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54th C o n g r e s s , ) HOUSE OF BEPKESEKTATIVES. ( D o c . Bo. 135, Part 4. 2d Session. BULLETIN OF THE No. 11—JULY, 1897. IS S U E D E V E R Y O T H E R M O N T H . EDITED B Y CARROLL D. WRIGHT, C O M M IS S IO N E R . OREN W. WEAVER, C H IE F C L E R K . WASHINGTON: G O V E R N M E N T P R IN T IN G O F F IC E 1897. OOI n TEI^TS, Page. Workers at gainful occupations at tlio Federal censuses of 1870,1880, and 1890, by William C. Hunt, of tbo Department of Labor........................................ Public baths in Europe, by Edward Mussoy Hartwell, Ph. D., M. D ............ Digest of recent reports o f State bureaus o f labor statistics: Indiana............................................................................................................. M aine............................................................................................................... Digest o f recent foreign statistical publications................................................ Decisions o f courts affecting labor....................................................................... Laws of various States relating to labor enacted since January 1,1896......... Recent Government contracts............................................................................... 393-433 434-486 487-491 492-494 495-503 504-536 537-547 548 LIST OF PLANS. Plan ITo. Page. IA. Cheetham Public Baths and Hall, Manchester, England—Elevation....... IB. Cheetham Public Baths and Hall, Manchester, England—Ground floor.. 2A. Public Baths and Washhouses, St. Mary Stratford Bow, London, Eng land—E levation ........................................................................................... 2B. Public Baths and Washhouses, St. Mary Stratford Bow, London, Eng land—Ground floor............... 3A. Model Bath House of the Berlin Society for People’s Baths, Berlin (Ger many) Industrial Exhibition, 1896—Elevation and first flo o r ................ 3B. Model Bath House o f the Berlin Society for People’s Baths, Berlin (Ger many) Industrial Exhibition, 1896—Cross section and longitudinal section ....... 3C. Model Bath House o f the Berlin Society for People’s Baths, Berlin (Ger many) Industrial Exhibition, 1896—Longitudinal section o f dressing and shower cabin and ground plan o f dressing and shower cabin show ing fixtures...................................................................... - ........................... 4. Stuttgart Swimming Bath, Stuttgart, Germany—Ground floor................ in 441 441 443 443 463 463 463 476 BULLETIN O F TH E D E P A R T M E N T OE L A B O R . No. 11. WASHINGTON. J u l y , 1897. WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS AT THE FEDERAL CENSUSES OF 1870, 1880, AND 1890. BY WILLIAM 0. HUNT. The first attempt to determine through the United States census the number of persons engaged in the various classes of remunerative labor, from an inquiry on the population schedule, was made in 1820, at the fourth decennial census of the country. A t that census the inquiry related simply to the number of persons engaged in each of three great classes of occupations—agriculture, commerce, and manu factures, the number in each household so employed being entered on the population schedule by the census taker at the time of the enumeration. The results of this inquiry were as follows: PERSONS ENGAGED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SELECTED CLASSES, 1820. Classes o f occupations. A griculture.. Commerce___ Manufactures Total. Persons. , 2 070,646 72,498 849,506 , 2 492,645 The total number of persons engaged in these three classes of occu pations in 1820 was 2,492,645, but this number must not be taken as representing, in any sense, the whole number of persons engaged in all ' 393 394 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. kinds of remunerative labor at that census. The inquiry was limited to the number engaged in these three classes, and no effort was made to ascertain the specific occupation in which each person was engaged. The marshals, employed* then as enumerators, determined, therefore, each for himself, the limit of occupations for these three classes and drew the line of separation between them. As there could not have been uniformity of judgment, it is apparent that this system could not result in either completeness or accuracy. In 1830 no like attempt was made, but at the census of 1840 a similar inquiry was made as to the number of persons engaged in each of seven general classes o f employment, with the following results: PERSONS EN GAGED 1ST G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SELECTED CLASSES, 1810. Classes o f occupations. M ining..................................................... A griculture.............................................. Commerce................................................ . Manufactures and trades........................ Navigation o f tlie ocean.......................... Navigation o f canals, lakes, and rivers Learned professions and engineers___ Total Persons. 15,210 3,719,951 117,607 791,739 58,021 33,076 65,255 4, 798, 859 The total number of persons represented by these seven classes of occupations in 1840 comprehended more nearly the whole number of persons engaged in gainful occupations than was the case in 1820, although it is evident from the above classification that servants and the large number of persons engaged in other domestic and personal services, and probably government officials, clerks, and employees, are not included. Since and including the census of 1850, information has been obtained as to the specific occupation followed as a means of livelihood. In 1850 the inquiry concerning occupations was limited to free males over 15 years o f age, and the printed results comprehended simply an alphabetical list comprising 323 occupation designations, but no attempt was made to classify them according to the number engaged in any o f the great classes, as agriculture, manufactures, and the like. In 1860 the specific occupations were given in the printed census report for all free persons over 15 years of age, without distinction as to sex, in an alphabetical list comprising 584 items, but without other description or classification. In 1870 occupations were classified under four general heads, namely, agriculture, professional and personal services, trade and transporta tion, and manufactures and mechanical and mining industries, compris ing 338 occupation designations. This presentation of occupations comprehended all persons 10 years of age or over, subdivided according WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. 395 to sex, three age periods, and, for those of foreign birth, according to twelve principal nationalities. In 1880 a classification of occupations similar to that of 1870 was made, the number of specific occupations being reduced to 2G5, and the subdivision by sex, age, and principal nationalities maintained, but on a somewhat restricted basis with respect to nationality. In 1890 the same general plan of classifying occupations was observed as in 1870 and 1880, but several changes were made for various reasons, and the number of specific occupations reduced to 218. In making these changes and consolidations, the desirability of following the gen eral plan of classification used in the censuses of 1870 and 1880 was not lost sight of, so that the figures obtained in 1890 are in the main com parable with the results of the two preceding censuses; but the sub division according to sex, age periods, and nationalities of the foreign born was in 1890 very much extended and many other important details added. The census of 1890 probably constitutes the most complete presentation of occupation data that has ever been produced in this or any other country; it not only fully comprehends the subdivision by sex, age periods, and principal nationalities, as given in the censuses of 1870 and 1880, but also a classification according to general nativity and color, conjugal condition, illiteracy, inability to speak English, months unemployed, citizenship, and birthplace of mothers. In order that proper comparison may be made between the different censuses, a rearrangement of occupations under each of the general classes, in accordance with* the classification used in 1890, has been extended by the Census Office to the printed results of preceding cen suses, bringing into classified form the results for 1850 and 1860, which in the printed reports are presented in an alphabetical list, and giving for 1870 and 1880 the readjusted totals for each of the general classes. The results'Of this rearrangement appear as apart of the analysis of the occupation tables in Part II of the census report on population. The completed results for the censuses prior to 1890 have been made available for use by this Department, as well as the final results for 1890, so far as they are applicable to the purposes of this article. As.already stated, the census report for 1850 gave the occupations of only free males over 15 years of age, and that for 1860 for free persons 16 years o f age or over, without distinction of sex, but at the censuses of 1870, 1880, and 1890 the statistics of occupations included all persons of each sex 10 years of age or over. The table following shows, by sex, the total number of persons enumerated, the whole number of persons 10 years of age or over, the number of persons of that age engaged in gainful occupations, and the percentage o f persons at work, first, of the total number of persons enumerated, and second, of the whole number of persons 10 years of age or over, as returned at each of the last three censuses. 396 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. NUMBER A N D P E R CENT OP PERSONS 10 T E A R S OP A G E OR OVER ENGAGED IN G A IN F U L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SEX, 1870,1880, A N D 3890. Sex and census years. Per cent o f persons en Persons 10 gaged in gainful occu years o f age pations of— Persons 10 or over enTotal pop years o f age gaged in ulation. 10 or over. gainful oc Total pop Persons o f age cupations. ulation. years or over. MALES. 1870................................................................ 19,493,565 1880 ................................................................ 25,518,820 1890 ................................................................ 32,067,880 14,258,866 18,735,980 24,352,659 10,669,635 14,744,942 18,821,090 54.73 57.78 58.69 74.83 78.70 77.29 FEMALES. 1870 ................................................................ 19,064,806 1880 ................................................................ 24,636,968 1890 ................................................................ 30,554,370 13,970,079 18,025,627 23,060,900 1,836,288 2,647,157 3,914,571 9.63 10.74 12.81 13.14 14.69 16.97 BOTH SEXES. 1870 ................................................................ 38,558,371 1880 ................................................................ 50,155,783 1890................................................................ 62,622,250 28,228,945 36,761,607 47,413,559 12,505,923 17,392,099 22,735,661 32.43 34.68 36.31 44.30 47.31 47.95 The whole number of persons engagedin gainful occupations in 1870 constituted 32.43 per cent of the total population, but at the census of 1890 there were 36.31 per cent of the population engaged in such remunerative labor. Considered as regards the whole number of per sons 10 years o f age or over, those engaged in gainful occupations con stituted 44.30 per cent in 1870 and 47.95 per cent in 1890. A t the census o f 1840 the 4,798,859 persons (presumably 10 years of age or over) engaged in seven general classes of employment consti tuted 28.11 per cent o f the total population (17,069,453) and 41.27 per cent of the whole number of persons 10 years o f age or over (11,629,006). Of the total male population in 1870, 54.73 per cent were engaged in gainful occupations as compared with 58.69 per cent in 1890. The males at work constituted 74.83 per cent of all males 10 years of age or over in 1870, 78.70 per cent in 1880, and 77.29 per cent in 1890. The slight decrease in the proportion of males who were at work in 1890 as compared with 1880 is due to the very much smaller number of children at work in 1890, as explained later on. The whole number of females engaged in remunerative labor consti tuted 9.63 per cent of all of that sex in 1870 and 12.81 per cent of all females in 1890. O f the total number o f females 10 years of age or over, those at work constituted 13.14 per cent in 1870 and 16.97 per cent in 1890. The distribution of persons engaged in gainful occupations, in the aggregate and by sex, according to the number and per cent reported for each class o f occupations, is shown for 1870,1880, and 1890 in the table following. 397 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. NUMBER A N D PE R CENT OF PERSONS 10 T E A R S OF A G E OR OYER IN EACH CLASS OF OCCUPATIONS, B Y SEX, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. Census years and classes o f occupations. 1870. Agriculture, fisheries, and mining. Professional service........................ Domestic and personal service---Trade and transportation.............. Manufacturing and mechanical industries.................................... Number. Males. 5,744, 814 278,841 1,338,663 1,209,571 Females. 397,049 92,257 973,157 19,828 Per cent. Total. Males. |Females. 6,141,363 371,098 2,311,820 1,229,399 53.84 2.61 12. 55 11.34 Total. 21.62 5.02 53.00 1.08 49.11 2.97 18.48 9.83 2,098, 246 353,997 2,452,243 19.66 19.28 19.61 T o ta l...................................... 10,669,635 1,836,288 12,505,923 100.00 100. 00 100.00 594,654 177,255 1,181,506 62, 852 8,004,624 603, 202 3, 503,443 1,866, 481 50.25 2.89 15.75 12. 23 22.46 6.70 44.63 2.38 46.03 3.47 20.14 10.73 1880. Agriculture, fisheries, and mining. Professional service........................ Domestic and personal service---Trade and transportation.............. Manufacturing and mechanical industries.................................... 7,409,970 425,947 2, 321, 937 3,803,629 2,783,459 630, 890 3,414,349 18.88 23.83 19.63 T o ta l...................................... 14,744, 942 2,647,157 17,392, 099 100.00 100.00 100.00 679, 523 311, 687 1,667, 698 228,421 9, 013,336 944,333 4,360, 577 3, 326,122 44.28 3. 36 14.31 16.46 17. 36 7.96 42.60 5.84 39.65 4.15 19.18 14.63 1890. Agriculture, fisheries, and mining. Professional service........................ Domestic and personal service---Trade and transportation.............. Manufacturing and mechanical industries.................................... 8, 333, 813 632, 616 2,692, 879 3, 097, 701 4, 064,051 1, 027,242 5,091, 293 21.59 26.24 22.39 T o ta l......................................! 18,821,090 3,914,571 22,735, 661 100.00 100.00 100.00 According to the above figures, persons engaged in agriculture, fish eries, and mining constituted very nearly one-half (49.11 per cent) of the whole number of persons occupied in 1870 and less than two-fifths (39.65 per cent) in 1890. More than two thirds of this loss has occurred during the last decade—that is, between 1880 and 1890. There has been, on the other hand, an increase in the proportion of persons engaged in each of the other great classes in 1890 as compared with 1870, the largest increases being shown for persons engaged in trade and trans portation and in manufacturing and mechanical industries. To prop erly understand the magnitude of this loss in the number o f people engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining from 1870 to 1890, let us examine the table a little closely. In 1870 the total employed in all occupations was 12,505,923, and in 1890,22,735,661—an increase of 81.79 per cent. Now, if we exclude agriculture, fisheries, and mining, we find that there were in all other occupations 6,364,560 persons in 1870 and 13,722,325 in 1890. In these other occupations, then—professional service, domestic and personal service, trade and transportation, and manufacturing and mechanical industries—the increase was 7,357,765, or 115.60 per cent. It is appar ent, then, that the gain in agriculture, fisheries, and mining must have been small. The figures show this: In 1870 there were 6,141,363 persons engaged in these three employments and 9,013,336 in 1890—an increase of 2,871,973, or 46.76 per cent, as against an increase of 115.60 per cent in the other classes. In 1880 there was a larger percentage of persons engaged in domestic and personal service than in either 1870 or 1890, and this can only be 398 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. explained by the statement that probably the number o f laborers (not specified) in 1880 included very many laborers who should more properly have been credited to agriculture and to manufacturing and mechanical industries. This becomes very apparent when the proportion of males in each class of occupations in 1880 is compared with similar results for 1870 and 1890. A t the census of 1880 the males engaged in domes tic and personal service constituted 15.75 per cent of all males occupied, although in 1870 they constituted but 12.55 per cent and in 1890 but 14.31 per cent. Considering, in the same way, the percentage of males engaged in manufacturing and mechanical industries at each census, it is seen that there were 19.66 per cent in 1870 and 21.59 per cent in 1890 as against 18.88 per cent in 1880. The number o f persons reported in 1870 as laborers (not specified) constituted 45.29 per cent of all per sons engaged in domestic and personal service, and 43.88 per cent in 1890, as compared with 53.21 per cent in 1880. The whole number of males reported as laborers (not specified) constituted 76.58 per cent of all males engaged in domestic and personal service in 1870, 77.58 per cent in 1880, and 69.02 per cent in 1890, while females so occupied con stituted, respectively, 2.25, 5.32, and 3.29 per cent of all females in domestic and personal service at each census. The proportion of males engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining is very much less in 1890 than in 1870, showing practically the same loss proportionately as for all persons so engaged without regard to sex, while for females there has been a somewhat smaller loss pro portionately. Besides this loss for females, there has been, also, a decrease from 53 per cent in 1870 to 42.60 per cent in 1890 in the number of females engaged in domestic and personal service, with a corresponding increase in the proportion o f females engaged in each of the other three classes in the order named, manufacturing and mechan ical industries, trade and transportation, and professional service. The largest increase in the proportion of males engaged in any one class in 1890 as compared with 1870 is in trade and transportation, or an increase from 11.34 per cent in 1870 to 16.46 per cent in 1890. The relative increase or decrease in the number of workers in each of the great classes of occupations during the past twenty years can be also measured by determining the proportion which the whole number of persons in each class bore to the total population at each census. These percentages are as follows: PE E CENT OF PEBSONS I X EACH CLASS OF OCCUPATIONS OF TOTAL POPULATION, 1870, 1880, AN D 1890. Classes of occupations. Agriculture, fisheries, and m ining............ ............................................... Professional service........................................................................................ Domestic and personal service..................................................................... Trade and transportation............................................................................. Manufacturing and mechanical industries......................................... . Total....................................................................................................... 1870. 188). 1890. 15.93 .98 5. 99 3.19 6. 38 15.96 1.20 6.99 3.72 6. 81 14.39 1.51 6.97 5.31 8.13 32.43 | 34.68 36.31 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. 399 In 1870 persons engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining con stituted 15.93 per cent of the total population, a slightly larger per centage in 1880, and but 14.39 per cent in 1890. The percentages of persons engaged in agriculture only (excluding those in fishing and min ing) were 15.43 in 1870, 15.38 in 1880, and 13.68 in 1S90. These figures show a steady decline in the proportion of persons engaged in agricul tural pursuits, and the relatively decreasing importance of agriculture as a means of livelihood becomes much more apparent if these per centages are contrasted with similar percentages derived from the cen suses of 1820 and 1840. A t the census of 1820 the 2,070,646 persons reported as being engaged in agriculture constituted 21.49 per cent of the total population. There was about the same proportion in 1840, when 3,719,951 persons, or 21.79 per cent of the entire population at that census, were reported as being engaged in agriculture. Next to agriculture, fisheries, and mining, the largest percentage of the population at each census, excepting that of 18S0, when there was a slight excess in domestic and personal service, was found in manu facturing and mechanical industries, the number of persons so employed constituting 8.13 per cent in 1890 as compared with 6.81 per cent in 1880, 6.36 per cent in 1870, 4.64 per cent in 1840, and 3.63 per cent in 1820, assuming, of course, that the number of persons so reported at the last two censuses named approximated very nearly to the real facts in each case. The great changes which have taken place since 1820 in the propor tion of the total imputation engaged in agriculture and in manufac tures are emphasized when considered with respect to individual States and Territories, as shown by the tables following. 400 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. PERSONS ENGAGED IN AGRICU LTU RE, B Y STATES A N D TERRITORIES, 1820 TO 1890. States and Territories. North Atlantic division: M aine........................................................... New Hampshire........................................... Rhode Island................................................ 1820. 1840. 1870. 1880. 55,031 52,384 50, 951 63,460 12, 559 50,518 247, 648 40, 812 140,801 101, 630 77,949 73,150 87,837 16,617 56,955 455,954 56,701 207,533 83,788 46, 969 58,278 73,060 11,802 43,766 376,040 63,250 263,487 83, 437 45,122 55,645 65,215 10,986 44,274 379,178 59, 388 305,197 81,284 42,279 53, 939 69,720 11, 630 45, 596 397,541 68, 603 328, 873 714,164 1,134,326 1,020,440 1,048,442 1,099,465 13,259 79,135 853 276,422 16,015 72,046 384 318,771 174,196 166,707 101,185 217,095 198, 363 209,383 12,117 15,984 80,540 1,366 244,966 a 74,053 269,518 206,755 336,723 42,897 17,880 91,139 1,480 254,651 107, 790 361,449 295,022 433,284 59,386 18,187 91,301 1,752 259,327 119,974 370,811 326, 528 416,268 64, 866 811,757 1,044,174 1, 272,802 1, 622,081 1, 669, 014 272,579 148,806 105,337 56, 521 7,047 397, 613 267,426 376, 895 189,552 161,828 76, 615 210, 548 264, 320 2, 630 23,147 73,408 398,188 331, 783 437,138 249, 226 199, 711 133, 690 303, 922 356,415 28, 652 90, 610 206,190 400, 229 322,229 431, 532 287, 625 237, 659 192, 291 322, 057 390, 201 112,891 170,170 250, 659 693,167 2,043,982 2,735,525 3,117, 043 197.738 227.739 177,439 139,724 79,289 261,320 267,415 292,412 259, 542 142,104 167,091 320,809 294,467 381,673 340,296 206, 014 360,261 South Atlantic division: Florida........................................................ North Central division: 110,991 Ohio .................*............. ........................ 61,315 Indiana ..................... - .................................. Illinois___________ . . . . . . . . . __ _________ 12,395 M ichigan. . . . . . __. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,468 ’Wisc.nnsin _______________ __ __________ Minnesota..................................................... I o w a ........................ ............ ................. . ii, 247 M issouri..................................................... T>alrnt.a ________________________ Nebraska..................................................... ■.................. TTariaftfi-___________ _____ _____ ' ....... ..... Total.......................................................... 200,416 South Central division: TCentneky__________ __________________ 132,161 Tennessee__________ __________________ 101,919 Alabama.__________•_______________ ____ 30,642 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___. . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 033 53, 941 Louisiana.................................................... Teyaa............ .......................................... ..... Oklahoma. ________ . ___________ 1_____ . 3, 613 Arkansas..................................................... Total.......................................................... 344, 309 10,469 92,408 26,355 109,432 217,005 320,191 330, 835 372, 046 359,658 239.091 430, 616 13,911 255,346 848,284 1,499, 316 2,120,525 2,321, 694 2,251 337 6,518 18,669 1,289 10,492 2,685 1,507 4,413 13,480 50,380 4,903 1,6$8 14, 097 14,324 3,536 14, 725 4,596 4,082 13,779 27,733 83,829 15,107 8,092 38, 269 23,604 6,942 20, 298 5. 663 13; 596 43,494 47,129 136,516 Western division: Mnnian.i. ....... ........ ............................ Wvomiiifr_____________________________ 1__________ Colorado. ..................................................... Now M e x ic o .................................. ............. Arizona ............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U tah.............................................................. N evad a................... .................................... Idaho ............................................................ Washington.................................................. Oregon........................................................... California..................................................... Total.......................................................... The United States.................................... 2,070, 646 3,719,951 112,021 187,302 358,710 5,948,561 7,713,875 8, 565, 926 a West Virginia set off from Virginia December 31,1862. b North ana South Dakota combined in 1890. 1890. 401 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. PERSONS EN GAGED IN M AN U FA C TU RIN G AN D M ECH ANICAL INDUSTRIES, B Y STATES A N D TERRITORIES, 1820 TO 1890. States and Territories. 1820. 1840. 1870. 1880. 1890. Rhode Island................................................ Connecticut....... ......................................... 7,643 8,699 8,484 33,464 6,091 17, 541 60,038 15,941 60,215 21,879 17,826 13,174 85,166 21,271 27, 932 173,193 27, 004 105,883 55,582 45, 716 20,759 284, 090 45, 721 82, 661 461, 844 97,133 300, 725 65,122 56,351 23, 720 357,592 64,048 111, 524 604,835 149, 356 436,665 80, 054 71,408 29, 702 475,646 81,548 146, 397 828, 216 223,892 628,887 Total.......................................................... 218,116 493,328 1,394,231 1,869,213 2,565,750 2,821 18,640 2,184 32,336 4,060 21,529 2, 278 54,147 11,844 6,747 3, 557 14,322 10, 325 7,984 1,177 9, 240 58,112 11, 623 44, 273 a 15,544 18,415 13,138 25, 992 3,648 13,472 76,202 14,849 56,564 21, 472 30,753 18,272 33, 656 7,216 18,104 102,015 23,311 77, 614 30,842 50,645 31,137 58,994 18,152 78,129 115,822 199,985 | 272,456 ! 179, 792 228,915 102, 369 72,811 184, 284 122, 613 109,543 73, 964 79, 031 49,307 36,223 16, 694 64,091 44, 726 99,928 74,818 5,170 310 17, 564 6, 617 31,960 17, 259 410,814 North Atlantic division: New llampsliire........................................... Verm ont.................................... ................. South Atlantic division: Delaware....................................................... M aryland..................................................... Total.......................................................... North Central division: Ohio...................................... ......... 18,956 In d ian a....... . 3,229 Illinois......... ............................. . 1,007 Michigan................................................. . 196 W isconsin_____________________________ Minnesota_____________________________ I o w a ............................ ............................... M issouri...................................................... 1,952 Dakota (b)..................................................... ! N ebraska....... ............................................ 1.................. Kansas__________________________ .. ______ Total.......................................................... South Central division: K entucky.......................................... . Tennessee_____________________________ Alabam a....................................................... M ississippi.................................................. Louisiana_____________________________ Texas . _____________ j ______ _____ __ Oklahoma. . . . __- ............................ . A rkansas.......................... .......................... Total.......................................................... 25,340 66,265 20,590 13,185 6,890 1,814 1, 629 11,100 121,473 | 657,911 959.078 1, 533, 098 82, 675 58,172 39, 019 19,637 41,664 58,065 2,168 21,920 11, 779 7, 860 1,412 650 6,041 23,217 17,815 7,195 4,151 7,565 41, 310 26, 869 15, 707 9,412 23,849 15,240 57,082 33,275 20, 024 12.213 28,050 28.214 179 1,173 6,018 10.439 27,921 61,116 138,405 Western division: M ontana_______. . . . . . . . . . . __ __ _______ W yom ing.............. ...................................... Colorado....................................................... New M exico............................... .................. Arizona......................................................... U tah.............................................................. Nevada____________ ___________________ Idaho ............................................................ W asliington................................................. Oregon......................................................... California..................................................... 1,143 887 2, 250 1, 775 774 3,415 4,398 636 1,620 4,320 40,493 Total......................................................... The United States................................... 61, 711 349,506 791,739 2,452,243 a W est Virginia set off from V irginia December 31,1862. b North and South Dakota combined in 1890. 330, 987 139,508 319,140 162,098 129, 295 83,748 89, 654 152, 907 15, 295 55, 792 54, 674 189,297 | 2,670 1,153 16, 713 2, 579 2,375 7,087 5,641 1.523 4.524 9,604 70,436 124,305 | 323,320 11, 764 4, 634 39, 380 3,997 2,733 13,352 3, 061 3,987 36,982 22,960 115,461 258,311 3,414,349 I 5,091,293 402 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. PER CENT OE PERSONS EN GAGED IN A GRICU LTU RE OF T O TAL POPULATION, B Y S T A T E S A N D TERRITORIES, 1820 TO 1890. States and Territories. North Atlantic division: M aine........................ .......................... . 1820. 1810. 1870. 1880. 1890. Rhode Island............................................... Connecticut-................................................ New Y ork ................................................... New Jersey.................................................. Pennsylvania.............................................. 18.45 21.47 21.59 12.13 15.13 18.36 18.05 14.71 13.44 20.25 27.39 25.06 11.91 15.2718.37 18.77 15.19 12.04 13.37 14.76 17.63 5.01 5.43 8.14 8.58 6.98 7.48 12.86 13. 00 16.75 3.66 3.97 7.11 7.46 5.25 7.13 12. SO 11. 23 16.23 3.11 3.37 6.11 C. 63 4. 75 6.25 Total.......................... .............................. 16.39 16.78 8.30 7.23 6.32 18.23 19.43 2.58 25.95 20.51 15.33 .88 25.71 27.27 33.16 29.67 28.81 33.37 30.28 22.24 12.79 10.31 1.04 19.99 a 16.75 25.16 29.30 28.44 22.85 12.20 9.75 .83 16.84 17.43 25.82 29.63 28.10 22.04 10.79 8.76 .76 15.66 15.73 22. 92 28.37 22. 66 16.57 26.52 | 26.60 21.74 21.35 18. 84 North Central division: Ohio - ...................- .................. .................. 19.09 17.94 Indian a......................................................... 41.66 21.70 22.47 22.12 Illin ois......................................................... Michigan.................................................. 16.75 26.63 Wiseonain __ ______ 22.77 Minnesota_____________ ______ ______ ’ 1______ . I o w a ....... ................... ................................. 24.28 24.08 21.41 M issouri______ ________________________ Dakota ( b ) ................................................... * i Nebraska..................................................... i Kansas.......................................................... ................. i.................. 14.92 15.91 14.84 16.01 15.34 17.42 17.63 15.36 18.55 18.82 20.14 12.45 16.77 14.20 15.23 15.18 17.12 18. 71 16.44 21.20 20.03 20.70 10.90 14.70 11.28 13. 74 14.09 14.77 16.84 14.56 21.97 16.07 17.56 20.68 15.75 15.75 j| 13.94 South Central division: K entucky..................................................... 25.36 23.43 Tennessee..................................................... 24.11 27.46 Alabama....................................................... 23.96 30.04 29. 20 37. 20 M ississippi.................................................. Louisiana.................................................... 22.50 35. 27 Texas....................................... ........ ......... Oklahoma......................................... .......... .....................1........... ...... Arkansas____ ____________ _______ __ _ 25.35 27. 01 19.78 21.25 29.33 31. 35 19.55 20.41 19.46 19.09 30.23 30.07 21. 92 22.63 South Atlantic division: Virginia......................................................... Total........................................................... T o ta l......................................................... T o ta l......................................................... 23.33 | 25.36 28. 04 Western division: M ontana....................................................... W yom ing..................................................... Colorado....................................................... New M e x ico ................................................ A rizona........................................................ U tah............................................................. Nevada ......................................................... Id a h o................................................ ............ W asliinffton........................................................... ........ Oregon.......................................................... California.................................................... Total.......................................................... The United States.................................. 21.49 21.79 22.59 27.04 17.23 18. 72 24. 59 27.89 21. 37 19.26 22. 50 22.63 23.30 23.77 | 21.16 10. 93 3.70 16.35 20. 32 13.35 12.09 6.32 10. 05 18.42 14.83 8.99 12.52 8.17 7.25 11.98 8.74 10.23 7.38 12.52 18.34 15.87 9.69 11.43 13.33 9.28 15.37 11.64 9.76 12.38 16.11 12.45 15.02 11. 30 11.31 10.60 11.85 15.43 15.38 13.68 a W est Virginia set off from Virginia December 31,1802. b North ana South Dakota combined in 1890. 403 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS, PEE, CENT OF PEESONS ENGAGED IN M A N U FA C TU EIN G AND M ECH ANICAL INDUSTEIES OP T O TAL POPULATION, B Y STATES A N D TEEEITOBIES, 1820 TO 1890. States and Territories. North Atlantic division: M aine............................................................ New Hampshire........................................... V erm ont....................................................... Massachusetts............................................. Ehode Island................................................ Connecticut-.................................................. New Y ork..................................................... New Jersey .................................................. Pennsylvania.............................................. Total........................................................... South Atlantic division: Delaware....................................................... M aryland......................................... ........... District o f Columbia.................................. Virginia........................................................ 1820. 1840. 2.56 3.56 3.60 6.40 7.34 6. 38 4.38 5.75 5.75 5.01 4.36 6.26 4.51 11.54 19.55 9.01 7.13 7.23 6.14 7.30 3.88 4.58 *6. 61 3.04 5.20 4.58 5.21 4.37 1.85 North Carolina............................................ South Carolina............................................ 1.34 G eorgia......................................................... 1.04 Florida.......................................................... Total........................................................... 2. 55 North Central d ivision: Ohio............................................................... 3.26 2.19 Indian a......................................................... 1.83 Illinois.......................................................... Michigan....................................................... 2.24 W isconsin................................................ . Minnesota....... ................... ...................... I o w a ....... ........................................ ............ M issouri....................................................... 2. 93 Dakota ( b ) .............................................. ..... N ebraska................................................ ..... Kansas......................................................... Total.......................................................... 2.95 South Central division: K entucky..................................................... 2.09 Tennessee..................................................... 1.86 Alabam a....................................................... 1.10 .86 Mississippi................................................... Louisiana..................................................... 3.95 T exas.................................................. . Oklahoma_____________ ____ _________ •.. 1.26 A rkansas..................................................... 2. 06 Total.......................................................... Western division: Montana___________ __ ____ __ ' W vominsr........................................ ....... _J ____. . . . . . C olorado....................................................... !.................. New M exico.................... ................... ........ .. ................ Arizona......... ...............................................1.................. U tah................. ........................................... 1.................. Nevada ___ .. __ __ _ _______ _ J _________ Id a h o ........................................................... W ashington.................................................. Oregon.......................................................... California..................................................... Total.......................................................... The United States.................................... 3.63 1.90 1. 74 1.15 2.16 2.95 1870. 1880. 1890. 10.04 16.24 7.14 20. 05 23.16 17.91 11.90 13.20 10.20 12.88 12.11 18.96 8.94 21.24 23.60 19.62 13.81 15.49 It. 96 14.74 9.19 8.15 8.36 3.74 3.47 2.20 1.84 2.18 2.68 3.59 10.74 9.79 10.12 4.69 4.04 3.13 2.70 3.21 4.64 4.64 6.75 4.33 4.83 C. 25 4.68 3.80 3. 75 4.35 2.19 4.57 4.74 5.07 | 7.16 5.17 5. 99 6. 69 6. 01 4.64 3.94 4.61 3.82 3.88 3.21 5.52 9.01 C. 36 8.34 7.74 7.66 6.43 4.69 5. 71 2. 99 5.27 3.83 6. 86 2.98 2.15 1.22 .1.11 2.15 3.13 2.13 1.58 1.14 3.28 1.86 3.46 2.16 1.59 1.08 2.98 1.77 1.20 2.02 1.24 2.15 1.30 2.12 4.45 3.29 2.58 1.52 3.72 2. 60 3.51 1.94 2.95 5.55 9.73 5. 64 1.93 8. 01 3. 93 10. 35 4.24 6. 76 4.75 7. 23 6.23 6.36 6.82 5.55 8. 60 2.16 5.87 4.92 9. 06 4.67 6.02 5.50 8.15 7.03 6.81 8.90 7.63 9. 55 2. 60 4. 58 6.42 6. 69 4.72 10.58 7. 32 9. 56 8.53 8.13 8.87 14.36 6.28 19. 49 21.04 15. 38 10. 54 10. 72 8. 54 11. 34 , 7.39 7.44 8.83 3. 61 a 3.52 1.72 1.86 2.20 1.94 3.42 4.36 3.00 2. 77 3.25 5.86 3.78 2.89 3.62 i 4.64 i a W est Virginia set off from Virginia December 31, 18G2. b North and South Dakota combined in 1890. Excluding the District of Columbia from consideration, there was no State or Territory in 1820 which did not have more than one-tenth of its total population engaged in agriculture, the percentages ranging from 12.13 in Massachusetts to 41.G6 in Indiana. In 1890, however, persons engaged in agricultural pursuits constituted but little more than 3 per cent of the total population of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, less than 5 per cent of the total population of Hew Jersey, a little more than G per cent of the total population of Connecticut, Hew 404 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. York, and Pennsylvania, and not quite 9 per cent o f the total popula tion of Maryland. The percentages for the remaining States and Ter ritories show that, with the exception of the extreme western section of the country, there has been, generally speaking, a material decrease in the proportion o f the population engaged in agriculture in 1890 as compared with the proportions found at the earlier census periods. Considering the proportions found in manufacturing and mechanical industries, it is seen that in 1820 there were only five States, outside of the District of Columbia, in which this class o f workers constituted more than 5 per cent of the total population, namely, 7.34 in Ehode Island, 6.40 in Massachusetts, 6.38 in Connecticut, and 5.75 in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, but that in 1890 the only States and Territo ries in the North Atlantic, North (Central, and Western divisions which did not have at least 5 per cent of the total population so occupied were Iowa, North and South Dakota combined, Kansas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Idaho, while in the South Atlantic and South Central sections of the country Delaware and Maryland (excluding the District o f Columbia) were the only States which had more than 5 per cent of their population similarly engaged. The largest proportions of per sons in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits in 1890 are found, as a matter of course, in the North Atlantic States, this class of workers constituting nearly one-fourth of the population of Ehode Island and somewhat more than one-fifth of that of Massachusetts, very nearly one-fifth o f that of New Hampshire and Connecticut, over 15 per cent of that of New Jersey, and between 10 and 15 per cent of that of the remaining States, with the exception of Vermont, where there were but 8.94 per cent so occupied. The statistics o f occupations do not include persons less than 10 years of age, and a more exact comparison can be made by considering only persons 10 years of age or over at each census and showing the propor tion of the whole number and o f each sex, respectively, engaged in each class of occupations. These percentages are given in the follow ing table: PER CENT OF PERSONS IN EACH CLASS OF OCCUPATIONS OF T O TAL PERSONS 10 Y EA R S OF A G E OR OVER, B Y SEX, 1870, 1880. A N D 1890. Sex and classes o f occupations. 1870. 1880. 1890. Males: Agricnltnre, fisheries, p i ] m ining___. . . . . . . . . ___ . . . . . . . . . . . ____ Professional service _________ ___________ ____ ______ . . . . . ___ . . . Domestic aud personal service_____________________________ ____ _ Trade and transportation. . . . . . . __. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manufacturing and mechanical industries_______________________ 40.29 1.96 9.39 8.48 14.71 39.55 2.27 12.39 9.63 14.86 34.22 2.60 11.06 12.72 16.69 T otal....................................................................................................... 74.83 78.70 77.29 Females: Agriculture fisheries, and m ining__________ ___________________ Professional service________ ________ ___ _____ __ ___ . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic and personal service__________ _________ _____ _____ ___ Trade and transpertatien_____________________________ __________ ~yfa-nnfa.ct.Tiring and mechanical industries. 2.84 .66 6.97 .14 2.53 3.30 .98 6.56 .35 3.50 2.95 1.35 7.23 .99 4.45 T ota l............................................. ......................................................... 13.14 14.69 16.97 405 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. PER CENT OP PERSONS IN EACH CLASS OP OCCUPATIONS OF TOTAL PERSONS 10 Y EA R S OF AGE OR OVER, B Y SEX, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890—Concluded. Sex and classes o f occupations. 1870. Both sexes : Agriculture, fisheries, and m in in g.................................. ................... Professional service...................... - ....................................................... Domestic and personal service............................................................... Trade and transportation....................................................................... 1880. 1890. ! M a n u fa c tu r in g an d m e c h a n ic a l in d u s t r ie s ................................................... 21.76 1.31 8.19 4. 85 8.69 21.77 1.64 9.53 5.08 9.29 Total...................................................................................................... 44.30 47.31 j i 19.01 1.99 9.20 7.01 10.74 47.95 Since 1870 there has been a slight loss in the proportion of the popu lation 10 years o f age or over engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining, but the proportion of this element of the population in each of the other classes of occupations was larger in 1890 than in 1870. This is also true with respect to the proportion of males 10 years of age or over engaged in each class of occupations. There has been an increase in the proportion of females 10 years o f age or over in each class of occupations in 1890 as compared with 1870, the largest increase in the proportion being that for manufacturing and mechanical industries. Persons engaged in gainful occupations have increased at a more rapid rate during each of the past two decades than the general popu lation. With the exception of those engaged in agriculture, this has also been true with respect to each class of occupations, and in very many instances the percentages of increase have been very large, especially those for females. The number and percentage of increase in each class of occupations is given in detail, by sex, for the past two decades in the following table: NUMBER A N D PER CENT OF INCREASE IN EACH CLASS OF OCCUPATIONS, B Y SEX, 1870 TO 1880 A N D 1880 TO 1890. Sex and classes o f occupations. Increase from 1870 to 1880. Increase from 1880 to 1890. Number. Per cent. Agriculture, fisheries, and m ining............................... 1,665,656 147,106 Professional se rv ice ...................................................... 983,274 Domestic and personal service...................................... 594,058 Trade and transportation............................................ 685,213 Manufacturing and mechanical industries................. 29.00 52.76 73.45 49.11 32. 66 j 923,843 !i 206, 699 370,942 1, 294, 072 1,280, 592 12.47 48.53 15.98 71.75 46.01 ...................................................................... 4,075,307 38.20 4,076,148 27.64 Total Number, j Per cent. Females: Agriculture, fisheries, and m ining............................... Professional serv ice....................................................... Domestic and personal service...................................... Trade and transportation.............................................. Manufacturing and mechanical industries................. 197,605 84, S98 208, 349 43,024 276,893 49.77 92.13 21.41 216.99 78.22 84,869 134, 432 486,192 165, 569 396,352 14.27 75.84 41.15 263.43 62.82 T ota l........................ .................................................... 810, 869 44.16 1,267,414 | 47.88 Both sexes: Agriculture, fisheries, and mining............................... 1, 863, 261 232.104 Professional serv ice....................................................... Domestic and personal service...................................... 1,191,623 637,082 Trade and transportation.............................................. 962,106 Manufacturing and mechanical industries................. 30.34 62.55 51.54 51.82 39.23 1, 008,712 i 341,131 857,134 | 1,459,641 | 1,676,944 12.60 56.55 24.47 78. 20 49.11 4,886,176 39.07 5,343,562 30.72 Total ....... ............................ . 696—JNo. 11----- 2 406 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. The whole number of workers, without regard to sex, increased from 12,505,923 in 1870 to 17,392,099 in 1880, an increase in ten years o f 4,886,176, or 39.07 per cent. In 1890 there were 22,735,661 persons engaged in gainful occupations, showing an increase from 1880 to 1890 o f 5,343,562, or 30.72 per cent. There was an increase in the general population between 1870 and 1880 of 30.08 per cent, and between 18S0 and 1890 of 24.86 per cent, while the population 10 years of age or over increased during the same periods 30.23 and 28.98 per cent, respectively. The male workers increased 38.20 per cent from 1870 to 1880 and 27.64 per cent from 1880 to 1890, while the female workers increased 44.16 per cent during the decade ending in 1880 and 47.88 per cent during the decade ending in 1890. In general, these percentages indicate a relatively larger increase of female workers than of male workers during each of these two periods, but do not show the extent and the directions of this increase. This is more clearly illustrated by the following table, giving the percent ages o f males and females engaged in gainful occupations and in each class o f occupations, respectively, at each of the three censuses named: PE E CENT OF M ALES A N D FEM ALES OF T O TAL PERSONS 10 Y E A R S OF AG-E Oil OVER IN EACH CLASS OF OCCUPATIONS, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. Sex and classes o f occupations. 1870. 1880. 1890. Agriculture, fisheries, and mining: M ales........................................................................................................ F e m a le s ............................ ................................................................. 93.53 6.47 92.57 7.43 92.46 7.54 Total....................................................................................................... 100.00 100.00 100. CO Professional service: M a le s....................................................................................................... Females..................................................................................................... 75.14 24.86 70.61 29.39 66.99 33.01 Total....................................................................................................... 100.00 100.00 100. CO Domestic and personal service: M a le s....................................................................................................... Females..................................... .............................................................. 57.91 42.09 66.28 33.72 61.76 38.24 Total....................................................................................................... 100.00 100.00 100.00 Trade and transportation: Males ................................................ ......... ............................................. Females..................................................................................................... 98.39 1.61 96.63 3.37 93.13 6.87 Total....................................................................................................... ICO. 00 100.00 100. CO Manufacturing and mechanical industries: M ales................................................................................. ..................... Females..................................................................................................... 85.56 14.44 81.52 18.48 79.82 20.18 Total....................................................................................................... 100.00 100. CO 100.00 A ll occupations: M a le s........................................................................................................ Females..................................................................................................... 85.32 14.68 84.78 15.22 82.78 17.22 Total....................................................................................................... 100.00 100.00 100.00 A t the census o f 1890 considerably more than one-sixth, or 17.22 per cent, of the total number of persons at work were females as com pared with a little more than one-seventh, or 14.68 per cent, at the 407 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. census of 1870. With the exception of those engaged in domestic and personal service, there was a larger proportion of females in each class of occupations in 1890 than in 1870. The increase in the propor tion of females is especially noticeable in professional service, in which class they constituted in 1890 very nearly one-third of all persons so occupied as compared with less than one-fourth in 1870. There has been also a considerable increase in the proportion of females in manu facturing and mechanical industries, or from one-seventh in 1870 to one-fifth in 1890, and in trade and transportation, or from less than 2 per cent in 1870 to very nearly 7 per cent in 1890. The proportion of women in gainful occupations has increased greatly since 1870 in very many of the States and Territories, as shown by the following table : PER CENT OF M ALES A N D FEMALES OF TOTAL PERSONS 10 T E A R S OF A G E OR OVER EN GAGED IN G AIN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y STATES A N D TERRITORIES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. 1880. 1870. States and Territories. Males. North.Atlantic division: Females. Males. 1890. Females. Males. Females. Massachusetts....... ........................... Rhode Islan d...................................... Connecticut__________________ ____ New Y o r k .................................... . New Jersey.............. ........................... Pennsylvania...................................... 86.34 79.92 87.59 77.87 75.48 82.44 82.76 85.00 86.84 13.66 20.08 12.41 22.13 24.52 17.56 17.24 15.00 13.16 85.55 78.85 86.37 75.83 74.47 79.83 80.88 83.17 85.10 14.45 21.15 13.63 24.17 25.53 20.17 19.12 16.83 14. 90 82.47 77.62 84.49 73.20 72.60 77.48 78.90 80.50 83.46 17.53 22.38 15.51 26.80 27.40 22.52 21.10 19.50 16.54 T o ta l........................................... . 83.30 16. 70 81.61 18.39 79.51 20.49 D e la w a r e ______________. . . . . . . . . . . ___ M aryland............... ............................ District o f Columbia.......................... V irgin ia.............................................. W est Virginia.................................... North Carolina................................... South Carolina.................................... Georgia................................................ F lorida................................................ 85.10 82.65 71.78 81.78 92.92 83.25 69.26 74.03 83.81 14.90 17.35 28.22 18.22 7.08 16.75 30.74 25.97 16.19 85.47 81.88 70.49 83.17 93.47 81.89 69.37 74.52 80.57 14.53 18.12 29.51 16.83 6.53 18.11 30.63 25.48 19.43 83.90 78.45 68.23 80.73 90.30 78.56 70.64 76.08 80.69 16.10 21.55 31.77 19.27 9.70 21.44 29.36 23.92 19.31 South Atlantic division : T o ta l................................................ 79.30 20.70 79.15 20.85 77.99 | 22.01 North Central division: O hio..................................................... Indiana________________ _____ ____ Illin o is................................................ M ichigan_________________________ W isconsin.......................................... M innesota........................................... Iow a.............................................. . M issonri_________________________ D a k o ta ( a ) ....... .......................................... N e b r a s k a ............. ...................................... K an sas....... ........................................ 90.07 93.23 91.47 85.79 91.28 91.81 93.28 92.34 97.28 95.68 94.74 9.93 6.77 8.53 14.21 8.72 8.19 6.72 7.66 2.72 4.32 5.26 88.67 91.90 89.39 90.34 88.89 90.17 91.51 90.92 95.07 93.15 94.00 11.33 8.10 10.61 9.66 11.11 9. S3 8.49 9.08 4.93 6.85 6.00 85.53 88.27 85.20 87.37 85.93 86.01 87.27 87.24 89.40 88.41 89.94 14.47 11.73 14.80 12.63 14.07 13.99 12.73 12.76 10.60 11.59 10.06 T o ta l................................................ 91.22 8.78 90.45 9.55 86.80 13.20 South Central division: K en tu ck y _________ __________ ___ Tennessee ........................................... Alabama.............................................. M ississippi......................................... Louisiana............................................ Texas................................................... Oklahoma........................................... Arkansas............................................ 87.87 87.66 75.46 72.87 77.27 87.94 12.13 12.34 24.54 27.13 22.73 12.06 89.53 87.41 74.83 73.43 73.83 88.71 10.47 12.59 25.17 26.57 26.17 11.29 88.38 11.62 88.26 11.74 85.88 85.45 76.00 73.03 74.29 87.65 94.94 86.13 14.12 14.55 24.00 26.97 25.71 12.35 5.06 13.87 T o ta l................................................ 82.13 17. 87 82.47 17.53 81. 77 18.23 a North and South Dakota combined in 1890. 408 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. PER CENT OF M ALES A N D FE M ALES OF TO T AL PERSONS 10 T E A R S OF A G E OR OVER EN GAGED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y STATES A N D TERRITORIES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890—Concluded. Males. 1890. 1880. 1870. States and Territories. Females. Western division*. Montana....... W yom ing............................................. Colorado.............................................. New M exico______________________ Arizona____________________ ______ Utah..................................................... Nevada.................................. Idaho.................................................... W ashington........................................ O regon................................................ California......................................... 98.78 95.49 97.52 89.51 95.09 95.00 98.35 98.85 97.58 97.77 94.23 T o ta l................................................ 94.99 5.01 The U n ite d States.......................... 85.32 14.68 1.22 4.51 2.48 10.49 4.91 5.00 1.65 1.15 2.42 2.23 5.77 Males. Females. 97.72 94.78 95.28 94.46 97.89 92.79 95.34 98.13 96.47 95.87 92.51 Males. Females. 2.28 5.22 4.72 5.54 2.11 7.21 4.66 1.87 3.53 4.13 7.49 93.58 93.82 90.02 92.74 94.06 89.42 92.21 94.62 93.25 91.49 88.87 94.03 5.97 90.69 9.31 84.78 15.22 82.78 17.22 6.42 6.18 9.98 7.26 5.94 10.58 7.79 5.38 6.75 8.51 11.13 l The employment of women in large numbers in the Departments of the National Government gives to the District o f Columbia the largest proportion of women to the whole number of persons at work of any State or Territory in 1890, at which census they constituted 31.77 per cent o f the entire number of gainful workers as compared with 28.22 per cent in 1870. Other large proportions of women workers are found in the extreme Southern States, owing to the employment o f colored females in field labor, and in the great manufacturing States o f the East, owing to the large number o f females at work in the mills and factories of that section o f the country. A better measure, perhaps, of the real change which has taken place in the proportion o f each sex in each class of occupations in 1890 as compared with 1870 and 1880 is afforded by taking the whole number of workers at each census as 100 per cent in each case and comparing the resulting percentages o f males and females found in each class of occupations. These percentages are as follows: PER CENT OF M ALES A N D FE M A LE S IN EA C H CLASS OF OCCUPATIONS OF TO TAL PERSONS 10 Y E A R S OF A G E OR OVER A T W ORK, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. 1870. Sex and classes o f occupations. 1880. 1890. M ales: Agriculture, fisheries, and m ining...................................................... Professional service...................................................................... Domestic and personal service........................................................... Trade and transportation...................................... ................................ Manufacturing and mechanical industries.................................... . 45.93 2.23 10.71 9.67 16.78 42.61 2.45 13. 35 10.37 16.00 36.66 2.78 11.84 13.62 17.88 Total....................................................................................................... 85.32 84.78 82.78 Females: Agriculture, fisheries, and m ining.____________ __________ ____ __ Professional service............................................................. .................. Domestic and personal service.................................... ......... .............. Trade and transportation______________ ___________ _____________ Manufacturing and mechanical industries.......................................... 3.17 .74 7.78 .16 2.83 Total....................................................................................................... 14.68 1 3.42 1.02 6.7.9 .30 i 3.63 1 15.22 2.99 1.37 7.34 1.00 4.52 17.22 1 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. 