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DEPARTMENT OP COMMERCE AND LABOR
BULLETIN
OF THE
BUREAU OF LABOR
NO. 8 3 -JULY, 1909
ISSUED EVERY OTHER MONTH
W A SH IN G TO N
GOVERNMENT PRINTING *OFFICE
1909
CONTENTS.
Page.
Women’ s trade union movement in Great Britain, by Katherine Graves
Busbey, A. B .:
History of the m ovem ent........ . ......................................................................
1-5
Obstacles to organization of women................................................................. 5-10
Occupations tem porary...................... ......................................................
6
Low wages and low standard of liv in g ....................................................
6,7
Class distinctions........................................................................................
8,9
Liability to victimization and apathy...................................................... 9,10
Attitude of male trade unionists to organization of w om en ........................ 11-18
Growth of organization among women workers............................................ 18-22
Results of organization of women workers......................................................22-32
Aid secured through legal proceedings....................................................22,23
Recent legislation......................................................................................... 23-25
Crusade against living-in and truck systems............................................. 25-29
Protection against fines and im position.................................................... 29-31
The marriage dow ry................................................................................... 31,32
Conciliation and arbitration......................................................................
32
The Women’s Trade Union League................................................................... 32-43
Methods employed by the league............................................................. 32-37
Advantages of representation in the Trade Union Congress................. 37,38
Advantages of affiliation with the General Federation of Trade Unions. 39-43
Relation of women’ s trade unions to low wages and the sweating system . 44-50
Conclusions...............................................
50-58
A p p en d ix ....................................................................
58-65
Cost of living of the working classes in the principal industrial towns of France:
Scope of the investigation............................................................... .............
66,67
Rents of working-class dw ellings.......................................................................67-71
F rance........................................................................................................... 67-69
France and Great Britain com pared........ ............................................... 70,71
Retail prices....................................................................................................... 71-80
F rance......................................................................................................... 71-77
Rents and prices com bined.................................................................
77
France and Great Britain com pared.......................................................... 77-80
Rates of wages...............................
80-84
F ran ce........................................................................................................... 80-83
Relation of rates of wages to rents and prices..................................
83
France and Great Britain com pared........................................................
84
Hours of la b or....................................................................................................
85
Summary of conclusions................................................................................... 85,86
Changes in retail prices and rates of wages between October, 1905, and
October, 1907..................................... - ..................- — ................................ 86,87
m
IV
CONTENTS.
Earnings and hours of labor in British textile industries:
Page.
General summary.................................................................................................88-92
Cotton industry.................................................................................................... 92-95
W oolen and worsted industry............................................................................ 95-97
Linen industry........................ „ ......................................................................... 98,99
Jute industry......................................................................................................
99
Silk in d u stry.................................................................................................. 100,101
Hosiery industry...............................................................................................101,102
Lace industry.................................................................................................... 102,103
Digest of recent reports of state bureaus of labor statistics:
California—Thirteenth Biennial Report, 1907 and 1908: Hours and wages—
Factory inspection—Farm labor—Employment agencies—Labor organi
zations—Child labor—Chinese and Japanese........................................... 104,105
Colorado—Biennial Report, 1907 and 1908: Coal production—Railroad em
106
ployees—Labor organizations—Free employment bureaus.......................
Connecticut—Twenty-third Report, 1907 and 1908: New factory construc
tion—Effects of the industrial depression—Free public employment
bureaus—Child labor conference—Strikes and lockouts—Employer’s
liability—Tenement houses.........................................................................106-108
Indiana—
Twelfth Biennial Report of the Bureau of Statistics, 1907 and 1908:
Labor organizations—Electric railroads...........................................108,109
Sixth Biennial Report of the Indiana Labor Commission, 1907 and
1908...........................................................................................................
109
Iowa—Thirteenth Biennial Report, 1906 and 1907: Graded wages and
salaries—New industries—Trade unions—Wage-earners—Railroad em
ployees—Employers’ statistical report—Canning industry................... 109-111
Montana—Tenth Report, 1905 and 1906: Labor—Industries................... I l l, 112
Digest of recent foreign statistical publications:
Belgium:
Reports on home workers in Belgium: Furniture industry at Maiines,
the making of embroidery and women’ s apparel, and rope making.
113
Report as to wages and hours of labor in the metal-working in
dustry.................................................................................................... 113-120
Germany:
Report on unemployment in Berlin and 27 suburbs on November
17,1908.................................................................................................. 120-124
Report on unemployment in Halle on the Saale on January 10,1909. 124-127
Report of the experience of the city of Magdeburg and of various
European governments in connection with the problem of unem
ploym ent.............................................................................................. 128-136
Great Britain:
Report of the chief inspector of factories and workshops for the year
1908.........................
137-141
Report of the chief inspector of factories on the administration of
the Factory and W orkshops Act, 1901, by local authorities in
respect of workshops, outwork, etc., in 1907................................... 142,143
Italy: Report on the question of employment on Sundays and holidays. .
143
Decisions of courts affecting labor:
Decisions under statute law .......................................................................... 144-163
Assignments of wages—rights of assignees—priority of wage claims
over claims of mortgagees—construction of statute ( Union Trust Co.
v. Southern Sawmills and Lumber C o .).............................................. 144-147
CONTENTS.
V
Decisions of courts affecting labor—Concluded.
pa« eDecisions under statute law—Concluded.
Contract of employment—intent to defraud—constitutionality of stat
ute—imprisonment for debt (Bailey v. State)..................................147,148
Employers’ liability—employment of children in violation of statute—
contributory negligence—course of employment (Strafford v. Repub
lic Iron and Steel C o,).......................................................................... 149,150
Employers’ liability—railroad companies—construction of statute—
assumption of risk—acts in emergencies ( Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi
cago and St, Louis Railway Co, v, Bossert)............... ........................ 150-153
Employers’ liability—safe place to work—questions for jury—assump
tion of risk—construction of statute—contributory negligence—
course of employment (Harvey v, Texas and Pacific Railway Co,) . 153-157
Labor organizations—strikes—injunctions— conspiracy—interference
with employment—secondary boycott—reciprocal rights of employ
ers and employees (Iron Holders’ Union v. Allis-Chalmers Co,) . . . 157-163
Decisions under common law...................................................................... 163-181
Employer and employee—disclosure of trade secrets—confidential re
lations—injunction ( Stevens & Co, v, Stiles)......................................163-165
Employer and employee—wrongful discharge—remedy—duty to seek
new employment—burden of proof ( Quick v. Swing)..................... 165-167
Employers’ liability—duty of employer as to employment of compe
tent fellow-servants—evidence of incompetence—contract with trade
union as defense (Pearson v, Alaska Pacific Steamship C o,)........... 167-169
Labor organizations—boycott—secondary or compound boycott—con
spiracy—injunction— unincorporated associations (The American
Federation o f Labor v. The Buck Stove and Range C o,).....................169-179
Labor organizations—interference with employment—liability for pro
curing discharge—rights of members (Blanchard v, Newark Joint
District Council o f United Brotherhood o f Carpenters and Joiners of
America et a l.)....................................................................................... 180,181
In dex...................................................................................................................... 183-186
B U L L E T IN
OF TH E
BUREAU
No. 83.
OF L A B O R .
W A SH IN G TO N .
J u l y , 1909.
THE WOMEN’S TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
BY KATHERINE GRAVES BUSBEY, A. B.
H IS T O R Y O F TH E M OVEM EN T.
In 1827, after the repeal o f the Combination Laws, when the Grand
General Union o f the United Kingdom was being started by the
cotton spinners, the women and girls were urged to form separate
organizations; and though these organizations did not last, it seems
appropriate that one o f the earliest indications o f women’s trade
unions should be found in the cotton textiles trade, which on the lines
o f united enrollment now includes in its membership three-fourths o f
the organized women o f Great Britain. Anyone who has seen a Lan
cashire demonstration with its audience o f thousands o f trade union
ists and file after file o f women and girls among the men’s ranks, each
wearing the badge o f her union—the cotton bud—has had an object
lesson in the possibilities o f organization among female workers.
In spite o f this early effort among the cotton textile operatives and
several sporadic attempts in Scotland, it was not until 1874 that a
successful attempt was made to organize the women in industries in
Great Britain. On September 12 o f that year “ the first society
formed for women,” what is now known as the “ Women’s Trade
Union League,” was started.
The organizer o f this society had worked in the bookbinding trade
in London, and out o f her experience had come the desire to formulate
some scheme to help the working women o f England to help them
selves. Yet in those days even in England none dared speak openly
o f trade unionism among women.
T o have attempted a militant organization o f women wage-earners
would have meant disaster, since it would have awakened the fear
1
2
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
o f competition in the men’s unions, thus incurring their opposition,
and would also have aroused public opinion which was averse to
women’s self-assertion in any form. Furthermore, at that time trade
unionism in itself meant to the average person the use o f illegal
methods, and to the more educated it was an irremissible sin against
the inspired ordinances o f political economy.
Strangely enough the model for the first women’s trade union in
Great Britain was found in America. A.casual attendance upon a
meeting o f the Female Umbrella Makers’ Union in New Y ork in
1873 revealed to the founder o f the British movement the success and
force o f a body o f women workers banded together to accumulate a
sick benefit fund, and on her return to England she started an organ
ization under the title o f the “ Women’s Protective and Provident
League.”
The title, “ Women’s Protective and Provident League,” was con
sidered safe in that it did not suggest to the casual hearer any offen
sive and defensive character o f union, but the decisive tenor o f the
organization may be gathered from the follow ing resolution adopted
at the first meeting :( a)
“ That one o f the objects o f the association shall be to enable women
earning their own livelihood to combine to protect their interests.”
And the last resolution offered at this meeting was:
“ That it shall be one o f the objects o f the association to provide
a benefit fund for assistance in sickness and other contingencies.”
The abstract o f rules by which these early societies were governed
furnished a more specific disclaimer o f any intention to establish a
hostile alignment o f employers and women workers:
1. Women 16 years o f age and upward working at any branch -of
the trade shall be eligible to become members.
2. A fter the society shall have been formed 6 months a candidate
for membership shall be recommended by two members, who shall
vouch that she is a competent workwoman.
3. Entrance fee from 2s. to Is. [49 to 24 cents], varying in different
societies, payable by installments o f 4d. [8 cents] per week; and sub
scription 2d. [4 cents] per week.
4. A member when out o f work or in sickness (excepting confine
ments) shall receive 5s. [$1.22] per week fo r not more than 8 weeks
in 1 year and for not less than 1 week.
5. I f any member be found to have been in any way imposing on
the funds o f the society, or defrauding an employer, she shall be
suspended from all benefits until the next quarterly meeting.
This sick-benefit fund was the salient feature in the propaganda in
the different trades, and it was not until 1889 that sufficient courage
was gathered to substitute the words “ Trade Union ” for “ P ro
tective,” and several years elapsed until “ Provident ” was abandoned
a First Annual Report o f the Women’s Protective and Provident League, 1875.
W O M E K 's TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
3
and the “ Women’s Trade Union League ” became a confessed agency
for the cause o f industrial organizations for the advancement and
defense o f female labor.
This league has since its formation in 1874 until the present day
supplied the machinery for dealing with the unorganized women
wage-earners. Its methods and scope o f work w ill be treated later.
The first effort o f the league was to reach out and bind together the
women employed in the printing trade. These women nad strongly
felt the want o f a provident society during a trade depression three
years before, but the men in the trade refused to admit them in their
league because they claimed there was no provision for the admission
o f women, and also at that time women’s wages were seldom more
than one-half those o f men, and women would have been unable to
pay the subscriptions.
The appeal for a separate organization among the women met
with a hearty response. Three hundred employed in folding, sewing,
and other branches o f the bookbinding trade attended the first meet
ing and 66 immediately enrolled as members with a subscription o f 2d.
(4 cents) per week, and an entrance fee o f Is. (24 cents). A t the end
o f the first year the membership had increased to 275 with funds
amounting to £80 ($389.32), and this Society o f Women Em ployed
in Bookbinding is still extant, while over 20 o f the original mem
bers, all now over 60 years o f age, hold monthly reunions in the
rooms o f the Women’s Trade Union League.
But agitation has never been the policy o f the society. It has
refused to join with the men in making demands upon the em ployers;
its representatives at trade union congresses and elsewhere have stead
ily insisted on legal restrictions upon labor; it has not shown itself
anxious to seize what the men regarded as opportunities to make
itself felt.
Perhaps the union has been too w illing to make requests to good
employers fo r better conditions, and too timorous in helping to level
up the general conditions o f the trade. * * * But this union has
never reached that point o f strength when it could bring pressure to
bear on the trade fo r the mutual advantage o f the good employer and
the woman worker. As a consequence the good relations between
the men and the woman in the trade have not always been maintained,
and there was considerable ill feeling between the two sections dur
ing the eight-hours’ agitation from 1891 to 1894. It should be
noted, however, that the sentiment among the women as a whole was
friendly during the eight-hours’ agitation, although the society was
taking no part in it officially.
A t the present moment this society is regarded by both men and
women mainly as a benefit club. In this respect it has been most suc
cessful and has paid with excellent regularity. (®)
W hat Mr. Macdonald says o f the society o f women employed in
bookbinding holds true also o f all the other early societies estabWomen in the Printing Trades, by J. Ramsay Macdonald, pp. 37, 38.
4
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
lished under the auspices o f the Women’s Protective and Provident
League. (a) They were not fighting organizations, their leaders be
lieving that to attempt too much is to weaken.
Although the unions were often the outgrowth o f a grievance on the
part o f the workers, in the early records o f the league there is little
evidence o f the belligerency having a favorable termination or o f
being continued after the women had united into a trade society.
In September, 1879, a society having been formed among the cotton
operatives in Bristol, the women went out on strike, hut the men re
fused to aid them and they were obliged to return to work at a reduc
tion. In this same year a women’s union at the Royal Arm y Clothing
Factory, at Pim lico, was formed to resist a reduction in piecework
prices o f from 15 to 20 per cent and the withdrawal o f home work. A
deputation o f 1,000 women unionists went to the doors o f the House
o f Commons and several women from the factory gave evidence.
In 1876 the movement had gained such proportions that delegates
from three women’s trade societies—shirtmakers, women bookbinders,
and the upholsteresses’ union—were admitted to the Eighth Annual
Trades Union Congress held at Glasgow, and at the meeting o f the
Trades Union Council, in 1879, five women representing unions were
not only present, but took an active part in the proceedings. A reso
lution offered by them fo r the appointment o f additional inspectors,
women as well as men, under the factory and workshop act, was
approved and carried.
The woman trade-unionist had begun to play her part in the vicissi
tudes and development o f the trade-union movement.
B y the early eighties most o f the separate organizations o f women
in large industries had died out, being superseded by co-unionism, and
from this period the woman trade-unionist became an economic factor
to be reckoned with in trade disputes and labor legislation.
In 1885 the Women’s Trade Union League made the first effort to
compile a log book with the hope o f securing a uniform price for simi
lar work in the trades.
A t the trades union congress o f 1889 a resolution was offered “ that
in the opinion o f this congress it is desirable, in the interest both o f
men and women, that in trades where women do the same work as
men they shall receive the same payment.”
A ccord in g to the First Annual Report o f the Women’s Protective and Provi
dent League there had been five flourishing unions affiliated w ith the league
within the year. A few months after the form ation o f the women bookbinders’
union a meeting o f 400 women comprising representatives from dressmakers,
milliners, and mantle makers combined into another society. In March, 1875,
the women employed in the work o f binding, sewing, and trimming men’s hats
established a society. Next, women in the upholstery trades form ed a union and
affiliated themselves with the National League. The fifth society form ed was
o f shirt and collar makers.
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
5
An equal scale o f wages was found impossible o f general applica
tion because men and women are seldom found doing exactly the same
kind o f work, and even when apparently the same there is generally
a “ net advantageousness ” about the labor o f the male employee ; ( a)
still the schedule o f piecework in the cotton industries o f Lancashire
is the same for male and female operatives, and this is acknowledged
as a triumph for the woman trade-unionists in this stronghold o f trade
unionism, the total female membership o f the Lancashire cotton
unions being about 146,000 in 1908, or approximately 75 per cent o f
the entire membership.
But the Lancashire unions must not be taken as indicative o f the
strength o f women’s trade organizations throughout Great Britain.
In chronicling this triumph o f organization, almost three-fourths o f
the women trade-unionists are disposed o f, and because o f the matured
condition o f trade unionism in this district before the advent o f
women into industrial organization there is not obtained an adequate
idea o f the difficulties ordinarily encountered by those attempting to
combine women workers not massed in one district.
O B STA C LE S TO O R G A N IZA TIO N O F W OM EN.
The achievement from the formation o f a benefit club o f 66 mem
bers in the bookbinding trade to the present enrolled membership o f
over 200,000 women trade-unionists has not been easy for the organ
izers. A survey o f the obstacles encountered explains why stable
organization has been so difficult in the great proportion o f women’s
labor.
Certain theories in regard to women in the industrial system handi
capped the initial efforts for organization. The recognition that “ for
good or ill, in spite o f the sentimental idea o f woman’s place being the
home, women have come into industry to stay,” was slow to com e.(*6)
“ The gradual influx o f women into almost every trade or industry
and the consequent lowering o f wages which their unregulated com
petition entails ” was necessary before the woman wage-earners could
be considered sufficiently important as an economic factor to make
protective combination among them practicable.
It is estimated that, outside o f agricultural workers, there were, in
1906, 1,600,000 women workers in the trades and industries o f Great
Britain out o f the total o f 6,200,000 wage-earners, ( c) and against this
numerical strength there can be no absolutely prohibitive opposition
to the attempts to solve by organization the problems inevitable to
the advent o f female labor in the industrial world.
° Sidney Webb, in the Economic Journal, Vol. I, pp. 635 et seq.
6 Mary R. Macarthur, in the Labor Record, June, 1905.
0 Ninth Annual Report o f the General Federation o f Trade Unions, 1908, p. 27.
6
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
OCCUPATIONS TEM PO R A RY.
The greatest difficulty in form ing women’s trade unions lies with
the women workers themselves. W hile there is no sex inability to
recognize the necessity for combination, the probability o f marriage
as a relief from work in the factory or workshop makes it difficult
for the women to see any advantage in organizing, because they look
upon their occupations as merely temporary.
The withdrawal from wage-earning on marriage has been found
a sufficiently common occurrence to affect the stability o f women
as a labor class in Great Britain, but the force with which it m ili
tates against the facility o f their organization is due to the fact that
lack o f permanence from the workers’ point o f view discourages the
acquiring o f technical instruction and lowers the standard o f their
work. The temporary nature o f woman’s employment prevents her
becoming expert in the higher branches o f a trade, and this want o f
technical training keeps her wages down, and it is in the low wages
o f women workers that the chief difficulty o f effective organization
lies. The trade-union leaders, therefore, have to cope with the ap
parently paradoxical situation o f women being frequently poorly paid
because they are not organized, and protective organization rendered
impossible because they are too poorly paid to afford even the small
dues attendant upon combination. An illustration o f this appears
in the follow ing extract from the annual report o f the Women’s
Trade Union League for 1906:
In June a number o f bag makers employed by an East London firm
went on strike for an increase in the price offered fo r certain bank
cash bags o f exceptionally thick paper. A meeting o f the girls was
held, an interview with the management obtained, and finally the
demand o f the girls for an increase o f 2d. [4 cents] per 1,000 was
conceded. An attempt was made to organize the girls, but owing
to their low wages— averaging about 7s. 6d. [$1.83] weekly— and the
consequent difficulty o f paying contributions, they were only able to
keep together for a few months.
LOW W AGES A N D LOW STAN D AR D OF L IV IN G .
That the low standard o f living necessitated by low rates o f pay
to women workers is one o f the great difficulties o f organization
among them was set forth by the secretary o f the Women’s Trade
Union League in her testimony before the House o f Commons Select
Committee on Home W ork in 1907:
Q. May I ask you i f the general outcome o f your experience is to
support the evidence * * * that it is very difficult to organize
workers o f this class, and consequently very difficult to carry on for
them or with them an effort to improve their wages and conditions?
A . Y es; and I wish to make clear on that point that the low rates
o f wages are not confined to the home workers, and that the question
W O M E N ’S TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
7
o f organization is equally difficult with the similar class o f labor in
the factory— almost equally difficult when the wages are very low in
the factory.
Q. And for the same reasons?
A . For the same reasons, yes.
Q. W hich are?
A . W hich are that it is difficult for the worker to afford to pay a
contribution out o f her slender wages; the wages vary so much, and
it is difficult to get her to look far enough ahead to see what the
benefits w ill be. * * * So that it is very difficult to form a perma
nent organization amongst low ly paid women workers, either in the
factory or in the home. (a)
But returning to the question o f the extent to which the prospect o f
marriage has been found to militate against women’s organizations,
there is a note o f optimism in the follow ing opinion on this difficulty:
Any investigator o f women’s work knows fu ll well that what most
handicaps women is their general deficiency in industrial capacity
and technical skill. * * * Doubtless it may be said that the men
are to blame here; it is they who induce women to marry, and thus
divert their attentions from professional life. But though we can
not cut at the. root o f this by insisting, as I once heard it gravely sug
gested, on “ three generations o f unmarried women,” we can do a
great deal to encourage the growth o f professional spirit and pro
fessional capacity among women workers, if we take care to develop
our industrial organization along the proper lines. (6)
W hile among labor leaders the anticipation o f marriage as a solu
tion to individual labor problems, and the consequent creation o f the
“ casual amateur ” class o f operatives, is quoted as one o f the chief
deterrents to the spread o f organization among women workers,
throughout England married women are entering more and more into
the industrial arena, and the fact that a girl is going to marry does
not by any means necessarily mean that she is going to give up her
occupation. In the centers o f textile manufacture, in which the great
m ajority o f working women in Great Britain are employed, employ
ment o f married women is encouraged. There is a unanimous opinion
among the organizers o f women’s trade unions that the difficulty o f
effecting concerted action through organization in any industry is
greatly lessened where there is a proportion o f married women among
the employees. In Lancashire there are more women organized than
in any other district, and while, according to officials o f labor organi
zations, married women in the industries constitute approximately 20
per cent o f the total number o f women employed there, it should be
borne in mind that in the total o f female wage-earners in all England
there are about 1,000,000 married women to 3,250,000 unmarried.
0 Report from the Select Committee on Home W ork, 1907, Minutes o f Evidence,
p. 134.
6 Problems o f Modern Industry, Sidney and Beatrice Webb, p. 96.
8
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
CLASS DISTIN CTIO N S.
Another great difficulty encountered in a high grade o f woman
workers is the class distinction adhered to in the different depart
ments o f employment. This has made for a long time the organization
o f such workers as stenographers and typists, clerks, shop assistants,
nurses, civil servants, telephone and telegraph operators, and other
professional and semiprofessional classes very difficult. F or instance,
in one public-service system in England, partly state owned and
partly a private monopoly, the company has a large staff; but
the women employed by the Government, although they are doing
exactly the same work as the women employed by the company,
regard themselves as superior in the social scale because they are
civil employees, and they decline to be members o f a society admitting
the employees o f the private concern.
The same thing is found in other branches o f the civil service.
Women who have passed a government examination and are employed
in a department o f the government service consider that a class
barrier separates them from the girls who act as telephone clerks,
perhaps in the same building.
Am ong shop assistants this feeling o f caste distinction between the
gradations o f employment under the same roof has presented great
difficulties to organization among the women engaged in the dis
tributive trades. F or example, the girls who are employed in the
showroom o f large department stores in London and who, by reason
o f their occupation as models and exhibitors, wear well fitted, modish
dresses, consider that the girls downstairs, who are behind a counter
selling handkerchiefs or ribbons, belong to a different social world.
It was not until 1891 that any permanent organization among the
shopgirls o f England was accomplished. In that year the National
Amalgamated Union o f Shop Assistants was formed. This union
now has 22,000 members out o f the 500,000 engaged in the distributive
trades. (°) The membership in London is 5,500, and only about onethird o f the members are women.
There is now a small trade organization in London among the
women engaged in dressmaking, but for a long time all attempts to
unite these workers for an agreement as to hours o f work and con
tinuance o f employment during the slack season were combated by
the women themselves, who considered that membership in a union
would sacrifice their status o f gentility. They would accept 20
hours’ continuous stretches o f work in the rush season, and starvation
in the time when the fashionable w orld was sated with gala garments,
rather than have their occupation put in the category with the factory
° These figures are given on the authority o f the secretary o f the National
Amalgamated Union o f Shop Assistants, Warehousemen, and Clerks.
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
9
workers. But it should be remembered that in England this class
feeling is not confined to women, but also has been found a difficulty
in the organization o f men employed in the highly skilled trades.
L IA B IL IT Y TO V IC T IM IZA T IO N A N D A P A T H Y .
Certain characteristics attributable to sex do, however, augment
the difficulty o f preserving a stable organization among industrial
women. The secretary o f the Women’s Trade Union League, who
has actively pursued the work o f propagating women’s trade union
ism in Great Britain, gives the follow ing as her opinion on this
point:
The woman worker is more submissive than the man worker, more
inclined to underestimate her own value, and more easily overdone
by an unscrupulous employer. It has frequently been experienced
that women who join a union, or maybe leading it, are victimized by
an employer who would not do so in the case o f a man. A valuable
example o f this may be seen in* the case o f the * * * trade o f
* * * . Here, while the masters’ association, recognizing the men’s
union, voluntarily sat around an arbitration table to discuss grievances
and agreed to minimum rates o f payment and other important ques
tions, they absolutely declined to admit representation from the
women workers, also organized, despite the fact that the men them
selves tried to get the employers to recognize that women should be
included in the agreements. Therefore it may be said that women are
more liable to victim ization and consequently less likely to form stable
organizations.
Another difficulty upon which almost every leader o f women’s trade
unionism throughout the large industries o f Great Britain remarks
is the apathy o f the woman worker toward any change in the condi
tion o f labor to which she has been accustomed. This is largely a
matter o f temperament. In England, except in the sweated indus
tries, the competition o f foreign labor is a negligible quantity, and to
the mass o f native women workers who have, as they say in Scotland,
“ been bom with a hank o f yarn in their hands,” custom is regarded
as law, and unless the infringement upon their wages or mealtime
is flagrant they are slow to respond to a call for organization. When
combination is effected the management and the paid secretaryship
o f the union are more often than not given to male unionists, and
the female members never think o f conducting initiative action.
Even among women trade unions where age has lent dignity and
stability to their organization this difference is apparent. In one o f
the towns in Lancashire, where women operatives in the cotton textile
manufacture are perhaps as successfully organized as anywhere else
in Great Britain, this condition was found.
10
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
In going to the office building, where the men executives o f the
unions from this district have their offices, the writer was impressed
with the number o f women workers passing in and out in groups. It
was in the evening, and the gray shawls and “ clogs,” that had scur
ried through the streets to the factories in the morning, had given
place to rather well fitting, sometimes m ildly ornate clothes. To the
secretary o f one o f the largest unions their appearance was com
mented upon as a demonstration o f the success o f the woman factory
operative in effective organization.
“ Yes,” he replied, “ they come here to report grievances and col
lect benefits—fo r these are precarious occupations and this union pays
good benefits. But although the division o f membership is the same
as it is in the trade, or about nine women to one man, and the women
have gained an increase o f 50 per cent in wages since the union was
started 20 years ago, they are too indifferent to the success o f the
union to come out to the meetings. And this year they put in such
a poor appearance at the annual meeting that the woman who had
represented them for 14 years at their trades council was defeated and
a man sent in her place.”
This woman was interviewed, and her testimony, based on an expe
rience o f over 20 years, as to this indifference o f the woman worker
to the possibility o f power in the union to which she belongs, was even
more forcible.
“ They let the men run the unions,” she said, “ and then wonder
why the legislation they, by the mere weight o f their membership in
the unions, help the men to secure, is always given an interpretation
more favorable to the male operative. There are now in this town
posted notices that women touching their machines during meal time
are in violation o f the factory acts, while the men are allowed to clean
theirs and thus gain a h alf an hour or so in work time. Moreover,
according to the standard log worked out between the organized oper
atives and the employers, men and women are supposed to receive the
same pay for mule spinning work, yet there is no woman trade
unionist in charge o f these machines. They say it is because women
would be obliged to turn in the neck o f their waists and go stocking
less on account o f the hum idity necessary in these rooms, but if more
women asserted themselves at their trade-union meetings with the men
the false modesty myth would disappear, I think.”
The Bolton and D istrict Power Loom Weavers’ Association has
5,800 women members to 520 men, yet the officials o f this union are
all men. And this leads to a consideration o f what has been and
what is the attitude o f the male trade-unionist toward the women’s
trade union movement.
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
11
A T T IT U D E OF M ALE T E A D E U N IO N ISTS TO O EG AN IZA T IO N OF W OM EN.
Aside from the attitude o f traditional superiority with which men
would naturally regard any attempt o f women to organize, there
was economic argument back o f their steady resistance to the com
bination o f women workers either in trade societies o f their own or
as co-members in the men’s unions. Women’s labor was cheap labor,
liable to undersell that o f the men in many branches o f trade, and
the strengthening o f this form o f competition by any form o f organ
ization was looked upon askance. A t the first annual meeting o f the
Society o f Women Employed in Bookbinding there was read a letter
o f cordial greeting to the new society from its brother organization
in the trade, but when a similar congratulatory resolution was moved
at the London Trades’ Council it met with considerable oppo
sition. (a)
But the demand for women’s labor increased. The introduction o f
machinery easy o f operation in the manufacturing industries was
favorable to the employment o f women, and “ to the factory system,
and the consequent growth o f the ready-made trade, must also be
traced the great increase in the number o f girls employed in the
tailoring trade,” (6) and the employment o f female labor in the great
industry o f boot and shoe making greatly increased between 1881
and 1891. (*)
In all these trades the women were not brought in direct compe
tition with men in the higher branches, but they were replacing
them in different departments at a lower rate o f pay, and male
trade-unionists realized that a large mass o f underpaid, unorganized
labor is bound to affect detrimentally the average worker, and that it
was clearly to their own interest to induce women to cooperate for a
higher wage rather than to compete for lower.
But it is difficult to determine just what the opinion o f the male
trade-unionist o f the present day is in regard to the advantages or
necessity o f unionism among industrial women. A high official in
the General Federation o f Trade Unions points to the fact that in
the highest branches o f cotton spinning in Lancashire, where more
care has been devoted to women’s organization than anywhere else,
men’s wages are lower than in Yorkshire, where trade unionism
amounts to only a third o f that found in the Lancashire district, and
he asserts that outside the textile industries women’s trade unionism
is a negligible quantity. Am ong the trade union men in Birmingham
this same pessimism exists. Here, however, the women workers are
a Women in the Printing Trades, by J. Ramsay Macdonald, p. 36.
6 Statistics on Employment o f Women and Girls, Board o f Trade, 1894, p. 11.
c Idem, p. 73.
4764—No. 83—09----- 2
12
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
scattered, a few in each industry, and organization is made im
possible.
In Manchester the men trade union leaders are enthusiastic over
the work accomplished by the women unions throughout Lanca
shire. W ith so many women in the industries here, they say, it is
necessary to have their organized support for concurrent action in
case o f trade disputes, and they point to the great benefit that the
maintenance o f the log o f equal earnings o f men and women has
wrought in presenting a stable economic condition.
F or illustration, take a table o f average earnings o f highly skilled
men and women cotton weavers in Lancashire:
AVERAGE PIECEWORK EARNINGS IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906,
OF COTTON-CLOTH FOUR-LOOM WEAVERS WORKING FULL TIME.
[From Report of an Inquiry by the Board of Trade into the Earnings and Hours of Labor
of Workpeople of the United Kingdom. I. Textile Trades in 1906, pp. 63, 72.]
Per cent
of
women
of total
4-loom
weavers
working
Women.
full
time, (a)
Average earnings.
District.
Men.
Lancashire and Cheshire:
Ashton-under-Lyne.......................................................................
Oldham.........................................................................................
Bolton............................................................................................
96.80
Manchester....................................................................................
Stockport.......................................................................................
Preston......................... ................................................................
Blackburn......................................................................................
Accrington.....................................................................................
Burnley.........................................................................................
Bacup............................................................................................
Rochdale.......................................................................................
All Lancashire and Cheshire................................................................
Yorkshire............................................................................................
United Kingdom..................................................................................
5.66
6.04
6.18
5.96
6.31
5.92
5.68
6.10
5.50
6.06
L e ig h ................................................................................................................................
6.04
85.23
5.17
5.56
4.87
4.87
5.39
5.62
6.02
5.68
6.14
5.60
5.50
5.72
5.47
5.70
83.1
100.0
95.3
100.0
100.0
83.9
76.0
63.5
76.4
59.6
57.1
67.7
68.6
52.3
68.0
a Computed from data shown in original report.
The men trade-unionists in the printing trades have offered serious
opposition to the organization o f the women. This was particularly
expressed by the action taken in 1886 at a conference o f the typo
graphical societies o f the United Kingdom and the Continent, held
in London, which resolved:
That while strongly o f the opinion that women are not physically
capable o f perform ing the duties o f a compositor, this conference
recommends their admission to membership o f the various typo
graphical unions upon the same conditions as. journeymen, provided
always the females are paid strictly in accordance with scale.
This resolution was subsequently adopted by the London Society
o f Compositors, with the result that it became practically impossible
fo r any women to join the society. (a)
a Women in the Printing Trades, by J. Ramsay Macdonald, p. 28.
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
13
The principal reason why women are employed in this highly
skilled trade is their cheapness, and if they demanded the same wage
as the men they would not be employed, because the labor o f the
male com positor is more efficient. One woman was able to avail
herself o f this resolution. She joined the Society o f Compositors on
August 30, 1892, but she has ceased to be a member. The reason
for this determined opposition o f the male compositor to admitting
women to their unions is that their presence in the trade must always
be a menace to maintaining the standard wage. Women compositors
are regarded as so inferior to men that only among employers in a
small way, doing business on lim ited capital, where low wages are
a great enough advantage to counterpoise the lack o f technical skill,
can they find employment. In better equipped houses women do only
part o f the work, the heavier or more technical part being done by
men. The men who have served long apprenticeships naturally
resent the infusion o f women’s inferior workmanship, and above all
combat trade combination with her generally lower rate o f wage.
T o show how effectively this exclusion has been carried out, it may
be stated that in 1901 in the seven unions o f men covering the print
ing trades there were 41,907 members, while the total membership o f
women’s unions was well under 1,000. (a)
In other occupations than printing, owing to the development
o f machinery there is a margin o f labor where women are called in to
take over processes form erly done by men, and in the readjustment,
before the men are absorbed in other and higher branches o f the
same trade or in different industries, there has been friction over the
attempted organization o f the women. The exclusion o f the women
from the compositors’ union constitutes the only statistical evidence
available o f what is called “ trades-union jealousy.” And this, as
has been explained, was not discrimination against female members
because they were women, but because they presented*less skilled
labor, underselling the technical skill o f the man worker in an im
mobile trade, where men could hope neither to move out o f line to
avoid competition nor to raise the women worker’s pay. In Edinburgh
in 1849 a union o f women compositors was form ed, but it failed at
the end o f a year for the same reason that had convinced the men
that it did not pay to organize them—that their wages were fixed by
their inefficiency, and that any attempt to better them would only
displace men workers.
But abrupt and absolute failure has been encountered rarely by
the organizers o f women workers in England. A t the beginning o f
the women’s trade union movement there were many instances o f
Women in the Printing Trades, by J. Ramsay Macdonald, p. 41.
14
BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR.
organizations which were formed and which expired after a feeble
life o f weeks or months, because trade unionism for women was
represented as the solution o f all labor troubles. Even now the
organizers o f the Women’s Trade Union League enroll every year
thousands o f members o f women’s trade unions, knowing perfectly
well that if half the number enlisted is retained it w ill be perhaps
a higher average than usual. An instance o f this lapsing in member
ship on a large scale is seen in the recent organization o f the women
employed in the boot and shoe trade at Leicester. When this work
was started by an organizer in 1904 for some reason the women
flocked into the union. The local branch in Leicester sprang up in a
few months from a membership o f about 400 to as many thousands,
but a year later it was found that all these enthusiastic recruits had
allowed their membership to lapse. Renewed efforts saved the union
from disorganization, and it has now a membership o f about 1,000.
The phenomenal desertion in this instance has been attributed to
the fact that the officials o f the union were men who had also to
attend to their men members; that a great deal o f work had to be
done in enforcing a new minimum rate wage for men; and that in
attending to this the women were perhaps neglected. A sufficient
number o f meetings was not held, sufficient attention was not paid
to the collection o f contributions, and the result was that a large
proportion o f members were dropped. A woman official has been
appointed secretary o f the branch in Leicester, and it is slowly and
steadily regaining much o f the ground lost. The men are now pay
ing more attention to the women members and are endeavoring to
get the manufacturers to recognize the women members o f the union
in the agreements between the unions and the manufacturers’ asso
ciation.
There are other groups o f women in the industries, among whom
the spirit o f trade unionism seemed to have evaporated, but who
appear later in the guise o f affiliated strength. For instance, after
the several small unions in the miscellaneous clothing trades in
and about O xford had struggled along and suffered the eventual
termination o f the weak union, through financial handicap and other
vicissitudes, there was formed in 1881 the Protective and Provident
Society o f Women for this district. This revivified the various
nuclei and combined them under one executive organization. This
society, which still survives, never reached even fair proportions,
because the trade groups are so limited in membership in this loca lity;
but the same principle o f organization was exemplified in the National
Federation o f Women W orkers, established in the latter part o f 1906,
with headquarters in London and with a woman secretary, which has
already secured a membership o f over 3,000, with 20 branches. Under
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
15
the National Federation o f Women Workers appear several isolated
unions that had failed, as well as new unions from hitherto unor
ganized trades, and for the small assessments o f from Id. to 3£d. (2
to 7 cents) weekly besides the 6d. (12 cents) entrance fee, are guar
anteed the benefit o f a legal department, sick pay, and support in
times o f trade dispute. Though this federation was organized solely
to foster small unions o f women, one local branch includes 100 men,
which affords the unique spectacle, among all the trade unions in
Great Britain, o f men organized under a woman unionist executive.
Another type o f rehabilitation among apparently extinct unions is
found in the women’s unions which, wavering upon the verge o f dis
solution, accepted the form o f an auxiliary to a man’s society estab
lished in the same trade. For example, the Printing and Kindred
Trades Federation, organized in 1894, was prim arily a militant union
composed o f women. The attempt at organization arose out o f two
disputes. In one, the women employed by a certain firm had success
fully struck for an increase o f wages and against certain conditions
o f labor; in the second, women had gone out to show their sympathy
with the men locked out. In recognition o f the women’s “ courage
and loyalty ” the men promoted the union. In a month or two its
membership stood at 100, and by March, 1896, 350 members had
joined. However, the membership began to decline as soon as the
stress o f militant procedure was relaxed, and in 1902 it had shrunk
to 150, and as the reserve fund was under £100 ($486.65) the society
approached the Printers and Stationers’ Warehousemen, praying to
be recognized as a branch o f that union. A ballot o f the men was
taken, 700 voting in favor o f granting the request and 334 against it.
The women’s society has therefore ceased to exist as a separate
organization.
The Liverpool Upholsteresses’ Union, which appeared in the early
record o f the Women’s Trade Union League as dissolved on account
o f “ lack o f interest, fear o f dismissal, possibly the outcome o f igno
rance,” is in a flourishing condition. It reasserted itself in 1891
with 26 members, and has since then come to comprise nearly all the
upholsteresses employed in Liverpool.
A case o f what might be termed partial wreckage occurred in the
Women’s Trade Union Council o f Manchester and Salford district in
1904, when 6 out o f the 14 branch unions which composed the council
withdrew to form a new society, thus leaving a divided front in the
organization o f women in this locality.
Manchester is not now so much a center o f large industries as a
business center for the industries in the outlying districts—the cotton
exchange fo r Lancashire being there—and the local trade union
leaders represent an advanced type o f ambitious methods in organiza
16
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.
tion. “ Direct labor representation for women should be the object
o f women’s trade unionism,” they claim. Therefore, while the “ W o
men’s Trade Union Council,” founded in 1894, accomplished the work
o f organizing the small trades, and in several instances, notably
among the female leather workers, (a) materially bettered the condi
tion o f women engaged in those trades, a gradual cleavage took place
among the leaders on the subject o f gaining political power for
women, which resulted in the resignation o f certain trade union offi
cials and in the formation o f the Women’s Trades and Labor Council
with a different form o f constitution, as follow s:
In view o f the present difficult position o f trade unions in the coun
try and also o f the low wages and want o f industrial status o f women
in the labor market, the local women’s trade union leaders have come
to the conclusion that political power is absolutely necessary for the
protection o f the women workers.
This Women’s Trades and Labor Council has, after four years, 10
branches each with more than 300 members, and 1, the Weavers’
Association o f Beswick, with 1,000 enrolled. And it is doing the
same sort o f benefit and protective work as the original Women’s
Trade Union Council, which continues its offices in the next street,
with the agitation on political questions quite subservient.
Still the national organizers o f the Women’s Trade Union League
regret this division, since the poverty in great centers demands con
centration o f effort on the part o f those who would unite and organ
ize the women workers there in their struggles for a living wage.
It was compared by one woman trade union leader to the women’s
rights agitation in the sixties, when, with much clash o f asserted
independence, a show was made o f forcing open men’s trades to
women, while in reality this so-called women’s movement was alto
gether secondary in the accomplishment o f women’s entrance into the
printing and other trades, since the subdivision o f labor and the
application o f mechanical power had created simple processes which
made the employment o f women natural and desirable.
In the investigation o f the causes for the dissolution o f several small
unions for women in London, principally among the clothing trades
and cardboard box makers, the follow ing typical cases were found
a In one instance an employer, taking advantage o f the prejudice o f the men
workers against fem ale labor, made a reduction o f one-half in the pay o f the
girls. The girls went out on strike supported by the Women’s Trade Council,
and, finally, after futile attempts to find skilled labor among nonunion women
w ith which to replace his original force, the employer was obliged, in order to
meet a rush order, to take back the women unionists at the old rate. This
was in 1905, and there has been no reduction since, but, on the contrary, an
increase o f rates in one line o f piecework.
W Q M E N 's TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
17
which cover, with variations o f detail, about all the failures that were
discovered:
In one case the rents demanded in the district surrounding the
workshops were so high, 9s. ($2.19) a week being asked for one room
when 4s or 5s. ($0.97 or $1.22) a week is the usual rent for the fourroom brick houses flanking block after block in the factory towns in
Lancashire, that the women were obliged to live a long distance from
work, and they were too tired to return in the evening for meetings.
Interest flagged, and when the employer, who was opposed to organ
ization because o f demands it might enforce as provisions against 6
months’ slack time, instituted deductions from the nominal wage and
reduced the supply o f work o f certain leaders in the union, it dis
solved without an effort for redress.
Another case was a union among cardboard box makers which was
not able to withstand the drain on its slender resources necessitated
by strike pay in a dispute with the employers over fines and deduc
tions. This tendency o f women’s trade unions to undertake a strike
in the first flush o f enthusiasm, before they are in a position to carry
it to a successful conclusion, is given by one writer as a generalization
in stating causes o f failure o f the women’s organization throughout
England. And yet while few women’s unions have been able to sur
vive the expense o f an unsuccessful strike early in the life o f the
organization, a trade dispute has been more often than not the basis
o f formation o f the strongest unions. The most successful organiza
tions recently formed among women have been the result o f some
sudden encroachment on the rights o f the workers.
The failure o f a union started among female cigarette makers was
attributed to the fact that the m ajority o f its members were young
girls whose pay was only contributive toward their living expenses
and who looked upon their occupation as more or less temporary.
It was given as the opinion o f the labor leader interested in this
instance that unionism among cigarette makers failed because the
work is not conducive to steady, thoughtful habits o f women. On
the contrary, in another division o f the tobacco trade (the female
cigar makers) a permanent organization was accomplished in 1889,
and the London branch, with a membership o f over 1,000, is con
sidered one o f the most successful organizations o f women.
A general cause for the failure o f women’s unions throughout the
provinces as well as in London is that where the organization is
started and managed by men, the women have not been encouraged to
take leading parts in the administration o f their organizations. They
are not as a rule sent as delegates to the trade union congress, and it
is the rare exception (though they are eligible) for them to become
secretaries o f branches, so that they lose interest, fa il to make pay
18
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
ments o f dues, and finally relax all effort and wait for the conditions
o f their work and pay to be benefited by their inclusion in any gen
eral advance gained by the male unionists.
The case o f the textile organizations in Lancashire is an exception
to this general rule, for there— although the women are not usually
officials nor do they display any great degree o f enthusiasm—the fact
that the m ajority o f members in these unions are women has acted
as a spur on the men officials in seeing that the women workers are
looked after and not allowed to relinquish membership through any
want o f attention. But back o f this apparent apathy on the part o f
the women unionists lies the fact that in Great Britain the women
have been temperamentally slow to make trade-unionist members.
One o f the most capable and experienced men unionists in the
Kingdom said: “ England has, o f course, a differential advantage
over America ( a) and her colonies in the presence o f a mass o f cheap
female labor, but to the labor organizer looking to the protection o f
workers in the industries which require skill and cultivate independ
ence this character o f factory worker presents great difficulties.”
G RO W TH O F O R G A N IZA TIO N AM ONG W OM EN
W O RK ER S.
T o show the extent o f lost endeavor in the women’s trade union
movement, a statement o f the numerical progress o f organization
among industrial women as compared with that o f men throughout
the country is necessary.
In 1896, which is the first year for which comparative figures o f
female trade union membership are available, 149 unions included
women and girls as members out o f a total o f 1,302 trade unions;
while the female membership was at that time 117,030, or 7.8 per cent
o f the membership o f all unions. During the years 1896 to 1904 the
male membership o f all trade unions rose from 1,386,709 to 1,768,767,
or a gain o f 27.6 per cent, while the female membership during this
period accomplished a gain from 117,030 to 126,285, or 7.9 per cent.
W hile the membership o f women in the unions is insignificant in
comparison with the large enrollment o f male trade-unionists, the
percentage o f gains among male and among female trade-union mem
bers since 1904 has been to .a large extent reversed. In 1907 the
number o f organized women had increased to 201,709, a gain from
1904 to 1907 o f 75,424, or 59.7 per cent, while the gain in male mema In 1900, 20.6 per cent o f women 15 years o f age and over in the United States
were engaged in gainful occupations, and in 1901 the corresponding percentage
for England and W ales was 34.5 and for Scotland 36.1.
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
19
bership o f trade unions, although amounting to 436,270 new members,
represented a relative increase o f only 24.7 per cent. (®)
This condition as to membership o f women in trade unions was
stated thus forcibly in round numbers in 1905:
When it is considered that hereditary training and environment
have left women far behind men in development, the fact that there
are now about 160,000 women organized out o f a possible 5,000,000,
while there are 2,000,000 men trade-unionists out o f a possible
11,000,000, it is not so discouraging as it appears on the surface. In
deed, when these figures were quoted to me by a well-known tradeunion leader, whose views on women’s organization are notoriously
pessimistic, I was struck less by the percentage o f women unorganized
than by the fact that a great deal still remains to be done in the tradeunion organization o f m en.(5)
And when it is considered that in 1885 there were only 19 unions
admitting women and girls to membership ( c) and that all the women
trade-unionists in Great Britain numbered only a few thousand, (d)
and that as late as 1894 there were signs posted in a m ill in the M id
lands, where the m ajority o f operatives were women, threatening
“ instant dismissal to anyone found to belong to a trade union or any
kindred organization,” the expansion o f the movement to 182 unions
in 1907, with a female membership o f 201,709, seems significant, i f
not phenomenal.
In 1903 the Women’s Trade Union League had an affiliated mem
bership o f 40,000 women members. A t present its membership ap
proaches 140,000 and includes a large proportion o f organized women
in the country. O f course these figures do not mean that there are
100,000 more women trade-unionists now than there were in 1903; it
means that unionists outside the Women’s Trade Union League before
have come into line o f national organization during the intervening
years, and this is considered significant o f a desire for a firmer com
bination o f women trade-union power than is afforded by membership
in the local branches alone.
®Figures for 1896 from Report o f the Labor Department o f the Board o f Trade
on Trade Unions in 1902-1904, pp. lxi, lx y i; figures fo r 1904 and 1907 from
report o f the same department on trade unions in 1905-1907, pp. lxiii, lxix.
6 Miss Mary R. Macarthur in The Labor Record, June, 1905.
c Ten o f these unions were in London, which presents a marked contrast to
the present preponderance o f women’s trade unions in the provinces.
^Annual reports o f Women’s Trade Union League for 1885 and 1894.
20
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
The follow ing table gives the distribution by trades o f the women
trade-unionists, together with the total membership o f all unions:
NUMBER AND FEMALE MEMBERSHIP OF TRADE UNIONS WITH FEMALE MEM
BERS AND NUMBER AND TOTAL MEMBERSHIP OF ALL UNIONS, BY TRADES,
1904 AND 1907.
[From Report by the Labor Department of the Board of Trade on Trade Unions in 19051907, pp. xx, lxix, 2-79.]
1904.
Unions with female
members, (a)
Trades with which unions are connected.
All unions.
Female members.
Num
ber of
unions.
Per
Num
of
ber. (a) cent
total.
Total
Num member
ber.
ship.
Textile trades:
Cotton preparing and spinning..................................
Cotton weaving........................................................
Woolen and worsted manufacture...................................
Linen and jute manufacture...........................................
Hosiery.........................................................................
Other textile trades........................................................
17
57
6
7
3
7
22,343
75,727
1,034
9,704
1,464
817
17.7
60.0
.8
7.7
1.2
.6
18
123
26
16
11
62
68,520
123,516
7,777
14,814
4,950
26,896
Total textile trades................................................
97
111,089
88.0
256
246,473
Boot and shoe manufacture............................................
Tailoring.......................................................................
Hat and cap manufacture...............................................
Other clothing trades.....................................................
Printing, paper, and allied trades....................................
Food and tobacco trades.................................................
Shop assistants..............................................................
Other trades..................................................................
Employees of public authorities.....................................
2
5
3
4
5
4
4
19
5
1,037
370
2,290
506
895
2,366
3,747
3,056
929
.8
.3
1.8
.4
.7
'1.9
3.0
2.4
.7
12
12
6
8
41
29
5
760
59
30,809
19,997
6,655
1,137
62,428
17,873
30,402
1,414,820
64,458
Grand total...........................................................
148
126,285
100.0
1,188
1,895,052
Textile trades:
Cotton preparing and spinning.................................
Cotton weaving........................................................
Woolen and worsted manufacture...................................
Linen and jute manufacture...........................................
Hosiery.........................................................................
Other textile trades........................................................
19
66
5
10
5
8
38,834
109,834
2,425
14,467
1,826
4,734
19.3
54.4
1.2
7.2
.9
2.3
20
128
24
20
12
59
97,480
173,644
12,234
22,884
4,965
43,220
Total textile trades...............................................
113
172,120
85.3
263
354,427
Boot and shoe manufacture............................................
Tailoring.......................................................................
Hat and cap manufacture...............................................
Other clothing trades.....................................................
Printing, paper, and allied trades...................................
Food and tobacco trades................................................
Shop assistants..............................................................
Other trades..................................................................
Employees of public authorities......................................
2
8
3
4
5
6
4
30
7
997
1,326
3,302
420
1,749
2,447
5,076
9,582
4,690
.5
.7
1.6
.2
.9
1.2
2.5
4.8
2.3
13
11
6
10
39
33
6
714
78
35.393
22,701
8,994
1,722
68,221
18,447
46,117
1,761,331
89.393
182
201,709
100.0
1,173
2,406,746
1907.
Grand total...........................................................
I
a In unions which admit both male and female members the exact numbers of each sex
are often not known, but the numbers stated in the table are approximately correct.
A comparison o f the figures for 1907 with those fo r 1904 reveals
the greatest growth in the number o f female members to have been in
the textile trades, a gain o f 61,031 being recorded. But it should be
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
21
remembered in this connection that there are 654,782 women in the
textile industries, or 39.8 per cent o f the total o f female workers in
all industries in the United Kingdom. (®) And on the other hand
it may be noted that women trade-unionists in all the branches o f the
clothing trade increased by less than 2,000 between 1904 and 1907,
and that the total female membership in these unions in 1907 was only
6,045, or only slightly over 1 per cent o f the total number o f female
workers (478,509) engaged in the various grades o f clothing manu
facture in 1904, which is the latest year for which total figures are
available (a) — and this includes only those working in factories or
workshops, not the outworkers who are supposed to clog organization
in the clothing trades. Therefore it w ill be seen that the women’s
trade-union movement has not as yet made more than a slight appre
ciable headway in this branch o f industry, where, according to the
census o f 1901, a little over 60 per cent o f the employed are women.
As regards individual trades, the only group worthy o f note as
having shown a substantial rise in membership is that o f the shop
assistants’ unions, whose female membership rose without a break
from 327 in 1896 to 1,609 in 1901, and to 3,747 in 1904, while in 1907
it reached 5,076. The difference in totals o f membership is further
accounted for by a slight general increase all along the line, also by
the fact o f the formation o f the National Federation o f Women
W orkers and by the increase o f female membership in unions o f
employees o f public authorities from 929 in 1904 to 4,690 in 1907.
A t every factory where inquiry about the disposal o f the nonunion
element among organized operatives was made the same answer was
received: No very radical measures are taken to eliminate or convert
the nonunionist, and yet the cases o f disturbance or o f nonunion labor
in case o f strikes are exceedingly rare. I f organization be started
in a trade, generally the m ajority o f the workers are swept along on
the wave o f enthusiasm, and the others are won over gradually. In
the event o f a nonunion worker entering the factory after the fo r
mation o f a trade union, pressure o f organization both in the factory
and after hours at home is brought to bear for conversion, with few
instances o f failure.
In one m ill the refusal o f the men workers to help adjust the ma
chinery o f nonunion women as they were accustomed to do for the
trade-unionist sisters led several operatives to join the union, for on
piecework loss o f time is coincident with loss o f the shilling, and the
good w ill and the helping hand o f the fellow-worker is worth more
than the trade union levy. In some places there is a nonunion m ill
° Annual Report o f the Chief Inspector o f Factories and Workshops, 1907,
p. 190.
22
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
in the midst o f an otherwise organized trade community. The scale
o f pay at this nonunion m ill in one place was the same as at the other
mills where the women were members o f mixed trade unions. “ But,”
said a stanch trade-unionist, “ although they get the benefit o f our
uniform list o f prices for piecework, because no employer cares to
advertise that he cuts under what is accepted by the manufacturer’s
association for this district, those workers get fines and deductions
enough practiced on them to cover the tax any union could make.”
How long this pacific attitude toward the nonunionist w ill con
tinue is hard to tell.
A significant statement was made by the secretary o f an important
association which has over .100,000 members, a large proportion o f
whom are females. According to this official, appeals to nonunionists
to join the association had met with indifferent success, and the fa il
ure o f negotiations for an advance o f wages was, in his opinion,
traceable to the knowledge possessed by the employers that a fair
proportion o f their employees were outside the association. He
claimed that the nonunionists had shared in the benefits obtained
through the union without incurring any responsibility, and in times
o f difficulty had deserted the union and had even gone so far as to
band themselves together to defeat the aims o f their coworkers, and
that it was impossible to fight with much chance o f success i f every
three organized workers were compelled to find funds for two unor
ganized workers who were without funds. The conclusion had been
reached, therefore, that if the nonunionists would not voluntarily
share in the cost and work involved in trying to im prove their condi
tion o f labor and their wages the association would have to take steps
to compel them to do so.
R E SU LTS OF O R G A N IZA TIO N
O F W OM EN W O R K E R S.
A ID SECURED THROUGH LEG AL PROCEEDINGS.
W hile the weakness o f numbers in women’s organizations is con
ceded by the most optim istic o f women trade-unionists, the record
o f the organizations along lines o f benefit to the workers, not merely
included in sick benefit and strike pay, is excellent. The secretary
o f the National Federation o f Women Workers stated that after they
had succeeded in organizing the operatives in a branch o f the tin
box manufacture, the girls would come to the meetings with hands
mutilated or with evidence o f minor flesh cuts, and not one o f them
had any idea o f their claim upon the employer fo r compensation.
Their inclusion under the British Workmen’s Compensation A ct had
to be explained to them, and while it was beyond the time lim it for
w o m e n 's trade
u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
23
instituting proceedings in most of the cases o f injuries, (a) the legal
department o f the Women’s Trade Union League took up several o f
the cases and, in two instances, obtained compensation for the loss o f
fingers, the firm preferring to settle rather than suffer the notoriety
incident to lawsuits based on the disregard o f the Workmen’s Com
pensation A ct in such a precarious trade as theirs.
Am ong the workers in certain ammunition factories, too, there was
found to exist at the time o f the organization o f the women workers
absolute ignorance o f the interpretation o f the compensation act, and
representatives o f the Women’s Trade Union League have since
successfully conducted legal proceedings fo r them when necessary.
The National Amalgamated Union o f Shop Assistants, Warehouse
men, and Clerks has a legal department o f its own, and its effective
operation demonstrates some benefits that union affiliations can bring
to the woman worker.
Follow ing is a summary o f the cases dealt with by the legal depart
ment o f this union as shown by the report o f the union covering the
year 1907:
CASES DEALT WITH BY THE LEGAL DEPARTMENT OF THE NATIONAL AMALGA
MATED UNION OF SHOP ASSISTANTS, WAREHOUSEMEN, AND CLERKS, 1907.
Number
of cases.
Subject.
Agreements...........................................
Breach of contract.................................
Compensation........................................
Defamation of character.........................
Deductions and fines..............................
Miscellaneous........................................
Notice...................................................
References.............................................
Shortage and guaranty bond..................
Wages during illness
Wages (or commission) withheld or re
duced.................................................
Wages in lieu of notice...........................
Total............................................
74
5
29
4
4
60
36
19
16
16
Method of handling and result.
Number
of cases.
Given to solicitors:
Won in court..................................
Taken to court and lost...................
Paid into court...............................
Withdrawn after investigation. ...
Solicitor’s advice given...................
Not settled.....................................
1
3
10
9
4
4
Total given to solicitors................
31
43
63
Dealt with at central office:
Withdrawn by members.................
Withdrawn after investigation........
368
Advice given..................:..............
Not settled.....................................
10
33
40
240
4
Total dealt with at central office..
327
Grand total.................................
368
Satisfactorily settled
RECENT LEG ISLATION .
In 1902, by parliamentary pressure and popular agitation, the
Shop Assistants’ Union secured the passage o f the Shop Seats Act.
a Proceedings for the recovery under this act o f compensation for an injury
shall not be maintainable unless notice o f the accident has been given as soon
as practicable after the happening thereof and before the workman has volun
tarily left the employment in which he was injured, and unless the claim for
compensation with respect to such accident has been made within six months
from the occurrence o f the accident causing the injury, or, in case o f death,
within six months from the time o f death.— British Workmen’s Compensation
Act, 1906, section 2.
24
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.
It is estimated that by the provision o f relief from constant standing
on the part o f sales clerks thus obtained the form s o f ailment which
are greatly aggravated by such work as shop assistants have to do
have been lessened one-third.
In 1904 the union drew up and presented through its parliamen
tary representative the shop hours bill, which provided for a 72-hour
maximum o f weekly labor fo r all shop assistants. This bill also
contained provisions regarding the Sunday closing o f shops, the
prohibition o f em ploying children under 14 years o f age, sanitary
conditions, ventilation, and sanitary conveniences, and was in short
designed to give to persons in shops some o f the protection which
existing laws had thrown about persons employed in factories and
workshops.
The act, which is known as the Shop Assistants’ Charter, became
a law, but the hours clause has been found defective in operation,
since the nature o f the distributive trade is such that there is no
economic advantage to the employer in opening the shop earlier
than 8 a. m. or 8.30 a. m., and therefore the closing hour was pushed
further and further along until without really violating the weekly
lim it o f hours o f labor the employer was keeping his shop assistants
at work late into the night. The union leaders again appealed to
Parliament for more stringent regulation o f the closing hours for
shops, and on May 1, 1907, the labor member representing them sub
mitted the follow ing notice in the House o f Commons: “ That in
the opinion o f this House, more drastic legislation with regard to
the closing o f shops and the hours o f shop assistants is required; ”
and the home secretary, in his reply to this motion, stated that “ a
case had been made out for an amending bill.” This bill is drawn
on the same general lines as the Shop Hours A ct o f 1904, except for
two corrective principles :
1.
The first o f these principles is the demand for a 60-hour maxi
mum. The reasonableness o f this demand is evident in a glance o f
comparison with the regulation o f the working week under the
factory acts. The period o f employment for young persons and
women in nontextile factories and workshops is limited by the Factory
and W orkshop A ct, 1901, to the hours between 6 a. m. and 6 p. m., or
7 a. m. and 7 p. m., or 8 a. m. and 8 p. m. In textile factories 2 hours
must be allowed for meals (one o f them before 3 p. m .), and work
must’ not be carried on for more than 4^ hours without an interval
o f one-half hour for meals. In nontextile factories and workshops
1| hours must be allowed for meals (one o f them before 3 p. m .), and
work must not be carried on for more than 5 hours without an
interval o f one-half hour for meals. In textile factories, when the
period o f employment begins on Saturday at 6 a. m., that period
w o m e n 's trade
u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
25
must cease at 12 m. as regards employment in any manufacturing
process if not less than 1 hour is allowed for meals and at 12.30 p. m.
as regards employment for any purpose whatever. I f less than 1
hour is allowed, manufacturing processes must cease at 11.30 a. m.
and employment for any purpose at 12 m. When work begins at
7 a. m. manufacturing processes must cease at 12.30 p. m. and em
ployment for any purpose whatever at 1 p. m. In nontextile fac
tories and workshops the hours o f employment on Saturday may be
between 6 a. m. and 2 p. m., or 7 a. m. and 3 p. m., or 8 a. m. and
4 p. m. In every case an interval o f not less than one-half hour must
be allowed for meals. The maximum is 55J hours per week for
textile and 60 hours for nontextile factories.
2.
The second corrective principle is the determination o f the latest
closing hours fo r each day, although the local authority is left free
to distribute the particular closing hours over the different days o f
the week.
This bill was given a second reading in May, 1908, and the home
secretary pledged the Government to introduce legislation in 1909.
Public sentiment, awakened through the efforts o f the Shop As
sistants’ Union, has already taken up the battle and helped the union
to specific success on behalf o f the female shop assistant.
It is interesting to note that in the cases o f two adjacent drapery
houses in London, one closing from 6 to 6.30 p. m. and the other
keeping open until 8 p. m. and after, when the assistants in the lateclosing shops were out on strike, the employers conceded a uniform
early closing for all the days in the week and explained that they
were forced to the concession by the attitude o f their customers,
“ who affected by the undue excitement over shop legislation,” would
go elsewhere and buy rather than accept service maintained for
“ their convenience during the evening hours.”
CRUSADE A G A IN ST L IV IN G -IN A N D TRU CK SYSTEM S.
The crusade conducted by the National Amalgamated Union o f
Shop Assistants, Warehousemen, and Clerks against the living-in
system is so important to the cause o f the female worker that a brief
explanation o f the Truck A ct, which deals with this feature o f shop
life, may be permissible.
P rior to 1831 payment in 66truck ”—i. e., goods—instead o f in
money was commonly practiced by employers o f labor in Great
Britain, and the “ tonny shop ” or wage-trading exchange was an
adjunct o f the factory or mill. The abuses to which this system o f
payment was open are obvious. The employer might pay in inferior
goods or in goods overcharged or supply goods in excess o f wages
26
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
due and so run the worker into debt. The worker handed over the
control o f his purchasing power and had no check on his earnings.
