
Kansas........ ...........................................
826-829
Maine .................................................. .... ................................................ 684, 685
Missouri............................................................
830-832
Montana.......................................................................................
833-836
New Jersey................................
232-234

INDEX.

843

Laws relating to labor—Concluded.
Page.
New Mexico.............................................................................................. 836,837
New York.............................................................................................
91-104
547
North Carolina...........
Oklahoma................................................................................................. 685-687
South Carolina . . . . ..... ..................................................................
234, 235
Utah...............................................................
104-111
Manufactures in Massachusetts, tenth report on the annual statistics of.'... 784-789
Mediation and arbitration., ninth annual report of the board of, of the State
of New York.......... ......................................................................................
159
Municipal or cooperative restaurant of Grenoble, France............................. 594-601
Mutual rights and duties of parents and children, guardianship, etc., under
the law..........................................................................
569-593
Negro, condition of the, in various cities.......................... . . . . . .................. 257-369
Padrone system and padrone banks............................ ................................ 113-129
Prison-made goods, importation of foreign, into the United Kingdom........
70, 71
Public baths in Europe...................................
434-480
39-57
Eail way relief departments........................................
Strikes and lockouts during 1895 in—
Austria.....................................................................................
381-384
Great Britain and Ireland.....................................
160-165
Ita ly ............................................
627-629
Switzerland....................................................
384,385
Strikes and lockouts during 1896 in France................................... „............. 792-797
Sunday labor in—
Austria.........................................................
496,497
Belgium.....................
790-792
England...................
498
Germany.................................................................................................. 495,496
Switzerland............................................................................................. 497, 498
Trade unions in Great Britain and Ireland, 1894 and 1895 ........................... 615-622
Trade unions in the Netherlands, history and operations o f..... ....... ............ 797, 798
Unemployed in France, study of the question of the.................................... 622-624
Unemployed in the German Empire in 1895, census of th e ............. ........... . 498-503
Work and wages of men, women, and children......................................... ... 237-256
Workers at gainful occupations at the Federal censuses of 1870,1880, and 1890 393-433
Workingmen, insurance of, against idleness in Switzerland'...................
169-172
Workingmen’s dwellings erected by the city of Berne, Switzerland........... 166,167

Full text of Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor, Nos. 1 - 100 : November 1897 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor, No. 13, Volume II

FRASER