409 This table shows that, wlieu considered as regards the whoie body of workers, there was, outside of agriculture, fisheries, and mining, a slightly larger proportion of males in each class of occupations in 1890 than in 1870. The decrease in the per cent of males engaged in agri culture, fisheries, and mining of the whole number of persons 10 years of age or over was quite large, viz, from 45.93 per cent in 1870 to 3G.66 in 1890. That is to say, out of every 100 persons 10 years of age or over at work in 1870 there were 45.93 engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining, while in 1890 there were only 36.06, a decrease of 9.27. The in crease in the number of males in the other classes of occupations, except trade and transportation, was small, viz, professional service, 0.55 5 man ufactures, 1.10) domestic service, 1.13, and trade and transportation, 3.95; making altogether a decrease from 1870 to 1890 of 2.54 in the number of males in every 100 persons 10 years of age or over at work. A cor responding increase of 2.54 is, of course, shown in the number of females to every 100 persons, namely, from 14.68 in 1870 to 17.22 in 1890. In detail, there was a decrease in the number of females out of every 100 persons 10 years o f age or over at work in agriculture, fisheries, and mining of 0.18, and in domestic service of 0.44, and an increase in the number in professional service of 0.63, in trade and transportation of 0.84, and in manufactures of 1.69. Females engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining and in domes tic and personal service in 1890 constituted, in each case, a slightly smaller proportion of the whole number of persons at work than in 1870, but in each'of the other three classes they constituted a some what larger proportion, particularly in manufacturing and mechanical industries. If the results for 1890 are compared with those for 1880, practically the same conditions are apparent as have been noticed when compared with the results for 1870, with the exception that in 1880 the propor tion of males engaged in domestic and personal service is considerably larger than in 1870 or 1890, while the proportion o f males in manufac turing and mechanical industries is less in 1880 than at either of the other two censuses. This is probably due, as already explained, to the difference in the classification of laborers in 1880 as compared with 1870 and 1890. The smaller proportion of females engaged in domes tic and personal service in 1880 than in 1870 or 1890 is also due, in part at least, to the same cause, as indicated by the increased proportion of females engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining in 1880 as com pared with 1870 and 1890. Since 1880 there has been a considerable diminution in the number and proportion o f children at work, illustrating the spread of the com mon-school system and the growth of public sentiment against the employment of children of school age in any capacity which tends to deprive them o f the opportunity to acquire an education. Although an exact comparison between the three periods, 1870,1880, and 1890, can not be made, owing to the slight difference in the classification of 410 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. ages for 1890, yet a very close approximation to tlie real facts can be bad. NUMBER A N D PE R CENT OF CHILDREN A T W ORK A T THE THREE CENSUS YEARS 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. Census years and classification o f ages. Males. Females. Total. 2,764,169 191,100 6.91 5, 604,369 739,164 13.19 3,273,369 293,169 8.96 '• 6,649,483 1,118,356 16.82 3,458,722 202,427 5.85 7, 033,509 003, 013 8.57 is r o . Total children 10 to 15 years o f age, inclusive...................................... 2,840,200 548,064 Number o f above at w ork.................................................»..................... 19.30 Per cent o f above at w ork....................................................................... 1880. Total children 10 to 15 years o f age, inclusive...................................... 3,376,114 825,187 Number o f above at work................................. ...................................... 24.44 Per cent o f above at work........................................................................ 1890. Total children 10 to 14 years o f age, inclusive...................................... Number o f above at work........................................................................ Per cent o f above at work........................................................................ 3,574,787 400,586 11.21 This table shows that 13.19 per cent of children from 10 to 15 years o f age were at work at the census o f 1870. A t the census of 1880 the proportion o f children from 10 to 15 years of age at work was consider ably larger, being 16.82 per cent. To find what per cent were workers in 1890 is somewhat difficult, as the age period then used was 10 to 14, instead of 10 to 15, as in 1870 and in 1880. Nevertheless, it is believed that a result closely approximating the truth may be obtained, and in the following way: The whole number of children from 10 to 14 years of age in 1890 was 7,033,509, and of this number 603,013, or 8.57 per cent, were at work. The total number of children 15 years o f age in 1890 was 1,288,864, but to arrive at the number o f these who were workers in that year, an estimate must be made on the basis o f those 10 to 14 years of age who were at work. I f a distribution be made of estimated per cents of workers for each age from 10 to 14 years that should produce 8.57 per cent of all five ages taken together, and out of this distribution an estimate be projected for those 15 years of age, a fairly satisfactory conclusion might be reached. This distribution may be made, approx imately, as follows: For 10 years of age, 3 per cent; for 11 years of age, 5 per cent; for 12 years of age, 8 per cent; for 13 years of age, 11.5 per cent; for 14 years of age, 15.5 per cent. From this we may conclude, as a greater proportion of children enter gainful occupations as the age progresses, that it will not be far from the truth to consider that 20 per cent o f those 15 years o f age in 1890 were at work. On this basis, then, 20 per cent o f 1,288,864 children in 1890, or 257,773, were workers. Adding this to 603,013, the number reported as workers from 10 to 14 years of age, the result is a total o f 860,786. This num ber, without doubt, represents very closely the number from 10 to 15 years o f age at work in 1890, and this is 10.34 per cent of the whole number o f children 10 to 15 years of age at that period (8,322,373). WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. 411 The decrease in the proportion of children at work in 1890 as com pared with 1880 is very much more marked among the males than among the females. The decrease in the proportion of male children at work accounts for the slight decrease in the proportion of the whole number of males 10 years of age or over at work in 1890 as compared with 1880, already referred to. In 1880 it has been shown that out of a total male popu lation 10 years of age or over of 18,735,980 there were 14,744,942, or 78.70 per cent, engaged in gainful occupations. In 1890 the whole number of males 10 years of age or over was 24,352,659, and if there had been the same proportion at work as in 1880, or 78.70 per cent, the number would have been 19,165,543. There were, however, but 18,821,090 males 10 years of age or over engaged in gainful occupa tions in 1890, or 344,453 less than the number based upon the pro portion at work in 1880. The number of males from 10 to 14 years of age who were at work in 1890 was 400,586, as against 825,187 males from 10 to 15, years of age at work in 3880, which more than offsets the difference between the number of males 10 years of age or over actually at work in 1890 and the number that would have been at work if the proportion given in 1880 had been maintained in 1890, even after making due allowance for the slight difference in the age classification used at the two censuses. Eliminating children at work, it is possible to consider somewhat at length the results derived from the several censuses regarding what maybe termed effective workers} that is, those 15 years of age or over in 1890 as compared with those 16 years of age or over, so far as reported at each census since and including 1850. As previously explained, the statistics of occupations in 1860 related to the whole number of free persons 16 years of age or over, without regard to sex, and in 1850 were limited to free males 16 years of age or over, so that comparisons can only be made for both sexes for 1860, 1870,1880, and 1890; for males for 1850,1870,1880, and 1890, and for females for 1870,1880, and 1890. The numbers given in the following table comprehend those 16 years of age or over, actual or estimated, at each census, with the exception of that of 1890, which gives in each case the number of persons 15 years of age or over: NUMBER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS 16 Y E A R S OF A G E OR OVER ENGAGED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SEX, 3850 TO 1890. [Figures for 1890 are for persons 15 years o f age or over.] Census years and classification o f persons. Males. Females. Total. 1850. F r e e m ales 16 y e a r s o f n g e o r o v e r ___ _______ _____ _______________ N u m b e r o f a b o v e in g a in fu l o c c u p a t io n s _______ ______ ___________ P e r c e n t o f a b o v e in g a in fu l o c c u p a t io n s ________________________ a 5, 882, 009 5,329,506 90.61 1860. F r e e p e r s o n s 16 y e a rs o f age o r o v e r ____________ _____ _______ ___ N u m b e r o f a b o v e in g a in fu l o c c u p a tio n s -- __ ______________ Per cent o f above in gainful occupations.................................... a Number from 16 to 19 years o f age estimated. a 15, 983, 018 8 ,2?5, 557 51.53 412 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. NUM BER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS 16 Y E A R S OF A C E OR OYER ENGAGED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SEX, 1850 TO 1890—Concluded. Census years and classification o f persons. Total. Males. Females. 11,418,666 10,121,571 88.64 11,205,910 1,645,188 14.68 22, 624,576 11,766,759 52.01 15,359,866 13,919,755 90.62 14,752,258 2,353,988 15.96 30,112,124 16,273,743 54.04 20,777,872 18,420,504 88.65 19,602,178 3,712,144 18.94 40,380,050 22,132,648 54.81 1870 . Total persons 16 years o f age or over........................................... Number o f above in gainful occupations...................................... Per cent o f above in gainful occupations.................................... 1880 . Total persons 16 years o f age or over........................................... Number o f above in gainfutoccupations............................. . Per cent o f above in gainful occupations.................................... 1890 . Total persons 15 years o f age or over........................................... Number o f above in gainful occupations...................................... Per cent of above in gainful occupations.................................... At the census of 1850 there were, approximately, 5,882,009 free males 16 years o f age or over, and o f this number 5,329,506, or 90.61 per cent, were engaged in gainful occupations. These figures do not include male slaves 16 years of age or over, of whom there were, approxi mately, 841,677 and very nearly all of whom were undoubtedly at work. In 1870 o f the whole number of males 16 years of age or over, including both white and colored, 88.64 per cent were engaged in gainful occupa tions, and in 1880 there were 90.62 per cent of all the males 16 years of age or over at work. In 1890 the number of males 15 years of age or over at work constituted 88.65 per cent of the total number of males of that age, and if an exact comparison could be had for those 16 years of age or over there would be found to be fully as large a proportion at work as in 1880. The number of females engaged in remunerative occupations was obtained for the first time at the census of 1870, and of the whole num ber of females 16 years of age or over at that census 14.68 per cent were at work. There was a considerably larger percentage at work in 1880, constituting 15.96 per cent of all females 16 years or over, and at the census o f 1890, although based upon a somewhat different age classification, the proportion had increased materially, the number of female workers 15 years of age or over constituting 18.94 per cent of the whole number of females of that age. Taking the whole number of persons at work, without regard to sex, it is apparent that there was somewhat more than one-half of the whole number of persons 16 years of age or over at work in 1860, although the figures relate to free persons only; that the proportion had been considerably increased in 1880, and that there were fully 55 per cent at work in 1890, the number 15 years of age or over constituting 54.81 per cent of the total population of that age. The distribution of the whole number of persons of the specified ages reported as in gainful occupations at each census, according to the 413 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. number and percentage in each class of occupations, is shown in the table which follows: NUMBER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS 16 Y E A R S OF A G E OR OYER IN EACH CLASS OF OCCUPATIONS, B Y SEX, 1850 TO 1890. [Figures for 1890 are for persons 15 years of age or over.] Number. occupations. Males. Females. Per cent. Total. Males, jFemales. Total. 1850. 47.13 2.99 18.58 9.04 2,511,888 159,430 989,952 481,741 Manufacturing and mechanical in- 1,186,495 22.26 Total ...................................... ct5, 329,506 100.00 1860. jj li 3,547, 700 329, 887 1,678,960 801,607 Domestic and personal service____ Trade and transportation................ Manufacturing and mechanical in dustries ............... T o ta l........................................ 43.08 4.00 20.39 9. 73 1,877,403 22.80 b 8, 235,557 100.00 ------- -j 1870. Agriculture, fisheries, and mining. Professional service........................ Domestic and personal service....... Trade and transportation............... Manufacturing and mechanical in dustries......................................... 5,312, 886 278,727 1, 284,754 1,192,215 323,842 91, 914 882,408 18,656 5,636,728 370,641 2,167,162 1,210,871 52.49 2.76 12.69 11.78 19.68 5.59 53.64 1.13 2,052,989 328,368 2,381,357 20.28 19.96 T o ta l....................................... 10,121,571 1,645,188 11,766,759 100.00 100.00 100.00 Agriculture, fisheries, and mining.. Professional service........................ Domestic and personal service....... Trade and transportation................ Manufacturing and mechanical in dustries ......................................... 6,811,510 425, 669 2,203,775 1,768,129 458, 774 176,609 1,074,694 59,839 7,270,284 602,278 3,278,469 1,827,968 48.94 3. 06 15.83 12.70 19.49 7.50 45.66 2.54 44.67 3.70 20.15 11.23 2,710,672 584,072 3,294,744 19.47 24.81 20.25 T o ta l....................................... 13,919,755 2,353,988 16,273,743 100. 00 100. 00 100.00 Agriculture, fisheries, and m ining.. Professional service........................ Domestic and personal service....... Trade and transportation................ Manufacturing and mechanical in dustries........................................... 8,077,683 632,184 2,642,382 3,058,593 595,706 311,241 1,590,187 223,203 8, 673, 389 943,425 4,232, 569 3,281,796 43.85 3.43 14.35 16.60 16.05 8.38 42.84 6. 01 39.19 4.26 19.12 14.83 4,009,662 991,807 5,001,469 21.77 26.72 22.60 T o ta l....................................... 18,420,504 3,712,144 22,132, 648 100.00 100.00 100.00 i 1 47.90 3.15 18.42 10.29 _ 20.24 1880. 1800. a Free males only. 1 b Free persons only. For purposes of comparison, the results given in the preceding table tor 1850 and 1860 are of little value, owing to the absence of the slave population, a very large part of which was engaged in agricultural pur suits. The percentages of free males in 1850 and of free persons in 1860, of the specified ages, engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and min ing, are for this reason much smaller than the percentages given in 1870 and 1880 for all classes of the population, both white and colored. 414 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. It is also readily apparent tliat tlie proportion of persons in each, of tlie other classes of occupations in 1850 and 1880 are, for the same reason, somewhat larger than would be the case if the entire popula tion 10 years of age or over was considered. Taking the last three censuses, however, it is seen that in 1870 the males engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining constituted 52.49 per cent o f the whole number of males 16 years of age or over in gain ful occupations, but that in 1890 there were only 43.85 per cent of the males 15 years of age or over at work who were so occupied. The per centage of females engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining of the whole number of females of the respective ages at work decreased from 19.68 to 16.05 during the same period. Making allowance for the dif ference in age classification and in the classification of laborers (not specified) in 1880, already noted, there has been a steady increase since 1870 in the proportion of males and females of the specified ages in each of the other classes of occupations, with the single exception of females in domestic and personal service. • It has already been shown that of all the males 15 years of age or over not quite nine-tenths, and of all the females very nearly one-fifth, were engaged in gainful occupations in 1890, while of the whole number of persons, without regard to sex, considerably more than one-half were at work in 1890. The following table shows the percentage of persons, in the aggre gate and for each sex, found in each class of occupations in 1890, as compared with similar results at preceding censuses, so far as they are available: PE R CENT OF PERSONS 16 T E A R S OF A G E OR OVER IN EACH CLASS OF OCCUPA TIONS OF TO TAL PERSONS 16 Y EA R S OF A G E OR OVER, B Y SEX, 1850 TO 1890. [Figures for 1890 are for persons 15 years o f age or over.] 1870. 1880. 42.71 2.71 16.83 8.19 20.17 46.53 2.44 11.25 10.44 17.98 44.34 2.77 14.35 11.51 17.65 38.87 3.04 12.72 14.72 19. 30 T o t a l ............................................................................. a90.61 Sex and classes of occupations. 1850. M ales: Agriculture, fisheries, and m ining.................................... Professional service.............................................................. Domestic and personal service........................................... Trade and transportation.............................................. . Manufacturing and mechanical industries____________ 1860. 1890. 88.64 90.62 88.65 Females: A griculture, fisheries, and m i n i n g . . . . . . . . . . ....... . Professional service...........; ................................................. Domestic and personal service_____________ __________ Trade and transportation_____________________________ Manufacturing and mechanical industries....................... 2.89 .82 7.87 .17 2.93 3.21 1.20 7.28 .41 3.96 3.04 1.59 8.11 1.14 5.06 Total.................................................................................... 14.68 15.96 18.94 Both sexes: Agriculture, fisheries, and mining................ ............. ..... Professional service............................................................ Domestic and personal service.......................................... Trade and transportation.................................................... Manufacturing and mechanical industries...................... 22.20 2.06 10.50 5.02 11.75 24.91 1.64 9.58 5.35 10.53 24.14 2.00 10.89 6.07 10.94 21.48 2.34 10.48 8.13 12.38 Total.................................................................................... 551.53 52.01 54.04 54.81 a Free males only. b Free persons only. WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. 415 Of the total population 15 years of age or over in 1890,21.48 per cent were engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining, 12,38 per cent in manufacturing and mechanical industries, 10.48 per cent in domestic and personal service, 8.13 per cent in trade and transportation, and 2.34 per cent in professional service, the total number of persons 15 years of age or over at work constituting 54.81 per cent of the entire number of persons 15 years of age or over. These figures show a loss in the proportion of persons engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and min ing as compared with 1870, and a gain in the proportion in each of the other classes of occupations. Of the whole number of males 15 years of age or over in 1890, very nearly two-fifths, or 38.87 per cent, were engaged in agriculture, fisheries, and mining 5 not quite one-fifth, or 19.30 per cent, in manufacturing and mechanical industries; considerably more than one-seventh, or 14.72 p e r cent, in trade and transportation; a little more than one-eighth, or 12.72 per cent, in domestic and personal service, while those in j>rofessional service constituted 3.04 per cent. The proportion of males in agriculture, fisheries, and mining was very much less in 1890 than in 1870, but in each of the other classes the proportion was larger. The largest proportion of females 15 years of age or over in any of the general classes of occupations in 1890 is that for domestic and per sonal service, the number in this class constituting 8.11 per cent of the entire number of females 15 years of age or over. There were, besides, 5.06 per cent o f the whole number of females 15 years of age or over in 1890 in manufacturing and mechanical industries, 3.04 per cent in agriculture, fisheries, and mining, 1.59 per cent in professional service, and 1.14 per cent in trade and transportation, being in each case a somewhat larger proportion than in 1870. The discussion thus far has shown, in brief, that persons at work, especially females, have increased very much faster than the population at large; that as a result the proportion of workers relative to the total population and to the whole number of persons of the respective ages was considerably greater in 1890 than at the preceding census periods, and that this increased proportion is apparent for each of the great classes of occupations, with the single exception of agriculture, fish eries, and mining. This shows very clearly the constantly increasing disinclination of our population to follow agricultural pursuits, a tendency which has been materially hastened, no doubt, by the wide application of machin ery to the processes of agriculture and which has further tended, as a matter of coarse, to make the old hand processes of cultivation unprofitable and therefore uninviting. But if, in spite of this growing disinclination toward agriculture and notwithstanding that our great manufacturing and commercial centers have become very much crowded in recent years, it shall be demonstrated, upon a further analysis of the census results, that the increased proportion of workers is found 416 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. generally in the higher walks of business life and in those occupations which call for skilled labor principally rather than in the lowest or more laborious forms of employment, the conclusion is inevitable that the great body o f workers has, as a whole, progressed and has percep tibly risen in the social scale of life. The figures o f the census do not afford an altogether satisfactory basis for such a comparison, but, so far as they go, they are sufficiently indicative of the generally upward movement. To show this upward movement the results relative to occupations for the last three censuses have been brought together into four great groups designated as A , B, 0, and D, as follows: PERSONS 10 Y E A R S OF A G E OR OVER ENGAGED IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS AND CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. Occupations. 1870. 1880. 1890. GROUP A. Bankers, brokers, manufacturers, etc.: Bankers and brokers ( a ) .............................................................. Builders and contractors.............................................................. Manufacturers and officials o f manufacturing companies----Officials o f banks and o f insurance, trade, transportation, trust, and other companies....................................................... Publishers o f books, maps, and newspapers............................. 11,015 10,231 45,021 19,373 14,597 b 52,217 35,968 45,988 101, 610 10,599 1,577 c 15,553 2,781 39,900 6,284 Total............................................................................................ 78,443 104, 521 229, 750 Farmers, planters, e tc.: A p ia rists............................................................................. ......... Farmers, planters, and overseers................................................ Gardeners, florists, nurserymen, and vine growers................... 136 2,981,320 33,632 1,016 4,229,051 56, 032 1,773 5, 281,557 72, 601 T ota l............................................................................................ 3,015,088 4,286,099 5,355,931 Merchants and dealers, e tc.: Boarding and lodging house keepers......................................... Hotel keepers................................................................................ Livery stable keepers................................................................... Merchants and dealers................................................................. Restaurant and saloon keepers and bartenders........................ Undertakers.................................................................................. 12,785 26,394 8,504 357,263 50,767 1,996 19,058 32,453 14,213 479,439 83, 078 5,113 44,349 44, 076 26,757 691, 325 146,474 9,891 Total............................................................................................. 457,709 633,854 962, 872 2,053 2,017 4,081 979 772 43,874 7,839 1,286 4,812 3,375 9,104 1,131 1,969 64,698 12,314 2,820 9,728 8,070 22,496 6,714 4,503 88,203 17,498 9,391 7,374 5,286 40,736 16,010 2,286 44,743 62,448 126,822 1,177 1,166 149 8,261 12,308 64,137 30,477 2,600 67,081 85,671 d 227,710 2,604 2,130 (e) 43,239 21,849 89,630 62,155 2,926 79,664 104,805 347,344 18,055 6,494 1, 569 Professional pursuits: A c to r s ............................................................................................ A rch itects...................................................................................... Artists and teachers o f art.......................................................... Authors and literary and scientific persons............................. Chemists, assayers, and metallurgists....................................... Clergym en...................................................................................... Dentists........................................................................................... Designers, draftsmen, and inventors......................................... Engineers (civil, mechanical,- electrical, and mining) and surveyors.................................................................................... Journalists...................................................................................... L aw yers......................................................................................... Musicians and teachers o f music................................................ Officers o f United States Arm y and N avy................................. Officials (Government)................................................................. Physicians and surgeons.............................................................. Professors and teachers............................................................... Theatrical managers, showmen, etc........................................... Veterinary surgeons..................................................................... Other professional service............................................................ T otal............................................................................................ 371,098 603,202 944, 333 Total for Group A .................................................. ................... 3,922,338 5,627,176 7,492,886 a Includes commercial brokers. b Includes officials o f mining companies. e Partly estimated. d Teachers and scientific persons. e Included with “ other domestic and personal service.” 417 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. PERSONS 10 Y E A R S OF AGE OR OYER ENGAGED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, AND 1890—Continued. Occupations. 1870. 1880. 1890. GROUP B. Agents, collectors, commercial travelers, e tc.: Agents (claim, commission, real estate, insurance, etc.) and T otal............................................................................................ Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc.: T otal............................................................................................ Clothing makers: 20,316 2,266 7,262 33,989 2,331 28,158 174,582 3,205 58, 691 29,844 64,478 236,478 310, 988 536, 733 8, 3l6 926 b 23,166 3, 302 1,014,544 36,084 52,214 3,860 320,230 563,201 1,106,702 350,074 627,679 1,343,180 1,272 2, 601 6, 533 499, 690 6,416 24, 013 5,256 16,162 7,126 21,107 3,666 185,400 3,403 GROUP C. Sewing machine operators........................................................... Shirt, collar, and cuff makers ............ Straw w orkers________ ______ _______ _______ ____ _____ __ Tailors and tailoresses_________________ ____________ ___ __ Umbrella and parasol makers............ ....................................... 3,886 3,042 4, 080 2,029 el61,820 1,439 4, 872 4,660 286,981 4, 511 16, 860 d 1,708 6,350 7,505 11,823 4,229 133, 756 1,967 c 93, 520 2,329 12, 625 T ota l............................................................................................ 286,042 485, 222 781, 373 Engineers and firemen (not locomotive)........................................... 34,233 79, 628 139,765 Food preparers: Bakers............................................................................................. Butchers......................................................................................... Butter and cheese makers....... ............................ ...................... Confectioners________ ____ ___ ____ _____________________ Meat, fish, and fruit packers, canners, and preservers.. . . . . . . Millers (flour and grist i .............................................................. 27, 680 44, 354 / 3,534 8,219 2,377 41, 582 41, 309 76,241 / 4, 570 13, 692 6,296 53,440 60,197 105,456 11,211 23,251 7,109 52,841 T otal................................................................... ...................... 127, 746 195,548 260,065 Leather workers: Boot, and shoe makers and repairers................................ ......... Harness and saddle makers and repairers.................... . . . . . . . Leather curriers, dressers, finishers, and tanners............ . Trunk, valise, leather case, and pocketbook makers.......... 171,127 33,426 30, 726 2,047 194,079 39, 960 29,842 4, 410 213,544 43,480 39,332 6,279 T ota l............................................................................................ 237,326 268,291 j 302,635 Mechanical trades: Carpenters and j o i n e r s _____________ ____________________ Marble and stone cutters.......................... ...... ................ ........... Masons (brick and stone)................................................... ......... Mechanics (not otherwise specified)...................... Painters, glaziers, and varnishers........................ - .................... Paper hangers................................................................................ Plasterers..... ................................................................................ Plumbers and gas and steam fitters........................................... Roofers and slaters...................................................... ................ 