The worker discovered these abuses by bitter experiences, and after
a period o f agitation the act was passed in 1831. This made the pay
ment o f 44truck ” illegal and insured that the worker should not be
compelled to spend his earnings in any particular shop. It also
regulated fines and deductions.
The act o f 1887 made more explicit the application o f the law in
regard to deductions an employer might make from the wages o f a
workman, and adopted the definition as given in the Employers’ and
Workmen Act, 1875, as follow s: “ The expression 4workman ’ does not
include a domestic or menial servant, but, save as aforesaid, means
any person who, being a laborer, servant in husbandry, journeyman,
artificer, handicraftsman, miner, or otherwise engaged in manual
labor, whether under the age o f 21 years or above that age, has
entered into or works under a contract with an employer, whether
the contract be * * * express or implied, oral, or in w riting.”
It w ill be seen that the occupation o f shop assistants can not be
construed so as to come under these categories, and, as a consequence,
the employers o f shop labor were able to continue their form o f
44truck ” payment, the so-called 44living-in ” system, whereby the
clerks o f an establishment are housed under one roof and a deduction
for 44rent, victuals, fuel, etc.,” made in a lump sum from their wages
without, as the Truck Amendment A ct stipulates, the agreement for
such deductions being in w riting and signed by the workman. On
the subject o f 44livin g-in ” an official o f the Shop Assistants’ Union
has w ritten:
Apart from its demoralizing effect on wages, the living-in system
has many disadvantages which well-meaning people, who believe it
provides a home where the young people are guarded from evil, fail
to take into account. Assistants living-in are frequently many miles
from home, and dismissal means also immediate loss o f shelter; they
have very little cash in hand when settling-up day comes, certainly
not enough to keep them in lodgings fo r any length o f tim e; and yet
to go home, if they have sufficient money to take them there, is to go
probably to some country district where they w ill have great difficulty
in getting situations.
The thought o f dismissal brings with it a terror which the poorest
worker, who owns a shelter independently o f her employer, knows
not at all. The sleeping rooms, from the hygienic standpoint, are
sadly deficient. The air space varies from 500 to 700 cubic feet per
person, but the fireplaces are invariably blocked, the windows at
night are either closed entirely or open only an inch or so, and there
is no other kind o f ventilation.
The atmosphere o f such rooms by morning can be better imagined
than described.
w o m e n ' s trade
u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
27
The washing accommodations are very limited, and there is no
privacy in the bedrooms. Except in the best houses no bathroom is
provided, and the assistants, too frequently, are content with a weekly
washdown in a small hand basin, the daily ablution being confined to
face, neck, and hands. (a)
The primary cause o f consumption among female shop assistants
is attributed to “ industrial dust,” with which the atmosphere o f the
shops becomes thick toward evening from the continual tramp o f feet,
the trailing skirts, and the fine particles detached from the goods that
are being continually tossed about, but the spread o f the disease is
largely traced to the living-in system.
A s regards the food included in truck payment under the living-in
system, much depends in quantity and quality upon the ability and
good w ill o f the steward or the housekeeper employed by the firm.
The follow ing is a menu for the week in an average business house
in London where the amount allowed for the cost o f boarding and
lodging the employees is 6s. ($1.46) per head, per week:
BREAK FAST.
Bread and butter or dripping, tea or coffee.
D IN N ER .
Monday.— H ot roast mutton, potatoes, bread, ale.
Tuesday.— Cold roast beef, potatoes, currant pudding, bread, ale.
Wednesday.— Stew, bread, ale.
Thursday.— Cold salt beef, potatoes, bread, ale.
Friday.— H ot roast beef, potatoes, boiled pudding, bread, ale.
Saturday.— Cold roast beef, potatoes, bread and butter pudding, bread, ale.
TEA.
Bread and butter, tea.
SUPPER.
Bread, cheese, butter, and (tw ice each week) fried or baked pudding, ale.
Yet in one house where practically this menu was in operation the
only protest was that it was monotonous. But the assistants ate their
meals heartily and spent only from 6d. to Is. 6d. (12 to 37 cents) per
week in extras for breakfast and supper. In other houses it was
claimed that the food was neither good nor well cooked; assistants
frequently left the dinner untouched and it was necessary for them
to spend from 3s. to 5s. (73 cents to $1.22) per week to satisfy hunger.
However, in either case there was no alternative to accepting the diet
as part payment o f their nominal wages except unemployment.
In 1895 the union leaders made a strong case against deductions
from wages and a plea for the inclusion o f shop assistants under the
®Miss M argaret C. Bonfield, in a paper on “ The effect on health o f women
employment in shops,” read before the R oyal Sanitary Institute Congress at
Glasgow, 1904.
4764—No. 83—09-----3
28
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
protection o f the Truck A ct, and they secured the entering wedge to
legislation in the specific amendment that provided fo r shop assistants
under the fines clause, which under the general heading o f permissible
deductions provides for fines, (a) i f the agreement fo r deductions
or payment o f either be contained in a notice posted up where the
workman can easily see it, read it, or copy it, or else be in writing
signed by the workm an; (&) if such agreement gives a list o f the fines
that may be imposed, together with a table showing the amount o f
each fine; (c) if the fine be on account o f some act or omission which
causes, or is likely to cause, damage to the em ployer; ( d ) i f the
amount o f the fine be fair and reasonable, looking at all circumstances
o f the case; (e) i f particulars in writing be given to the workman,
whenever he is fined, showing the reason for the fine, and the amount
o f the fine.
The Shop Assistants’ Union is now engaged in a definite campaign
against living-in, and in this connection the National Amalgamated
Union asks the Government (1) to extend to shop workers the pro
visions o f the Truck A ct, by which their wages shall be paid in full
in current coin o f the realm, and not partly in kind—i. e., in board
and lodging; (2) to provide that when the employer desires to con
tract out in respect o f board and lodging (under section 28 o f the act
o f 1881), it shall be not as a condition o f employment, but only under
a contract in writing, by which the assistant can be assured that the
sum deducted from wages for board and lodging shall not exceed the
real and true value o f the room and board provided, and that the
amount so deducted shall be mutally agreed upon by employer and
employee.
A conference on this subject was convened in July, 1907, at Toynbee
H all. There were present representatives o f the Drapers’ Chamber
o f Trade and o f the National Amalgamated Union o f Shop Assist
ants, and the follow ing terse statement was presented and debated:
The union is pledged to the total abolition o f the living-in system
on the follow ing grounds:
1. It is detrimental to health.
2. It prevents the growth o f individuality and self-reliance.
3. The institutional and celibate conditions necessarily imposed
conduce to a loose standard o f morality.
4. The system is economically unsound.
5. The system excludes the shop workers from the social and civic
life o f the community ; they are voteless.
6. M odem commercialism has outgrown the system; it is unneces
sary to the proper conduct o f business.
W e recognize that a great change o f this nature can not take place
very rapidly, and that reasonable time must be allowed for the transi
tion from living-in to living-out.
The conference is aware that at the present time the truck inquiry
committee are preparing recommendations on the subject. The union
w o m e n 's trade
u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
29
has asked that the Truck Acts should be extended to the shopworkers—
i. e., that their wages should be paid in full in the current coin o f the
realm, and that board and lodgings, if provided by the employer,
should not be a condition o f employment.
The cumulative effect o f this persistent agitation on the part o f the
unions in the distributive trades is shown in several districts where
the unrest has crystallized into a definite demand to “ live-out,” in
which public opinion has been with the shop assistants.
In 1907, at Longton, New Castle (Staffordshire), O xford, Bridgent,
and Pontypool, the union officials negotiated settlements to “ live-out ”
on satisfactory terms, and several o f the largest drapery houses in
London have recently abandoned the living-in system.
PROTECTION A G A IN ST P IN E S A N D IM POSITIO N .
Even with legislation secured, the union sometimes has an im
portant part to play in its execution. F or instance, the “ fines clause ”
would have been practically inoperative, since there was no provision
made fo r inspection o f shops, i f the shop assistants, through their
union, had not taken action time and again to resist illegal fines or to
secure the total abolition o f fines. There is constant application to
the union by members who want the organization to back their claims
for the remission o f unjust fines.
In one house a system o f cash payments prevailed, and assistants
were held responsible, by heavy fines, i f customers left without pay
ing. The union officials interviewed the firm and a new system was
adopted. The employees in two London houses wished to secure the
abolition o f fees for house doctor, boot cleaning, and library, which
were extra deductions, besides the usual living-in rate. A fter depu
tations from the union had waited on the firm the employees, 75 per
cent o f whom were members o f the union, were relieved o f the added
tax on their wages.
The individual shop clerk, too, who has been fined for untidy stock
when an unusual rush o f customers was responsible, comes for re
dress. Indeed, this minute guardianship over its members finds
illustration in the women’s trade unions in all industries, even in
the textile industry, where the workers have their rights so carefully
defined by legislative enactment. There are at present only 200 factory
inspectors in Great Britain appointed by the State, so that at best
each factory can be visited not more than once a year, and at a trades
council meeting in 1894 one woman admitted that she had not seen
a factory inspector during her ten years’ work. Ten o f these in
spectors have been women, and on the recommendation o f the home
30
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
secretary to increase the force one writer makes the follow ing state
ment:
The department was created mainly in the interest o f women
workers. A principal, assisted by three seniors, organized it. Ten
female inspectors had been appointed at wages ranging from £200
to £300 ($973.30 to $1,459.95) a year, and valuable services have been
rendered, especially in laundries. But there are one and a half
m illion women workers in factories and mills.
W hat were ten among so many?
These women can not give their whole time to watching factories;
much is absorbed in replying to inquiries, drafting reports, and trav
eling. Being few, they have to cover wide areas and spend no small
portion o f their working days in railway trains. In 1905 two in
spectors traveled nearly 16,000 miles each. Labor laws have been
broken and evaded. Fines are unjustly im posed; there is extreme
humidity in cotton factories; there is dust in card rooms, causing
injury to chest and lungs. Time cribbing is largely practiced; many
workers must make their employers a weekly free g ift o f two hours’
labor. Long hours o f illegal overtime have to be endured, a wrong
that presses with most severity upon young girls. (c)
The trade union official, with his hand on the pulse o f the partic
ular body o f workers he represents, can supplement the work o f the
State in detection o f violation or irregularity.
In cases where bad cotton is supplied to the operatives, and the
resultant discarding o f portions o f it is adjudged “ w illful and de
liberate waste o f material,” or the finished article condemned as bad
workmanship, the trade union officials represent the right o f the
worker in fixing the responsibility.
In almost every book o f rules issued by the women’s trade unions
there is to be found one section devoted to “ condition o f member
ship ” and one upon the requirements o f an “ employment register,”
and on these provisions hangs much o f the success o f a women’s union
along the lines o f practical accomplishment.
The employment register clause generally reads as follow s:
A book shall be left at the office o f the secretary, in which the secre
tary shall enter for the inform ation o f the members, free o f charge,
any vacancies which may come to her notice. Members out o f work
w ill also register there.
The condition o f membership generally requires some testimony
to the competency o f the applicant in her trade, or at least evidence
that she is working at some trade at the time o f seeking membership.
Employers are glad to avail themselves o f the registry system, be
cause they are able to secure labor o f certified ability; also, the system
abolishes the old custom o f shop-to-shop canvas fo r work on the part
o f women wage-earners. Many applications are directed to the
0 W illiam C. Anderson, in The Woman W orker for August 17, 1908.
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
31
secretary o f the Women’s Trade Union League in London by man
agers and employers desiring workwomen.
The officials in charge o f the women’s trade union movement in
Great Britain maintain that the main object o f these unions shall
be to force up wages and secure a standard rate and other economic
advantages to the woman worker, yet they grant that the success o f
the individual union often depends largely upon the benefits offered.
They deprecate the overestimating o f the provident side o f the
union while appreciating that i f the provident side can be included,
i. e., insurance against sickness or unemployment, it helps to prevent
loss o f members and the consequent weakening o f the union’s force
for economic action.
I f a girl is paying 3d. (6 cents) a week to a trade society and
knows that Id. (2 cents) o f the 3d. (6 cents) goes to protect her
trade interests, while the other 2d. (4 cents) is invested to meet the
out-of-w ork emergency or the expense o f sickness she is not likely
to give up her membership and lose benefits fo r which she has paid.
This is equally true o f the male trade-unionist. A comparative
study o f the fluctuations, through a number o f years, o f the trade
union membership in the main groups o f trades leads to the deduction
“ that the unions paying the most varied and liberal scales o f benefits
suffer least from loss o f membership in periods o f bad trade.” (a)
THE M A R R IA G E DO W RY.
The Women’s Trade Union League also recognizes the institution
o f the marriage dowry as a possible element o f further success in
the organization o f women. This is to take the place o f the death
insurance in men’s societies. I f a woman has paid into a trade
union for some years and has not received any monetary benefits
during that time, she naturally feels that in case she is leaving the
trade on her marriage and terminating her membership with the
union she ought to draw what the insurance companies call a bonus,
as a kind o f commutative value for the money paid in.
The National Federation o f Women Workers has included a mar
riage dowry in its constitution, but the federation is too young to
have produced data to prove its success as an auxiliary inducement
for membership. The stipulation on this subject reads as follow s:
In the event o f the marriage o f a member, i f she has been a full
member for 2 years, and has not received out-of-employment or
sick benefit during the period o f her membership, the central council
shall refund 50 per cent o f the amount o f her contributions, provided
she is leaving her trade and terminating her membership.
a Report o f the C hief Labor Correspondent o f the Board o f Trade on Trade
Unions, 1902-1904, p. xx.
32
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The Shop Assistants’ Union until recently had a system o f mar
riage dowry payments. In 1907 the union accounts showed £79 8s. Id.
($386.42) devoted to this form o f benefits, but at a recent conference
it was decided to discontinue the marriage benefits. This was done
largely because the union’s funds were not considered to be in an
entirely satisfactory condition, and the marriage dowry was stopped
concurrently with a reduction in a number o f other benefits and con
tributions which applied to men and women alike.
CONCILIATION A N D A R B IT R A T IO N .
Perhaps the most tangible success attributed to the women’s trade
union movement in the industrial world is the method in which strikes
conducted under its supervision have been carried on and the gradual
substitution by women unionists o f the less openly belligerent process
o f settling trade disputes by conciliation and arbitration, so that
among organized women in Great Britain strikes are now compara
tively rare.
TH E W OM EN ’S T R A D E U N ION LE A G U E .
The root o f the women’s trade union movement is in the Women’s
Trade Union League; its highest branching is found at present in
the affiliation o f women’s unions with the General Federation o f
Trade Unions and in representation in the annual trade union con
gress, composed o f delegates from all the large organizations in Great
Britain as well as from the American Federation o f Labor.
METHODS EM PLOYED B Y TH E LEAGU E.
A review o f the growth o f the movement reveals the completeness
o f mechanism for organization to which the individual union for
women falls heir as a consequence o f the circle-without-circle perfec
tion o f the long-established combinations o f male labor throughout
the country.
The Women’s Trade Union League, although an evolution from the
Women’s Provident and Protection League founded in 1874, has no
strike fund and pays no benefits but exists for the purpose o f prop
agating the principles o f trade unionism among women; o f organiz
ing the women in industry, and in supplying an executive head for
the affiliated unions from the trades in which women are employed.
A ll secretaries o f affiliated London trade unions are ex officio mem
bers o f the league committee, on which are also a certain number o f
members elected at the annual meeting. There is also a committee
o f counsel, consisting o f leading trade-unionists, usually the men
secretaries o f unions containing female members, that advises the
league, and its members are present at the annual meeting at which
w o m e n 's trade
u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
33
officials for the ensuing year are elected. The officials o f the league
are a chairman, a secretary, two official organizers (although the
chairman and secretary, both women, are also actively engaged in
this work throughout the year), and an honorary treasurer. The
general committee, which is the administrative body for the league,
consists o f the executive committee and o f ten or twelve additional
members chosen from among the students o f industrial conditions and
from among labor representatives in Parliament. The league from its
headquarters in London acts as the agent o f women trade-unionists in
making representations to government authorities or to parliamentary
committees in regard to the legislation required, or in bringing for
ward specific grievances in individual trades or factories, by means
o f questions and written form s o f presentation by members o f Parlia
ment in the House o f Commons. Complaints as to breaches o f the
Factory and Workshop Acts, when sent to the league are investigated
carefully and referred to the proper officials fo r correction or en
forcement. Cases under the compensation, truck, and other indus
trial laws referred to the league are investigated and advice is given
by the secretary o f the legal advice department or action is taken under
the league’s legal advisers. But the greatest endeavor on the part o f
the Women’s Trade Union League is to increase the ranks o f women
trade-unionists. It is prepared at all times to send organizers to the
London or to any provincial district to form new or to strengthen
existing trade unions. In fact, the payment o f the affiliation fee o f 2s.
6d. (61 cents) per 250 women members, or 10s. ($2.43) per thousand,
which resolves itself into a theoretical tax o f one-half cent every two
years to every woman, carries with it the right to have an annual visit
from one o f the league’s organizers for a single meeting or for a week’s
organization. This visit is free except that the society visited is ex
pected to provide hospitality for the organizer. In case a longer
visit is required by affiliated unions outside the London district fees
are charged at the rate o f 15s. ($3.65) for a second week, and a fee
o f 30s. ($7.30) is charged for a third week. Fares must be paid i f
more than one visit is paid in the year.
Inside the London district, owing to the entirely different condi
tions with regard to distance, arrangements must in each instance be
made with the league secretary.
In the case o f the formation o f a new union, a visit w ill be paid by a
league organizer, free o f charge, at the request o f any men’s union or
other bona-fide organization which is helping to form the new union.
In the case o f a nonaffiliated society applying to the league fo r an
organizer, the charges are 10s. and 15s. ($2.43 and $3.65) and expenses
for a single meeting outside the London district, and 5s. ($1.22)
and expenses within London. The charges for a week’s organizing
to such societies is 30s. ($7.30) and expenses. The committee reserves
34
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the right to remit any part o f these charges if good reason for such
remission is shown in any special case.
As a rule a union, once organized by the league, prefers an inde
pendent management, and calls upon the central society for help only
in case a rally to awaken flagging interest in membership is necessary
or a trade dispute occurs in which the local union members are
involved. There are at present 136 unions or branches o f unions
affiliated with the league.
Whenever, on the other hand, notice o f a strike among as yet un
organized women workers in any part o f the country reaches the
league, one o f the officials immediately proceeds to the locality and,
i f possible, acts as mediator between the employer and the workers
in rebellion. No matter whether a simple agreement is effected, or
whether the more complicated process o f reference to a committee
o f arbitration is necessary, as soon as terms are adjusted the league
official attempts to form a union among these workers who have so
recently experienced the futility o f opposing existing conditions
without financial backing or the machinery for united action.
Where there has been no crisis in the affairs in the trade but where a
desire for better conditions exists the local women interested in the
matter apply to the league for the services o f an organizer. First
there are leaflets (°) distributed among the workers as they leave the
factory or workshop, explanatory o f the advantages o f organization.
These are follow ed by cards announcing the date o f the addresses by
the officials from the Women’s Trade Union League, and at the meet
ing the enrollment o f members for the new union is made.
The local union having been formed, it appoints a secretary and
draws up its book o f rules (constitution), or more often the women
thus organized find it acceptable to the men in the same branch o f
trade to enter under the rules and government o f the established male
union.
When the organization is but a unit in a large industry, like a
branch o f the textile manufacture, it joins with the fellow-workers
who have been already recruited into unionism from the surrounding
« The follow ing extract gives an idea o f the accepted form o f this propaganda
by leaflet:
A trade union enables women to make better terms with their employers, to
get grievances redressed, and their general conditions o f labor im proved. Ex
perience proves that a union is badly needed i n ------ . The workers in other
towns are w ell organized, and consequently wages and conditions are good.
W hy should we lag behind? I f you have never thought o f joining a union
before, think about it now and become a member. Some women are aware o f
their great need o f organization, but say, “ It is no use my joining a union
unless my fellow -w orkers do so too.” I f such women join the union they set
an example which is noticed, and lead others to think seriously o f belonging
to a union, with the result that after a time there is quite a large number o f
women in that m ill belonging to the union.
w o m e n 's trade
u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
35
factories and becomes a part o f the district association. Through
this district association all these workers are affiliated with a federa
tion or an amalgamation o f societies, having wider geographical
scope over unionists in the same branch o f trade, stronger financial
backing, and pursuing a more militant policy. Then, these federa
tions o f local unions, composed o f operatives engaged in the same
form o f industry, are themselves affiliated with the General Federa
tion o f Trade Unions, gaining for their members a connection with
a national organization.
For example, in Lancashire among operatives in the various
processes o f weaving one finds a district organization like the Blackbum and D istrict Power Loom Weavers9 Association, which had in
1908 a membership o f 5,100 males and 11,900 females, or the Burnley
and District Weavers, Winders, and Beamers, with 7,438 males and
10,705 females; and each o f these associations includes in its member
ship the organized workers who live within a radius o f 5 or 12 miles
o f the central town.
The rules o f these district associations make provision for sick
benefit, death payment, and stoppage-of-work pay. Sometimes one
benefit is made use of, sometimes another, and in some cases all three.
The Northern Counties Amalgamated Association o f Weavers, to
which the members o f the district associations mentioned above
(together with over thirty more mixed unions with about the same
sex proportions) are affiliated, has as a principal duty the super
vision o f the wage scale in the trade, and it allows strike pay in dis
putes arising from efforts to maintain a uniform rate o f wage or
to resist fines and deductions. This amalgamation is governed by a
general council, elected by the district committee, and the repre
sentation allowed to each district is, up to 1,000 members, one repre
sentative; for 1,500 members, two representatives; and an additional
representative for every 1,000 members thereof. This special council
elects at its annual meetings a committee o f nine, called the central
committee, the members o f which watch over, direct, and control the
general proceedings o f the amalgamation, with the restriction that
under no circumstances shall they order any weavers out on strike
involving more than 5,000 looms before consulting and receiving the
approval o f at least three-fourths o f the members o f the council.
Each association o f weavers upon joining this association pays an
entrance fee o f Id. (2 cents) for each member and an annual levy
which is regulated by the general committee in accordance with the
state o f the emergency fund.
The female trade-unionist does not feel this as a personal tax,
since it comes as a lump sum from her district association’s treasury,
and in case she is included in a dispute sanctioned by the general
36
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
council o f the amalgamation (a) she receives her share o f the benefits
apportioned to her union.
There are no women secretaries among the local unions in the
weaving trades and no woman has held a place on the general council
or, o f course, on the central committee o f the Northern Counties
Amalgamation. Women members play no active part in shaping the
policy or in directing the expenditure o f funds o f the organization.
They pay their dues, report their grievances to men officials, and
await their benefits—from payments for temporary accidents or for
breakdowns or stoppage o f machinery from fire or failure to the
fulfillm ent o f the death claim their fam ily shall make.
And i f this quiescent attitude o f the average female trade-unionist
is true in the organized branches o f the textile industries, where
the women predominate numerically, it is also true o f the com
paratively few who are affiliated through membership in mixed
unions with the great trade councils, where societies from all trades
and occupations are linked together for greater effectiveness in de
fense in labor disputes in any given area.
In the Manchester and Salford Trades and Labor Council, repre
senting a membership o f 30,000 there are only three or four represen
tatives o f female labor. About 20 o f the women’s unions in this dis
trict are united under the Women’s Trades and Labor Council and
the Women’s Trades Union Council, with women officials. But in
the Liverpool and Vicinity Trades Council, with a membership o f
33,000, and in the Birmingham Trades Council, with over 35,000
trade-unionists, women have no representation; and even in the trades
council for Oldham and V icinity and in that for Nottingham and D is
trict, where female labor is far from being a negligible quantity, there
has never been a woman trade-unionist appointed delegate.
Coming to the national organization, the General Federation o f Trade
Unions, the secretary pointed out that although there were some half
dozen societies— out o f the 122 affiliated societies—that represented
<*12. Should a dispute arise in any district, or districts, fo r which the as
sistance o f the amalgamation is required, the local committee, or committees,
shall after using every effort to bring about an amicable and satisfactory settle
ment, lay before the central comm ittee the whole o f such grievances, who shall
cause fu ll and complete inquiries to be made, and afterwards, if necessary, lay
the m atter before the general council, which shall be called as early as possible
afterwards, to consider the matter in dispute.
13. In the event o f any district having a dispute entertained by the general
council, they shall receive support in accordance with the number o f members
entered and payable in this amalgamation. In case o f any dispute no person
shall receive support from the funds o f this amalgamation unless they have
been members o f the same fo r the previous thirteen weeks.
32. That before the council undertake any dispute 75 per cent o f the work
people in the m ill, or m ills affected, shall be members o f the association.—
Rules o f the Amalgamated W eavers’ Association.
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
37
unions with female members, the entire number o f female trade-union
ists thus allied would amount to less than 1 per cent o f the 689,674.
Naturally, with no woman holding an official position in the
separate federations, there would be no female trade-unionist sent
as a delegate to the general council, the governing body o f this
national organization.
The unions o f small groups o f women workers who have organized
themselves directly under the National Federation o f Women W ork
ers, with a woman secretary, joined the General Federation o f Trade
Unions only in the third quarter o f 1907, and they w ill eventually
have representation in the general council. (a)
The shop assistants’ unions are not affiliated with the General Fed
eration o f Trade Unions, but in their own national amalgamation
they have a woman assistant secretary, who has been sent three times
as a delegate to the trade union congress.
A D V A N TA G E S OE REPRESEN TATIO N IN
CONGRESS.
TH E TRA D E UNION
Representation in the trade union congress marks a most im por
tant step toward assertive participation in labor problems on the
part o f the women’s trade union movement; for in this annual con
gress is elected by ballot the parliamentary committee, the legislative
guardians o f British organized labor. This committee consists o f
sixteen members, one from each o f the large groups o f unions classi
fied according to form o f industry, and five representatives o f the
smaller departments o f labor classified as “ miscellaneous trades.”
Women are not elected as members o f this committee, and women
delegates seldom attempt to speak in the congress, though this, as
was pointed out by a labor member, is due to the size o f the halls
in which the gathering o f 531 delegates is now held rather than to
any sex prejudice. Five o f the trade groups represented on the par
liamentary committee have women unionists in their membership,
and the resolutions debated in the congress and transferred to the
parliamentary committee as a basis for their national legislative
action are prepared in the various federations o f trades represented
and sent in, together with the nomination for the parliamentary com
mitteeman, some months before the annual convening o f delegates,
thus giving the female trade-unionist an equal opportunity for reg
istering their interests and ambitions.
« Rule No. 2 o f the Rules o f the General Federation o f Trades Unions pro
vides as follow s:
The governing body shall be termed the general council, and consist o f one
delegate from societies o f 10,000 or less, tw o delegates from societies o f over
10,000 and not more than 25,000, three delegates from societies o f over 25,000
and not more than 50,000, and six delegates from societies o f over 50,000.
38
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The convening o f the trade union congress is also used by the
Women’s Trade Union League as a time for holding a separate con
ference o f all the delegates representing trades in which there are
women workers. In 1907 this annual conference was attended by
over 250 delegates, and the follow ing resolutions, directly bearing
upon the amelioration o f labor conditions for women, were passed and
laid before the home secretary by a deputation from the committee:
That this conference o f trade-unionists, representing trades in
which women are employed, condemns the action o f the Government
by which a weak and confused measure dealing with laundries has
been passed into law, and maintains that no amending measure w ill
be satisfactory to labor which does not extend to laundries the fu ll
protection accorded to other factories and workshops.
That this conference o f trade-unionists, representing trades in
which women are employed, in view o f the powerlessness o f existing
truck laws to check fining, and the number o f cases in which deduc
tions are made by employers from workers’ wages to meet the cost o f
insurance under the Workmen’s Compensation A ct, asks fo r an
immediate report from the committee appointed to inquire into the
working o f the Truck Act.
There is, besides, always a public meeting o f women workers o f the
district in which the congress is held. These meetings are addressed
by labor representatives in Parliament and by the leaders o f the
women’s trade union movement, and the result is sometimes the
formation o f a new union and always a strengthening o f membership
in the existing organization.
The expense o f sending delegates to the trade union congress is
inconsiderable and not a drain upon the resources o f even so small an
organization as the National Federation o f Women Workers. The
subscription fee is £1 10s. ($7.30) for every 1,000 or fraction thereof
o f the numerical strength o f the society, with 10s. ($2.43) for each
delegate,(a) this representation being based on 1 delegate for every
2,000 members or fraction thereof. The National Federation o f
Women W orkers, with its membership o f 3,000, sent two delegates to
the last congress (1908) at a cost o f £5 10s. ($26.77).
°T h e congress shall consist o f delegates who are or have been bona fide
workers at the trade which they represent, and are legal members o f trade
societies; but no person can be a delegate to the Trade Union Congress unless
he is actually working at his trade at the tim e o f appointment, or is a perma
nent paid working official o f his trade union. No representative shall be ac
cepted as bona fide other than direct representation from trade unions. The
delegate’s name, together with the amount o f his society’s contribution, shall
be forwarded to the secretary o f the parliamentary committee 14 days prior
to the meeting o f congress.— Section 3 o f the Trade Union Congress standing
orders.
w o m e n ’s
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
39
A D V AN TA G E S OF A F F IL IA T IO N W IT H THE GEN ERAL FED ER ATIO N
OF TRA D E UNIONS.
But this expenditure, o f course, does not bring any direct monetary
benefit as does affiliation with the General Federation o f Trade
Unions.
This national federation has two scales o f contribution. Societies
joining on the higher scale pay an entrance fee o f 6d. (12 cents) per
member, and those on the lower, 8d. (6 cents) per member. Each
society pays for 90 per cent o f its total membership; each society
entering on the higher scale pays quarterly the sum o f 4d. (8 cents)
per member on 90 per cent; each society on the lower scale pays
quarterly 2d. (4 cents) per member on 90 per cent. The benefit pay
ment in strikes is 5s. ($1.22) per member on the higher scale, and
2s. 6d. (61 cents) per member on the lower. So that, to use again the
National Federation o f Women Workers as an illustration, because it
is the only society composed solely o f female members affiliated with
the General Federation o f Trade Unions, while the entrance fee on
the lower scale was £42 17s. 6d. ($208.65) and the contributions for
the two remaining quarters o f the year ending March 31, 1908, in
which it joined, amounted to £69 ($335.79), the women in the small
unions composing the National Federation o f Women W orkers have
now the financial backing o f the £162,210 8s. 6d. ($789,397.03) in
the fund o f the General Federation o f Trade Unions, should a strike
become inevitable.
In the separate women’s unions, the usual entrance fee is 6d. (12
cents) with usually two rates o f subscription and benefit—2d. (4
cents) per week entitling a member to a grant o f 4s. (97 cents) per
week for a period o f six weeks, i f unemployed or sick (confinement
cases excepted), in any 52 weeks, and 3d. (6 cents) per week entitling
a member to 6s. ($1.46) per week under the same conditions.
The follow ing variation is also a typical scale o f payment:
Per week.
The subscription is------------------------------------------------------------------------------ $0. 0608
Sick benefit:
For the first 10 weeks------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.4600
For the second 10 weeks-------------------------------------------------------------.9733
Out-of-work benefit:
For the first 6 weeks_____________________ ________________________ 1.4600
For the second 6 weeks__________________________________________
.9733
The National Association o f Telephone Operators has a still lower
scale o f contribution o f l£d. (3 cents) weekly, which entitles a mem
ber to all the benefits o f the association except sick and out-of-w ork
benefits, with the proviso that “ the committee shall have power to
make a special grant to members under this class, when sick or unem
ployed, should the circumstances warrant such a course.”
The National Federation o f Women Workers deals with this class
o f payments as follow s:
40
BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR,
Class A (Id. (2 cents) per week) shall entitle to trade protection:
{a) Assistance generally in raising wages and im proving working
conditions; ( b ) free legal advice; ( 0) financial support (the amount
o f which shall be determined by the central council, with due regard
to all the circumstances o f the case) in the case o f a strike or lockout,
provided the action o f the members affected has been indorsed by the
central council o f the federation.
In the unions o f mixed membership, as in the textile trades, the
basis o f payment is usually the rate o f earnings and the table below,
showing contributions and benefits in the Card, Blowing, Ring, and
Throstle Room Operatives’ Association, o f Bolton, is a characteristic
arrangement:
CONTRIBUTIONS AND BENEFITS IN THE BOLTON AND DISTRICT CARD, BLOW
ING, RING, AND THROSTLE-ROOM OPERATIVES’ ASSOCIATION.
Weekly contri Benefits derived from the associ
butions—
ation.
Basis of payments.
Males earning 20s. ($4.87) or more for a week of 55}
hours (o)................................................................
Males earning 20s. ($4.87) or more for a week of 55}
hours....................................................................
Males earning less than 20s. ($4.87) for a week of 55}
hours....................................................................
Females earning 12s. ($2.92) or more for a week of 55}
hours.....................................................................
Females earning less than 12s. ($2.92) for a week of 55}
hours....................................................................
Learners not earning any wage at all..........................
Weekly
Weekly pay on
If work
pay on account
ing less
account
of
than 26
of fail break
ures
If workhours in Weekly Weekly
downs
ing 26 1 week, strike, out-ofand
and
work
or more after victim, pay
13 for 36 stop
hours haying or lock weeks
in i paid 26 out
one work
week. weeks’ pay. in
ing
work
year. days
full
in ing
contri
calen days in
butions
dar
calen
year.
dar
year.
$0.24
$0.02
$2.68
$2.43
$2.43
.18
.02
2.68
2.43
2.43
.12
.02
2.43
1.95
1.95
2.43
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.46
1.46
.12
.02
.02
.02
$2.43
Benefits derived from the association.
Basis of payments.
Weekly Weekly
tem
for temfor
porary porary
Perma Fatal Ordi Emi
acci
acci dent, nent ac acci nary gration.
dent, second
cident. dent. death.
first 13
13
weeks. weeks.
Males earning 20s. ($4.87) or more for a week of 55}
hours (o)................................................................ $2.43
Males earning 20s. ($4.87) or more for a week of 55}
hours.....................................................................
2.43
Males earning less than 20s. ($4.87) for a week of 55}
hours.....................................................................
1.95
Females earning 12s. ($2.92) or more for a week of 55}
hours.....................................................................
1.95
Females earning less than 12s. ($2.92) for a week of 55}
hours................................................................... .
1.46
Learners not earning any wage at all..........................•
$1.22 $243.33 $48.67
$24.33
$9.73
1.22
243.33
48.67
24.33
9.73
.97
146.00
38.93
19.47
6.30
.97
146.00
38.93
19.47
6.30
.73
121.66
29.20
14.60
14.60
4.87
• It should be noted that the payment of an additional contribution of 3d. (6 cents) in
this class secures, in addition to the other benefits, a weekly out-of-work benefit of 10s.
($ 2 .4 3 ), payable for 13 weeks in one year.
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
41
The Amalgamated Union o f Shop Assistants, Warehousemen, and
Clerks has an entrance fee o f Is. (24 cents) and a more varied and
higher scale o f contribution, and the gradations are in regard to the
member’s age as well as wages.
CONTRIBUTIONS AND BENEFITS IN THE NATIONAL AMALGAMATED UNION OF
SHOP ASSISTANTS, WAREHOUSEMEN, AND CLERKS.
[ “ C ” scale open to women who declare their wages to be equal to 25s. ($6.08) per week.
“ D ” scale open to men who declare their wages to be equal to 35s. ($8.52) per week.]
Benefits in sickness, unemployment, and death.
Scale.
Sex.
Age on entry
(years).
contribu Trade members in
tions.
unemployment only
(per week).
Fol
Death benefits.
low
ing
12
weeks
in
Two Five
years years Ten
Full Trade First Sec Third sick
ness
and and years
bene bene 4
4
ond 4
under and
fit. fit. weeks. weeks. weeks. only under
10 over.
5
years. years.
A
Junior. M en a n d
women.
Women only..
Do...........
A.......
Do...........
Men...............
M en a n d
B .......
women.
Do...........
Do...........
Do...........
C........
Do...........
Do...........
(Men only.......
D.......
D o..........
Do...........
16 and under 18. $0.06 $0.04 $1.70 $1.22 $0.85 $0.61
18 and under 30.
30 and under 40.
40 and under 50.
18 and under 30.
21 and under 30.
.08
.10
.12
.12
.12
.06
.07
.08
.08
.08
30 and under 40.
40 and under 50.
21 and under 30.
30 and under 40.
40 and under 50.
21 and under 30.
30 and under 40.
40 and under 50.
.15
.18
.18
.22
.27
.24
.30
.37
.10
.12
.12
.15
.18
.16
.20
.24
2.19
1.70
1.10
.73 $12.17 $19.47 $31.63
3.41
2.43
1.70
1.22 19.47 29.20 48.67
5.11
3.65
2.55
1.83 29.20 43.80 73.00
6.81
4.87
3.41
2.43 38.93 58.40 97.33
F or the year 1907 there was paid out in benefits by this union
£12,218 19s. 3d. ($59,463.58), but there were two prolonged strikes,
which alone necessitated £1,307 6d. ($6,360.64) in unemployment pay.
Labor disputes between shop assistants and the employers are, how
ever, extremely small as compared with the area o f trade affected
by a general disagreement as to wages throughout the cotton textile
industries o f Lancashire, in which, it w ill be remembered, more
women than men are employed.
On November 5,1892, the spinning companies o f Lancashire locked
out some 40,000 persons employed in preparing and spinning cotton,
and as a result o f this stoppage in the spinning department fully
20,000 operatives in the weaving department were also thrown out
o f work. A fter a total stoppage o f five months work was resumed
at a reduction o f practically 3 per cent.
From the momentous conference between representatives from the
employers’ and the operatives’ sides and the final all-night sitting
which settled the strike came the agreement which has since gov
erned the trade. This is known as the “ Brooklands agreement,” and
42
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the clauses given below show its forceful provision for conciliatory
methods o f settling disputes:
That in future no local employers’ association, nor the Federated
Association o f Employers, on the one hand, nor any trade union or
federation o f trades unions on the other hand, shall countenance,
encourage, or support any lockout or strike which may arise from ,
or be caused by any question, difference, or dispute, contention, griev
ance, or complaint, with respect to work, wages, or any other matter,
unless and until the same has been submitted in w riting by the secre
tary o f the local employers’ association to the secretary o f the local
trades union, or by the secretary o f the local trades union to the
secretary o f the local employers’ association, as the case may b e; nor
unless and until such secretaries or a committee consisting o f three
representatives o f the local trades union with their secretary, and
three representatives o f the employers’ association with their secre
tary, shall have failed, after fu ll inquiry, to settle and arrange such
question, difference, or dispute, contention, complaint, or grievance,
within the space o f seven days from the receipt o f the communica
tion in writing aforesaid; nor unless and until, failin g the last-men
tioned settlement or arrangement, i f either o f the secretaries o f the
local trades union or local employers’ association shall so deem it
advisable, a committee consisting o f four representatives o f the Fed
erated Association o f Employers, with their secretary, and four repre
sentatives o f the Amalgamated Association o f the Operatives’ Trade
Unions, with their secretary, shall have failed to settle or arrange, as
aforesaid, within the further space o f seven days from the time
when such matter was referred to them, provided always that the
secretaries or the committees hereinbefore mentioned, as the case may
be, shall have power to extend or enlarge the said periods o f seven
days whenever they may deem it expedient or desirable to do so.(a)
Besides this agreement there is in these textile trades a voluntary
board o f arbitration called the “ Joint Committee o f Employers and
Operatives in Cotton W eaving Industry in North and Northeast
Lancashire,” the object o f which is to consider in their preliminary
stages all trade disputes occurring in the weaving department and
coming within the knowledge o f the officials o f the operatives’ amal
gamation, with a view to preserving good feeling between employers
and operatives; and to recourse to these two tribunals the women
workers in cotton industries owe the general peace o f wage condi
tions for fifteen years.
In 1908, however, another acute situation over the cotton spinning
wage scale developed in Lancashire and proceedings under the Brooklands agreement were for a time sterile o f trade settlement. The
operatives offered dogged resistance to the 5 per cent reduction in
wages proposed by the employers, and the conciliation conference
having ended in failure, there was an army o f cotton operatives
0 Report on Rules o f Voluntary Conciliation and Arbitration Boards, p. 168.
Board o f Trade. 1907.
w o m e n 's trade
u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
43
300,000 strong out on strike. The unemployment was a matter o f
only a few weeks5 duration, fo r the operatives were persuaded to go
back to work temporarily at the 5 per cent reduction rate.
The writer o f this article was present at the first conference in this
dispute, held in Manchester, August 4, 1908, between representatives
o f the Federation o f Cotton Spinners5 Associations and representa
tives on behalf o f the Operative Spinners5 Amalgamation, the Card
Koom W orkers5 Amalgamation, and the Federation o f Keelers and
W inders5 Union. About thirty members o f the general committee o f
the employers5 federation and twenty-four representing the opera
tives5 interest were in attendance, and at the dissolution o f the first
day’s session neither side appeared disposed to yield.
The general attitude o f the women members o f the unions and
federations who were interviewed in the m ills o f the surrounding
towns seemed to be one o f indifference, or at leagt one o f complete
confidence in the ability o f the union officials charged with the nego
tiations to secure a satisfactory adjustment or to provide strike pay
should the employees be called out.
The women’s trade union organizers interviewed agreed that they
faced one o f the biggest industrial fights on record, and they stated
that they would rather see a compromise effected through an inde
pendent mediator than have the disastrous lockout which would fo l
low should both sides remain hard-headed in regard to the proposals
each had submitted to the conference. Unemployment occasioned by
a prevailing slackness in a trade causes the woman worker to suffer
much more than the man, since the men can turn elsewhere and be
absorbed by other trades, but women who have been cotton operatives
all their lives and are anchored with their families in the settlements
about the mills must sit there and look at the closed door^ without the
opportunity to do anything else.
Except in the textile group o f trade unions, and to a small extent
in the National Union o f Boot and Shoe Operatives, women’s organ
izations have not the benefit o f established conciliation boards, which
are so important a factor in controlling trade disputes in the great
industrial groups in which only men are employed. (a)
But whenever the Women’s Trade Union League officials are ap
pealed to for help in labor difficulties among women workers, the
first effort is toward mediation by a deputation to the employer or a
petition for the appointment o f a board o f arbitration.
a Of the 7,248 cases settled by conciliation boards in ten years, 1897-1906,
only 92 (or 1.3 per cent) were preceded by a stoppage o f work. Most o f the
boards provide that all their decisions, or the award o f their arbitrators, etc.,
shall be final and binding, and a few boards go further and impose a money
penalty for breach o f agreement or award.— Report on Rules o f Voluntary Con
ciliation and Arbitration Boards, pp. 236, 237. Board o f Trade. 1907.
4764—No. 83—09----- 4
44
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
R E L A T IO N OF W OM EN ’S T R A D E UNIONS TO
W A G E S AN D TH E SW E A T IN G SYSTE M .
LO W
The greatest endeavor on the part o f the women’s trade union
leaders at the present time is to accomplish the extension o f the board
o f arbitration prerogative to an authoritative institution for legal
decision in wage disputes and the establishment by law o f a minimum
wage in the different trades.
The deplorable condition o f female labor has been one o f the chief
stimuli to attempted organization among the women workers in
England, the hope being that the strength o f collective demand
would automatically adjust the rate o f pay to a living wage. But in
the small factories and workshops, and above all in the case o f work
distributed as domestic labor or home work, organization has not
flourished or has been found impossible, and the female trade-unionist
believes that the law must intervene before these trades can develop
sufficient financial and moral strength for a reform ation o f the bad
conditions.
In the last few years the leaders in the women’s trade union move
ment have gone out as personal investigators o f the present economic
and sanitary demoralization among all classes o f home workers, and
the results o f this study, as given in their testimony before the select
committee on home work and proclaimed in addresses during the
conference on a minimum wage held at the Guildhall, London, Octo
ber 24, 25, and 26, 1902, has done much to enlist public sentiment in
their cause.
It was the publication o f certain distressing cases that gave impetus
to the earljr organization o f women. In 1889 a case in Manchester
was brought to public notice where the father was disabled through
an accident and the mother and a daughter o f 15, the oldest o f four
children, by shirt making could earn only 12s. ($2.92) a week, 3s. 9d.
(91 cents) going for rent. The father finally poisoned himself.
This led to the formation o f a trade league among women workers. (°)
It was impossible to support organization among the sweated workers
here as elsewhere, but the idea o f combination spread into the textile
trades and contributed greatly to the universality o f trade unionism
in Manchester.
A comparison between wages and conditions in the small trades
before the existence o f women’s trade unions in England and what
exists to-day in the home-work districts o f London does not reveal
any differentiation in favor o f later-day conditions. In fact, it was
brought out in the evidence taken before the select committee o f the
Annual Report o f Women’s Trade Union League fo r 1889.
w o m e n ' s tr ad e u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
45
House o f Commons that wages in the sweated industries have gone
down in the last 10 or 12 years. (a)
Instances are cited o f an equally deranged economic system among
home and unorganized factory workers. (6) Eecently at Taunton, in
Somerset, which, together with Londonderry, represents the bulk o f
the shirt and collar industry, in a factory where the average wage was
9s. 6d. ($2.31), it was found that deductions amounting to Is. (24
cents), Is. 3d. (30 cents), and 2s. 3d. (55 cents) per week were made
for cotton. The employer, when asked about it, gave as his justifica
tion “ that a certain amount o f the work was done at home, and there
fore the cotton went out o f the factory, and he was bound to charge
for cotton to everybody because some o f the workers took cotton out
to do the work at home.”
In this trade “ it is the custom for the worker to take the collars
home to do a certain process at home known as creasing. Each
collar, from the time it enters the factory as linen until it goes out as
the finished product, has to pass through 17 different processes.
Three o f these processes consist o f creasing at different periods, and
this,” it was discovered, “ is very largely done at home with the help
o f the children. This is, o f course, a breach o f the factory act, but it
is impossible, or almost impossible, to enforce the factory act, be
cause naturally the worker connives with the employer in proving
that she has not been doing the same work in the factory during the
day, and that the work was really taken out by a sister or relative.”
“ In Taunton,” Miss Macarthur further testified, “ I found one
woman with six children who earned 16s. ($3.89) a week. She
worked in the factory during the day and at home at night; she told
me she worked from 5 in the morning till 8 at home, from 8 till 7 in
the factory, and from 8 till midnight at home again regularly. This
was confirmed by a large number o f other women who were present. I
suggested to her that she should give evidence to the factory inspector
and that the firm should be prosecuted. She begged me not to give
inform ation because her wages would have been reduced to about
9s. 6d. ($2.31) if she had not been doing home work, and therefore
she would have been unable to maintain her children, who, by the
way, were helping her with a part o f the work.”
In O xford a few weeks later a woman was found working in
factories whose average wages were 5s. ($1.22) a week. On inquiring
how she lived, the information was vouchsafed that one o f the
workers o f the factory who earned more gave her dinner every day.
« Testim ony o f Mr. G. R. Askwith, Report from Select Committee on Home
W ork, 1907, p. 203.
®Testimony o f Miss Mary R. Macarthur in Report from Select Committee on
Home W ork, 1907, p. 134 et seq.
46
BULLETIN OF THE BUEEAU OF LABOB.
She paid 2s. 6d. (61 cents) a week for rent and the other 2s. 6d.
(61 cents) apparently met every other expense.
There was recently a strike in a tin works at H ull because time
rates had been substituted for piece rates, and according to a report
in the paper the employer stated that the reason he was fixing time
rates o f 6s. ($1.46) a week for his workers was that they took advan
tage o f the piecework rates to earn too much, some o f the workers
making 16s. ($3.89) or 17s. ($4.14). This was confirmed by the
experience o f an organizer from the Women’s Trade Union League,
who went there immediately.
Another reduction on this order was made by an East London
blacking firm, where the girls were employed in filling bottles at
piece rates and their wages worked out at 10s. ($2.43) and 12s. ($2.92)
a week, until one week a notice was put up in the factory that the
piecework rate would be reduced by one-half, which meant that their
wages would have been reduced to 5s. ($1.22) and 6s. ($1.46) per
week. There was no organization, but the girls went out on strike,
and when a woman organizer sought an interview with the managing
director she was told that he had come to the conclusion that since
bottles could be filled by girls under 18 years o f age he intended to
dismiss all the women and in the future employ only girls under that
age. The firm was induced not to disturb the existing rates.
The disparity in the rates o f pay that unskilled workers receive
from employers in the same locality for similar work is indicative
o f the vicissitude o f the unorganized women in trade. In the same
district two firms employing women to fill bags with cocoa have
different piece rates—in one Is. 3d. (30 cents) per 1,000 bags being
paid, while exactly similar work is done for the other firm for 8d.
(16 cents) per 1,000 bags. Then in tea packing, on one side o f a
street in London there is a firm whose girls are able to earn 14s.
($3.41) and 16s. ($3.89) a week in packing tea in quarter-pound
and half-pound packets, but they are in constant dread o f a reduc
tion because across the street there is another tea-packing firm where
the average wage is not more than 7s. 6d. ($1.83). There may be
some difference in the machinery which is used but it is very slight,
and the output seems to be about the same. (a) Farther, down the
scale in home work, shirt finishing, and buttonholing, there is a d if
ference o f 3d. (6 cents) and 4d. (8 cents) a dozen for the same work,
and in trousers finishing there is a noted difference for the same
work o f 2fd. (6 cents), 4d. (8 cents), and even in some cases Is. 6d.
(37 cents) a dozen. W hile apart from the variations in the prices
paid for the same work the fluctuation in prices at different times is
notorious. Firms in East London have lowered the rate o f the
a See Miss M acarthur’s testimony in R eport from Select Committee on Home
W ork, July 18, 1907.
w o m e n 's trade
u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
47
“ giver-out ” from Is. 6d. (37 cents) to 9d. (18 cents), and it is stated
that the same decline has taken place in the price for the making o f
“ uppers ” in the boot and shoe trade by women home workers in
London.
In all these trades, efforts at organization among the poorly paid
workers can get no hold.
The barrier to organization which the less-than-living wage paid
to unskilled female labor presents has been instrumental in keeping
the women’s trade union movement within a certain circumscribed
area; for the greater part o f the work in which women take part is
unskilled. Moreover, the presence o f this mass o f inadequately paid
workers throughout the trades is a distinct drag upon the wages o f
female labor in general. The trade union leaders in England be
lieve that apart from the humanitarian considerations involved
sweating is an economic menace. This is, o f course, more forcibly
true o f the effect o f the mere pittance allowed the least efficient, the
domestically handicapped, and really physically incapable workers
by employers who take advantage o f the partial support by charity
and distribute work to such workers at the lowest rates o f pay, know
ing that they can not compete in hours o f employment or in strength
with the regular worker.
The downward leveling effect o f sweated labor upon wages in those
trades in which a proportion o f women succeeded in organizing and
demanding a standard wage is seen in the follow ing comparative table
o f rates for women’s work in the boot and shoe trade, which was
prefaced by the remark: “ In the nonunion factories very many chil
dren are employed at 14,16, and 17 years o f age at a very small wage,
consequently outworkers only receive for a great deal o f work the
same price that is reckoned for the sweated child labor.”
SCALE OF WAGES FOR UNION AND NONUNION WOMEN IN THE BOOT AND
SHOE TRADE.
Wages of—
Unit of
time.
Occupation.
Operators on silking machines..................................
Operators on vamping m a/»hinp.s..............................
Fitters, on a set wage....................................
Machinists [machine workers], on a set wage..
fiflk w s, on a se t w a g e.................................. ...................
Vampers, on a set wage.................................
ClosAfS, on a se t w age......................................................
Buttonholers, on a set wage.........................
Trade union women.
$4.62
50 hours.
Hour__
.08
Week... $3.65 to $4.38 and 4.87
...do......
3.89 to 4.87
...do......
3.89 to 4.62
...do......
3.89 to 4.87
...do......
3.65 to 4.38
...do...... 3.89 to 4.38and4.62
Nonunion women.
a $1.70
$0.02 to .05
2.19 to 3.41
$2.43 to 3.65 and 3.89
1.70 and 1.95 to 3.16
2.43 to 3.65
1.70 and 1.95 to 2.92
1.95 to 3.16
* 52J to 54 hours.
In investigating tailoring work among women there was found
proof o f another feature apparently incident to absence o f organiza
tion. In London in a nonunion workshop where women’s garments
48
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
were being made (there are four o f these workshops conducted by
the same firm) nearly everything was found to be in compliance with
the regulations o f the Factory and W orkshop Act. There were only
60 machines in a large room where, according to space requirements,
there might have been 100. The hours, the forewoman said, were
9 a. m. to 8 p. m. on week days and 9 a. m. to 2 p. m. on Saturday,
with one hour for lunch and a half hour for tea in the afternoon.
The average earnings— it was piecework—were £1 6d. ($4.99) a week.
There was no list o f registered home workers nailed up with a copy
o f the Factory and W orkshop A ct as is usual, and the question as to
the regularity o f employment was met with the slight evasion that
“ they very seldom had to shut down.”
However, in this district several women home workers who were
making garments “ given o u t” by the employers o f this workshop
were interviewed by the writer, and from them it was learned that
the extra work o f a rush order is always disposed o f in this w ay; but
when trade is dull the firm cuts off all outwork, often disposes o f half
the inside “ machiners,” and gives scant employment to those kept on.
This is not the way a rush o f orders is dealt with in the organized
trades. The work has to be distributed among the workers that are
available, and probably there is some little delay; but a great factor
in unemployment is eliminated and the consumer is forced to give his
orders in time.
The establishment o f a scale o f prices, which is effected by the for
mation o f a union, has done much to ameliorate the condition o f the
women workers.
Curious ignorance on the subject o f pay is found in unorganized
trades. A strike broke out in a shirt factory in the East E nd; the
quarrel was between the men and their employers, but the women
came out in support o f the men, and when a trade union organizer
tried to take a register o f their wages it was found that in two work
rooms in that factory, where the women were working upon the very
same sort o f shirts, cut out by the same people from the same bale
o f material, there was a difference in wages o f between 45 and 50
per cent.
The reason was the difference o f attitude on the part o f the fore
women. One forewoman had insisted upon keeping up the rates in
her workroom, and the other, being more tim id, had not done so;
but the workers were totally ignorant o f this condition until the
form ation o f a union among them brought it out.
The perfection o f this enforcement o f list prices is found in the
equal rates for men and women in the textile organizations o f Lanca
shire; but it is difficult to determine just how much o f the advance
ment in the workers’ welfare in this district is directly due to trade
unionism. For, while the textile operatives o f Lancashire to-day, the
w o m e n 's trade
u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
49
most highly protected and benefited class o f labor in which women
are employed in England, present a startling contrast to the picture
o f “ the maimed, distorted, and diseased factory hands who paraded
before Lord Ashley in Oldham and Blackburn ” (a) sixty years ago,
there have been so many economic forces affecting conditions there,
and several operating together, that to isolate one phenomenon, like
the development o f trade unionism, and say what change has been
wrought is impossible.
The Factory and W orkshop A ct, the Em ployer’s Liability Act,
the Trade Union A ct, and the Workmen’s Compensation A ct, to
gether with all other legislation for labor, have entered into the re
generation o f the textile factory system; and inextricably associated
with the origin, the furtherance, and the execution o f all these bene
ficiary measures has been the force o f the trade union. And this
force has, o f course, been greatly increased by the consolidation o f
the large element o f female labor in these industries.
Maintaining a standard wage is perhaps directly attributable more
to trade unionism than to anything else, and a comparison o f the
course o f wages in the cotton industries (largely concentrated in
Lancashire) between the date o f the rise o f women’s trade unions
and recent years with that in other industries much less organized,
yet subject to the same benefits o f labor legislation during that
time, may supply some evidence o f the advantageous working o f
organization for the women workers.
There are no conclusive figures to demonstrate the exact influence
o f the women’s organization upon the course o f wages. Indeed,
they started from such a low point, 3s. 6d. to 5s. 6d. (85 cents to $1.34),
at the end o f the eighteenth century, with the high-water mark o f
8s. ($1.95), that it is quite possible that the wages o f the female
worker would have increased irrespective o f the effect o f industrial
legislation or o f trade unionism.
The anomaly o f the female factory worker’s wage is that it is still
so low. Although there are women weavers in Lancashire who are
paid from 24s. to 30s. ($5.84 to $7.30) weekly for fu ll time, “ the
average wage o f a manual worker, taking it all the year around and
making allowance for sickness and slackness, does not now reach 8s.
($1.95) per week.” (&)
Women’s trade unions, then, would not seem to have demonstrated
a high efficiency in a widespread elevation o f wages, but as a factor
in maintaining a once-established standard o f wage the women’s
trade union movement gives undeniable evidence. The woman
worker in the organized centers o f Lancashire knows that she can
0 Problems o f Modern Industry, by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, p. 117.
6 Interview with Miss Macarthur, August 10, 1908.
50
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
not secure preference for employment by offering to put up with
worse conditions and less pay than the standard, because the em
ployer, held to the standard by his collective bargain with his em
ployees, w ill always select the most efficient. She therefore seeks to
commend herself by a good character, technical skill, and general
intelligence. The result o f constant selection o f the most efficient has
proved a positive stimulus to the whole class o f female workers to
become more and more efficient; so that women’s trade unions may be
said to change the form o f competition in lowering wages to compe
tition in requirement to secure the higher pay. In securing legisla
tion which has reduced the hours o f labor for the workers from ninety
to fifty^five and one-half hours a week and in enforcing sanitary
precautions and protection trade unions have been a power in the
movement.
CONCLUSIONS.
The women’s trade union movement in Great Britain is in an im
mature stage o f development or it may be merely transitional, but
its development has not been arrested.
Yet women’s trade unionism, developing as it has from a central
organization (the Women’s Trade Union League) without the diffi
culty o f divesting already founded local trade autonomies o f execu
tive power, began at once a system o f educational and defensive work
among female labor which is bound to bear results.
Organizers from the Women’s Trade Union League have fre
quently proceeded to the center o f a trade dispute among women
workers and as often have developed an angry, hysterical crowd,
unanimously demanding the redress o f a particular grievance, into a
deliberative body o f serious women, learning to distinguish between
the shortsightedness o f violent individual assertion and the wisdom
o f a calm presentation o f the case along the lines o f greatest good
to the greatest number o f all concerned in the revolt.
A great deal is said o f the apparent indifference o f the woman
member to the mechanism o f her union after she has once enlisted
herself under the male officials, but it is doubtful whether this condi
tion has not its exact analogy in the general apathy among all aver
age members o f the great associations o f coal miners and cotton oper
atives, which comprise one-fifth o f the total trades union membership
o f Great Britain.
The first and really great work o f the women’s trade union move
ment has been the awaking in women workers o f a sense o f their rela
tionship to labor problems in general. There was at first great diffi
culty in obtaining detailed and really trustworthy inform ation con
cerning those branches o f labor in which women were engaged. A
foolish squeamishness about disclosing their wages and the conditions
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
51
under which their work was conducted had to be dispelled before the
women could understand that their position in labor was o f public
interest and important toward the accomplishment o f ameliorated
and advanced conditions for all workers. It has also been the work
o f the women trade unions to convince the woman wage-earner that
the absence o f regulation does not mean freedom. This was difficult
even in Lancashire. But now that unionism is general there the
Lancashire woman weaver, whose hours o f labor and conditions o f
work are rigidly fixed and yet who enjoys for this reason more per
sonal liberty than the unregulated laundry woman in Notting H ill,
form s an object lesson which has materially helped the growth o f
women’s organization in other trades.
The women trade-unionists o f Great Britain are strongly in favor
o f securing their contentions for the betterment o f labor conditions
through protective legislation rather than by militant action o f their
organization. They look upon trade unions as a medium for the sug
gestion and as an aid in the enforcement o f legally formulated rights
o f the worker.
So the women trade-unionists have made every effort to place the
interests o f the woman worker before the Government for adjudica
tion. From the public demonstration and mass meeting with re
sultant petitions or resolutions for organized action through the Labor
party (w ith which most o f the organized women are affiliated) and
through their unions (to which the women contribute an equal levy
with the m en), every effort has been made to advance matters o f as
vital importance to the woman wage-earner as her wages.
The consolidated Factory and Workshop A ct o f 1901, the Truck A ct
o f 1896, the Workmen’s Compensation Acts o f 1897 and 1906, and
the Trades Dispute A ct o f 1906 are all comparatively recent legisla
tion which has been passed at the instigation o f the trade-unionists
and (it is conceded) through the emphasized endeavor o f women trade
union leaders.
Moreover, women’s trade unions have initiated important trade
movements on their own account. Am ong these is the crusade against
the use o f lead in the potteries. This is a matter which, according to the
manufacturers, can not be dealt with legislatively by one nation alone;
to abolish lead glazing in the English manufactories would be to an
nihilate the pottery industry in England, because the English products
could not then compete with the highly-glazed foreign products. But
the Women’s Trade Union League has made every effort to mitigate
the evils o f lead poisoning among women workers. A potters’ fund is
devoted to keeping a worker in the potteries who shall report cases o f
suffering; the fund also provides for the relief o f the sufferers. L eaf
lets explaining the evils caused workers by the use o f lead in the manu
facture o f earthenware and china have been issued by the league and
52
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
exhibitions o f leadless glazed ware were instituted at centers through
out London to interest consumers in this humanitarian effort. Finally
an arbitration committee composed o f representative manufacturers
in this trade and o f trade-unionists (appearing for the operatives) was
arranged in 1907, and the provisions agreed upon mark a considerable
advance toward the elimination o f the disease. By these rules a gen
eral standard o f 5 per cent solubility (i. e., comparative safety)
is demanded in the manufacture o f lead glazes. An exemption from
the standard is allowed under certain conditions, the most important
o f which is participation in a complete scheme o f compensation for
loss occasioned by illness caused by the use o f lead, but the home secre
tary has power to forbid the use o f lead altogether in places in which
cases o f lead poisoning recur or where the provisions o f the compensa
tion scheme are broken. A s there were 103 cases o f lead poisoning
and 9 deaths from this cause (a) in 1907 among the operatives in pot
teries, it w ill be seen that the Women’s Trade Union League has
secured an important reform atory step in this arbitration, and 44this
experimental scheme for dealing with a disease attributable to the
materials in an occupation can not fail to be an invaluable precedent
for the extension o f compensation in this direction.” ( 6)
The league also interested itself in the public agitation fo r the
passage o f the bill prohibiting the manufacture o f phosphorus
matches, which causes such horrible disfigurements and suffering as
are produced by necrosis o f the jaw, etc., among the women workers.
The resolution to abolish the use o f phosphorus in this trade had
been passed by the International Association o f Labor Legislation,
but it is the opinion o f a labor leader in Parliament that “ action on
the subject was hastened a long stride ” by the incentive o f a report
prepared by the women’s league on cases o f victims.
A long this line it is interesting to note, as significant o f the com
plete veering o f popular opinion toward the women’s trade union
efforts that when in 1892 an inquiry into factory conditions was
made and published the author was successfully sued for libel, while
to-day lists o f prosecutions with names o f firms, violations, and judg
ments in fu ll are published in the records o f all women’s trade
unions with no fear o f legal recourse on the part o f the accused
employer.
B y clause 22 o f the act o f 1895 the hours o f labor in laundries were
fixed at 10 in a day and 30 in a week for children; at 12 in a day and
60 in a week for young persons, and at 14 in a day and 60 in a week for
women. Violations o f even these hours are o f most frequent occur«Ammal Report o f the Chief Inspector o f Factories and W orkshops for the
year 1907, p. 308.
& A nnu al Report o f Woman’s Trade Union League, 1907.
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
53
rence, and the 7,362 cases o f overtime in laundries registered in
1907 (a) by no means represent the infringements throughout the
trade. The Women’s Trade Union League has instituted a super
vision o f the hours o f work, the proper guarding o f machinery,
ventilation, air space, and general sanitation which has so supple
mented the factory inspector’s work that conditions o f work in this
occupation have improved greatly in the last 15 years.
Laundries not being classed among the “ dangerous trades ” are
not regulated so closely as the trades in which industrial poisoning
is a menace, and not having any “ common rules,” such as exist in
the textile industries for the regulation o f the amount o f humidity
in the weaving sheds, etc., there is great need o f outside help in
im proving conditions for the women, girls, and boys working long
hours in this trade. The Women’s Trade Union League has proved
an effectual legal agent in many cases discovered among these workers.
It has proved impossible to preserve stable organization among
laundry workers because o f the long hours and low rates o f pay, but
whether organized or not organized the Women’s Trade Union
League has always fought in their interest and has given them some
o f the benefits accruing to women workers in the well-organized
industries.
In summing up it may be said that the women’s trade union move
ment has in some instances been directly responsible fo r increase o f
wages, though in this line o f endeavor it is realized that the legal
recognition o f a minimum wage is necessary before widespread or
ganization and raised pay and standard o f living can be maintained.
Women’s trade unionism has, however, added most successful pressure
to the initiation and furtherance o f protective legislation.
The women trade-unionists, their individual resources reenforced
through afliliation with large district and national federations, have
been an element in the fight and have shared the victories, while the
Women’s Trade Union League has, through enforcing prescribed con
ditions, accomplished much toward the conservation o f health and
the promotion o f safety among local workers, where little or no local
organization can yet be effected.
The opinions o f two leading captains o f industry in England give
as emphatic an exposition o f trade union work and achievement as
can be procured. The first deals with trade unionism in general, and
the second is an excerpt from a letter written by the proprietor o f
one o f the largest cocoa and chocolate works in England and a lead
ing propagandist for the women’s trade union movement o f which
he writes.
^Annual Report o f the Chief Inspector o f Factories and W orkshops for 1907,
54
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Mr. W . Mather, in the Contemporary Review for November, 1892,
has declared:
W e employers owe more than, as a body, we are inclined to admit
to the improvement o f our methods o f manufacture due to the firm
ness and independence o f trade combinations. * * * The energy
and pertinacity o f trade unions have caused acts o f Parliament which
would not otherwise have been promoted by employers or politicians,
all o f which have tended to improve British commerce. * * *
Every intelligent employer w ill admit that his factory or workshop,
when equipped with all the com forts and conveniences and protective
appliances prescribed by Parliament for the benefit and protection
o f his work people—though great effort, and it may be, even sacrifice,
on his part has been made to procure them—has become a more
valuable property in every sense o f the word, and a profit has accrued
to him owing to the improved conditions under which his work
people have been placed.
From Mr. Edward Cadbury, October 7, 1908, was received the
follow ing expression in regard to women’s trade unions:
From my own point o f view as an employer I advocate the form a
tion o f trade unions among women for the follow ing reasons: A sup
ply o f intelligent workers who are satisfied with their remuneration
and with their condition o f work is an indispensable requirement o f
proper and efficient management, and such labor w ill always compete
successfully in every respect with that o f the underpaid worker who
is dissatisfied and physically inefficient. Wages are the foundation
o f efficiency, as the feeding, clothing, and housing o f the workers
must depend upon their adequate remuneration. From my own ex
perience I have found that an eight-hour day is long enough for the
average g irl; i f she works longer hours, she begins to flag and her
output tends to fall off. The question o f hours, wages, and just treat
ment should not be left to the arbitrary decision o f an employer or
manager, no matter how good his intentions may be, and if the
workers are to mantain their rights a well-managed organization,
composed o f a large m ajority o f the employees, is necessary. Trade
unionism also tends to a sense o f self-respect and esprit de corps
among the workers. It promotes a spirit o f independence, foresight
and fellowship, and its educational effect can not be overestimated.
It is only just, too, that the employees should have the most skilled
assistance they can command in order to state their case when griev
ances as to hours, pay, discipline, etc., arise, just as an employer is
entitled to be assisted by his staff in the consideration o f the m atter;
otherwise the workers are unfairly handicapped in dealing with an
employer who is so assisted. It is often found that unorganized girls
act on impulse and stop work without the slightest deliberation, and
without recognizing the damage they may do to themselves or their
employers, and trade unionism would stop this and do away with the
friction caused by petty complaints and ill-considered strikes.
It would be well both for men and women if the men workers would
be less selfish and take a deeper and more enlightened interest in the
work o f women. Experience seems to suggest that when men and
women do the same quality o f work it would be to the advantage o f
W O M E N 'S TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
55
both if they could find some common basis o f union and action. W ith
the help o f the men, with capable organizers, and with an enlightened
public opinion more might be done to organize even the unskilled
women workers, and the results already attained among the skilled
and better class women workers give promise o f a great advance in
the future. It is doubtful whether organized labor yet fully realizes
that one o f the weakest links in its chain o f organization is the con
dition o f women’s labor, and I think it w ill be admitted that one o f
its main tasks should be to undertake to raise the standard o f life o f
wage-earners as a whole. It is most probable that the low standard
o f women’s work does ultimately react upon the standard o f life o f all
classes o f labor, for it must be remembered that labor as a whole
stands or falls together.
This optim istic exposition o f the value o f women’s organizations
would seem to hold true— even in the experience o f Mr. Cadbury—
only in industries where the employment o f women is extensive
enough to force the attention o f the male operatives to the advantage
o f organizing their coworkers. In Birmingham, where 23 per cent
o f all the married women and widows are wage-earners and where,
instead o f the equal log as maintained for man and woman in Lanca
shire, the level o f women’s wages is 10s. or 12s. ($2.43 or $2.92) per
week—about one-third or one-half that o f the men’s wages—women’s
trade unionism has failed. And Mr. Cadbury’s analysis o f the ad
verse conditions there discloses accurately and succinctly the present
limitations to the organization o f women employed in small numbers
either by themselves or with men, but not doing the same work, and
is as follow s:
In the original investigation we made in Birmingham with regard
to women’s work and wages, we endeavored to ascertain to what ex
tent the physical, mental, and moral conditions o f the workers were
being helped or kept back by the present industrial and social condi
tions. W e had personal interviews with upward o f 6,000 working
women and 400 trade union secretaries, managers, and foremen o f
works em ploying women, and also interviews with employers and cor
respondence with various agencies, and among the various other
questions we made inquiries as to the extent and scope o f the organiza
tion o f women.
W e found that the want o f independence and foresight and the nar
row outlook o f women makes organization an almost impossible
remedy for the conditions o f their work, except in the case o f the most
skilled workers. Girls lo.ok forward to marriage and do not expect
to be life workers and therefore they do not consider they would gain
any ultimate personal advantage by joining a union, and the want
o f m obility among them makes unionism to a great extent ineffective.
The work o f women, generally speaking, is practically unskilled, and
in case o f dispute the places o f organized women could always be
filled by large numbers o f unemployed.
Attempts have been made in Birmingham to organize the women
in many trades, including bedstead, bookbinding, pinafore, tailoring,
56
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
leather, and pen trades, but these attempts have failed in some cases
partly from want o f experience o f the organizers, but in all cases
more because o f the apathy o f the workers, and the opposition o f the
masters. Some attempts are being made at the present time to
organize the women workers in Birmingham, and an organizer from
the Women’s Trade Union League is working in the district. She
has been successful in form ing a small union o f chain makers, who
work almost entirely in domestic workshops. There is also in B ir
mingham a union under the name o f the Birmingham and District
Lady Clerks’ Society, which is well organized and offers to its mem
bers the usual advantages, but the membership is not large. There
is also a local branch o f the National Amalgamated Union o f Shop
Assistants, but the number o f organized women shop assistants is
exceedingly small. Attempts are being made at Cradley Heath to
organize the women in the chain-making trade. A union in this in
dustry was formed in 1886, but the women became apathetic, and only
about 200 out o f at least 1,000 women were in the union until recently.
The men workers in this trade are more or less indifferent to the organ
ization o f women, though they themselves belong to an association
and their wives and daughters work with them. Employers gener
ally take the conditions and wages o f women’s work for granted and
are usually antagonistic to the formation o f trade unions among their
workers. Many foremen and forewomen seem to think that unions
fo r women are unnecessary and not worth the trouble. Men workers
generally are indifferent or opposed to women’s unions, and the
work o f the latter in most trades is so well marked off from that o f
the men that the men do not concern themselves as to the conditions
and wages o f the women’s work. The women themselves when asked
fo r their views as to unionism almost invariably said that they did
not know anything about it or had not thought o f it. Occasionally,
when a conflict with the employers is brought about, the workers may
be induced to organize while the excitement lasts, but when ordinary
conditions again prevail the members fall off in payments to the
union, partly because their wages are so low that the few pence per
week can not be spared and partly because o f their ignorance and lack
o f forethought, and also because their places can be so readily filled
by those outside the unions. («)
On the other hand, Mr. Cadbury has consistently encouraged trade
unionism among the women workers in his factory, and has said that
trade unionism for women workers and the ensuing improved condi
tions were neither magnanimity nor philanthropy on the part o f the
employer, because “ there is 5 per cent in it.”
a See Women’s W ork and W ages, by Cadbury, Matheson, and Shann, p. 253
et seq.
w o m e n 's trade
u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
57
But this indorsement does not find echo in the verdict o f several
employers whose opinions were obtained. One o f these spoke im
patiently o f Mr. Cadbury’s theory, and added: “ It does not pay to
train women, either in trades or organization; they would leave us
before we got the same return fo r our trouble as we get from men.”
Another, in whose factory there are unions among both the male
and the female operatives, was inclined to decry the efforts being
made to organize women. “ They are like a lot o f sheep,” he said.
“ Women much above them in class organize them and then hand
them over to pay their subscriptions into the treasury o f the men’s
unions, and I doubt very much whether they know what they are
doing or get very much out o f it.”
I f there is anything in this accusation that unions effected by
official organizers outside the trade bring no enlightenment to the
average worker, it was answered for the future by a woman trade
union leader, who said:
One o f the most hopeful signs o f the women’s trade union move
ment at the present time is the development o f many women leaders
from the ranks o f the workers themselves—women who, imbued with
the justice o f the “ cause,” and realizing the great issues involved,
have become enthusiastic missionaries, preaching the gospel o f com
bination to their fellow-workers in the factory, m ill, and workshop.
The London Times, in commenting upon a labor demonstration o f
1907, says:
But quite as impressive to our thinking is the case which the spokes
women o f the Lancashire textile operatives presented in Trafalgar
Square. Some o f them could boast that they had served fifteen or
twenty years in a cotton m ill, and, despite that drudgery, they spoke
with a fluency, a firmness o f logic, and a skill in the choice o f words
that showed exactly the same ability to rise above the handicap o f
conditions which one may note in the speaking men like Mr. Burt or
Mr. Hardie.
It would seem, then, as in the cotton textile districts where the
woman trade-unionist is an accepted economic factor, the devel
opment industrially and mentally o f these workers as a class must be
largely the test o f the women’s trade union movement throughout
Great Britain. Considering the primary evils o f the casual and un
settled nature o f all women’s work before any effort to steady it and
make it more effective was attempted, men trade union leaders admit
that the advance o f the female trade-unionist gives evidence that
the woman worker herself, through persistent combination for the
sake o f collective bargaining with employer and urgent petitioning
to obtain special protective laws, may greatly improve her industrial
condition in the near future.
W hile the women trade union leaders concede that the progress o f
organizing women workers has been slow, it has been restrained by
58
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
the necessary preliminary o f attempting to adjust a mere living
standard o f pay over a large area o f female labor.
A successful organizer among women said:
The differences between the whole standard o f men’s work and
women’s work and men’s and women’s wages could not possibly be
swept away except by generations o f legislation and women tradeunionists. In Lancashire this is so near accomplishment that it has
been possible to get much nearer the ideal o f women’s work, but every
where else it is customary for a woman to have less pay, and it is the
custom because she has acquiesced in it. She has allowed the em
ployer to believe she has no one but herself to support, and that she
can live on bread and butter and tea, while a man must eat beefsteak
and is presupposed to have a fam ily to support. Those workers o f
her sex who have auxiliary support and only need to work for a
pocket-money wage intensify the evil, and until we get, on the part o f
women workers, an insistent demand fo r a “ living wage ” and decent
conditions o f work we shall remain as far from the ideal as ever.
Very few o f the unions containing a female membership have
failed, and while the total number o f women unionists constitutes but
a small detachment o f the industrial army o f British women workers
there is no doubt that the women’s trade union is an economic force
that has come into Great Britain to stay.
A P P E N D IX .
Statistics o f women trade-unionists in Great Britain are given in
the follow ing tables. The first table shows in summary form a com
parison o f the total number o f women trade-unionists in 1904 and
1908. This table is follow ed by tables showing in detail the num
ber o f women members in the various unions in 1908, classified accord
ing to numerical strength and according to trades. The details were
secured in response to circular letters sent to the secretaries o f the
various unions.
STATISTICS OF WOMEN’S AND MIXED TRADE UNIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN,
1904 AND 1908.
[Figures for 1904 are compiled from the Report of the Labor Department of the Board of Trade on Trade
Unions in 1905-1907; those for 1908 are from returns secured in response to circular letters sent to the
secretaries of the various trade unions.]
Number of women’s trade unions........................................................................
Number of mixed trade unions (men and women)...............................................
Number of women in women s tirade unions.........................................................
Number of women in mixed trade unions............................................................
Total number of women trade-unionists..............................................................
Number of men in mixed trade unions................................................................
Number of men in men’s tirade unions.................................................................
1904.
1908.
28
120
9,223
117,062
126,285
204,742
1,564,025
30
151
al6,949
5191,830
c 208,779
5 329,189
W
« Including figures for 1907 for 15 unions; no later figures available.
&Including figures for 1907 for 77 unions; no later figures available.
c Including figures for 1907 for 92 unions; no later figures available.
d Figures not available.
The above statistics show that the number o f women’s and o f mixed
trade unions increased 2 and 81, respectively, in 1908 as compared
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
59
with 1904, while the female membership increased from 9,223 to
16,949, or 83.8 per cent, in women’s trade unions and from 117,062 to
191,830, or 63.9 per cent, in mixed unions.
The following table gives in detail the number o f women members
in women’s and in mixed trade unions in 1908 according to the nu
merical strength o f the unions:
WOMEN MEMBERS IN WOMEN’S AND IN MIXED TRADE UNIONS IN GREAT
BRITAIN, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO NUMERICAL STRENGTH, 1908.
[Figures are from returns secured in response to circular letters sent to the various trade
unions.]
Trade union.
Oldham Provincial Card and Blowing Room and Ring Frame Operatives..............................
Blackburn and District Power Loom Weavers’ Association....................................................
Burnley and District Weavers, Winders, and Beamers’ Association........................................
Bolton Card, Blowing, Ring, and Throstle Room Operatives..................................................
Nelson and District Power Loom Weavers.............................................................................
Darwen Weavers, Winders, and Warpers..............................................................................
Bolton and District Power Loom Weavers’ Association.........................................................
Ashton-under-Lyne and District Weavers and Winders..........................................................
Preston Power Loom Weavers’ Association............................................................................
Dundee and District Mill and Factory Operatives..................................................................
Hyde, Hadfield, Compstall, and Broadbottom Weavers, Winders, and Warpers.....................
Oldham Weavers, Reelers, and Winders’ Association.............................................................
Bury, Radcliffe, and District Weavers’ Association................................................................
Padiham and District Weavers.............................................................................................
S. E. Lancs. Provincial Card and Blowing Room Operatives.................................................
Leek Women Workers’ Union...............................................................................................
Accrington and District Power Loom Weavers’ Association...................................................
Chorley and District Weavers...............................................................................................
National Amalgamated Union of Shop Assistants, Warehousemen, and Clerks.........................
Colne and District Weavers, Winders, and Beamers...............................................................
Blackburn Power Loom Weavers’ Protection Society.............................................................
Amalgamated Felt Hat Trimmers and Wool Formers............................................................
Textile Operatives of Ireland................................................................................................
Rochdale Weavers, Winders, Reelers, and Beamers...............................................................
Church and Oswalatwistle Weavers, Winders, and Warpers..................................................
Heywood, Castleton, Norden, and District Weavers, Winders, and Reelers.............................
Great Harwood Weavers, Winders, and Beamers...................................................................
National Federation of Women Workers................................................................................
Dundee and District Jute and Flax Workers.........................................................................
Rochdale Card and Blowing Room Operatives and Ring Spinners..........................................
Rossendale Weavers, Winders, and Beamers.........................................................................
Postal Telegraph Clerks........................................................................................................
Hyde and District Card, Blowing, and Ring Frame Room Operatives....................................
National Union of Gasworkers and General Laborers.............................................................
Todmorden and District Weavers and Winders’ Association..................................................
General Union of Weavers and Textile Workers....................................................................
Haslingden Weavers’ Association..........................................................................................
Stockport and District Weavers, Winders, Warpers, and Reelers..............................................
National Boot and Shoe Operatives.......................................................................................
Clitheroe Weavers, Winders, and Warpers............................................................................
Blackburn and District Card and Blowing Room Operatives and Ring Spinners.....................
Stockport Association of Card and Blowing Room, Ring, and Throstle Spinners.....................
Operative Bleachers, Dyers, and Finishers’ Association.........................................................
Clayton-le-Moors Weavers.....................................................................................................
Wigan and District Card Room Operatives and Ring Spinners’ Association............................
National Amalgamated Printers’ Warehousemen and Cutters................................................
Forfar Factory Workers’ Union............................................................................................
Ramsbottom Weavers, Winders, and Warpers......................................................................
Female Cigar Makers............................................................................................................
Radcliffe and District Weavers and Winders........................................................................
Rishton Weavers’ Association...............................................................................................
Salford and District Power Loom Weavers............................................................................
Heywood Card Room Operatives, Spinners, and Ring Frame Operatives’ Association............
Accrington District Card and Blowing Room Operatives and Ring Spinners’ Association........
Bacup and District Weavers, Winders, and Beamers.............................................................
Amalgamated Union of Cooperative Employees.....................................................................
National Association of Telephone Operators.........................................................................
National Amalgamated Society of Male and Female Pottery Workers.....................................
Glossop and District Power Loom Weavers..........................................................................
Number
of women
members.
12,652
11,900
10,705
8,454
5,939
5,890
5.800
a 5,259
5,250
o5,17l
5,082
4,944
4.500
a 4,022
04,000
3.800
3,750
o3,740
3,597
0 3,438
3,148
o3,086
2,900
2,680
2,613
2,600
o 2,375
o2,300
o2,247
o2,224
1,873
1,861
al,752
1,652
1,630
1,600
o 1,560
1.500
1.500
1.500
1,489
ol,474
1,429
1,396
ol,337
1,300
1,256
1,234
ol,215
ol,193
1,118
1,113
1,100
ol,06l
ol,045
1,020
1,000
1,000
• Figures for 1907 ; supplied from Report of the Labor Department of the Board of Trade
on Trade Unions in 1905-1907, as there were no later figures available.
4764— No. 83—09-----5
60
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
WOMEN MEMBERS IN WOMEN’S AND IN MIXED TRADE UNIONS IN GREAT
BRITAIN, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO NUMERICAL STRENGTH, 1908— Cont’d.
Trade union.
Number
of women
members.
Cigar Makers’ Mutual Association..........................................................................................
Whitworth Vale Power Loom Weavers..................................................................................
Variety Artistes’ Federation..................................................................................................
Preston Card and Blowing Room and Ring Spinners.............................................................
Chain Makers and Strikers’ Association (Cradley Heath)........................................................
Leicester and Leicestershire Amalgamated Hosiery Union......................................................
Brechin Mill and Factory Operatives.....................................................................................
Bury and District Card, Blowing, and Ring Room Operatives’ Association.............................
Arbroath Mill and Factory Workers......................................................................................
Irish Drapers’ Assistants.......................................................................................................
Hammered Chain Makers......................................................................................................
Mossley Card and Blowing Room Operatives.........................................................................
Flax Roughers and Yarn Spinners (Ireland)..........................................................................
Barnoldswick and District weavers, Winders, and Beamers...................................................
Skipton and District Weavers’ Association............................................................................
Bamber Bridge Weavers’ Association....................................................................................
Manchester and Salford Patent Cop Winders, Bobbin and Hank Winders..............................
Amalgamated Union of Clothiers’ Operatives.........................................................................
Amalgamated Braid Workers and Kindred Trades................................................................
Women Sorters.....................................................................................................................
Wigan and District Weavers, Winders, Warpers, and Reelers.................................................
Lurgan Hemmers and Veiners...............................................................................................
United Kingdom Postal Clerks..............................................................................................
Longridge Weavers, Winders, and Warpers...........................................................................
Ilkeston and District Hosiery Union......................................................................................
Amalgamated Tailors and Tailoresses....................................................................................
Royal Army Clothing Department Employees.......................................................................
Manchester and Salford Ring Spinners...................................................................................
British Steel Smelters, Mill, Iron, and Tinplate Workers........................................................
Women employed in bookbinding and printing (Manchester).................................................
Municipal Employees............................................................................................................
Macclesfield Power Loom Silk Weavers.................................................................................
Hinckley Federated Hosiery Union.......................................................................................
West of Scotland Weaving Factories Female Workers............................................................
Actors..................................................................................................................................
Amalgamated Shirt and Jacket Makers..................................................................................
Burnley and District Textile Operatives................................................................................
Hawick Hosiery Union.........................................................................................................
Manchester Cigarette Makers, Cutters, and Packers................................................................
Macclesfield Cotton Weavers, Winders, and Warpers.............................................................
Women in Bookbinding (London).........................................................................................
National Society of Dyers and Finishers (Huddersfield).........................................................
National Paper Mill Workers................................................................................................
Manchester and Salford Sewing Machinists............................................................................
Female Lace Workers (Nottingham).....................................................................................
Saddleworth Weavers and Woolen Textile Workers...............................................................
Rossendale Boot, Shoe, and Slipper Operatives......................................................................
National League of the Blind (brush makers, basket makers, etc.)..........................................
Denton Silk Hat Trimmers and Stitchers...............................................................................
Yorkshire Provincial Card, Blowing, and Ring Room Operatives...........................................
Shorthand Writers and Typists.............................................................................................
Hadfield and District Card and Blowing Room Operatives’ Association..................................
Aberdeen Mill and Factory Workers......................................................................................
Ulster Weavers and Winders.................................................................................................
National Midwives...............................................................................................................
Manchester Machine, Electric, and Other Women Workers....................................................
Macclesfield District Card and Blowing Room and Ring Spinners’ Association........................
Sabden Weavers’ Association................................................................................................
Yeadon, Guiseley, and District Factory Workers...................................................................
Liverpool Upholsteresses’ Union...........................................................................................
British Labor Amalgamation................................................................................................
Irish Post-Office Clerks.........................................................................................................
Bradford and District Machine Woolcombers’ Association......................................................
Alva Textile Workers...........................................................................................................
Women Fancy Leather Workers............................................................................................
Clay Pipe Finishers of Manchester and Newcastle..................................................................
Glossop District Card and Blowing Room Operatives.............................................................
London Tailors and Tailoresses.............................................................................................
Female Hosiery Workers (Nottingham).................................................................................
Ashton-under-Lyne Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers.............................................................
Protective Society of Women (Oxford)..................................................................................
Bolton Cotton Doublers, Reelers, and Winders......................................................................
Hyde and District Twisters and Drawers...............................................................................
Waterproof Garment Makers and Machinists (Manchester).....................................................
Women India Rubber Workers (Manchester)....................................................................... I
914
a 871
«8 7 1
a 800
800
o7 8 4
774
768
o7 2 0
700
o 65 7
o 601
o600
600
589
540
509
o480
478
o 451
450
445
413
o410
0383
o 380
360
350
o342
336
320
o 300
o290
290
o276
0 251
a 250
250
o 220
212
200
200
o 200
o l6 3
o l6 3
142
o l4 1
o l3 7
o l3 1
o l3 0
o l2 5
ol21
120
115
106
105
104
103
103
100
100
alOO
o76
68
a 64
o61
60
o58
a56
o50
• Figures for 1907; supplied from Report of the Labor Department of the Board of
Trade on Trade Unions in 1905-1907, as there were no later figures available.
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
61
WOMEN MEMBERS IN WOMEN’S AND IN MIXED TRADE UNIONS IN GREAT
BRITAIN, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO NUMERICAL STRENGTH, 1908— Conc’d.
Number
of women
members.
T r ad e un io n .
Firewood Cutters.....................................................................
Scottish Bleachfield Workers....................................................
Congleton Weavers and Winders..............................................
Cigar Box Makers and Paperers (London).................................
United Cap Makers (London)...................................................
National Association of Grocers’ Assistants................................
Stockport Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers...............................
Wigan and District Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers.................
Tin and Sheet Mill Men............................................................
Preston Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers..................................
United Ovenmen, Kilnmen, and Saggarmakers........................
Royal Liver Agents and Employees..........................................
Hadfield and Glossop Twisters and Drawers..............................
Postmen’s Federation..............................................................
National Union of Clerks..........................................................
Manchester Upholsteresses.......................................................
Tobacco Pipe Finishers (Glasgow)............................................
Macclesfield Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers............................
Bolton Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers....................................
Hand File Cutters (Sheffield)....................................................
National Operative Printers’ Assistants....................................
Bacup and District Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers.................
General Amalgamation of Clothlookers and Warehousemen........
Artistes.. . ............. ..........................................................
Scottish Operative Tailors and Tailoresses.................................
National Life Assurance Agents................................................
Rawtenstall and District Twisters and Drawers........................
Birmingham International Tailors, Machinists, and Pressers......
United Cigarette Makers, Cutters, Packers, ana Strippers’ Union
Heywood Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers...............................
Chorley and District Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers...............
Skipton Twisters and Drawers.................................................
Eastern Counties Agricultural Laborers and Small Holders........
Leigh and Bedford Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers.................
Nelson and District Twisters and Drawers...............................
City of Glasgow Friendly Society Agents..................................
Rushton Twisters and Drawers’ Association.............................
Great Harwood Twisters and Drawers.......................................
Oldham Beamers, Twisters, Drawers, Dressers, and Slashers___
Burnley and District Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers..............
Clitheroe and District Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers.............
Darwen Twisters and Drawers.................................................
Bamber Bridge Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers.......................
London Tailors and Mantle Makers...........................................
N ational Journalists.................................................................
T o ta l.
a 50
a 50
a 47
45
42
«38
o38
36
o30
o30
o28
o25
o25
o22
21
20
o 20
ol3
ol2
ol2
ol2
o 10
10
09
08
06
06
5
3
o3
o3
!
i
o2
o2
a2
o2
02
o2
1
1
01
ol
Ol
Ol
6 208,779
• Figures for 1907 ; supplied from Report of the Labor Department of the Board of Trade
on Trade Unions in 1905-1907, as there were no later figures available.
6 Including figures for 1907 for 92 unions; no later figures available.
62
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
The following table gives in detail the number o f women members
in women’s and in mixed unions in 1908 and the number of men in the
mixed unions according to trades:
MEMBERSHIP OF WOMEN’S AND OF MIXED TRADE UNIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN,
CLASSIFIED BY TRADES, 1908.
[Figures are from returns secured in response to circular letters sent to the secretaries
of the various trade unions.]
N um ber of m em
bers.
U n io n s in each trade.
M en .
W om en.
METAL TRADES.
Iron and steel manufacture:
British Steel Smelters, Mill, Iron, and Tinplate Workers...................................
File makers:
Hand File Cutters (Sheffield)...........................................................................
Chain and nail makers:
Chain Makers and Strikers’ Association (Cradley Heath)...................................
Hammered Chain Makers................................................................................
Tin-plate making:
Tin and Sheet Mill Men...................................................................................
15,140
140
360
20
1 ,900
o23
800
o6 5 7
o l ,8 3 8
o38
1,269
o226
o33
376
8 ,4 5 4
o l ,4 7 4
o l3 1
o 1 ,7 5 2
COTTON PREPARING AND SPINNING.
Card and blowing room operatives:
Bolton Card, Blowing, Ring, and Throstle Room Operatives............................
Stockport Association of Card and Blowing Room, Ring, and Throstle Spinners.
Hadfield Card and Blowing Room Operatives’ Association...............................
Hyde and District Card, Blowing, and Ring Frame Room Operatives...............
Heywood Card Room Operatives, Spinners, and Ring Frame Operatives’ Asso
ciation.........................................................................................................
Mossley Card and* Blowing Room Operatives....................................................
Bury and District Card, Blowing, and Ring Room Operatives’ Association.......
Blackburn and District Card and Blowing Room Operatives and Ring Spinners..
Macclesfield District Card and Blowing Room and Ring Spinners’ Association...
Oldham Provincial Card and Blowing Room and Ring Frame Operatives.........
Accrington District Card and Blowing Room Operatives and Ring Spinners’
Association
.
..................................
Glossop District Card and Blowing Room Operatives.......................................
Rochdale Card and Blowing Room Operatives and Ring Spinners....................
S. E. Lancs. Provincial Card and Blowing Room Operatives............................
Wigan and District Card Room Operatives and Ring Spinners’ Association........
Bacup Card, Blowing, and Ring Spinners.........................................................
Preston Card and Blowing Room and Ring Spinners........................................
Yorkshire Provincial Card, Blowing, and Ring Room Operatives.....................
Manchester and Salford Ring Spinners.............................................................
0
1,100
300
o l4 2
472
373
38
2 ,1 7 5
o 601
768
1 ,4 8 9
115
12,652
0354
o l ,0 6 1
50
o676
o l ,3 3 3
o 310
o 70
o
o50
200
86
o 2 ,2 2 4
o 4 ,0 0 0
o l ,3 3 7
o l
o 800
o l4 1
o 380
2
COTTON W EAVING.
Beamers, twisters, and drawers:
Ashton-under-Lyne Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers........................................
Great Harwood Twisters and Drawers.............................................................
Preston Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers.........................................................
Oldham Beamers, Twisters, Drawers, Dressers, and Slashers.............................
Burnley and District Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers......................................
Bamber Bridge Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers..............................................
Heywood Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers.......................................................
Leigh and Bedford Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers.........................................
Rawtenstall and District Twisters and Drawers................................................
Wigan and District Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers........................................
Bolton Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers...........................................................
Chorley and District Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers......................................
Clitheroe and District Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers.....................................
Darwen Twisters and Drawers.........................................................................
Nelson and District Twisters and Drawers.......................................................
Rishton Twisters and Drawers’ Association......................................................
Macclesfield Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers...................................................
Hadfield and Glossop Twisters and Drawers....................................................
Bacup and District Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers........................................
Hyde and District Twisters and Drawers..........................................................
Skipton Twisters and Drawers.........................................................................
Stockport Beamers, Twisters, and Drawers......................................................
Weavers:
Padiham and District Weavers........................................................................
Radcliffe and District Weavers and Winders....................................................
o l4 6
o l0 7
400
o 107
480
o65
96
o65
o 52
o
241
167
70
o251
o338
o38
22
08
a72
a14
o 41
o 22
o28
o l ,9 8 8
o l3 3
o 64
o
36
o
2
2
1
ol
5
«2
®8
o 38
21
3
1
ol
a2
o2
o 22
o28
o l3
o58
o3
o39
4,022
o
o l ,1 9 3
° Figures for 1907 ; supplied from Report of the Labor Department of the Board of Trade
on Trade Unions in 1905-1907, as there were no later figures available.
w o m e n 's trade
u n io n
MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
63
MEMBERSHIP OF WOMEN’S AND OF MIXED TRADE UNIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN,
CLASSIFIED BY TRADES, 1908— Continued.
Unions in each trade.
Number of mem
bers.
Men.
c o t t o n w e a v in g —
Women.
co n c lu d e d .
Weavers—Concluded.
Blackburn and District Power Loom Weavers’ Association...............................
Chorley and District Weavers..........................................................................
Accrington and District Power Loom Weavers’ Association..............................
Darwen Weavers, Winders, and Warpers.........................................................
Ramsbottom Weavers, Winders, and Warpers.................................................
Preston Power Loom Weavers’ Association......................................................
Church and Oswaldtwistle Weavers, Winders, and Warpers..............................
Great Harwood Weavers, Winders, and Beamers............... :...........................
Oldham Weavers, Reelers, and Winders’ Association........................................
Clayton-le-Moors Weavers................................................................................
Haslingden Weavers’ Association.....................................................................
Bolton and District Power Loom Weavers’ Association....................................
Burnley and District Weavers, Winders, and Beamers’ Association..................
Nelson and District Power Loom Weavers.......................................................
Clitheroe Weavers, Winders, and Warpers.......................................................
Glossop and District Power Loom Weavers......................................................
Rossendale Weavers, Winders, and Beamers....................................................
Ashton-under-Lyne and District Weavers and Winders....................................
Heywood, Castleton, Norden, and District Weavers, Winders, and Reelers......
Rishton Weavers’ Association.......... :.............................................................
Longridge Weavers, Winders, and Warpers.....................................................
Rochdale Weavers, Winders, Reelers, and Beamers..........................................
Todmorden and District Weavers and Winders’ Association.............................
Hyde, Hadfleld, Compstall, and Broadbottom Weavers, Winders, and Warpers.
Colne and District Weavers, Winders, and Beamers..........................................
Bury, Radcliffe, and District Weavers’ Association..........................................
Sabden Weavers’ Association..........................................................................
Whitworth Vale Power Loom Weavers............................................................
Blackburn Power Loom Weavers’ Protection Society.......................................
Bacup and District Weavers, Winders, and Beamers........................................
Wigan and District Weavers, Winders, Warpers, and Reelers...........................
Macclesfield Cotton Weavers, Winders, and Warpers........................................
Bamber Bridge Weavers’ Association...............................................................
Bolton Cotton Doublers, Reelers, and Winders.................................................
Burnley and District Textile Operatives..........................................................
Salford and District Power Loom Weavers.......................................................
Skipton and District Weavers’ Association.......................................................
Congleton Weavers and Winders.....................................................................
Manchester and Salford Patent Cop Winders, Bobbin and Hank Winders.........
Barnoldswick and District Weavers, Winders, and Beamers.............................
Stockport and District Weavers, Winders, Warpers, and Reelers.......................
West of Scotland Weaving Factories Female Workers.......................................
5,100
am
1.250
2,770
824
1,750
703
o2,375
134
381
o840
520
7,438
5,553
1,000
350
937
o60
800
672
212
670
1,756
1.250
o 2,820
500
40
o279
1,221
0844
o3
339
420
0 227
300
o5
11,900
o3,740
3,750
1,234
5,250
2,613
o 2,375
4,944
1,396
o 1,560
5,800
10,705
5,939
1,500
960
1,873
o5,259
2,600
1,118
413
2,680
1,630
5,082
0 3,438
4,500
106
o871
3,148
ol,045
o451
250
540
60
0 276
1,113
o47
536
600
1,500
» 300
WOOLEN AND WORSTED TRADES.
Weaving, finishing, etc.:
Bradford and District Machine Woolcombers Association.
General Union of Weavers and Textile Workers.............
Yeadon, Guiseley, and District Factory Workers............
Saddleworth Weavers and Woolen Textile Workers........
Alva Textile Workers....................................................
650
2,500
232
171
100
1,600
105
193
100
VARIOUS TEXTILE TRADES.
Linen and jute manufacture:
Aberdeen Mill and Factory Workers................................
Dundee and District Mill and Factory Operatives............
Forfar Factory Workers’ Union.......................................
Brechin Mill and Factory Operatives...............................
Flax Roughers and Yam Spinners (Ireland)....................
Textile Operatives of Ireland..........................................
Lurgan Hemmers and Veiners........................................
Dundee and District Jute and Flax Workers...................
Ulster Weavers and Winders..........................................
Arbroath Mill and Factory Workers................................
Hosiery manufacture:
Leicester and Leicestershire Amalgamated Hosiery Union.
Ilkeston and District Hosiery Union...............................
Hawick Hosiery Union...................................................
Female Hosiery Workers (Nottingham)...........................
Hinckley Federated Hosiery Union.................................
Lace manufacture:
Female Lace Workers (Nottingham)...............................
a 20
o1,089
629
365
ol,197
150
ol30
o5,171
1,256
774
o600
ol,993
o325
o330
2,900
450
o2,247
ol25
o720
o497
o506
ol54
0 784
o410
o251
190
a 200
« Figures for 1907; supplied from Report of the Labor Department of the Board of Trade
on Trade Unions in 1905-1907, as there were no later figures available.
64
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOB.
MEMBEBSHIP OF WOMEN’S AND OF MIXED TBADE UNIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN,
CLASSIFIED BY TRADES, 1908— Continued.
Unions in each trade.
Number of mem
bers.
Men.
Women.
VARIOUS T EXT ILE TRADES— c o n c l u d e d .
Silk manufacture:
Amalgamated Braid Workers and Kindred Trades (Leek).,
Leek Women Workers Union...........................................
Macclesfield Power Loom Silk Weavers.............................
Textile printing, bleaching, dyeing, and finishing:
National Society of Dyers and Finishers (Huddersfield) —
Operative Bleachers, Dyers, and Finishers’ Association--Scottish Bleachfield Workers............................................
Packers, warehousemen, etc.:
General Amalgamation of Clothlookers and Warehousemen.
a 150
i(57
o480
3,800
336
2,857
9,734
a 190
1,429
o2,255
ol2
29,564
a 737
1,500
ol63
a 13,459
3,661
2,025
ol24
o383
o872
a 45
a 76
a1
260
o3,086
42
142
140
0 326
o61
290
a56
212
o 50
CLOTHING TRADES.
Boot and shoe manufacture:
National Boot and Shoe Operatives.....................................
Rossendale Boot, Shoe, ana Slipper Operatives....................
Tailoring:
Amalgamated Tailors and Tailoresses................................. .
Scottish Operative Tailors and Tailoresses...........................
Amalgamated Union of Clothiers’ Operatives.......................
Birmingham International Tailors, Machinists, and Pressers
Manchester and Salford Sewing Machinists.........................
London Tailors and Tailoresses...........................................
London Tailors and Mantle Makers.................................... .
Hat and cap manufacture:
Amalgamated Felt Hat Trimmers and Wool Formers..........
United Cap Makers (London)............................................
Denton Silk Hat Trimmers and Stitchers...........................
Miscellaneous clothing trades:
Protective Society of Women (Oxford)...............................
Amalgamated Shirt and Jacket Makers...............................
Waterproof Garment Makers and Machinists (Manchester)..
10
509
06
200
PRINTING TRADES.
Letterpress prinl
National Operative Printers’ Assistants...............................
National Amalgamated Printers’ Warehousemen and Cutters
Bookbindingand machine ruling:
Women Employed in Bookbinding (London)......................
Women in Bookbinding and Printing (Manchester)............
Paper and vellum making, paper staining, etc.:
National Paper Mill Workers...............................................
o 3 ,200
3,100
a20
1,300
o220
350
800
200
VARIOUS OTHER TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS.
Upholstering:
Liverpool Upholsteresses’ Union......................................................
Manchester upholsteresses..............................................................
Pottery workers:
United Ovenmen, Kilnmen, and Saggarmakers................................
National Amalgamated Society of Male and Female Pottery Workers.
Tobacco-pipe making:
Tobacco Pipe Finishers (Glasgow)...................................................
Clay Pipe Finishers of Manchester and Newcastle.............................
Tobacco trades (exclusive of pipes):
Cigar Makers’ Mutual Association....................................................
Female Cigar Makers.......................................................................
Cigar Box Makers and Paperers (London)........................................
United Cigarette Makers, Cutters. Packers, and Strippers’ Union---Manchester Cigarette Makers, Cutters, and Packers..........................
Brush making:
National League of the Blind (brush makers, basket makers, etc.)__
Agricultural laborers:
Eastern Counties Agricultural Laborers and Small Holders...............
Bakers and confectioners:
Women Confectioners (Manchester).................................................
Leather trades:
Women Fancy Leather Workers (Manchester).................................
India rubber workers:
Women India Rubber Workers (Manchester)...................................
Agents (life assurance, etc.):
Royal Liver Agents and Employees................................................
National Life Assurance Agents.......................................................
City of Glasgow Friendly Society Agents.........................................
Clerks and typists:
National Union of Clerks.................................................................
Shorthand Writers and Typists.......................................................
104
25
a 500
7,000
o30
1,000
o24
086
918
52
a 75
«831
o3,624
914
ol,215
45
06
o250
ol63
o3
o 10
olOO
o50
o 1,970
o 2,780
o52
a 30
«9
o2
o725
o5
a25
ol37
* Figures for 1907 ; supplied from Report of the Labor Department of the Board of Trade
on Trade Unions in 1905-1907, as there were no later figures available.
w o m e n 's
TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN.
65
MEMBERSHIP OF WOMEN’S AND OF MIXED TRADE UNIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN,
CLASSIFIED BY TRADES, 1908— Concluded.
Unions in each trade.
Number of mem
bers.
Men.
Women.
VAR IO U S OTHER TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS—c o n c l u d e d .
Journalists:
National Journalists........................................................................................
Telephone operators:
National Association of Telephone Operators....................................................
Shop assistants:
Amalgamated Union of Cooperative Employees................................................
National Amalgamated Union of Shop Assistants, Warehousemen, and Clerks...
National Association of Grocers’ Assistants.......................................................
Irish Drapers’ Assistants.................................................................................
Musicians, theatrical and music hall employees:
Variety Artistes’ Federation............................................................................
Artistes...........................................................................................................
Actors.............................................................................................................
Firewood cutters:
Firewood Cutters............................................................................................
Midwives:
National Midwives..........................................................................................
General labor:
National Union of Gasworkers and General Laborers........................................
Manchester Machine, Electric, and Other Women Workers...............................
British Labor Amalgamation...........................................................................
National Federation of Women Workers..........................................................
a 737
al
1,000
23,404
16,621
1,605
2,500
a 2,539
a 40
«290
a 60
3,597
39
700
0 871
ol2
o290
o50
ol21
38,153
1,652
’*2*40i
103
o2,300
6,722
5,647
a34,230
1,234
1,861
445
o25
103
478
120
NATIONAL EMPLOYEES.
Post-office employees:
Postal Telegraph Clerks..................................
United Kingdom Postal Clerks........................
Postmen’s Federation.....................................
Irish Post-Office Clerks...................................
Women Sorters...............................................
Other national employees:
Royal Army doming Department Employees.
Employees of local authorities:
Municipal Employees.....................................
Total.
0383
oll,500
0 342
6329,189
c208,779
• Figures for 1907 ; supplied from Report of the Labor Department of the Board of Trade
on Trade Unions in 1905-1907, as there were no later figures available.
* Including figures for 1907 for 77 unions; no later figures available.
0 Including figures for 1907 for 92 unions; no later figures available.
COST OE LIVING OE THE WORKING CLASSES IN THE PRINCIPAL
INDUSTRIAL TOWNS OP FRANCE.
SCOPE OF T H E IN V E ST IG A T IO N .
Under the above title is presented the results of an investigation
undertaken by the British Board o f Trade in the 30 principal in
dustrial towns o f France in order to obtain, in regard to the con
dition o f the working classes therein, information comparable to
that given for the principal industrial towns o f the United Kingdom
and o f Germany in the two reports previously published on the
“ Cost o f Living o f the Working Classes.” (a) The investigation has
reference primarily to the rents o f working-class dwellings, to the
prices usually paid by the working classes for food and fuel, and to
wages and hours o f labor. It was conducted as far as practicable on
lines identical with the inquiries for the towns o f the United King
dom and o f Germany, and the statistical material collected relates in
the main to the same date (October, 1905), though some additional
data for a few towns were secured for a later date (August-October,
1907).
In order to arrive at some estimate o f the standard of living
prevalent among the French industrial classes over 5,600 budgets,
showing the expenditure for food by working-class families in a
normal week, and representative o f numerous occupations and o f all
grades o f working-class incomes, were obtained from the various
towns investigated. These towns contain an aggregate o f over
6,000,000 inhabitants.
Any exact statistical comparison o f cost o f living in France with
cost o f living in England is not a simple matter. Even when all the
difficulties o f maintaining the same standard of investigation through
out have been successfully overcome there remains a difficulty arising
from the difference in national tastes and modes o f life. This is well
illustrated by the statements that—
An English workman, with an average family, who should go to
France and endeavor to maintain there his accustomed mode o f
living would find his expenditure on rent, food, and fuel substan
tially increased— though not to so large an extent as i f he had gone
to Germany.
®See Bulletin of the Bureau o f Labor, No. 77, July, 1908, pp. 336 to 354, and
Bulletin No. 78, September, 1908, pp. 523 to 548.
66
COST OF LIVING IN FRANCE.
67
He would find his wages to be lower than in the latter country
and much below the English level, in spite o f longer hours.
A French workman living in England according to his French
standard would find a certain reduction in the cost o f food, but a
rise in the cost o f housing accommodation.
As a basis o f comparison for the French towns among themselves
the levels o f rents, prices, and wages in Paris have been taken as
standards and index numbers calculated for each o f these items in
every town, so as to afford an indication o f the relative levels o f the
towns. The index numbers for rents and prices in each town have
also been combined in a single index number, in order to determine
the relative level for each town o f the cost o f living o f the working
classes, so far as it consists o f expenditure for housing and food,
and for this purpose, because the expenditure for food is much
greater than that for rent, prices have been given a weight o f 5 and
rents a weight o f 1 in the construction o f the combined index number.
The comparison o f the rates o f wages has been confined mainly to
occupations in certain standard industries, as the building trades,
engineering (mechanical), and printing, which are found to a greater
or less extent in all the towns. The general result o f the comparison
is that for skilled men in the building trades the weekly wages o f
the French workman appear to average about 68 per cent o f those o f
the English artisan, and for skilled men in the engineering trades
the French wages average 81 per cent o f the English.
According to the report for the United Kingdom the prevailing
type o f dwelling occupied by the working classes in England and
Wales, and to a less degree in Ireland, is a self-contained two-story
dwelling, possessing generally four or five rooms and a kitchen. In
the French towns there are two prevalent types o f working-class
housing accommodations. The first, which predominates in about
one-half o f the towns, is a flat o f two or three rooms in a tenement
house. The second type, found in about one-third o f the towns, is a
small house or cottage, standing generally in rows, but often de
tached, and consisting of one or two stories and o f one to four rooms.
English rents o f working-class dwellings usually include local taxa
tion, which is based on the rentable value o f the dwellings. French
local taxation is levied on an entirely different basis, and is not
included in rent.
REN TS OF W O RK IN G -C LA SS D W ELLIN G S.
FRANCE.
In order to ascertain the rents paid for the kind o f dwellings
usually occupied by the French working classes, information was
obtained from the municipal authorities, from individual house
68
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
owners, and from a large number o f tenants. In each town several
houses were visited by the investigators, partly for the purpose of
verifying the information obtained as to rents and partly that some
account might be given in each case o f the general character and
standard o f housing accommodation.
From rent quotations obtained for about 60,000 working-class
tenements the following table has been constructed to show the pre
dominant range o f weekly rents for tenements o f various sizes in
Paris and in other French towns. The rents do not include any
elements o f local taxation or as a rule any charge for water:
PREDOMINANT RANGE OF WEEKLY RENTS IN PARIS AND IN OTHER FRENCH
TOWNS COMPARED.
Predominant range of weekly rents for—
Locality.
Two rooms.
Paris..........................................................................
Other French towns....................................................
$0.75-11.50
.57- .69
Three rooms.
Four rooms.
$1.50-11.86
.85- 1.05
$1.12-11.80
.71- 1.01
The above table reveals the extent to which rents in the metropolis
exceed those which prevail in other French towns. Thus, while the
predominant range o f rents for two rooms in Paris is $0.75 to $1.50
per week, in the other towns as a whole it is only 57 to 69 cents; for
three rooms the respective rents are $1.12 to $1.80 for Paris and $0.71
to $1.01 for the other towns, and for four rooms $1.50 to $1.86 for
Paris and only $0.85 to $1.05 for other localities.
The following table shows the predominant range o f weekly rents
in towns o f France, together with the number o f towns for which
tenements o f each size are reported and in which the mean rent is
within the limits o f the predominant range, below those limits, and
above those limits. It will be seen that the two and three room tene
ments are o f importance in more than two-thirds o f the towns.
PREDOMINANT RANGE OF WEEKLY RENTS IN TOWNS OF FRANCE.
[According to the detailed table on p. 69, Paris is apparently included in the number of
towns shown in this table, but the predominant ranges of weekly rents are the same as
those shown in the preceding table for “other French towns.” The figures are given as
shown in the original report.]
Number of rooms per tenement.
One room..........................................
Two rooms........................................
Three rooms.......................................
Four rooms........................................
Number
of towns
to which
figures
relate.
17
26
23
12
Number of towns in which the
mean rent is—
Predominant
range of weekly Within the Below the Above the
rents.
limitsofthe limits of the limits of the
predomi predomi predomi
nant range. nant range. nant range.
$0.32-$0.47
.57- .69
. 71- 1.01
.85- 1.05
12
14
14
7
2
5
4
2
3
7
5
3
COST OF LIVING IN FRANCE,
69
In the table following is shown the predominant range o f weekly
rents for tenements of one, two, three, or four rooms in each o f the
30 towns investigated:
PREDOMINANT RANGE OF WEEKLY RENTS IN 30 SPECIFIED TOWNS OF FRANCE.
Predominant range of weekly rents for—
Town.
One room.
Amiens......
Belfort........
Bordeaux...
Bourges......
Brest..........
Calais.........
Le Creuzot..
Douai.........
Foug&res__
Grenoble__
Havre.........
Lens...........
Lille...........
Limoges___
Lyon..........
Marseille--Nancy........
Nantes........
Paris..........
Rheims......
Rennes.......
Roanne......
Roubaix__
Rouen........
St. Etienne..
St. Nazaire..
St. Quentin.
Toulouse__
Troyes........
Valenciennes
Two rooms.
$0.49-40.77
$0.45-10.55
*"".*34-*.*45
.37- .45
.30- .45
.37- .55
.26.30.37.45-
.45
.45
.67
.59
.34- .45
.26- .37
.37
.18- .26
.34- .45
.30- .37
.22- .45
.37- .45
.67.49.49.45.45.55.49.63.67-
.89
.57
.67
.77
.61
.67
.67
.81
.89
.45.49.67.59.67.59.75.55.57.34-
.71
.75
1.12
.75
.99
.71
1.50
.71
.79
.53
.67.45.55.49.41.45-
.83
.75
.67
.71
.53
.67
Three rooms.
$0.73-10.87
.81- 1.26
.89- 1.12
.57- .63
.67.67-
$0.8940.97
’*i.’i£-*i.*34
.99- 1.18
*.*8i-“ .*89
.77-1.26
.89-1.12
.59- .77
.89- 1.34
.75-1.12
.89- 1.26
.91-1.03
1.12- 1.80
.67- .89
.53- .67
.97.67.75.63.53.67-
Four rooms.
1.12
.93
.93
.81
.79
.89
.81- .89
. 89-
1.12
.89- 1.12
1.50- 1.8
.55- .71
.81- .89
.71- .93
.99-1.12
In the following table index numbers are given showing the rela
tive rent level in each o f the towns canvassed as compared with Paris.
The means o f the predominant rents for each class o f tenements, as
shown in the table on page 68, were taken as a base and the ratios o f
the mean predominant rents for the corresponding classes in the vari
ous towns as compared with this base were calculated. The average
o f the ratios for the various types o f houses in each town gave an
index number for the town as compared with the level for the French
towns as a whole. The index number for Paris, computed in the same
way, was then taken as the base (or 100) and the index number for
the other towns adjusted accordingly,
RELATIVE RENT LEVEL OF SPECIFIED FRENCH TOWNS AS COMPARED WITH
PARIS.
Town.
Paris..............................
Lyon..............................
Nancy............................
Bordeaux.......................
Havre............................
Belfort...........................
Grenoble........................
Rouen............................
Marseille........................
Valenciennes..................
Index
num
ber.
100
77
73
71
69
69
66
65
64
63
Town.
Nantes.........................
Calais...........................
Rennes........................
Amiens........................
Limoges.......................
Brest...........................
Troyes.........................
Foug&res................ .
Douai..........................
St. Nazaire...................
Index
num
ber.
60
57
57
55
55
55
54
53
53
53
Town.
Lille............................
St. Etienne..................
Rheims........................
Lens............................
St. Quentin..................
Le Creuzot....................
Toulouse......................
Bourges........................
Roubaix......................
Roanne........................
Index
num
ber.
52
52
51
51
51
48
45
44
38
37
70
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
FRANCE A N D GREAT B R IT A IN COMPARED.
A comparison o f the predominant range of weekly rents in Eng
land and Wales with the predominant range in France for tenements
o f two, three, and four rooms is presented in the table follow ing:
PREDOMINANT RANGE OF WEEKLY RENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES AND IN
FRANCE COMPARED.
Number of rooms per tenement.
Two rooms.......................................................................
Three rooms.....................................................................
Four rooms.......................................................................
Predominant range of weekly Ratio of
rents in—
mean pre
dominant
rent in
France to
that in
England and
England
Wales, exclud France, (o)
and
Wales,
ing London.
taken as
100.
10.73-10.85
. 91- 1.10
1.10- 1.34
10.57-10.69
. 71- 1.01
.85- 1.05
79
86
78
a Apparently excluding P a ris; see prefatory note to table on p. 68.
From the above table it will be seen that the rents paid by the
French tenant are only from 78 to 86 per cent o f the corresponding
rents in England and Wales. I f the mean o f the index numbers in
the last column might be taken as representing roughly the rent level
in France as compared with that in England, we should find the
French rent level to be in the ratio o f 81 to 100. A comparison on
these lines is, however, liable to be somewhat misleading, for the
reason that rents o f two, three, and four room tenements were not
obtained from all the towns investigated in each case. It is neces
sary, therefore, to adopt some more exact method of comparison less
open to possible bias. This has been done by reworking all the rent
index numbers for the French towns to the basis used for Great
Britain, viz, comparing the mean predominant rents o f the types o f
tenements shown for each town in France with the mean predominant
rents shown for tenements o f the same size in the middle zone o f
London, and using as the index number in each case the average o f
the percentages so obtained. The resulting index numbers for the
towns investigated, shown in the table below, are accordingly directly
comparable with the index numbers for the English towns shown in
the report for the United Kingdom and with those shown for the
German towns in the report for the German Empire.
71
COST OF LIVING IN FRANCE.
RELATIVE RENT LEVEL OF SPECIFIED FRENCH TOWNS AS COMPARED WITH
THE MIDDLE ZONE OF LONDON AS THE BASE.
[Index number for middle zone of London = 100.]
Town.
Paris..............................
Lyon..............................
Nancy..........................
Belfort...........................
Bordeaux.......................
Havre............................
Grenoble........................
Rouen.........................
Marseille........................
Valenciennes..................
Index
num
ber.
78
60
58
57
55
54
52
51
50
48
Town.
Nantes.........................
Calais...........................
Amiens........................
Rennes........................
Limoges.......................
St. Nazaire...................
Troyes.........................
Brest...........................
Douai...........................
St. Etienne..................
Index
num
ber.
47
45
43
43
42
42
42
41
41
41
Town.
Foug&res......................
Lille.............................
Rheims........................
St. Quentin..................
Lens............................
Le Creuzot...................
Toulouse......................
Bourges........................
Roanne........................
Roubaix.....................
Index
num
ber.
40
40
40
40
39
38
35
34
29
29
The lowness o f the French rents is indicated by the fact that, while
the rents in half the English towns investigated lie within a central
range o f 50 to 59 per cent o f London rents, only 2 o f the French
towns investigated show index numbers higher than 59, and 21 show
numbers lower than 50.
The ratio o f the arithmetic mean o f the index numbers for France
to that for England is 80 to 100; and this ratio, or the index number
80, is taken as representing approximately the rent level in France
as compared with the rent level in England. The corresponding
index number for the German Empire was 101, so that the French
rents are lower than the German, as well as the English.
It is estimated that approximately 18 per cent of the rent paid by
the British workman goes for local taxation. This makes the French
rents bear to English rents the ratio o f 80 to 82, which is equivalent
to 98 to 100.
R E T A IL PRICES.
FRANCE.
Information as to the prices commonly paid by the French work
ing classes for food commodities, for fuel, and for paraffin oil, was
obtained from a large number o f shopkeepers in each o f the towns
investigated and also from the cooperative societies where these ex
isted. It must be remembered that the prices shown are not neces
sarily the minimum prices at which the commodities could be ob
tained, but simply the prices which the working classes did in fact
usually pay in the month o f October, 1905; and where a range o f
prices is given it is because they appear to be of equal popularity.
The differences between one town and another, accordingly, represent
often not so much difference in the cost o f identical commodities
as variations in local tastes, and sometimes in local standards o f
comfort.
72
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The following table presents the predominant range of retail prices
commonly paid by the working classes for certain commodities, for
France as a whole (including Paris) :
PREDOMINANT RANGE OP RETAIL PRICES OP COMMODITIES IN TOWNS OP
FRANCE (INCLUDING PARIS), OCTOBER, 1905.
Number of towns in which the
mean predominant price is—
Commodity.
Unit.
Coffee..............................................
Sugar, loaf.......................................
Eggs...............................................
Butter.............................................
Potatoes..........................................
Flour, wheat...................................
Bread, white...................................
Milk................................................
Beef................................................
Mutton............................................
Veal................................................
Pork...............................................
Coal................................................
Paraffin oil......................................
1 pound..
...d o .......
1 dozen..
1 pound..
7 pounds,
do.......
4 pounds.
1 quart...
1 pound..
...d o .......
...d o .......
...d o .......
1 cwt......
1 gallon..
Num Predominant
ber of
of retail Within
towns range
prices, Octo the limits
in
ber,
1905.
of the
cluded.
predom
inant
range.
Below
the limits
of the
predom
inant
range.
Above
the limits
of the
predom
inant
range.
21
23
21
22
16
25
19
24
25
26
22
24
14
24
4
4
5
4
6
2
5
1
3
2
5
3
7
6
5
3
4
4
8
3
6
5
2
2
3
3
8
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
29
30
$0.35J-$0.42*
.05*- .06
.22*- .26*
.22*- .28*
.06
. 25 - 31
. 11 - .12
.04*- .05*
. 13 - .16*
.1 4 - .20
. 16 - .22
.15*- .22
.33*- .40*
In the following table is shown the predominant range o f retail
prices o f the principal commodities in 12 towns o f France, selected as
to certain geographical districts:
PREDOMINANT RANGE OP RETAIL PRICES OP COMMODITIES IN 12 SELECTED
TOWNS OP FRANCE, OCTOBER, 1905.
Commodity.
Coffee.............................................
Sugar, loaf......................................
Eggs...............................................
Butter............................................
Potatoes.........................................
Flour, wheat...................................
Bread, white...................................
Milk...............................................
Coal...............................................
Paraffin oil.....................................
Beef:
Ribs.........................................
Brisket.....................................
Silverside..................................
Shin, with bone........................
Steak........................................
Rump steak..............................
Thick flank...............................
Mutton:
Leg..........................................
Shoulder...................................
Breast......................................
Neck, best end..........................
Chops.......................................
Veal:
Hind quarter............................
Shoulder, with bone..................
Shoulder, without bone.............
Ribs.........................................
Chops.......................................
Leg..........................................
Pork:
Leg..........................................
Foreloin....................................
Belly........................................
Chops.......................................
Unit.
Amiens.
Bordeaux.
Brest.
$0.35* $0.32-$0.42*
1 pound..
...clo....... $0.05 - .05* .0 5 - .06
1 dozen..
.22*- .24* .24*- .36*
1 pound.. .25 - . 26ir .28*- .32
7 pounds.
.06 - .07if
.06
...d o.......
.25
.31
.1 2 - .14
. 10*- .12
4 pounds.
.043
1 quart...
1 cwt......
: r :8j
1 gallon..
:3 .26*- .31
Calais.
$0.35*-$0.42*
.06
.22*- .24*
.32
.
06-
.10
.2 5 - .31
.1 2 - .14
1 pound..
...d o.......
...d o.......
...d o.......
...d o .......
...d o.......
__do.......
...d o.......
...d o .......
...d o.......
...d o.......
...d o.......
.1 2 - .14
.19*- .23
.1 9 - .22*
...d o.......
.. .do-.. . . .
...d o.......
...d o ....
...d o.......
...d o.......
.16*.1 4 .19*.1 4 .21*.19*-
...do.......
...d o.......
...d o.......
.
21*
.23
.23
.1 9 .17*.1 4 .17*-
.23
.19i
. 15i
.20i
.193
. 15;
.213
.173
.23
.21*
.16*- . 17]
.15
.14
.17*
2 5 - .26*
21*- .23
17*- .19*
.25
2 5 - .26*
.16*.1 4 .17*.1 5 .1 5 .1 4 -
.19
.19
.19*
.19
.W
.16;
.23
.21*
23 - .26*
19*- .23
.23
.23
.21*
.21*
.19*
,19*- .21*
I t
COST OF LIVING IN FRANCE,
73
PREDOMINANT RANGE OF RETAIL PRICES OF COMMODITIES IN 12 SELECTED
TOWNS OF FRANCE, OCTOBER, 1905— Concluded.
Mutton:
Leg---Shoulder,
Breast.
Neck, best end...........
Chops........................
Veal:
Hind quarter...............
Shoulder, with bone__
Shoulder, without bone.
Ribs.
Cho]
Leg.
Pork:
Leg.
Foreloin.
Belly.
Chops
74
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
In order to obtain an indication o f the level o f prices for each town
as compared with other towns, index numbers have been constructed,
the level o f prices in Paris being taken as the base (100). In the
construction o f the index numbers, in order to allow for the varying
importance o f the prices o f different articles, as judged by the normal
weekly expenditure o f a working-class family, recourse was had to
“ weighting.” For this purpose average quantities estimated from
5,605 family budgets giving weekly cost and quantity o f certain arti
cles o f food consumed by workmen’s families in French towns, in
1907-8, were utilized.
In the following table these 5,605 families have been grouped ac
cording to the aggregate weekly income of the family (not o f the
principal wage-earner o n ly ); also there is shown for each group the
average family income and the average number o f children at home
for a representative week in 1907-8:
NUMBER AND AVERAGE INCOME OF URBAN WORKMEN’S FAMILIES REPORT
ING IN EACH CLASSIFIED INCOME GROUP AND AVERAGE NUMBER OF CHIL
DREN LIVING AT HOME, FOR A REPRESENTATIVE WEEK, 1907-8.
Classified weekly income.
Under $4.87.............................................
$4.87 and under $6.08...............................
$6.08 and under $7.30...............................
$7.30 and under $8.52...............................
$8.52 and under $9.73...............................
$9.73 and over.........................................
Average weekly family in
Number
Total
come from—
of fami
weekly
family
lies re
porting. Husband. Wife. Children. income.
223
614
931
1,065
821
1,951
$3.68
4.93
5.65
6.26
6.83
8.02
$0.50
.48
.82
1.08
1.32
1.30
$0.14
.16
.26
.53
.92
3.55
$4.32
5.57
6.73
7.87
9.07
12.87
Average
number
of chil
dren at
home.
1.57
1.77
1.80
1.92
2.13
2.91
With regard to the statistics o f families with the higher ranges of
income, it must be remembered that the amount o f the family income
is often due to the supplementary earnings o f the wife or of children
living at home, rather than to the high earnings o f the head o f the
family. This is particularly the case where the income amounts to
$9.73 or more per week. As will be seen from the table, the average
number o f children living at home was, in the families o f this class,
higher than the average number for all the families from which
budgets were obtained.