344, 596 25,831 89,710 16,514 86,657 2,490 23,800 11,143 2, 750 373,143 32,842 102,473 7,858 130,319 5,013 22,083 19,383 4,026 611,482 61,070 158,918 15,485 219,912 12, 369 39,002 56,607 7,043 603,491 i 697,140 1,181,888 Total............................................................................................ Metal w orkers: 4, 891 3, 755 3,811 Agricultural implement makers (not otherwise specified)---205,337 142,075 172, 726 Blacksmiths................................................................................... 17, 265 4,863 11, 568 Brass workers (not otherwise specified).................................... 25, 252 13, 820 Clock and watch makers and repairers....................................... g 1, 779 3, 384 Copper workers........................................................................... 2,122 2, 342 Electron later s....... ............................... ................. ...................... 2,756 A 28, 405 20, 263 Gold and silver workers............................................................... ! A 18, 508 a Includes stenographers and typewriters. e Tailors, taiioresses, and seamstresses. b Estimated. /C heese makers. c Seamstresses includedwith “ tailors and tailoresses.” g Clock makers. d Lace makers. A Includes jewelers. 418 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. PERSON'S 10 T E A R S OE AGE OR OYER EN GAGED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890—Continued. Occupations. gboup c—concluded. Metal workers—Concluded. Gunsmiths, locksmiths, and hell hangers Iron and steel w orkers............................... Lead and zinc w orkers............................... Machinists.................................................... Metal workers (not otherwise specified) . M olders......................................................... Nail and tack m akers................................................ Sewing machine makers (not otherwise classified) Steam ooiler m akers........................................ ......... Store, furnace, and grate makers................. ........... Tinners and tinware makers................... ................. Tool and cutlery m akers........................................... W heelwrights.............................................................. W ire workers ........................ .................................... Total Printers, engravers, bookbinders, etc.: Bookbinders.................................................. Engravers..................................................... Printers, lithographers, pressmen, etc. (a) 1870. 1880. 1890. 8,184 87,098 G49 54,755 79 10,572 316,927 2,105 1C1,130 3,881 6,958 1,543 30,524 6,764 20,942 2,796 5,803 2,725 12,771 3,341 42,818 15,588 15,592 7,170 9,158 144,921 4,616 177,090 16, 694 66, 289 4,583 880 21, 339 8, 932 55, 488 17, 985 12, 856 12,319 397,331 570,294 833, 162 9,104 4,226 40,424 13,833 4,577 72,726 23,858 8, 320 118,424 53,754 91,136 150, 602 Steam-railroad employees................................. Textile workers: Carpet m akers................................................................... Cotton-mill operatives....................................................... Hosiery and knitting mill operatives............................. M ill and factory operatives (not specified)................... Print- works operatives..................................................... Silk-mill operatives.......................................................... W oolen-mui operatives..................................................... 154,027 236,058 462,213 15,669 111, 606 3,653 44,806 3,738 3,256 58,836 17,068 169, 771 12,194 39,632 5,419 18,071 88,010 22, 302 173,142 29, 555 93, 596 6,701 34,855 84,109 T otal.......................................................... T otal................................................................................ 241,564 350,165 444, 260 Tobacco and cigar factory operatives.................................. W ood workers: Basket makers . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ................... ............ Broom and brush m akers................................................ Cabinetmakers................................................................... Carriage and wagon makers (not otherwise classified) Coopers............................................................................... Door, sash, and blind m akers......................................... Saw and planing mill employees..................................... Upholsterers....................................................................... W ood workers (not otherwise specified)...................... 40,271 77,045 111, 625 3,297 5,816 42,835 42,464 43,647 5,155 58,025 6, 111 10,789 5,654 8,479 50,654 49,881 53,199 4,946 87,411 10,443 16,833 5, 225 10,115 35,915 34, 538 47,486 5,041 133,637 25, 666 67,360 Total................................................................................ 218,139 287,500 364,983 17,391 1,169 23,935 901 6,080 1,092 9,518 1,026 63,970 12,469 7,558 3,579 5,060 761 2,675 2,309 23,175 229 44,170 3,399 44,851 1,888 15,762 1,375 17,934 1,965 65,822 21,430 9,990 7,850 7,233 3,514 2,950 19,515 1,385 82,457 3,046 84, 982 1,691 28,640 904 34,282 1,254 10,300 27,817 20,040 15,335 14,928 1, 385 8,001 3,257 22,951 746 25,308 54,235 11,134 76,714 Total...................... 118,205 265,268 449,864 Total for Group C. 2,542,129 3,603,295 M 80, 435 Other mechanical pursuits, e tc.: A pprentices.................................... . Artificial flower makers................................................... Barbers and hair dressers................................................ Bone and ivory.workers................................................... Box makers........................................................................ Britannia w orkers............................................................ Glass w o rk e rs................................................................... Hair w ork ers..................................................................... Model and pattern m akers.............................................. Paper-mill operatives....................................................... Photographers................................................................... Piano ana organ makers and tuners, etc........................ P o tte r s............................................................................... Powder and cartridge makers......................................... Rope and cordage makers................................................ Sail, awning, and tent m akers....................................... Ship and boat builders..................................................... Starch m akers................................................................... Telegraph and telephone linemen and electric light and power company employees....................................................... Other persons in manufacturing and mechanical industries.. alncludes compositors and electrotypers and stereotypers. 6 Pattern makers. 419 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. PERSONS 10 T E A R S OF A GE OR OYER EN GAGED IK G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS AN D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890—Concluded. Occupations. 1870. 1880. 1890. GROUP D. Agricultural laborers, etc.: 2,885, 99G 3,550 17,752 15,359 8,338 2,478 2,933,473 3,323,876 8,948 30, 651 44,075 12,731 7,495 3,427,776 3,004, 061 17, 895 65, 866 70, 729 33, 697 17,747 3,209,995 28,670 27,106 3,649 P ilo ts .............................................................................................. 56, 663 Sailors.............................................................................................. 116,088 T otal............................................................................................ Draymen, hostlers, and street-railway employees: 120, 756 Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc.............................................. 17,580 Hostlers................. 1....................................................................... 5,103 Street-railway employees.............................................................. T ota l............................................................................................ || 143,445 1, 046,966 Laborers (not specified)...................................................................... Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous): 4,901 458 11,246 26,070 Brick and tile makers and terra-cotta workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,942 Candle, soap, and tallow makers................................................. b 3,834 Charcoal, coke, and lime burners.................................................. Chemical-works employees____ ____ _______________________ Distillers and rectifiers............ ............................ .................. . 2,874 316 Fertilizer makers................- ........................................................ 2,086 Gas-works employees.................................................................... Oil-well em ployees_____________________________________ . . . 3,803 Oil-works em ployees____________________________ _______ _ 1,747 Salt-works em ployees___________________________________ _ 1,721 1,609 Sugar makers and refiners........................................ .............. . \Vell horera_____ . ______ _________ _ _______ 2,873 Whifcewashers............................................................................... 65,480 T otal............................................................................................ Messengers, packers, porters, e tc.: 8,717 Messengers and errand and office boys....................................... 2,002 Newspaper carriers and newsboys............................................. 5,461 Packers and shippers................................................................. 16,631 Porters and helpers (in stores and warehouses)..................... 32, 811 T otal........................................................................................... 24,697 41,352 3,770 GO, 070 129,889 16,716 60,162 4,259 55,899 137,036 177,586 31, 697 a ll, 687 220,970 1,864,245 368, 499 54, 036 37, 434 459,969 1, 913, 373 8,222 2,081 16, 278 36,052 2.923 b 5, 851 2.923 3, 245 1, 383 4,695 7,340 3, 929 1,431 2,327 14,210 7,230 20,362 60, 214 3, *450 8,704 3,628 3,314 732 5,224 9,147 5,624 1, 765 2,616 4,854 3, 996 155,070 Stock raisers, herders, and drovers............................................. Other agricultural pursuits......................................................... T otal............................................................................................. Boatmen, fishermen, sailors, etc.: Miners and quarrymen: M iners................................. .......................................................... Quarrymen.................................................................................... T otal............................................................................................ Servants, etc.: Janitors................................................................... ...................... Launder era and laundresses___________ ___________________ Nurses and mid wives______________________________________ Servant® (a) _____________________________ ___________ __ . . . S extons........................................................................................... T otal............................................................................................ A ll other persons: Hucksters and peddlers.. . . __. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ ___ . . . Hunters, trappers, guides, and scouts_________ __________ _ Other domestic and personal service_____________________. . . Other persons in trado and transportation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soldiers, sailors, and marines (TT. S_)_____________ _____ _ Watchmen, policemen, and detectives........................................ T otal............................................................................................ T ota l f o r G ro u p D __________________ _______________ ____________ 152,107 13, 589 165,696 3,316 101,996 13,985 3, 374 9,342 ' 32,192 58,893 51.355 5. 288 24,946 24.356 105,945 234, 228 15,169 249,397 | 349,592 37,656 387,248 1, 769 60,906 12,162 1,000,417 3,151 1,076.405 6, 763 121, 942 15, 601 1,155,351 2,449 1,302,106 21,556 248, 462 47, 586 1,546,827 4. 982 1, 869,413 34.337 1, 111 15,886 e 36, 346 23.338 53,491 1, 912 d 38,567 e47,162 24,161 /1 3 ,384 178, 677 7, 533, 949 59, 083 2,534 13, 063 3, 883 27,919 74,629 111, 018 5,691,382 181, 111 8,419,160 a Estimated. b Charcoal and lime burners. c Includes housekeepers and stewards. dIncludes employees o f Government (not clerks). e Includes steamboat men and women, and employees o f banks and c f express, insurance, and other companies (not clerks); employees in 1880 partly estimated. /W atch m en (private) and detectives. 420 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. As will be seen from the preceding table, occupations have been grouped according to the character of the employment, throwing into subgroups under each great group, so far as possible, all occupations which are in any way related, or which possess points of similarity in processes or in the nature o f the work performed. This general group ing of occupations, for the purposes of this discussion, is preferable to the division into five great classes, as given in the census reports, while the consolidation of specific occupations under the various subgroups offsets, to a large extent; the differences of classification apparent at each census period, and, on the whole, produces results which admit of exact, or more nearly exact, comparison. Bearing in mind, then, the limitations of the census classification of occupations, it will be seen that Group A relates to what may be termed the proprietor class, comprising farmers, planters, bankers, brokers, manufacturers, merchants and dealers, professional people, and those of kindred pursuits; Group B relates to what may be termed the clerical class, comprising agents, collectors, commercial travelers, bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, aud other clerical occupations; Group 0 to what may be termed skilled workers, comprising, so far as the census figures admit of such distinctions, those occupations or groups of occupations in which skilled labor plays the principal part, such as clothing makers, engineers and firemen (not locomotive), food preparers, leather work ers, those engaged in the mechanical trades, metal workers, printers, engravers, book-binders, steam-railroad employees, textile workers, to bacco and cigar factory operatives, wood workers, and similar mechan ical pursuits; and Group D relates to what may be termed, for want of a better designation, the laboring class, comprising those employments which are, as a rule, the more laborious, and in which the bulk of the work done does not call for a high.degree of mechanical skill or ability, such as agricultural laborers, boatmen, fishermen, pilots, sailors, dray men, hostlers, street-railway employees, laborers (not specified), miscel laneous manufacturing pursuits, messengers, packers, porters, miners, quarrymen, servants, and the like. Throughout this discussion it should be remembered, as already stated, that the census figures do not admit o f a fine classification o f the labor of the country, particularly so far as it relates to the division into skilled and unskilled employments, but, considered on broad grounds, the classifications are sufficiently distinctive to show the general trend of the employments o f the people. Before discussing these results in detail, it is well to divide the whole body of workers into three elements, namely, men, women, and children; the first two classes comprising, respectively, all males and females 16 years of age or over in 1870 and 1880, and 15 years of age or over in 1890, who were at work, and the third class comprising all children of both sexes between 10 and 16 years of age in 1870 and 1880, and between 10 and 15 years of age in 1890, who were engaged in gainful 421 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. labor, following the age classifications used at each of the censuses named. On this basis, the following tables show the number of meny women, and children engaged in each group and in each subgroup o f occupations at the censuses of 1870,1880, and 1890, respectively: MEN ENGAGED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS AND CLASSES,. 1870, 1880, A N D 1800. Occupation groups. 1870. 1880. GROUP A. Bankers, brokers, manufacturers, etc Farmers, planters, etc.......................... Merchants and dealers, etc................. Professional pursuits.......................... 78,156 2,992,128 442, 796 278,727 103, 901 4,226,429 601,469 425, 669 228, 60S* 5,126,673 893,736* 632,184 Total............................................ 3,791,807 5,357,468 6,881,2021 Agents, collectors, commercial travelers, etc Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc................ 29, 681 301,670 63, 642 506,229 230, 771 914,158 Total......................................................... 1890. GROUP B. 331,351 569,871 1,144,929' GROUP C. Clothing makers.».................................... Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) Food preparers......................................... Leather w orkers...................................... Mechanical trades.................................... Metal w orkers......................................... Printers, engravers, bookbinders, e t c .. Steam-railroad employees........................ Textile w orkers........................................ Tobacco and cigar factory operatives... W ood w orkers......................................... Other mechanical pursuits, etc.............. 82, 201 34, 200 124,163 224, 916 598,338 387,428 47,773 153, 091 116,452 33,108 213, 288 128,500 114,247 79, 537 189, 206 241,648 694,734 554,490 79,746 234,736 159,946 61,687 277,925 211,729 166,438 139,554 248, 390 265, 032. 1,178,069* 810,066 124,943 459,616" 203,760 80,502 352,333 370,642 Total................................................ 2,143, 458 2,899,631 4,399,343 2,132,906 113,835 141,475 995,498 62, 686 27,535 161,606 112, 062 107,352 2,307,769 127,995 218,349 1,709,683 97,684 43,757 236,844 183,141 167,563 2,516,004 135,617 455,770 1,827,568 148,032 75,670 375,828 288,165172,376 GROUP D. Agricultural laborers, e t c ................- ............... .... Boatmen, fishermen, sailors, etc............................. Draymen, hostlers, and street-railway employees Laborers (not specified)........................................... Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous).............. Messengers, packers, porters, etc............................ Miners and quarrymen............................................ Servants, e t c .............................................................. A ll other persons....................................................... T otal................................................................. 3,854,955 5,092,785 5,995,030 Grand total....................................................... 10,121,571 13,919,755 18,420,504 WOMEN ENGAGED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. Occupation groups. 1870. - 1880. 1890. GROUP A. Bankers, brokers, manufacturers, etc................................................ Farmers,planters, e t c ............................................................. ........... TkTArp.linuts and dealers, e t c ____________________ . . . . . ___ . . . . ___ Professional pursuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 22,960 14,321 91,914 606 58,393 31,473 176,609 1,141 228,848 68,316 311, 241 Total............................................................................................ 129,479 267,081 609,538 140 10,335 689 37,395 5,466 178,204 10,475 j 38,084 183,676 GROUP B. Agents, collectors, commercial travelers, etc................................... Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc..................................................... T otal.........................................x................................... ............. 696—No. 11---- 3 422 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. ■WOMEN ENGAGED IN G A IN F U L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870,1880, AN D 1890—Concluded. 1870. 1880. 197,970 357,338 Printers, engravers, bookbinders, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steam-railroad employees................................................................... Textile workers...................... . Tobacco and ci^ar factory operatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wood ■yp’iYrlcATa__________ __________________ ______ . . . . . . . _____ Other mechanical pursuits, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ 2,234 9,418 2,480 4,886 3,912 62 90,834 3,458 1,614 31,653 4,102 21,872 471 7,266 8,543 420 140,081 9,182 2,416 33,663 604, 257 47 9, 664 34,769 1,647 15,329 23, 461 1,412 208,216 25,853 7,554 60,171 T otal........................................................................................... 328, 521 585,354 992,380 GROUP D. Agricnltnrfll laborers, e t c ..................... ............................................. Boatmen,fishermen, sailors, etc................................. .............. Draymen,hostlers, and street-railway employees.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Laborers (notspecified). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous)_____________ . . . . . . ___ Messengers packers porters,etc* ___________________ ___ . . . ___ IVf pnd quarry men _ ___ _______________________ . . . _____ ^tp.rrants e tc_____ ___ ___ ______________ _____ ____ ________ 1] other person**_______ _____________________ - ___ . . . . . . ____ 300,831 63 81 18,677 836 204 18 853,361 2,642 400,255 118 4 51,443 3,465 2,454 65 998, 321 9,344 300,294 304 254 50, 321 3,001 7,902 319 1, 490, C64 6, 597 Occupation groups. GROUP c. 1890. Total............................................................................................. l, 176, 713 1,463,469 1, 926, 556 Grand total ................................................................................. 1, 645,188 2, 353,988 3, 712,144 CHILDREN ENGAGED IN G A IN F U L OCCUPATIONS, BY SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. Occupation groups. 1870. 1880. 1890. GROUP A. Bankers, brokers, manufacturers, etc, Farmers, planters, etc........................... Merchants and dealers, etc.................. Professional pursuits............................. 592 457 14 1,277 412 924 | j 418 820 903 T otal.............................................. 1,052 2,627 | 2,146 GROUP B. Agents, collectors, commercial travelers, etc Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc................. 23 8,225 147 | 19,577 | 241 14,340 Total.......................................................... 3 i 8,248 19,724 14,581 GROUP C. Clothing makers..................................... Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) Food preparers..........................1........... . Leather workers...................................... Mechanical trades.................................. . M etalworkers.......................................... Printers, engravers, bookbinders, e tc .. Steam-railroad employees...................... Textile w orkers....................................... Tobacco and cigar factory operatives.. W oodw orkers......................................... . Other mechanical pursuits, etc.............. 5,871 33 3,349 2,992 2, 673 5,017 2,069 874 34.278 3,705 8,237 8,052 13,637 91 2,240 4,771 1,935 8,538 2,847 902 50,138 6,176 7,159 19,876 10, 680 164 2, 011 2,834 2,172 5, 767 2,198 1,185 32, 284 5, 270 5,0.96 19, 051 T otal............................................... 70,150 118, 310 88,712 499,736 2,190 1,889 32,791 1,958 5,072 4,072 110,982 1, 024 719,752 1,776 2,617 103,119 2,847 12,682 12,488 120,644 1,770 327,697 1,115 3,945 35,484 3,337 22,373 11,101 90,584 2,138 T otal.......... 659,714 977,695 | 497,574 Grand total. 739,164 j 1,118,356 GROUP D. Agricultural laborers, ete ........................ Boatmen, fishermen, sailors, etc............................. Draymen, hostlers, and street-railway employees. Laborers (not specified)........................................... Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous).............. Messengers, packers, porters, e t c ........................ . Miners and quarrymen............................................ Servants, e t c ................................. ............................ All other persons..................................................... . 603,013 423 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. The proportion of persons in each group of occupations at the cen suses o f 1870,1880, and 1890 is given for men, women, children, and of all persons, respectively, in the following table: PER CENT OF MEN, WOMEN, A N D CHILDREN, A N D OF A L L PERSONS, IN EACH SPECIAL GROUP OF OCCUPATIONS, 1870, 1880, AND 1800. 1870. Classes o f persons and occupation groups. 1880. j 1890. MEN. Group A -.. Group B ... Grouj) 0 Grouj) D ... Total 37.46 3.27 21.18 38. C9 38.49 4. 09 20. 83 36.59 ICO. 00 100.00 37.36 6.22 23. 88 32.54 ;I 100.00 11.34 : 1.62 24. 87 62.17 10.42 4. 95 26. 73 51.90 WOMEN. Group A .. Grouj) B ... Group C .. Group D .. 7.87 .64 19.97 71.52 Total 100. CO 100.00 100. C O .14 1.12 9.49 89. 25 .24 1.76 10. 58 87.42 .36 2.42 14.71 82. 51 100.00 100. 00 100. 00 31.36 2.80 20.33 45. 51 32.35 3.61 20.72 43.32 32. 06 5.91 24.10 37. 03 100.00 i 100.00 CHILDREN. Group Group Group Group A B G D ... ... ... .. Total ALL PERSONS. Group A Group B Group C Group D ... ... ... ... Total, I C O .00 1 Considering first the results for all persons, the figures show that when the distribution of the gainful workers of the country, according to the four groups of occupations at each census period, is considered, it is seen that there has been a steady increase in the proportions found in each of the first three groups in 1880 and 1890 as compared with 1870, with a corresponding decrease in the proportion of persons constituting Group D, and that the changes in the proportions have been especially marked during the decade ending in 1890. This means, if the results can be considered as being at all indicative of the real changes which have taken place in our working population, that the proportion o f workers engaged in the more laborious forms of employ ment in 1890 as compared with 1870 and 1880 has become considerably smaller, constituting in 1890 but 37.03 per cent of all workers, whereas in 1870 they constituted 45.51 per cent. The other side of the picture is found in an increase in twenty years of from 31.30 per cent o f all workers in 1870 to 32.96 per cent in 1890 in Group A , constituting, as near as may be, the proprietor class; from 2.80 per cent of all workers in 1870 to 5.91 per cent in 1890 in Group B, constituting the clerical class, and from 20.33 of all workers in 1870 to 24.10 per cent in 1890 in 424 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR Group O, representing principally skilled workers; or, in brief, a general uplifting in the scale of life, as measured by the kind of work done. The same general results are noted for men, women, and children in 1890 as compared with 1870, except that there has been a slight loss in the proportion o f men in Group A. The decrease in the proportion of workers in Group D is very marked in the case of each o f these three classes, and this is especially noticeable with respect to women, for whom there is shown a change in 20 years from 71.52 per cent o f all women workers in 1870 to 51.90 per cent in 1890. I f the analysis is continued to include the proportions found in each of the various subgroups at each census, the following tables are obtained: PE R CENT OP MEN EN GAGED IN G A IN F U L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. Occupation groups. 1870. 1880. 1890. GROUP A. Bankers, brokers, manufacturers, e t c .............................................. Farmers, planters, etc.......................................................................... Merchants and dealers, etc................................................................. Professional p u rsu its.......................................................................... 0.77 29.56 4.88 2.75 0.75 30.36 4.32 3.06 1.24 27. 83 4.85 3.44 Total ........................................................................................... 37.46 38.49 37.36 Agents, collectors, commercial travelers, etc................................... Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc.................................................... .29 2.98 .46 3.63 1.26 4.96 T otal............................................................................................ GROUP B. 3.27 4.09 6.22 GROUP C. Clothing m akers.................................................................................. Engineers and firemen (not locomotive)........................................... Food preparers...................................................................................... Leather w orkers.................................................................................. Mechanical tra des............................................................................... Metal w ork ers.......................... ........................................................... Printers, engravers, bookbinders, e t c .............................................. Steam-railroad employees................................................................... Textile workers.................................................................................... Tobacco and cigar factory operatives............................................... W ood w orkers...................................................................................... Other mechanical pursuits, e t c ......................................................... .81 .34 1.23 2.22 5.91 3.83 .47 1.51 1.15 .33 2.11 1.27 .82 .57 1.36 1.74 4.99 3.98 .57 1.69 1.15 .44 2.00 1.52 .90 .76 1.35 1.44 6.39 4.40 .68 2.49 1.11 .44 1.91 S. 01 Total............................................................................................. 21.18 20.83 23.88 GROUP D. Agricultural laborers, e t c ................................................................... Boatmen, fishermen, sailors, etc......................................................... Draymen, hostlers, and street-railway employees.......................... Laborers (not specified).........•........................................................... Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous).......................................... Messengers, packers, porters, e t c ...................................................... Miners and quarrymen........................................................................ Servants, e t c ......................................................................................... A ll other persons................................................................................. 