The tables following give the average expenditures for food o f the
5,605 workmen’s families to which the returns relate and the quantities
consumed by them o f the various articles o f food in a representative
week in 1907-8. A ll children living at home, irrespective o f age,
have been included, but returns in which lodgers appeared have been
excluded.
75
COST OF LIVING IN FRANCE,
AVERAGE COST OF FOOD CONSUMED BY URBAN WORKMEN’S FAMILIES
REPORTING IN EACH CLASSIFIED INCOME GROUP, FOR A REPRESENTATIVE
WEEK, 1907-8.
Average cost for families reporting weekly incomes of—
Items.
Under
$4.87.
$4.87 and $6.08 and $7.30 and $8.52 and $9.73 and
under
under
under
under
over.
$7.30.
$8.52.
$6.08.
$9.73.
Bread.....................................................
Macaroni................................................
Potatoes.................................................
Salad......................................................
Haricots.................................................
Peas.......................................................
Other vegetables.....................................
Beef.......................................................
Veal.......................................................
Mutton...................................................
Pork.......................................................
Horseflesh...............................................
Poultry..................................................
Fish.......................................................
Charcuterie and bacon.............................
Lard, suet, and dripping.........................
Butter................ ! T.. ..........................
Olive oil and substitutes..........................
Eggs.......................................................
Milk.......................................................
Cheese....................................................
Coffee.....................................................
Chicory...................................................
Sugar “....................................................
Other items.............................................
Meals away from home............................
$0,669
.041
.157
.025
.076
.036
.061
.228
.056
.041
.081
.091
.020
.046
.101
.107
.177
.061
.081
.112
.061
.122
.030
.086
.005
.141
$0,725
.076
.152
.036
.086
.045
.071
.294
.112
.101
.091
.091
.045
.071
.112
.107
.223
.086
.127
.147
.076
.152
.025
.107
.010
.218
$0,761
.102
.157
.041
.091
.051
.101
.335
.157
.127
.117
.091
.081
.091
.117
.117
.248
.096
.152
.177
.101
.162
.030
.107
.010
.324
$0,816
.096
.162
.056
.096
.061
.117
.411
.203
.157
.127
.091
.132
.111
.147
.127
.258
.106
.177
.203
.122
.198
.030
.122
.015
.416
$0,892
.112
.183
.061
.101
.061
.132
.451
.238
.188
.142
.096
.157
.117
.157
.137
.284
.121
.193
.223
.142
.208
.025
.127
.025
.522
$1,146
.132
.238
.091
.122
.086
.172
.598
.304
.249
.208
.122
.253
.157
.218
.167
.400
.147
.259
.269
.188
.304
.030
.157
.041
.745
Total (except wine and beer)..........
Wine and cider.......................................
Beer.......................................................
2.712
- .218
.056
3.386
.335
.076
3.944
.441
.076
4.557
.517
.076
5.095
.593
.091
6.803
.760
.137
Total.............................................
2.986
3.797
4.461
5.150
5.779
7.700
AVERAGE QUANTITY OF FOOD CONSUMED BY URBAN WORKMEN’S FAMILIES
REPORTING IN EACH CLASSIFIED INCOME GROUP FOR A REPRESENTATIVE
WEEK, 1907-8.
Average quantity consumed by families reporting weekly
incomes of—
Items.
Under
$4.87.
Bread....................................... pounds..
Macaroni.......................................do—
Potatoes........................................ do—
Haricots........................................ do—
Peas....’........................................ do___
Beef.............................................. do___
Veal..............................................do___
Mutton......................................... do___
Fresh pork.................................... do___
Horseflesh..................................... do___
Poultry......................................... do___
Charcuterie and bacon................... do___
Lard, suet, and dripping................do___
Butter...........................................do___
Olive oil and substitutes................ do___
Eggs........................................ number..
Milk.............................................pints..
Cheese.......................................pounds..
Coffee............................................do___
Sugar............................................ do—
4764—No. 83—09----- 6
22.88
.68
14.68
1.59
.71
1.72
.31
.22
.42
.97
.09
.51
.75
.73
.49
4.30
4.51
.35
.35
1.23
$4.87 and $6.08 and $7.30 and $8.52 and $9.73 and
under
under
under
under
over.
$7.30.
$8.52.
$6.08.
$9.73.
24.10
1.23
12.30
1.74
.82
2.12
.60
.62
.49
.88
.22
.62
.73
.86
.66
6.90
5.81
.46
.44
1.48
24.58
1.50
13.93
1.79
1.08
2.43
.84
.73
.64
.84
.37
.64
.73
.97
.71
8.10
6.88
.55
.46
1.50
26.19
1.43
14.64
1.90
1.30
2.80
1.08
.95
.71
.88
.62
.77
.79
1.01
.79
9.30
7.60
.68
.55
1.72
27.62
1.59
15.85
1.92
1.41
2.93
1.26
1.10
.79
.88
.82
.79
.84
1.08
.88
10.20
8.10
.75
.55
1.83
35.89
1.90
20.50
2.27
1.79
4.01
1.61
1.46
1.08
1.12
1.23
1.04
1.06
1.50
1.06
13.40
9.73
1.06
.82
2.22
76
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OP LABOR.
The proportion o f the weekly income spent on food and rent by
the families o f French urban workmen is brought out in the state
ment following:
PROPORTION OP WEEKLY INCOME SPENT ON POOD BY URBAN WORKMEN’S
FAMILIES.
Percentage of income spent on food by families reporting
weekly incomes of—
Items.
Under
$4.87.
All food (excluding wine and beer)...........
Meat and fish..........................................
Bent.......................................................
62.7
15.3
12.3
$4.87 and $6.08 and $7.30 and $8.52 and $9.73 and
under
under
under
under
over.
$8.52.
$6.08.
$7.30.
$9.73.
60.8
16.4
11.2
58.6
16.6
10.1
57.9
17.4
9.7
56.1
17.0
9.7
52.8
16.3
8.4
From the average quantity o f food consumed weekly by workmen’s
families, on the basis o f 5,605 family budgets, and from information
obtained from other sources, the following are the quantities o f the
selected commodities assumed to be consumed by a French workingclass family in a normal week:
C offee_________________ pound— 0.6
S u gar____________________do____ I f
E ggs---------------------------- number_10
B u tte r_________________pounds_I f
Potatoes_________________ do____16
B rea d ------------------------------ do____29
M ilk--------------------------------quarts— 4
B e e f-------------------------------pounds— 3
M utton_____________________do____ 1
V ea l----------------------------------- do____I f
P o r k -----------------------------------do____ f
The predominant prices in each town, as ascertained for the various
articles, are weighted in accordance with the above quantities, the
total expenditure so obtained being expressed as a percentage o f the
corresponding total as compiled from prices in Paris. The following
table shows, in descending order, the price index numbers thus con
structed for the various towns:
RELATIVE LEVEL OP POOD PRICES IN SPECIFIED FRENCH TOWNS AS COM
PARED WITH PARIS.
Town.
Marseille.........................
Calais.............................
Toulouse........................
Rouen............................
Nancy............................
Lens...............................
Paris..............................
Lille...............................
Havre............................
Amiens...........................
Index
num
ber.
122
109
104
103
101
100
100
100
100
99
Town.
St. Quentin..................
Lyon...........................
St. Nazaire...................
Grenoble......................
Bordeaux.....................
Troyes.........................
Valenciennes................
Rheims........................
Roanne........................
Rennes.........................
Index
num
ber.
98
98
97
97
97
96
96
96
96
95
Town.
Douai...........................
Le Creuzot....................
Roubaix.....................
Nantes................
Fougferes..
Limoges..........
Bourses...................
St. Etienne..............
Brest................
Belfort.........................
Index
num
ber.
95
94
94
94
91
91
91
90
89
88
It is seen from the foregoing that 5 o f the 30 towns have a prices
index number higher than Paris. The total difference between the
77
COST OF LIVING IN FRANCE.
highest and lowest towns is 34 points, as contrasted with 63 points
in the case o f rents. However, if Marseille be excluded, the difference
in price levels is only 21 points.
RENTS AND PRICES COMBINED.
The presentation following gives the index numbers for each o f the
30 specified towns in France for that portion o f the cost o f living
which is due to expenditure on food and bn housing accommodation.
Since the amount which has to be expended on food is considerably
greater than that which has to be spent on rent, a weight o f 5 has
been given to prices and a weight o f 1 to rent:
RELATIVE LEVEL OF RENT AND FOOD PRICES COMBINED IN SPECIFIED TOWNS
OF FRANCE AS COMPARED WITH PARIS.
Index
num
ber.
Town.
Marseille........................
Calais.............................
Paris..............................
Rouen............................
Nancy............................
Havre............................
Lyon..............................
Toulouse........................
Bordeaux.......................
Lille...............................
112
100
100
97
96
95
95
94
93
92
Town.
Grenoble......................
Lens............................
A m ie n s .....................................
Valenciennes................
St. Quentin..................
St. Nazaire...................
Troyes.........................
Rennes.........................
Rheims........................
Nantes.........................
Index
num
ber.
92
92
92
91
90
90
89
89
89
88
Town.
Douai.........................
Le Creuzot..................
Roanne.......................
Limoges.......................
Belfort.........................
Foug&res.....................
Roubaix.......................
St. Etienne.................
Brest............................
Bourges........................
Index
num
ber.
88
86
86
85
85
85
85
84
83
83
ERANCE AN D GREAT B R IT A IN COMPARED.
The difficulties in the way o f any complete comparison o f the rela
tive prices ruling for similar commodities in France and in England,
as far as they affect the expenditure o f the working classes o f the
two countries, are sufficiently obvious from what has been said re
specting the diversity o f national habits and tastes. Disregarding
such differences, the predominant prices paid by the working classes
o f the two countries for commodities quoted in both are as shown in
the following table. It should be noted that in this and the other
tables which follow the prices for England and Wales are exclusive
o f London prices, while those for France relate to all the French
towns investigated, including Paris. No explanation for this is given
in the original report.
78
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
PREDOMINANT RANGE OF RETAIL PRICES OF COMMODITIES IN TOWNS OF
ENGLAND AND WALES AND OF FRANCE, COMPARED, OCTOBER, 1905.
Predominant retail prices,
October, 1905.
Unit.
Commodity.
Sugar.......................................................
Butter......................................................
Potatoes...................................................
Flour, wheat............................................
Bread, white............................................
Milk.........................................................
Beef.........................................................
Mutton.....................................................
Pork........................................................
Coal.........................................................
Paraffin oil...............................................
Ratio of mean
predominant
price in I ranee
to mean pre
England and
price
includ dominant
Wales, exclud France,
in England,
ing
Paris.
ing London.
taken as 100.
1 pound...
7 pounds..
__ do.......
4 pounds..
1 quart__
1 pound... 1/
....d o ....... \/
....d o .......
1 cwt.......
1 gallon...
° British or home killed.
$0.04
$0.05|-$0.06
.27
. 224- -284
.07
.06
.20
.2 5 - .31
.11 - .12
.11
.044- .054
.08
. 17
.1 3 - .164
. 12 \
.18
.1 4 - .20
.10 |
.154- .22
.17
.334- -404
.24
.16
.264- *31
144
94
100
153
115
71
109
$0.05.16.09.05o. 166.10o.l56.08.15.19.14-
131
116
170
188
* Foreign or colonial.
In the United Kingdom report the price levels of different towns
were compared by the amount required to purchase the groceries, meat,
and coal in an approximate average workman’s budget. In order
to furnish a similar comparison in the present case the following table
is given showing relatively how much the average British workman
would have to pay if he went to live in France and purchase the same
kinds o f food in the same quantities as he had previously used in
England. The table shows that his expenditure would be increased
in the ratio o f 100 to 118. This is the same as found in the German
report. I f the cost o f coal be left out o f consideration, however, the
ratio would be only 100 to 111.
COST OF THE AVERAGE BRITISH WORKMAN’S WEEKLY BUDGET (EXCLUDING
CERTAIN ARTICLES FOR WHICH COMPARATIVE PRICES CAN NOT BE CITED)
AT THE PREDOMINANT PRICES PAID BY THE WORKING CLASSES OF ENGLAND
AND WALES AND OF FRANCE, OCTOBER, 1905.
Article.
Sugar..........
Butter.........
Potatoes......
Flour, wheat,
Bread, white,
Milk............
Beef............
Mutton........
Pork...........
Coal............
Cost of quantity in
Predominant prices in October, 1905, in—
British budgetin—
Quantity in
average
British
England and Wales, ex France, including Paris. England
budget.
and France.
cluding London.
Wales.
5 | pounds.. $0,041 per pound...........
2 pounds... $0,269 per pound...........
17 pounds.. $0,051 to $0,071 per 7
pounds.
10 pounds.. $0,162 to $0,203 per 7
pounds.
22 pounds.. $0,091 to $0,112 per 4
pounds.
5 quarts__ $0,061 to $0,081 per quart.
44 pounds.. $0,137 per pound...........
i f pounds.. $0,129 per pound...........
4 pound__ $0.152 to $0.172 per pound
2 c w t........ $0,193 to $0,243 per cwt.
Total.
Index number.
$0,056 to $0,061 per pound.
$0,223 to $0,284 per pound.
$0,061 per 7 pounds.........
$0,248 to $0,309 per 7
pounds.
$0,112 to $0,122 per 4
pounds.
$0,046 to $0,056 per quart.
$0.132 to $0.167 per pound.
$0,142 to $0.198 per pound.
$0,157 to $0,218 per pound.
$0,335 to $0,406 per cwt...
$0.218
.537
.147
$0,309
.507
.147
.259
.400
.558
.644
.355
.619
.193
.081
.436
.253
.674
.253
.094
.740
3.403
4.021
100
118
79
COST OF LIVING IN FRANCE,
On the other hand, the French workman going to live in England
would not reduce his expenditures for food in as high a ratio as 118 to
100, for his purchases as shown in the following table are entirely
different in quantity from the British workman’s. The table shows
that his expenditure would be decreased in the ratio o f 106 to 100.
Coal is not included, because wood is the principal fuel in many
French towns.
COST OF THE AVERAGE FRENCH WORKMAN’S WEEKLY BUDGET (EXCLUDING
FUEL AND CERTAIN ARTICLES FOR WHICH COMPARATIVE PRICES CAN NOT
BE CITED) AT THE PREDOMINANT PRICES PAID BY THE WORKING CLASSES
OF ENGLAND AND WALES AND OF FRANCE, OCTOBER, 1905.
Article.
Predominant prices in October, 1905, in—
Quantity in
average
French
budget.
England and Wales, ex France, including Paris.
cluding London.
Sugar................. If pounds.. $0,041 per pound...........
Butter................ If pounds.. $0,269 per pound...........
Potatoes............. 16 pounds.. $0,051 to $0,071 per 7
pounds.
Bread, white....... 29 pounds.. $0,091 to $0,112 per 4
pounds.
Milk................... 4 quarts__ $0,061 to $0,081 per quart.
Beef................... 3 pounds... $0,137 per pound...........
Mutton............... 1 pound__ $0,129 per pound...........
Pork................... f pound__ $0.152 to $0.172 per pound
Cost of quantity in
French budget in—
England
and
France.
Wales.
$0,056 to $0,061 per pound.
$0,223 to $0,284 per pound.
$0,061 per 7 pounds.........
$0.071
.335
.137
$0,101
.319
.137
$0,112 to $0,122 per 4
pounds.
$0,046 to $0,056 per quart.
$0,132 to $0,167 per pound.
$0,142 to $0,198 per pound.
$0,157 to $0,218 per pound.
.735
.847
.284
.411
.129
.122
.203
.449
.170
.142
Total.........
2.224
2.368
Index number__
100
106
80
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The differences in the amounts consumed and the sums spent for the
chief commodities by workmen’s families receiving certain specified
weekly incomes are brought out in the two following statements:
RATIOS OF THE QUANTITIES OF CERTAIN ARTICLES OF FOOD CONSUMED BY
WORKMEN’S FAMILIES IN FRANCE, RECEIVING SPECIFIED WEEKLY IN
COMES, TO THE QUANTITIES OF THE SAME ARTICLES CONSUMED BY WORK
MEN’S FAMILIES IN GREAT BRITAIN WITH CORRESPONDING INCOMES.
[Quantities in Great Britain = 1 0 0 .]
Families receiving weekly incomes
of—
Items.
$6.08 and
under
$7.30.
$7.30 and
under
$8.52.
82
93
93
89
79
98
88
32
89
98
82
77
86
97
91
36
Bread and flour............................................................................
Meat and fish................................................................................
Eggs............................................................................................
Milk, fresh....................................................................................
Cheese..........................................................................................
Butter, oils, and fats.....................................................................
Potatoes.......................................................................................
Sugar...........................................................................................
$8.52 and
under
$9.73.
92
100
85
78
97
98
100
35
RATIOS OF THE AMOUNTS SPENT ON CERTAIN ARTICLES OF FOOD CONSUMED
BY WORKMEN’S FAMILIES IN FRANCE, RECEIVING SPECIFIED WEEKLY IN
COMES, TO THE AMOUNTS SPENT ON THE SAME ARTICLES BY WORKMEN’S
FAMILIES IN GREAT BRITAIN WITH CORRESPONDING INCOMES.
[Expenditure in Great Britain = 1 0 0 .]
Families receiving weekly incomes
of—
Items.
$6.08 and
under
$7.30.
$7.30 and
under
$8.52.
200
100
66
163
79
69
Vegetables and fruit......................................................................
Farinaceous foods (other t-hn.n bread and flour)..............................
Tea, coflee, cocoa, etc....................................................................
$8.52 and
under
$9.73.
149
96
66
E A T E S OF W A G E S.
FRANCE.
An inquiry was made into the rates o f wages prevailing in Octo
ber, 1905, in the various towns canvassed. In order to facilitate
comparison, four industries were selected which were represented in
all the towns with few exceptions, and in which the standard rates
o f wages could be ascertained with accuracy. These industries were
the building trades, engineering, printing, and municipal employ
ment; and the rates in Paris were again taken as the base for the
index numbers. The rates referred to are in all cases weekly rates.
81
COST OF LIVING IN FRANCE,
The following table shows the predominant range o f weekly wages
for each o f the occupations in the selected standard industries in
towns o f France:
PREDOMINANT RANGE OF WEEKLY WAGES IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS IN
FRANCE, OCTOBER, 1905.
[As the number of towns included in this table is stated to be 30 for several occupations,
the figures of the table apparently relate to all the French towns covered by the report,
including the city of Paris.]
Industry and occupation.
Number of towns in which the mean
Num Predominant wage for the given occupation was—
ber of range of weekly
towns wages, October,
in
Within the Below the Above the
1905.
cluded.
predomi predomi predomi
nant range. nant range. nant range.
BUILDING TRADES.
Bricklayers and masons...........................
Stonecutters...........................................
Carpenters...............................................
Joiners....................................................
Plumbers.................................................
Plasterers................................................
Painters...................................................
Laborers..................................................
30
26
30
30
25
22
29
29
$5.25-17.02
6.43- 7.58
5.84- 7.36
5.78- 6. 43
5.84- 7.02
5.78- 7.06
5.21- 6.43
3.85- 4.83
26
17
24
19
21
18
23
20
2
5
3
6
2
2
3
5
2
4
3
5
2
2
3
4
3
6
4
3
3
4
ENGINEERING TRADES.
Molders...................................................
Fitters.....................................................
Turners...................................................
Smiths....................................................
Pattern makers........................................
Laborers..................................................
26
30
30
21
22
30
5.845.845.846.126.203.79-
7.12
7.02
7. 42
7.73
7.24
4.66
22
18
25
16
16
23
1
6
1
2
3
3
23
5.56-7.02
18
3
23
23
4.24- 5.25
4.66- 5.84
15
14
5
4
PRINTING TRADE.
Compositors.............................................
MUNICIPAL EMPLOYMENT.
Road men...............................................
Pavers.....................................................
3
5
In the following table is shown the predominant rate o f weekly
wages for skilled men for each of the specified occupations in the
building, engineering, and printing trades in 12 towns o f France,
selected as to certain geographical districts:
RATES OF WEEKLY WAGES IN 12 SELECTED TOWNS OF FRANCE, OCTOBER, 1905.
Industry and occupation.
Amiens.
Bordeaux.
Brest.
Calais.
Havre.
Limoges.
BUILDING TRADES.
Bricklayers and masons...........
Stonecutters...........................
Carpenters..............................
Joiners....................................
Plumbers...............................
Plasterers...............................
Painters..................................
$7.02
$4.79-15.78
7.02
6.43-7.06
5.52- 6.43 $6.43-7.02
5.25- 6.43 5.84-7.02
5.84
6.43
4.66- 5.78 5.84- 6.43
$4.91
5.37
5.50
4.91
5.60
5.25
4.66
$6.33
6.96
6.96
6.33
6.33
$7.02-$7.71
7.58-8.35
7.02- 7.71
7.02-7.71
7.58- 8.35
7.02- 7.71
6.33 7.02- 7.71
$5.78
6.43
6.43
5.78
5.84
5.84
5.84
ENGINEERING TRADES.
6.43
Molders.................................. 5.84- 6.43
Fitters.................................... 5.25- 5.84 6.43-7.02
5.84 6.43-7.02
Turners..................................
Smiths.................................... 5.84- 6.43 6.43-7.02
Pattern makers.......................
5.25
5.84
5.25 $6.65- 8.17 6.71- 8.13 $5.84-7.02
5.84 6.89- 7.77 6.71-8.13 5.84-7.02
6.43
7.02- 8.42
5.84
6.43- 7.89
7.02
PRINTING TRADE.
Compositors............................ 5.25- 5.58 6.43- 7.02
4.66
5.25- 5.84
6.43
6.31- 7.02
82
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR.
RATES OP WEEKLY WAGES IN 12 SELECTED TOWNS OF FRANCE, OCTOBER,
1905— Concluded.
Industry and occupation.
Lyon.
Marseille.
Nantes.
Paris.
Valen
ciennes.
Rheims.
BUILDING TRADES.
Bricklayers and masons...........
Stonecutters...........................
Carpenters..............................
Joiners....................................
Plumbers...............................
Plasterers...............................
Painters.................................
$7.02
$5.84
$5.25
7.58 $7.02- 7.58
5.84
8.17
6.43
8.17
7.02
7.02 $5.84-6.43
7.02
6.43 5.84- 6. 43
6.43
7.02 5.84- 6.43
6.43
5.25 5.84- 7.02
$9.35
9.94
10.50
9.35
9.35
9.35
9.35
$6.43-$7.06 $6.04-$7.02
7.20- 7.71
5.78-7.06 6.43- 7.06
5.78-7.06 5.78- 6.43
6.43- 7.06
5.78
ENGINEERING TRADES.
Molders..................................
Fitters....................................
Turners..................................
Smiths....................................
Pattern makers.......................
$6.43- 7.58 5.84-7.02 7.026.71- 7.58 5.84- 7.02
6.71- 7.58 6.43- 7.02
7.02- 8.17 7.02- 7.58
6.43- 7.02 7.58-
8.17 $7.58-12.17
6.43 5.84- 6.31
7.02 8.17-11.68 5.84- 6.43 5.84-6.43
7.02 8.17-11.68 5.84- 6.43 5.60- 6.43
6.29 8.17-14.01
5.84- 6.43
8.17 8.42-13.42
7.02 5.84- 7.02
PRINTING TRADE.
Compositors............................ 7.02- 8.17
7.02
8.17
6.31
In the table following index numbers are given comparing (with
Paris as the base 100) the weekly rates o f wages o f workmen in the
four specified industries in the different towns o f France, the towns
being arranged in geographical groups:
RELATIVE LEVEL OF WEEKLY WAGES IN SPECIFIED TOWNS OF FRANCE AS
COMPARED WITH PARIS.
Building.
Engineering.
Geographical groups.
Skilled
men.
Paris.................................................
Nord and Pas-de-Calais:
Calais..........................................
Douai..........................................
Lens............................................
Lille............................................
Roubaix......................................
Valenciennes................................
Other northern towns:
Amiens........................................
Havre..........................................
Rouen..........................................
St. Quentin.................................
Northeastern towns:
Belfort.........................................
Nancy..........................................
Rheims........................................
Troyes.........................................
Northwestern towns:
Brest...........................................
Fougfcres......................................
Nantes.........................................
Rennes........................................
St. Nazaire...................................
Central towns:
Bourges.......................................
Le Creuzot...................................
Grenoble......................................
Limoges.......................................
Lyon...........................................
Roanne........................................
St. Etienne..................................
Southern towns:
Bordeaux....................................
Marseille......................................
Toulouse......................................
Labor Skilled
ers.
men.
Print
ing
(composiLabor tors).
ers.
Municipal em
ployees.
Road
men.
Pavers.
100
100
100
100
100
100
68
66
64
65
62
65
81
77
90
66
72
79
77
66
62
73
62
62
73
78
83
66
75
74
68
70
60
74
71
58
78
62
63
60
80
82
70
60
77
69
65
65
83
75
75
66
79
79
71
55
86
65
64
99
91
78
67
67
67
68
72
91
70
77
66
62
64
62
62
75
80
70
79
83
77
56
72
67
64
70
83
53
58
64
57
71
60
66
70
64
84
56
64
74
58
80
60
60
80
65
75
57
64
62
69
63
77
61
66
62
62
74
65
67
68
80
70
66
75
70
60
85
66
64
73
63
72
77
77
70
75
85
65
75
79
82
93
71
82
67
68
76
96
66
106
75
79
67
68
56
70
55
60
68
67
58
75
65
70
82
86
79
66
68
48
66
79
60
75
68
66
100
67
77
66
78
74
58
58
64
74
65
83
COST OF LIVING IN FRANCE,
RELATION OF RATES OF WAGES TO RENTS AND PRICES.
The presentation which follows shows for each of the geographical
groups the mean index numbers for rent and prices and rent and
prices combined, together with the mean index numbers for the
weekly rates o f wages o f skilled men in the building, engineering, and
printing industries. Paris has been taken as the base (100) in each
case. In the construction o f the index numbers for rent and prices
combined, prices have been given a weight o f 5 and rent a weight of 1.
RELATIVE LEVEL OF RENT AND PRICES, OF RENT AND PRICES COMBINED, AND
OF WEEKLY WAGES OF SKILLED MEN IN SIX GEOGRAPHICAL GROUPS OF
FRANCE, AS COMPARED WITH PARIS.
Mean index numbers.
Geographical group.
Num
ber of
towns
in
cluded.
Paris...................................................
Nord and Pas-de-Calais........................
Other northern towns..........................
Northeastern towns.............................
Northwestern towns............................
Central towns......................................
Southern towns...................................
6
4
4
5
7
3
Rent and prices.
Wages (skilled men).
Rent
and
Engi Printing.
Rent. Prices. prices Building. neering.
com
bined.
100
52
60
62
56
54
60
100
99
100
95
93
94
108
100
91
93
90
87
87
100
100
65
65
67
61
65
64
100
67
68
64
66
69
64
100
a 70
74
a 80
a 65
«79
82
• The number of towns represented in the construction of this index number is less than
the total number included within the geographical group.
I f the mean o f the wages index numbers in each group for the
three industries (building, engineering, and printing) be taken, and
the means so obtained divided by the index numbers for rent and
prices combined, a comparison o f the average level of “ real ” wages
in the selected occupations may be made, viz, the money wages ex
pressed in terms o f their purchasing capacity (as shown in the index
numbers o f rent and prices combined). The results are shown in the
table which follows:
AVERAGE LEVEL OF “ REAL ” WAGES AND LEVEL OF RENT AND PRICES COM
BINED IN SIX GEOGRAPHICAL GROUPS OF FRANCE, AS COMPARED WITH
PARIS.
[Index number for Paris = 1 0 0 .]
Mean index numbers.
Geographical group.
Paris......................................................................................
Nord and Pas-de-Calais..........................................................
Other northern towns.............................................................
Northeastern towns................................................................
Northwestern towns...............................................................
Central towns.........................................................................
Southern towns......................................................................
Number
of towns Rent and
included. prices
com
bined.
6
4
4
5
7
3
100
91
93
90
87
87
100
Wages of
skilled Approxi
men in
mate
building, relative
engineer level of
ing, and “ real”
printing wages.
trades.
100
67
69
70
64
71
70
100
74
74
78
74
82
70
84
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
FRANCE A N D GREAT B R IT A IN COMPARED.
The predominant rates o f weekly wages paid in the building,
engineering, and printing trades o f France (industries which were
found in all the towns investigated) are here brought into contrast
with the rates of weekly wages paid in similar trades in Great Britain:
RATES OF WAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES AND IN FRANCE, COMPARED,
OCTOBER, 1905.
Industry and occupation.
Predominant range of Ratio of mean
weekly wai?es, October, predominant
1905.
wage in
France to
mean pre
England and
dominant
Wales,
in Eng
France, (o) wage
excluding
land, taken
London.
as 100.
BUILDING TRADES.
Bricklayers..........................................................................
Masons................................................................................
Carpenters...........................................................................
Joiners................................................................................
Plumbers............................................................................
Plasterers............................................................................
Painters..............................................................................
Laborers..............................................................................
$9.12-19.85
9.04- 9.57
8.80- 9.57
8.80- 9.57
8.60- 9.67
8.88-10.14
7.66- 9.12
5.72- 6.57
$5.25-17.02
5.25- 7.02
5.84- 7.36
5.78- 6.43
5.84- 7.02
5.78- 7.06
5.21- 6.43
3.85- 4.83
65
65
72
66
70
67
69
71
ENGINEERING TRADES.
Fitters.................................................................................
Turners...............................................................................
Smiths................................................................................
Patternmakers....................................................................
Laborers..............................................................................
7.797.797.798.274.38-
8.76
8.76
8.76
9.25
5.35
5.845.846.126.203.79-
7.02
7.42
7.73
7.24
4.66
78
80
84
77
87
5.56- 7.02
85
PRINTING TRADES.
Compositors........................................................................
6.81- 8.03
Arithmetic mean of ratios for all trades........................
75
* Apparently including P a ris; see prefatory note to table on p. 81.
In the case o f the building trades the weekly wages given are, for
both countries, the wages for a full working week in summer. In
the engineering and the printing trades, the English wages are the
standard time rates recognized by the unions concerned; the French
rates, on the other hand, are in most cases based on returns o f actual
earnings, and it is consequently doubtful how far the two sets of
returns are strictly comparable. The standard time rates being often
exceeded by actual earnings on piecework, it is probable that the
French rates appear somewhat too high relatively to the English.
For skilled men in the building trades the French wages are about
68 per cent o f the English; for skilled men in the engineering trades
about 81 per cent o f the English, and for compositors in the printing
trade about 85 per cent o f the English. The arithmetic mean o f the
ratios for all trades shown in the table indicates that the mean pre
dominant wage in France is approximately 75 per cent o f that in
England and Wales. The corresponding figure for Germany was
83 per cent.
85
COST OF LIVING IN FRANCE.
HOURS OF LABO R.
In the table following is presented for the building, the engineering,
and the printing trades a comparison o f the average usual hours o f
labor per week in England and Wales with corresponding data for
France.
AVERAGE USUAL HOURS OF LABOR PER WEEK IN ENGLAND AND WALES AND IN
FRANCE, COMPARED.
[The report does not state whether the average hours of labor here shown for England and
Wales and for France include hours of labor in London and in Paris.]
Average usual hours of
labor per week in—
Industry and occupation.
England and
Wales.
France.
Ratio of aver
age hours of
labor in
France to
those in
England,
taken as 100.
BUILDING TRADES.
Bricklayers and masons.......................................................
Carpenters...........................................................................
Joiners................................................................................
Plumbers............................................................................
Plasterers............................................................................
Painters..............................................................................
Laborers..............................................................................
52*
53
53
53*
53
53*
52*
64*
64
63f
63
63
63
64f
123
121
120
118
119
118
123
53
53
53
53
53
60*
60*
60*
60*
114
114
114
114
114
52*
59*
ENGINEERING TRADES.
Fitters................................................................................
Turners...............................................................................
Smiths................................................................................
Patternmakers...................................................................
Laborers.............................................................................
PRINTING TRADE.
Compositors.........................................................................
Arithmetic mean of ratios for all trades........................
I
113
117
It will be seen from the foregoing that the hours o f labor in France
are from 13 to 23 per cent higher than in England; or on the aver
age o f the above trades, hours o f labor in France exceed those in
England by about 17 per cent.
SU M M AR Y O F CONCLUSIONS.
A summary o f the conclusions derived from the investigation fol
lows:
Rents .— Net rents o f working-class dwellings in France (not in
cluding payments on account o f local taxation) are to gross rents o f
working-class dwellings in England (including all local taxation)
as 80 to 100.
Net rents o f working-class dwellings in France are to the net rents
o f working-class dwellings in England (excluding that portion of
English rents which represents local taxation) as 98 to 100.
Retail prices.— The cost o f the average British workman’s weekly
purchases o f certain standard articles o f food and fuel (fo r an aver
age family) at the prices ruling in France in October, 1905, was to the
86
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
cost o f the same articles at English prices at the same date as 118
to 100.
I f the expenditure on rent be combined with that on food and fuel
(the expenditure on the latter items being taken at four times the
former) the results are:
The expenditure o f the average British workman (with an average
family) on certain standard articles o f food and fuel, and on rent at
the prices and rents ruling in France would be to his expenditure on
the same items (together with local taxation) at the prices and rents
ruling in England as 110 to 100;
Or, excluding that portion o f English rents which represents local
taxation, as 114 to 100;
It appears, therefore, that an English workman in France, living
as far as possible as he had been accustomed to live in'England, would
find his expenditure on rent (exclusive o f local taxation), food, and
fuel increased by some 14 per cent, or nearly one-seventh.
W ages and hours o f labor.— The weekly money wages o f the work
ing classes in French towns, in certain widely distributed trades se
lected for comparison, are to those o f the same classes in England
as 75 to 100.
The average usual working hours per week o f the working classes
in French towns, in the trades selected for comparison, are to those
o f the same classes in England as 117 to 100.
Hence the hourly rates o f money wages for the working classes in
French towns, in the trades selected for comparison, are* to those o f
the same classes in English towns, approximately, as 64 to 100.
CHAN GES IN R E T A IL PR IC E S AN D R A T E S OF W A G E S
B E T W E E N OCTOBER, 1905, AN D O CTO BER, 1907.
It will be remembered that the returns upon which the index num
bers referred to in the foregoing sections are based related to October,
1905, and it will be of interest to note what changes have occurred
since that date. For this purpose supplementary investigations were
made in August, September, and October, 1907, in regard to the
movement o f prices and wages in seven representative towns (Amiens,
Belfort, Bordeaux, Havre, Lyon, Rennes, and St. Etienne).
The general trend o f prices seems to have been upward. Taking
all the meat together, and weighting the several kinds in proportion
to the average consumption o f each, the average increase was approx
imately 5£ per cent. The price o f coffee had risen 5 per cent at
Bordeaux and 8 per cent at Belfort, but remained unchanged in the
other towns. Sugar increased 9 per cent at Amiens, Belfort, and
Bordeaux and as much as 20 per cent at Rennes, remaining unchanged
in other towns. The price o f bread rose by 4 or 5 per cent at
Belfort, Havre, and Rennes and by 16 per cent at Bordeaux.
On the whole the average increase in prices between October, 1905,
and October, 1907, o f foods other than meat may be estimated at 4£
per c6nt and on food o f all kinds at slightly under 5 per cent.
COST OF LIVING IN FRANCE.
87
Also, the general trend of wages was upward. In the building
trades wages had increased by 16 to 20 per cent for bricklayers,
masons, and laborers at Belfort; by 10 to 14 per cent for carpenters
and joiners at Belfort, laborers at Lyon, and bricklayers, joiners,
plasterers, and painters at St. Etienne; and by 7 to 9 per cent for all
skilled workmen except plumbers at Lyon, and for all except stone
cutters and plumbers at Havre. On the average, wages in the build
ing trades increased about 5 per cent. In the engineering trades
the changes were less important. Taking all the towns together the
average rise was about 3 per cent. Earnings in the printing trade
do not appear to have increased to any appreciable extent.
The hours o f labor in the engineering trades had been reduced
from “ 60 to 66 ” to 60 at Belfort and from 60 to “ 57 to 60 ” at
St. Etienne. In the printing trade the normal hours had been re
duced from 60 to 54 at Belfort, Havre, Lyon, and St. Etienne.
EARNINGS AND HOURS OF LABOR IN BRITISH TEXTILE
INDUSTRIES.
The first o f a series of reports, in which the results o f a general
inquiry into earnings and hours o f labor in all trades in the United
Kingdom will be dealt with, has recently been published under the
title— Report o f an Inquiry by the Board of Trade into the Earnings
and Hours o f Labor o f Work People o f the United Kingdom : I.—
Textile Trades in 1906. The object o f this inquiry was to ascer
tain the amount actually earned by all classes o f work people in a
selected week, industry by industry, occupation by occupation, and
district by district, and to obtain means o f estimating their annual
earnings.
G E N E R A L SU M M ARY.
O f the different groups o f trades, the textile trades are of special
interest, owing to the fact that in these trades both men and
women are employed in large numbers and in some cases on work of
a similar character. The total number o f work people employed in
the textile trades in factories and workshops in 1904 was 1,171,216,
o f which number 80 per cent were employed in England and Wales,
13 per cent in Scotland, and 7 per cent in Ireland.
In the following table is shown the number o f persons employed in
each o f the textile trades as shown by the factory and workshop
returns for 1904, the number of work people covered by the returns
received in the present inquiry, and the percentage o f the total num
ber employed in 1904 represented by the returns:
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES IN TEXTILE INDUSTRIES IN 1904 AND PER CENT OF
TOTAL IN EACH INDUSTRY FOR WHOM RETURNS WERE RECEIVED IN 1906.
Industry.
Number of
employees in
1904.
Employees covered
by returns received in
present inquiry
(1906).
| Percent
number
Number. ;of
employed
in 1904.
Silk..............................................................................................
Hosiery........................................................................................
Lace.............................................................................................
Bleaching, printing, dyeing, and finishing.....................................
523,030
263,770
95,950
41,258
30,184
41,212
26,744
110,946
212,807
122,390
44,493
17,446
9,740
20,672
8,360
55,041
40.7
46.4
46.4
42.3
32.3
50.2
31.3
49.6
Total (including textile industries not specified)....................
1,171,216
512,598
43.8
Cotton..........................................................................................
Woolen and worsted.....................................................................
88
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH TEXTILE INDUSTRIES.
89
An inquiry o f similar character was made in 1885. The changes
in the numbers employed in the various industries since that time are
o f interest, especially since the number o f half timers (those children
under 14 years o f age who are permitted to work but part o f a day)
has decreased materially. The numbers employed in textile factories
are given in the following table for the years 1885 and 1904:
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES IN TEXTILE INDUSTRIES, BY CLASSES, 1885 AND 1904.
Adults and young
persons, (o)
Half timers.
Total (counting 2 half timers
as 1 full timer).
Industry.
1885.
1904.
Cotton..................................
Woolen and worsted.............
Linen...................................
Jute.....................................
Silk......................................
Hosiery................................
Lace.....................................
454,077
258,619
102,912
37,353
39,800
19,212
15,334
Total (including textile
industries not speci
fied).........................
942,610
Per cent
of increase
(+ ) or de
crease (—).
1885.
1904.
1885.
1904.
505,379
253,189
92,086
40,485
29,226
36,273
18,512
49,992
23,636
8,925
4,321
3,195
324
552
17,651
8,612
3,793
773
685
63
76
479,073
270,437
107,374
39,514
41,398
19,374
15,610
514,204
257,495
93 982
40,871
29,569
36,305
18,550
+ 7.3
- 4.8
-12.5
+ 3.4
-28.6
+87.4
+18.8
994,634
91,651
31,744
988,436 1,010,506
+ 2.2
* Young persons include persons 14 and under 18 years of age, and may also include
persons 13 years of age who have obtained from the board of education a certificate of
proficiency or attendance at school.
O f the total number o f employees for whom information was
obtained, 31.7 per cent were males 20 years o f age and over, classi
fied in the report as “ men.” The average earnings o f men who
worked full time in the various textile industries in the last week o f
September, 1906, and the percentage whose earnings fell within each
specified wage group are shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF MEN IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER,
1906, IN EACH TEXTILE INDUSTRY, AND PER CENT OF MEN WHOSE EARN
INGS WERE IN EACH SPECIFIED WAGE GROUP.
Industry.
Per cent of men working full time whose earn
ings were—
Aver
age
$7.30 $9.73 $12.17 $14.60
earn Under $4.87
and
and
and
and
ings. $4.87. under
and
under under under over.
$7.30. $9.73. $12.17. $14.60.
Cotton.........................................................
Woolen and worsted.....................................
Linen..........................................................
Jute.............................................................
Silk.............................................................
Hosiery.......................................................
Lace............................................................
Carpet.........................................................
Hemp..........................................................
Small wares.................................................
Flock and shoddy........................................
Elastic web..................................................
Hair............................................................
Other textile................................................
Fustian and cord cutting..............................
Bleaching, printing, etc................................
$7.18
6.53
5.43
5.25
6.25
7.64
9.61
6.47
6.16
6.45
5.78
7.36
5.17
6.25
5.86
6.73
16.0
15.2
44.4
49.1
19.4
11.5
6.2
19.4
22.3
16.8
15.8
7.9
51.2
22.7
23.7
16.8
43.7
52.2
36.7
36.0
54.0
33.6
25.3
49.7
50.9
53.4
71.0
47.0
33.2
48.5
55.3
54.4
21.3
26.2
13.6
13.4
23.0
34.3
24.4
23.4
21.9
22.9
9.4
29.0
10.3
22.1
19.6
16.6
14.4
4.1
3.5
1.3
2.6
14.1
19.0
5.5
3.6
4.8
2.5
12.0
2.5
4.9
1.4
6.4
4.1
1.1
1.0
.2
.6
4.7
11.9
1.6
.7
1.5
1.0
3.3
2.1
1.6
2.4
3.4
Total..................................................
6.83
18.4
46.3
21.3
9.6
3.0
1.4
0.5
1.2
.8
.4
1.8
13.2
.4
.6
.6
.3
.8
.7
.2
90
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
O f the total number o f employees for whom information was ob
tained, 44 per cent were females 18 years o f age and over, classified
as “ women.” The average earnings o f women who worked full time
in the various textile industries in the last week o f September, 1906,
and the percentage whose earnings fell within each specified wage
group are shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEM
BER, 1906, IN EACH TEXTILE INDUSTRY, AND PER CENT OF WOMEN WHOSE
EARNINGS WERE IN EACH SPECIFIED WAGE GROUP.
Per cent of women working full time whose
earnings were—
Average
earn
32.43 33.65 34.87 36.08 37.30
ings. Under and
and
and
and
and
32.43. under under under under over.
33.65. 34.87. 36.08. 37.30.
■
Industry.
$4.54
3.37
2.62
3.26
2.72
3.47
3.26
3.33
2.66
2.78
2.98
2.84
2.27
3.31
2.64
3.00
3.75
Cotton..........................
Woolen and worsted......
Linen...........................
Jute..............................
Silk..............................
Hosiery.........................
Lace.............................
Carpet...........................
Hemp...........................
Small wares..................
Flock and shoddy.........
Elastic web...................
Hair.............................
Other textile.................
Fustian and cord cutting
Bleaching, printing, e tc ..
Total....................
3.0
10.7
41.7
6.2
38.9
14.5
18.1
15.3
47.1
32.2
10.9
21.8
51.9
18.3
47.1
27.0
20.9
55.6
49.1
66.4
47.8
44.4
49.3
49.8
39.6
53.0
75.9
65.5
45.3
44.5
41.7
51.6
35.4
24.7
8.5
25.9
11.4
30.3
25.1
28.2
10.5
13.7
12.8
12.3
2.8
30.3
6.8
15.6
29.9
7.6
.6
1.4
1.6
9.1
5.7
6.5
2.6
1.0
.4
.4
9.6
1.2
.1
.1
.3
1.4
1.3
.2
.1
6.1
3.7
5.3
.7
.7
.3
.2
13.3
38.8
26.9
15.8
4.6
.6
1.2
.2
.3
.5
.1
.1
.1
The average earnings o f males under the age o f 20 years, classified
in the report as “ lads and boys,” and of females under 18 years o f
age, classified as “ girls,” in the last week o f September, 1906, are
shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF LADS AND BOYS AND OF GIRLS IN EACH
TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906.
Average earnings ofIndustry.
Lads and boys.
Girls.
Full
timers.
Half
timers.
Full
timers.
Cotton...................................................................................
Woolen and worsted...............................................................
Linen....................................................................................
Jute.......................................................................................
Silk.......................................................................................
Hosiery..................................................................................
Lace......................................................................................
Carpet...................................................................................
Hemp....................................................................................
Small wares...........................................................................
Flock and shoddy..................................................................
Elastic web............................................................................
Hair......................................................................................
Other textile..........................................................................
Fustian and cord cutting........................................................
Bleaching, printing, etc..........................................................
33.08
2.47
2.05
2.76
2.17
2.29
3.08
2.31
2.07
1.89
2.84
2.60
1.80
2.31
2.39
2.64
30.85
.89
.81
1.05
.73
30.73
.89
.83
.99
.65
.65
.79
32.68
2.25
1.78
2.43
1.64
1.89
1.72
1.89
1.72
1.54
2.13
1.58
1.70
1.72
1.99
2.01
Total.............................................................................
2.76
.87
2.33
.81
.87
.67
.63
.93
Half
timers.
.79
.75
.59
.79
.77
91
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH TEXTILE INDUSTRIES.
The number o f lads and boys formed 11 per cent and the number
o f girls 13.3 per cent o f the total number of employees for whom
information was received.
Particulars were obtained for each industry as to the total amount
paid in wages in 1906 by the firms making returns, and the total
amount paid in wages and the total number o f persons receiving
wages in one week in each month. From these data the following
table was computed, showing the average earnings per head in the
textile industries for the year 1906:
AVERAGE ANNUAL EARNINGS PER HEAD IN EACH TEXTILE INDUSTRY, 1906.
Industry.
Cotton...................................................
Woolen and worsted......... .........................
Linen....................................................
Jute......................................................
S ilk .....................................................
Hosiery.................................................
Lace......................................................
Carpet...................................................
Hemp...................................................
Average
annual
earnings
per head
in 1906.
$233.59
194.66
143.56
167.89
167.89
187.36
265.22
197.09
175.19
Average
annual
earnings
per head
in 1906.
Industry.
Small wares..........................................
Flock and shoddy................................
Elastic web..........................................
Hair....................................................
Other textile........................................
Fustian and cord cutting......................
Bleaching, printing, etc........................
$143.56
226.29
180.06
148.43
189.79
148.43
265.22
Total..........................................
211.69
Eeturns furnished by employers in 1886, giving the rates of wages
o f their work people for a full week, have been compared with those
furnished in the present inquiry. In making such comparison
several important factors should be taken into consideration—the
state o f depression and unemployment in 1886, the improvements
o f machinery and processes by which operatives are enabled to
increase their output and earnings, and the diminution in the number
o f half-timers employed.
The following table shows the average earnings o f men and
women in a full week in 1886 and 1906, compared, and the per cent
o f increase in the 20 years:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN THE PRINCIPAL
TEXTILE INDUSTRIES IN ONE WEEK, 1886 AND 1906.
Average earnings of—
Men.
Industry.
Women.
Per
cent of 1886.
increase.
Per
cent of
increase.
1886.
1906.
Cotton...................................................................
Woolen and worsted..............................................
Linen....................................................................
Jute......................................................................
Silk.......................................................................
$5.74
5.66
4.81
4.70
5.60
$7.02
6.53
5.43
5.25
6.18
22
15
13
12
11
$3.65
3.06
2.17
2.33
2.51
$4.54
3.37
2.62
3.26
2.80
24
10
21
40
11
All textile industries.....................................
5.58
6.71
20
3.10
3.79
22
1906.
The number o f work people reported in each industry whose hours
o f labor for a full week were in each specified group and the average
4764—No. 83—09----- 7
92
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
number o f hours constituting a full week in each industry are shown
in the following table:
NUMBER OF WORK PEOPLE REPORTED AS WORKING EACH SPECIFIED NUMBER
OF HOURS PER WEEK, AND AVERAGE HOURS IN A FULL WEEK, BY INDUS
TRIES, 1906.
Number of work people whose hours of labor for a full week wereIndustry.
Cotton............................
Woolen and worsted.......
Linen.............................
Jute...............................
Silk................................
Hosiery..........................
Lace...............................
Carpet............................
Hemp............................
Small wares....................
Flock and shoddy...........
Elastic web....................
Hair...............................
Other textile..................
Fustian and cord cutting.
Bleaching, printing, etc...
52]
53
an<
to
under. 53}.
899
588
125
380
787
1,157 687
4,113 1,604
1,858 994
50
175
1,333 354
750 1,010
38
181
473
66
20
1,047
2
27
1,499 146
54
to
54}.
55
to
55}.
56
to
56}.
57
to
57}.
798 194,088
126
248 96,616 3,039
61 41,285
134
13,247
39
114
495 6,748
3,684 9,692
557
1,088 1,802
234 5,253
412 4,561
522
465 3,063
100
1,131
574
780
40
40
756
28
221 2,504
104
277
107
10,922 18,072 12,455
to
58}.
to
59}.
Aver
age
hours
61 in a
60
to and full
60}. over. week.
10 61 15 382
312 2,404 561 713
3
3
1
16
2
4
7
61
7
1 11
10
15
7
44
42
11
97
1
3
8
101 24 74 26
6
5
7
1 106 114 47
3
2
9
3
342
5
78
53
45 372
628 2,429 3,388 1,610
131
57
36
1
6
137
2
11
1
*i30*
55.5
55.6
55.1
55.0
54.5
53.9
53.2
55.3
54.1
55.6
55.7
53.4
54.9
54.2
57.1
55.7
T H E COTTON IN D U STR Y .
The cotton industry is the most important o f the textile industries
o f the United Kingdom, since it furnishes employment to nearly
45 per cent o f the total number o f operatives employed in these in
dustries.
In the following table is given an analysis o f the returns for each
district in Lancashire and Cheshire showing the percentage numbers
and earnings o f men engaged as spinners, big piecers, or weavers in
the last week o f September, 1906:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906,
OF ALL MEN IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY AND OF MEN IN CERTAIN OCCUPA
TIONS IN THE INDUSTRY IN THE VARIOUS DISTRICTS OF LANCASHIRE AND
CHESHIRE.
Average earnings of—
District.
Leigh..................................
Manchester.........................
Bolton................................
Oldham..............................
Ashton-under-Lyne.............
Stockport............................
Burnley..............................
Preston...............................
Accrington..........................
Rochdale............................
Blackburn..........................
Bacup.................................
Aver
agefull Spinners.
Big piecers.
Weavers.
Other men.
time
earn
ings
Per
Per
Per
Per
of all cent of Aver cent of Aver cent of Aver cent of Aver
age
age
age
age
men.
total earn
total earn
total earn
total earn
number ings. number ings. number ings. number
ings.
of men.
of men.
of men.
of men.
18.48
7.85
7.79
7.71
7.60
7.28
7.20
6.93
6.83
6.75
6.65
6.33
38 $11.56
15 11.44
32 11.13
33 10.18
30 10.18
23 10.04
1
7.10
13
9.55
19
8.29
10 10.00
9
7.10
7.48
7
20
8
19
24
20
13
$3.79
3.89
3.81
4.77
4.44
4.62
6
4
8
2
4
4.34
4.58
4.89
4.58
4.91
•
5
$6.08
4
13
65
29
36
29
53
47
5.33
5.58
6.71
5.78
5.45
5.68
6.02
5.84
42
77
44
43
46
51
34
52
41
53
36
42
$7.85
7.58
7.08
7.42
7.48
7.08
8.19
7.32
7.69
7.06
7.62
7.00
93
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH TEXTILE INDUSTRIES.
The average earnings o f all women and o f weavers and o f other
women in the principal districts o f Lancashire and Cheshire in the
last week o f September, 1906, are shown in the table follow ing:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, OF
ALL WOMEN IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY AND OF WEAVERS AND OF OTHER
WOMEN IN THE INDUSTRY IN THE VARIOUS DISTRICTS OF LANCASHIRE
AND CHESHIRE.
Average earnings of—
Average
full-time
earnings of
all women.
District.
Burnley........................... ......................
Blackburn...............................................
Accrington..............................................
Preston...................................................
Bacup.....................................................
Rochdale.................................................
Stockport................................................
Oldham..................................................
Ashton-under-Lyne.................................
Bolton....................................................
Leigh......................................................
Manchester..............................................
Weavers.
Other women.
Per cent
of total
number of
women.
Average
earnings.
Per cent
of total
number of
women.
78
67
77
70
62
55
41
12
49
28
45
35
*6.06
5.72
5.09
4.97
4.95
4.79
5.11
4.36
4.40
4.56
4.28
3.89
22
33
23
30
38
45
59
88
51
72
55
65
*5.80
5.29
4.93
4.79
4.60
4.58
4.54
4.50
4.34
4.06
3.87
3.59
Average
earnings.
*4.68
4.36
4.40
4.34
3.97
4.30
4.08
4.52
4.28
3.85
3.51
3.43
More than one-fourth of the men and nearly one-half of the boys
engaged in the cotton industry are included in the group known as
mule-spinners and piecers. The work of the latter is almost identical
with that o f the spinner. He is usually less expert, however, and
has no responsibility. The average net earnings o f spinners working
full time, after deducting the wages o f their piecers, are given in
the following table. The number o f counts is determined by the
number o f hanks, 840 yards in length, necessary to weigh 1 pound.
NUMBER AND AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEP
TEMBER, 1906, OF SPINNERS IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY, BY DISTRICTS.
Number of spinners and their average earnings.
District.
Counts below
40s.
Counts 40s. to
80s.
Counts above
80s.
All counts.
Spin Earn Spin Earn Spin Earn Spin Earn
ners. ings.
ners.
ners. ings.
ners.
ings.
ings.
Lancashire and Cheshire:
Ashton-under-Lyne......
Oldham........................
Bolton.........................
Leigh...........................
Manchester...................
Stockport.....................
Preston........................
Blackburn....................
Accrington....................
Burnley........................
Bacup..........................
Rochdale......................
All Lancashire and Cheshire.
Yorkshire...........................
United Kingdom................
766
1,979
136
*9.69
10.14
10.75
352 *11.25
1,134 10.24
1,125 10.95
317 11.68
44
421
195
565
28
10.73
9.10
9.21
7.08
8.05
197
m
7.48
9.67
248
10.42
4,864
145
5,058
9.45
7.87
9.37
3,963
54
4,017
10.46
7.97
10.42
172
193
69
237
72
11.66
9.45
7.30
8.31
6.77
151 *10.20
60 10.44
553 11.56
143 11.31
160 11.56
54 12.00
140 10.18
1,278
i,282
1,269
3,173
1,814
477
226
647
528
634
265
83
197
704
*10.18
10.18
11.13
11.56
11.44
10.04
9.55
7.10
8.29
7.10
7.48
10.00
11.19 10,105
203
10,357
10.06
7.91
10.02
ii. i9
94
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
More than one-third o f the employees in the cotton industry are
weavers. In the following table the number and full-time earnings
per head and per loom o f men and women weavers are shown accord
ing to the number o f looms tended:
NUMBER OF MEN AND WOMEN WEAVERS IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY, AND
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS IN ONE WEEK, PER HEAD AND PER LOOM,
1906.
Men.
Women.
Average earnings—
Number of looms tended.
Number.
Average earnings—
Number.
Per head. Per loom.
Three looms............................................
Four looms..............................................
Six looms................................................
1,475
12,253
1,891
$4.74
6.06
7.99
$1.58
1.52
1.34
Per head. Per loom.
16,121
26,057
168
$4.30
5.70
7.44
$1.44
1.42
1.24
Practically all weavers are paid on a piece basis. When engaged
on similar work, men and women are paid at exactly the same piece
rates. On the average, however, women tend fewer looms than men,
and, as shown by the.above table, their earnings per loom are slightly
lower than those o f men. The lower earnings o f women are due to
the greater proportion engaged on narrow looms at a lower rate, the
greater dependence for assistance upon the mechanic, and to the more
general employment o f helpers.
The full-time earnings o f men and women weavers in the different
districts are given in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, OF
MEN AND WOMEN WEAVERS IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY, BY DISTRICTS.
Average earnings ofMen.
District.
Women.
3-loom
3-loom
4-loom 6-loom
4-loom
All
All
weavers. weavers. weavers. weavers. weavers. weavers. weavers.
Lancashire and Cheshire:
Ashton-under-Lyne...
Oldham....................
Bolton......................
Leigh........................
Manchester...............
Stockport.................
Preston.....................
Blackburn................
Accrington...............
Burnley....................
Bacup.......................
Rochdale..................
All Lancashire and Cheshire.
Yorkshire...........................
United Kingdom.................
$4.46
$5.80
$5.33
4.10
6.04
6.08
6.53
4.66
4.62
4.22
4.91
4.44
5.05
5.66
6.04
6.18
5.96
6.31
5.92
5.68
4.74
6.10
*4.'74
5.50
6.06
$7.81
8.15
7.34
7.52
8.01
7.81
7.99
$5.23
5.17
5.56
4.87
4.87
5.39
5.62
5.45
6.71
5.84
5.68
$4.36
4.04
4.44
3.83
3.73
4.50
4.58
4.54
4.48
4.85
4.22
4.14
6.16
5.64
6.14
4.32
4.60
4.30
5.72
5.47
5.70
5.58
5.78
6.02
6.02
5.68
6.14
5.60
5.50
$4.40
4.36
4.56
4.28
3.89
5.11
4.97
5.72
5.09
6.06
4.95
4.79
5.07
4.91.
5.01
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH TEXTILE INDUSTRIES.
95
In the following table a comparison is made o f the average wages
o f men and women working full time in certain important occupa
tions in 1886 and 1906:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN THE PRINCIPAL
OCCUPATIONS OF THE COTTON INDUSTRY IN ONE WEEK, 1886 AND 1906.
Sex and occupation.
Average
earnings in
one week
in—
Per
cent
of increase.
Sex and occupation.
1886. 1906.
Men:
Grinders..........................
Spinners—
Below 80 counts.........
Above 80 counts........
Big piecers......................
Drawers in......................
Twisters in......................
Weavers—
3 looms......................
4 looms......................
6 looms......................
Per
cent
of in
crease.
1886. 1906.
$4.91 $7.12
45
9.85
11.19
4.32
7.52
6.23
32
30
25
23
23
4.01 4.74
5.07 6.06
6.47 7.99
18
20
24
7.46
8.64
3.45
6.10
5.05
Average
earnings in
one week
in—
Women:
Frame tenters................ $3.71
Ring or throstle spinners. 2.92
Reefers.......................... 3.02
Winders........................ 3.02
Beam warpers................ 4.42
Weavers—
3 looms.................... 3.87
4 looms.................... 4.85
6 looms.................... 6.39
$4.74
3.65
3.35
3.73
5.23
28
25
11
23
18
4.30
5.70
7.44
11
18
17
T H E W OOLEN AN D W O R STE D IN D U STR Y .
The woolen and worsted industry is, next to the cotton industry,
the most important o f those considered in this report. The average
full-time earnings in the last week o f September, 1906, o f operatives
are shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES OF EACH CLASS IN THE
WOOLEN AND WORSTED INDUSTRY IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906,
BY DISTRICTS.
Average earnings of—
Lads and boys.
District.
Men.
Huddersfield................................................
Leeds..........................................................
Dewsbury and Batley— .............................
Halifax........................................................
Bradford......................................................
Keighley.....................................................
Rest of West Riding of Yorkshire.................
$6.65
7.10
6.61
6.33
6.61
6.37
6.57
Full
Half
timers. timers.
$2.72
2.53
2.70
2.33
2.37
2.49
2.35
Girls.
Women.
$0.77
.87
.81
.77
.91
.93
.83
$4.16
3.35
3.65
3.00
3.06
3.28
3.14
All
work
Full
Half people.
timers. timers.
$2.35
2.19
2.41
2.19
2.29
2.47
1.89
$0.79
.89
.73
.79
.89
.99
.85
$4.89
3.87
4.36
3.16
3.39
3.41
3.83
AH Yorkshire......................................
6.63
2.49
✓ 89
3.37
2.31
.89
3.83
West of England..........................................
Roxburgh, Selkirk, and Peebles...................
Rest of Scotland...........................................
Rest of United Kingdom..............................
5.29
6.71
5.82
6.04
2.27
2.56
2.17
2.35
.85
.73
.77
2.74
4.50
2.84
3.14
2.07
2.07
1.78
1.89
.77
.77
3.39
4.79
3.41
3.63
United Kingdom.................................
6.53
2.47
.89
3.37
2.25
.89
3.83
96
BULLETIN OE TH E BUREAU OE LABOR,
In the following table is shown the percentage o f the number o f
men in several occupations whose earnings fell within the specified
limits in the last week o f September, 1906:
PER CENT OF MEN IN SEVERAL OCCUPATIONS OP THE WOOLEN AND WORSTED
INDUSTRY WHOSE EARNINGS IN THE LAST WEEK IN SEPTEMBER, 1906, WERE
WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE GROUPS.
Per cent of men working full
time whose earnings were—
Occupation.
$4.87
Under and
$4.87 under
$7.30.
$7.30
and
under
$9.73.
$9.73
and
over.
Teazers and williers...........................................................................
Scribblers or fettiers...........................................................................
Woolen weavers................................................................................
18.3
12.3
17.1
81.4
87.3
57.4
0.3
.4
23.6
1.9
All men....................................................................................
15.2
52.2
26.2
6.4
The average weekly earnings o f women weavers working full time
are shown in the following table:
AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS OP WOMEN WEAVERS IN THE WOOLEN AND
WORSTED INDUSTRY WORKING PULL TIME IN POUR WEEKS IN SEPTEMBEROCTOBER, 1906, BY DISTRICTS.
Average weekly earnings of—
District.
Women woolen Women worsted
weavers.
weavers.
All
women
weav
1 loom. 2 looms. 1 loom. 2 looms. ers.
Huddersfield.........................................................................
Leeds...................................................................................
Dewsbury and Batley...........................................................
TTflllfax.................................................................................
Bradford............................................................................
Keighley..... .........................................................................
Roxburgh, Selkirk, and Peebles............................................
$4.74
3.41
3.73
3.63
All districts (including those not specified)....................
3.85
$4.85
4.20
$3.61
3.43
3.26
3.39
$3.47
3.37
3.53
3.73
4.04
3.41
4.89
$4.79
3.53
3.73
3.51
3.37
3.79
4 89
3.71
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH TEXTILE INDUSTRIES.
97
In the following table the percentage of women whose earnings in
the last week o f September, 1906, fell in each specified class is shown
for all women in the woolen and worsted industry and for those in
each o f the principal occupations:
PER CENT OF WOMEN IN SEVERAL OCCUPATIONS OF THE WOOLEN AND
WORSTED INDUSTRY WHOSE EARNINGS IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER,
1906, WERE WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE GROUPS.
Per cent of women working full time
whose earnings were—
Kind of
work.
Occupation.
Woolen weavers.....................................................
Worsted weavers (1 loom)......................................
Worsted weavers (2 looms)....................................
Scribblers’ feeders and condenser minders................
Combers...
. ..
........................................
Drawers.................................................................
Worsted spinners....................................................
■ pnnTY|firfj
Piece__
Time__
. . .do___
.. .do___
...do___
/..d o ....
\Piece__
Winders................................................................. /Time__
\Piece__
Burlers and knotters............................................... /Time__
\ Piece__
Menders and fine drawers.......................................
All women....................................................
Under
$2.43.
$2.43
and
under
$3.65.
$3.65
and
under
$4.80.
$4.80
and over.
6.7
4.9
8.8
12.3
3.9
6.6
46.9
10.9
5.9
17.0
13.5
5.7
12.1
2.4
40.8
34.4
56.2
70.7
86.3
93.2
53.1
89.0
54.8
78.6
53.4
66.0
43.2
21.6
.1
31.5
4.0
23.5
27.7
34.9
46.2
7.8
.4
9.6
.6
9.8
29.8
10.7
55.6
24.7
9.0
35.0
39.4
31.3
16.9
9.8
.2
17.5
21.3
3.7
.1
For the purpose of comparing the earnings in 1906 with those in
1886 the following table is given, showing the per cent o f increase
in the average full-time earnings of men and women in the leading
occupations:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN THE PRINCIPAL
OCCUPATIONS OF THE WOOLEN AND WORSTED INDUSTRY IN ONE WEEK,
1886 AND 1906.
Average
earnings in
Per
one week
cent
in—
Sex and occupation. ofKind
work.
of in-
Average
earnings in
Per
one week
cent
in—
Sex and occupation. ofKind
work.
of increase.
1886. 1906.
1886. 1906.
Men:
$6.33 $7.22
Wool sorters........ /Time..
\Piece.. 6.77 7.71
Teazers and willi- Time.. 4.81 5.33
14
14
5.45
14
5.43
6.71
5.35
5.96
5.39
6.20
5.11
426
5.98
7.93
5.80
7.00
5.96
6.59
6.25
12
10
22
2.74
3.08
13
Scribblers or fet- ...d o ..
tlers.
Combers............... ...d o ..
. .do..
Wool spinners...... PieceWarpers............... Time..
PieceBeamers............... Time..
Piece..
Woolen weavers... ...d o ..
Women:
Scribbler’s feeders Time..
and condenser
minders.
!
481
a 81
11
18
8
17
11
6
Women—concluded.
Combers............. Time .
Finishers............ ..d o ..
/..do ..
Drawers.............. \Piece..
Worsted spinners. Time..
o ..
Doublers............. /..d
\Piece/Time..
Winders.............. \Piece..
Weavers—
Woolen......... ...d o..
Worsted....... ..do ..
Burlersandknot- Time..
iPiece..
ters.
Menders and fine rTime..
drawers.
[Piece..
$2.58
2.31
2.43
2.90
2.01
2.35
2.98
2.35
2.88
$3.00
2.66
2.68
a 41
2.29
2.66
a 53
2.66
a35
17
15
10
17
14
a 49
a 31
2.72
2.88
a 24
a 47
a 83
a 59
3.20
a 5i
a 63
10
9
430
13
18
13
16
18
22
12
24
98
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
T H E LIN EN IN D U STE Y .
O f the 95,950 factory and workshop operatives engaged in tne
linen industry in the United Kingdom in 1904, the latest year for
which the numbers are available, 62,194 were employed in Ireland,
27,523 in Scotland, and the remaining 6,233 in England and Wales.
The respective average earnings for men, lads and boys, women,
girls, and all work people returned as working full time in the
different districts are shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES OF EACH CLASS IN THE
LINEN INDUSTRY IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, BY DISTRICTS.
Average earnings of—
Lads and boy§.
District.
Men.
Half
Full
timers. timers.
Girls.
Wom
en.
All
work
Full
Half people.
timers. timers.
Belfast.........................................................
Rest of Ireland.............................................
Fifeshire.......................................................
Forfarshire...................................................
Rest of Scotland...........................................
England.......................................................
S6.37
4.54
6.02
5.27
5.96
5.54
S2.17
1.83
2.11
2.17
2.17
2.05
$0.89
.71
.85
.97
1.22
$2.64
2.37
2.90
2.80
2.86
2.64
$1.93
1.62
1.68
1.87
2.03
1.60
$0.87
.71
.91
.85
.85
$2.86
2.68
3.26
United Kingdom.................................
5.43
2.05
.81
2.62
1.78
.83
2.92
aoo
3.35
2.96
The various women’s occupations account for over 58 per cent o f
the total number returned. Preparers, spinners, reelers, winders, and
weavers constitute nearly 88 per cent o f the total number o f women
returned. The per cent o f the number engaged at each occupation
whose full-time earnings fell within certain specified limits are shown
in the following table:
PER CENT OF WOMEN IN SEVERAL OCCUPATIONS OF THE LINEN INDUSTRY
WHOSE EARNINGS IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, WERE WITHIN
CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE GROUPS.
Per cent of women working full time
whose earnings were—
Occupation.
Kind of
work.
Spinners................................................................
Reelers..................................................................
Winders.................................................................
Weavers (2-loom)...................................................
Time__
Piece__
...do......
...do......
All women....................................................
$2.43
$3.65
Under and
$4.80
under and under and
$2.43.
over.
$3.65.
$4.80.
39.7
37.9
36.2
33.3
60.1
57.6
51.2
52.0
0.2
4.4
11.8
13.6
0.1
.8
1.1
41.7
49.1
8.5
.7
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH TEXTILE INDUSTRIES.
99
The changes which have taken place in the earnings in the prin
cipal occupations in the city o f Belfast during the period from 1886
to 1906 are shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN THE PRINCIPAL
OCCUPATIONS OF THE LINEN INDUSTRY IN ONE WEEK, 1886 AND 1906.
Average earnings in
one week in—
Per cent
of in
crease.
1886.
1906.
Sex and occupation.
Men:
R o u g h e rs......................................................................................................................................
Sorters............................................................................................
Women:
Drawers and back minders..............................................................
Spinners..........................................................................................
Keelers............................................................................................
Winders..........................................................................................
Weavers..........................................................................................
$4.50
5.62
$5.27
6.39
17
14
1.66
2.05
2.17
2.25
2.29
2.27
2.53
2.74
2.74
2.80
37
24
26
22
22
T H E JU TE IN D U STR Y .
The jute industry is localized in the neighborhood o f Dundee, and
in 1904 gave employment to 41,258 persons. The average full-time
earnings o f men and women in the principal trades and the changes
since 1886 are indicated in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN THE PRINCIPAL
OCCUPATIONS OF THE JUTE INDUSTRY IN ONE WEEK, 1886 AND 1906.
Sex and occupation.
Average
earnings in
Per
one week
cent
in—
of in
crease.
1886. 1906.
Men:
Foremen and assistant fore
men (time work)............ $5.52
Batchers........................... 3.39
Calendrers......................... 4.16
Mechanics......................... 6.00
$6.49
3.99
4.85
7.52
18
18
17
25
Sex and occupation.
Average
earnings in
one week
in—
Per
cent
of in
crease.
1886. 1906.
Women:
Carders...........................
Drawers..........................
Rovers............................
Feeders...........................
Spinners.........................
Keelers............................
Winders..........................
Warpers..........................
Weavers:
1 loom.......................
2 looms......................
$2.60
2.76
2.88
2.86
2.98
3.63
3.53
3.93
38
48
39
52
48
50
38
34
2.31 3.39
3.08 3.65
46
18
$1.89
1.87
2.07
1.89
2.01
2.41
2.56
2.94
100
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
T H E S IL K IN D U STR Y .
According to the factory and workshop returns the number of per
sons employed in the silk industry in 1904 was 30,184. O f this num
ber 8,743 were males and 21,441 were females, including 685 halftimers, o f whom 205 were boys and 480 were girls.
The average earnings o f the employees who worked full time in
the last week o f September, 1906, are shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES OF EACH CLASS IN THE SILK
INDUSTRY, IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, BY DISTRICTS.
Average earnings of—
Lads and boys.
District.
Men.
Full
Half
timers. timers.
Girls.
Women.
All
work
Full
Half people.
timers. timers.
$1.64
1.97
1.54
1.54
$0.63
.71
.51
$2.68
3.10
2.56
2.72
.59
$3.20
3.83
2.98
2.51
.73
2.72
1.64
.65
3.20
Congleton, Leek, and Macclesfield.................
Lancashire and Yorkshire.............................
Eastern counties of England.........................
Rest of United Kingdom..............................
$5.94
6.61
6.59
6.20
$2.05
2.62
1.93
1.60
$0.73
.73
United Kingdom.................................
6.25
2.17
O f the men engaged in this industry who worked full time in the
last week o f September, 1906, 19.4 per cent earned less than $4.87, 54
per cent earned $4.87 and less than $7.30, 23 per cent earned $7.30 and
less than $9.73, while 3.6 per cent earned $9.73 and over.
In the following table is shown the percentage o f the number o f
women in the two leading occupations whose earnings fell within the
specified groups:
PER CENT OF WOMEN SILK WINDERS AND WEAVERS WHOSE EARNINGS IN THE
LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, WERE WITHIN CERTAIN SPECIFIED WAGE
GROUPS.
Per cent of women working full time
whose earnings were—
Occupation.
$3.65
Under and$2.43
$4.80
under and under and
$2.43.
over.
$4.80.
$3.65.
Winders (thrown silk)............................................................
Weavers (power loom)..................................................... .....
86.3
26.4
13.7
51.2
18.4
4.0
All women....................................................................
38.9
47.8
11.4
1.9
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH TEXTILE INDUSTRIES.
101
The average full-time earnings in each o f the principal occupa
tions o f both sexes in the Congleton, Leek, and Macclesfield, and
Lancashire and Yorkshire districts and the changes since 1886 are
given in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF MEN AND WOMEN IN THE PRINCIPAL
OCCUPATIONS OF THE SILK INDUSTRY IN ONE WEEK, 1886 AND 1906.
Average earnings
in one week in— Per cent
of
increase.
1886.
1906.
Sex and occupation.
Men:
Throwsters.....................................................................................
Pickers...........................................................................................
Weavers .......................................................................................
Women:
Winders (thrown silk).....................................................................
Cleaners (thrown silk).....................................................................
Doublers (thrown silk)....................................................................
Preparers and carders......................................................................
Weavers (piecework).......................................................................
$4.28
3.63
4.85
$4.60
4.89
5.70
8
35
18
1.95
1.83
2.19
2.51
3.16
2.17
2.11
2.47
2.74
3.53
11
16
13
9
12
T H E H O S IE R Y IN D U STRY .
This industry is strongly localized. About 30,000 work people
out o f the 41,212 reported by the factory and workshop returns were
employed in Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, and the adjacent parts
o f Derbyshire. O f the total number employed in 1904, 10,336 were
males and 30,876 were females. The number o f half timers was only
78, o f which number 62 were girls.
The average earnings of the 18,855 operatives who worked full
time in the last week o f September, 1906, are shown in the follow
ing table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES OF EACH CLASS IN THE
HOSIERY INDUSTRY, IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, BY DISTRICTS.
Average earnings of—
Lads and boys.
District.
Men.
Full
Half
timers. timers.
Girls.
Women.
All
work
Half people.
Full
timers. timers.
Leicester................:....................................
Rest of Leicestershire...................................
Nottingham.................................................
Notts and Derbyshire (excluding Nottingham)
Scotland......................................................
Rest of United Kingdom..............................
$7.69
7.18
8.42
8.27
6.96
6.93
$2.35
2.21
2.47
2.45
2.13
1.99
$3.93
3.43
3.39
2.78
3.57
2.82
$2.05
2.09
1.62
1.58
1.78
1.64
$0.65
$4.14
4.01
4.24
3.51
3.65
2.72
United Kingdom.................................
7.64
2.29
3.47
1.89
.65
3.87
102
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Since the previous inquiry in 1886 the number of employees in this
industry has greatly increased, women having increased m numbers
in greater proportion than men, and girls in greater proportion than
women.
The percentage numbers o f men, lads and boys, women, and girls
employed in 1886 and in 1906 were as follow s:
PER CENT OF EMPLOYEES OF EACH CLASS IN THE HOSIERY INDUSTRY IN 1886
AND IN 1906.
Sex.
1886.
1906.
Lads and boys........................................................ .............................................
Women................................................................................................................
Girls.....................................................................................................................
32.9
4.9
55.3
6.9
19.9
4.5
57.0
18.6
Total...........................................................................................................
100.0
100.0
The respective average full-time earnings o f all males, all females,
and o f all work people, counting two half timers as one full timer,
were as follows:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF WORK PEOPLE IN THE HOSIERY INDUSTRY,
IN ONE WEEK, 1886 AND 1906, BY SEX.
Average earnings
in one week in—
Sex.
1886.
Males....................................................................................................
Females................................................................................................
Total..............................................................................
1906.
Per cent
of increase(+)
or de
crease
<-).
$5.76
3.16
$6.55
3.06
+14
- 3
4.14
3.87
- 6
T H E L A C E IN D U STR Y .
Lace making as a factory industry is confined mainly to one dis
trict in England, viz, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire, and to one
in Scotland, viz, Ayrshire. In Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire,
20,625 work people were employed and in Ayrshire, 8,220, in 1904,
as shown by the factory and workshop returns. O f the 26,744
employees reported in that year, 12,787 were males and 18,957 were
females. The number of half timers was 100, o f which number 46
were boys and 54 were girls.
EARNINGS AND HOURS IN BRITISH TEXTILE INDUSTRIES.
103
The average full-time earnings of the men, lads and boys, women,
and girls who worked full time in the last week o f September, 1906,
are shown in the following table:
AVERAGE FULL-TIME EARNINGS OF OPERATIVES OF EACH CLASS IN THE LACE
INDUSTRY IN THE LAST WEEK OF SEPTEMBER, 1906, BY DISTRICTS.
Average earnings of—
District.
Men.
Lads and Women. Girls.(«) All work
boys.(o)
people.
Nottingham...........................................................
Rest of Nottinghamshire, Derby, and North Stafford
shire ...................................................................
Rest of England.....................................................
Scotland................................................................
$9.53
$3.20
$3.63
$1.66
$5.58
10.87
6.49
6.89
3.22
1.72
3.02
3.00
2.92
3.22
1.83
1.48
1.83
5.86
3.45
4.44
United Kingdom...........................................
9.61
3.08
3.26
1.72
5.43
• Full tim ers; the number of half timers was insignificant.
RECENT REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR STATISTICS.
C A L IFO R N IA .
Thirteenth Biennial R eport o f the Bureau o f Labor Statistics o f
the State o f California,, 1907-1908 . J. D. Mackenzie, Commis
sioner.
381 pp.
The following are the subjects considered in this report: Industrial
statistics, covering the subjects o f wages in stores and factories,
transportation and communication, factory inspection, farm labor,
employment agencies, and labor organizations, 174 pages; child
labor, 14 pages; oriental statistics, which relate to the Chinese and
Japanese in the State, 22 pages; social statistics, 100 pages; and
labor laws, 52 pages.
H ours and W ages.—For 28 industries comprised under stores and
factories and for the transportation, telegraph, and telephone indus
tries tables are presented showing number o f establishments and o f
employees, classified daily hours of labor with number o f employees
in each class, and classified wages with number o f employees in each
class.
F actory I nspection.— One o f the duties o f the bureau is to inspect
the sanitary condition o f places where labor is employed. In con
ducting this inspection data were also obtained relating to the
number and sex o f adults and the number, age, and sex of minors
employed in the establishments inspected. Separate tables are given
showing the results of inspections o f stores and factories in each o f
the larger cities and in miscellaneous towns.
F arm L abor.—Under this title the social, sanitary, and economic
conditions surrounding white and oriental farm labor in different
sections o f the State are set forth. Tables are given showing the
wages paid per day and per month, with and without board, for both
temporary and permanent farm help, and for employees on ranches,
wages per day and per month, with board.
E mployment A gencies.—The law relating to employment agencies
makes it the duty o f the state commissioner o f labor to exercise cer
tain jurisdiction over these institutions. From the records o f the
more important agencies throughout the State tables have been
compiled showing, for the month o f April, 1908, the number o f per
sons for whom employment was secured at each occupation, the
wages received, and the amount o f fees paid.
104
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- CALIFORNIA.
105
Data for San Francisco were secured covering the fiscal year
1907-8. O f 26,731 cases in which positions were secured through
the agencies investigated, exclusive o f female and oriental agencies,
6,588, or 24.6 per cent, were given employment in San Francisco,
while 20,143, or 75.4 per cent, were sent to various localities outside
o f the city. The group general laborers was the largest, containing
8,149 persons, or 30.5 per cent; next were railroad laborers, with
5,558; and ranch hands, with 2,022.
L abor O rganizations .— Locality, membership, hours worked per
day, and rates o f wages received are shown for the various trades as
reported by the organizations for the year 1908. Comparative tables
are also shown for January, 1906, and January, 1907, for the organi
zations located in the cities of San Francisco and Oakland.
C hild L abor.— Under the law regulating the employment o f
children, 83 permits to work were issued to children, 12 and 13 years
o f age by the juvenile court o f San Francisco during the two years
ending June 30, 1908. During the same period, in the State as a
whole, 5,518 age and schooling certificates were issued to children
14 and 15 years o f age. O f this number but 360 were issued to
illiterate children.
C hinese and J apanese.—An estimate is given that on September
30, 1908, there were approximately 45,000 Japanese in the State,
who, it is stated, show the tendency to increase as a factor in all
lines o f labor throughout the State, especially in the larger centers
o f population. The Chinese population also seems to be gradually
leaving the agricultural fields and turning toward the cities and
towns. Tables are given showing the arrivals and departures o f
Orientals at the port o f San Francisco and the hours o f labor o f and
wages paid to Chinese and Japanese in the cities o f San Francisco
and Oakland and in the State as a whole by the Chinese, Japanese,
and white employers during the year ending June 30, 1908. The
results o f the inspection o f the Chinese and Japanese stores and
factories*in San Francisco and Oakland are also shown in tabular
form.
S ocial S tatistics.— Criminal statistics (misdemeanors, felonies,
and juvenile crimes) and statistics o f marriages and divorces for
the two years ending June 30,1908, are embraced in this presentation.
L abor L aw s and C ourt D ecisions.—This chapter reproduces the
factory and workshop law o f 1889 and the laws relating to labor as
amended at the 1907 session o f the state legislature, together with
decisions o f the supreme court upholding the validity o f the childlabor laws.
106
BULLETIN OF T H E BUREAU OF LABOR.
COLORADO.
Biennial Report o f the Bureau o f Labor Statistics o f the State o f
Colorado, 1907-1908 . Axel Swanson, Deputy Commissioner.
249 pp.
Among the most important subjects presented in this report are
coal production, manufactures, railroad employees, labor organiza
tions, and free employment bureaus.
C oal P roduction.—The 180 mines in operation in the State during
1906 produced 10,308,420 tons o f coal and gave employment to 12,030
persons. There were 248 accidents, o f which 88 were fatal. The 183
mines in operation in 1907 gave employment to 12,900 persons and
produced 10,965,640 tons o f coal. There were 209 accidents, 99 of
them being fatal.
M anufactures .— Under this head a table is given which shows the
number o f establishments, number o f employees, and average wages
paid per day in the several manufacturing industries.
R ailroad E mployees.— In this section tables are given showing for
each railroad the number o f employees at each occupation, the aggre
gate days employed during 1907, aggregate wages paid, hours worked
per day, and number o f accidents. The 25,468 employees were paid
during the year $14,188,885.75 in wages. Injuries were received dur
ing the year by 805 employees, resulting fatally in the case of 33.
L abor O rganizations .— From the returns received to inquiries ad
dressed to each o f the labor organizations in the State there have been
compiled, for 122 organizations that reported, figures relating to the
membership, wages per day, hours worked per day, and months
worked per year. The membership of the organizations reporting
numbers approximately 15,000. The hours worked per day are re
ported as 8 by 33 unions, as 9 by 15 unions, as 12 by 5 unions, as 13
by 1 union, as 7 by 3 unions, and as 5 by 3 unions.
F ree E mployment B ureaus .— By virtue o f an act passed by the
state legislature in April, 1907, free employment offices were estab
lished in the cities o f Denver, Pueblo, and Colorado Springs. In
the first 16 months of their operation positions were secured for 9,032
persons, 2,485 o f whom were females.
CONNECTICUT.
Tw enty-third R eport o f the Bureau o f Labor Statistics, for the two
years ended Novem ber 30 , 1908 . William H. Scoville, Commis
sioner.
400 pp.
The subjects o f inquiry presented in this report are as follows:
New factory construction, 72 pages; effects o f industrial depression,
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- CONNECTICUT.
107
40 pages; free public employment bureaus, 16 pages; directory of
manufacturers, 66 pages; proceedings o f child labor conference, 44
pages; strikes and lockouts, 37 pages; proposed legislation on em
ployers’ liability, 21 pages; directory o f labor organizations, 22
pages; tenement houses, 14 pages; and proposed legislation on sub
jects relating to labor, 52 pages.
N ew F actory C onstruction.—A list o f buildings and additions
erected during the two years ending July 1, 1908, to be used for
manufacturing purposes, is given under this caption. Location,
material, dimensions, and cost o f construction are set forth for each
new structure. In 59 towns o f the State 557 new buildings were
erected, having a floor space o f 5,316,623 square feet and costing
$6,289,005.
E ffects of the I ndustrial D epression.— In the 808 establish
ments reporting, the average hours o f work per week decreased from
57.1 in 1907 to 51.6 in 1908, or 9.6 per cent; the number o f persons
employed decreased from 155,587 to 141,624, or 9.0 per cent; the
amount paid in wages decreased from $74,933,188 to $67,095,368, or
10.4 per cent, and the gross value o f product decreased from $303,417,727 to $247,561,588, or 18.4 per cent.
F ree P ublic E mployment B ureaus.—The operations for the year
ending November 30, 1908, o f the five free public employment
bureaus established on July 1, 1901, are set forth in this chapter.
Detailed statements are likewise given showing by sex the number
and kind o f situations secured. A summary of the results for the
year covered is given in the following table for the five cities in which
the bureaus are located:
o p e r a t i o n s o f f r e e p u b l ic e m p l o y m e n t b u r e a u s f o r t h e y e a r e n d i n g
NOVEMBER 30, 1908.
Applications for
situations.
Applications for
help.
Positions secured.
Males.
Males.
Males.
Location.
Females.
Females.
Females.
Hartford.................................................
Bridgeport..............................................
New Haven.............................................
Waterbury..............................................
Norwich.................................................
1,797
703
1,322
850
266
2,514
2,116
1,450
1,603
268
967
520
626
559
103
1,633
1,997
1,167
1,314
301
870
478
595
524
98
1,374
1,753
993
1,178
238
Total..............................................
4,938
7,951
2,775
6,412
2,565
5,536
During the 89 months from the date of the establishment o f the
bureaus there were 94,127 applications for situations, 40,884 by males
and 53,243 by females. Employers made application for 24,967 male
and 51,236 female workers, a total o f 76,203 persons. As a result o f
the operations o f the bureaus, 62,363 positions were secured, 22,780
by males and 39,583 by females.
4764—No. 83—09-----8
108
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
In 1908 there were 51 private employment agencies, located in 14
cities, which were lawfully authorized to transact business.
C hild L abor Conference.— In this section the speeches made at
a conference o f officials, manufacturers, labor leaders, and educators
held in Hartford, December 4, 1908, are reproduced in full. It was
the consensus o f opinion that the minimum age for children to begin
work in the factories should be set at 16 years.
S trikes and L ockouts.— Under this head are given brief accounts
o f the labor troubles o f the State for the year ending October 31,
1908, and a tabulated statement of 33 disputes— 32 strikes and 1
lockout— showing the date, class o f labor, name o f employer, loca
tion, number o f employees involved, duration, causes, and results.
The number o f employees involved in these disputes was 3,460, with a
reported loss o f time o f 34,194 working days and o f wages to the esti
mated amount o f $55,052. These disputes took place in 22 towns o f
the State, and 25 occupations were represented. The assigned cause or
object in 12 cases related to systems o f management, in 6 cases to pro
posed reduction o f wages, and in 5 cases demand was made for in
crease o f wages. In 15 disputes the workmen were successful and
in 14 unsuccessful, 1 dispute was compromised, and 3 disputes were
amicably adjusted.
E mployers’ L iability .—This section contains the report and recom
mendations o f a committee appointed by the governor, by direction
o f the general assembly, for the purpose o f making examination con
cerning and recommending legislation for the regulation of the lia
bility o f employers for accidents to employees. The proposed law
resulting from the recommendations o f the committee is given in full.
T enement H ouses.— In this chapter of the report the bureau pre
sents a brief compilation made from the returns filed by the building
inspectors o f the various cities in which the tenement-house act is
operative. During 1907, in the 6 cities in which the law is operative,
permits were granted for the erection o f 471 buildings o f the class
included within the provisions o f the law, and in 1908 permits were
issued for 287. These were distributed as follows: Hartford, 186;
New Haven, 95; Bridgeport, 227; Waterbury, 157; New Britain, 85;
and Meriden, 8.
IN D IA N A .
T w elfth Biennial Report o f the Bureau o f Statistics fo r 1907 and
1908 . Mary A. Stubbs Moore, Chief of Bureau. 896 pp.
The subjects presented in this report are as follows: Social sta
tistics, 147 pages; economic statistics, 273 pages; agricultural sta
tistics, 184 pages; industrial statistics, 267 pages.
I ndustrial S tatistics.— The subjects considered in this division
o f the report relate to labor organizations and to electric railroads;
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- INDIANA.
109
also there is included an industrial directory o f the cities and towns
o f the State.
L abor O rganizations .—There were 10 international organizations
in 1908 with headquarters in Indiana, 3 o f which were not affiliated
with the American Federation o f Labor. In 1908 there were 1,043
local trade unions in the State, belonging to 77 national and inter
national organizations. The reported membership o f these local
unions was 66,152.
E lectric R ailroads.— In 1907, 31 electric-railroad systems in the
State reported statistics regarding their operation. Including offi
cers and clerks, they employed 4,095 persons in 1906 and 5,654 in
1907, to whom were paid in salaries and wages $2,524,475 in 1906
and $3,287,104 in 1907. In 1907 the average daily wages o f motormen were $1.92; o f conductors, $1.84; and o f linemen, $2.38. As the
result o f accidents there were 68 killed and 3,243 injured. In 1906
damages were paid to the amount o f $166,928 for accidents, and in
1907 to the amount o f $217,722.
Sixth Biennial Report o f the Indiana Labor Commission for 1907
and 1908 . C. F. Woerner and G. W. Purcell, Commissioners,
1 2 2
p p .
This volume contains the report o f a commission appointed by the
governor o f the State for the purpose o f mediation and arbitration
of labor disputes. Accounts are given of the circumstances leading
up to 21 strikes occurring during the years 1907 and 1908, and o f the
conduct and settlement of the strikes.
IO W A.
Thirteenth Biennial Report of the Bureau o f Labor Statistics for
the State o f Iow a for the biennial period , 1906-1907 . Edward D.
Brigham, Commissioner.
363 pp.
In this report the following subjects are presented: Factory in
spection, 62 pages; graded wages and salaries, 98 pages; new indus
tries, 20 pages; trade unions, 31 pages; wage-earners, 43 pages;
railroad employees, 26 pages; employers’ statistical report, 59 pages;
the canning industry, 10 pages; crop statistics, 11 pages.
G raded W ages and S alaries.—This is a compilation, embracing
590 establishments in 148 lines o f business, showing by occupation
and sex the maximum, medium, and minimum wages paid per hour,
day, week, month, or year in 69 counties of the State. The number
o f hours worked per day and per week and the wage changes for the
year 1907 are also given.
110
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
N ew I ndustries.— The subject-matter o f this inquiry consists o f
information from 38 counties o f the State, and is presented in two
parts. The first part shows, by counties, the number and kind o f
manufacturing industries and the business houses (wholesale and
retail) established since 1906. The second part shows, by counties,
the number and kind o f new industries, manufacturing and mercan
tile, desired in each locality, together with the natural or acquired
advantages and the inducements offered.
T rade U nions .— In this section is presented a compilation o f re
turns made by 431 o f the 662 local unions in the State. Tables are
given showing for each local union the location, year o f organization,
membership, dues paid, amount expended for sick and funeral ben
efits, the extent to which demands are made for the employment o f
union men only, the hours worked per day, the minimum and maxi
mum wages received, with changes since 1905, and the number o f
strikes occurring during the same period. The combined member
ship o f the unions reporting was 30,593. The average increase o f
minimum wages for the State was 8.81 per cent and the average
increase o f maximum wages was 7.64 per cent.
W age-E arners.— Data furnished by 404 individual wage-earners
o f the State engaged in 50 occupations relating to hours of labor per
day, wages, annual earnings, savings, conditions o f employment,
amount o f insurance carried, ownership o f home, changes in hours
and wages, etc., are presented in this chapter. The total wages
earned during 1907 by 261 male wage-earners who reported was
$208,824, or an average o f $800.09 for each. The earnings o f 15
female wage-earners reporting aggregated $5,256, or an average o f
$350.40 for each. Savings for the year amounted to $27,715 by the
125 males and to $455 by the 7 females reporting, or an average o f
$221.72 for the males and $15.68 for the females. Fire insurance
was carried on their homes by 199 males to the extent o f $204,592, or
an average o f $1,028.10 for each. Home owners numbered 89, while
64 reported the ownership o f an equity in their homes amounting
to 44.5 per cent o f the valuation.
R ailroad E mployees.—This is an investigation o f the conditions
surrounding the employment o f railroad men in the transportation
branch o f the service, and a record o f the accidents to railroad em
ployees within the State during the years 1906 and 1907, and o f
accidents to employees, passengers, and others during the period
1878 to 1907. Returns from the railroad employees show that the
average run per month was 3,397 miles for 17 conductors on 3
different systems, 2,978 miles for 35 engineers on 10 different systems,
3,098 miles for 9 firemen on 5 different systems, and 3,370 miles for
10 trainmen on 3 different systems. For conductors the average
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- 10 WA.
I ll
monthly earnings reported for 1907 was $116.77; for engineers,
$125.90; for firemen, $84.47; and for trainmen, $71.67.
E mployers’ S tatistical R eport.— These returns, presented in
two tables, cover the year 1907, and were furnished by employers in
1,100 industrial establishments, in 87 counties o f the State, in which
49,037 persons were employed, 41,135 being wage-workers and 7,902
salaried employees.
The first table, arranged by counties, gives in detail character of
industry, number o f establishments reporting, number o f employees
(men, women, and children), hours worked per day, days in opera
tion during the year, increases and decreases in wages, and amount
paid in wages during the year to each class o f wage-workers (men,
women, and children). In addition there is given the amount paid
in salaries during the year to men and women, together with the
number employed o f each sex.
The second table summarizes, by counties, the data presented in the
first table. It shows that the 41,135 persons employed as wage
workers in the 1,100 establishments earned during 1907 the sum of
$22,180,543. O f the total, 32,690 men earned $19,867,555; 7,405
women earned $2,139,193; and 1,040 children under 16 years o f age
earned $173,795. The average annual earnings o f the men were
$607.76; o f the women, $288.88, and o f the children under 16 years
o f age, $167.11. To the 7,902 salaried employees the sum o f $7,842,229 was paid, $7,205,078 to 6,542 men and $637,151 to 1,360 women.
The average annual salary received by the men was $1,101.36 and by
the women $468.49. The average number o f persons employed in
each o f the 1,100 establishments was 44.6, the average hours worked
per day 9.8, and the average number o f days per year 298.
Ca n n in g I ndustry.— The table relating to this industry is ar
ranged by counties, and shows for the year 1907 the number o f plants
reporting, time in operation, number o f men, women, and children
employed, hours worked per day, and amount paid in wages during
the year to each class o f wage-workers; also the number o f men and
women employed on salary, together with the total amount paid each
class during the year.
M ONTANA.
Tenth Report o f the Bureau o f Agriculture, Labor, and Industry , o f
the State o f Montana for the year ending Novem ber SO, 1906 .
J. A. Ferguson, Commissioner.
478 pp.
Following are the general titles of the subjects treated in this
report: Montana (general review of conditions in the State), 6 pages;
lands, 56 pages; irrigation, 62 pages; agriculture, 76 pages; labor, 45
pages; the industries, 58 pages; miscellaneous, 165 pages.
BULLETIN* OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
112
L abor.— A variety o f subjects relating to labor are presented under
this general head.
The full text is given o f laws recently enacted relating to the lia
bility o f employers, and to restricting the employment o f children
under the age o f 16 years.
The following statement shows the transactions o f the free public
employment office located at Butte for the two years ending Novem
ber 30, 1906, and o f the office at Great Falls for the 14 months from
the time o f its establishment to November 30, 1906:
TRANSACTIONS OF THE MONTANA FREE PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT OFFICES, 1905 AND
1906.
Applications for work.
Office.
Male.
Butte......................................
Great Falls..............................
13,333
989
Female.
13,020
280
Total.
26,353
1,269
Appli
cations
for
help.
22,032
859
Positions secured.
Male.
9,890
370
Female.
8,634
111
Total.
18,524
481
Other subjects presented under the general title “ L abor” are
hours o f railway employees, decision o f the supreme court o f the
State on the 8-hour law, wage scales, spotted fever, and a direc
tory o f the labor organizations in the State.
I ndustries.— The amount, value, etc., o f production o f the various
mineral resources o f the State for 1904 and 1905 are extensively de
tailed under this general head; also the product o f breweries and
creameries, and the production o f lumber, and o f brick and other clay
products. During the year 1904 there were produced by the coal
mines in the State 1,435,917 tons o f coal, the mines paying $1,990,887
for labor. The coal production in 1905 was 1,759,560 tons, and the
amount paid for labor $2,080,763. In the production o f brick and
other clay products there was expended for labor $134,540 during
1904 and $163,841 during 1905.
RECENT FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.
BELGIUM .
Les Industries a Domicile en Belgique. Z ’Industrie du Meuble a
Malines. La Broderie sur Lm ge et VIndustrie du Col, du Corset,
de la Cravate et de la Chemise; VIndustrie du Vetement Confectionne pour Femmes a Bruxelles; VIndustrie de la Corderie.
Office du Travail, Ministere de l’Industrie et du Travail.
V III. 1907. 54,404,200 pp.
Volume
This volume is the eighth in a series presenting the results o f an
inquiry into the conditions of home workers in Belgian industries.
The first part reviews the furniture industry in the characteristic and
important center o f Malines; the second, the making o f embroidery
and women’s apparel throughout the Kingdom, with a special chapter
on the making o f women’s clothing at Brussels and one on home
workers in various forms o f the clothing industry in Berlin; while
the third part is taken up with an account o f rope making.
The investigation was undertaken with a view to the procuring o f
adequate data for the enactment o f legislation for the improvement
o f the condition of employment at home, and covers the physical,
social, moral, and economic conditions o f the various industries, show
ing the origin and development o f such industries, present methods
o f work, the use o f machinery, the sources of the labor supply,
methods of marketing, competition to be met, etc. The volume con
tains a number o f charts and illustrations.
Salaires et Duree du Travail dans les Industries des Metaux au mois
d'Octobre 1903. Office du Travail, Ministere de l’Industrie et du
Travail.
1907.
54, xiii, 1103 pp.
The report named above presents data as to wages and hours of
labor in the metal working industries o f Belgium, and is the third of
a series covering the principal industries o f that country, the pre
ceding reports having reference to coal mining and textile industries,
respectively. These three groups o f industries include almost onehalf the industrial population o f Belgium as shown by the census of
1896, there being 116,274 persons employed in coal mines, 82,768 in
textile industries, and 99,641 in metal working, out o f a total em
ployed population o f 671,596 persons. The present report deals with
a total o f 93,050 persons, or 93.4 per cent o f the number shown by the
113
114
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
census o f 1896. Detailed analyses o f the results o f the inquiry into
the metal-working industries are presented in the second volume, the
first setting forth the methods and general results o f the inquiry.
The data presented were secured by personal visits of agents o f the
labor office, and relate only to establishments employing ten or more
persons on October 31, 1903, or during the week or fortnight prior
thereto, except in four instances in which smaller establishments are
included for reasons not stated. Members of the proprietors’ fam
ilies and superintendents, overseers, engineers, watchmen, bookkeep
ers, and other office employees, as well as home workers, are excluded
from consideration, and the hours of labor reported are the hours of
actual employment customarily observed in the establishments, omit
ting parts o f days and extra time worked. Actual wages paid were
secured from the pay rolls, omitting pay for overtime, but including
premiums and gratuities received by the employees.
The two following tables show the number o f employees in different
classes o f industries by sex and age; also the number o f establishments
considered, arranged according to the number o f employees:
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES OF EACH SEX AND AGE GROUP IN SPECIFIED METAL
WORKING INDUSTRIES, OCTOBER, 1903.
Males.
Kind of industry.
Manufacture of common metals
other than iron...........................
Iron manufactures.........................
Machinery and metal products.......
Under 16 16 years
years of
and
age.
over.
Females.
Total.
Under
16
years
of age.
16
years
and
over.
Total.
Total
employ
ees.
114
964
2,081
591
8,311
19,870
32,310
8,473
8,425
20,834
34,391
9,064
6
31
18
73
421
339
30
79
452
357
30
8,504
21,286
34,748
9,094
3,233
2,597
2,387
53
2,114
895
3,942
3,499
3,195
2,466
62
2,444
913
4,270
14
146
10
41
548
360
55
694
370
Household utensils.................. .
Metal working...............................
Specialties.....................................
266
598
79
9
330
18
328
237
15
97
661
62
378
898
77
475
3,554
3,889
2,836
62
3,342
990
4,745
Total....................................
5,378
84,185
89,563
574
2,913
3,487
93,050
TTOntuiTifiS
...............................................
.Iron founding, locksmithing, stove
making.......................................
Bolts, nails, screws, chains, wire,etc.
Firearms.......................................
C u tle ry
.........................................................
O f the total number o f employees, only 3,487, or 3.7 per cent, are
females, o f whom 574 were under 16 years o f age. Females were
employed in every industrial group but one. The total number o f
employees under 16 years o f age was 5,952, or 6.4 per cent o f the whole
number. Two industries, classed in the table as iron manufactures
(including blast furnaces, the manufacture o f steel, iron, puddling,
and the manufacture o f iron and steel plates) and machinery and
metal products (including the construction o f engines, boilers, and
locomotives, shipbuilding, etc.), employ 56,034 persons, or 60.2 per
cent o f the total, no other industry having as many as 10,000 em
ployees.
115
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— BELGIUM,
NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS HAVING EACH CLASSIFIED NUMBER OF EM
PLOYEES IN SPECIFIED METAL-WORKING INDUSTRIES, OCTOBER, 1903.
Establishments having employees numberingTotal
Kind of industry.
.
Under
10
Manufacture of common
metals other than iron......
Iron manufactures............
Machinery and metal prod
ucts ...............................
Foundries.........................
Iron founding, locksmithing, stove making...........
Bolts, nails, screws, chains,
wire, etc.........................
Firearms...........................
Cutlery.............................
Household utensils............
Metal working..................
Specialties........................
100
10
to
19.
110
to
199.
200
to
300
to
400
to
500
to
1,000
to
1,999.
lishments.
2
2
28
62
148
98
405
227
28
93
13
18
50
44
4
28
24
118
1
6
11
43
Total.
333
370
155
106
33
16
34
1,083
O f the establishments under consideration, 337, or nearly onethird, have fewer than 20 employees, while the number having
from 20 to 49 employees includes rather more than another third.
Only 36 establishments have 500 employees and over.
Wages are presented for different classes o f employees, the next
table showing the number o f adult male employees receiving the
various rates o f wages indicated. The wages o f 49 workmen o f this
group were not obtainable, and they are therefore omitted from this
presentation. The table shows the wages o f males 16 years o f age
and over for a normal day.
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MALES 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OVER IN METAL
WORKING INDUSTRIES RECEIVING EACH SPECIFIED RATE OF WAGES, OCTO
BER, 1903.
Employees.
Rate of wages.
Number. Per cent.
Less than 1.50francs (10.290)...
1.50 to 1.74 francs (10.290 to
$0.336).................................
1.75 to 1.99 francs ($0,338 to
$0.384).................................
2.00 to 2.24 francs ($0,386 to
$0.432).................................
2.25 to 2.49 francs ($0,434 to
$0.481).................................
2.50 to 2.74 francs ($0,483 to
$0.529).................................
2.75 to 2.99 francs ($0,531 to
$0.577).................................
3.00 to 3.24 francs ($0,579 to
$0.625).................................
3.25 to 3.49 francs ($0,627 to
$0.674).................................
3.50 to 3.74 francs ($0,676 to
$0.722).................................
3.75 to 3.99 francs ($0,724 to
$0.770).................................
4.00 to 4.24 francs ($0,772 to
$0.818).................................
4.25 to 4.49 francs ($0,820 to
$0.867)................................. •
978
1.16
1,495
1.78
1,442
1.71
2,699
3.21
2,263
2.69
4,407
5.24
4,926
5.86
9,048
10.75
7,079
8.41
8,657
10.29
6,575
7.82
8,071
9.59
4,545
5.40
Rate of wages.
Employees.
Number. Per cent.
4.50 to 4.74 francs ($0,869 to
$0.915)...............................
4.75 to 4.99 francs ($0,917 to
$0.963)...............................
5.00 to 5.24 francs ($0,965 to
$1.011)...............................
5.25 to 5.49 francs ($1,013 to
$1.0C0)...............................
5.50 to 5.74 francs ($1,062 to
$1.108)...............................
5.75 to 5.99 francs ($1,110 to
$1.156)...............................
6.00 to 6.24 francs ($1,158 to
$1.204)...............................
6.25 to 6.49 francs ($1,206 to
$1.253)...............................
6.50 to 6.74 francs ($1,255 to
$1.301)...............................
6.75 to 6.99 francs ($1,303 to
$1.349)...............................
7.00 francs and over ($1,351
and over)...........................
323
.38
1,626
1.93
Total...........................
a84,136
100.00
• Not including 49, wages not reported.
5,413
6.43
3,031
3.60
4,153
4.94
1,706
2.03
2,081
2.47
1,036
1.23
1,367
1.63
571
.68
644
.77
116
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
More than one-half the employees (52.26 per cent) receive wages
within the range from 3.00 to 4.50 francs (57.9 to 86.9 cents) per day;
the number receiving less than 3 francs (57.9 cents) was 21.65 per
cent o f the total, while 26.09 per cent received more than 4.50 francs
(86.9 cents). Only 11.12 per cent of the total number received wages
in excess o f 5.24 francs ($1.01) per day.
The following tables show in the same form as the foregoing
table the same facts as to wages o f females over 16 years of age and
o f children o f both sexes under 16 years o f age. Four boys who
received no wages and 7 whose wages were not reported are omitted.
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF FEMALES 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OVER IN METAL
WORKING INDUSTRIES RECEIVING EACH SPECIFIED RATE OF WAGES, OCTO
BER, 1903.
Employees.
Employees.
Rate of wages.
Rate of wages.
Number. Per cent.
Number. Per cent.
Less than 1 franc ($0.193)........
1.00 to 1.24 francs ($0,193 to
$0.239).................................
1.25 to 1.49 francs ($0,241 to
$0.288).................................
1.50 to 1.74 francs ($0,290 to
$0.336).................................
1.75 to 1.99 francs ($0,338 to
$0.384).................................
2.00 to 2.24 francs ($0,386 to
$0.432).................................
2.25 to 2.49 francs ($0,434 to
$0 481)
2.50 to 2.74 francs ($0,483 to
$0.529).................................
13
0.45
137
4.70
407
13.97
627
21.52
676
23.21
479
16.44
199
6.83
169
5.80
2.75 to 2.99 francs ($0,531 to
$0.577)...............................
3.00 to 3.24 francs ($0,579 to
$0.625)...............................
3.25 to 3.94 francs ($0,627 to
$0.674)...............................
3.50 to 3.74 francs ($0,676 to
$0.722)...............................
3.75 to 3.99 francs ($0,724 to
$0.770)...............................
4.00 francs and over ($0,772
and over)...........................
Total...........................
81
2.78
55
1.89
35
1.20
6
.21
16
.55
13
.45
2,913
100.00
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF EMPLOYEES UNDER 16 YEARS OF AGE IN METAL
WORKING INDUSTRIES RECEIVING EACH SPECIFIED RATE OF WAGES, OCTO
BER, 1903.
Males.
Females.
Rate of wages.
Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
Less than 0.50 franc ($0.097)....................................................
0.50 to 0.74 francs ($0,097 to $0.143)..........................................
0.75 to 0.99 francs ($0,145 to $0.191)...........................................
1.00 to 1.24 francs ($0,193 to $0.239)...........................................
1.25 to 1.49 francs ($0,241 to $0.288)...........................................
1.50 to 1.74 francs ($0,290 to $0.336)...........................................
1.75 to 1.99 francs ($0,338 to $0.384)...........................................
2.00 francs and over ($0,386 and over)......................................
101
511
705
1,514
1,080
648
371
437
1.88
9.52
13.14
28.21
20.12
12.08
6.91
8.14
4
37
116
320
88
9
0.70
6.44
20.21
55.75
15.33
1.57
Total............................................................................
o5,367
100.00
574
100.00
a Not including 4 who received no wages and 7 whose wages were not reported.
The majority o f adult females (61.17 per cent) received from 1.50
to 2.24 francs (29 to 43.2 cents), 19.12 per cent receiving less than
1.50 francs (29 cents), and 19.71 per cent more than 2.24 francs
(43.2 cents). But 1.21 per cent received 3.50 francs (67.6 cents) and
over per day.
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- BELGIUM .
117
O f the boys, 48.33 per cent received wages ranging from 1 to 1.49
francs (19.3 to 28.8 cents), while 55.75 o f the girls employed received
from 1 to 1.24 francs (19.3 to 23.9 cents) per day.
The report shows that in by far the greater number (82.14 per
cent) o f all cases, wages are paid on a time basis, the percentage of
males paid by piece rates being considerably smaller than that o f the
females so paid. The following table shows for each class o f em
ployees the number and per cent employed by the hour, day, etc., and
at piecework, whether working separately or collectively (in gangs
or teams). Four boys who received no wages are omitted:
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF TIME WORKERS AND PIECEWORKERS EMPLOYED
IN THE METAL-WORKING INDUSTRIES, BY SEX AND AGE GROUPS AND BY
METHOD OF PAYMENT, OCTOBER, 1903.
Time workers.
By the
hour.
By the
day.
By the
week, fort
night, or
month.
Piece workers.
Total.
Employed—
Total.
Sex and age group.
Per No. Per No. Per No. Per
No. cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
Individu Collect
ively.
ally.
Per No. Per
No. cent.
cent.
Per
No. cent.
Males:
Under 16 years of
age..................... 2,642 49.16 1,869 34.78 149 2.77 4,660 86.71 679 12.64 35 0.65 714 13.29
16 years of age and
over................... 40,345 47.93 28,466 33.81 579 .69 69,390 82.43 11,104 13.19 3,691 4.38 14,795 17.57
Females:
Under 16 years of
174 30.31
age.....................
147 25.61 250 43.56
3 .52 400 69.69 174 30.31
16 years of age and
over...................
909 31.20 1,058 36.32 13 .45 1,980 67.97 933 32.03
933 32.03
Total.............. 44,043 47.33 31,643 34.01
744 .80 76,430 82.14 12,890 13.85 3,726 4.01 16,616 17.86
The remaining subject presented is that o f hours o f labor. The
facts disclosed by the investigation under review appear in the fol
lowing tables, showing first, by sex and by age groups, the daily
hours o f labor o f all employees; and second, by industries, the num
ber o f establishments observing specified periods of labor. In the first
table 4 males under 16 years o f age are omitted because their hours
o f labor were not reported. The hours given are for actual working
time, except as noted.
118
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF EMPLOYEES IN THE METAL WORKING INDUSTRIES
WORKING EACH SPECIFIED NUMBER OF HOURS PER DAY, BY SEX AND BY
AGE GROUPS, OCTOBER, 1903.
Males.
Hours of labor per
day.
Females.
All employees.
Under 16 years
of age.
16 years of age
and over.
Under 16 years
of age.
16 years of age
and over.
Num Per
ber.
cent.
Num Per
ber.
cent.
Num Per
ber.
cent.
Num Per
ber.
cent.
2,001
2.38
8
2,026
2.17
1.01
625
.69
323
51.62 41,062
18.89 17,265
23.65 18,848
2.03 1,957
1.84 61,998
.07
106
.74
.38
48.78
20.51
22.39
2.32
2.37
.13
0.70
55.92
14.46
28.92
3
73
1,504
648
624
53
.10
682
2.51
437
51.63 45,661
22.25 19,011
21.42 20,909
1.82 2,119
c2,097
110
.73
.47
49.07
20.43
22.47
2.28
2.26
.12
Total............. <*5,374 100.00 84,185
100.00
574 100.00
2,913
100.00 <*93,046
100.00
8 and under............
81 to 8*...................
8 f t o 9 ....................
91 to 91...................
9f to 10...................
I d to 101................
101 to 11.................
I ll to 111................
I ll to 12.................
Over 12..................
11
54
37
2,774
1,015
1,271
109
a 99
4
0.20
Num Per
ber.
cent.
4
321
83
166
0.27
• Including 20 persons whose periods of rest were not deducted.
6 Including 777 persons whose periods of rest were not deducted.
c Including 797 persons whose periods of rest were not deducted.
d Not including 4 males under 16 years of age, hours of labor not reported.
NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS IN THE METAL WORKING INDUSTRIES OBSERV
ING DESIGNATED HOURS OF LABOR, BY KIND OF INDUSTRY, OCTOBER, 1903.
Number of establishments working—
Kind of industry.
Manufacture of common metals other
than iron....................................
Iron manufactures..........................
Machinery and metal products........
Foundries......................................
Ironworking, locksmithing, and
Stove m a k in g ..............................................
Bolts, nails, screws, chains, wire, etc.
Firearms........................................
Cutlery..........................................
Household utensils.........................
Metal working................................
Specialties.....................................
Total....................................
Total Total
em
8hrs.
9f 10i 10f 11* 11! Over estab
ft
lish ploy
and to to to to to to to to 12 ments.
ees.
un
9
10 1°* 11 ii* 12 hrs.
der. hrs. hrs. hrs. hrs. hrs.
hrs. hrs. hrs.
1
2
9
2
1
1
1
1
4
2
11
3
24
27
185
97
35
14
32
1
10
14
63
8 502
2
9
25
45 128
32 88
19
5
36
12
4
2
12
4
31
1
1
1
3
157 326
39
9
21
6
4
4
9
7
2
1
1
13
5
2
5
1
1
7
34
2
28
62
405
227
8,504
21,286
34,748
9,094
93
50
44
4
28
24
118
3,554
3,889
2,836
62
3,342
990
4,745
1,083 93,050
These tables show that the great body o f employees (91.97 per
cent) work from 9f to 11 hours daily, while nearly one-half (49.07
per cent) work 9 f to 10 hours. Practically the same showing is
apparent from an examination of the second table, 90.95 per cent o f
the establishments observing a working day o f from 9 f to 11* hours,
and 46.85 per cent a working day o f 9 f to 10 hours.
The industrial census o f 1896, to which reference has already been
made, contains data which make it possible to compare the wages
and hours o f labor o f that date with those o f the period considered
by the present report.
119
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— BELGIUM,
These comparisons are made in the following tables. In compar
ing rates o f wages only those o f males over 16 years o f age are used,
while in the table showing hours o f labor, all classes o f employees
are considered. The figures for 1903 do not include 49 employees
in the first table whose wages were not reported and 4 employees in
the second table whose hours o f labor were not reported.
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF ADULT MALES IN METAL WORKING INDUSTRIES
RECEIVING EACH SPECIFIED RATE OF WAGES IN 1896 AND 1903.
1896.
Rates of wages.
Less than 1.50 francs
($0.290)........................
1.50 to 1.99 francs ($0,290
to $0.384).....................
2.00 to 2.49 francs ($0,386
to $0.481).....................
2.50 to 2.99 francs ($0,483
to $0.577).....................
3.00 to 3.49 francs ($0,579
to $0.674).....................
3.50 to 3.99 francs ($0,676
to $0.770).....................
4.00 to 4.49 francs ($0,772
to $0.867).....................
1896.
1903.
Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent.
2,702 3.27
3,924
978 1.16
4.74 2,937 3.49
7,738 9.35 4,962 5.90
13,465 16.28 9,333 11.09
16,322 19.73 16,127 19.17
13,862 16.75 15,232 18.10
10,550 12.75 12,616 15.00
Rates of wages.
1903.
Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent.
4.50 to 4.99 francs ($0,869
to $0.963)....................
5.00 to 5.49 francs ($0,965
to $1.060)....................
5.50 to 5.99 francs ($1,062
to $1.156)....................
6.00 to 6.49 francs ($1,158
to $1.253)....................
6.50 to 6.99 francs ($1,255
to $1.349)....................
7.00 francs and over
($1,351 and over)........
5,622
6.80 8,444 10.04
3,907
4.72 5,859
6.96
1,947 2.35 3,117
3.71
1,175
475
1,047
1.42 1,938 2.30
967
1.15
1.27 1,626
.57
1.93
Total................... 82,736 100.00 84,136 100.00
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF EMPLOYEES IN METAL WORKING INDUSTRIES
IN 1896 AND 1903, BY HOURS OF LABOR PER DAY.
Common metals other
than iron.
Hours of labor per day.
Iron manufactures.
Other metal-working in
dustries.
Employees Employees Employees Employees Employees Employees
in 1903.
in 1896.
in 1896.
in 1903.
in 1896.
in 1903.
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.
691 11.13 1,846
8 and under......................
66 1.06
33
Over 8, to 9........................
Over 9, to 10...................... 4,091 65.92 5,779
976 15.73 400
Over 10, to 10J...................
42 .68
O v e r l0 |,to ll...................
31
315 5.08
Over 11, to 1 1 |...................
25 .40 a 415
Over 11$, to 12...................
Over 12.............................
21.71
11 0.06
18
.39
60
67.96 8,824 46.37 7,863
4.70 8,754 46.00 9,096
.36 1,319 6.93 3,800
110 .58
4.88
12 .06 b 449
0.09 274
.28 884
36.94 24,260
42.73 12,697
17.85 18,312
6,335
2.11 3,666
1,691
0.40 156
1.30 589
35.62 32,456
18.64 9,515
26.88 17,078
9.30 2,119
5.38 1,233
2.48 110
0.25
.93
51.31
15.04
27.00
3.35
1.95
.17
Total....................... 6,206 100.00 8,504 100. OOj19,030 100.00 21,286 100.00 68,119 100.00 63,256 100.00
° Of this total, 172 persons are on duty 24 hours in succession, with a like period off
duty; the remainder have duty and rest periods of 12 hours’ duration. In both cases
there are intervals of rest during employment aggregating from 1 to 2 hours per day.
b Periods of rest not deducted for 382 employees.
These tables show a twofold improvement in respect of these im
portant factors in the conditions o f employment. The proportion o f
employees receiving less than 2.50 francs (48.3 cents) was 17.36 per
cent o f the total in 1896, while in 1903 it was but 10.55 per cent; and
the proportion o f those receiving 4.50 francs (86.9 cents) and over in
1896 comprised but 17.13 per cent of the total, while in 1903 it formed
26.09 per cent.
120
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
The showing o f the table of working time is more complex, and
embraces a number o f factors not superficially in evidence. One o f
these is that in 1896 several establishments were included which had
fewer than 10 employees, but which are not embraced in the report
for 1903. Another is'that in a number o f establishments reported
at both periods large changes have been made, either o f increase or
decrease, in the working force, but without changing the hours o f
labor. These changes have served to modify the percentages even
though there has been no actual change in this respect in the working
conditions o f the industry represented. A third fact is that in the
groups “ Common metals other than iron ” and “ Iron manufactures ”
the work period is not actually 12 hours, but really only 10 to 11 hours,
though the workmen must be within call continuously; also, the very
considerable apparent increase in the first-named group in the number
o f persons working 8 hours per day or less is said to be due not so
much to the actual reduction o f the hours o f labor per week o f the
employees affected as to a rearrangement o f the work schedule, by
which three 8-hour shifts in a day have been substituted for 24 con
secutive hours on duty followed by 24 hours o f rest.
A comparison o f the reports for the two years for the group
“ Other metal-working industries,” which comprises a large majority
o f all employees in the metal-working industries, shows that in 1896,
35.62 per cent o f the employees worked from 9 to 10 hours, while
the number similarly employed in 1903 was 51.31 per cent o f the
total, the change being effected by a reduction o f the number o f em
ployees working more than 11 hours. The actual summary in this
connection shows that 17.16 per cent of all employees worked more
than 11 hours daily in 1896, whereas but 5.47 per cent were so em
ployed in 1903.
GEEM AN Y.
Arbeitslosenzahlung vom 17. November 1908 in Berlin und 27 V ororten. Statistisches Amt der Stadt Berlin. 1908. 10 pp.
On November 17, 1908, a census o f unemployed persons in Berlin
and 27 suburbs was taken under the direction o f the municipal sta
tistical office, the results o f which are summarized in a pamphlet
bearing the title quoted above. The following method o f collecting
the data was adopted: A large number o f local offices were estab
lished, usually in schoolhouses, and by advertisements and other
means the unemployed were requested to present themselves at those
offices on November 17 and fill out a schedule describing the principal
facts in each case.
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— GERMANY.
121
The number o f persons unemployed in the whole area covered was
as follows:
NUMBER OF PERSONS OF EACH SEX UNEMPLOYED IN THE CITY OF BERLIN
AND 27 SUBURBS, BY GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS, NOVEMBER 17, 1908.
Occupation group.
Males.
Agriculture, stock raising..............................................................
Forestry, etc................~..............................................................
Gardening....................................................................................
Fishing. T.....................................................................................
Mining^ smelting, etc....................................................................
Stone and earths . .........................................................................
Metal working...............................................................................
Machinery, tools, etc.....................................................................
Chemical industry.........................................................................
Forestry by-products....................................................................
Textile industry............................................................................
Paper and leather.........................................................................
Wood and carved materials...........................................................
Food and drinks...........................................................................
Clothing.......................................................................................
Cleaning.......................................................................................
Building trades.............................................................................
Printing.......................................................................................
Art industries...............................................................................
Commerce....................................................................................
Insurance.....................................................................................
Transportation.............................................................................
Hotels, restaurants........................................................................
Theater employees........................................................................
Personal service............................................................................
Nurses, institution employees, etc.................................................
Clerks, stenographers....................................................................
Released military conscripts............................... ..........................
Miscellaneous (not including independent) occupations..................
Not specified................................................................................
Independent occupations..............................................................
347
7
298
1
22
610
5,173
3,004
247
292
147
1,159
3,756
1,762
754
290
13,639
803
91
2,180
18
1,337
1,256
57
164
61
143
165
161
511
126
Total...................................................................................
38,581
Females.
20
1
24
Total.
27
4
4
367
8
322
1
22
618
5,246
3,143
271
297
190
1,297
3,771
1,817
1,070
386
13,664
887
92
2,343
18
1,339
1,285
58
488
70
144
165
188
515
130
1,631
40,212
8
73
139
24
5
43
138
15
55
316
96
25
84
1
163
2
29
1
324
9
1
The total number of unemployed was 40,212, composed of 1,631
females and 38,581 males; the industries in which the unemployed
were most numerous were naturally the seasonal industries, such as
the building trades, and the great factory industries, such as the
metal working and machinery industries, the wood-working indus
tries, etc.
122
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
The data relating to skilled and unskilled workers out o f employ
ment are as follows:
NUMBER OF PERSONS OF EACH SEX UNEMPLOYED IN THE CITY OF BERLIN
(NOT INCLUDING SUBURBS) WHO WERE LAST EMPLOYED IN SKILLED AND
IN UNSKILLED OCCUPATIONS, BY GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS, NOVEMBER 17,
1908.
Last employed in
skilled occupations.
Last employed in
unskilled occupa
tions.
Total.
Occupation group.
Fe Total. Males. Fe Total. Males. Fe Total.
Males. males.
males.
males.
Agriculture, stock raising................
Forestry, etc...................................
Gardening.......................................
Fishing...........................................
Mining, smelting, etc.......................
Stone and earths.............................
Metal working.................................
Machinery, tools, etc.......................
Chemical industry...........................
Forestry by-products......................
Textile industry..............................
Paper and leather...........................
Wood and carved materials.............
Food and drinks.............................
Clothing.........................................
Cleaning.........................................
Building trades...............................
Printing..........................................
Art industries.................................
Commerce.......................................
Insurance.......................................
Transportation...............................
Hotels, restaurants..........................
Theater employees..........................
Personal service..............................
Nurses, institution employees, etc...
Clerks, stenographers......................
Released military conscripts............
Miscellaneous (not including inde
pendent) occupations...................
Not specified..................................
Independent occupations................
50
2
39
5
186
3,280
1,119
19
3
40
618
2,296
850
466
169
5,381
497
58
415
6
166
803
14
31
26
104
119
48
184
95
Total..................................... 17,087
52
39
15
7
2
1
14
44
3
11
201
49
41
89
20
1
215
2
5
1
3
190
1
96
12
5
186 211
420
3,295
1,126 1,093
21 125
4 204
64
54
662 244
2,299 386
861 597
667 151
55
218
5,381 3,057
• 538 129
7
58
504 1,284
6
4
166 826
823 279
23
15
45
246
24
28
3
104
119
53
185
98
24
227
726 17,813 9,781
6
3
4
28
89
10
2
11
60
9
28
42
19
13
20
1
32
2
6
11
2
196
1
D9
240
1
135
12
215
448
1,182
135
206
75
304
395
625
193
74
3,070
149
8
1,316
4
828
285
23
56
26
3
17
397
3,700
2,212
144
207
104
862
2,682
1,447
617
224
8,438
626
65
1,699
10
992
1,082
37
76
50
107
119
38
227
72
411
95
8
3
4
43
96
12
3
25
104
12
39
243
68
13
61
1
121
2
26
1
226
4
248
1
138
17
401
3,743
2,308
156
210
129
966
2,694
1,486
860
292
8,451
687
66
1,820
10
994
1,108
38
302
54
107
119
19
1
3
91
412
98
412 10,193 26,868 1,138
28,006
14
The above figures refer to the city of Berlin alone. Out o f the total
o f 28,006 persons out of work, 17,813, or 63.6 per cent, were skilled
workers, the term “ skilled ” being understood as referring to occu
pations where a definite technical training is requisite; the unskilled
workers numbered 10,193, or 37.4 per cent o f the total. In the case
o f the male workers the proportions were 63.6 per cent skilled and
37.4 per cent unskilled; for the female workers the proportions were
63.8 per cent skilled and 36.2 per cent unskilled. In general, it may
be said that the skilled workers were twice as numerous as the un
skilled.
123
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GERMANY.
The follow ing table shows the ages o f the unemployed, their con
jugal condition, and the length o f time unemployed for the city o f
Berlin, not including suburbs:
NUMBER OF PERSONS OF EACH SEX UNEMPLOYED IN THE CITY OF BERLIN
(NOT INCLUDING SUBURBS) WHO WERE LAST EMPLOYED IN SKILLED AND
IN UNSKILLED OCCUPATIONS, BY AGE GROUPS, BY CONJUGAL CONDITION,
AND BY LENGTH OF TIME UNEMPLOYED, NOVEMBER 17, 1§08.
Last employed in
skilled occupations.
Last employed in
unskilled occupa
tions.
Total.
Groups.
Fe Total. Males. Fe Total. Males. Fe Total.
Males. males.
males.
males.
Age groups:
33
Under 16 years..........................
16 and under 20 years................ 1,510
20 and under 30 years................ • 6,594
30 and under 40 years................ 3,974
40 and under 50 years................ 2,658
50 and under 60 years................. 1,657
60 and under 70 years.................
570
70 years and over.......................
61
Not reported.............................
30
Total..................................... 17,087
Conjugal condition:
Single.......................................
Married.....................................
Widowed..................................
Living apart.............................
Separated.................................
Not reported.............................
7,762
8,400
363
266
162
134
Total..................................... 17,087
Length of time unemployed:
Less than 1 week.......................