21.07 1.12 1.40 9.84 .62 .27 1.60 1.11 1.06 16.58 .92 1.57 12.28 .70 .32 1.70 1.32 1.20 13. 66 .74 2.47 9.92 .80 .41 2.04 1.56 .94 Total............................................................................................. 38.09 36.59 32.54 Grand to ta l................................................................................. 100.00 100.00 100.0*0 425 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. P E R CENT OF W OMEN ENGAGED IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS, BY SPECIAL GROUPS AN D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, AN D 1890. Occupation groups. 1870. 1880. 1890. GROUP A. Bankers, brokers, manufacturers, etc. Farmers, planters, etc........................... Merchants and dealers, etc................. . Professional pursuits............................ 0.02 1.39 .87 5.59 0.02 2.48 1.34 7.50 0.03 6.17 1.84 8.38 Total.............................................. 7.87 11.34 16.42 Agents, collectors, commercial travelers, etc Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc................. .01 .63 .03 1.59 .15 4.80 Total.......................................................... .64 1.62 4.95 12.03 15.18 .14 .57 .15 .30 .24 (a) 5.52 .21 .10 .71 .18 .93 .02 .31 .36 .02 5.95 .39 .10 1.43 16.28 (a) .26 .94 .04 .41 .63 .04 5. 61 .70 .20 1. 62 19.97 24.87 26. 73 18.29 (a) (a) 1.14 .05 .01 (a) 51.87 .16 17.00 .01 (a) 2.19 .06 .10 (a) 42.41 .40 9.87 .01 .01 1.35 .10 .21 .01 40.16 .18 GROUP B. GROUP c. Clothing m akers...................................... Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) Food preparers........................................... Leather w orkers...................................... . Mechanical trades.................................... Metal workers........................................... Printers, engravers, bookbinders, etc... Steam-railroad em ployees...................... . Textile workers....................................... Tobacco and cigar factory operatives ... Wood w orkers............... * ....................... . Other mechanical pursuits, etc....... ..... Total................................................ GROUP D. Agricultural laborers, etc........................ . Boatmen, fishermen, sailors, etc............................. Draymen, hostlers, and street-railway employees Laborers (not specified)........................................... Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous).............. Messengers, packers, porters, etc.......................... Miners and quarrymen............................................. Servants, etc.............................................................. A ll other persons...................................................... Total........... 71.52 62.17 51.90 Grand total 100.00 100.00 100.00 a Per cent not appreciable. 426 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. PEE CENT OF CHILDREN ENGAGED IN G A IN F U L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. Occupation groups. group A. Bankers, brokers, manufacturers, etc, Farmers, planters, etc........................... Merchants and dealers, etc................... Professional pursuits........................... 1870. (a) 1880. 1890. 0.08 .06 («) 0.12 .04 .08 0. 07 .14 .15 .14 .24 .36 Agents, collectors, commercial travelers, etc Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc................ .01 1.11 .01 1.75 .04 2.38 Total.......................................................... 1.12 1.76 2.42 .79 .18 .41 .36 .68 .28 .12 4.64 .50 .44 1.09 1.22 ! oi .20 .43 .17 .76 .26 .08 4.48 .55 .64 1.78 1.77 .03 .33 .47 .36 .96 .36 .20 5.35 .87 .85 3.16 9.49 10.58 14.71 67.61 .30 .26 4.43 .26 .69 .55 15.01 .14 64.36 .16 .23 9.22 .25 1.13 1.12 10.79 .16 54.34 .19 .65 5.88 .52 3. 71 1.84 15.02 .36 Total.............................................. GROUP R. GROUP C. Clothing m akers...................................... Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) Food preparers........................................ Leather w orkers...................................... Mechanical trades.................................... . Metal w orkers......................................... Printers, engravers, bookbinders, e tc .. Steam-railroad em ployees....................... Textile workers......................................... Tobacco and cigar factory operatives .. W ood w orkers......................................... Other mechanical pursuits, e tc............... Total................................................ GROUP D. Agricultural laborers, e tc......................... ............. Boatmen, fishermen, sailors, etc............................. . Draymen, hostlers, and street-railway employees. Laborers (not specified'........................................... . Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous)............... Messengers, packers, porters, e t c ........................... Miners and quarry men............................................. Servants, etc.............................................. ............... A ll other persons. A .................................................. . (a) Total........... 89.25 87.42 82. 51 Grand total 100.00 100.00 100. 00 a Per cent not appreciable. 427 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. PE E CENT OP A L L PEESONS ENGAGED IN G A IN F U L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GEOUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. Occupation groups. 1870. 1880. 1890. GROUP A. Bankers, brokers, manufacturers, etc................................................ Farmers, planters, e t c ....................................................... ................. Merchants and dealers, e tc ................................................................. Professional pursuits.......................................................................... 0.62 24.11 3.66 2.97 0.60 24.64 3.64 3.47 1.01 23.56 4.24 4.15 T otal............................................................................................ 31.36 32.35 32.96 Agents, collectors, commercial travelers, e t c .................................. Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc..................................................... .24 2.50 .37 3.24 1.04 4.87 T otal............................................................................................ 2.80 3.61 5.91 GROUP C. Clothing m akers.................................................................................. Engineers and firemen (not locomotive)........................................... Food preparers...................................................................................... Leather w orkers.................................................................................. Mechanical trades................................................................................ Metalworkers....................................................................................... Printers, engravers, bookbinders, etc............................... ................ Steam-railroad employees................................................................... Textile workers.................................................................................... Tobacco and cigar factory operatives.............................................. W ood workers...................................................................................... Other mechanical pursuits, etc.......................................................... 2.29 .27 1.02 1.90 4.83 3.18 .43 1.23 1. 93 .32 1.74 1.19 2.79 .46 1.13 1.54 4. 01 3.28 .52 1. 36 2.01 .44 1. 65 1.53 3.44 .61 1.14 1.33 5.20 3. 66 .66 2.03 1.95 .49 1.61 1.C8 Total............................................................................................. 20.33 20.72 24.10 GROUP D. Agricultural laborers, e t c ........................ ............................ ............ Boatmen, fishermen, sailors, e t c ......................................................... Draymen, hostlers, and street-railway employees............................ Laborers (not specified).. i ................................................................. Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous)......................................... Messengers, packers, porters, e t c ....................................................... Miners and quarrymen....................................................................... Servants, e t c ....... ............................. ........................ ........................ A ll other p ersons................................................................................ 23.46 .93 1.15 8. 37 .52 .26 1.32 8.61 .89 19. 71 .75 1.27 10. 12 .58 .34 1.43 7.49 1.03 14.12 .60 2.02 8,42 .68 .47 1.70 8. 22 .80 GROUP B. Total....... %................................................................................... 45.51 43.32 37.03 Grand to ta l................................................................................. 100.00 100.00 100.00 Aii analysis of these figures shows that the general conclusions already stated are fully borne out by the detailed presentation of the proportions found in each of the various subgroups, such variations as are apparent being due either to the difference in classification o f occu pations at the three censuses considered or to actual changes in con ditions governing specific employments. Under Group A , for instance, it is seen for farmers, planters, etc., that there was a slight increase in the proportion in 1880 as compared with 1870, but that in 1890 the proportion has been decreased, and that, furthermore, this decrease was wholly due to a very considerable loss in the proportion o f men who were so occupied in 1890, which was partially offset by a material increase in the proportion of women who were returned as farmers, planters, etc. For bankers, brokers, manu facturers, etc., a very slight decrease in the proportion is shown from 1870 to 1880 and a small increase from 1880 to 1890; these changes in proportions being almost wholly credited to men, as women and children 428 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. do not figure much in this class of employments. Among merchants and dealers, etc., there was but a slight change in the proportion between 1870 and 1880, but between 1880 and 1890 there was a small increase, the loss between 1870 and 1880 being confined principally to men, although children so occupied also showed a decrease during the same decade. For persons engaged in professional pursuits there has been uniformly an increase in each case, the increase in the proportion of women so occupied in 1890 as compared with 1870 being especially pro nounced. So far as Group A is concerned, therefore, the detailed state ment of results shows conclusively that, with the exception of farmers, planters, etc., there has been a perceptible increase in the proportions o f each subgroup of workers, the losses shown between 1870 and 1880 for two o f these subgroups being minor only, while the loss in the pro portion of farmers, planters, etc., was the legitimate outcome of changes which have taken place in the conditions surrounding this great class o f workers. Passing to Group B, we find that each subgroup shows an increased proportion of workers at each of the last two censuses as compared with 1870; that the most noticeable increase in the proportion o f agents, collectors, commercial travelers, etc., is shown for men, and that for bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc.—although the increase in the pro portion of this class o f workers is considerable for each o f the three elements, men, women, and children—by far the largest increase in the proportion is shown for women. Among the skilled workers comprising Group C there has been, with few exceptions, a uniform increase in the proportions found in each subgroup, and this is especially true with respect to clothing makers, engineers and firemen (not locomotive), food preparers, metal workers, printers, engravers, bookbinders, etc., steam-railroad employees, tobacco and cigar factory operatives, and other mechanical pursuits, etc. In two subgroups, namely, leather workers and wood workers, there has been a slight loss in the proportion of workers during each decade, but this loss is common to men only, and is probably due largely to the influ ence o f machinery upon the boot and shoe and woodworking industries. The proportions o f textile workers have not as a whole increased much in twenty years, while the subgroup comprising the mechanical trades showed a loss in the proportion of workers in 1880 as compared with 1870, but this loss was more than offset by a gain in the proportion from 1880 to 1890. So that, making allowances for minor differences in classification and the changed conditions of work in certain industries, it can be safely stated that the great body of skilled workers constitute beyond question a larger proportion o f the whole number of persons engaged in gainful pursuits in 1890 than in either 1870 or 1880. In considering the subdivisions under Group D, it appears at first glance that practically all the decrease in this group is confined to the subgroup o f agricultural laborers, etc., but it will be seen upon a 429 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. closer inspection that, notwithstanding this great decrease in the pro portion of persons engaged in agricultural labor, there has been no material increase in the proportion found in any other subgroup com prising this group, and, furthermore, that since 1880 there has been a very considerable decrease in the proportion of laborers (not specified), practically offsetting the somewhat fictitious increase from 1870 to 1880, already explained, and also a very material decrease in 1890, in the proportion of women in the subgroup of servants, etc., of which they constitute by far the largest part. Stating the results in detail, there has been a decrease in the proportion of agricultural laborers, etc., from 23.46 per cent in 1870 to 14.12 per cent in 1890, when considered in the aggregate. There has also been a slight general decrease in the proportion of boatmen, fishermen, and sailors, and a decrease in the proportion of servants, etc., the decrease for women in this subgroup being very large (from 51.87 per cent in 1870 to 40.16 per cent in 1890), while for the great class o f laborers (not specified) there has been practically no increase in the proportion since 1870. The other subgroups show slight increases in the proportion in 1890 as compared with 1870, but in no case are they in any sense material increases, showing that the great loss in the proportion of persons engaged in agricultural labor has not been offset by a large increase in the proportions found in the other forms o f laborious employment, but rather that the corresponding increases in the proportions are found in the higher forms of labor rep resented by Groups A, B, and O. The census tabulations admit of another form of comparison—that relating to the division of the whole body of workers according to whether they are o f native or of foreign birth. The following tables show the number of native and foreign born persons found in each group and in each subgroup of occupations in 1870,1880, and 1890: NATIVE-BO RN PERSONS ENGAGED IN G A IN F U L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. 1870. 1880. B a n k ers , b r o k e r s , m a n n fa ctn re rs , e t c ______________________________ F a n n e r s , p la n te r s , e t c ................................................. .................................... M e r c h a n ts a n d dealers, e t c .............................- ............- ................................ Professional pursuits........... ........................... ................................... 60,674 2,587,412 811, 614 324, 240 79,877 3,648, 835 430,102 530,026 174,893 4*548,091 672,848 828,965 T o t a l........................................................................................... 3,283,940 4,688,840 i 6,224,797 Occupation groups. 1890. GROUP A. GROUP B. Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc................................................... 25,072 263,288 53, 321 484,757 197,109 941,964 T o t a l........................................................................................... 288,360 538,078 1,139,073 190,182 24,286 78, 985 153,479 436, 401 263,311 40,337 351,252 57,984 125,950 173,481 514,003 395,349 74,314 562,117 101,229 161, 897 192, 275 848, 321 552, 014 124,175 A g e n t s , c o lle c to r s , co m m e r c ia l tr a v e le rs , e t c _____________________ GROUP O. Clothing m akers....................................... ................................................. Engineers and firemen (not locomotive)................................................... F o o d p r e p a r e r s ................................. ..................................................................... Leather workers .............................................................................. .................... Mechanical trades....................... ....................................................................... M e t a l w o r k e r s ............................................................................................ .......... Printers, engravers, bookbinders, etc ............... ........................................ 430 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. NATIVE-BORN PERSONS ENGAGED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890—Concluded. 1890. 1870. 1880. 94,505 149,915 24,099 146,642 104,198 169. 380 210; 296 50,041 200,006 197, 601 346, 374 261, 699 73,174 242, 411 330,731 1,706,340 2,519,657 3,796,417 GROUP D. A g r ir*,n1to r a 1 la b orers , e tn ____________________________________________ Boatmen, fishermen, sailors, e tc......................................................... Draymen, hostlers, and street-railway employees.......................... Laborers (not specified)............................................................- ........ Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous)......................................... Messengers, packers, porters, etc..................................................... Miners and quarrymen....................................... ........................ . S e r v a n ts e t e ____________ ____ ____ ________________________ _ A H o th e r p e r s o n s ___________________ ____ ________ _ 2,735,702 90,386 98, 315 611,594 33, 890 20, 709 63, 408 797, 353 72,037 3,237,582 96, 270 159, 827 1,340,361 59,348 43, 233 116,219 977, 951 120, 086 2, 897,714 101, 067 346,346 1,222,890 89, 747 85, 537 191, 654 1,317, 752 104, 799 T o ta l........................................................................................... 4,523,394 6,150,877 6,357, 506 G ra n d fo t .n l_____________________________ ________ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,802,034 13,897,452 17, 517,793 Occupation groups. group c —concluded. Tobacco and cigar factory operatives............................................... W oodworkers ........................................................ . Other mechanical pursuits, etc........................................................... T o t a l ........................ ................. ............................................ FOREIGN-BORN PERSONS ENGAGED IN G A IN F U L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870,1880, A N D 1890. 1870. 1880. group A. Bankers, brokers, manufacturers, etc Farmers, planters, etc.......................... Merchants and dealers, etc................. Professional pursuits........................... 17,769 427,676 146, 095 46, 858 24,644 637,264 203,252 73,176 54,857 807, 840 290, 024 115, 368 Total............................................. 638,39$ 938,330 1,268,089 Agents, collectors, commercial travelers, etc Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc................ 4, 772 56,942 11,157 78,444 39,369 164,738 Total.......................................................... Occupation groups. 1890. GROUP B. 61, 714 89,601 204,107 GROUP C. Clothing makers ..................... Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) Food preparers......................................... Leather w orkers...................................... Mechanical trades.................................... M etalworkers........................................... Printers, engravers, bookbinders, e tc.. Steam-railroad employees....................... Textile workers........................................ Tobacco and cigar factory operatives .. W oodw orkers........................................... Other mechanical pursuits, etc.............. 95,860 9,947 48,761 83,847 167,090 134,020 13,417 59,522 91,649 16,172 71,497 44,007 133,970 21,644 69,598 94,810 183,137 174,945 16,822 66,678 139,869 27,004 87,494 67, 667 219,256 38,536 98,168 110,360 333,567 279,148 26,427 115,839 182,561 38, 451 122,572 119,133 Total................................................ . 835,789 1,083,638 1,684,018 197,771 25,702 45,130 435,372 31,590 12,102 102,288 279,052 38,981 190,194 33,619 61,143 523,884 42,648 15,660 133,178 324,155 58,591 312,281 35,969 113,623 690,483 65,323 20,408 195,594 551,661 76,312 GROUP D. Agricultural laborers, e tc..................... . Boatmen, fishermen, sailors, etc............................. Draymen, hostlers, and street-railway employees. Laborers (not specified).....................1................... Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous).............. Messengers, packers, porters, e tc.......................... Miners and quarrymen........................................... . Servants, etc.............................................................. A ll other persons....................................................... Total................................................................. 1,167,988 1,383,072 . 2,061,654 Grand to ta l..................................................... 2,703,889 3,494,647 5,217,868 1 431 WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. Keducing the results shown in the preceding tables to percentages, the following tables are obtained: P E E CENT OF N A T IV E -B O R N PERSONS ENGAGED IN GAIN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. Occupation groups. GKOUP A. Bankers, brokers, manufacturers, etc................................................ Farmers, planters, etc......................................................................... Merchants and dealers, etc................................................................. Professional pursuits......................................................................... 1870. . 1830. 1890. 0.62 26.39 3.18 3.31 0.57 26.26 3.10 3.81 1.00 25.97 3.84 4.73 33. 50 33.74 35.54 Agents, collectors, commercial travelers, etc.................................... Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, etc..................................................... .25 2.69 .38 3.49 1.12 5.38 Total.......................... ................. .............................................. 2.94 3.87 6.50 GROUP C. Clothing m akers......... ............................. ......................................... Engineers and firemen (not locomotive)........................................... Food preparers..................................................................................... Leather w orkers.................................................................................. Mechanical trades................................................................................ Metal w orkers..................................................................................... Printers, engravers, bookbinders, etc................................................ Steam-railroad employees................................................................... Textile workers.................................................................................... Tobacco and cigar factory operatives.............................................. W ood w orkers..................................................................................... Other mechanical pursuits, e t c .......................................................... 1.94 .25 .81 1.56 4.45 2. 69 .41 .96 1.53 .25 1.50 1.06 2.53 .42 .91 1.25 3.70 2. 84 .53 1. 22 1.51 .36 1.44 1.42 3.21 .58 .92 1.10 4.84 3.15 .71 1.98 1.49 .42 1.38 1.89 Total.......................... ................................................................ 17.41 18.13 21.67 GROUP D. Agricultural laborers, e t c ....................................... ......................... Boatmen, fishermen, sailors, etc.......................................................... Draymen, hostlers, and street-railway emplovees.......................... Laborers (not specified)...................................................................... Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous)......................................... Messengers, packers, porters, etc....................................................... Miners and quarry men........................................................................ S ervan ts, e t c _________________________________________________ A ll other persons.................................................................................. 27.91 .92 1.00 6.24 .35 .21 .65 8.13 .74 23.30 .69 1.15 9.64 .43 .31 .84 7.04 .86 16.54 .58 1.98 6.98 .51 .49 1.09 7.52 .60 GROUP B. T otal............................................................................................ 46.15 44. 26 36.29 Grand total.................................................................................. 100.00 100.00 100.00 432 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. PE R CENT OF FOREION-BORN PERSONS ENGAGED IN G A IN FU L OCCUPATIONS, B Y SPECIAL GROUPS A N D CLASSES, 1870, 1880, A N D 1890. Occupation groups. 1870. 1880. 1890. group A. Banters, brokers, manufacturers, e t c . Farmers, planters, e t c .......................... Merchants and dealers, e t c .................. Professional pursuits............................ 0.66 15.82 5.40 1.73 0.70 18.24 5.82 2.09 1.05 15.48 5.56 2.21 T otal............................................. 23.61 26.85 24.30 Agents, collectors, commercial travelers, etc. Bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, e tc ................ .18 2.10 .32 2.24 .75 3.16 T otal....................................................... . GROUP B. 2.28 2.56 3.91 GROUP C. Clothing makers............ .......................... Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) Food preparers.......................................... Leather workers........................................ Mechanical trades.................................... Metal workers........................................... Printers, engravers, bookbinders, e t c . . . Steam-railroad em ployees....................... Textile workers........................................ Tobacco and cigar factory operatives... W oodworkers........................................... Other mechanical pursuits, etc................ 3.54 .37 1.80 3.10 6.18 4.96 .50 2.20 3.39 .60 2.64 1.63 3.83 .62 1.99 2.71 5.24 5.01 .48 1.91 4.00 .77 2.51 1.94 4.20 .74 1.88 2.12 6.39 5.35 .51 2.22 3.50 .74 2. 35 2.28 T otal................................................ 30.91 31.01 32.28 7.32 .95 1.67 16.10 1.17 .45 3.78 10.32 1.44 5.44 .96 1.75 14.99 1.22 .45 3.81 9.28 1.68 5.99 .69 2.18 13.23 1.25 .39 3.75 10.57 1.46 GROUP D. Agricultural laborers, e t c .......................... - ........... Boatmen, fishermen, sailors, etc............................... Draymen, hostlers, and street-railway employees Laborers (not specified)........................................... Manufacturing pursuits (miscellaneous)............. Messengers, packers, porters, e t c .......................... Miners and quarrymen........................................... . Servants, e t c ............................................................ A ll other persons...................... ............................... T otal................................................................ 43.20 39.58 39.51 Grand total..................................................... 