1 and under 2 weeks..................
2 and under 3 weeks..................
3 and under 4 weeks..................
4 and under 5 weeks..................
5 and under 6 weeks..................
6 and under 7 weeks..................
7 and under 8 weeks..................
8 and under 9 weeks..................
9 and under 10 weeks.................
10 and under 11 weeks...............
11 and under 12 weeks...............
12 and under 13 weeks...............
14
116
170
146
167
88
23
2
47
1,626
6,764
4,120
2,825
1,745
593
63
30
213
1,396
3,288
2,115
1,558
917
254
28
12
726 17,813 9,781
349
185
129
36
27
8,111 4,727
8,585 4,545
492 204
302 189
189
83
134
33
726 17,813 9,781
285
3,089
10,205
6,319
4,425
2,693
857
91
42
412 10,193 26,868 1,138
28,006
4,960 12,489
4,654 12,945
252
567
204
455
89
245
34
167
582
294
177
51
33
1
13,071
13,239
744
506
278
168
412 10,193 26,868 1,138
28,006
233
109
48
15
6
1
246
2,906
9,882
6,089
4,216
2,574
824
89
42
1,197
1,180
1,119
791
778
3,241
3,229
2,973
2,147
2,163
616
425
380
294
221
258
176
1,746
1,132
941
719
568
657
430
147
122
158
64
84
60
107
34
31
29
13
22
14
3,388
3,351
3,131
2,211
2,247
1,821
1,853
1,166
972
748
581
679
444
316
48
16
8
8,047 21,707
1,112 2,622
371
915
199
468
885
113
51
17
22,592
2,735
966
485
678 17,049 9,341
9
279 156
12
113
87
372 197
27
388
8
9,729 25,712 1,066
164
426
17
12
87
188
542
213
43
26,778
443
200
585
726 17,813 9,781
412 10,193 26,868 1,138
28,006
2,191 1,122
2,171 1,136
2,012 1,060
1,420 764
1,469 755
1,209 594
1,237 589
741 415
592 367
454 283
360 220
421 254
268 172
75
44
59
27
23
18
27
10
13
11
1
4
4
Total up to 3 months.............. 13,976
3 and under 6 months................ 1,558
6 and under 9 months................
560
9 and under 12 months..............
277
569 14,545 7,731
65 1,623 1,064
595 355
35
9
286 191
Total up to 1 year.................. 16,371
1 and under 2 years...................
270
2 years and over........................
101
Not reported.............................
345
Total..................................... 17,087
2,119
2,093
1,913
1,383
1,408
1,167
1,157
717
574
436
348
403
258
238
1,463
3,441
2,199
1,600
948
264
28
12
39
183
323
230
209
119
33
2
25
67
153
84
42
31
10
72
78
99
37
61
42
80
24
18
18
12
18
10
16
612
1,761
The figures in the tables just preceding show that out o f the 26,868
males, 9,882, or 36.78 per cent, were in the group 20 to 30 years o f
age, and that there was a steady decrease in the number o f persons
as the age increased. Presumably this tendency corresponds to the
age grouping o f the industrial population.
O f the total males unemployed, 48.18 per cent were married, while
the last municipal census showed that o f the total male population
4764—No. 83—09-----9
124
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
only 39.41 per cent were married. The single males were 46.48 per
cent o f the males out o f work, while the widowed were 2.11 per cent.
The number o f males out o f work less than one week on the date
o f the enumeration was 3,241, or 12.06 per cent o f all unemployed
males; the proportion out o f work from one to two weeks was 12.02
per cent and that from two to three weeks was 11.07 per cent; the
number o f males out o f work for five weeks and less was 51.19 per
cent o f the total number o f males. The proportion out o f work three
months and less was 80.79 per cent and the proportion out o f work
over one year was 2.28 per cent.
Arbeitslosenzahlung in Halle a. S . vom 10 Januav, 1909 .
Herausgegeben vom Statistischen Am t der Stadt Halle a. S. 1909.
D ie
37 pp.
The census o f unemployed persons in the city o f Halle on the
Saale, published in the report from which the inform ation for this
digest was obtained, was taken on January 10, 1909, by the mu
nicipal statistical office, assisted by the federation o f trade unions o f
that city. The city furnished a subsidy in aid o f the undertaking.
The enumeration consisted o f a house to house canvass by about
1,200 members o f the labor federation mentioned above, the members
having been carefully instructed in meetings held previous to the
enumeration and provided with printed rules for use during the
canvass. The schedule o f inquiry called for the follow ing inform a
tion: (1) Name, (2) street and number, (3) occupation, (4) date o f
birth, (5) place o f birth, (6) township or district, (7) place where
invalidity card was filled out, (8) local suboffice o f invalidity insur
ance institute, (9) number o f invalidity stamps to date (by class),
(10) length o f sickness, (11) length o f m ilitary service (wherever
possible, the preceding questions were answered from the data on the
person’s card o f membership in the invalidity insurance institution;
if questions 7 to 9 were not answered it was assumed that the person
had no membership card), (12) employment on relief work, fur
nished by whom, where, when begun, when ended, (13) if working
short time, number o f hours per day reduced, (15) cause o f unem
ployment, (a) sickness, (b ) no work, (c) other cause, (16) kind o f
work at which last employed regularly, (17) where last employed,
(18) kind o f establishment, (19) number o f children under 16, (20)
daily earnings o f wife, (21) if home work is done for a contractor,
what industry, (22) in receipt o f a pension for invalidity, old age, or
accident, (23) member o f a trade union. Since in other investiga
tions great difficulty had been found in securing correct statements in
regard to occupation, the schedule was arranged so that three ques
tions—numbers 3, 16, and 18— bore on this point.
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GERMANY.
125
The number o f unemployed persons as compared with total popula
tion shows the follow ing variation at the dates given: On December
2, 1895, it was 157 per 10,000 o f the total population; on December 8,
1901, it was 165 per 10,000; and on January 10, 1909, it was 134 per
10,000. These numbers do not include persons unemployed because
o f sickness; in 1909 the number o f sick persons was 7.9 per cent o f
the total number o f unemployed, while in 1895 it was over 30 per
cent. Other comparisons made in the report show that in Halle in
1909 for each 100 persons o f the class termed “ gainfully employed,”
3.6 were unemployed, and out o f 100 wage-earners 4.9 were unem
ployed ; the census o f December 2, 1895, showed that in Halle, out o f
100 wage-earners, 8.98 were unemployed.
The distribution o f the unemployed by sex showed that out o f the
2,378 unemployed 2,240 were males and only 138 were females; the
report states, however, that there are good reasons for the belief that
not all o f the women out o f work were reported.
The follow ing table shows the industries in which the unemployed
persons were last engaged:
NUMBER OF PERSONS OF EACH SEX UNEMPLOYED IN THE CITY OF HALLE ON
THE SAALE, BY GROUPS OF OCCUPATIONS, JANUARY 10, 1909.
Occupation group.
Males.
Agriculture, stock raising, forestry, fishing..
Mining, smelting........................................
Quarrying, earthenware, glass, etc...............
Metal working, machinery, tools.................
Chemical products......................................
Textiles.....................................................
Paper........................................................
Leather and leather goods...........................
Wood and carved materials........................
Food and drinks........................................
Clothing and cleaning.................................
Building trades..........................................
Printing.....................................................
Art industries...................... • ....................
Engineers, miscellaneous factory employees.
Commerce..................................................
Hotels and restaurants...............................
Personal service and casual workers............
Liberal professions.....................................
Apprentices of all occupations.....................
30
56
114
37
647
26
7
81
44
35
647
12
5
Total................................................
2,240
61
43
53
304
21
5
12
Females.
9
1
14
1
20
12
2
12
12
2
50
3
138
Total.
Per cent
in each
occupation
group.
70
43
53
304
22
5
26
30
57
134
49
647
28
7
93
56
37
697
15
5
2.9
1.8
2.2
12.8
.9
.2
1.1
1.3
2.4
5.6
2.1
27.2
1.2
.3
3.9
2.4
1.6
29.3
.6
.2
2,378
100.0
Out o f the 2,378 persons unemployed on the date o f the enumera
tion 1,648, or 69.3 per cent, belonged to the three groups designated
as metal working industries, the building trades, and personal service
and casual workers. The group personal service and casual workers,
in other words the unskilled workers, was largest with 697 persons;
then followed the building trades with 647 persons, and the metal
working industries with 304 persons. Since the larger part o f the
126
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
unskilled workers were engaged in the building trades, this industry
should rank first in the number o f unemployed. The unemployment
at the time o f the enumeration was, therefore, prim arily due to a
seasonal industry—the building trades— and secondly to the largest o f
H alle’s factory industries, the metal-working (especially the machine
building) industries. The other groups o f industries in which unem
ployment was comparatively frequent were food and drinks, the rural
industries o f agriculture, stock raising, forestry, and fishing, and
wood and carved materials.
An important phase o f unemployment is the investigation o f the
previous residence o f those out o f work. Out o f the 2,378 persons
enumerated 1,698 gave Halle as their last place o f residence; i f the
282 persons with last place o f residence unknown are added to those
who were not residents o f Halle at the time they became unemployed,
the enumeration w ill show that 680 persons, or 28.6 per cent o f the
unemployed persons, came from localities other than Halle. In other
words, approximately 25 per cent o f the unemployment originated
outside o f the city.
One question in the schedule o f inquiry called for the date when
the unemployment began; o f the males 72 persons failed to answer
the question, while the remaining 2,168 had had 18,488 weeks o f
unemployment. The 128 females who answered the question had
had 897 weeks o f unemployment. The length o f time unemployed,
by periods, is given in the follow ing table:
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF PERSONS OF EACH SEX OUT OF WORK IN HALLE
ON THE SAALE, BY PERIOD OF UNEMPLOYMENT, JANUARY 10, 1909.
Males.
Females.
Unemployed on January 10,1909, since—
Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent.
January 1,1909.......................................................................
December 20,1908..................................................................
November 30,1908..................................................................
November 1,1908.............................'.....................................
October 1,1908.......................................................................
May 1,1908............................................................................
January 1,1908.......................................................................
Before January 1,1908............................................................
Total............................................................................
242 ♦
442
433
380
352
275
27
17
2,168
11.2
20.4
19.9
17.5
16.2
12.7
1.3
.8
29
25
26
24
15
6
2
1
22.6
19.5
20.3
18.8
11.7
47
1.6
.8
100.0
128
100.0
The larger part— over 50 per cent—o f the unemployed had been
out o f work only since November 30, 1908; the duration o f the unem
ployment in the case o f the females was much shorter than in the case
o f the males.
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GERMANY.
127
The ages o f the persons out o f work in Halle, as compared with the
age grouping o f the industrial population o f the Empire is shown in
the next table:
PER CENT OF UNEMPLOYED PERSONS IN EACH AGE GROUP IN HALLE ON THE
SAALE, ON JANUARY 10, 1909, COMPARED WITH PER CENT OF THE INDUS
TRIAL POPULATION OF THE EMPIRE IN THE SAME AGE GROUPS.
Per cent in each age group
of—
Age group.
Industrial
population of
the Empire
(employees
only).
Under 16 years.........
16 and under 20 years
20 and under 30 years
30 and under 40 years
40 and under 50 years
50 and under 60 years
60 years and over--Age unknown..........
Total..............
100.0
100.0
According to this table, unemployed persons in Halle in the age
group 16 to 20 years, in the group 30 to. 40 years, and especially in
the group 40 to 50 years, are present in slightly larger numbers than
would be expected from their number in the total industrial popula
tion o f the Empire.
The answers to the question as to the number o f children showed
that the 911 unemployed males having children had 2,184 children
under 16 years o f age; this is an average o f 2.39 children for each
person, or if fam ily groups be constructed, this is 4.39 persons per
fam ily o f each unemployed male; arranged by classes, 308 married
males had each one child, 247 had each 2 children, 164 had each 3
children, 111 had each 4 children, and 81 had more than 4 children.
The question relating to the amount o f daily earnings o f the w ife
showed that o f the 1,055 married men, 146 had wives who added to
the fam ily incom e; out o f the 146 wage-earning wives, 41 had no
children, 30 had each 1 child, 28 had each 2 children, 23 had each 3
children, 16 had each 4 children, and 8 had more than 4 children.
The earnings o f the wives are shown to have been sm all; only 41
out o f the 146 earned more than 1 mark (24 cents) per day; 28
earned between 30 and 50 pfennigs (7 to 12 cents) per day, while
35 earned less than 30 pfennigs (7 cents) per day.
128
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
D ie bisherigen Erfahrungen auf dem Gebiete dev Arbeitslosenversieherung. Mitteilungen des Statistischen Amts der Stadt Magde
burg. 1908. 38 pp.
This issue o f the publications o f the municipal statistical office o f
Magdeburg gives a summary o f the experience o f various European
governments in connection with the problem o f insurance against
unemployment. The report begins by calling attention to the fact
that in the relief work or emergency work instituted by the city o f
Magdeburg early in 1908, few skilled workers o f the metal trades, o f
the woodworking trades, or o f the building trades were employed,
although there was a high rate o f unemployment in these industries
at that time. This experience has led to the belief that relief work
o f this type has a tendency to be o f benefit to the unskilled laborers
only. Since it is out o f the question to provide employment for each
class o f skilled workers, it is concluded that the problem o f the relief
o f unemployment must be solved by means o f a cash payment in the
form o f insurance benefits.
The report defines insurance against unemployment as an agree
ment by which the worker, in return for contributions paid by him
while he is employed, receives a cash benefit to offset the damage
caused by the stoppage o f wages through lack o f employment. As
only such persons may be insured who are employed at the time the
insurance begins, insurance depends upon two facts—first, that the
person loses his position, and, secondly, that he is unable to find
another. The loss o f a position may occur through any o f three
causes—first, through physical causes, such as loss o f ability to w ork;
secondly, through moral causes, such as lack o f desire to w ork; and,
thirdly, through economic causes, such as absence o f opportunity to
work. Two or more reasons may cooperate, as where, for instance,
the loss o f the position was caused by sickness, while after recovery
o f ability to work a lack o f opportunity may cause a period o f
unemployment.
Although all plans o f compulsory insurance against unemploy
ment have been regarded unfavorably up to date, the plans o f volun
tary insurance have met with considerable favor. The report dis
tinguishes four classes o f the voluntary type— (1) institutions o f
workmen’s organizations and federations, (2) institutions o f em
ployers, (3) special municipal insurance institutions, (4) mixed
institutions.
The extent o f the activities o f the “ free labor unions ” (freie
Gewerkschaften) in Germany is shown by the fact that their ex
penses for relief o f unemployment (not including strike and travel
benefits) in 1907 were 4,312,367 marks ($1,026,343); in 1906, 2,653,296 marks ($631,484); and in 1905, 1,991,924 marks ($474,078). In
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GERMANY.
129
the city o f Magdeburg there were in 1907 only 15 labor organizations,
containing approximately 18 per cent o f the membership, which did
not provide unemployment relief. Am ong the unions paying bene
fits, the follow ing per capita amounts o f unemployment benefits were
paid in the year 1907: Printers, 18.50 marks ($4.40); leather workers,
11.41 marks ($2.72); wood workers, 9.26 marks ($2.20); metal
workers, 4.35 marks ($1.04), etc. These were the highest amounts
paid and indicate that the existing system o f trade union unemploy
ment benefits is at best but a limited one. As a rule membership o f
one year, and in the case o f the printers, o f 75 weeks, is necessary,
before such benefits are available. In most cases benefits begin at
the end o f one week after the beginning o f the unemployment; they
are continued in the case o f the wood workers and carpenters for
6 weeks, and in the case o f the metal workers for 20 weeks; while
in many cases the continuation o f the benefits depends upon the
length o f membership, as, for instance, in the case o f the printers,
where benefits vary between 10 and 40 weeks. The amount o f the
daily benefit also is regulated by the length o f membership; in the
case o f the metal and the wood workers it varies from 1 to I f marks
(24 to 40 cents), and in the case o f the printers it varies from 1 to I f
marks (24 to 36 cents). In a few o f the unions the local branches
add a supplementary benefit to that paid by the principal organiza
tion. Most o f the unions seem to pay but little attention to regulat
ing unemployment caused by the fault o f the worker, because the
small amount o f the benefits and the long waiting time generally
exclude cases o f this class. Practically all o f the unions stop benefits
if an unemployed member refuses the offer o f a job “ without proper
reason.” The cost o f the insurance to the unions is difficult to state,
since the accounts do not always separate unemployment from strike
and other benefits. In the year 1907 the printers’ union spent 23
per cent o f the total income for this purpose; the wood workers
spent 18 per cent, and the metal workers 10 per cent.
Some space in the report is given to a description o f institutions
created by employers for the relief o f unemployment. The most im
portant institution o f this class is that o f the firm o f K arl Zeiss o f
Jena. The employment contract o f this firm provides that if, after
having been employed regularly for three years, an employee is dis
missed because o f lack o f work, such employee has a claim to fa ll
wages for the succeeding six months. The firm o f Heinrich Lanz in
Mannheim, machinery manufacturers, has a fund or society for its
employees, the constitution o f which provides that whenever a mar
ried member who has been employed for at least one year is dismissed
and is unable to find other employment, such member shall receive
benefits beginning 14 days after the date o f dismissal, but not earlier
130
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
than December 1 and not to continue later than the end o f February
o f the same winter. Another instance is that o f the firm o f A. L.
Mohr, in Altona, oleomargarine manufacturers, where the fund or
society collects dues from the members, the weekly dues being 10
pfennigs (2 cents) for men and 5 pfennigs (1 cent) for women, and
the benefits being 1.6 marks (38 cents) per day for not more than
13 weeks after the date o f dismissal. The firm makes up any de
ficit caused by the payment o f these benefits. From the creation o f
the fund in 1896 to the year 1904, benefits to the amount o f 30,275
marks ($7,206) have been paid, the means for which were secured
from dues o f the workmen to the amount o f 18,129 marks ($4,315),
or 59.9 per cent, from the subsidy o f the firm 11,794 marks ($2,807),
or 39.0 per cent, and from interest 352 marks ($84).
The oldest o f the municipal funds for insurance against unem
ployment is that o f the city o f Berne, in Switzerland. Being a
municipal institution it is o f course open to workers o f all classes
residing in the city. As a matter o f fact the membership o f the fund
is restricted, being constituted almost exclusively o f persons engaged
in the building trades; thus in the year 1904-5, among the 593 in
sured members there were 379 general laborers and earth workers, 80
masons and stonecutters, 58 painters and plasterers, 24 carpenters,
18 roofers, and 3 potters. The persons in receipt o f benefits during
the same year were principally the workers in the building trades;
among the 305 reporting themselves out o f work, 200 were laborers;
43, masons and stonecutters; 22, painters and plasterers; 17, roofers,
and 12, carpenters. The fund is operated in close connection with the
employment agency o f the city, and considerable assistance is re
ceived from the public works department o f the city government,
which as far as possible executes work in the season when unem
ployment is greatest and endeavors to use the services o f those per
sons who apply to the fund. In order to restrict the expenditures o f
the fund, persons over 60 years o f age may not become members, and
members must show that they have paid dues for at least 8 months
and that they have been employed at least 6 months in the year.
Benefits are not paid for a longer period than 10 weeks in one winter.
For the first 5 weeks the daily benefit for the father o f a fam ily is
2 francs (39 cen ts); for the rest o f the 10 weeks the benefits are fixed
according to the state o f the treasury. In 1904-5 benefits were paid
to the amount o f 10,923 francs ($2,108), and in 1905-6, 6,229 francs
($1,202). F or the first o f these years the dues o f members were 43
per cent and in the second year 75 per cent o f the amount paid out.
A similar organization is that o f the “ Cologne municipal fund for
insurance against unemployment in winter,” which was founded in
May, 1896, with an endowment o f 100,000 marks ($23,800), con
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GERMANY.
131
sisting o f a donation from the city o f 25,000 marks ($5,950) and o f
donations from citizens. W hile not a municipal institution in the
strict sense o f the word, it stands in close connection with the
municipality, and since the year 1902 has received from it an annual
subsidy o f 20,000 marks ($4,760). The fund is administered by a
board o f directors consisting o f a representative o f the mayor o f the
city, the president o f the general employment agency, 12 representa
tives o f the insured persons, and 12 representatives o f the honorary
members, the latter consisting o f 6 persons who are employers and
o f 6 who are neither employers nor workmen. The follow ing table
shows the number o f persons insured, the number o f persons out o f
work, and the proportion o f expenses borne by the insured persons:
NUMBER OF MEMBERS AND EXTENT OF UNEMPLOYMENT OF MEMBERS OF THE
MUNICIPAL UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE FUND OF COLOGNE, 1896 TO 1907.
Persons entitled to Number of days on
benefits who
unemployed Per cent of
became unem which
expenses
persons—
ployed.
for bene
fits met by
contribu
Were
tions of
Entitled
tempo Received insured
Enrolled. to bene Number. Percent. rarily
em
benefits.
persons.
fits.
ployed.
Number of insured
persons—
Year.
1896-97.................................
1897-98.................................
1898-99.................................
1899-1900..............................
1900-1901..............................
1901-2...................................
1902-3...................................
1903-4...................................
1904-5...................................
1905-6...................................
1906-7...................................
1907-8...................................
220
324
347
256
571
1,205
1,355
1,624
1,717
1,610
1,255
1,505
132
236
282
226
536
1,105
1,265
1,501
1,596
1,463
1,155
1,382
96
151
144
154
441
842
1,008
1,164
1,271
1,087
980
1,127
72.7
64.0
51.1
68.1
82.3
76.2
79.7
77.5
79.6
74.3
84.8
81.5
2,181
2,646
2,858
3,709
6,479
15,853
28,947
26,716
29,649
28,715
1,408
2,197
2,026
2,773
12,659
18,259
16,046
22,910
25,034
13,414
42.5
63.5
73.1
42.7
23.6
41.4
49.7
49.5
48.5
91.7
20,042
29,899
42.5
18,238
24,086
43.0
The change in the number o f members insured in 1901 is due to the
fact that in 1901 the constitution was so amended as to distinguish
between skilled and unskilled workers, with a corresponding distinc
tion in the requirement as to what work must be accepted by the
skilled workers.
As its name indicates, the fund is restricted to unemployment
caused by clim atic influence; the fiscal year begins with A pril 1 and
dues must be paid for 8 months from that date, while benefits are
paid from December 1 until March 1. A member out o f work is en
titled to benefits on the third day after he has notified the fund, and
the benefits continue for a period o f 8 weeks; for the first 20 days he
receives 2 marks (48 cents) per day, for the rest o f the time 1 mark
(24 cents) per day. A member must show that his dismissal was not
due to his own fault and must report twice each day at specified hours
at the employment agency. A member is required to accept a posi
132
BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
tion which is offered to him provided that it “ corresponds ” to his
occupation and to his previous earnings; but he is not required to
accept a place which has become vacant because o f a labor dispute.
The weekly dues o f skilled workers are 45 pfennigs (11 cents) and
for unskilled workers 35 pfennigs (8 cents). The amount o f dues,
therefore, to be paid by a skilled worker in one year is 15.3 marks
($3.64) and for an unskilled worker is 11.9 marks ($2.83); the
highest amount o f benefits which may be drawn by a member is 68
marks ($16). As membership in the fund is entirely voluntary, it
is to be expected that it would consist o f what would in insurance
terms be called the worst risks, and, as a matter o f fact, the pre
ceding table shows that since 1901 between 74 and 84 per cent o f the
membership is regularly out o f work each winter. Under such cir
cumstances the fund could not exist were it not for the possibility o f
providing employment for members. In the year 1907-8, for in
stance, 1,097 members would have been out o f work 49,941 days
except for the fact that the employment agency provided 891 persons
with 20,042 days o f work. The reports show that the fund is made
use o f almost exclusively by members o f the building trades.
The follow ing table shows the financial operations o f the fu n d :
RECEIPTS, EXPENDITURES, AND RESERVE OF THE MUNICIPAL UNEMPLOY
MENT INSURANCE FUND OF COLOGNE, 1896 TO 1907.
Receipts.
Year.
1896-97..
1897-98..
1898-99..
1899-1900
19001901-2 ...
1902-3 ...
1903-4 ...
1904-5 ...
1905- 6 ...
1906-7 ...
1907-8 ...
1901
Expenditures.
ContriInterest
Contri buttons
Pay On ac
Re
of
hon Contri and
serve.
butions orary
ments count
miscel
of
of in mem butions laneous Total. to in admin
Total.
sured bers of city.
sured
re
persons. istra
persons. and
ceipts.
tion.
pa
trons.
$238 $18,730 $5,950
527 1,220
582 1,249
478
959
1,086
851
794
2,959
3,424
766 4.760
724 4.760
4,706
4,946
709 4.760
5,160
665 4.760
4,092
610 4.760
4,918
582 4.760
$943 $25,861
$560
2,768
830
796
2,906
2,555 1,121
3,102 4,602
1,121 4,874 7,151
1,154 10,104 6,856
1,284 11,474 9,500
1,299 11,714 10,194
1,382 11,967 5,627
1,513 10,976 9,523
1,600 11,860 11,583
1,021
1,075
1,118
1,165
$648
557
497
459
497
703
883
937
1,042
959
1,053
1,129
$1,208 $24,653
1,387 26,033
1,293 27,647
1,580 28,622
5,099 26,625
7,854 23,644
7,739 26,010
10,437 27,047
11,236 27,524
6,586 32,905
10,576 33,305
12,712 32,454
An important source o f income since 1902 has been the annual
subsidy o f the m unicipality; since 1903 the dues o f the insured per
sons have been almost the same amount as the subsidy. The contri
butions o f honorary members, patrons, employers, etc., represent
gifts, while the interest on the endowment has been a considerable
factor in the financial operations. The expenditures have gradually
FOBEIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GEBMANY.
133
increased until in 1907-8 they were $12,712, consisting o f $11,583 for
benefits to insured persons and $1,129 for expenditures o f administra
tion. The reserve fund has grown from $24,653 in 1896-97 to $32,454
in 1907-8:
The “ Leipzig fund for insurance against unemployment ” was
established in March, 1905, with a guaranteed endowment o f 60,000
marks ($14,280) furnished by private individuals. There are four
classes o f members who pay dues o f 30, 40, 50, and 60 pfennigs (7,10,
12, and 14 cents), according to the risk o f unemployment. In addi
tion, the fund insures societies o f persons, who pay for their mem
bers in a lump sum at the rate o f 10 pfennigs (2 cents) per member
per week, “ as long as at least one-third o f the workmen belonging
to the society and no fewer than 50 persons are insured in the fund.”
The operations o f the fund are not very extensive. On A pril 30,
1908, there were 244 members. In the fiscal year 1907-8 there were
20 members out o f work for 388 days, for which they received 495.9
marks ($118.02) benefits.
W hile the number and activity o f the unemployment insurance
institutions o f the cities are rather limited, the fourth class o f in
surance institutions, namely, the mixed or the so-called “ Belgian sys
tem ” has met with an unusual degree o f favor. This system was be
gun in the year 1901 in the city o f Ghent, and consists o f municipal
or communal subsidies to those workmen’s organizations which pro
vide unemployment relief under specified conditions, the subsidy con
sisting o f a percentage o f the amount paid by the union. This sys
tem has spread into other countries; for instance, the National Gov
ernment o f France provides an annual subsidy o f 100,000 francs
($19,300) to be distributed among the unions in accordance with
regulations issued by the President o f the Republic; in Norway and
in Denmark similar subsidies are provided by the National Govern
ments, while in Germany the city o f Strassburg has established a fund
o f this character. In Ghent an effort has been made to correct in
equalities which might arise from the fact that persons not members
o f trade unions could not receive benefits, by creating a system o f
subsidies based on savings bank books o f individuals, and later the
plan was extended to clubs for savings.
134
BULLETIN OE THE BUREAU OE LABOR,
The follow ing table shows the number o f funds, the number o f
communes, and the number o f trade unions affiliated in the movement
in Belgium for the years 1901 to 1907:
SUBSIDIES TO TRADE UNIONS FOR UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE BY THE
COMMUNAL UNEMPLOYMENT FUNDS OP BELGIUM, 1901 TO 1907.
Year.
1901...........................
1902...........................
1903............................
1904............................
1905............................
1906............................
3907............................
Num
ber of
com
munal
funds.
2
6
9
11
14
14
a 14
Num
ber of
com
munes
partici
pating.
Subsidies to
trade unions by
the communal Num
Expend
funds.
ber of
itures
memfor un
bers
employ
receiv
Per
ment
cent
ing
by the
of sum bene
unions. Amount. expend
fits.
ed by
unions.
Num
ber of
trade
unions
affili
ated.
26
98
129
128
131
229
284
2
8
14
15
18
25
27
13,454
12,598
12,957
15,662
12,809
17,315
30,872
$1,207
5,629
7,048
8,948
6,851
9,006
14,320
35
44
54
57
53
52
46
2,089
3,211
2,835
2,825
3,400
5,019
9,750
Number
of days
of unem
ploy
ment
for
which
benefits
were
paid.
6,676
32,220
39,891
50,605
55,735
71,970
113,726
Extra
subsi
dies to
trade
unions.
$193
193
193
193
* The towns in which the funds have been created are Alost, Antwerp, Berchem, Bruges,
Brussels, Ghent, Trelles, Louvain, Mechlin, Molenbeek, Ostend, Renaix, Saint Nicholas,
Saint Gilles.
In the period 1901 to 1907 the number o f trade unions affiliated has
increased from 26 to 284; the expenditures o f the trade unions for
unemployment relief have increased from $3,454 to $30,872; and the
amount o f the subsidies provided by the various communes has in
creased from $1,207 to $14,320, The latter amount was 46 per cent
o f the sum expended by the unions for the relief o f unemployed mem
bers. The number o f persons who receive benefits has grown from
2,089 to 9,750, and the number o f days o f unemployment for which
benefits were paid has increased from 6,676 to 113,726. The next
table shows the subsidies paid to individuals with savings accounts, to
savings societies, and to unemployed persons not members o f unions.
SUBSIDIES TO INDIVIDUALS AND TO CLUBS FOR SAVINGS BY THE COMMUNAL
UNEMPLOYMENT FUNDS OF BELGIUM, 1901 TO 1907.
Subsidies to individuals with
saving accounts.
Year.
1901.........................
1902.........................
1903.........................
1904.........................
1905.........................
1906.........................
1907.........................
Subsidies to savings clubs.
Subsidies to in
d iv id u a ls not
members of the
unions.
Days
Days
Number unem
Number unem
Number
of
per
of
per
ployed
ployed
of per
Amount sons re
Amount sons re
Amount sons
for
for
re
of
of
of
ceiving
which
which
ceiving
ceiving
subsidy. subsi subsidies subsidy. subsi subsidies subsidy. subsi
dies.
were
dies.
were
dies.
paid.
paid.
$1.35
10.62
19.30
5.60
7.33
47.29
(a)
\i
3
13
(°)
(a)
(a)
(a)
38
250
$432.90
479.22
545.42
493.50
471.69
Not reported.
Sj
(<l170
136
(®)
3,829
3,351
$494.47
439.85
489.83
(«)
217
202
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GERMANY.
135
-None o f the subsidies included in the preceding table were paid in
1901; in 1902 the amount paid was so small as to be negligible. In
1903 the amount paid to persons with individual savings accounts was
very small, but that provided for savings clubs began with a sub
stantial sum and continued at approximately the same amount up to
1907. The amount provided for individuals not members o f the
unions is given for the years 1905,1906, and 1907. It was practically
the same during the three-year period.
A summary o f the receipts and expenditures for the years 1901 to
1907 o f the communal fund is given in the follow ing table:
FINANCIAL OPERATIONS OF THE COMMUNAL UNEMPLOYMENT FUNDS OF
BELGIUM, 1901 TO 1907.
Year.
1901................................................................
1902................................................................
1903................................................................
1904................................................................
1905................................................................
1906................................................................
1907................................................................
Receipts (appropriations
of.the com
munes).
32,220
8,010
11,223
11,734
13,467
16,209
19,564
Expenditures.
Subsidies.
$1,207
5,630
7,684
9,639
8,089
10,140
15,329
Administra
tion.
$405
977
921
1,117
919
1,459
2,002
Total.
$1,612
6,607
8,605
10,756
9,008
11,599
17,331
The receipts, or in other words the appropriations made by the
communes, grew from $2,220 in 1901 to $19,564 in 1907, while the
total expenditures increased from $1,612 in 1901 to $17,331 in 1907.
The institutions, for the relief o f unemployment created by em
ployers’ associations have followed the same plan as the munic
ipality o f Ghent, namely, the granting o f a subsidy to the working
men’s associations. The best-known instance o f this type o f relief
is that o f the lace manufacturers o f eastern Switzerland, who in
1906 founded an 44aid fund for the lace industries,” with head
quarters in St. Gall. The purpose o f this organization is to aid
workers out o f employment by means o f subsidies to the 44crisis
funds” o f the lace workers. The constitution provides that the
subsidy shall not be greater than 50 per cent o f the amount provided
by the workers’ fund. In Roubaix, the center o f the textile industry
o f northern France, the employers’ association has made voluntary
contributions to the communal fund established on the Ghent plan.
In Germany it is stated that the employers’ association o f the print
ing trades, in its trade agreement o f September, 1906, has agreed to
provide a subsidy for unemployment relief to the organization o f
the printers.
The council o f the city o f Strassburg, on December 27, 1906, made
an appropriation 44o f not more than 5,000 marks ” ($1,190), to be
used during the follow ing year for the purpose o f encouraging in
136
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
surance against unemployment. The regulations enacted at the same
time stated that any person out o f work who was a member o f a trade
union from which he received unemployment benefits would in ad
dition receive a subsidy from the city. This grant was limited to
those unemployed persons who had resided in Strassburg not less
than one year immediately preceding the date o f beginning o f their
unemployment, and was further restricted to cases o f involuntary un
employment not due to strikes, lockouts, sickness, or invalidity. A t
first the amount o f the subsidy is to be 50 per cent o f the rate received
from the union but not greater than 1 mark (24 cents) per day. A lto
gether 20 unions and associations, with 3,671 members, have an
nounced themselves as ready to participate in the plan o f the city
council. O f the 20 unions which agreed to the regulations only 12
have actually drawn the municipal subsidy, the others having neglec
ted to com ply with various minor, features o f the regulations, prin
cipally that requiring a residence in the city o f one year. The fo l
low ing table gives the principal facts connected with the operation
o f the fund for the year 1907:
UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE IN STRASSBURG, 1907.
Name of union.
Unemployment aided Amount of benefits
by the city.
provided by the—
Aver
age
num
Per Dajrs
ber of Cases
of
mem unem
sons unem Unions.
City.
bers. ploy unem ploy
ment. ployed. ment.
Average
amount
of bene
fits pro
vided by
city per
person
per day.
Sculptors.............................................
Bookbinders........................................
Book printers......................................
Book-printers* helpers.........................
Woodworkers......................................
Woodworkers (Christian union of)........
Lithographers.....................................
Metal workers.....................................
Blacksmiths........................................
Tobacco workers..................................
Paper hangers.....................................
Carpenters...........................................
23
51
672
137
639
61
63
1,057
68
33
36
305
7
7
62
10
67
1
6
63
1
5
11
24
2
5
31
7
39
ol
5
39
1
o2
5
16
88
77
795
115
600
18
60
498
12
78
143
134
$69.97
64 98
748.51
48.55
289.17
18.56
91.87
298.69
10.23
18.33
59.02
104 96
$13.09
14 04
185.64
11.66
90.44
1.19
13.09
73.31
1.43
5.47
21.42
18.80
$0.15
.17
.23
.10
.15
.06
.22
.15
.12
.07
.15
.14
Total..........................................
3,145
264
153
2,618
1,822.84
449.58
.17
° Women.
The report concludes that aside from the work o f the labor organi
zations and the institutions connected therewith the experience in the
field o f insurance against unemployment has hardly been favorable
and the results attained have been scanty. In the opinion o f the
writer o f the report this result is due to the fact that the insurance
is a voluntary one and that while it has been possible to do praise
worthy work in the field o f voluntary insurance much more could be
expected o f a system o f compulsory insurance.
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GREAT BRITAIN.
137
G E E A T B E IT A IN .
Annual Report o f the Chief Inspector o f Factories and Workshops
for the'year 1908 . Eeport to the Secretary o f State for the Home
Department,
xxxvi, 241 pp.
A t the end o f the year 1908 there were upon the registers o f the
factory department 110,691 factories (7,851 textile and 102,840 non
textile) and 149,398 workshops, or a total o f 260,089 establishments,
an increase over 1907 o f 2,896 establishments. The works under in
spection did not include docks, warehouses, buildings, etc., or home
work premises.
F or purposes o f inspection the United Kingdom is divided into six
inspection districts, each under a superintending inspector, as fo l
low s: Midland division, southeastern division, northeastern division,
northern division, northwestern division, and the southwestern divi
sion. The report o f each supervising inspector comprises for his
district an account o f the organization o f the working staff and the
scope o f the work o f inspection; complaints from officials, operatives,
and others respecting sanitation, safety measures, hours o f labor,
illegal employment, etc.; industrial developments and state o f trade
in the district; sanitary conditions and improvements; industrial
accidents; safety devices, their efficiency and defects, etc.; industrial
poisoning (anthrax, arsenic, mercury, lead poisoning, e tc .); dan
gerous trades; employment and hours o f labor, especially relating
to children and women; holidays, overtime, half time, night work, and
mealtimes; the employment o f children as half timers and o f those
not exempt from school; action o f the local sanitary authorities in
connection with the factory department; administration o f the law
relating to particulars for piecework; operation o f the truck acts;
prosecutions for violations o f the factory laws; inquest notices, etc.
In addition there are reports from the principal lady inspector, the
inspector o f textile particulars, the inspector for dangerous trades,
the electrical inspector, and the medical inspector. Tables presenting
in detail and in summary form statistics pertaining to the various
features o f factory and workshop employment accompany the in
spection reports.
The establishments added to the registers o f the factory department
during 1908 numbered 26,075 (365 textile and 8,096 nontextile fac
tories and 17,614 workshops), while those o f the different classes
removed from the registers numbered 23,179, resulting in a net gain
in the establishments added o f 1.1 per cent.
138
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
During 1908 there were 122,154 industrial accidents reported,
80,253 being reported to inspectors only and 41,901 to certifying sur
geons. Those reported to inspectors were nonfatal in result and
o f a minor character. In the table follow ing all reported industrial
accidents are shown by causation:
ACCIDENTS REPORTED IN GREAT BRITAIN, BY CAUSATION, 1908.
Number of accidents.
Causation.
Fatal.
Machinery moved by mechanical power:
Lifting appliances breaking—
Hoists.................................................................................................
Cranes.................................................................................................
Winches, etc.......................................................................................
Hoists, other than above............................................................................
Cranes, winches, etc., other than above.......................................................
Grindstones—
With fracture......................................................................................
Without fracture.................................................................................
Emery wheels bursting..............................................................................
Revolving vessels and wheels bursting.......................................................
Circular saws.............................................................................................
Lathes......................................................................................................
Presses and punches..................................................................................
Shuttles....................................................................................................
Self-acting mules.......................................................................................
Rolling stock on lines................................................................................
Mill gearing—
Shafts.................................................................................................
Pulleys and drums..............................................................................
Belts...................................................................................................
Other accidents to mill gearing.............................................................
Other accidents to machinery moved by mechanical power.........................
Machinery not moved by mechanical power:
Cranes......................................................................................................
Presses for metal articles............................................................................
Other accidents to machinery not moved by mechanical power...................
Struck by falling body....................................................................................
Persons falling................................................................................................
Struck by tools in use......................................................................................
Fire................................................................................................................
All other.........................................................................................................
Total.....................................................................................................
Nonfatal.
2
13
6
37
64
27
133
68
544
2,854
4
1
3
2
5
1
3
1
67
23
609
66
16
2,225
2,898
1,562
262
1,275
437
44
4
18
10
88
287
302
1,119
227
18,332
12
99
313
6
10
239
650
147
674
17,714
15,305
4,595
70
48,691
1,042
121,112
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GREAT BRITAIN.
139
The 41,901 accidents reported to the certifying surgeons are shown
in the follow ing table by industry and causation:
NUMBER OF ACCIDENTS IN EACH CLASS OF CAUSATION REPORTED TO CERTI
FYING SURGEONS, BY INDUSTRY, 1908.
Number of accidents in each class of causation.
Industry.
Textile:
Cotton spinning.....................................
Cotton weaving......................................
Wool, worsted^shoddy...........................
Silk, lace, hosiery.... ............................
Flax, hemp, jute....................................
Other textiles.........................................
Nontextile:
Printing, bleaching, dyeing.....................
Laundries......... *...................................
Gas........................................................
Electrical-generation stations..................
Wood....................................................
Clay, stone, etc.......................................
Glass......................................................
Metal, extraction....................................
Metal, founding......................................
Metal, galvanizing..................................
Machines, appliances, etc.—
Marine engineering...........................
Shipbuilding....................................
Locomotives, automotors..................
Others.............................................
Chemicals, etc........................................
Furniture, etc........................................
Food......................................................
Aerated waters.......................................
Other drink...........................................
Clothing.................................................
Paper, printing, etc................................
Explosives.............................................
Other uontextile industries.....................
Docks..........................................................
Warehouses..................................................
Construction of buildings..............................
Ma
Total
chinery Molten
acci
moved metal, Explo Escape Elec Other dents.
by me hot
of
gas
or
sion.
tricity.
causes.
chan liquids.
steam.
ical
power.
2,647
987
1,321
263
851
16
106
43
51
12
13
13
2
10
2
7
1
19
11
6
5
4
1
521
372
149
56
2,833
479
69
305
2,883
474
118
34
76
14
10
33
27
453
2,940
55
21
5
43
14
16
11
13
95
199
12
24
7
86
18
14
13
7
85
215
11
670
1,083
1,349
7,974
434
527
888
132
384
992
1,537
64
1,419
1,612
135
203
22
74
77
240
205
23
205
23
56
19
55
7
75
12
2
43
21
65
43
144
69
11
31
272
99
14
18
4
49
9
3
25
Total................................................... 33,629
5,123
1,341
4764—No. 83—09-----10
11
5
11
1
6
1
2,801
1,048
1,399
278
882
18
2
75
1
3
1
13
40
1
5
1
10
3
13
26
3
21
34
1
690
419
366
180
2,887
565
120
972
6,311
554
14
24
44
116
89
4
21
1
15
3
22
4
19
6
3
1
3
34
24
85
13
1
3
8
96
4
46
19
4
11
1
1
4
21
3
5
2
4
1
2
15
81
12
104
738
1,376
1,541
8,605
829
570
1,159
428
576
1,032
1,641
79
1,579
1,724
156
378
906
321
581
41,901
1
140
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR,
In the table follow ing the accidents reported to certifying surgeons
are shown by degree o f injury and by sex and age:
NUMBER OF ACCIDENTS REPORTED TO CERTIFYING SURGEONS AS OCCURRING
TO ADULTS, YOUNG PERSONS, AND CHILDREN, OF BOTH SEXES, BY DEGREE
OF INJURY, 1908.
Number of accidents reported as occurring to—
Degree of injury.
persons
Adults (18 years Young
(13 and under
and over).
18 years).(«)
Children (12
and under 14
years).
Persons
of all
ages.
Fe
Fe
Fe
Males. males. Males. males. Males. males.
929
Fatal...........................................................
44
Loss of right hand or arm..............................
43
Loss of left hand or arm................................
967
Loss of part of right hand..............................
Loss of part of left hand................................ 1,098
61
Loss of part of leg or foot...............................
626
Fracture of limb or of bones of trunk.............
558
Fracture of hand or foot................................
29
Loss of sight of one or both eyes....................
Other injury to eyes..................................... 1,697
Injury to head or face................................... 2,411
Bum or scald............................................... 4,483
Wounds, bruises, and other injuries not speci
fied above................................................. 16,215
2,444
4,563
1,558
Total.................................................. 29,161
3,490
6,908
2,153
10
8
2
182
164
41
70
7
47
323
192
95
8
17
330
333
15
170
138
4
219
262
754
7
3
1
143
76
2
16
40
3
5
131
168
1
6
3
1
9
8
3
1
1
8
10
6
10
1,042
63
63
1,629
1,674
78
865
815
44
1,968
3,141
5,617
87
35
24,902
132
57
41,901
• Young persons are persons 14 and under 18 years of age, but may include persons 13
years of age who have obtained from the board of education a certificate of proficiency or
attendance at school.
The follow ing table shows the number o f cases o f industrial poison
ing reported in the year 1908, by disease and industry, as well as the
number which resulted fatally. A ll but 3 o f the fatal accidents were
among male adults.
141
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- GREAT BRITAIN.
NUMBER OF CASES OF INDUSTRIAL POISONING REPORTED TO CERTIFYING
SURGEONS AS OCCURRING TO ADULTS, YOUNG PERSONS, AND CHILDREN, OF
EOTH SEXES, BY DISEASE AND INDUSTRY, 1908.
Number of cases of poisoning reported as
occurring to—
Disease and industry.
Adults (18
years and
over).
Young per
sons (13 and
under 18
years).
Persons of
all ages.
Num
ber of
cases
result
ing fa
tally.
Fe Males. Fe Males. Fe
Males. males.
males.
males.
Lead poisoning:
Smelting of metals...........................................
Brass works....................................................
ftlieetlfta<l a n d 1Aad p i p in g .__ .... ..............................
Plumbing and soldering. T...............................
Printing” .......................................................
File cutting.....................................................
T in n in g a m i a n a m a lin g n f iron hollow ware......
Enameling of iron plates..................................
White lead......................................................
Red and yellow lead........................................
China and earthen ware..................................
Litho-transfers................................................
Glass cutting and polishing..............................
Electric accumulators......................................
Paints and colors.............................................
Coach m a k in g ...................................................................
Shipbuilding...................................................
Use of paint in other industries........................
Other processes................................................
3
24
25
68
15
37
59
Total...........................................................
70
6
13
25
28
8
9
5
78
12
51
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
55
2
5
6
70
6
13
25
28
8
9
6
78
12
56
3
25
25
68
15
37
61
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
0 12
2
10
17
3
1
65
545
101
32
2
i
l
536
92
9
9
Barometer and thermometer m a k in g .....................
Furriers..........................................................
Other industries..............................................
2
2
3
3
2
2
3
3
Total...........................................................
7
3
7
3
1
Arsenic poisoning:
Faints, colors, and extraction of arsenic............
Other industries..............................................
13
6
3
Total...........................................................
19
3
Anthrax:
Wool..............................................................
Horsehair........................................................
Hides and skins..............................................
Other industries..............................................
15
4
12
6
3
3
1
1
1
1
13
7
3
1
1
20
3
1
3
1
15
7
13
6
3
3
3
Total...........................................................
37
6
4
Grand total..................................................
599
105
14
a Including 2 females.
3
6i
2
9
16
Phosphorus poisoning:
Lucifer matches..............................................
2
2
9
1
3
41
6
7
613
114
40
6 Including 1 male young person.
The report o f the inspector for dangerous trades shows that during
1908 there were in the United Kingdom , where particular dangers
arise and special precautions are necessary, 19,688 industrial estab
lishments operating under special rules and regulations.
W ith the consent o f all the interested parties an act was passed
December 21,1908, prohibiting the manufacture o f white phosphorus
matches after January 1, 1910, or the offering o f the same fo r sale
after the first o f the follow ing year.
142
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
R eport o f the C hief Inspector o f Factories on the Adm inistration of
the Factory and "Workshop A c t, 1901, by Local Authorities in
respect o f W orkshops, Outwork, etc., in the year 1907 . Report to
the Secretary o f State fo r the Home Department, iii, 14 pp.
This document is a summary o f the reports made to the chief
inspector o f factories by the local health officers who have in charge
the administration o f certain features o f the Factory and W orkshop
A ct, especially those provisions which apply to home workers. Out
o f 2,942 reports due from the various localities o f the United K ing
dom, 2,341 were received and are included in this report.
During the year 1907 there were 498,084 inspections o f factories,
workshops, laundries, and work places other than those o f home
workers, made by the local authorities. Defects were found in such
work places in 65,225 cases, 24,918 being due to want o f cleanliness,
13,875 to insufficient or unsuitable sanitary accommodations, and
2,867 to overcrowding and want o f ventilation. These defects were
remedied in 61,449 cases, 352 cases were referred to the factory in
spectors, and in 76 cases prosecutions were instituted.
Lists are required to be sent twice in each year to the local authori
ties containing the names, addresses, and places o f employment o f
all persons employed outside o f the factory or workshop o f the em
ployer. From those employers who complied strictly with this regu
lation, 16,982 lists o f outworkers were received, and from those who
made but one report, 4,084 lists.
The approximate number o f work people included in the lists o f
outworkers reported by employers is shown for each specified indus
try in the follow ing table:
APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF OUTWORKERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM INCLUDED
IN LISTS RECEIVED FROM EMPLOYERS, BY COUNTRIES AND BY INDUS
TRIES, 1907.
Industry.
Wearing apparel:
Making, etc ................................................................................
Cleaning and washing.......................................................
Lace, lace curtains, and nets...................................................
England
and
Scotland. Ireland.
Wales.
3,145
4,794
29
11
3
37
55
21
pea picking.....................................................................................
86,000
308
5,362
314
845
119
947
151
1
571
1,656
2,572
39
1,265
144
68
1,937
1,833
853
5
215
428
Total...........................................................’. ...............
105,633
3,700
Artificial flowers..............................................................................
Nets, other than wire nets......................................................
Sacks.....................................................................................
Furniture and upholstery.......................................................
Fur pulling............................................................................
Feather sorting.......................................................................
Umbrellas, etc........................................................................
Carding buttons, etc...............................................................
Paper bags and boxes............................................................
Baskets.............................................................................................
Brushes.............................................................................................
Racquet and tennis balls........................................................
Stuffed toys......................................................................................
Files..................................................................................................
Electroplating.......................................................... ................ .
Cables and chains............................................................................
Cart gear...........................................................................................
Locks, latches, and keys................................................................
63
347
11
1
44
6
49
2
15
1
4
9
7
3
4
4,961
United
King
dom.
93,939
308
5,402
317
945
521
979
152
1
621
1,656
2,636
40
1,271
144
68
1,937
1,849
853
8
219
428
114,294
FOREIGN STATISTICAL. PUBLICATIONS— GREAT BRITAIN.
143
During the year 102,549 inspections were made o f outworkers’
premises. In 3,298 instances outwork was found to be carried on in
unwholesome premises. In 1,948 such cases notice o f the conditions
was given the employer in writing, and in 3 cases prosecutions were
instituted. In 1,658 instances outwork was found to be carried on in
premises in which persons were found to be suffering from infectious
diseases, and in 640 cases orders were issued forbidding any work to
be given out to persons living or working in such premises. The
authorities in several localities were able to secure improved condi
tions in respect to unwholesome or infected premises by means o f
verbal instructions.
IT A L Y .
Inchiesta sul Lavovo Festivo in Italia e Studi sulla Legislazione
Estera. Ufficio del Lavoro, Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e
Commercio.
1906.
x, 218 pp.
This volume presents the results o f an inquiry undertaken by the
Italian Labor Office into the question o f employment on Sundays
and holidays. The movement originated in the desire o f the Italian
Government to secure the necessary information fo r reaching con
clusions as to the kinds o f Sunday and holiday labor required by
technical and economic reasons and by the interests o f the public
with a view to the restriction o f unnecessary labor o f this sort.
The two general divisions o f the inquiry relate to productive in
dustry and to commerce and service, under which latter term are
included transportation, news service, restaurants, drug stores,
theaters, etc. The extent, nature, frequency, and causes o f such labor
were inquired into fo r each industry in the various provinces, the
presentation being by industries. No summaries are presented.
A n investigation by the Belgian Government on the same subject
receives considerable attention, and the laws o f various European
countries and o f the United States are presented, as well as drafts
o f laws proposed for enactment by the Italian Parliament.
It may be added that an act o f July 7,1907, provided for a weekly
day o f rest, to fall normally on the Sabbath, with exceptions for ne
cessity, and provisions for the allowance o f another day where the
Sabbath can not for any reason be allowed.
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
[Except in cases of special interest, the decisions here presented are restricted
to those rendered by the federal courts and the higher courts of the States and
Territories. Only material portions of such decisions are reproduced, intro
ductory and explanatory matter being given in the words of the editor.]
D E C ISIO N S U N D ER S TA TU T E L A W .
A ssignments of W ages— R ights of A ssignees— P riority of W age
C laim s over C laim s of M ortgagees— C onstruction of S tatute —
Union Trust Company v. Southern Sawmills and Lumber Company.
United States Circuit Court o f Appeals, 166 Federal Reporter , page
193 .—This was a case involving a receivership o f the property o f a
corporation and the rights o f mortgagees-as against other claimants.
The Union Trust Company was a claimant on the grounds o f having
advanced money for the payment o f wages, to secure which it had
accepted assignments o f the claims o f laborers. These were held to
be superior to the claims o f a mortgagee, in accordance with the
statutes o f the State o f North Carolina, within whose boundaries the
property involved was situated. The opinion o f the court was de
livered by Judge W addill, the portion relating to the assignee’s
rights reading in the main as follow s:
Considering the claims above set forth in this subdivision, they
consist o f three items aggregating $6,407.50, and are for obligations
incurred by the defendant company, prior to the receivership, to
laborers, on account o f which claims the amounts thereof were ad
vanced to the laborers by the assignors o f the present holders o f the
claims, who hold the assignments by the laborers who did the work,
and to whom the company’s obligations were given, and for these
claims receiver’s certificates were likewise issued shortly after the
receivership. The holders o f these claims insist that, irrespective o$
their receiver’s certificates, they are entitled to he paid the amounts
due under the statute o f North Carolina hereinafter recited, and that
they stand in the place and stead o f the laborers who assigned the
claims, under the statute in question. Appellees, on the other hand,
say that the statute under which they claim has no application, and
that in any event the claimants are not entitled to the benefit o f such
statute because the advancements were to and upon the credit o f the
company, and not to the laborers themselves. The facts under which
these several labor claims were acquired by the holders thereof were
substantially these: The Southern Sawmills and Lumber Company
executed notes to Edmund & W hite for $2,957.50 and $982.50, re
spectively, which were indorsed by Edmund & W hite to the Bank o f
Lumberton, and upon their indorsement the bank loaned the. money
144
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
145
to Edmund & W hite, who, with said money, paid the pay rolls o f
the company covering wages due laborers for the months o f August
and September, 1902, which said pay rolls carried assignments from
the laborers to Edmund & W hite, o f which the Southern Sawmills
and Lumber Company had full notice. Edmund & W hite did not
deal directly with the laborers, but Mr. Morrow, superintendent o f
the Southern Sawmills and Lumber Company, obtained the pay rolls
and assignments and paid the wages to the laborers, as agent for
Edmund & W hite, and Edmund & W hite were paid a commission by
the Southern Sawmills and Lumber Company, for obtaining the
money. And as to the certificate issued to E. E. Barnes for $2,467.50,
the facts are as follow s: On October 20,1902, the Southern Sawmills
and Lumber Company, being in need o f funds with which to pay its
laborers, applied to E. E. Barnes, who furnished the same to the
laborers, and took assignments from them for their wages, together
with the written consent to said transaction o f the sawmills com
pany. In this case, officers o f the sawmills company acted for Barnes
m procuring the assignments from the laborers.
The Supreme Court o f the United States, in the case o f Shropshire,
W oodliff & Co. v. Bush, 204 U. S. 186, 27 Sup. Ct. 178, 51 L. Ed. 436,
settles clearly the right to assign labor claims, and the right to subro
gation to the purchaser o f the lien o f the laborers. It may be as
sumed as the settled doctrine, unless the claim is for money bona fide
advanced to laborers, and upon the faith o f their preference, for the
amounts due them, as distinguished from a mere advance to the
company o f money with which to pay laborers, that the purchaser o f
such labor claims does not become subrogated to the rights o f the
laborer whose claim is assigned. W e think the transaction as shown
by the record, fairly considered and construed, entitled the holders
or these claims to the benefit o f whatever lien or right the laborer
possessed, and that the money was advanced on the faith o f the
preference to which the laborer was supposed to be entitled as dis
tinguished from the credit o f the company. This was the view taken
by the special master, and concurred in by the circuit judge, and we
are not inclined to differ from their view, though the two claims
assigned to Edmund & W hite come dangerously near the border line
o f claims that can not be given preference to because o f the relation
o f the debtor company to the transaction. W e allow the same, how
ever, inasmuch as the money to pay the laborers was actually pro
cured from the bank by Edmund & W hite, upon their indorsement
and by their agent paid to the laborers, who in turn took the assign
ment in their favor from the laborers, and the money was subse
quently repaid to the bank by Edmund & W hite.
This brings us to the status o f the claims themselves as against the
bondholders [whose claims were protected by a m ortgage]. A ppel
lants maintain that presumably claims o f this class could not be paid
out o f the corpus o f the estate, nor would the court have authority to
issue receiver’s certificates making them so payable out o f the corpus
o f the estate preferentially over the bondholders. (Cook on Corpo
rations (5th E d.) vol. 3, pp. 2459, 2460.) But the question in this
case is whether or not these claims are not entitled to priority under
the statute o f North Carolina providing for payment o f debts o f this
character over the mortgage indebtedness. The statute is contained
146
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
in section 1255 (now section 1131 o f the Revisal o f 1905 o f the Laws
o f North Carolina), and is as follow s:
“ Mortgages o f corporations upon their property or earnings,
whether in bonds or otherwise, shall not have power to exempt the
property or earnings o f such corporations from execution for the
satisfaction o f any judgment obtained in courts o f the State against
such corporations for labor performed, nor torts committed by such
corporation whereby any person is killed or any person or property
injured, any clause or clauses in such mortgage to the contrary not
withstanding.”
This statute has been passed upon by the court o f last resort o f
North Carolina, by this court, and recently by a decision o f the Su
preme Court o f the United States, on appeal from this court
(Guardian Trust Co. v. Fisher, 200 U. S. 57, 26 Sup. Ct. 186; Hamp
ton v. N. & W . R. Co., 127 Fed. 662, 62 C. C. A . 388; Railroad Co. v.
Burnett, 123 N. C. 210, 31 S. E. 602.)
It is earnestly insisted in behalf o f the appellants that, because no
form al judgment has been rendered for payment o f these claims, this
statute has no application, and that the laborers can only be paid, i f
anything, fo r such sums as may be due them for labor not exceeding
a period o f two months next preceding the time o f the receivership,
as provided in section 1206 o f the Revisal o f 1905. W e do not con
cur in this view o f the law. This latter section, giving to laborers
o f insolvent corporations a specific lien upon the assets o f the com
pany for two months’ wages, at least was not intended to militate
against rights that they m ight otherwise have under existing law for
debts due them. This section gives a special lien for certain wages.
The other section (1131) gives them a right o f priority 'as to debts
for labor generally, and as against which the prior and. subsequent
mortgages o f the corporation are void. (Railroad Co. v. Burnett,
123 N. C. 210, 216, 31 S. E. 602.) M anifestly the two statutes should
each be given effect where it can be done, rather than to declare in
operative one o f them. (Boston Safe Deposit Co. v. Hudson, 68 Fed.
760, 15 C. C. A . 651.) The statute (section 1131) is exceedingly
comprehensive in its terms, and was intended manifestly to prevent
corporations within the State o f North Carolina, and those doing
business with them, from avoiding the payment o f obligations due to
laborers. The language o f the statute is peculiar, “ shall not have
power to exempt the property or earnings o f such corporation from
execution for the satisfaction o f any judgment obtained in,the courts
o f the State against such corporation, for labor perform ed, nor torts
committed by such , corporation ” etc., which language, as construed
by this court, and the supreme court o f North Carolina, in the last
cited cases, makes, as to the particular indebtedness, the mortgage
void altogether. The contention made, that in an administration suit
o f the affairs o f a corporation it w ould be necessary to actually pro
cure a judgment for the labor claim, would be an extremely narrow,
instead o f a liberal interpretation o f this statute (Foster’s Fed. Prac.
243; Thomas v . Railroad (C. C.) 91 Fed. 202), and, in any event, it
would hardly seem to avail to defeat altogether the payment o f a just
claim due for labor, for the reason that with such claim, the fund in
hand, and the amount undisputed, if the only objection to its pay
ment was that it had not been reduced to judgment, the court would
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
147
at least withhold the distribution o f that part o f the fund until an
opportunity was afforded to obtain the judgm ent; and it can hardly
be doubted that the decree o f a court o f equity in such a suit, adjudg
ing the amount o f the claim, and that it was due for labor, would to
all intents and purposes be such a judgment as would meet the re
quirements o f the statute, according to its true intent, meaning, and
spirit. These claims were confessedly o f the class entitled to be paid
under the statute for labor performed, and were seasonably presented
by persons entitled to present them and claim the benefit or the stat
ute; and the court passed upon the character and amount o f the
claims, and by its decree awarded certificates to pay for them. The
fact that receiver’s certificates, technically, should not have been
issued upon the then state o f the pleadings does not affect the decree
o f the court in determining the character and amount o f these claims,
and as such entitles them to payment under the peculiar statute with
which we are dealing, out o f the corpus o f the property, prior to the
bondholders.
Contract of E mployment — I ntent to D efraud— C onstitution
of S tatute — I mprisonment for D ebt— B ailey v. State ,
Supreme Court o f Alabama , 48 Southern Reporter , page 498 .—
a lity
Alonzo Bailey was convicted o f procuring advances under a fraudu
lent contract o f employment, and was imprisoned. An application
for a w rit o f habeas corpus was refused, whereupon he appealed to
the supreme court o f the State, which affirmed the ruling o f the court
below. The only point involved was the constitutionality o f section
6845 o f the Code o f 1907 (sec. 4730, Cr. Code, 1896, amended Aug.
15, 1907), which penalizes the fraudulent procuring o f advances on
written contracts o f employment. The constitutionality o f this sec
tion was upheld, as appears from the follow ing quotation from the
opinion o f the court, delivered by Judge Denson:
The statute, in its form as section 4730 o f the Code o f 1896, came
before this court for construction in the case o f E x parte Riley, 94
Ala., 82, 10 South. 528, and there it was clearly pointed out that a
mere breach o f contract is not by the statute made a crime, but that
the criminal feature o f the statute consists in the entering into a con
tract with the intent to injure or defraud the employer, and the
refusal o f the employee to perform the contract, with a like intent.
(D orsey’s case, 111 Ala. 40, 20 South. 629; M cIntosh’s case, 117 Ala.
128, 23 South. 668.) In neither o f the cases cited was the constitu
tionality o f the statute presented for consideration; but in the case
o f State v. Yann, 150 Ala. 66, 43 South. 357, the constitutionality o f
the statute, as section 4730 o f the Code o f 1896, was presented fo r
determination, and it was there insisted that the statute was obnox
ious to the twentieth section o f the B ill o f Rights o f 1901, which is
in this language: “ That no person shall be imprisoned for debt.”
The insistence was overturned and the statute was held not to be un
constitutional, the court, as the basis o f the ruling, again pointing out
the fact that “ a mere breach o f contract is not by the statute made a
crime,” but that the criminal feature consists in the intent to injure
148
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
or defraud. This intent to injure or defraud marks the line o f
cleavage between the statute in judgment and the one approved
March 1, 1901 (A cts 1900-1901, p. 1208), which made it a misde
meanor for any person, who had contracted in w riting to labor for
or serve another for any given time, etc., and who, before the expira
tion o f such contract, and without the consent o f the other party, and
without sufficient excuse (to be judged by the court), shall leave such
other party, etc. This last statute was by Judge Jones o f the federal
court held to be obnoxious to the state constitution (Peonage cases
[D . C.] 123 Fed. 671 [Bulletin No. 50, p. 1 7 5 ]); and was by this court
held to be unconstitutional in Toney’s case, l i l Ala. 120, 37 South.
332 [Bulletin No. 57, p. 684], because o f the restrictions it attempts
to place on the right to make contracts. These two cases are now
urged as authority in support o f the insistence o f appellant that the
statute under consideration is violative o f the constitution, and we
are asked to overrule the Yann case, supra. W hile it is clear that a
mere breach o f contract can not be made the foundation for a crim
inal offense, and that undue restrictions can not be placed on the
right o f an individual to enter into contracts, yet when the indi
vidual enters into a contract, with the intention to perpetrate a
fraud, it is equally obvious that he passes over the constitutional
boundary line in respect to the free right to contract; and it is within
legislative competency to enact a law penalizing the entering into a
contract with such intent, and obtaining money or other personal
property through such agency. This is all that is effectuated by the
legislation in question. On its face the purpose is to punish fraudu
lent practices, not the mere failure to pay a debt. Thus considered,
it is constitutional. W ithout further extension o f the argument we
not only decline to depart from the ruling made in Vann’s case, on
this subject, but reaffirm it.
In E x parte Biley, 94 Ala. 82, 83, 10 South. 528, 529; it was said:
“ As the intent is the design, purpose, resolve, or determination in the
mind o f the accused, it can rarely be proved by direct evidence, but
must be ascertained by means o f inferences from the facts and cir
cumstances developed by the proof. In the absence, however, o f evi
dence from which such inferences may be drawn, the jury are not
justified in indulging in mere unsupported conjectures, speculations,
or suspicions as to the intentions which were not disclosed by any
visible or tangible act, expression, or circumstance.” It is' no doubt
true that the difficulty in proving the intent, made patent by that de
cision, suggested the amendment o f 1903 (Gen. Acts 1903, p. 345) to
the statute, which provides that the refusal or failure o f a person who
enters into such contract to perform such act or service, or refund
such money, or pay for such property, without just cause, shall be
prima facie evidence o f the intent to injure or defraud his employer.
This amendment has twice been declared by this court to be a con
stitutional enactment. (Thomas’ case, 144 Ala. 77, 40 South. 271, 2
L. R. A . (N . S .) 1011,113 Am. St. Rep. 17; Vann’s case, 150 Ala. 66,
43 South. 357.) However, these cases are here assailed, and the con
clusions reached therein are vigorously combated in brief o f appel
lant’s counsel. A reexamination o f those cases, together with the
consideration o f others, has not only not shaken our faith in the
correctness o f the conclusion there reached, but confirmed it, and we
decline to recede therefrom.
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
149
E mployers’ L iability — E mployment of C hildren in V iolation
S tatute— C ontributory N egligence— C ourse of E mployment —
Strafford v. Republic Iron and Steel Company, Supreme Court o f
Illinois , 87 Northeastern Reporter , page 858 .— Russell Strafford sued
of
the company named to recover damages for an injury received while
in its service contrary to law, he being under 14 years o f age, which
is the minimum fixed by the law o f the State. Judgment was in the
child’s favor in the circuit court o f Rock Island County, and was
affirmed on appeal to the appellate court. The same result follow ed
a further appeal to the supreme court o f the State, as appears from
the follow in g. extracts from its opinion, which was delivered by
Judge Farm er:
It was a controverted question o f fact on the trial whether appellee
was set at the work he was perform ing when injured by appellant’s
foreman, or whether he had been set to do other work, which he quit
without orders to do so, and, without any directions from the fore
man, but against his orders, began the work o f feeding angle irons
into the machine, which he was engaged in doing when injured. The
proof offered by appellee tended to show he was set at the work he
was engaged at when injured by the foreman, while the proof offered
by appellant tended to show he was set at other work and ordered
not to work at the straightening machine. Appellant’s contention is
that it was incumbent upon appellee to prove his injury was the
direct and proximate result o f the unlawful employment, and that if
he had o f his own accord left the work he was employed for, and
directed to do and attempted to do a different character o f work
which he was forbidden to do, and was injured while so engaged, and
his own negligence contributed to the injury then there can be no
recovery.
In American Car Co. v . Armentraut, 214 111. 509, 73 N. E. 766,
[Bulletin No. 59, p. 335] it was held that one o f the purposes o f
the statute was to protect children from their own immaturity, inex
perience, and heedlessness, and that, where a child under 14 years
o f age employed in violation o f the statute was injured while en
gaged in the performance o f the work he was directed to do, the
negligence o f the child, though it may have contributed to the injury,
was no defense to the liability o f the employer.
Appellant, assuming the iact to be as contended by it, that ap
pellee had o f his own accord left the work he was employed and
directed to do and engaged in work he was forbidden to perform
when injured, argues that there is no more reason for saying his
injury resulted from his employment than there would be if he had,
while in appellant’s employment, been struck by lightning. It is
true liability does not depend alone upon the employment, but the
injury must be a consequence o f such employment. The mere fact
that a child employed in violation o f law receives an injury in nowise
resulting from the employment would not create a liability. But
such is not the case here. The vital and distinguishing fact here
is that appellee was employed by appellant to labor in its manu
facturing establishment and while engaged in perform ing services
for it in said establishment he was injured. He was in appellant’s
150
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
plant by virtue o f his employment to work for it, and the fact that
he may have temporarily abandoned the work he was employed and
directed to do and engaged in a forbidden line we think does not
destroy the causal relation between the employment and the injury,
and, if it does not, contributory negligence o f appellee would con
stitute no defense, and the court did not err in refusing to submit
that question to the jury. It
pellant to hold that, having
labor in its plant, it is liable t _______
v
___
resulting from the performance o f services for it, whether those
services were in the line he was directed to perform or not.
The fact that the statute under consideration does not in express
terms provide a liability in damages for its violation, as is done by
certain statutes relating to mines and miners, can make no difference
under the construction given the statute in American Car Co. v.
Armentraut, supra. The statute was enacted fo r the protection
o f the health and safety o f children, and a liability for damages
resulting from its violation is created whether it is expressly so
declared in the statute or not.
E mployers’ L iability — R ailroad C ompanies— C onstruction of
S tatute— A ssumption of R isk — A cts in E mergencies— Cleveland ,
Cincinnati, Chicago and S t. Louis Railway Company v. Bossert, A p
pellate Court o f Indiana, 87 Northeastern Reporter , page 158.— Abra
ham Bossert had recovered damages for the death o f one Scoonover,
o f whose estate he was administrator. The latter was employed by
the company named as a section hand and met his death while aiding
to remove hurriedly a hand car from the track to clear the way for an
approaching train. Various errors were alleged as grounds for re
versing judgment, none o f which the appellate court allowed, and
the judgment o f the court below was affirmed.
The opinion o f the court, which was delivered by Judge Watson,
discussed among other matters the elements o f a valid complaint
under the statute on which the action was grounded and the status
o f an employer disregarding a statutory duty. It is in the main as
follow s:
1. The complaint is founded upon section 1, cl. 2, employers’ lia
bility act 1893, p. 294, c. 130 (section 7083, Burns’ Ann. St. 1901),
which provides “ that every railroad * * * shall be liable for
damages for personal injuries suffered by any employee while in its
service, the employee so injured being in. the exercise o f due care
and diligence, m the follow ing cases: Second. Where such injury
resulted from the negligence o f any person in the service o f such
corporation, to whose order or direction the injured employee at
the time o f the injury was bound to conform and did conform .” F or
a complaint to be good under this act it must show that defendant
is a railroad (F t. Wayne Gas Co. v. Nieman, 33 Ind. A pp. 178-181,
71 N. E. 59); that the injured employee was conform ing to the order
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
151
and direction o f some person in the service o f the railroad whose
order and direction he was bound to obey, and did obey, and that
while thus com plying with such order or direction, himself without
fault, he was injured by the negligence o f the employee to whose
order he was conform ing (Indianapolis, etc., Transit Co. v. Foreman,
162 Ind. 85-94, 69 N. E. 669, 102 Am. St. Rep. 185; Ft. Wayne Gas
Company v. Nieman, 33 Ind. App. 178-181, 182, 71 N. E. 59); that
the employee had no knowledge o f the danger, for, if so, he is deemed
to have assumed the risk as an incident o f his employment (Louisville
Ry. Co. v.mCorps, 124 Ind. 427, 428, 24 N. E. 1046, 8 L. R. A . 636).
The doctrine o f assumed risk is read into the above-quoted statute,
thus making that doctrine a part thereof (Am er. R olling M ill Co. v.
Hullinger, 161 Ind. 673-675-683, 67 N. E. 986, 69 N. E. 460; W hit
comb v. Standard Oil Co., 153 Ind. 513, 55 N. E., 440); otherwise
if the injury is due to the negligent nonobservance o f a positive and
fixed duty required by statute (Island Coal Co. v. Swaggerty, 159
Ind. 664-667, 62 N. E. 1103, 65 N. E. 1026). As said in Monteith v.
Kokomo, etc., Co., 159 Ind. 149-151, 64 N. E. 610, 58 L. R. A . 944:
“ A distinction is to be noted between statutes such as the employers5
liability act, which provides in general terms that the employer shall
be liable for injuries to an employee, * * * and statutes which
require o f the employer the performance o f a specific duty. * * *
Statutes o f the form er class do little more than declare the rule o f the
common law. Statutes o f the latter class impose specific obligations.
A violation o f the second is an unlawful act or omission, a plain
breach o f a particular duty owing to the servant, and generally
constitutes negligence per se.” Assumption o f risk is negatived in
a complaint by averments showing that plaintiff had no knowledge
o f the danger, or o f facts and circumstances which, if he had known,
would have apprised him o f his peril. But the danger must not
appear to have been open and obvious, else it w ill be presumed that
the risk was assumed. The complaint need not, however, negative
knowledge which the law imputes by reason o f a person contracting
for and engaging in a particular service. In this State to allege
want o f knowledge negatives also imputed knowledge. (Amer. R oll
ing M ill Co. v. Hullinger, supra; Pennsylvania Co. v. W itte, 15 Ind.
App. 583,43 N. E. 319, 44 N. E. 377; Consolidated Stone Co. v. Sum
mit, 152 Ind. 297-299, 300, 53 N. E. 235.) Assumption o f risk is
an element distinct from contributory negligence, and is not affected
by section 362, Burns5 Ann. St. 1908, providing that want o f con
tributory negligence need not be alleged, but shall be a matter o f
defense. (Cleveland C., C. & St. L. Ry. Co. v. Scott, 29 Ind. App.
519-531-533, 64 N. E. 896; Bowles v. Ind. Ry. Co., 27 Ind. App. 672,
62 N. E. 94, 87 Am. St. Rep. 279; Baltimore & O. S. W . R. Co. v.
Hunsucker, 33 Ind. App. 27, 70 N. E. 556; Indianapolis Transit
Co. v. Foreman, supra.) One is a matter o f contract; the other o f
conduct. (W ortman v. Minich, 28 Ind. App. 31-36, 62 N. E. 85.)
Hence an allegation that plaintiff was injured “ without any fault or
negligence on his p a rt55 does not take the place o f an averment show
ing that the risk was not knowingly assumed by plaintiff as an inci
dent o f the service. (Indianapolis Transit Co. v. Foreman, supra.)
The complaint is clear in each o f its essential requirements. Appel
lant’s demurrer to the complaint was therefore properly overruled.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
152
BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR.
3. Appellant’s third assignment o f error for a new trial, viz., that
the verdict is contrary to the law and the evidence, is all that we
shall consider. Assumption o f risk was negatived in the complaint
by allegations showing that plaintiff, in pursuance o f the command
o f Wm. Scoonover, proceeded to remove the hand car from the track
without knowledge o f facts calculated to apprise him o f the imme
diate danger in the undertaking, which was a sufficient negation o f
assumption o f risk to establish a prima facie case. The evidence
shows very clearly that the rules o f the company required section
hands to be prepared at all times for extra trains, and under the
present system ox operating schedules by telegraph the rule could not
well be otherwise. F or this reason, and in the absence o f any evi
dence to the contrary, we must conclude that Benjamin Scoonover
assumed the duty and the risk o f looking out for extra trains as an
incident and a part o f his employment as section hand. Adm itting
that the risk o f removing hand cars from the track to allow trains to
pass was ordinarily assumed by Benjamin Scoonover as an incident
and a part o f his employment as section hand, he can not be presumed
to have assumed such a risk when ordered, as in this case, to remove
a hand car by a person in charge and with authority to give and
enforce such an order. In Terre Haute, etc., R. Co. v. Rittenhouse,
28 Ind. A pp. 633-640, 641, 62 N. E. 295, 29<T, the court said: “ W e
think the general rule under the employers’ liability act is that where
one in the service o f a railroad * * * has power and authority
to direct and control the work o f another employee, the form er must
be regarded as a superior o f the master, and not a fellow-servant. In
such case the negligence o f the superior is the negligence o f the cor
poration. * * * 4The object o f the statute was to make one to
whom is committed by a railway company the authority to direct and
control employees in the same service the representative, in respect
to that service, o f the common employer, so that his acts, within the
scope o f his employment, are the acts o f the company, and his negli
gence its negligence.” In the case at bar Benjamin Scoonover was
acting under the order and direction o f the foreman, whose orders
and directions he was bound by the terms o f his employment to obey
so long as the orders given were within the scope o f said foreman’s
employment. W e believe that the order in this case, “ H elp get this
hand car off the track,” was properly given within the scope o f the
general authority o f the section foreman in controlling and directing
work upon his section, and, as such, was the order o f the railroad
company fo r the negligence o f which it is liable.
4. Appellant’s attempt to show, by a series o f tests and experiments,
that Benjamin Scoonover might have saved him self from injury had
he not been negligent; that he had four seconds in which to step off
the track after the train came in sight, etc. But it must be realized
that Benjamin Scoonover was not perform ing an experiment in
attempting to get the hand car off the track. He was acting under
circumstances which would exempt him from being amenable to the
same degree o f care that would be required under ordinary circum
stances. He acted in an emergency and to avoid peril. In Clarke v.
Penn. Co., 132 Ind. 199-200, 31 N. E. 808 (17 L. R. A . 811) the court
said: “ One who does an act under an impulse or upon a belief cre
ated by a sudden danger attributable to another’s negligence is not
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
153
to be regarded as guilty o f contributory fault, even though the act
would be regarded as a negligent one i f performed under circum
stances not indicating such peril.” (Penn. Co. v. Roney, 89 Ind. 453,
46 Am. Rep. 173; Indianapolis, etc., R. Co. v. Carr, 35 Ind. 510.)
E mployers’ L iability — S afe P lace to W ork— Q uestions for
J ury — A ssumption of R isk — C onstruction of S tatute— C on
tributory N egligence— C ourse of E mploym ent — H arvey v. Texas
and Pacific Railway Company, United States Circuit Court o f A p
peals, 166 Federal Reporter, page S85.—Mrs. Amanda Harvey had
sued in the United States circuit court for the eastern district o f
Texas to recover damages for the death o f her son, W . S. Harvey,
who had lost his life by an accident while in the employment o f the
company named. This court directed the jury to return a verdict
for the defendant company, from which the plaintiff appealed, se
curing a reversal o f the judgment o f the court below, and the cause
was remanded for a new trial. W . S. Harvey was a hostler’s helper
and was riding on a locomotive at the time o f the accident causing
his death, in order to reach a coal chute where the engine was to be
supplied. Harvey was not specifically ordered to do this work, but
was doing it in pursuance o f a system o f exchange with his fellow workmen, which was known to and allowed by his foreman. Death
was occasioned by contact with a post supporting a portion o f the
roundhouse, this post standing but six or seven inches from the win
dow o f the engine cab in which Harvey was riding. Further facts
in the case and the controverted points are set out with sufficient fu ll
ness in the portions o f the opinion quoted herewith. The opinion
was delivered by Judge Shelby, who, after stating the facts, said:
1. It is a general rule that the master must provide a reasonably safe
place for the servant to work. He is not an insurer o f his servant’s
safety, but as to the place o f labor and the instrumentalities furnished,
the master is bound to exercise such care as a prudent man would
exercise under the circumstances, and he must see to it that the instru
mentalities are not such as w ill expose the servant to unnecessary
danger. It follow s that the master is in default as respects his serv
ants unless the plant and appliances furnished are such as would
commend themselves to a reasonably prudent man— “ such as a pru
dent man would furnish if his own life were exposed to the danger
that would result from unsuitable or unsafe appliances.” The doc
trine is now unquestioned that the master is obliged to furnish ade
quate and reasonably safe appliances and premises with or in which
the servant is required to perform his duties. (1 Labatt on Master
and Servant, § 22a.) The difficulty is not in ascertaining the princi
ple, but in its application.
The plaintiff’s son was killed in the defendant’s roundhouse by
the defendant’s engine. The deceased was riding on the engine, and
154
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
was crushed against one o f the posts that supported the roundhouse.
The post stood so close to the track that it came within about six
inches o f the engine cab as it passed the post. It does not appear
from the record that it was necessary that the post should be so close
to the track in order to serve its purpose as a part o f the roundhouse.
The record reveals nothing to forbid the inference that the post could
have been placed at a greater distance from the track and still have
served the same purpose.
It has been frequently held, and seems consonant with sound
reason, that negligence may be imputed to a master whenever an
instrumentality, plant, or place o f business furnished by him is o f
such a character that his servant is subjected to unnecessary dangers,
or to danger greater than is reasonable or proper.
It is not only the duty o f the master to construct a safe plant or to
have safe premises, but it is his duty to keep them safe. A structure
too near the track may be permitted to stand fo r years without ,at
tracting attention until some unfortunate accident occurs. But this
does not relieve the railroad company o f the charge o f negligence in
so constructing the road, or in permitting it to remain in a condition
dangerous to the safety o f the servant. (W ood v. L. & N. R. R. Co.
(C. C.) 88 Fed. 44.) I f a post is unnecessarily too near the track
for safety, it should be moved. The fact that it is a part o f a
permanent structure may add to the expense o f the change, but the
question o f cost is insignificant “ when weighed in the balance against
peril to human life.” (L . & N. R. R. Co. v . H all, 91 Ala. 112, 123,
8 South. 371.)
W aiving other questions fo r consideration later, we are o f the
opinion that the case could not properly be taken from the jury
on the ground that there was no evidence showing, or from which
the jury m ight infer, that the defendant company was negligent in
perm itting the post to stand so near the track.
2.
In the absence o f a statute changing the rule at common law,
it is im plied in the contract o f hire that the servant risks the dangers
which ordinarily attend or are incident to the business in which he
voluntarily engages for compensation. But in affirming this doc
trine, the Supreme Court said:
“ It is equally implied in the same contract that the master shall
supply the physical means and agencies for the conduct o f his busi
ness. It is also im plied, and public policy requires, that in selecting
such means he shall not be wanting m proper care. H is negligence
in that regard is not a hazard usually or necessarily attendant upon
the business. Nor is it one which the servant, in legal contemplation,
is presumed to risk, for the obvious reason that the servant who is
to use the instrumentalities provided by the master has, ordinarily,
no connection with their purchase in the first instance, or with their
preservation or maintenance in suitable condition after they have
been-supplied by the master.” (H ough v. Railway Co., 100 U. S.
213, 217, 25 L. Ed. 612.)
It follow s that a risk which the master has negligently created by*
doing or perm itting something to be done, or by om itting some pre
caution which, in the exercise o f ordinary care, ought to have been
taken, can not be regarded as one o f the ordinary risks o f the em
ployment which the servant, as matter o f law, is presumed to have
assumed.
DECISIONS OP COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
155
But we need not examine this defense further as a question at com
mon law, nor consider the effect o f deceased’s knowledge or want o f
knowledge o f the defect, for there is a statute o f the State o f Texas
which is applicable on this point.
The effect o f this statute is that, i f it be found that the death o f
the deceased was caused by the wrong or negligence o f the defendant,
and i f the defendant knew o f the defect and danger, the plea that
the deceased had assumed the risk could not prevail; nor could such
plea prevail i f the facts were such that “ a person o f ordinary care
would have continued in the service with the knowledge o f the de
fect and danger.” Even i f the facts were such that at common law
the deceased would have been held to have assumed the risk, this
statute, on the evidence in the record, would forbid the trial court to
instruct the jury peremptorily to find for the defendant on the plea
o f assumption o f risk.
3.
W e come now to the question o f contributory negligence. There
are many cases in the state courts and the lower federal courts which
show reluctance in submitting controverted facts, or facts from
which different inferences may be drawn, to a jury when the action
involves questions o f negligence and contributory negligence in a
suit by a servant against the master growing out or personal injuries.
Labatt says that:
“ The American courts * * * have gone to such extreme
lengths in controlling and setting aside verdicts that it seems to be
often difficult, i f not impossible, to acquit them o f ignoring altogether
the true boundary line between their own functions and those o f
juries.” 1 Labatt on Master and Servant, § 330.
Beven shows that there was the same tendency in the lower courts
in England, caused, he suggests, by the fact that some judges were
“ impressed with the frequently unjust decisions o f juries in favor
of injured people against wealthy corporations.” (1 Beven on Negli
gence, 148.) But the House o f Lords in England, and the Supreme
Court in this country, have endeavored to correct this tendency, and
have indicated that these cases, like others with disputed facts or
facts subject to different inferences, should be submitted to the jury.
(1 Beven on Negligence, 149, and cases there cited; Jones v. E. T. &
G. R. R. Co., 128 U. S. 443, 9 Sup. Ct. 118, 32 L. Ed. 478.)
It was the duty o f the enginemen, or hostlers, to move the engines
in an out o f the roundhouse. Harvey, the deceased, was a hostler’s
helper. It was his duty to help “ coal ” the engine at the coal chute,
and to help the hostlers in moving the engines. He got on the
engine in the roundhouse, and was with D. George, who was also a
hostler’s helper. Harvey and George sat down in the cab window,
with their faces toward the inside and their backs toward the out
side. Sitting this way, their hips protruded from the window.
The engine was moved backward very slowly, and was to be backed
only a short distance. His conduct is not to be measured by rules
applicable to fast travel on an ordinary train. (Denver & B. P. R.
T. Co. v. Dwyer, 20 Colo. 132, 136, 36 Pac. 1106.) George was sit
ting beside the deceased, but nearer the rear end o f the cab. As the
engine backed, George passed the post first and in safety, but Harvey
was caught between it and the cab window, and killed.
Does the fact that the deceased sat in the window, in view o f all the
other evidence, show a want o f ordinary care ? Was the act so clearly
4764—No. 83—09—11
156
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
significant o f negligence that, taken with all the evidence, no other
inference could be reasonably drawn from it ? I f it be assumed that
the deceased knew the proximity o f the post and the danger his
position put him in, no one could deny that his action was reckless;
but to assume that he had knowledge o f the peril caused by the post
and the breadth o f the cab would be to ignore the instinct o f a man
to protect his own life, and also to ignore his right to assume that
the road was so constructed as to be reasonably safe to servants who
gave or received signals from the window. Can it be that all rea
sonable men would infer from the evidence that the deceased had
knowledge o f the facts and the danger, and, with such knowledge,
assumed the position o f peril? Unless he is chargeable with knowl
edge o f the danger, he is not chargeable with negligence. Contribu
tory negligence is 44predicable only where the servant understood
the conditions and the resulting dangers; ” and the learned author
a d d s,44the case is always for the jury i f it is not a necessary deduc
tion from the evidence that he did understand those conditions and
those dangers.” (1 Labatt on Master and Servant, § 330.)
Riding on cars, and the position, whether standing or sitting, o f
the servant or passenger so riding, relates to conduct m the ordinary
affairs o f life, and, when the prudence or recklessness o f such con
duct is in question, it is a matter o f ordinary reasoning which may be
properly and justly left to the jury. (1 Beven on Negligence, 149.)
T o a judge who may not have had experience from observation o f the
ordinary conduct o f young workmen riding on engines, the position
taken by the deceased may seem not only wanting in dignity, but in
ordinary prudence, while to a jury o f 12 men coming from different
walks in life, probably familiar from observation or experience with
the ordinary habits and manners o f men under the circumstances
involved, the act o f the deceased in taking his seat in the window o f
the cab, considered in the light o f all the evidence, might not appear
necessarily imprudent nor wanting in ordinary care.
In analogous cases there are many opinions and expressions o f
courts o f high authority tending to support our conclusion that in a
case like this the question o f contributory negligence is for the jury.
W e are o f opinion that the learned trial judge was not authorized
to direct a verdict for the defendant on the ground that, as a matter
o f law, the deceased was guilty o f contributory negligence.
4.
The learned counsel for the defendant contends that the de
ceased, at the moment of the accident, 44had no duty to perform on
the engine, and merely boarded it to be carried down to the coal chute,
at which place his duty called him to assist in coaling the engine.”
It is true that he was not engaged in the performance o f any work at
the moment he was struck. The evidence tends to prove, or, at least,
the inference is permissible, that he was not only on the way to the
place where he was to work, but that he was subject to orders, and
was ready to help, i f needed, in the moving o f the engine. The evi
dence tends to show he was on duty. He was on his way to the coal
chute about 200 yards distant, where he was to help in putting coal
on the engine, and had mounted the engine, as was usual, or, at least,
as was not unusual, in the roundhouse, to go on it to the coal chute.
W e are o f opinion that the servant should be deemed in the master’s
service whenever present to perform his duty and subject to orders,
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
157
although at the given moment he may not be engaged in the actual
erformance o f any work. (East Line & Red River R. R. Co. v .
cott, 71 Tex. 703,10 S. W. 298,10 Am. St. Rep. 804; St. L., A. & T.
Ry. Co. v. Welch, 72 Tex. 298,10 S. W. 529, 2 L. R. A. 839.) “ They
also serve who only stand and wait.”
The judgment is reversed, and the cause remanded for a new trial.
g
L abor O rganizations — S trikes — I njunctions — C onspiracy —
I nterference w it h E mployment — S econdary B oycott — R ecip
rocal R ights of E mployers and E mployees— Iron Molders’ Union v.
ATlis- Chalmers Co., United Stales Circuit Court o f Appeals , 166
Federal Reporter , page Ifi.—This case was before the court o f appeals
on appeal from the circuit court o f the eastern district o f Wisconsin.
An injunction had been granted by the latter court, which, with the
pleadings, petition, and evidence are to be found under the title AllisChalmers Co. v. Iron Molders’ Union, 150 Fed. 155. (See Bulletin
No. 70, p. 734.) This decree enjoined four Wisconsin local unions of
the national organization o f iron molders and some sixty individuals
who were officers and members—
(1) From in any manner directly interfering with, hindering,
obstructing, or stopping the business o f the said complainant, or its
agents, servants or employees, in the maintenance, conduct, manage
ment or operation of its business.
(2) From compelling or inducing or attempting to compel or in
duce by threats, intimidation, force or violence any o f the said com
pany’s employees to fail or refuse to work for it, or to leave its
service.
(3) From preventing or attempting to prevent any person or
persons by threats, intimidation, force or violence, from freely enter
ing into or continuing in the said company’s service.
(4) And from congregating upon or about the company’s prem
ises or the streets, approaches and places adjacent or leading to said
premises for the purpose o f intimidating its employees or preventing
or hindering them from fulfilling their duties as such employees or for
the purpose o f [or] in such manner as to induce or coerce by threats,
violence, intimidation or persuasion, any o f the said company’s em
ployees to leave its service or any person to refuse to enter its service.
(5) From congregating upon or about the company’s premises or
the sidewalk, streets, alleys or approaches adjoining or adjacent to or
leadmg to said premises, and from picketing the said complainant’s
places o f business or the homes or boarding houses or residences o f
the said complainant’s employees.
(6) From interfering with the said company’s employees in going
to and from their work.
(7) From going singly or collectively to the homes o f the said
company’s employees for the purpose o f intimidating or threatening
them or collectively persuading them to leave its service.
(8) From enforcing, maintaining or aiding any illegal boycott
against the said company, its agents or employees.
158
BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR.
(9) From endeavoring to illegally induce people not to deal with
said company, its agents and employees.
(10) From preventing or attempting to prevent by threats, in
timidation, persuasion or in any other manner any person or corpo
ration from performing work for said complainant and from doing
business with it.
(11) From intimidating or threatening in any manner the wives
and families o f said employees at their homes or elsewhere.
*(12) From doing any o f the aforesaid or any other acts for the
purpose of compelling and inducing or attempting to compel or in
duce the complainant by threats, intimidation, force or violence,
against its will or the will o f its officers, to employ or to discharge
any person or persons whomsoever, and especially to employ mem
bers o f said unions or discharge persons who are not members o f said
unions.
(13) From combining, associating, agreeing, mutally undertak
ing, concerting together or with other persons for the purpose of
doing or causing to be done any o f the aforesaid prohibited acts.
(14) From combining, associating, agreeing, mutally undertak
ing, concerting together or with other persons for the purpose of
preventing [or hindering the complainant from doing or perform
ing] any lawful act in the conduct o f its aforesaid business, or for the
purpose o f injuring the complainant in its aforesaid business, or of
compelling the complainant against its will from doing or perform
ing any lawful act or from injuring the said complainant in its trade
and business.
(15) From directing and abetting or counselling any acts what
soever or in any manner whatsoever the conspiracy and combination
found by the court to exist, to prevent the complainant and its offi
cers and employees in the free and uninterrupted control and direction
o f its business and affairs and to prevent the complainant from doing
or performing any and all lawful acts in the conduct o f its business
and to compel the complainant against its will from doing and per
forming its lawful business and to prevent the complainant from
doing or performing all lawful acts in the conduct or management
o f its business.
(16) From by threats, intimidation, persuasion, force or violence,
compelling or attempting to compel or induce any o f the apprentices
in the employ o f the said complainant to break their contracts and
leave the employ o f the said complainant.
On the appeal it was claimed that the injunction improperly in
cluded the unions, since they were voluntary, unincorporated associa
tions; that it wrongfully denied the use o f persuasion and o f pickets;
that it was not supported by the evidence, and that the finding o f the
existence o f a boycott was contrary to the evidence.
The injunction was modified and affirmed, but no illegal boycott
was found to exist. The opinion o f the court, delivered by Judge
Baker, and concurred in by Judge Grosscup in a brief supplement,
discussed the reciprocal rights of organized action by employers and
employees, and the bearing o f the Wisconsin statute on conspiracy on
the acts in question. Both opinions are reproduced in full.
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
159
Judge Baker said:
No Wisconsin statute authorized .an unincorporated voluntary
association to be sued in its common name. So the objection might
have prevailed if it had been seasonably made. (Karges Furniture
Co. v. Amalgamated Wood Workers’ Union, 165 Ind. 421, 75 N. E.,
877, 2 L. E. A. (N. S.) 788 [Bulletin No. 63, p. 564]; Pickett v.
Walsh, 192 Mass. 572, 78 N. E. 753, 6 L. E. A. (N. S.) 1067, 116 Am.
St. Eep. 272' [Bulletin No. 70, p. 747].) But the members could have
been reached, o f course, either by naming and serving them all, or,
i f that were impracticable on account o f their numbers, by suing
some as representatives of all. The bill treated the unions as repre
sentative o f their membership; an individual member filed a verified
answer in the names o f the unions, alleging that he had been author
ized by them so to d o ; and the case was carried through three hear
ings (temporary injunction, contempt, final decree) without a sug
gestion that there was a defect o f parties, or rather a defect in the
form under which appellee asked to have the membership o f the
unions brought into court. An objection o f this kind will not be
entertained on appeal unless it has been first duly presented in the
trial court. (Barnes v. Chicago Typographical Union, 232 111. 424,
83 N. E. 940, 14 L. E. A. (N. S.) 1018 [Bulletin No. 76, p. 1016].)
The evidence showed that appellee was entitled to injunctive re
lief. To keep other workmen out o f appellee’s foundries, some of
the union men went to the extent o f using vile and abusive language,
threats o f violence, and actual assaults. This was effective enough
to damage appellee’s business quite seriously, and was carried on
under circumstances that might be held to indicate the unions’ tacit
approval. None o f the appellants ever challenged by appeal the
justice o f the temporary injunction or o f the punishments for its
violation. And on this appeal from the final decree not a shadow
of justification is found for these acts of violence and intimidation.
The only substantial question is whether or not the trial court has
stepped beyond the line of safeguarding the legal rights o f appellee
and has thereby deprived appellants o f some of their legal rights*
To organize for the purpose o f securing improvement in the terms
and conditions o f labor, and to quit work and to threaten to quit work
as means o f compelling or attempting to compel employers to accede*
to their demands for better terms and conditions, are rights o f work
men so well and so thoroughly established in the law (Thomas v.
Eld. Co. (C. C.) 62 Fed. 803; Arthur v. Oakes, 63 Fed. 320, 11
C. C. A. 209, 25 L. E. A. 414; Wabash Eld. Co. v. Hannahan (C. C.)
121 Fed. 563 [Bulletin No. 49, p. 1374]), that nothing remains ex
cept to determine in successive cases as they arise whether the means
used in the endeavor to make the strike effective are lawful or
unlawful.
By section 4466a, St. Wis. 1898, and, appellee asserts, by the com
mon law as well, it is illegal for two or more persons to combine for
the purpose o f “ doing a harm malevolently for the sake o f the harm
as an end in itself, and not merely as a means to some further end
legitimately desired.” (Aikens v. Wisconsin, 195 U. S. 194, 25 Sup.
Ct. 3, 49 L. Ed. 154 [Bulletin No..57, p. 678].) As the combination
among appellants was entered into and carried on in Wisconsin, a
threshold inquiry is whether the present is a malicious mischief case
160
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
under this paragraph, wherein otherwise innocent means are con
demned because the end is wicked, or a true strike case under the
preceding paragraph, wherein, because the end is lawful, all means
may be called into play except those that are unlawful in themselves.
The record shows that the local unions had a conference in regard
to conditions in all the foundries in the city and county o f M il
waukee; that they formulated demands respecting wages, overtime,
double time on holidays, piecework, weekly pay day, limitation o f the
number o f apprentices^ and a joint arbitration board; that these
demands were made alike upon all the foundry owners within that
territory; and that when the demands were rejected the union men
in all the foundries struck. Nothing in the record indicates that
there was any want o f good faith in making these demands, or that
the strike was undertaken with any other purpose than to enforce
them, or that appellee received or was singled out to receive different
treatment from that dealt out to other foundry owners. So the em
ployment o f assault and duress in the progress o f the strike should
be attributed to a combination to accomplish a lawful end by un
lawful means, rather than the employment o f unlawful means should
be taken as proof that the end sought to be accomplished by such
means was itself unlawful. And consequently the parts o f the de
cree which prohibit the use o f persuasion and picketing can be justi
fied only on the basis that such means are not lawfully to be applied
in a genuine struggle o f labor to obtain better terms and conditions;
fo r surely men are not to be denied the right to pursue a legitimate
end in a legitimate way, simply because they may have overstepped
the mark and trespassed upon the rights o f their adversary. A
barrier at the line, with punishment and damages for having crossed,
is all that the adversary is entitled to ask.
So far as persuasion was used to induce apprentices or others (sec
tion 16 o f the decree) to break their contracts to serve for definite
times, the prohibition was right. And the reason, we believe, is
quite plain. Each party to such a contract has a property interest in
it. I f either breaks it, he does a wrong, for which the other is en
titled to a remedy. And whoever knowingly makes himself a party
to a wrongful and injurious act becomes equally liable. But in the
>resent case the generality o f the men who took or sought the places
eft by the strikers were employed or were offered employment
at will, as the strikers had been. I f either party, with or without
cause, ends an employment at will, the other has no legal ground o f
complaint. So i f the course o f the new men who quit or who de
clined employment was the result o f the free play o f their intellects
and wills, then against them appellee had no cause o f action, and
much less against men who merely furnished information and argu
ments to aid them in forming their judgments. Now it must not be
forgotten that the suit was to protect appellee’s property rights. Re
garding employments at will, those rights reached their limit at this
line: For the maintenance o f the incorporeal value o f a going business
appellee had the right to a free access to the labor market, and the
further right to the continuing services o f those who accepted employ
ment at will until such services were terminated by the free act o f
one or the other party to the employment. On the other side o f this
limiting line, appellants, we think, had the right, for the purpose o f
{
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
161
maintaining or increasing the incorporeal value o f their capacity to
labor, to an equally free access to the labor market. The right o f
the one to persuade (but not coerce) the unemployed to accept cer
tain terms is limited and conditioned by the right o f the other to dis
suade (but not restrain) them from accepting. For another thing
that must not be forgotten is that a strike is one manifestation o f the
competition, the struggle for survival or place, that is inevitable in
individualistic society. Dividends and wages must both come from
the joint product o f capital and labor. And in the struggle wherein
each is seeking to hold or enlarge his ground, we believe it is funda
mental that one and the same set o f rules should govern the action o f
both contestants. For instance, employers may lock out (or threaten
to lock out) employees at will, with the idea that idleness will force
them to accept lower wages or more onerous conditions; and em
ployees at will may strike (or threaten to strike), with the idea that
idleness o f the capital involved will force employers to grant better
terms. These rights (or legitimate means o f contest) are mutual and
are fairly balanced against each other. Again, an employer o f
molders, having locked out his men, in order to effectuate the pur
pose o f his lockout, may persuade (but not coerce) other foundrymen not to employ molders for higher wages or on better terms than
those for which he made his stand, and not to take in his late em
ployees at all, so that they may be forced back to his foundry at his
own terms; and molders, having struck, in order to make their strike
effective may persuade (but not coerce) other molders not to work for
less wages or under worse conditions than those for which they struck,
and not to work for their late employer at all, so that he may be
forced to take them back into his foundry at their own terms. Here,
also, the rights are mutual and f airly balanced. On the other hand,
an employer, having locked out his men, will not be permitted, though
it would reduce their fighting strength, to coerce their landlords and
grocers into cutting off shelter and food ; and employees, having
struck, will not be permitted, though it might subdue their late
employer, to coerce dealers and users into starving his business.
The restraints, likewise, apply to both combatants and are fairly bal
anced. These illustrations, we believe, mark out the line that must
be observed by both. In contests between capital and labor the only
means o f injuring each other that are lawful are those that operate
directly and immediately upon the control and supply o f work to
be done and o f labor to do it, and thus directly affect the apportion
ment o f the common fund, for only at this point exists the competi
tion, the evils o f which organized society will endure rather than sup
press the freedom and initiative o f the individual. But attempts to
injure each other by coercing members o f society who are not. directly
concerned in the pending controversy to make raids in the rear can
not be tolerated by organized society, for the direct, the primary,
attack is upon society itself. And for the enforcement o f these
mutual rights and restraints organized society offers to both parties,
equally, all the instrumentalities of law and o f equity.
With respect to picketing as well as persuasion, we think the decree
went beyond the line. The right to persuade new men to quit or
decline employment is o f little worth unless the strikers may ascer
tain who are the men that their late employer has persuaded or is
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BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OE LABOR.
attempting to persuade to accept employment. Under the name o f
persuasion, duress may be used; but it is duress, not persuasion, that
should be restrained and punished. In the guise o f picketing, strikers
may obstruct and annoy the new men, and by insult and menacing
attitude intimidate them as effectually as by physical assault. But
from the evidence it can always be determined whether the efforts
o f the pickets are limited to getting into communication with the
new men for the purpose o f presenting arguments and appeals to
their free judgments. Prohibitions o f persuasion and picketing, as
such, should not be included in the decree. (Karges Furniture Co. v.
Amalgamated W ood Workers’ Union, (su pra); Everett-Waddy Co.
v. Typographical Union, 105 Ya. 188, 53 S. E. 273, 5 L. R. A. (N. S.)
792 [Bulletin No. 65, p. 346].)
We have not found anything in the evidence that justified the
decree as to an “ illegal boycott.” No attempt was made to touch
appellee’s dealings or relations with customers and users of its goods.
(Oxley Stave Co. v. Coopers’ International Union (C. C.), 72 Fed.
695 [Bulletin No. 7, p. 783] ; Loewe v. Cal. State Federation o f Labor
(C. C .), 139 Fed. 71 [Bulletin No. 61, p. 1067] ; Loewe v. Lawlor, 208
U. S. 274, 52 L. Ed. 488 [Bulletin No. 75, p. 622].) After the strike
was on, appellee sent patterns, on which the strikers had been work
ing, to foundries in other cities. The strikers procured the molders
in those foundries, who also were members o f the Iron Molders’
Union o f North America, to refuse to make appellee’s castings. Those
molders notified their employers that they would have to cancel their
contracts to make castings for appellee, or they would quit work.
Some employers discharged the notifiers, others refused to cancel
and the union men struck, and others complied and the union men
stayed. In those instances where the foundrymen fulfilled their con
tracts, appellee was not damaged; in those where foundrymen broke
their contracts, there is no proof that appellee has not collected or
can not collect adequate damages. That might be taken as a reason
why appellee on this branch o f the case is not entitled to the aid o f
equity. But there is a more important reason. Appellants were
aiming to prevent, and appellee to secure, the doing o f certain work in
which the skill o f appellants’ trade was necessary. Here was the
ground o f controversy, and here the test o f endurance. I f appellee
had the right (and we think the right was perfect) to seek the aid
o f fellow foundrymen to the end that the necessary element o f labor
should enter into appellee’s product, appellant had the reciprocal
right o f seeking the aid o f fellow molders to prevent that end. To
whatever extent employers may lawfully combine and cooperate to
control the supply and the conditions o f work to be done, to the
same extent should be recognized the right o f workmen to combine
and cooperate to control the supply and the conditions o f the labor
that is necessary to the doing o f the work. In the fullest recognition
o f the equality and mutuality o f their rights and their restrictions
lies the peace o f capital and labor, for so they, like nations with
equally well drilled and equipped armies and navies, will make and
keep treaties o f peace, in the fear o f the cost and consequences o f
war.
The decree is modified by striking out “ persuasion” and “ per
suading” from the 4th and 7th paragraphs; further modified by
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
163
adding after “ picketing ” in the 5th paragraph “ in a threatening or
intimidating manner ” ; vacated as to the 1st, 8th, 9th, 10th, 14th and
15th paragraphs; affirmed as to the 2nd, 3rd, 6th, 11th, 12th, 13th,
16th and the modified 4th, 5th and 7th paragraphs. Costs o f this
court to be divided equally.
Grosscup, Circuit Judge (concurring) said:
The foregoing opinion so compactly and clearly sets forth the cor
relative rights and the correlative obligations ox employer and em
ployees when engaged in a strike or lockout, that it is with hesitation
that I add this w ord; and I only add it that nothing that is contained
in the opinion, may be construed to relate to the correlative rights and
the correlative obligations of employer and employees in any rela
tionship other than their somewhat anomalous relationship pending
a strike or lockout.
A strike is cessation o f work by employees in an effort to get for
the employees more desirable terms. A lockout is a cessation o f the
furnishing o f work to employees in an effort to get for the employer
more desirable terms. Neither strike nor lockout completely ter
minates, when this is its purpose, the relationship between the par
ties. The employees who remain to take part in the strike or weather
the lockout do so that they may be ready to go to work again on*
terms to which they shall agree—the employer remaining ready to
take them back on terms to which he shall agree. Manifestly, then,
pending a strike or a lockout, and as to those who have not finally
and in good faith abandoned it, a relationship exists between em
ployer and employee that is neither that o f the general relation o f
employer and employee, nor again that o f employer looking among
strangers for employees, or employees seeking from strangers em
ployment. And it is with respect to this somewhat anomalous rela
tionship that, as I understand it, this opinion speaks; a statement
that it seems to me ought to be made to confine the opinion to the
actual situation to which it is intended to relate—to differentiate
what we say from what might arise in cases where, neither strike nor
lockout pending, persuasion is resorted to to induce other employers
not to employ given applicatants for employment, or to persuade
employees not to take employment with given employers, upon which
questions we do not as I understand it, express any opinion.
D ECISION S U N DER COMMON LA W .
E mployer and E mployee— D isclosure of T rade S ecrets— C on
R elations— I njunction — Stevens & Company v. Stiles,
Supreme Court o f Rhode Island, 71 Atlantic Reporter , page 802 .—
fidential
This was a case in which N. C. Stiles, a former employee of the com
pany named, had been enjoined from using a list of names copied
from the company’s books while he was in its employ as an examin
ing optician. Stiles appealed from the decree, which was, however,
affirmed, and the cause remanded to the lower court for further pro
ceedings.
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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
Judge Johnson, who delivered the opinion o f the court, took up
first the question as to the relations o f Stiles to his employers, and
spoke as follows:
Counsel for the respondent makes no question that equity will
restrain the disclosure o f confidential communications, trade secrets,
and the contents o f private papers. But he urges that in the case at
bar the relations o f the parties were not confidential; that there was
no agreement that respondent, upon severing his relations with the
complainant company, should not enter into competition with it;
that the only names copied from the complainant’s lists were those
o f customers he personally examined; and that to copy and use such a
list o f names is not a breach o f trust, or a breach o f confidence. As
to the argument that the relations o f the parties were not confidential,
we do not understand that the fact o f agency is denied. It is ad
mitted that the respondent was in the employ o f the complainant in
its store, examining the eyes o f patrons, prescribing glasses, and
making records o f the cases examined and treated, as also o f pre
scriptions which came to the store from physicians outside. W e do
not see how such relations can be considered as other than confiden
tial. As to the absence o f an agreement not to enter into competition
'with the complainant, it is sufficient to say that the decree does not
enjoin such action on the part o f the respondent. Particular stress
is laid upon the claim that the only names copied from complainant’s
lists were those o f customers whom the respondent personally ex
amined, and it is argued that to copy and use such a list o f names is
not a breach o f trust or a breach o f confidence. The argument does
not commend itself to us. It is elementary that what is done by the
agent in the course o f his employment is in the legal sense done by
the master himself. The respondent could have no more right to
copy records made by himself, while acting for the complainant, than
he would have to copy any other records of the complainant to which
he had access.
A number o f English cases on the disclosure o f trade secrets were
then presented, after which the court said:
The same doctrine prevails in this country. Judge Story, after
speaking o f the prevention by injunction o f the use o f names, marks,
letters, or other indicia o f a tradesman, by which to pass off goods to
purchasers as the manufacture of that tradesman when they are not
so, states the doctrine broadly, as follow s: “ Upon similar grounds o f
irreparable mischief courts o f equity will restrain a party from
making a disclosure o f secrets communicated to him in the course o f
a confidential employment. And it matters not in such cases whether
the secrets be secrets o f trade or secrets o f title, or any other secrets
o f the party important to his interests.”
(2 Story, Eq. Jur. §
952.) In 1 High on Injunctions, § 19, it is thus stated: “ The dis
closure o f secrets which have come to one’s knowledge during the
course o f a confidential employment will be restrained by injunction.
And where a confidential relationship has existed, out o f which one
o f the parties has derived information or secrets concerning the
other, equity fastens an obligation upon his conscience not to divulge
such knowledge, and enforces the obligation, when necessary, by in
DECISIONS OP COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
165
junction. Thus persons who, in the capacity o f attorneys, agents,
or in other confidential relations, have obtained the custody o f books
and documents o f their principals, or have come into possession of
secrets relating to their affairs, will be restrained from making them
ublie.5’ (See, also, 5 Pomeroy’s Eq. Jur. § 267.) In Peabody v.
orfolk, 98 Mass. 452, 96 Am. Dec. 664, there was a contract not to
disclose secrets as to machinery. The court, Gray, J., says (page 461
o f 98 Mass.) : “ A secret o f trade or manufacture does not lose its
character by being confidentially disclosed to agents or servants,
without whose assistance it could not be made o f any value. Even
if, as is argued in support o f the demurrer, the process is liable to be
inspected by the assessor o f internal revenue or other public officer,
the owner is not the less entitled to protection against those who in,
or with knowledge of, violation o f contract, and breach o f confidence
undertake to disclose it or to reap the benefit o f it.”
In Loven v. People, 158 111. 159, 42 N. E. 82, the bill alleged, inter
alia, that Loven fraudulently, and without the knowledge or consent
o f his employers, copied the names o f a great number o f their cus
tomers, together with post-office addresses, by means o f his duties
as correspondent, from the books kept by his employers. A decree
was entered enjoining Loven “ from in any manner corresponding
with complainant’s agents or customers, or soliciting them to buy
defendant’s medicines o f any kind, or divulging the names o f com
plainant’s customers and agents, or any o f the secrets o f the business,
or interfering therewith.”
Upon the authorities considered, it is clear, not only that equity
will restrain defendants from disclosing secrets pertaining to plain
tiff’s business, where the knowledge o f such secrets has been acquired
while in the employ o f the plaintiff, under an agreement that, in
consideration o f the employment, they would not divulge such secrets,
but also that in such case it is not necessary that there should be an
express covenant upon the part o f the defendant not to disclose the
secrets o f the plaintiff’s business, i f such agreement may fairly be
implied from the circumstances o f the case and the relation of the
parties. (See, also, Stone v. Goss, 65 N. J. Eq. 756, 55 Atl. 736,
63 L. R. A. 344,103 Am. St. Rep. 794; Westervelt v. Nat. Paper Co.,
154 Ind. 673, 57 N. E. 552; Eastman Kodak Co. v. Reichenbach, 79
Hun, 183, 29 N. Y. Supp. 1143.)
Our conclusion is that the doctrine that equity will restrain as
well from breach o f trust or confidence arising from the confidential
relation o f employer and employee as from breach o f express contract
is clearly established by the authorities, and is in accordance with
sound reason.
The preliminary injunction was properly granted. The appeal
is dismissed, the decree below is affirmed, and the cause is remanded
to the superior court for further proceedings.
S
E mployer and E mployee— W rongful D ischarge— R emedy— D u ty
S eek N ew E mploym ent — B urden of P roof— Quick v. Swing ,
Supreme Court o f Oregon , 99 Pacific Reporter , page b l8 .— This was
to
an action on a contract between Elmer Quick and John Swing, by
166
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
which Quick sought to recover for breach o f contract and wrongful
discharge. Quick was employed as engineer and deck hand on a
tugboat for one year from May 1, 1905, for the sum o f $1,000, but
was discharged without cause on October 29 o f that year. Judgment
was rendered in Quick’s favor in the circuit court o f Coos County,
which was, on appeal, affirmed by the supreme court. The grounds
o f the appeal, and the reasons for affirming the judgment appear in
the following quotation from the opinion o f the court, which was
delivered by Judge Moore.
After stating the facts, Judge Moore said:
A t the trial the plaintiff, appearing as a witness in his own behalf,
was asked on direct examination what work, i f any, he had performed
between October 29, 1905, when he was discharged, and May 1, 1906,
when his services would have terminated pursuant to the agreement.
An objection to the question, on the ground that it was immaterial,
irrelevant, and incompetent, because the action was for the recovery
o f wages under the contract, and not for damages resulting from a
breach o f the agreement, having been overruled and an exception
allowed, the witness replied that between the days specified he had
performed no labor. It is contended by defendant’s counsel that in
permitting the challenged question to be answered an error was
committed. It is insisted by plaintiff’s counsel, however, that the
complaint herein sets forth the contract o f employment, asserts a
breach thereof by a wrongful discharge, affirms an ability and w ill
ingness to continue the service, and avers the sum o f money that
would have been received under the agreement, and that sufficient
facts being thus stated to authorize the recovery o f the damages
sustained, though damages as such are not claimed, the testimony
objected to was admissible. No demurrer appears to have been in
terposed to the complaint; and, as its sufficiency was not challenged,
all reasonable intendments are to be invoked in favor o f the plead
ing, to which no objections were made until the trial. The remedy
o f an employee who has been wrongfully discharged before the ex
piration o f his term o f engagement is not in assumpsit for implied
services or for wages, but is for damages resulting from a breach o f
the agreement. (Hamilton v. Love, 152 Ind. 641, 53 N. E. 181, 54
N. E. 437, 71 Am. St. Rep. 384; Howard v. Daly, 61 N. Y . 362, 19
Am. Rep. 285; Weed v . Burt, 78 N. Y. 191.) In a case o f this kind
the complaint usually sets forth the contract o f employment, alleges
a breach thereof by a wrongful discharge prior to the expiration
o f the term o f service, asserts the ability and willingness o f the
servant to perform the work required, and concludes with the allega
tion that, in consequence o f the failure o f the defendant to keep and
perform the terms o f the agreement, the plaintiff has sustained dam
ages in a stated sum, for which judgment is demanded. The com
plaint in the case at bar does not aver that the plaintiff has been
damaged, but, after stating the facts in substance as hereinbefore
detailed, concludes with a demand for judgment for a specified
amount o f money.
In a note to the case of Howay v. Going-Northrup Co., 6 L. R. A.
(N. S.) 49, 68, it is said: “ Even an averment in a complaint that
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
167
there is now due the plaintiff by virtue o f the contract o f employment
a specified sum in effect charges that the plaintiff’s damages for
such breach amount to that sum, and constitutes a claim, not tech
nically for wages, but for compensation for the breach o f the con
tract ’’—citing in support thereof Winkler v. Racine Wagon & Car
Co., 99 Wis. 184, 74 N. W. 798 [Bulletin No. 17, p. 645]. To the same
effect, see 26 Cyc. 1002; Bartlett v. O. F. Sav. Bank, 79 Cal. 21&, 21
Pac. 743, 12 Am . St. Rep. 139; Paige v. Barrett, 151 Mass. 67, 23
N. E. 725. The sufficiency o f the complaint herein not having been
assailed by a demurrer, its averments should be liberally construed,
to the effect that the plaintiff’s damages for the breach o f the agree
ment amount to the sum for which judgment was demanded, and
that the allegations o f his primary pleading formulate not an as
sertion for wages but a compensation for the breach o f the agreement.
With these preliminary observations in respect to the form o f action
as disclosed by the averments o f the complaint, attention will be
called to the objection interposed to the testimony given by the plain
tiff. The burden o f proving that, after the plaintiff was discharged,
he could have secured other employment, and thus have reduced the
damages which he claimed, to the extent o f the wages received from
other sources, was imposed upon the defendant. (Winkler v. Racine
Wagon & Car Co., 99 Wis. 184, 74 N. W. 793.) Though the plaintiff
was not obliged to anticipate such defense (W irth v. Calhoun, 64
Nebr. 316, 89 N. W. 785), we can not see how the defendant was
prejudiced by the testimony to which objection was made, and con
clude that no error was committed in permitting the question to be
answered.
Exceptions were taken to the court’s refusal to charge the jury as
requested, which instructions practically present the same questions
considered as to the sufficiency o f the complaint and the admissibility
o f the plaintiff’s testimony.
Believing that no error was committed as alleged, the judgment
is affirmed.
E mployers’ L ia bility — D u t y of E mployer as to E mployment of
C ompetent F ellow -S ervants— E vidence of I ncompetence— C on
tract w it h T rade U nion as D efense— Pearson v. Alaska Pacific
Steamship Company , Supreme Court of Washington , 99 Pacific R e
porter , page 753.—N. W. Pearson had obtained a judgment against
the company above named on account o f injuries received while in
its employment as a hatch tender, from which it appealed. The
ground o f the actioii was the negligence of the employer in hiring an
incompetent coservant as driver of a winch. By the negligent han
dling o f the winch Pearson was injured, and the charge of negligence
in this regard was sustained by the finding o f the superior court of
K ing County, and, on appeal, by that o f the supreme court. An
added point o f interest is found in the fact that the steamship com
pany had secured the incompetent workman under a contract with
the Longshoremen’s Union (o f which Pearson was also a member),
168
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
and held itself excused from liability for his incompetence on that
ground. This point is discussed in the opinion o f the court, which was
delivered by Judge Rudkin, who also set forth the rule as to the em
ployer’s duty in the choice o f workmen.
The opinion is in part as follows:
The principal ground o f negligence charged in the complaint was
the allegation that the appellant employed and retained in its employ
an incompetent and inexperienced winch driver. The appellant con
tends that the hatch tender and the winch driver were fellow-serv
ants, that the only evidence o f incompetencv or inexperience on the
part o f the winch driver was the single act ox negligence which caused
the injury complained of, and that a single act o f negligence on the
part o f a servant is not sufficient evidence o f incompetency or unskill
fulness to charge the master with knowledge o f such incompetency or
unskillfulness. That the hatch tender and winch driver were fellowservants may be conceded for the purpose o f this appeal, and we
might also concede that the appellant’s further contention is sound, i f
the single act o f negligence which caused the injury were the only
evidence o f incompetency or unskillfulness on the part o f the winch
driver; but we think the testimony o f the winch driver himself tends
very strongly to show that he was both inexperienced and incompe
tent. When the master places a servant in charge o f dangerous ma
chinery where special knowledge, skill, or experience is required for
its safe and successful operation, he must make reasonable effort to
ascertain the qualifications o f the servant thus employed, and, i f he
fails to do so, he can not escape liability by showing that there was
nothing in the conduct o f the servant during the course o f two hours’
employment to demonstrate or give notice o f his incompetency. The
rule is thus stated by this court m the recent case o f Seewald v. Hard
ing Lumber Company, 96 Pac. 221: “ It was respondent’s duty to
make reasonable effort to learn the qualifications o f the engineer,
having regard to the safety o f the other men, and it was for the jury
to say whether it had learned, or by the exercise o f reasonable care
might have learned, o f that incompetency in time to have removed
him and prevented this accident. Speaking o f the degree o f care
required o f a master in the selection o f servants, the court, in Wabash
Ry. Co. v. McDaniels, 107 U. S. 454, 460, 2 Sup. Ct. 932, 27 L. Ed.
605, said: 6It is such care as, in view o f the consequence that may
result from negligence on the part o f employees, is fairly commensu
rate with the perils or dangers likely to be encountered.’ ”
There is nothing in the record before us to indicate that the appel
lant made any effort to ascertain the qualifications o f the winch driver
at the time o f or prior to his employment, except an offer to prove
that the appellant had a contract with the Longshoremen’s Union o f
Seattle, o f which the respondent is a member, under which the ap
pellant agreed to employ members o f that union exclusively; and we
are clearly o f opinion that the testimony was ample to warrant the
jury in finding that the winch driver was incompetent and inexpe
rienced, that such incompetency and inexperience might have been
ascertained by the appellant prior to the injury by the exercise o f
reasonable diligence on its part, that the incompetency and inexpe
rience o f the winch driver was the direct and proximate cause o f the
DECISIONS OE COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
169
injury, and that the respondent was not guilty o f contributory negli
gence. The motions for nonsuit and for a directed verdict were there
fore properly denied.
The appellant offered to prove that it had a contract with the Long
shoremen’s Union, o f which the respondent is a member, whereby it
agreed to employ members o f that union exclusively, that said union
is an association organized for the purpose o f furnishing experienced
men in loading and unloading vessels at the port o f Seattle, that the
union furnished the winch driver in question pursuant to a request
from the appellant, and that the appellant relied upon the fact that
the winch driver thus furnished was competent to discharge the duties
assigned him ; but an objection to the offer o f proof was sustained.
As stated above, there was in our opinion ample evidence to establish
the fact o f incompetency on the part o f the winch driver, and, in view
o f the fact that the safety o f other employees o f the common master
required that the winch driver should possess special knowledge and
skill, it was incumbent on the master to make reasonable effort to as
certain his competency and fitness. It is conceded that the master
made no inquiry itself, and that no inquiry was made by the union
which the master constituted its agent for that purpose. Admit
ting therefore that the master is presumed to exercise proper care
in the selection o f his servants, that presumption can not prevail when
it affirmatively appears that both the master and the agency to which
he intrusts that duty have been negligent and derelict m that regard.
There was therefore no error in the ruling complained of.
L abor O rganizations— B oycott— S econdary or C ompound B oy
I n ju n ctio n — U nincorporated A ssociations—
The American Federation o f Labor v. The Buck Stove and Range
Company, Court o f Appeals o f the District o f Columbia, 87 Wash
ington Law Reporter , page 15£.—The corporation named above had
cott— C onspiracy—
secured an injunction against the American Federation o f Labor and
certain officers o f the same. (See Bulletin No. 74, p. 246, and No. 80,
p. 124. For the injunction, see Bulletin No. 74, p. 254.) The action
in the present case was an appeal from the injunctive order and re
sulted in its being modified and affirmed. The facts were stated in
the earlier reports o f the case and are in brief as follow s: The Buck
Stove and Bange Company is a corporation engaged in the manu
facture o f stoves and ranges, which it sold over a large part o f the
United States, but on account o f difficulties with some o f its em
ployees a boycott against its products was declared by the local and
national organizations of workingmen connected or affiliated with
the trades, and the name o f the company was published in the Amer
ican Federationist, the organ o f the American Federation o f Labor.
This act was enjoined, among others, and it was this publication and
various other acts o f alleged interference with the complainant’s
business that led to the prayer for the injunction. The opinion o f
170
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
the court was delivered by Judge Robb, Chief Justice Shepard
dissenting. The following extracts from the opinion o f the court dis
close the facts and rules o f law leading to the conclusions reached:
The American Federation o f Labor in November o f each year holds
a convention, which is composed o f delegates from the various sub
ordinate bodies. A t the November, 1906, convention a resolution was
introduced for an endorsement o f the action o f the St. Louis bodies
in their controversy with the complainant and to have complainant
published in the “ W e Don’t Patronize” list o f the American Federationist, the official organ o f the Federation. This resolution was
referred to the executive council with power to act, and said council
at its next meeting in March, 1907, placed complainant and its prod
uct upon the “ We Don’t Patronize ” list o f the Federation and di
rected the publication thereof in said list in the Federationist, and
such publication was thereafter made. The executive council is com
posed o f the president, secretary, treasurer, and the eight vice-presi
dents o f the Federation. Immediately following the action ox said
executive council in so placing complainant upon said list o f the
Federation the following circular was given wide publicity:
“ I mportant N otice !
The Executive Council o f the American Federation o f Labor, in
session at Washington, D. C., March 18-23, 1907, placed the
Buck’s Stove and Range Company,
o f St. Louis, on the
Unfair List.
The publication o f this concern will be made in the ‘ W e Don’t
Patronize ’ list commencing in the May issue o f the American Fed
erationist.
This firm is commencing to advertise in daily papers all over the
country, endeavoring to offset the above action. A ll members take
notice. Appoint committees to visit the dealers and bring it to the
attention o f all friends o f organized labor.”
The effect o f the action o i the local and national bodies upon the
business o f the complainant was immediate and far-reaching. In
St. Louis dealers were waited upon by officers and representatives o f
the various local organizations, notably the Central Trades and Labor
Union, and were told that they must cease handling complainant’s
product or they would themselves be boycotted. On October 18,1907,
which it will be noted was subsequent to the action o f the Federation
in endorsing the position o f the local bodies, a committee composed of
the secretary o f the Central Trades and Labor Union, the vice-presi
dent o f the Metal Polishers Union, and a representative o f the Inter
national Metal Workers Union, called upon the St. Louis House Fur
nishing Company and notified the company that i f it did not cease
handling the product o f the complainant it would be boycotted. The
representative o f the company informed the committee that the com
pany had about $5,000 worth o f Buck’s stoves and ranges on hand,
and offered to discontinue dealing with the complainant i f the com
mittee would purchase the stoves the company had in stock. This
DECISIONS OP COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
171
the committee refused to do, and left with the admonition that if the
company did not stop it would be put upon the “ unfair ” list. There
upon, the company continuing to handle the product o f the complain
ant, a boycott against it was prosecuted by the local unions and cir
culars were distributed in the following form :
“ B oycott
St. L ouis H ouse F urnish ing Co.,
904 Franklin Ave.,
A gent
for
B u c k ’s S toves
and
R anges,
—which are—
U nfair
to
O rganized L abor.
Metal Polishers Union No. 13.
Stove Mounters No. 86.
Indorsed by Steel Range Workers No. 34.
Central Trades and Labor Union o f St. Louis and
vicinity.”