100.00 100.00 100.00 Briefly analyzed, these tables show that for native-born workers there has been a steady increase since 1870 in the proportion found in each o f the first three groups and a corresponding decrease in the propor tion found in Group D. For the foreign-born workers, however, the proportions found in each group at each census period have fluctuated greatly, due partly, no doubt, to the influences of immigration, espe cially during the decade from 1880 to 1890. From 1870 to 1880 there was a considerable increase in the proportion o f foreign-born workers in Group A, a corresponding decrease in Group D, and slight increases only in Groups B and O. The results for 1890 as compared with 1880 show, on the other hand, a loss in the proportion of foreign-born work ers in Group A, a very small loss in the proportion in Group D, and an increase in Groups B and O. Comparing the proportions shown for each subgroup in 1890 with those given for 1870, it is seen for Group A that there has been a slight increase in the proportion in each subgroup, with the exception of that WORKERS AT GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS. 433 of farmers, planters, etc., in which there has been a small decrease in the proportion of both native and foreign born workers. The increase from 15.82 per cent in 1870 to 18.24 per cent in 1880 in the proportion of foreign-born farmers, planters, etc., and the more than offsetting decrease from 18.24 in 1880 to 15.48 per cent in 1890, may be legitimate as showing the influence of the increased immigration during the latter decade, but is probably due, in part at least, to the differences in classi fication o f occupations at the various censuses. In Group B there has been an increase of native and foreign born workers in each subgroup, while in Group 0 this is also true, with the exception of leather workers and wood workers, in which there is a slightly smaller proportion of both native and foreign born, and of textile workers, in which there has been a very slight loss in the proportion of the native born only. In Group D the proportion of native-born agricultural laborers, etc., in 1890 is 16.54 per cent as compared with 27.91 per cent in 1870, while there is a decrease during the same period from 7.32 per cent to 5.99 per cent in the proportion of foreign born who were so occupied. Among laborers (not specified) there has been a slight increase in the proportion of native-born workers and a considerable loss in that for foreign-born workers, while for the subgroup of servants, etc., the native born show a small loss and the foreign born a slight increase in the proportion. It must be conceded, therefore, that, viewed from whatever stand point, there has been a perceptible increase in the proportion of persons engaged in the higher grades o f work in 1890 as compared with con ditions 20 years earlier. PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. BY EDWARD MUSSEY HARTWELL, PH. D., M. D. Until within a few years neither American cities nor American phi lanthropists have considered it necessary to maintain public bathing establishments. In some instances, it is true, floating baths have been maintained during the summer months. The study of the necessitous condition of congested districts in New York, Chicago, Boston, and other large cities has led to a discussion, by sanitarians and others interested in municipal housekeeping, as to the feasibility of providing bathing facilities which should be available the year round in tenementhouse and other crowded sections. Within two years appropriations have been made by New York, Chicago, Boston, Buffalo, and the town of Brookline, Mass., for the erection and maintenance of public bath houses. Those in Buffalo and Brookline have been finished and are already in use. It is probable that the policy thus inaugurated will become general and popular wherever in this country large numbers of people are crowded together under conditions unfavorable to cleanli ness, comfort, and health. Inasmuch as the policy of maintaining public bath houses at munici pal expense has commended itself to the authorities and taxpayers in most European countries and has become firmly established during the last forty years, and inasmuch as the best planned and most successful o f our private undertakings in this field bear witness to the influence o f European example, the teachings of European experience in respect to people’s, workmen’s, and school baths can hardly fail to prove help ful and instructive to those who are endeavoring to ameliorate the con ditions due to urban crowding in the United States. The purpose o f the following pages is to give some account of the origin and history of the public bath house movement in certain of the leading industrial countries of western Europe, and to show what the experience o f cities like Glasgow, Manchester, London, Berlin, Vienna, and Budapest teaches as to the best methods of locating, plan ning, and maintaining baths for the people. It would be impossible in the space available to describe or to give a complete list of the public bathing establishments in Europe or even in England alone, where the movement had its beginnings. It must suffice, therefore, to outline the general features of European policy in regard to municipal baths; to compare the leading types of bath and wash houses in Great Britain 434 PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 435 and on the Continent in respect to tlieir structural peculiarities, the variety and extent of the facilities afforded by them, and the amount of the pecuniary burden assumed by public authorities for their erec tion and maintenance, and to indicate in some measure the extent to which employers of labor, profiting by municipal example, have under taken to provide their workmen with facilities for bathing. The city of Liverpool is usually credited, and rightly it would seem, with being the first considerable European city to establish a bath house for the benefit of the x>eople at public expense. In the year 1794 the Corporation of Liverpool purchased a private swimming bath establishment at the end of the Hew Quay, at a cost of about £4,000 ($19,466), and expended £1,000 ($4,867) additional in embellishments and in making large alterations from the original plan. These baths were removed in 1820 to make way for the Prince’s Dock. In 1828 St. George’s Baths, so called, were erected by the Corporation at a cost of nearly £25,000 ($121,663). This establishment is still in use and is known as the Pier-Head Bath House. It is a river side bath. A t vari ous times the enlargement and improvement of the establishment have been proposed, but thus far the plans for remodeling it have not been carried into effect. It is probable that this establishment will be demolished or remodeled in the near future. By reason o f its being a pioneer establishment the following facts concerning the Pier-Head Bath in Liverpool are given in this connec tion: The total cost of the building and of keeping it in repair, up to 1895, according to official reports, amounted t o £43,660 ($212,471). The establishment includes two swimming baths, one 46 feet 6 inches by 27 feet in area, and the other 40 by 27 feet; also two small private plunge baths, eleven private tub baths, two vapor baths, and one douche bath. Filtered salt water from the Mersey is used in all these baths, except one private bath tub in which fresh water is employed. From the beginning of May until the end of September the swimming baths are open on week days from 6 a. m. until 9 p. m., and on Sun days from 6 to 9 a. m. During the months of April and October they are open on week days only; on Saturdays from 8 a. m. until 9 p. m.; on other days they are closed at 7 p. m. From November until the end o f March these baths are open from 8 a. m. until 7 p. m. from Mondays to Fridays, and on Saturdays from 8 a. m. until 9 p. m. They are not open on Sundays. The private hot and cold baths and vapor and shower baths of this establishment are open during the same days and hours as are specified above for the swimming baths. The scale of charges for sea-water baths is as follows: Vapor b a th ............................................................................................................... $0.481Private warm bath......................................................................................................... 36£ Private plunge bath, tepid.............................................................................................. 36£ Private plunge bath, cold................................................................................................24^ Public plunge b a th .........................................................................................................12 Public plunge, after 5 p. m .............................................................................................. 06 436 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. Tickets for the public plunge or swimming bath from October to the end of March, and from 6 to 8 a. m. from April to the end of Septem ber, are sold for 4 shillings (97£ cents) per dozen. A private warm bath o f fresh water costs 1 shilling (24£ cents). The women’s plunge baths, two tub baths, and the douche bath are now closed, being out of repair. In 1892 the plunge baths were used by 44,291 bathers, 38,183 being men and 6,108 women. In the same year the number of vapor baths was 604 for men and only 8 for women; o f warm baths, 2,598 for men and 280 for women; of cold baths at 1 shilling, 885 for men and 55 for women. But it should be said that the total number of bathers was smaller in 1892 than in any other year from 1890 to 1895, with the exception of 1894. During the six years in question the total receipts of the establishment exceeded the expenditures by £914 ($4,448). The Pier-Head Bath House is the most costly of the Liverpool bath ing establishments. Next to it comes the Cornwallis Street Bath, which cost for site, building, and furnishing the sum of £27,945 ($135,994). It was opened in 1851. On the 28th of May, 1842, the Corporation of Liverpool opened the Frederick Street Baths and Washhouse, which cost £2,648 ($12,886) to build and furnish. It was the first public bath having a washhouse in connection with it in Great Britain. It comprised private tub baths, a vapor bath, washhouse for infected clothing, washhouse for ordinary clothing, drying rooms, administrative portion, reading room, and super intendent’s house. In 1854 the establishment was reconstructed, and the baths, reading room, and the superintendent’s house were done away with, since which time it has been maintained as a washhouse only. It stands in the books as having cost £4,451 ($21,661). A t present it contains washing and drying accommodations for 60 washers. In the period 1890-1895 the average annual number of washers using it was 16,268, and its maintenance involved an average annual loss of £171 ($832). The Frederick Street Washhouse owed its erection to the example o f a benevolent woman, who during a cholera epidemic established a small washhouse at her own cost for the benefit of poor people in an infected district. In 1849 the Corporation o f Liverpool erected two new establish ments. It is said that the example of Liverpool was followed by the erection of a bath and wash house in London in 1844. London was credited with the possession o f 13 establishments in 1854. In 1846 the first baths and washhouses act was passed by Parlia ment. This act authorized municipal corporations and parochial gov erning boards to raise loans for the purpose of erecting and maintaining baths and washhouses for the benefit of the poorer classes, provided that such establishments should be built and managed by a local board o f commissioners. A t present the Corporation of Liverpool, through its baths committee, maintains nine establishments under the provi sions of the act of 1846 and its amendments. PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 437 The total cost of these establishments up to the end of 1895 may be placed at £160,020, or $778,737. These nine establishments are not all of the same kind. The Frederick street establishment is a wash house only. The Burlington Street Bath, which was opened in a very crowded quarter in 1895, within 500 yards of an existing bath house, at a cost o f £700 ($3,407), is a swimming bath only, and consists of a single pool, lined with concrete and cement, 75 by 60 feet in area. It is entirely open to the air, and is the only one of the Liverpool baths for which no admission charge is made. It is for the sole use of boys under the age o f 15 years. During July and August, 1895, it had an average weekly attendance of over 16,000 bathers. Three of the Liv erpool establishments consist of combined bath and wash houses, with total accommodations for 211 washers, while four establishments are bath houses without washhouses attached. The swimming baths under roof in the Liverpool establishments number 18, all told. The bath houses contain 244 private tub baths. The scale of charges varies slightly in the different establishments. Latterly, special rates have been made to swimming clubs and to bathers from the board schools, which correspond to public schools in America. The rate for school boys in some cases is as low as a half-penny (1 cent) per bath. In the six years 1890 to 1895, inclusive, the running expenses of Liv erpool’s baths and washhouses exceeded their receipts by £3,498 ($17,023). The total excess of expenditures, including expenditures for improvements, amounted to £8,226 ($40,032). With the exception o f the Pier-Head establishment, which is on the bank of the Mersey, near the landing stage, all of the Liverpool bath and wash houses are situated in the interior of the town, and for the most part in densely populated districts. According to the original baths and washhouses act of 1846 the municipal corporation o f any borough might adopt that act for the pur pose of raising money for the erection and maintenance of baths and washhouses. The act of 1846 was amended by acts passed in 1847 and 1878. By virtue of the public health act of 1875 the baths and washhouses acts might be adopted by the urban sanitary authority of any district in which they were not already in force. As a matter o f fact, where they are in force, in places outside the metropolitan district of London, they are usually administered by borough or other urban sanitary authorities. These acts might, however, prior to the passing of the local government act of 1894, be also adopted by the vestries of parishes under the terms of the original act, and where this was done the vestry were required to appoint not less than three, nor more than seven, persons to act as commissioners for putting the acts into execu tion. Under this provision the commissioners of baths and washhouses had been appointed prior to March 25,1894, for thirty parishes, all of which, with one exception, are within the metropolitan districtof London. So far as can be learned, no complete census of public baths and 696—Ho. 11----- 4 438 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. washhouses for the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or even for England and Wales, has been published within recent years; but an approximate idea as to the number of boroughs and parishes which maintain baths and washhouses, or open bathing places, may be gained from a study o f the reports of the local government board. The follow ing statements concerning the number of bathing places, washhouses, etc., and their receipts and expenditures for the year 1893-94, are derived from the latest publications of the local government board bearing upon the subject, namely, the twenty-fifth annual report of the local government board, 1895-96, and the annual local taxation returns for the year 1893-94, Part III. The reports in question contain no data as to the number and character of the baths taken.. It would appear that in 1893-94 baths of some sort were maintained at public expense by at least 191 municipal boards or parishes in Eng land and Wales. The net receipts of these boards amounted to £424,227 ($2,064,500), of which the amount o f £227,520 ($1,107,226) was received from bathers and washers and from the rates, etc., the residue being derived from loans. The expenditures of the same boards amounted to £377,444 ($1,836,831) (a), less than half of which was out of loans raised for purposes of building or repairs. The outstanding loans for baths and washhouses at the end of the year 1893-94 in England and Wales amounted to £1,294,015 ($6,297,324) (b ). O f the 191 boards mentioned above, 53 were classed as town coun cils of county boroughs acting as urban sanitary authorities; 74 as town councils of municipal boroughs acting as urban sanitary authori ties; 34 as urban sanitary authorities other than town councils, and 30 as commissioners of baths and washhouses. It should be noted that the total number of bath houses and open bathing places must exceed the number of boards given above, for the reason that not a few municipal corporations maintain several baths or washhouses within their limits. Liverpool and Manchester, for instance, have each nine establishments o f one kind or another. In a report made to the Lon don school board in 1890 the number of public swimming baths is given as 41 in 19 establishments, and 25 private establishments with 36 baths are referred to. The following English towns expended upward o f £1,000 ($4,867) each for public bathing places in the year 1893-94: Bath, Birmingham, Blackburn, Bradford, Brighton, Bristol, Bootle, Burnley, Coventry, Croydon, Derby, Ealing, Gloucester, Halifax, Hanley, Harrogate, Hud dersfield, Kingston-upon-Hull, Leicester, Liverpool, Manchester, New castle-upon-Tyne, Newport, Nottingham, Oldham, Rochdale, Salford, Sheffield, Stockport, and Sunderland. a From the twenty-fifth annual report o f the local government hoard; the annual local taxation returns for the year 1893-94, Part III, gives the amount as £404,575 ($1,968,864). The explanation of the difference is not known. b From the twenty-fifth annual report o f the local government hoard; the annual local taxation returns for the year 1893-94, Part III, gives the amount as £1,273,183 ($6,195,945). The explanation o f the difference is not known. PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 439 According to a German report, printed in 1880, there were in 1845 twenty-one towns, besides London and Liverpool, in Great Britain and two in Ireland which had one or more public bath houses. Twenty-four parishes in London spent upward of £1,000 ($4,867) each, not derived from loans, during the year 1893-94. Of the 30 towns mentioned above, Bath, Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester, and New castle-upon-Tyne each expended upward of £5,000 ($24,333) for the purposes mentioned; and in each of 8 London parishes the expendi tures for baths and washhouses, outside of expenditures from loans, exceeded £5,000 ($24,333) in 1893-94. The parish of Islington, for instance, expended more than £15,000 ($72,998), while the parish of St. George, Hanover Square, expended upward of £13,000 ($63,265). Baths and washhouses are also maintained at public expense by the leading municipalities of Ireland and Scotland. Dublin has one public bath and wash house, and Belfast has at least three. The Corporation Bath and Washhouse, Tara street, Dub lin, was erected in 1885 and 1886. Its cost was £13,000 ($63,265), in round numbers. Ifc comiwises 2 swimming pools and 37 private bath rooms containing iron tubs. Two of the tub baths have shower baths attached. The washhouse contains 20 washing stalls. In the year ending December 31,1894, the total number of private tub baths taken at the Tara street establishment was 51,407, of which 42,664 were taken by males and 8,743 by females, the receipts being £647 ($3,149) from males and £79 ($384) from females. The swimmers, all males, numbered 39,740 during the season (April 1 to October 3,1894) and yielded receipts amounting to £324 ($1,577). The receipts from 17,344 washers and manglers who resorted to the washhouse during the year amounted to £142 ($691). The total expenditures for the year were £1,914 ($9,314), or £715 ($3,480) more than the total income. Six hundred and thirty-six pounds ($3,095) was paid for salaries and wages. Sir Charles Cameron, the medical officer of health of Dublin, in his report for 1894 notes what appears to be a general rule, that where public baths are open throughout the year the number of all classes of bathers is greatest during the warmest months. This suggests that public baths are resorted to quite as much for the sake of refreshment as for cleansing purposes. Note is also made of the reassuring fact that although u 138,574 poor women have used the washhouse (1885-1894), yet not one case of disease being spread by it has as yet been traced.” In the period from 1878 to 1891 the Corporation of Glasgow built five establishments containing swimming pools, hot tub baths, and wash houses, at a total capital outlay of £123,462 ($600,828). Glasgow’s population in 1891 numbered 565,714. In the period from 1882 to 1891 the deficit provided from assessments in the case of the five establish ments mentioned amounted to £30,751 ($149,650). In the year 1890-91 the number of bathers using the Glasgow establishments was 453,718. The number o f washings done was 155,221. The Glasgow washhouses 440 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. no longer take in washing for private persons, as was their custom till recently. The receipts for the year amounted to £9,111 ($44,339) and the expenditures to £11,992 ($58,359). In Glasgow, as practically every where, the returns show that public bath houses are much more used by males than females. For instance, in the year 1891-92 the number of tickets issued in the ten public swimming pools o f Glasgow was for males 366,303 and for females 16,408, or a total o f 382,711, while in the same year o f the total o f 131,009 hot baths 119,038 were taken by males and only 11,971 by females. In Glasgow, as in Liverpool and Man chester, the public baths are under the control o f a baths committee of the council. In Liverpool, in 1891, out of a total of 457,320 bathers 436,866 were males and 20,454 were females. In Berlin, out of 727,659 persons resorting to the city public baths in 1891, 510,900 were males and 216,759 were females, while in Vienna, in the same year, there were 283,755 males and 73,715 females who made use of the public baths. Apparently women are not yet ready to demand equality with men in respect to bathing facilities. The disinclination of women to avail them selves o f public baths as generally as men is hardly to be explained by their shrinking from publicity or by the possession of long hair. Glasgow contains, besides the five bath establishments already mentioned, 5 club baths belonging to private companies, namely, the Victoria, the Western, the Arlington, the Dennistoun, and Pollokshields. Each contains a swimming bath. The total number o f swim ming baths in Glasgow, including those belonging to the corporation bath houses, is 15. The writer knows of no other city having so many club baths as Glasgow. The Victoria Bath, opened in 1877, cost £13,800 ($67,158). It con tains a swimming pool 75 by 36 feet, a Turkish bath, Bussian and steam baths, private baths, and various shower baths; also a gymnasium, and smoking, reading, and billiard rooms. The Western Bath, established by the Arlington Club, was opened in 1871. It belongs to the Glasgow Swimming Bath Company, and cost £9,000 ($43,799) in round numbers. It is furnished with a swim ming bath, used summer and winter, and with a variety of baths, including tub, Roman, and steam baths. The Dennistoun Baths, established about1883, with a capital of £6,000 ($29,199), contain swimming baths, private baths, douche baths, and Turkish baths; and, as in the Victoria Bath, a gymnasium and various club rooms are provided. The city of Manchester, with an estimated population of 524,000 in 1895, maintains at present 9 public bath houses, erected in the period from 1856 to 1896. These establishments comprise 21 swimming pools, 375 private bathrooms with tubs, 11 pan baths, and 2 Turkish baths. The total number o f bathers for the year ending March, 1896, was 789,616. The total receipts for the same period amounted to £6,730 ($32,752). CHEETHAM PUBLIC BATHS AND HALL, MANCHESTER, ENGLAND. P lan N o. 1 a . CHEETHAM PUBLIC BATHS AND HALL, MANCHESTER, ENGLAND. P lan N o . 1 b . PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 441 The quantity of water used was 106,500,000 gallons. Manchester main tains no public washhouses. It has a large and fine open-air bath for boys in one o f its parks. The Whitworth Baths, which cost £16,500 ($80,297), and which were opened in July, 1890, were given to the city of Manchester by the heirs of the late Sir Joseph Whitworth. They comprise 2 swim ming baths, 30 tub baths, and also Turkish baths. They were used by 68,775 bathers in 1895-90, the receipts for the year being £627 ($3,051). The Cheetham Baths, Manchester (plans Nos. 1A and IB), afford a good example of the modern type of British bath houses. The building, which was opened in April, 1894, cost £13,000 ($63,265). The first-class swimming bath has a water area of 50 by 27 feet, and the secondclass bath one of 75 by 24 feet. The latter is surrounded by a balcony for the accommodation of spectators on the occasion of swimming fetes. The pavilion in which it is situated is so arranged as to be capable of being used as a gymnasium in the winter months. The first-class swimming bath is so planned that it can be used by women on such days as may be set apart for that purpose, and a special dressing room has been provided for their accommodation. There are twenty tub baths and three waiting rooms, and these are classified as women’s and men’s first and second class. There is a commodious residence for the superintendent over the ticket office and entrances to the baths, and in connection with this there is a handsome clock tower. The public hall on the ground floor is practically a separate building, designed to be used for lectures, public meetings, etc. The principal room has a clear floor area o f 64 by 42 feet, and there is a gallery in addition. There are also five retiring and cloak rooms, with lava tories attached, a refreshment room, serving room, and cellar kitchen. The most common type of public bathing establishments in Great Britain is the swimming bath, with private rooms in addition fitted with tubs and fixtures to afford hot or cold baths at the choice of the bather. In London most of the establishments have washhouses attached. In Glasgow, as we have seen, all the establishments are combined bath and wash houses, while in certain places, as in Man chester, public washhouses have gone out of fashion. In Great Britain the characteristic public bath is of monumental character, being large, handsome, and costly. The distinctive features of the type have undergone little change or development since the establish ment o f the St. George’s Baths at Pier Head, in Liverpool, in 1828. As a rule, the first-class private baths in British establishments contain a shower fixture in connection with the tub; but shower bathrooms and the arrangement known as the rain bath on the Continent and in this country are comparatively rare. It is impossible to state accurately the total amount expended on the erection o f public baths in Great Britain or even in England during the last forty or even the last twenty years. It would appear that London and Liverpool alone spent some £130,000 ($632,645) prior to 1854. 442 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. Inasmuch as the loans sanctioned by the local government board for baths and washhouses amounted within the last dozen years to upward o f a million and a half pounds sterling ($7?299?750) for England and Wales, and from the fact that at the close o f the year 1893-94 the out standing loans raised for that purpose amounted to $6,297,324, it is sufficiently clear that the expenditure for these purposes has been and continues to be a generous one. The following tables, compiled from official sources, furnish a some what detailed view of the financial transactions of local authorities in England and Wales during the five years ending 1893-94: F IN A N C IA L OPERATIONS OF LOCAL A U TH O R ITIE S IN ENGLAND A N D W A L E S IN RESPECT TO BATHS, WASHHOUSES, A N D OPEN B A TH IN G PLACES, 1889-00 TO 1893-94. Tear. Net re Expendi tures ceipts (not from (notout o f loans). loans). Loans raised. 1889-90 ................................................................. 1890 91 ................................................................. 1891 92 ................................................................. 1892-93 ................................................................. 1893-94 ................................................................. $713,020 $696,824 779,823 756,887 806, 832 812, 866 932,431 1,021, 206 1,107,226 al, 035,747 $211,707 541,705 678,361 605,894 957, 274 $342,013 457,870 683,446 737,576 aSOl, 084 2,994,941 3,021,989 Total........................................................... 4,339,332 4,323,530 Expendi Loans tures (out outstand of loans). ing. $4,221,217 4,624, 674 5,134,415 5, 580,182 66,297,324 A G G R E G A TE F IN A N C IA L OPERATIONS OF LOCAL AU TH O R ITIE S IN ENGLAND A N D W A L E S IN RESPECT TO BATHS, HOSPITALS, ETC., 1889-90 TO 1893-94. Institutions. .Expendi Expendi tures (out (not out o f tures o f loans). loans). Baths, washhouses, e t c ....... ............................. ........... $4,323, 530 Parks, open spaces, etc.................................................... 7,557,348 H ospitals............................... ............ ............................ 6,371,319 P u b lic lib r a r ie s and museums______________________ 6,193, 084 T o ta l...................................................................... 24,445, 281 Loans raised. Loans out standing at end o f 1893-94. $3,021,989 9,256,010 2,720,344 1,550,934 $2,994,941 8,700,489 1,940,541 1,648,980 6$6,297, 324 22, 962,439 4,558, 864 3,428,357 16, 549, 277 15,284,951 37, 246,984 a From the twenty-fifth annual report o f tho local government hoard; the annual local taxation returns for the year 1893-94, Part III, gives the sum o f the expenditures not out o f loans and expendi tures out o f loans as £404,575 ($1,968,864). The explanation o f the difference is not known. 6 B'rom the twenty-fifth annual report o f the local government board; the annual local taxation returns for the year 1893-94, Part III, gives the amount as £1,273,183 ($6,195,945). The explanation of the difference is not known. The cost of individual establishments varies greatly in different cities and in the same city. O f the 5 Glasgow establishments, for instance, the least expensive cost £17,000 ($82,731) and the most expensive £34,000 ($165,461). Leicester has a bath house, opened in 1891, which contains 2 swimming pools and 38 tub baths, that cost £10,500 ($72,998). The bath at Batley, also those at Bacup, cost about £10,000 ($48,665). Halifax has a swimming bath 75 by 36 feet, in a building 90 by 54 feet, that cost £7,000 ($34,066) in 1895 5 and Leeds has recently erected 2 well-planned bath houses of moderate size at a cost of £ 8,000 ($38,932) each, exclusive o f site. But on the whole, the tendency in recent years has been toward greater expendi tures, at least in the larger cities of England. This is especially the MILTON PLACE Ground floor. r o m a n road PUBLIC BATHS AND WASHHOUSES, ST. MARY STRATFORD BOW, LONDON, ENGLAND. P lan N o . 2 B. 443 PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. case in London. Thus the Caledonian Road baths, erected by the parish of St. Mary’s, Islington, in 1892, cost £27,000 ($131,396), includ ing £7,615 ($37,058) for site, and the Hornsey Road baths, erected by the same parish in the same year, cost over £36,000 ($175,194), includ ing £2,189 ($10,653) for site. The last-mentioned establishment com prises one first-class swimming bath 132 by 40 feet, with 140 dressing cabins,* a second-class swimming bath 100 by 35 feet, with 71 dressing cabins,* one women’s swimming bath 75 by 25 feet; 108 private bath rooms, and a public washhouse with accommodations for 49 washers. Probably the most expensive bathing establishment in London is that built by the parish of St. George, Hanover Square, in Buckingham Palace Road, Westminster. It cost £45,238 ($220,151). RECEIPTS, EXPENDITURES, AND LOAN TRANSACTIONS OF COMMISSIONERS OF P A TH S AN D WASHHOUSES IN LONDON, 1890 TO 1894. i Items. | 1890. 25 ; ' 24 Parishes............................ Receipts, not from loans: | Poor rates................................. $112, 080 149, 728 Bath tick ets............................. 56, 680 Lanmlry tick e ts...................... 5,110 Sale o f soap, soda, etc.............. 6, 745 Rents......................................... 1, 732 Other recoij>ts.......................... T o ta l......................................1! 1892. 1891. 26 | 1894. 1 28 Total. 30 $167, 310 161, 398 55, 551 5,426 4,784 39, 618 $223, 290 181,302 60, 831 5, 869 4, 336 4, 983 $281, 04-5 234, 871 61, 985 6, 565 7, 071 24, 649 $936,012 884, 910 293,421 28, 391 29, 204 73, 395 434,087 480, 611 616,186 2,245, 333 17, 349 27,467 59, 260 8,458 30, 289 66,437 49, 507 92,303 15, 996 53 1,669 6, 876 46, 514 59, 274 7, 918 30,109 84, 726 59, 634 94, 250 15, 578 6,643 2, 594 78, 098 32.742 62, 291 14,599 36,134 96,167 71, 445 114, 246 26,342 2,462 6,278 53, 867 46, 212 71,182 14, 828 47,492 109,170 79, 300 135,226 27, 817 1,285 8, 390 156, 925 175,598 301, 407 54,164 171,019 418,830 305,003 521,509 101, 248 10, 735 20, 984 $152,287 157, 611 58, 374 5,421 6,268 2,413 332,075 1893. 382, 374 ; 1 Expenditures, not out of loans: Buildings.................................. Maintenance and repairs....... Coke and gas ........................... Towels, soap, and soda............ ■Water....................................... Loans re p a id ............................ Interest on lo a n s..................... Salaries and w a g e s................. Establishment charges............ Legal expenses........................ Other paym ents...................... 735 22,C63 49,400 8,361 26,995 62,330 45,117 85, 475 15,515 292 2, 053 T o ta l...................................... 318, 936 368,788 414,125 540,804 594, 769 2, 237, 422 43, 799 Loans raised.................................... 176,065 Expenditures, out of loans............ Loans outstanding at end o f year . 1, 292, 873 337,735 189,487 1, 564,166 480,810 440,915 1, 960, 241 263, 278 480, 007 2,127, 473 470, 347 315,987 2, 488,300 1, 595, 9G9 1, 602,461 A deputation of the baths committee of tlie Corporation of Liver pool, which recently visited a considerable number of bathing estab lishments in London and other parts of England, has expressed the unanimous opinion that the Roman Road baths, erected by the vestry of St. Mary Stratford Bow, in the east of London, in 1892, at a cost of £42,000 ($204,393) are “ on the whole the best public baths they have seen, the design, fittings, valves, materials, and workmanship being the very best that could be produced without extravagance.” These baths (plans Kos. 2A and 2B) include a first-class swimming bath 90 by 30 feet, with 52 dressing cabins; a second-class swimming bath 86 by 30 feet, with 71 dressing cabins; one vapor bath, and a public washhouse for 40 persons. The administrative section of the building contains a superintendent’s residence, as is commonly the case in the larger British establishments, and also a board room for the 444 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. commissioners. The sides of the swimming baths are lined with white tiles and the bottom with white glazed bricks laid flat. The partitions between the private bathrooms are of enameled slate, the enamel being of a light-green tint. They have polished gun-metal hinges and trim mings. The bath tubs are o f porcelain, with wooden tops and slate risers. The service valves for the bath tubs are under the control of the attendant in the corridor and not of the bather. The floors o f the bathing establishment are of granolithic, except in the corridors and private bathrooms, where they are o f wooden blocks. A ll the baths are on the ground floor. The inside walls of the bathing halls are faced with white glazed brick. For the sake of comparison, the lists of charges in the public baths of Glasgow and Manchester and of the Eoman Road bath and wash house in the parish of St. Mary Stratford Bow, London, are given below: GLASGOW. Charges for swimming ponds: Males and females............................................................................................ $0.04 Boys and girls under 13 years................................................................................. 02 Boys and girls, 12 admissions................................................................................. 183 Females, 12 admissions............................................................................................ 363Tickets, bought in quantities, admit boys to 17 years o f age and girls, who are members o f Boys' Brigades, Foundry Boys' Society, Sunday schools, etc., each admission...........................................- ................................ 02 Season tickets— Males, 6 months, April 1 to September 30................................................ 2.433 Males, 12 months, January 1 to December 31......................................... 3.04 Females, 6 months, April 1 to September 30................................................. 73 Females, 9 months, March 1 to November 30................................................ 973Clubs of 40, between 9 and 10 p. m.— Large pond, one night weekly.................................................................. 1.623Each additional bather....................................................................................02 Clubs o f 24: Small pond, one night weekly.........: ............................................................. 973 Each additional b a th er............................................................... Private hot baths: Males, first-class............................................................................... Males, second-class.......................................................................... ...................... 08 Males, 12 admissions, first-class....................................................................... 1.093 Males, 12 admissions, second-class.........................................................................73 Females..................................................................................................................... 06 Females, 12 admissions............................................................................................ 543 Women who bring their clothes and wash them on the premises are charged 4 cents per hour for the use o f a stall, wringing and drying appliances, as well as hot and cold water. They are also charged 1 cent for the use o f a washing board. In Glasgow it appears that the weather does not materially affect the patronage of the washhouse department, but the attendance of the bath ers is great or small according to the temperature of the outside air. For instance, in 1891 the weekly receipts from the swimming ponds in June, when the temperature averaged 70° F., were £135 ($657), and in November, when it averaged 47° F., the receipts were only £13 ($63). 02 PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 445 MANCHESTER. The Manchester Corporation Public Baths are open daily from April 1 to September 30, from 6 a. m. to 9 p. m.; during the month of Octo ber from 7 a. m. to 8 p. m.; from November 1 to March 30, from 8 a. m. to 7.30 p. m .; on Sundays, April 5 to September 27, from 6 to 9.30 a. m. A t all baths except the Bed Bank baths prices in 1896 were as follows: First-class plunge.................................................................................................... $0.08 Second-class plunge, except Wednesdays....................................................................04 Second-class plunge, Wednesdays................................................................................02 Special warm bath...........................................................................................................16 First-class warm b a t h ................................................................................................... 08 Second-class warm bath, except Wednesdays.............................................................04 Second-class warm bath, Wednesdays......................................................................... 02 Turkish bath s............................................................................................. $0.24£ to . 36£ Vapor baths........................................................................................................12 to . 24£ Persons between 12 and 15 years o f age: First-class plunge..................................................................................................... 04 Second-class plunge, only available up to 2 p. m. each week day................... 02 Special terms for scholars. The swimming baths are reserved on certain days for women’s use, in some cases at reduced rates. Prices for Bed Bank baths were: Men’s swimming bath............................................................................................... $0.04 Boys’ swimming b a th .......................................................................................................02 Men’s and women’s warm b a th ....................................................................................... 04 Men’s and women’s warm pan bath (a form o f shower bath)......................................02 Half prices at Red Bank baths on Wednesdays and Fridays only. On Thursdays the men’s swimming bath o f this establishment is open to women and girls only. LONDON. A t the Boman Boad baths of St. Mary Stratford Bow, London, the charges are as follows: First-class swimming b a th ..................................................................................... $0.12 .04 Second-class swimming bath..................................................... - ............................ .12 First-class private baths for men, warm.............................................................. .06 First-class private baths for men, cold.................................................................. .04 Second-class private baths for men, warm............................................................ .02 Second class private baths for men, cold.............................................................. .97* First-class swimming or j>rivate baths, 12 admissions,....................................... Washers, for the use of stall, drying room, and a plentiful supply o f hot and cold water, per hour............................................................................................. .03 The charges are the same for women. First-class bathers are allowed two towels; second-class bathers, one. The first-class swimming bath is reserved for women on Thursdays from 10 a. m. to 6 p. m., and lessons in swimming are given by a teacher at moderate charge. The public laundry has 40 washing troughs and 40 drying horses, together with steam-driven wringers and mangles, ironing stoves, tables, and other conveniences. It is rather remarkable that so little has been accomplished in Great Britain in the way of developing shower-bath facilities in public 446 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. batlis. Even where it is the rule that bathers must take a more or less complete preliminary cleansing bath before entering the swim ming pool, rain or shower baths are seldom provided. In the Red Bank baths of Manchester, opened in March, 1896, 11 pan baths, so called, have been placed. These constitute a new depar ture in British public bath houses, being in reality shower or spray baths. They are modeled after a bath constructed in connection with iron works at Bennington, near Newport, Shropshire, in 1888 or 18S9, by Mr. Charles Clement Walker, for the benefit of the workmen connected with the works in question. Mr. Walker’s bath house con tained, in addition to one ordinary tub bathroom, six chambers, each 8 feet long by 4 feet wide, in which were placed circular cast-iron pans, 2 feet 6 inches in diameter and 8£ inches deep, the pans being set 5 inches above the floor. Over the center of each bath pan a rose nozzle, worked by chains, was placed, the nozzle being fed by hot and cold water pipes so fitted that the bather could roughly regulate the tem perature of the spray at will. The heating of the water was effected by conducting steam—usually waste steam—through pipes placed in a cistern containing water. Tbe entire cost of constructing the Donnington workmen’s bath was £ 2 2 0 ($1,071). In 1879 Mr. Yacher, medical officer of health for Birkenhead, urged the construction of small and inexpensive bath houses, with the idea o f having them multiplied so as to reach many groups of jieople in crowded towns, but the suggested form of bath house was essentially a miniature edition of the large and costly bath houses which he criticised; that is to say, he advocated (a) bath houses which should contain plunge baths and bathrooms provided with tubs, or, to use the English term, warm slipper baths; but concerning separate shower baths, as such, nothing was said. The following extracts from Mr. Yacher’s pamphlet, alluded to above? are introduced because o f their bearing upon the question of simple versus monumental public baths: Now that a bath is a necessary part of every well-appointed house, and most o f the large centers of population are provided at the public cost with great stone bath houses that might be mistaken for fine art galleries, it is difficult to form any conception of a state of society when baths were rarely used, except as remedial agents, and then not very highly esteemed. I should hesitate to say that the desire for bathing is always an acquired one, but it is certain that till people have made some progress in sanitary education the desire, if it exists, produces no appreciable results. The upper and middle classes for generations were without the means of bathing, and did not miss what they had not learned to want; it is only reasonable, therefore, to conclude that as long as any considerable portion of the lower classes areleft without the means of bathing they will not feel the want o f it. The upper and middle classes have had to be educated up to a bathing point—that is, till a healthy desire for bathing was awakened, and this they were able a Public Baths and Cheap Baths for the People. London, 1879. PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 447 to gratify. For the lower classes it is not enough to educate them till such a desire is aroused; the means of gratifying it must he provided for them. In truth, it is impossible to prove to individuals of this class that they want baths by mere process of reasoning. W e must bring the baths to their doors and induce them to bathe and experience the comfort of clean skins. Now, this is what the framers of the act (9 and 10 Viet., c. 74) under which boroughs, cities, ports, towns, etc., are em powered to erect public baths sought to promote—the creation of a healthy appetite for bathing among those in whom it was absent. “ Whereas it is desirable,” the act opens, “ for the health, comfort, and welfare of the inhabitants of towns and populous districts to encourage the establishment therein of public baths and washhouses, and open bathing places, be it enacted,” etc. Again, clause 36 runs, “ And be it enacted, that the number of baths for the laboring classes in any build ing or buildings under the management of the same council or com missioners (i. e., commissioners appointed in accordance with this act) shall not be less than twice the number of the baths of any higher class, if but one, or o f all the baths of any higher classes, if more than one, in the same building or buildings.” Virtually it says: Baths are for the public benefit; they may, there fore, be constructed out of public money. Erect extensive buildings if you can afford it, with ample accommodation for two or three classes, if you think the locality requires it, but do not forget laborers and their wives.and families have the prior claim on your attention; at any rate, let there be good, cheap baths for them. And to secure to such the full benefit o f the contemplated institutions the following scale of charges appears in a schedule: “ Maximum charges during the first seven years after the establish ments are opened for public use, and after such seven years, except only so long after such seven years as higher charges may be neces sary for defraying the current expenses of the establishments: “ Baths for the laboring classes, supplied with clean water for every bather, or for several children bathing together: “ For one person above 8 years old, including the use of one clean towel: Cold bath, 1 penny (2 cents); warm bath, 2 pence (4 cents). “ For several children, not exceeding four, including the use of one clean towel for every child: Gold bath, 2 pence (4 cents); warm bath, 4 pence (8 cents). “ Open bathing places where several persons bathe in the same water, for one person 1 halfpenny (1 cent).” How have the provisions of this most estimable act of Parliament been carried out? In many towns absolutely nothing has been done. They, by their councils, with whom the decision rests, have not seen fit to determine that the act shall be adopted. In others the obvious aim of the legislature in passing the measure seems to have been disregarded. Huge handsome edifices with turrets and wings and plate-glass win dows and carved stone dressings vie with one another which shall provide the amplest accommodation for all classes, which shall exhibit the most striking fagade to admiring town councilors. Such magnifi cent piles would be quite lost in out-of-the-way neighborhoods sur rounded by the squalid dwellings of the poor. So the adoption of a costly design has, in many cases, involved the purchase of a costly site, and the grand building has found a place among other grand buildings in a wide and fashionable street. It is for all clashes. The special wants of any particular class are not unduly considered, but when the erection of public baths in a town is being discussed there is always 448 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. someone to point out that it would be gross neglect to fail to meet the requirements of the upper classes, who, as large rate payers, are entitled to at least an equal consideration with others. Briefly, then, my complaint is this: The enabling powers granted by the act just quoted from authorized local authorities to provide a serviceable sanitary appliance mainly for those who had not such an appliance before, yet in probably not less than nine out of every ten towns where these enabling iiowers have been used they have been made to sanction an outlay mainly for supplying the appliance to those who already have the thing supplied at their own homes. In other towns—there are many such (towns with populations ranging from 20,000 to 50,000 and upward)—no steps at all have been taken, to give effect to the provisions of the act. * # * # # * * I have nothing to urge against the erection of handsome bath houses pleasing to the eye externally and replete with all modern appliances for luxurious bathing within. On the contrary, I regard the increase of such institutions in the great towns o f the Kingdom as one o f the most hopeful signs of our times. My contention is merely that work of this sort was not intended to be encouraged by the public-baths act, and should be paid for always, as it often is, with private capital. Baths erected out o f public money should be for the poor, among the poor, and in the form of what I may style cottage bath houses. Since 1879, when Mr. Yacher wrote, public baths have greatly increased in number, but the policy urged by him o f constructing bath houses at a cost o f from £300 to £2,500 ($1,460 to $12,166) has made very little headway in England. As we shall see later on, the general policy advocated by Mr. Yacher has been widely adopted during the last ten years in Germany, where baths of the monumental type are also fairly common. Mr. Robert Owen Allsop, an architect, is the author of the most recent English work on the subject of public baths that has come to the writ er’s notice. The work, which is entitled Public Baths and Wash houses, deals chiefly with questions relating to the best manner of planning, constructing, and managing such establishments. English readers interested in the subject will find it helpful and suggestive. To readers of German, OsthofFs Die Bader und Bade-Anstalten der Neuzeit, published in Leipsic in 1887, may be recommended. Osthoff treats his subject more comprehensively than does Allsop, and gives very many more plans, not only of Continental but even of British bath houses. Mr. Allsop, who advocates the introduction of hot-air baths and douche or shower rooms into public baths, makes some pertinent criti cisms on the conventional arrangements of British bath houses. He says: The object of the public baths and washhouses act is to promote health among the people by means of cleanliness. The most effective means should therefore be employed. As at present arranged, the value of the several baths as cleansing agents included under the act 449 PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. may be stated as follows: Yapor bath, warm slipper bath,(a) warm shower bath, cold slipper bath, swimming bath, and cold shower bath. The warm slipper bath is the most generally useful o f this list, the vapor bath being little used, unappreciated, and apparently unpopular. People who use the cold slipper bath for cleansing purposes—as dis tinct from a refreshing tonic, as in hot weather—can really get very little cleansing. The cleansing value of such baths and the swimming bath and shower bath, is to be found not so much in the immersion in the water as in the subsequent vigorous toweling. # # # # # # # Practically the only cleansing baths in the schedule of the baths and washhouses act are the warm slipper baths. The swimming bath is a species of gymnastic exercise with a certain slight cleansing power. It would be much more reasonable to say of the swimming bath that it is a mere luxury, and that cleansing of the body could be far better accomplished by ordinary warm baths, than to cast reflection on the hot air baths. # # # # # # # From a financial point of view the swimming bath is found to be a gratifying success, and it is therefore impossible and undesirable to unfavorably criticise it on the score of its small value as a cleansing bath. # # * Unfortunately, the attendance at swimming baths falls off regularly at all establishments toward the winter months. * * * For this reason most of the London establishments close their swim ming baths at the end of October, or thereabouts—or, at least, they close the larger baths, and use throughout the winter months only one o f the smaller swimming basins. # # # # # # # Altogether the arrangements for any baths, except swimming and slipper baths, hitherto made in our public bathing establishments are of a rough-and-ready description. Fine swimming baths are provided, and the slipper-bath establishments are usually complete; but .should the bather have a mind for a vapor bath or a hot or cold shower, the only preparations made—and that only in a few out of the many bath houses—are of the most meager description. There is the shower, truly, but it is only a rose inconveniently placed above the slipper bath; and here, perhaps, is the vapor box, but so cramped in the nar row space of an ordinary slipper-bath room that it can not be effect ively worked. All points to the need for a proper douche room in the public bath house—a chamber where the vapor box may be placed and good shower baths fixed. # # * # # # # In most first-class baths a cold shower bath is required for the use of swimmers. A warm, or hot one, would be more reasonable, seeing that the majority of bathers unadvisedly prolong their stay in the wrater until they are blue with cold. In many of the newer English baths the so-called foot baths have been introduced, in whic h the bather, particularly if he is a patron of a second-class bath, is required to wash himself before entering the swim ming pool. a Slipper bath, i. e tub bath. 450 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. But shower baths of any description outside of the slipper-bath rooms are comparatively rare. English usage in this respect is in striking contrast to that of most continental public bath houses, as has already been noted. Mr. Allsop presents a plan (a) for supplying cheap warm baths at a penny (2 cents) each. The plan corresponds in a general way with that of the Lassar* Grove type o f people’s bath, which has become very common in Germany in the last dozen years and which will be con sidered further on. Touching certain structural details, Allsop’s plan illustrates the indubitable fact that German shower-bath devices are technically superior to the British, or to those generally in use in America, for that matter. The writer’s study of bath houses and of the literature relating to them has convinced him that European experience emphatically teaches the imj>olicy of lavish outlay o f public money on imposing buildings occupying costly sites. Baths for the people should be centrally located in populous districts, where they are easily accessible. Numerous relatively small and comparatively inexpensive self-contained bath houses are vastly more desirable and useful than are structures of the costly monumental type for which architects and municipal councilors have too often shown so marked a predilection. Moreover, the writer has found that these opinions are held by the more intelli gent and experienced of the officials who are charged with the practical care and oversight of public baths, both in Great Britain and on the Continent. The report of Mr. William Thomson, general superintendent of the Glasgow Corporation Baths and Washhouses, printed in 1892, sup ports the thesis that, “ in order to obtain results in keeping with the sanitary aims of the department, experience suggests that baths and washhouses (but not swimming ponds) require to be close to the houses of the people, and that we therefore need a large number of additional but small establishments, each having perfect washing and drying appliances, as well as a few hot baths.” The following extracts from Mr. Thomson’s report seem appropriate and instructive m this connection: Experience proves that a supply of public facilities for washing clothes creates a demand even in localities where every tenement has its own washhouse and drying court. # # # # # # # * * * Women prefer to carry their washings some distance to properly equipped places—where they can at once tackle to without waiting—rather than do the work in a private washhouse, where they have to wait on the boiling of the water; where there maybe no tubs; where the coal they burn costs almost as much as all the conveniences at a public establishment; where it may be draughty and dingy, and where they can not always get their small washings dried without a Public Baths and Washhouses, page 86. 451 PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. using their kitchens as drying stoves, and forcing their husbands and sons to dislike their own homes. The artificial drying apparatus in our establishments is a standing attraction at all seasons 5 and the hot water and everything else being always ready, women can go at any hour or day that suits them best, instead o f waiting from a fortnight to five weeks till their fixed day for their own washhouse arrives. # * * * # # # One important fact regarding our present facilities for washing clothes is that they are taken advantage of by no more than about 3,000 fam ilies. The names and addresses were taken of all the women who used the five public washhouses during a month. # * * A t the end of the month it was found that all who used the establishments had given their addresses during one of the preceding days. In this way the total number o f regular attenders at each washhouse was found to be as follows, viz: Greenhead, 370,* Woodside, 791; Cranstonhill, 796; Townhead, 494; Gorbals, 546; total, 2,997. These 2,997 persons throughout the year ending May, 1891, washed 155,221 times, or each on an average of about once every week. For the use o f the washhouses for that year the 2,997 women paid £2,483 8s. 4d. ($12,085.55). This is equal to about 16s. 6d. ($4.01) per woman per annum, less than 4 pence (8 cents) each per week, and two hours per woman per week. The present total number o f washing stalls in Glasgow is 316, so that each stall accommodates between nine and ten householders per week— between nine and ten of the 2,997 families mentioned. That from nine to ten women use each of our stalls weekly; that the poorest house holders prefer to pay 16s. 6d. a year for the use of perfect washhouses rather than use their own, or their dwelling houses as such, leads to the belief that the people but await facilities in order to bring about a realization of the aims of the baths and health committees. # # # # # * # The number of hot baths taken during the year ending May, 1892, was # # # males, 119,038; females, 11,971; total, 131,009. It is believed that the 131,009 hot baths were taken by only about 5,038 persons, for almost all those who took hot baths are well known to the attendants, who are of the opinion that each o f the 5,038 visited the baths on an average of about once every fortnight. It might be remarked that an indication of the good that would be derived from placing the hot baths close to the homes of the people is in the fact that only about 1,000 women (at one visit per month) used our hot baths in the year, as against ten times that number o f males. During the same year (1891-92) the numbers of tickets issued in con nection with the ten swimming ponds were, for males, 366,303, and for females 16,408, or a total of 382,711. But it is believed that those who use the swimming ponds enter about once every four days, so that they are maintained by probably no more than 4,303 persons. It may therefore be said that large establishments do not fulfill expec tations, inasmuch as the facilities created by an expenditure of £123,000 ($598,580) for ground, buildings, and plant seem to be taken advantage of by, we may say in round numbers, only 3,000 washers, 5,000 hot bathers, and 5,000 swimmers. The ideal position for a washhouse as well as for hot baths, to meet the requirements of a family or a number of families residing in a city, i$ probably that occupied by the existing back-court washhouse, and 45? BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. the proper kind of establishment should have as good a supply of hot as of cold water, boiling, hand-wringing, and drying facilities, and be always ready for use, as are our present public establishments. Against the proposal to have hot baths in connection with the wash house it may be argued that many householders who would use perfect washhouses if they had them are provided with baths in their own houses. That is true, but probably the great majority o f those so called baths are out o f use except for storing coal, soiled linen, and lumber. Most o f them are fitted with cold water only, and Glasgow corpora tion, at the old London Eoad Baths, proved that cold water with which to wash the body is not at all wanted by city people. A few private cold-water baths were fitted up at the establishments named and offered to the public at a very low charge, but they stood idle while the hot baths were busy. Again, in our present public baths we can give water at any desired temperature, but among tens of thousands taken it is questionable if one cold bath is asked for. # # * # # * # In order to acquire habits of cleanliness, the toiling housewife, the tired husband, sons, and daughters, and thoughtless children require not only the removal of every obstacle, but the introduction of facilities that will give encouragement. Such facilities would be washhouses in which to wash the clothes, and baths, or rooms with basins, in connec tion, with which to wash the body, forming small outhouses, always ready and easy of access as any other domestic convenience. In no other way than having these conveniences within easy reach of the householders does it seem possible to carry out the requirements of those acts o f Parliament which resulted from agitations extending over a long period, and pressure from the highest medical authorities, in times when sanitary systems were no further behind those of the pres ent day than present-day systems are behind perfection. * * # # * # # # # # Perfect self-contained establishments can be erected at a cost for each o f from about £300 ($1,460) upwards—the price depending upon the number of families each has to accommodate. A good and cheap experiment would be to equip one back court with “ alwaysready?? facilities for bathing and washing clothes. Statistics gathered from its working in a few months would enable the committee to decide as to whether a scheme on the same lines should be formulated for the greater part of the city. The annual expenditure connected with one establishment would be the interest on the small outlay, fuel (perhaps breeze), gas, and wages to one of the tenants for attendance (towels and soap being supplied by the bathers and washers them selves). Whatever this expenditure might amount to, it would proba bly be easily met at first by small charges. Bath houses on the Continent were at first pretty closely modeled on the British types which we have described, as the establishment of public bath houses, particularly in Germany, was due to the example set by Liverpool and London and other English towns between 1842 and 1850. In France, at any rate in Paris, bath houses of the British type are not very numerous, and have chiefly been erected within recent years; though it should be said that Metz, while still a French city, established two public washhouses and cleansing baths, whose net surplus in the period 1868-1885 amounted to over $40,000. Floating swimming baths in the Seine, belonging to private parties, PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 453 are fairly numerous in Paris. Latterly several bathing establish ments termed “ piscines” have been erected in different parts of the city at public expense. Their principal feature is the swimming pool, though shower baths both for the use of swimmers before they enter the water and for those who desire to take a cleanliness bath only, are provided in considerable numbers. The success of these piscines is likely to lead to their multiplication by the municipality in the near future. In 1893 about a quarter of a million bathers made use of three piscines. The city of Bordeaux erected a people’s shower bath with 12 cabins in 1893, at a cost of 14,000 francs ($2,702). The cost of a single bath is estimated at 15 centimes (3 cents). One o f the oldest of semipublic baths in Europe is the Diana Bath in Yienna, which was opened by a stock company in 1804. It was enlarged in 1842 by the addition of a swimming bath, capable of being used throughout the year. A similar establishment, also the property of a stock company, was erected in 1845, having a swimming bath 13 by 41 meters (42 feet 8 inches by 134 feet Ginches). Yienna is provided with an unusual number of commodious and elaborate bathing estab lishments belonging to private companies. As late as 1881, out of 16 such, only 4 had covered swimming pools. In 1876 the city o f Yienna erected at great expense a public bath house on the right bank of the Danube, containing five large swimming basins, besides private baths, supplied with water from the Danube by a special canal. This establishment, which can accommodate 1,270 bathers at a time, is valued as an asset worth 1,213,000 florins ($584,969). Since 1887 Yienna has established no less than ten people’s baths in different quarters of the city, and it is proposed to increase their num ber until every one of the nineteen wards of the city is provided with a people’s bath house, containing accommodations for both males and females. It is to be noted that these people’s bath houses in Yienna not only contain no jilunge baths whatever, large or small, but that they consist solely of shower baths which enable the bather to use hot or cold water at will. These baths are so popular and so useful that the authorities of Yienna do not propose in the people’s bath houses which remain to be built to add tub baths to the shower baths such as are now in use. The first public bath and wash house erected in Germany after the British model was opened in Hamburg in 1855. It was built by a stock company for the common good, at a cost of about $50,000. But the city gave the site and free water, on condition that on the extinction of the share capital by redemption the establishment should become the property o f the city. The establishment was provided with 32 washing stalls, 54 tub baths, and 2 rain baths, one for each sex, but it had no swimming bath. It proved a profitable venture. In 1875, for instance, its net surplus amounted to more than $7,000. It took the net surplus of but 25 years’ operation to redeem the share capital. 