H. D. Hackman, a hardware dealer o f St. Louis, and the Hencken
& Broeken-Kroeger Furniture Company, o f East St. Louis, were also
boycotted for dealing in complainant’s product.
Notices were given other local dealers, but, owing to their acqui
escence in the demands made upon them, further action was not taken
against them. The action taken in St. Louis is typical o f that pur
sued throughout the country.
The Strauss-Miller Company, o f Cleveland, Ohio, was compelled
to cancel all back orders and abandon all relations with complainant
owing to the position taken by the labor unions o f that city.
The H. L. McElroy Company, o f Youngstown, Ohio, after a con
ference with union representatives, wrote complainant: “ It would be
a serious calamity for us to be compelled to change our line at this
time, but we can not endanger the success o f our entire business by
arousing the antagonism and animosity o f the labor unions.”
F. S. Bode, o f Kenosha, Wis., wrote that he needed stoves but
could not handle them owing to the labor unions in his city. His
letter concludes: “ Always had nice dealings with you but I ’m forced
to do this.”
A letter from the Schunk-Marquardt Company, o f Toledo, Ohio,
stated that: “ Again we have been notified by the labor unions that
the Buck Stoves and Range Co. are still on the unfair list, and that
if we continue to handle Buck stoves and ranges they will boycott
us. Not only on Buck stoves and ranges, but on all hardware.”
Similar letters were received from many other cities, but we do not
deem it necessary to make further allusion to them in this con
nection.
Different traveling salesmen o f complainant testified to loss o f
patronage in different cities because o f representations made by
representatives o f labor unions that dealers handling Buck’s stoves
would themselves be boycotted.
The bill charges that the publication o f concerns in the “ W e Don’t
Patronize ” list o f the Federationist is “ for the purpose o f singling
out and designating individuals and concerns so named, and o f noti
fying their customers, and the public generally, and all the members
o f said twenty-seven thousand local unions in their several localities,
4764— No. 88—09----- 12
172
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
and o f the several national and international unions, state federa
tions and central city labor unions that they are to be treated by them
as unjust and hostile to the unions upon whose application such
action is based, and that their business, products, and customers are
to be boycotted, by each and all the members o f the American Federa
tion o f Labor and their friends and sympathizers, and that the whole
power o f its vast organization and combination is to be used against
them to injure and destroy their business thereby, and that all the
members o f the American Federation o f Labor are to abstain from
purchasing or using said products, and from dealing with any person
who purchases, handles or uses said product.”
The bill proceeds to set out specific instances o f boycotts against
complainant’s patrons because they had continued to handle com
plainant’s stoves.
In answer to these averments in respect to the publication in the
44W e Don’t Patronize ” list o f the Federationist defendants 44deny
that the purpose thereof is to use 4the whole power o f its (American
Federation o f Labor) vast organization and combination ’ 4to in
jure and destroy their (those not patronized) business thereby.’ They
deny that said 4W e Don’t Patronize ’ list prohibits or interferes with
any constituent organization or its members 4dealing with any per
son who purchases, used or handles said product.’ ”
They also disclaim knowledge concerning specific instances o f boy
cotting mentioned in the bill.
The first question, therefore, to be determined is whether the de
fendants were connected with, and under this complaint responsible
for, the acts above set forth. The complainant on the one hand con
tends that the action o f said executive council and the publication in
the 44W e Don’t Patronize ” list o f the Federationist signified to each
labor union throughout the land that they were to boycott not only
complainant’s product but all those who upon demand did not cease
business dealings with complainant. In other words, that what
actually happened was the result intended. The defendants, on the
other hand, earnestly contend that the sum total o f their offending
has been a concerted severance o f business intercourse with com
plainant, and that they are not responsible for what actually
occurred.
The record shows that Mr. Gompers has been the president o f the
Federation since 1886 and that he is a man o f ability and a natural
leader o f men. It is apparent from a perusal o f the record that dur
ing all these years he has been a dominant factor in the affairs o f the
Federation, and that the general policy o f organized labor through
out the land is shaped and controlled by the association o f which he
is the president. The record shows that a very large number o f
boycotts have been declared and prosecuted by the Federation in the
past, and that as a result o f these boycotts considerable litigation
has ensued. The decisions o f the courts in the various labor cases
where the boycott has been under consideration have been the subject
o f frequent discussion by Mr. Gompers and he has frequently issued
instructions and advice to the members o f the Federation both in
the annual conventions o f the Federation and through the editorial
columns o f the Federationist. W e will briefly review the previous
position o f the Federation in respect to the boycott in our effort to
ascertain the significance o f the 44W e Don’t Patronize ” list.
DECISIONS OE COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
173
In the annual convention of 1894 delegates from an organization
that had refused, or neglected, to enforce a boycott against a whole
sale clothing house were not seated, and it was resolved “ to recom
mend to the public and organized labor to refuse to patronize or deal
with any retail clothier handling the goods o f said manufacturers.”
The convention o f 1899 was held at Detroit, Mich. Mr. Gompers,
in his annual report to that convention under the head 44Boycott—
The Right and Practice,” said:
“ It has been my purpose for some time to present, in a compre
hensive manner, the right o f the workers to employ the power o f the
4boycott.’ W ith that object in view, the editorial appearing in the
October issue o f the American Federationist, under the caption,4The
boycott as a legitimate weapon,’ was written and published. It is
commended to your serious consideration.”
This report was referred to a committee, which in its report en
dorsed the above editorial and urged its careful reading. In the
editorial referred to Mr. Gompers said:
“ A sympathetic boycott is as legal and legitimate as a sympathetic
strike. Just as men may strike for any reason, or without any reason
at all, so may they suspend dealings with merchants or others for
any reason or for no reason at all. Thus a boycott may extend to an
entire community without falling under the condemnation o f any
moral or constitutional or statutory law. But I shall be triumphantly
told, boycotters never do confine themselves to moral suasion and
appeal; that they resort to threats, intimidation and coercion, and it
is this which makes what is called 4compound boycotting ’— that is,
boycotting which extends to parties not concerned in the original
dispute—-criminal and aggressive. * * * This sounds very plaus
ible. It is easy to deduce from such premises that boycotters inter
fere with property rights and the pursuit o f lawful callings, and
that under the national and state constitutions, to say nothing about
explicit anticonspiracy laws, they are to be held civilly and criminally
liable. * * * But this argument about the employment o f threats
and intimidation is fallacious and superficial. Its apparent validity
disappears when, not satisfied with ugly looking words, we demand
precise definitions. No one pretends for a moment that it would be
proper for a boy cotter to approach a merchant and say 4You must
join us in suspending all dealings with that employer, or newspaper,
or advertiser, on pain o f having your house set on fire or physical
assault.’ This would be an unlawful threat, and people who would
try to enlist others in their campaign by threats o f this character
would certainly be guilty o f a criminal conspiracy. Do boycotters
use such threats? Do they contend for the right to employ force or
threats o f force? Our worst enemies do not contend that they do.
They 4threaten,’ but what do they threaten ? They 4intimidate,’ but
how? Let Judge Taft, who issued his sweeping antiboycotting in
junction, be a witness on this point. He said: 4As usually under
stood, a boycott is a combination of many to cause a loss to one per
son by coercing others against their will to withdraw from him their
beneficial interests through threats that unless those others do so
the many will cause similar loss to them.’ * * * No man in his
senses will dispute this axiomatic proposition, namely, that a man
has a right to threaten that which he has a right to carry out. * * *
174
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
You may tell a man that i f he does a certain thing, you will never
speak to him or call at his house. This is a threat, but it is a threat
that you have a right to make. W hy ? Because you have a right to
do what you threaten. The same thing is strictly true o f boycotting.
* * * A man may be coerced by actual force, by the threat of
force, or by indirect means which the law can not and does not pro
hibit. Coercion by a threat to suspend dealings is, to revert to our
illustration, in the same category with coercion through a threat to
cease friendly intercourse. * * * Labor claims the right to sus
pend dealings with any and all who refuse to support what it con
siders its legitimate demand.”
In his testimony Mr. Gompers took occasion to say that he had
not uttered a word o f which he was not proud and which he would
not reaffirm. Counsel for the defendants in their brief refer to this
editorial as correctly setting forth the position o f organized labor in
respect to the boycott.
Under date o f November 26, 1907, an official statement over the
signature o f Mr. Gompers as president, and attested by Frank Mor
rison as secretary. “ By order o f the executive council o f the Ameri
can Federation ox Labor,5 was sent out “ To all organized labor and
friends.55 In this statement we find the following:
“ As you are well aware, so inimical to the welfare o f labor was the
Bucks5 Stove and Range Co.’s management that the organization
concerned felt obliged to declare the product o f that company unfair.
The workmen’s organization appealed to the American Federation
o f Labor to indorse its action. A fter due investigation that indorse
ment was given and is still further affirmed. The circumstances lead
ing to this action are so widely known that they need not be here
recounted.55
It will thus be seen that in the nomenclature o f the Federation,
“ W e Don’t Patronize55 is synonymous with and equivalent to boy
cott ; the publication o f the former being notice to the craft that the
latter is to follow. The record shows that during the year 1907 Mr.
Gompers was in the city o f St. Louis at least four different times,
and that while there he was in conference with some o f the labor
leaders who were responsible for the inauguration o f the boycott
against complainant. It further appears that in his lecture tours
and in his official capacity as president o f the Federation he fre
quently visited other sections or the country. It also appears that
the Federation has in the field over 1,200 so-called “ organizers,55
whose duty in part appears to be to aid in pushing boycotts and to
report thereon to the Federation. Nowhere in his testimony, nor in
the testimony o f any o f the defendants who were called as witnesses,
is the denial made that the publication o f complainant in the “ We
Don’t Patronize55 list was not intended to inaugurate exactly the sort
o f boycott that was in fact prosecuted. Nowhere does it appear in the
testimony o f these defendants that any one o f them ever even sug
gested to any o f the subordinate organizations and membership o f the
Federation that they modify in any way their boycott against com
plainant. It will be noted that the answer to the specific averment o f
the bill hereinbefore set out only goes so far as to deny that the t u We
Don’t Patronize5 list prohibits or interferes with any constituent or
ganization W its members” dealing with persons who handle com
plainant’s stoves. The answer does not deny that the “ W e Don’t
DECISIONS OF COTJKTS AFFECTING LABOB.
175
Patronize” list does not indicate to subordinate organizations the
course of conduct that was in fact pursued.
It is also highly significant that throughout the country the notice
to dealers that they must cease handling complainant’s product was
not the sporadic and unauthorized act o f individual unionists, but,
on the contrary, the act o f accredited leaders. From whom did they
derive their inspiration? Was it a mere coincidence that they acted
in such perfect harmony and ever to the same end and purpose?
We think not.
In the editorial, to which allusion has been made and which was
brought to the attention o f and endorsed by the Federation in con
vention assembled, Mr. Gompers contended for the right to do and
advised the doing o f exactly what was done in this case.
The bill o f complainant was filed August 19,1907. The defendants
were therein notified o f the exact nature o f the boycott that was then
being prosecuted against complainant; but notwithstanding the
knowledge thus obtained we find the executive council o f the Federa
tion on November 26, 1907, reaffirming without qualification and in
an official statement, as before stated, what has been done.
In view o f all this we think there is no room for doubt that this
combination or boycott which had its inception in St. Louis was
inaugurated in accordance with the settled policy o f the American
Federation o f Labor, and that when the Federation in due course
approved and endorsed the same it acted with full knowledge not
only o f what had already occurred but o f what would be likely to
follow. If, therefore, anyone is responsible for what happened,
these defendants certainly are. (Insur. Co. v. Hillmon, 188 U. S.
218; United States v. Babcock, 24 Fed. 915; United States v. Stand
ard Oil Co., 152 Fed. 294.)
Eliminating, as we have, all collateral considerations, the clean-cut
question is presented, whether a combination, such as vas entered
into in this case, which has for its object the coercion o f a given firm
through the instrumentality o f the boycott, is lawful.
The supreme law o f the land guarantees protection to all who
desire to engage in a lawful calling or business, subject, of course,
to such reasonable regulations as it may be necessary to impose. And
when Mr. Gompers advised his followers that a man is entitled to
protection against a threatened destruction o f his house but none
against a malicious destruction o f the business which enables him to
maintain his house, Mr. Gompers is mistaken. Was the combination
entered into by appellants unlawful ? A conspiracy has been defined
as a combination o f two or more persons to accomplish something
unlawful or something not in itself unlawful by unlawful means.
(Pettibone v. United States, 148 U. S. 203.) In determining whether
the acts o f the appellants are within this definition we will here review
a few o f the adjudged cases on this branch o f the law.
Callan v. Wilson, 127 U. S. 540, was an information in the police
court o f the District of Columbia, charging the defendants with a
conspiracy to prevent certain members o f a local union, who had been
expelled therefrom, from pursuing their calling as musicians in the
United States. The conspiracy as set forth in the complaint was to
be effected by the defendants and the members o f other associations
with which they were affiliated, refusing to work in any capacity with
the expelled members, or with, or for any person or firm working with
176
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
or employing them, and by warning and threatening every person or
firm employing such expelled members that, i f they did not cease to
employ and refuse to employ them, they would not receive the custom
or patronage either o f the persons so conspiring or o f the members
o f affiliated organizations. The question before the court was whether
the offense charged was a petty offense or one o f so serious a nature
that the defendants were entitled to a trial by jury. The court held
that the offense charged was o f the latter character.
Mr. Justice Harlan, in reviewing Callan v. Wilson, in Arthur v.
Oakes, 63 Fed. 310, said: “ It thus appears that combinations and
conspiracies by two or more persons, with the intent to injure the
rights o f others were illegal at common law.” He further said:
“ According to the principles o f the common law, a conspiracy upon
the part o f two or more persons with the intent bv their combined
power to wrong others or to prejudice the rights ox the public, is in
itself illegal although nothing be actually done in execution o i such
conspiracy. This is fundamental in our jurisprudence. So a combi
nation or conspiracy to procure an employee or body o f employees to
quit service in violation o f the contract o f service would be unlawful,
and in a proper case might be enjoined if the injury threatened would
be irremediable at law. It is one thing for a single individual or
for several individuals each acting upon his own responsibility and
not in cooperation with others, to form the purpose o f inflicting
actual injury upon the property or rights o f others. It is quite a d if
ferent thing in the eye o f the law for many persons to combine or
conspire together with the intent not simply ox asserting their rights
or o f accomplishing lawful ends by peaceful methods, but o f employ
ing their united energies to injure others or the public. An intent
upon the part o f a single person to injure the rights o f others or o f
the public, is not in itself a wrong o f which the law will take cog
nizance, unless some injurious act be done in execution o f the unlaw
ful intent. But a combination o f two or more persons with such an
intent and under circumstances that give them when so combined a
power to do an injury they would not possess as individuals acting
singly, has always been recognized as in itself wrongful and illegal.”
So iar as we are advised, tfie decisions o f the federal and state
courts throughout the country, with the single exception o f Mon
tana, are in harmony with those to which specific allusion has been
made.
From these decisions it will be gathered that the boycott as gener
ally understood is a combination to harm one person by coercing
others to harm him. The combination in this case, in our opinion,
not only answers this definition o f a boycott but also the definition
previously given o f a common law conspiracy. The immediate pur
pose and result o f this combination, as we have seen, was to interfere
with complainant’s lawful business and to deprive complainant and
its customers o f their right to trade intercourse. It matters not that
the remote object o f the combination was to benefit such members o f
the local unions as should be employed by complainant, because the
law looks to the immediate and not to the incidental object o f the
combination. I f the immediate object is unlawful, the combination
is unlawful. I f the immediate object is lawful, as in the case o f
legitimate trade competition, including strikes, the combination, gen
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
177
erally speaking, is lawful. This distinction will be found in the
cases cited.
That no physical coercion was practiced in this case does not alter
our conclusion, since restraint o f mind, as the evidence in this case
clearly demonstrates, is just as potent as a threat o f physical violence.
The contention is put forward that inasmuch as each member o f the
Federation has the right to bestow his trade where he will, accord
ing to his whim or fancy, it can not be unlawful for a combination o f
members to do what each acting separately may do, and that, there
fore, the combination may lawfully discontinue or threaten to discon
tinue business intercourse with a given firm and all who handle its
product, or, to state the proposition bluntly, that the boycott as pre
viously defined is lawful. To admit the soundness o f this contention
is to give legal support and standing to an engine o f harm and op
pression utterly at variance with the spirit and theory o f our insti
tutions, place the weak at the mercy o f the strong, foster monopoly,
permit an unwarranted interference with the natural course o f trade,
and deprive the citizen o f the* freedom guaranteed him by the Consti
tution. The loss o f the trade o f a single individual ordinarily affects
a given dealer very little. Being discriminating, the purchasing
public, i f left free to exercise its own judgment, will not act arbi
trarily or maliciously, but will be controlled by natural considera
tions. But a powerful combination to boycott immediately deflects
the natural course o f trade and ruin follows in its wake because o f the
unlawful design o f the conspirators to coerce or destroy the object o f
their displeasure. In other words, it is the conspiracy and not nat
ural causes that is responsible for the result. From time immemorial
the law has frowned upon combinations formed for the purpose o f
doing harm, and we think public policy demands that such a combi
nation as we have found to exist in this case be declared unlawful.
As was said by Mr. Chief Justice Fuller o f a similar combination:
“ The combination charged falls within the class o f restraints o f trade
aimed at compelling third parties and strangers involuntarily not to
engage in the course o f trade except on conditions that the combina
tion imposes; and there is no doubt (to quote from the well-known
work ox Chief Justice Erie on Trade Unions) 4at common law every
person has individually, and the* public has collectively, a right to
require that the course o f trade should be kept free from unreason
able obstruction.’ ” (Loewe v. Lawlor, 208 U. S. 294 [Bulletin No. 75,
p. 622].) The action in that case was brought under the Sherman
Act, but the quotation given nevertheless is applicable here. In our
opinion, it is more important to wage-earners than to employers of
labor, that we declare this combination unlawful, for, i f wage-earners
may combine to interfere with the lawful business o f employers, it
follows that employers may combine to coerce their employees.
It is next contended that the decree entered in this case is an in
fringement o f the constitutional guaranty o f freedom o f speech and o f
the press. In so far as it seeks to restrain acts in furtherance of the
boycott we do not think it constitutes either a censorship o f the press
or an abridgment o f the right o f free speech. An unlawful combina
tion was found to exist, which, unless checked, would destroy com
plainant’s business and leave complainant without adequate redress.
The court, therefore, very properly sought to restrain the cause o f the
178
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
mischief, the unlawful combination. The “ W e Don’t Patronize ” or
“ Unfair ” list and oral declarations o f the boycott were included in
the decree because they were among the means employed in carrying
out the unlawful design.
Courts o f equity have refused to enjoin the publication o f a mere
libel, but they have not hesitated to enjoin either written or oral pub
lications constituting a means to the carrying out o f an unlawful
combination.
In Swift v. United States, 196 U. S. 375, Mr. Justice Holmes,
speaking for the court, said: “ It is suggested that the several acts
charged are lawful and that the intent can make no difference. But
they are bound together as parts o f a single plan and the plan may
make the parts unlawful.” Again, in Aikens ^.Wisconsin, 195 U. S.
[Bulletin No. 57, p. 678], the same Justice said: “ No conduct has
such an absolute privilege as to justify all possible schemes o f which
it may be a part. The most innocent and constitutionally protected
o f acts or omissions may be made a step in a criminal plot, and i f it
is a step in a plot neither its innocence* nor the Constitution is suffi
cient to prevent the punishment o f the plot by law.”
The cases relied upon by appellants are not in point here for the
reason that they involved mere libels, which, as above stated, courts
o f equity have uniformly refused to restrain.
Oral and written declarations in furtherance o f a conspiracy are
tentacles o f the conspiracy and must be treated as such and not as
independent acts. It would be an anomalous situation, indeed, i f a
court o f equity, having ample jurisdiction to restrain the carrying out
o f a conspiracy to deprive a citizen o f rights guaranteed him by the
Constitution, could be prevented from affording relief by the interpo
sition o f such a claim as is here made. Freedom o f action is at least
as sacred as an untrammeled tongue or pen, and those who conspire
to defeat the former right ought not to be permitted to interpose a
plea based upon the latter.
But, we think the decree in this case goes too far when it enjoins
the publication or distribution through the mails or otherwise o f the
Federationist or other periodicals or newspapers containing any ref
erence to complainant, its business, or product, as in the “ W e Don’t
Patronize,” or “ Unfair ” list o f the defendants. The court below
found, and in that finding we concur, that this list in this case consti
tutes a talismanic symbol indicating to the membership o f the Feder
ation that a boycott is on and should be observed. The printing of
this list, therefore, was what the court sought to prevent and what, in
our opinion, the court had power to prevent; but the decree should
stop there and not attempt to regulate the publication and distribution
o f other matter over which the court has no control. In other words,
this branch o f the decree should merely prohibit the printing o f com
plainant, its business, or product, in the “ W e Don’t Patronize ” or
“ Unfair ” list in furtherance of the boycott. The italicized words
should be added, ror, when the conspiracy is at an end, the Federa
tion will have the same right that any association or individual now
has to comment upon the relations o f complainant with its employees.
It is the existence of the conspiracy that warrants the court in pro
hibiting the printing o f this list. Manifestly, when the conspiracy
ends the prohibition ought also to end.
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
179
W e are o f the opinion that the decree is too broad in other respects.
It, being based upon a finding that a conspiracy to boycott exists,
should deal with acts o f commission and not acts o f omission. T o
be more specific, we think it should attempt no more than a prohibition
o f the boycott and the means of carrying it on, that is, the declara
tions or threats o f boycott or other manner o f intimidation against
complainant’s patrons or those handling or wishing to purchase its
product. W e have no power to compel the defendants to purchase
complainant’s stoves. We have power to prevent defendants, their
servants and agents, from preventing others from purchasing them.
There being no evidence in any way connecting counsel for de
fendants with the prosecution o f this boycott, we think the decree
should not be so worded as to include them. While “ attorneys ”
probably was used in the decree in a tautological sense its inclusion
at all was unnecessary.
The point is made that this decree should not include the Federa
tion because it is a mere voluntary association. This point appears
to be well taken since there is no such legal entity as an unincor
porated association; Taff Yale Ey. v. Amalgamated Society of Ey.
Servants, 1901 Appeal Cases 426. This, however, is not a suit at
law for damages but a proceeding in equity agaiifst certain repre
sentative members o f an association composed o f a large number o f
members, service upon all o f whom individually would be impos
sible. In such a case it has been held “ that a number o f members
may be made parties defendant as representative o f the class.”
(Pickett v. Walsh, 192 Mass. 390 [Bulletin No. 70, p. 747].) We
think it clear in this case that the named members o f the Federation
fully represent its membership, and that service upon them is
sufficient.
For the reasons given the decree is modified and affirmed as fol
lows: It is adjudged, ordered and decreed that the defendants,
Samuel Gompers, Frank Morrison, John B. Lennon, James Duncan,
John Mitchell, James O’Connell, Max Morris, Denis A. Hayes,
Daniel J. Keefe, William D. Huber, Joseph F. Valentine, Eodney L.
Thixton, Clinton O. Buckingham, Herman C. Poppe, Arthur J.
Williams, Samuel E. Cooper, and Edward L. Hickman, individually
and as representatives ox the American Federation o f Labor, their
and each o f their agents, servants, and confederates, be, and they
hereby are, perpetually restrained and enjoined from conspiring or
combining to boycott the business or product of complainant, and
from threatening or declaring any boycott against said business or
product, and from abetting, aiding, or assisting in any such boycott,
and from directly or indirectly threatening, coercing or intimidating
any person or persons whomsoever from buying, selling or otherwise
dealing in complainants’ product, and from printing the complainant,
its business or product, m the “ We Don’t Patronize ” or “ Unfair ”
list o f defendants in furtherance of any boycott against complain
ant’s business or product, and from referring, either in print or
otherwise, to complainant, its business or product, as in said “ W e
Don’t Patronize ” or “ Unfair ” list in furtherance o f any such
boycott.
The costs o f this appeal are equally divided between appellants
and appellee.
Modified and affirmed.
180
BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR.
L abor O rganizations— I nterference w it h E mployment — L ia
P rocuring D ischarge— R ights of M embers— Blanchard
v. Newark Joint District Council o f United Brotherhood o f Carpen
ters and Joiners of America et al., Supreme Court o f New Jersey ,
71 Atlantic Reporter , page 1131.— Elmer E. Blanchard was a member
bility for
o f the organization named above and sued the same for damages for
procuring his discharge from employment. From a judgment in his
favor the union appealed, the appeal resulting in the judgment of
the court below being affirmed. The facts appear in the opinion,
which was delivered by Judge Bergen, and which is, except for the
preliminary statement, as follows:
The case shows that plaintiff was suspended as a member o f the
order, and fined $100 by the district council, which plaintiff refused
to pay, claiming that the fine was not imposed according to the laws
o f the order, whereupon the defendants notified Y . J. Hedden & Sons
that, unless they discharged plaintiff, all the members o f the order
would refuse to work for the firm, and to avoid the loss of such labor,
and for no othej* reason, Hedden & Sons discharged the plaintiff.
Subsequently plaintiff paid the fine and appealed to a superior tri
bunal m the order, and was allowed to resume work. On his appeal
plaintiff was sustained, reinstated in the order, and the district coun
cil required to refund the fine illegally exacted. The case discloses
that plaintiff was illegally required to pay $100, and upon refusal
deprived o f employment by the acts o f the defendants. This creates
a right o f action under Brennan v. Hatters, 73 N. J. Law, 729, 65 Atl.
165 [Bulletin No. 70, p. 746].
The appellants, the defendants below, urged several points in
support o f their appeal.
First. That the conduct o f the defendants in inducing the dis
charge o f the plaintiff by Hedden & Sons was within their legal
rights. The argument on this point is that Hedden & Sons had no
contract with plaintiff, and therefore might discharge him without
cause. This does not meet the point, which is that plaintiff was
deprived o f employment because o f unlawful threats made to Hed
den & Sons, which influenced them to discharge him, and that this
would not have happened except for defendants’ conduct.
Second. That defendants did not request the discharge o f plaintiff.
On this point it is sufficient to say that what they did amounted to
such a request, and was accompanied with a threat i f not complied
with.
Third. That the court was without jurisdiction to retain the case
when motion for nonsuit was made, because the plaintiff had taken
an appeal from the order o f suspension and the imposition o f the
fine, from which it is argued he had submitted to the jurisdiction o f
the order. Taking an appeal from an order relating to the discipline
o f such an association does not amount to a waiver o f damages result
ing from the illegal act o f the defendants in procuring the discharge
o f the plaintiff in order to enforce the act appealed from.
Fourth. That there was error in admitting in evidence a printed
copy o f the trade rules o f the order. The secretary o f the association
had been subpoenaed to produce the minutes showing the by-laws o f
DECISION'S OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
181
the association. This he did not do, but produced a printed book
which he said was a copy o f the by-laws printed by the defendants
for the use o f its members. Whether competent or not its admission
did not harm defendants, because the illegality o f the proceedings
suspending and imposing the fine which the by-laws were offered to
prove had been decided in plaintiff’s favor by a proper tribunal, and
the plaintiff reinstated in the order and the fine returned to him.
Fifth. That the nonsuit should have been granted because o f
failure to offer in evidence the constitution o f the national organiza
tion. This was not relevant to the issue being tried.
Sixth. That two letters were improperly admitted. One o f these
letters was written by the president o f the national association, and
the other by the general secretary o f the association, each containing
a notice to the district council o f the disposition made o f plaintiff’s
appeal. They were produced by the defendants on notice, and were
competent.
The remaining points relate to admission o f testimony, which we
do not find to be erroneous.
The judgment below is affirmed.
I N D E X TO B U L L E T IN NO. 83.
Page.
Arbitration and mediation of labor disputes in Indiana, report of commission on_
109
Belgium :
Condition of home workers in Belgian industries_________________________
113
Wages and hours of labor in the metal-working industries, October, 19 03____113-120
Berlin and suburbs, unemployment in, November 17, 1908, report on____________ 120-124
Brick and other clay products in Montana, expenditure for labor in production of,
1904 and 19 05___________________________________________________________
112
Building trades, hours of labor in, in France compared with England___________
85
Building trades, rates of wages i n :
France_________________________________________________________________
80-82
France and Great Britain compared_____________________________________
84
California, statistics relating to---------------------------------------------------- 104, 105
Child labor, 1907 and 19 08______________________________________________
105
Chinese and Japanese, 1 9 08_____________________________________________
105
Employment agencies, 1908______________________________________________1 0 4 ,1 0 5
Child labor in California, 1907 and 1 9 08____________________________________
105
Chinese and Japanese in California, 19 08_____________________________________
105
Coal production i n :
106
Colorado, 1906 and 1 9 07-----------------------------------------------------Montana, 1904 and 19 05________________________________________________
112
Colorado, statistics relating to_______________________________________________
106
Coal production, 1906 and 19 07_________________________________________
106
Free employment bureaus, 1907 and 1908_________________________________
106
Labor organizations, 1907 and 19 08______________________________________
106
Railroad employees, 1 9 07-----------------------------------------------------106
Connecticut, statistics relating to, 19 08_______________________________________ 106-108
Effects of the industrial depression______________________________________
107
Factory construction----------------------------------------------------------107
Free public employment bureaus__________________- _____________________
107
Strikes and lockouts____________________________________________________
108
Tenement houses_______________________________________________________
108
Cost of living of the working classes in the principal industrial towns of France_
66-87
Changes in retail prices and rates of wages between October, 1905, and
October, 1907---------------------------------------------------------------86, 87
Hours of labor. _______________________________________________________
85, 86
Rates of wages—
France____________________________________________________
80-83
France and Great Britain compared-------------------------------------84, 86
Rents of working-class dwellings—
France-------.-------------------------------------------------------------67-69
France and Great Britain compared------------------------------------ 70, 71, 85
Retail prices—
France_____________________________________________________________
71-77
France and Great Britain compared____________________________ 77-80, 85, 86
Scope of the investigation------------------------------------------------------66, 67
Summary of conclusions---------------------------------------------------------85, 86
Cotton industry in Great Britain, earnings of employees in----------------------92-95
Decisions of courts affecting labor:
Assignments of wages— rights of assignees— priority of wage claims over
claims of mortgagees— construction of statute__________________________ 144-147
Contract of employment—
intent to defraud— constitutionality of statute— imprisonment for debt_1 4 7 ,1 4 8
wrongful discharge— remedy— duty to seek new employment—burden
of proof__________________________________________________________ 165-167
Employer and employee— confidential relations— disclosure of trade secrets—
injunction____________________________________________________________ 163-165
Employers’ liability—
competence of fellow-servants—duty of employer— evidence of incompe
tence— contract with trade union as defense----------------------------167-169
employment of children in violation of statute— contributory negligence
of infant unlawfully employed— course of employment--------------- 1 4 9 ,1 5 0
railroad companies— assumption of risk— acts in emergencies— construc
tion of statute---------------------------------------------------------- 150-153
railroad companies— safe place to work— assumption of risk— contrib
utory negligence— course of employment— construction of statute—
questions for jury---------------------------------------------------------- 153-157
Labor organizations—
boycott—secondary boycott— interference with employment— rights of
employers and employees— conspiracy— strikes— injunction------------157-163
boycott—secondary or compound boycott— conspiracy— injunction— un
incorporated associations__________________________________________ 169-179
183
184
INDEX TO BULLETIN NO. 83.
Decisions of courts affecting labor— Concluded.
Labor organizations— Concluded.
contract with trade union as defense in action for employment of incom
petent fellow-servant— employers’ liability— evidence_______________ 167-169
interference with employment—liability for procuring discharge— rights
of members______________________________________________________ 180,181
strikes— conspiracy— injunction—interference with employment— sec
ondary boycott—rights of employers and employees_________________ 157-163
Wage claims— priority over claims of mortgagees—assignments—rights of
assignees--------------------------------------------------------------------- 144-147
Digest of recent foreign statistical publications:
Belgium—
Les Industries a Domicile en Belgique. L’Industrie du Meuble a Malines.
La Broderie sur Linge et l’lndustrie du Col. du Corset, de la Cravate
et de la Chemise; l’lndustrie du VStement ConfectionnS pour Femmes
a Bruxelles; l’lndustrie de la Corderie_____________________________
113
Salaries et Dur6e du Travail dans les Industries des M6taux au mois
d’Octobre 1903___________________________________________________ 113-120
Germany—
Arbeitslosenz&hlung vom 17. November, 1908, in Berlin und 27 Vororten_ 120-124
Die Arbeitslosenzhhlung in Halle a. S. vom 10. Januar 1 9 09------------- 124-127
Die bisherigen Erfahrungen auf dem Gebiete der Arbeitslosenversicherung ____________________________________________________________ 128-136
Great Britain—
Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops for
the year 1 9 08____________________________________________________ 137-141
Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories on the Administration of the
Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, by Local Authorities in respect of
Workshops, Outwork, etc., in the year 19 07________________________ 142,143
Italy—
143
Inchiesta sul Lavoro Festivo in Italia e Studi sullo Legislazione EsteraDigest of recent reports of state bureaus of labor sta tistics:
California, 1907 and 1908_______________________________________________ 104,105
106
Colorado, 1907 and 19 08________________________________________________
Connecticut, 1 9 0 8 ______________________________________________________ 106-108
Indiana, 1907 and 19 08_________________________________________________ 108, 109
Iowa, 1906 and 19 07---------------------------------------------------------- 109-111
Montana, 1905 and 1906________________________________________________ 111, 112
Earnings and hours of labor in British textile industries______________________ 88-103
Cotton industry---------------------------------------------------------------92-95
Hosiery industry_______________________________________________________ 101, 102
Jute industry___________________________________________________________
Lace industry__________________________________________________________ 102, 103
Linen industry__________________________________________________________
98, 99
Silk industry------------------------------------------------------------------- 100 , 101
Woolen and worsted industry____________________________________________
95-97
88-92
Earnings and hours of labor in British textile industries, general summary of__
Electric railroads in Indiana, 1906 and 1907_________________________________
109
Employees in British textile industries, earnings and hours of labor of. (See
Earnings and hours of labor in British textile industries.)
Employees, railroad, in—
Colorado, 1907______________________________________________ ____________
106
Iowa, 1906 and 19 07___________________________________________________ 110, 111
Employers, statistical report of, in Iowa_____________________________________
111
Employment agencies in California, 1908_____________________________________ 104, 105
Employment bureaus, fr ee :
106
Colorado, 1907 and 1908------------------------------------------------------Connecticut, 1908-------------------------------------------------------------107
112
Montana, 1905 and 1906________________________________________________
Employment on Sundays and holidays, in Italy__________________________ •____
143
Engineering trades, hours of labor in, in France compared with England________
85
Engineering trades, rates of wages i n :
80-82
France_________________________________________________________________
France and Great Britain compared_____________________________________
84
Factories and workshops in Great Britain, report of chief inspector o f :
For 19 0 8 _______________________________________________________________ 137-141
On administration of Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, by local authori
ties in 1907__________________________________________________________ 142,143
Factory construction in Connecticut, 1908____________________________________
107
Fines and imposition on members of women’s trade unions in Great Britain, pro
tection against-------------------------------------------------------------------29-31
F ood:
Cost of, for average British and French workmen’s budgets compared______
78, 79
Proportion of weekly income spent by French urban workmen’s families on_
76
Quantity of, consumed by French urban workmen’s families-----------------75
France:
Cost of living of working classes in principal industrial towns of__________
66Hours of labor in the building, engineering, and printing trades compared
with England---------------------------------------------------------------85
Rates of wages in the building, engineering, and printing trades__________
80-82
Rents of working-class dwellings______________________________\__________
67Retail prices of commodities paid by working classes______________________
71-80
Germany:
Insurance against unemployment, experience of the city of Magdeburg and
various European governments with---------------------------------------- 128-136
Unemployment, report on—
In Berlin and 27 suburbs, November 17, 1908-----------------------_____ 120-124
In Halle on the Saale, January 10, 19 09_____________________________ 124-127
87
71
INDEX TO BULLETIN NO. 83,
185
Great B ritain:
Page.
Chief inspector of factories and workshops, report of, for 1908____________ 137-141
Chief inspector of factories, report of, on the administration of the Factory
and Workshop Act, 1901, by local authorities in respect of workshops,
outwork, etc., in 1907------------------------------------------------------ 142, 143
Rents of working-class dwellings, compared with France__________________70, 71, 85
Retail prices, compared with France------------------------------------- 77-80, 85, 86
Textile industries, earnings and hours of labor in _________________________ 88-103
Wages, rates of, compared with France___________________________________
84, 86
Women’s trade-union movement in_______________________________________
1-65
Halle on the Saale, unemployment in, January 10, 1909, report gn _____________ 124-127
Holidays and Sundays, employment on, in Italy----------------------------------143
Home workers in Belgian industries, condition of_____________________________
113
Hosiery industry in Great Britain, earnings of employees in____________________ 1 0 1 ,1 0 2
Hours of labor and earnings in British textile industries. (See Earnings and
hours of labor in British textile industries.)
Hours of labor and wages in the metal-working industries in Belgium__________ 113-120
Hours of labor in the building, engineering, and printing trades in France com
pared with England______________________________________________________
85, 86
Income, average weekly, of workmen’s families in France______________________
74
Indiana:
Arbitration and mediation in, report of commission on____________________
109
Electric railroads in, 1906 and 1 9 07_____________________ ._______________
109
Labor organizations in, 1 9 08____________________________________________
109
Indiana Labor Commission, sixth biennial report of, 1907 and 1 9 08 ____________
109
Industrial depression in Connecticut, effects of_._____________________________
107
Insurance against unemployment, experience of city of Magdeburg and various
European governments w ith -------------------------------------------------------128-136
Iowa, statistics relating to, 1906 and 1 9 07----------------------------------------- 109-111
Employers’ statistical report, 19 07______________________________________
111
Railroad employees, 1906 and 19 07______________________________________ 110, 111
Trade unions___________________________________________________________
110
Wage-earners, 1 9 0 7 _____________________________________________________
110
Italy, employment on Sundays and holidays in, report on------------------------143
Japanese and Chinese in California, 1 9 0 8 ____________________________________
105
Jute industry in Great Britain, earnings of employees in______________________
99
Labor organizations in—
California______________________________________________________________
105
Colorado-----------------------------------------------------------------------106
Indiana------------------------------------------------------------------------109
I o w a --------------------------------------------------------------------------110
Labor statistics, digest of recent reports of state bureaus of—
California, 1907 and 19 08_______________________________________________104, 105
Colorado, 1907 and 1908________________________________________________
106
Connecticut, 1 9 08--------------------------------------------------------------- 106-108
Indiana, 1907 and 19 08_________________________________________________ 1 0 8 ,1 0 9
Iowa, 1906 and 1 9 07____________________________________________________ 109-111
Montana, 1905 and 1906________________________________________________ 111, 112
Lace industry in Great Britain, earnings of employees in_____________________ 102, 103
Linen industry in Great Britain, earnings of employees in_____________________
98, 99
Living-in and truck systems among women workers in Great Britain, crusade
a g a in st--------------------------------------------------------------------------25-29
Lockouts and strikes in Connecticut, 19 08----------------------------------------108
Metal working industries in Belgium, wages and hours of labor in_____________ 113-120
Montana, statistics relating to, 1905 and 19 06_______________________________111, 112
Free public employment offices, 1905 and 19 06------------------------------112
Statistics of coal production and of brick and other clay industries________
112
Obstacles to organization of women workers in Great Britain__________________
5-10
Class distinctions______________________________________________________
8, 9
Liability to victimization and apathy----------------------------------------9 ,1 0
Low wages and low standards of living__________________________________
6, 7
Occupations temporary_________________________________________________
6
Organization of women’s trade unions in Great B ritain:
Attitude of male trade-unionists toward--------------------------------------11-18
Growth of organization_________________________________________________
18-22
History of movement---------------------------------------------------------1-5
Obstacles to____________________________________________________________
5-10
Results of---------------------------------------------------------------------22-32
Prices, retail, and rates of wages, changes in, in France, between October, 1905,
and October, 1907________________________________________________________
86, 87
Prices, retail, of commodities paid by working classes:
France_________________________________________________________________
71-77
France and Great Britain compared------------------------------------- 77-80, 85, 86
Printing trades, hours of labor in, in France, compared with England__________
85
Printing trades, rates of wages in:
France_________________________________________________________________
80-82
France and Great Britain compared-----------------------------------------84
Protection against fines and imposition on members of women’s trade unions in
Great Britain_____________________________________________________________
29-31
Railroad employees in—
Colorado, 1 9 0 7 __________________________________________________________
106
Iowa, 1906 and 1 9 07___________________________________________________ 110, 111
Rates of wages and retail prices, changes in, in France, between October, 1905,
and October, 1907_________________________ _______________________________
86, 87
Rates of wages in the building, engineering, and printing trades:
France_________________________________________________________________
80-83
France and Great Britain compared_____________________________________
84, 86
Rates of wages, relation of, to rents and prices, in France_____________________
83
186
INDEX TO BULLETIN NO. 83,
Rents of working-class dw ellings:
Page.
France_________________ :----------------------------------------------------67-69
France and Great Britain compared----------------------------------------- 70, 71, 85
Results of organization of women workers in Great Britain----------------------22-32
Aid secured through I t gal proceedings----------------------------------------22, 23
Conciliation and arbitration_____________________________________________
32
Crusade against living-in and truck systems---------------------------------25 -2 9
Marriage dowry---------------------------------------------------------------31, 32
Protection against fin' and imposition---------------------------------------29-31
Recent legislation______________________________________________________
23-25
Retail prices and rates of wages, changes in, in France, between October, 1905,
86, 87
and October, 1907---------------------------------------------------------------Retail prices of commodities paid by working classes:
France_________________________________________________________________
71-77
France and Great Britain compared__________________________________ 77-80, 85, 86
Silk industry in Great Britain, earnings of employees in-------------------------- 1 0 0 ,1 0 1
108
Strikes and lockouts in Connecticut, 19 08_____________________________________
Sundays and holidays, employment on, in Italy-----------------------------------143
Sweating system and low wages in Great Britain, relation of women’s trade
unions to_________________________________________________________________
44—50
Tenement houses in Connecticut, 19 07--------------------------------------------108
Textile industries, British, earnings and hours of labor in. (S ee Earnings and
hours of labor in British textile industries.)
Trade union movement, women’s, in Great Britain. (S ee Women’s trade union
movement in Great Britain.)
Trade unions in Great Britain, women’s and m ixed:
Statistics of, 1904 and 1 9 08_____________________________________________
58
Women members in, by numerical strength, 19 08_________________________
59-61
Women members in, by trades, 19 08_____________________________________
62-65
Women members in, in 1904 and 1907___________________________________
20
Trade unions. (See Labor organizations.)
Trade-unionists, male, attitude of, to organization of women workers-----------11-18
Truck and living-in systems in Great Britain, crusade against-------------------25 -2 9
Unemployment—
In Berlin and 27 suburbs, November 17, 19 08-------------------------------- 120-124
In Halle on the Saale, January 10, 1909_________________________________ 124-127
Insurance against, experience of Magdeburg and various European govern
ments with___________________________________________________________ 128-136
Wage-earners in Iowa, 1907_________________________________________________
110
Wages and hours of labor in the metal working industries in Belgium__________ 113-120
Wages, low, and sweating system in Great Britain, 'relation of women’s trade
unions t o ________________________________________________________________
44 -5 0
Wages, rates of, and retail prices, changes in, in France, between October, 1905,
86, 87
and October, 1 9 07---------------------------------------------------------------Wages, rates of, in the building, engineering, and printing trades :
France_________________________________________________________________
80-83
France and Great Britain compared_____________________________________
84, 86
Wages, relation of rates of, to rents and prices, in France-----------------------83
Women’s Trade Union League in Great Britain----------------------------------32-43
Affiliation with the General Federation of Trade Unions, advantages of_____
39-43
Methods employed by---------------------------------------------------------32-37
Representation in the trade union congress, advantages of------------------37, 38
Women’s trade union movement in Great Britain______________________________
1-65
Attitude of male trade-unionists to organization of women________________
11-18
Conclusions_____________________________________________________________
50-58
Growth of organization among women workers------------------------------18-22
History of the movement------------------------------------------------------1-5
Low wages and the sweating system, relation of women’s trade unions to___
44-50
Obstacles to organization of women workers______________________________
5-10
class distinctions---------------------------------------------------------8, 9
liability to victimization and apathy------------------------------------9 ,1 0
low wages and low standard of living----------------------------------6, 7
occupations temporary---------------------------------------------------6
Results of organization of women workers-----------------------------------22-32
aid secured through legal proceedings-----------------------------------22, 23
conciliation and arbitration----------------------------------------------32
crusade against living-in and truck systems----------------------------25-29
marriage dowry-----------------------------------------------------------31, 32
protection against fines and imposition_______________________________
29-31
recent legislation---------------------------------------------------------23-25
Statistics of women’s and of mixed trade unions----------------------------58-65
Trade Union League, Women’s----- :_____________________________________
32-43
advantages of affiliation with General Federation of Trade Unions_____
39-43
advantages of representation in the trade union congress_____________
37, 38
methods employed by the league----------------------------------------32-37
Woolen and worsted industry in Great Britain, earnings of employees in_______
95-97
Working-class dwellings, rents o f :
France-------------------------------------------------------------------------67-69
France and Great Britain compared----------------------------------------- 70, 71, 85
DIRECTORY OF BUREAUS OF LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES
AND IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
Name of bureau.
Title of chief officer.
Location of bureau.
United States Bureau of Labor..........
Bureau of Labor Statistics.................
Bureau of Labor Statistics.................
Bureau of Labor Statistics.................
Bureau of Immigration, Labor, and
Statistics.
Bureau of Labor Statistics.................
Bureau of Statistics...........................
Bureau of Labor Statistics.................
Bureau of Labor and Industry...........
Department of Agriculture,' Labor,
and Statistics.
Bureau of Statistics of Labor..............
Bureau of Industrial and Labor Sta
tistics.
Bureau of Industrial Statistics...........
Bureau of Statistics...........................
Bureau of Labor and Industrial Sta
tistics.
Bureau of Labor...............................
Bureau of Labor Statistics and In
spection.
Bureau of Agriculture, Labor, and In
dustry.
Bureau of Labor and Industrial Sta
tistics.
Bureau of Labor................................
Bureau of Statistics of Labor and In
dustries.
Department of Labor........................
Bureau of Labor and Printing............
Department of Agriculture and Labor.
Bureau of Labor Statistics.................
Department of Labor........................
Bureau of Labor Statistics and Inspec
tion of Factories and Workshops.
Bureau of Industrial Statistics...........
Bureau of Labor...............................
Bureau of Industrial Statistics...........
Department of Agriculture, Com
merce, and Industries.
Bureau of Labor Statistics................
Bureau of Labor and Industrial Sta
tistics.
Bureau of Labor................................
Bureau of Labor...............................
Bureau of Labor and Industrial Sta
tistics.
Commissioner............
Commissioner............
Deputy Commissioner
Commissioner............
Commissioner............
Washington, D. C.
San Francisco.
Denver.
Hartford.
Boise City.
Secretary...................
Chief.........................
Commissioner............
Commissioner............
Commissioner............
Springfield.
Indianapolis.
Des Moines.
Topeka.
Frankfort.
State.
UNITED STATES.
Idaho.................
Kentucky...........
Maine.................
Massachusetts--Michigan............
Minnesota...........
Missouri..............
Montana.............
Nebraska............
New Hampshire..
New Jersey.........
New York...........
North Carolina...
North Dakota__
Ohio...................
Oklahoma...........
Oregon...............
Pennsylvania......
Philippinelslands
Rhode Island......
South Carolina...
Texas................
Virginia..............
Washington........
West Virginia___
Wisconsin...........
Commissioner............ Baton Rouge.
Commissioner............ Augusta.
Chief......................... Baltimore.
Director..................... Boston.
Commissioner............ Lansing.
Commissioner............ St. Paul.
Commissioner............ Jefferson City.
Commissioner............ Helena.
Deputy Commissioner Lincoln.
Commissioner............ Concord.
Chief......................... Trenton.
Commissioner............
Commissioner............
Commissioner............
Commissioner............
Commissioner............
Commissioner............
Albany.
Raleigh.
Bismarck.
Columbus.
Guthrie.
Salem.
Chief.........................
Director...................
Commissioner............
Commissioner ...........
Harrisburg.
Manila.
Providence.
Columbia.
Commissioner............ Austin.
Commissioner............ Richmond.
Commissioner............ Olympia.
Commissioner............ Wheeling.
Commissioner............ Madison.
FOREIGN
COUN
TRIES.
Argentina........... Departamento Nacional del Trabajo..
Austria............... K. K. Arbeitsstatistisches Amt im
Handelsministerium.
Belgium.............. Office du Travail (Minist&re de FIn
dustrie et du Travail).
Canada............... Department of Labor........................
Canada: Ontario. Bureau of Labor (Department of Pub
lic Works).
Chile.................. Oficina de Estadistica del Trabajo__
Finland.............. Industristyrelsen («)..........................
France............... Office du Travail (Ministfcre du Tra
vail et de la PrSvoyance Sociale).
Germany............ Abteilung fur Arbeiterstatistik, Kaiserliches Statistisches Amt.
Great Britain and Labor Department (Board of Trade)..
Ireland.
Presidente................. Buenos Aires.
Vorstand................... Wien.
Directeur General...... Bruxelles.
Minister of Labor....... Ottawa.
Secretary................... Toronto.
Jefe........................... Santiago.
Helsingfors.
Directeur................... Paris.
President.................. Berlin.
Commissioner of La London.
bor.
• Issues a bulletin of labor.
4764—No. 83—09----- 13
187
BULLETIN OP TH E BUREAU OP LABOR.
188
State.
Name of bureau.
Title of chief officer.
Location of bureau.
FOREIGN
COUN
TRIES— cone’d.
Italy................... Ufficio del Lavoro (Ministero di Agricoltura Industria e Commercio).
N eth erlan d s......... Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (<*).
New South W ales. State Labor Bureau...........................
Nfiw Zealand
Department of Labor........................
Spain . ....................... Institute de Reformas Sociaies...........
S w e d e n .................. Afdelning for Arbetsstatistik (Kgl.
Kommerskollegii).
Switzerland
Secretariat Ouvrier Suisse (semioffi
cial).
Uruguay _•........... Oficina del Trabajo (Ministero de
Industrias, Trabajo 6 Instruccidn
Pdblica).
Tn ternational
International Labor Office.................
Direttore Generate__ Rome.
Directeur..................
Director of Labor.......
Minister of Labor.......
Secretario General......
Direktor....................
’S-Gravenhage.
Sydney.
Wellington.
Madrid.
Stockholm.
Secretaire.................. Zurich.
Montevideo.
Director..................... Baste, Switzerland.
• Issues a bulletin of labor.
LEADING ARTICLES IN PAST NUMBERS OF THE BULLETIN
No. 1. Private and public debt in the United States, by George K. Holmes. ( a)
Employer arid employee under tbe common law, by V. H. Olmsted and
S. D. Fessenden. ( a)
No. 2. Tbe poor colonies of Holland, by J. Howard Gore, Pb. D .(a)
Tbe industrial revolution in Japan, by William Eleroy Curtis. ( a)
Notes concerning tbe money of tbe U. S. and other countries, by W. C.
H unt.(a)
Tbe wealth and receipts and expenses o f tbe U. S., by W. M. Steuart. ( a)
No. 3. Industrial communities: Coal Mining Co. o f Anzin, by W. F. Willoughby.
No. 4. Industrial communities: Coal Mining Co. o f Blanzy, by W. F. W il
loughby. ( a)
The sweating system, by Henry White. ( a)
No. 5. Convict labor.
Industrial communities: Krupp Iron and Steel Works, by W. F. W il
loughby.
No. 6. Industrial communities: Familistfcre Society of Guise, by W. F. W il
loughby.
Cooperative distribution, by Edward W. Bemis, Ph. D.
No. 7. Industrial communities: Various communities, by W. F. Willoughby.(a)
Bates of wages paid under public and private contract, by Ethelbert
Stewart. ( a)
No. 8. Conciliation and arbitration in the boot and shoe industry, by T. A.
Carroll. («)
Railway relief departments, by Emory R. Johnson, Ph. D .(a)
No. 9. The padrone system and padrone banks, by John Koren.(a)
The Dutch Society for General Welfare, by J. Howard Gore, Ph. D .(°)
No. 10. Condition o f the Negro in various cities.(a)
Building and loan associations.^)
No. 11. Workers at gainful occupations at censuses o f 1870, 1880, and 1890, by
W. C. Hunt.
Public baths in Europe, by Edward Mussey Hartwell, Ph. D., M. D.
No. 12. The inspection o f factories and workshops in the U. S., by W. F. W il
loughby. (°)
Mutual rights and duties o f parents and children, guardianship, etc.,
under the law, by F. J. Stimson.(°)
The municipal or cooperative restaurant of Grenoble, France, by C. O.
W ard.(°)
No. 13. The anthracite mine laborers, by G. O. Virtue, Ph. D .(a)
No. 14. The Negroes o f Farmville, V a .: A social study, by W. E. B. Du Bois,
Ph. D .(a)
Incomes, wages, and rents in Montreal, by Herbert Brown Ames, B. A .(a)
No. 15. Boarding homes and clubs for working women, by Mary S. Fergusson.(a)
The trade union label, by John Graham Brooks. ( a)
No. 16. Alaskan gold fields and opportunities for capital and labor, by S. C.
Dunham.
No. 17. Brotherhood relief and insurance of railway employees, by E. R. Johnson,
Ph. D.
The nations o f Antwerp, by J. Howard Gore, Ph. D.
No. 18. Wages in the United States and Europe, 1870 to 1898. ( a)
No. 19. Alaskan gold fields and opportunities for capital and labor, by S. C.
Dunham. ( a)
Mutual relief and benefit associations in the printing trade, by W. S.
W audby.(°)
No. 20. Conditions o f railway labor in Europe, by Walter E. Weyl, Ph. D.
No. 21. Pawnbroking in Europe and the United States, by W. R. Patterson, Ph. D.
Bulletin out of print.
189
190
BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR.
No. 22. Benefit features o f American trade unions, by Edward W. Bemis, Ph. D. ( a)
The Negro in the black b e lt: Some social sketches, by W. E. B. Du Bois,
Ph. D .(«)
Wages in Lyon, France, 1870 to 1896. ( a)
No. 23. Attitude of women’s clubs, etc., toward social economics, by Ellen M.
Henrotin. ( a)
The production o f paper and pulp in the U. S., from January 1 to June 30,
1898. ( a)
No. 24. Statistics of cities. ( a)
No. 25. Foreign labor laws: Great Britain and France, by W. F. Willoughby. ( a)
No. 26. Protection o f workmen in their employment, by S. D. Fessenden.(®)
Foreign labor law s: Belgium and Switzerland, by W. F. W illoughby.(a)
N o.27. Wholesale prices: 1890 to 1899, by Roland P. Falkner, Ph. D .(a)
Foreign labor law s: Germany, by W. F. Willoughby.(®)
No. 28. Voluntary conciliation and arbitration in Great Britain, by J. B. McPher
son .^ )
System o f adjusting wages, etc., in certain rolling mills, by J. H. Nutt.(a)
Foreign labor law s: Austria, by W. F. W illoughby.(a)
No. 29. Trusts and industrial combinations, by J. W. Jenks, Ph. D.
The Yukon and Nome gold regions, by S. G. Dunham.
Labor Day, by Miss M. C. de Graffenried.
No. 30. Trend of wages from 1891 to 1900.
Statistics of cities.
Foreign labor la w s: Various European countries, by W. F. Willoughby.
No. 31. Betterment of industrial conditions, by V. H. Olmsted.
Present status o f employers’ liability in the U. S., by S. D. Fessenden.
Condition o f railway labor in Italy, by Dr. Luigi Einaudi.
No. 32. Accidents to labor as regulated by law in the U. S., by W. F. Willoughby.
Prices of commodities and rates o f wages in Manila.
The Negroes o f Sandy Spring, M d.: A social study, by W. T. Thom, Ph. D.
The British workmen’s compensation act and its operation, by A. M. Low.
No. 33. Foreign labor la w s: Australasia and Canada, by W. F. Willoughby.
The British conspiracy and protection o f property act and its operation,
by A. M. Low.
No. 34. Labor conditions in Porto Rico, by Azel Ames, M. D.
Social economics at the Paris Exposition, by Prof. N. P. Gilman.
The workmen’s compensation act o f Holland.
No. 35. Cooperative communities in the United States, by Rev. Alexander Kent.
The Negro landholder o f Georgia, by W. E. B. Du Bois, Ph. D.
No. 36. Statistics o f cities.
Statistics of Honolulu, H. I.
No. 37. Railway employees in the United States, by Samuel McCune Lindsay,
Ph. D .(°)
The Negroes o f Litwalton, V a .: A social study o f the “ Oyster Negro,”
by William Taylor Thom, Ph. D .(a)
No. 38. Labor conditions in Mexico, by Walter E. Weyl, Ph. D.
The Negroes o f Cinclare Central Factory and Calumet Plantation, La.,
by J. Bradford Laws.
No. 39. Course of wholesale prices, 1890 to 1901.
No. 40. Present condition o f the hand-working and domestic industries o f Ger
many, by Henry J. Harris, Ph. D.
Workmen’s compensation acts o f foreign countries, by Adna F. Weber.
No. 41. Labor conditions in Cuba, by Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
Beef prices, by Fred C. Croxton.
No. 42. Statistics o f cities. ( a)
Labor conditions o f Cuba.(a)
No. 43. Report to the President on anthracite coal strike, by Carroll D. Wright. ( a)
No. 44. Factory sanitation and labor protection, by C. F. W. Doehring, Ph. D.
No. 45. Course of wholesale prices, 1890 to 1902.
No. 46. Report of Anthracite Coal Strike Commission.
No. 47. Report o f the Commissioner o f Labor on Hawaii.
No. 48. Farm colonies o f the Salvation Army, by Commander Booth Tucker.
The Negroes of Xenia, Ohio, by Richard R. Wright, jr., B. D.
No. 49. Cost o f living.
Labor conditions in New Zealand, by Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
Bulletin out of print.
LEADING ARTICLES IN PAST NUMBERS OP THE BULLETIN.
191
No. 50. Labor unions and British industry, by A. Maurice Low. ( a)
Land values and ownership in Philadelphia, by A. F. Davies. (a)
No. 51. Course o f wholesale prices, 1890 to 1903.
The union movement among coal-mine workers, by Frank J. Warne, Ph. D.
No. 52. Child labor in the United States, by Hannah R. Sewall, Ph. D.
No. 53. Wages and cost o f living.
No. 54. The working of the United States Bureau o f Labor, by Carroll D. Wright.
Bureaus of statistics of labor in the United States, by G. W. W. Hanger.
Bureaus o f statistics o f labor in foreign countries, by G. W. W. Hanger.
The value and influence o f labor statistics, by Carroll D. Wright.
Strikes and lockouts in the United States, 1881 to 1900, by G. W. W.
Hanger.
Wages in the United States and Europe, 1890 to 1903, by G. W. W.
Hanger.
Cost of living and retail prices in the United States, 1890 to 1903, by
G. W. W. Hanger.
Wholesale prices in the United States, 1890 to 1903, by G. W. W. Hanger.
Housing of the working people in the United States by employers, by
G. W. W. Hanger.
Public baths in the United States, by G. W. W. Hanger.
Trade and technical education in the United States.
Hand and machine labor in the United States.
Labor legislation in the United States, by G. A. Weber.
Labor conditions in Hawaii.
No. 55. Building and loan associations in the U. S., by G. W. W. Hanger.
Revival of handicrafts in America, by Max West, Ph. D.
No. 56. Influence o f trade unions on immigrants, by Carroll D. Wright.
Labor conditions in Australia, by Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
No. 57.* Course o f wholesale prices, 1890 to 1904.
Street railway employment in the United States, by Walter E. Weyl, Ph. D.
State cooperative accident insurance fund o f Maryland.
No. 58. Labor conditions in the Philippines, by Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
Labor conditions in Java, by Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
The new Russian workingmen’s compensation act, by I. M. Rubinow.
No. 59. Wages and hours of labor in manufacturing industries, 1890 to 1904.
Retail prices o f food, 1890 to 1904.
Laws relating to child labor in European countries.
No. 60. Government industrial arbitration, by Leonard W. Hatch, A. M.
No. 61. Labor conditions in Porto Rico, by Walter E. Weyl, Ph. D .(a)
Early organizations o f printers, by Ethelbert Stewart.(®)
No. 62. Municipal ownership in Great Britain, by Frederic C. Howe, Ph. D.(®)
Conciliation in the stove industry, by John P. Frey and John R. Com
mons. (®)
Laws relating to the employment o f children in the United States. (®)
No. 63. Course of wholesale prices, 1890 to 1905.
No. 64. Conditions o f living among the poor, by S. E. Forman.
Benefit features o f British trade unions, by Walter E. Weyl, Ph. D.
No. 65. Wages and hours of labor in manufacturing industries, 1890 to 1905. (®)
Retail prices o f food, 1890 to 1905.( a)
No. 66. Third report of the Commissioner of Labor on Hawaii.
No. 67. Conditions of entrance to the principal trades, by Walter E. Weyl, Ph. D.,
and A. M. Sakolski, Ph. D .(«)
Cost o f industrial insurance in the District o f Columbia, by S. E. For
m an^0)
No. 68. Free public employment offices in the United States, by J. E. Conner,
Ph. D .(«)
Laws of foreign countries relating to employees on railroads, by Lindley D. Clark, A. M., LL. M.(®)
No. 69. Wholesale prices, 1890 to 1906.
N o.70. The Italian on the land: A study in immigration, by Emily Fogg
Meade. (®)
A short history o f labor legislation in Great Britain, by A. Maurice
L ow .(a)
The British workmen’s compensation acts, by Launcelot Packer, B. L .(a)
* Bulletin out of print.
192
BULLETIN OP T H E BUREAU OP LABOR.
No. 71. Wages and hours o f labor in manufacturing industries, 1890 to 1906.
Retail prices o f food, 1890 to 1906.
No. 72. Italian, Slavic, and Hungarian unskilled immigrant laborers in the
United States, by Frank J. Sheridan.
Economic condition o f the Jews in Russia, by I. M. Rubinow.
No. 73. Laws relating to the employment o f women and children.
Laws relating to factory inspection and the health and safety o f em
ployees.
No. 74. The legal liability o f employers for injuries to their employees in the
United States, by Lindley D. Clark, A. M., LL. M.
Workmen’s compensation acts o f foreign countries.
No. 75. Wholesale prices, 1890 to 1907.
Industrial hygiene, by George M. Kober, M. D.
No. 76. The Canadian Industrial Disputes Investigation Act o f 1907, by Victor S.
Clark, Ph. D.
What is done for the unemployed in European countries, by W. D. P.
Bliss.
No. 77. Wages and hours o f labor in manufacturing industries, 1890 to 1907.
Retail prices of food, 1890 to 1907.
Cost of living o f the working classes in the principal industrial towns o f
Great Britain.
No. 78. Industrial accidents, by Frederick L. Hoffman.
Mexican labor in the United . States, by Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
Cost o f living o f the working classes in the principal industrial towns o f
Germany.
No. 79. Mortality from consumption in dusty trades, by Frederick L. Hoffman.
Charity relief and wage earnings, by S. E. Forman.
No. 80. Women and child wage-earners in Great Britain, by Victor S. Clark,
Ph. D.
No. 81. Wholesale prices, 1890 to 1908.
No. 82. Mortality from consumption in occupations exposing to municipal and
general organic dust, by Frederick L. Hoffman.•
• Bulletin out of print.
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