696—No. 11----- 5 454 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. A public bath and wash bouse, tbe property of a private company, was erected in 1855 in Berlin, at a cost of 209,000 marks ($49,742). It was enlarged in 1874-75, when a swimming basin was added at a cost of 300,000 marks ($71,400). It was patronized by 75,042 bathers in 1859 and by 118,123 in 1873. In 1874 it yielded a net surplus of 27,700 marks ($6,593). The Magdeburg bath and wash house was opened in 1860, and is the property of a company. It cost 383,000 marks ($91,154), the building alone costing 289,000 marks ($68,782). It contains a swimming bath. In Basel, in Switzerland, a bath and wash house was opened in 1866. Its total cost was 112,000 marks ($26,656). In the year 1878-79 the running expenses were 14,500 marks ($3,451) and the ordinary income 34,600 marks ($8,235). As a class, the German washhouses appear to have more than paid expenses, but the greater number of public bath houses are without washhouses. The writer recalls the name of but one German bath and wash house built since 1870, that at Augsburg. A public bathing establishment, the property of a company, was opened in 1867 in Hanover, at a cost of 225,000 marks ($53,550). The site was leased from the city for a nominal rent for 100 years. In the period from 1872 to 1877 the Hanover bath yielded annual dividends of from 4£ to 7 per cent. A t first it was furnished with a single swim ming pool for men ) later a women’s swimming bath, tub baths, BomanIrish bath, steam bath, and douches were added. This establishment has been characterized as the first in Germany “ that attempted to pro vide all kinds of baths for all classes of the population,” but it was not able to use its swimming bath in the winter. An era of bath building began in 1870, from which year the Diana in Leipsic dates. The City Yierordt-Bath in Carlsruhe, which cost 221,742 marks ($52,775) and is named for its donor, was opened in 1873. The Admiral’s Garden Bath, a joint stock enterprise, was opened in Berlin in 1874. In 1875 new swimming baths were built at Badenweiler, in the Black Forest, upon the remains of the Boman Thermae, discovered in 1774. The Grand Ducal Frederick Bath, one of the finest medical bath establishments in Europe, with a capital of 3,000,000 marks ($714,000), was opened at Baden-Baden in 1877. The publie batlis of Bremen date from 1877 and the city bath of Dortmund from 1878. The Bremen public baths were planned and constructed with so much regard to the requirements o f modern technological and sanitary •science that they have served as a model for the combined swimming and cleanliness type o f German bath houses almost if not quite to the present time. The aim of the Bremen Public Bath Society, to whose activity the erection of these baths was due, was to provide the most generous bathing facilities for the poor, in connection with an imposing and attractive establishment calculated to meet the requirements of the PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 455 well-to-do. The provision of first-class accommodations with a rela tively high rate of charges has proved to be a wise measure, as the revenue thence accruing has enabled the management to furnish good second-class baths of all sorts at comparatively low rates. Yetter, in his Modern© Bader, sets the capital of the Bremen baths at 643,500 marks ($153,153). The original cost of the building, with fixtures and furniture, was 484,205 marks ($115,241). The Bremen Savings Bank (German municipalities maintain savings banks for the common good) contributed 320,000 marks ($76,160) toward the building fund. The city also gave free use of the ground on which the building stands. The establishment includes two large swimming baths, one for men and one for women, 85 tub baths, shower baths, cleansing baths, a Roman-Irish bath, and baths for medical purposes. The Bremen public baths embodied several noteworthy structural fea tures, namely, the introduction of a corridor in the rear of the dressing cabins on either side of the swimming hall; the extensive use of cementcovered masonry in the construction of tub baths and the partitions between the private bath rooms; the provision of a considerable num ber of shower-bath cabins, and a special cleansing room containing spray and foot baths. The ventilating and heating appliances are thoroughly modern in character, so that the water in the swimming pools can be maintained at a temperature of 72° F. In the first thirteen months after the establishment was opened 209,215 baths were taken, yielding an income of 89,043 marks ($21,192), an excess o f 20,000 marks ($4,760) over operating expenses. In 1892 the number of baths taken was 243,306. The provision of floating swimming baths on lakes or rivers for use in the summer months, and not infrequently at public expense, is more common, apparently, on the Continent than in Great Britain. Such baths are to be found in the larger towns of ^Norway and Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, and Austria-Hungary. Public floating baths are maintained in considerable numbers by cities as far apart as Berlin and Budapest. Within the last ten years an active movement for the establishment o f people’s baths, so called, has been carried on in Germany. Dr. O. Lassar, professor of skin diseases at the University of Berlin, made a statistical inquiry in 1885-86 as to the number of bathing establish ments in Germany which afforded the public means of obtaining warm baths. He discovered as the result o f his inquiry that there were only 1,131 (a) bathing establishments affording warm baths in localities representing a total population o f more than thirty-two and two-tliirds millions, and he published a statement that, taking Germany as a whole, there was only one public warm bath establishment for every 29,000 individuals. As a result o f his efforts the Berlin Society for Public Baths, established in 1872, was revived, and, thanks to its a Of this number 49 were in connection with sanitariums and hospitals. 456 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. activity and that o f similar associations elsewhere, the situation has since been greatly improved. In Berlin and elsewhere since 1886 the people’s* bath, as a rule, consists of a simple, inexpensive, one-story building, provided for the most part, or even exclusively, with shower baths. The utility and cheapness of shower baths as a means of securing cleanliness is now generally recognized among German sani tarians and public officials, and it is noteworthy that the newer public bath establishments which contain swimming and tub baths are also generously supplied with shower baths, or, as the Germans usually term them, douche and rain baths. This is the case in the new people’s baths in Berlin and in the so-called swimming baths in Stuttgart, Cologne, and Frankfort, all o f which have been built since 1884. As a rule, also, the school baths, which have become numerous and popular in Germany, Switzerland, and Scandinavia within the last ten years, consist solely o f some form of shower bath ; and in workmen’s baths, which are frequently found in mines, foundries, and factories over large portions o f Germany, shower baths greatly outnumber the tub baths. The following is a partial list of the German cities in which public baths, belonging to the combination swimming and cleanliness type, have been built since 1886, the date o f Dr. Lassar’s paper upon People’s Baths, read before the German Public Health Association: B erlin , Brandenburg, Bremerhaven, Crefeld , B u s s e ld o r f E lberfeld , F ran k fort , Gladbach-Hageny Heilbronn, Hildesheim, Lennep, M u nster , Offenbach, Paderborn, and Stuttgart. The cities whose names are printed in italics maintain strictly municipal bath houses that have been paid for out o f public funds. In the other cities the baths have been erected and are managed by associations organized to promote the common good, which associations have usually received substantial pecuniary aid from their respective city governments. The capital outlay for municipal bath houses in the cities embraced in the above list amounted to nearly five and a quarter millions of marks ($1,249,500) between 1886 and 1896. In the remaining cities in the list the aggregate outlay amounted to not quite two million marks ($476,000). Between 1880 and 1886 Cologne, Dortmund, and Essen established new municipal bath houses or enlarged old ones 5 and in Aachen-Burscheid, Barmen, Oldenburg, and Osnabriick similar estab lishments were built through the efforts of specially organized associa tions. I f the capital outlay for public baths o f both classes in 18801885, viz, 1,720,000 marks ($409,360), be added to that for the period from 1886 to 1896, the aggregate amounts to 8,844,000 marks ($2,104,872). It should be noted in this connection that the most highly devel oped specimens of the German type o f public bath houses—the city Hohenstaufen Bath in Cologne, the Stuttgart Swimming Bath, so called, the two people’s bath establishments in Berlin, and the city swimming bath, newly opened in Frankfort, which cost 850,000 marks PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 457 ($202,300)—compare most favorably as to size, cost, and magnificence with the largest and best appointed of the newer monumental public bath houses in Great Britain, which, as has been stated, are situated in London. It is the writer’s opinion, based upon personal observation, that the Germans have carried the art of bath building to a higher plane of excellence than have the Scotch or English in respect to (1) the arrangement of swimming pools and the dressing rooms connected with them, (2) the variety of forms of bath afforded, (3) the provision of special douche and cleansing rooms, and (4) the development of the spray or shower bath (Brausebad). It must also be admitted that the German form of shower bath, as employed in their people’s and work men’s and school baths, is unrivaled as regards its simplicity, its economy in respect to installation and working, and its effectiveness. Probably no one man has done more toward promoting the spread of people’s baths in Germany than Dr. Oscar Lassar, of Berlin. Believing that Dr. Lassar’s views on the subject with which he has been so prom inently identified for more than a decade are entitled to even wider currency than they have gained hitherto, the writer presents the follow ing extracts from Lassar’s paper, Ueber Yolksbader (On People’s Baths), originally read in 1880 at the thirteenth meeting of the German Pub lic Health Association in Breslau: The questions are asked, “ Have not many newly erected houses fine bathrooms? Are there not in many towns adequate bathing establish ments? Should we leave out of account the running streams and seacoast, the numberless ponds and inland lakes?” These questions are assuredly justifiable. Their answer, however, is not difficult. A glance at the tax list shows that only an insignificant minority are in position to rent premises with bath fixtures. Moreover, the density of the population, even where there is no lack of water service, makes an adequate supply of baths impossible. It is easy to estimate how slightly the number of independent household baths counts in the scale when it appears from the communications of Berthold and Wasserfuhr that in Berlin in 1880 more than 10,000 souls lived in rooms that could not be heated, and that only 43.8 per cent of the population possessed more than one room that could be heated. Bathing in natural water is truly to a high degree common and com mendable, but we should not forget that its dependence upon season, age, and accessibility renders it of but limited usefulness. Where it is possible we surely ought not to neglect to make natural bathing places useful, for they constitute the cheapest and pleasantest form of bath. * * * In the last decade, to be sure, a series of bath buildings, splendid in some respects, have arisen, as in Bremen, Hamburg, Dort mund, Barmen, Hanover, Munich, and Cologne. But these are great and opulent places. So soon as one passes beyond the precincts of the chief cities the picture changes, and when the dusty traveler finds an opportunity to refresh his tired members in a warm bath he pronounces it, as a rule, both dear and bad. But for the most part the possibility o f bathing is not to be had, and so the people have gradually learned to renounce entirely the bathing habit. 458 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. It is frequently said that houses in American cities are so generally furnished with bathrooms that the need of public facilities for bathing does not exist to an extent at all comparable with the need for better bathing facilities that exists in European cities. It is interesting to know that in 1887, the same year in which the second edition of Dr. Lassar’s brochure appeared, Dr. R 0I1&, of Baltimore, Md., in an address delivered before the American Medical Association in Chicago, showed that, contrary to popular belief, a large proportion of the inhabitants of American cities were unprovided with adequate bathing facilities. His statistics concerning eighteen cities having no free public baths, among which were Baltimore, Md.; Cambridge, Mass.; Cincinnati, Ohio; Milwaukee, W is.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Portland, Me., and St. Louis, Mo., showed that only about 23 per cent o f residences were sup plied with bath tubs. He concluded that u five-sixths of the inhab itants of these cities have no facilities for bathing, except such as are afforded by pail and sponge, or a river, lake, or other body of water which may be easily accessible, but in winter even such sources o f cleanliness are cut off.” Dr. Rohe’s general conclusions concerning the cities enumerated in his table have since been strikingly borne out in regard to Boston by the investigations of Mr. Horace G. Wadlin, Chief o f the Bureau o f Statistics o f Labor of Massachusetts. With relation to the number o f bathrooms contained in the city of Boston in the year 1892, the fol lowing facts are taken from his report, A Tenement-House Census o f Boston (section 2, p. 116, et seq.): The present investigation covers 71,065 families in a city which ranks sixth as to population among cities in the United States; a city which has for many years possessed a public water supply and general sewer age; the chief commercial city o f the Commonwealth, in which, also, manufacturing has been developed to such a point that in respect to annual output its rank corresponds to its rank as to population; in short, a typical modern city o f diversified interests. # # # Out o f 71,605 families, comprising 311,396 persons, the total number o f families and population residing in rented tenements in the city, only 18,476 families, comprising 82,716 persons, have bathrooms; while 53,189 families, comprising 228,680 persons, do not have bath rooms. That is to say, 25.78 per cent o f all the families, and 26.56 per cent o f the total rented-tenement population are supplied with bath rooms, while 74.22 per cent o f all the families and 73.44 per cent of the rented-tenement population do not have such conveniences. There fore, for the city at large, it is at once seen that only about one-fourth the total number o f families and persons living in hired premises are supplied with bathrooms. Considerable variation is to be noticed in the wards. In ward G, for instance, less than 1 per cent o f the rented-tenement-house population has bathrooms, and in ward 13 only 1.99 per cent is supplied. On the other hand, in ward 11, which comprises the larger part of the Back Bay district, and contains some of the finest residences in the city, 72.15 per cent of the population living in rented tenements is supplied with bathrooms. PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 459 But to return to Dr. Lassar’s paper. Dr. Lassar issued a circular letter of inquiry to district physicians throughout Germany. He says: It appears from the answers of district physicians that in the great majority of cases the average price per bath, without soap, and for the most part without towels, is 50 pfennigs (12 cents'* # # # # # # # The average price of 50 pfennigs for a warm bath for workmen must undoubtedly be considered exorbitant. * * # And here lies the objective point of attack in regard to the hitherto-existing condition of things. I f the usual baths can not be furnished so cheaply that the workman can avail himself of them without disproportionate sacrifice, then the form of bath must be changed. # # # # # # # Certainly in many cases, and in the eyes of the majority of people, tub baths are considered superior. But if we proceed on this view, then will the cost o f building and maintaining them prove an obstacle, and the most philanthropic efforts will be wrecked as heretofore upon essentially impracticable measures. In short, only the simplest forms of bath possible are attainable. As such the tepid shower bath must serve. W e must look upon it as the bath o f the future. In Yienna my point of view has already been taken, and in the Heubau District a shower bath with 70 bathing places (28 for women and 42 for men) has been established at the cost of the municipality. It is the intention in Yienna to furnish each of the districts of the city with such an establishment. People’s or workmen’s baths call for no kind of luxury. If they are serviceable, clean, and inviting, they fulfill their purpose better than through the magnificence which is customarily displayed. Those who are forced or accustomed to conform their mode of life to the simplest scale will content themselves gladly with entirely undecorated rooms. The beauty inheres in the thing itself. This appears self-evident to many. But so soon as a plan for the building of baths is considered, an effort to produce something very magnificent and massive, and ful filling every condition of beauty and of taste, enters the foreground. A striking facade has often brought many a good plan to nought. # * * I f we would in reality provide the working people with bathing facil ities there is only one possible way of accomplishing it, namely, by the tepid shower bath (Brausebad). That presents the simplest, cheapest, and, so far as the demands for space and time are concerned, the most economical means of effective bodily cleansing, and satisfies all claims of comfort as well. The person who has soaped himself thoroughly in a closed cabin by himself and then been sprayed with some liters of tepid water, and at the end with cool water, is cleansed, refreshed, strength ened—in short, he has enjoyed the chief advantages of bathing. It may be that many prefer a tub bath; but we are concerned here not with partiality for this or that, but with the possibility of providing the most economical form of all. # # # The only question is, what is serviceable and at the same time the cheapest. I f a rich community or a society of amateurs choose to put up great swimming halls or com plicated bath houses with tubs, douches, etc., for various classes and with a great plant, certainly no one will object, for the advantages from them accrue to the common good. But if it is to be determined how 460 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. genuine people’s baths are to be managed, then there is but one answer— as efficiently as possible compatible with the greatest cheapness. # # # # # # * Apart from its lower cost and economy of space the shower bath possesses the following general advantages for the bather himself: Its physiological influence upon the organism is a quickening and refresh ing one; at every season it is pleasant and never weakening to spray the well-soaped body with warm water and then to finish off with the moderately cool or even a cold ablution; the cleansing is absolutely thorough, and is essentially promoted by the fact that all the dust and dirt with which the water becomes soiled is immediately carried away, and continually replaced by clean water. But in the case of the full bath one bathes Anally in dirty water, especially the workman who leaves all the accretions of an entire week in the tub. Moreover, the individual using a public shower bath is better guarded than in the tub from infection and from contact with the vestiges of his predeces sor, and without trouble can secure the cleansing of the bath place itself by simply rinsing it. In addition to this, the bath itself calls for but little time or personal service from the bather, and offers the possi bility o f a great number of persons bathing quickly one after another. W e must also consider that it presents less danger o f catching cold, at least in comparison with the warm full bath with its relaxing influence upon the vessels o f the skin, and that the hardening effect of the bath can scarcely be obtained in a more rational way than through the suc cessive warm and cool ablutions. According to a report from Breslau, made at the thirteenth meeting o f the Society for Public Hygiene, 1,000 liters (264 gallons) of water cost 15 pfennigs (3£ cents). According to experiments made by me, the maximum amount o f water necessary for a shower bath, even when it is lavishly used, is at the most 10 liters ( 10J quarts). However, one can do very well with 5 liters. A t that rate the water for a single shower bath costs not more than 0.0015 mark ($0.000357). W e need for a single tub bath 200 liters (53 gallons), equal to an outlay of 3 pfennigs ($0.00714) for water. With water at 15 pfennigs (3£ cents) per cubic meter (264 gallons) one may have for a mark (24 cents) enough water for 666 shower baths, but only enough for 33 tub baths. The amount of water needed in a district of 30,000 inhabitants, if they should each take a weekly bath, would demand an outlay of 2,340 marks ($557) for shower baths, but for an equal number o f tub baths 46,800 marks ($11,138) yearly. Reckoning for all Germany, this would mean an eventual saving of more than 66,000,000 marks ($15,708,000) or 1.48 mark (35 cents) per head per year in favor o f shower baths. In 1889 a general exposition of devices for the prevention of acci dents was held in Berlin. The German Association of Brewers offered a prize o f 1,000 marks ($238) for the workman’s bath which should best commend itself to the judges for utility, solidity, practicability, sim plicity, and inviting character, and be adapted for use in breweries and for general use as well. There were presented in competition five models, thirteen sets of plans, and four baths m running order. The prize was divided between Borner & Co., of Berlin, for a Lassar-Grove workman’s shower bath, and the German Jute Spinning and Weaving Company, o f Meissen, for a workman’s shower bath, while four firms received honorable mention. PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 461 The judges unanimously recommended that certain principles be fol lowed in the construction of workmen’s baths, as follows: (a) In general, the shower bath is to be characterized as the most prac ticable o f all sorts of bath for the promotion of cleanliness and sim ultaneous refreshment. For certain kinds of industry it is necessary to provide washing facilities in addition, to enable the bather to free himself from adhesive dirt. Kegarding the construction of shower baths, allmaterial is tobeavoided that is porous or attractive to water, or permits dirt to accumulate in cracks and joints, or renders complete cleanliness of all appurtenances difficult or impossible. * * * Leaving slate out of the question as too costly, there is nothing better for the walls of the single cabins than corrugated sheet zinc. Next to be recommended are the so-called “ Monier” walls, but only when their surface is well smoothed. The durability of oil ii&int is not satisfactory, owing to the continuous influ ence of warm water and soapsuds. The partitions should be 2 meters (6 feet, 7 inches) high and about 10 centimeters (4 inches) raised above the floor for the sake of ventilation. The floor should also be made impervious to water by the use of asphalt, cement, or terrazzo. The first has not only the advantage of cheapness, but also that it is least unpleasant to the naked feet. In order to prevent the splashing of water from the bath cabin to the dressing cabin, the latter should be placed at a higher level than the for mer; and in order to avoid a step the floor of the dressing room should slope sufficiently toward the bathroom. In the bath cabin itself there should be a recessed portion in the floor, like a trough, whose deepest part receives the principal stream from the shower, and, at the begin ning of the bath should be so full that the water reaches to the ankles of the bather. This will permit the bather to soap himself thoroughly before using the spray and at the same time cleanse his feet. The rest o f the floor o f the shower cabin should slope toward the trough, whose edges should be rounded. A t the deepest part an emptying valve is to be placed, and at the highest part an overflow pipe. * * * In almost all cases the use o f such trough renders the provision of a special wash basin unnecessary. * # * The use of wood is to be avoided as much as possible. * * * The shower spray should be placed obliquely, as the water streaming verti cally from above is undesirable for weaker persons and those liable to “ rush of blood to the head.” The most appropriate place for the spray nozzle is on the partition wall between the dressing and the bath cabins, to be fed from a warm water reservoir having an exit temperature of 95° F. The limitation by a measuring device of the maximum amount of warm water, which is commendable in people’s bath establishments, appears to be superfluous for workmen’s baths in factories. The spray should run only so long as the bather pulls the chain, but in order that he may have his hands free for washing during the action of the shower, it is desirable that a hook, to which the chain may be fastened, should be placed on the wall. The necessity for an unlimited supply of cold water seems to be self evident. The dressing room should be about the same size as the bath cabin, and should contain a seat, shelf, clothes-hooks, well separated from each other, and a pair of washable rubber sandals with straps over their middle, in order that the bather need not step directly on the stone a Arbeiter-Badeeinrichtnngen. Ansicliten und Grundsatze des Preisgerichts liber die vom deutsclien Brauerbund ausgeschriebene Preisaufgabe. By B. Knoblauch. 462 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. floor. A looking-glass becomes dimmed in such a room, and is there fore better placed in the corridor. Combs and brushes had better not be furnished, since through their common use diseases of the scalp are easily incurred. The heating of workmen’s baths in factories is most serviceably accomplished by means of steam. It is desirable, if possible, that all the bath arrangements should be placed in a thoroughly heated room. # # * * * * # The following demands must be met in order to provide appropriate bath features for our workmen: The greatest possible utility in the least possible space; cheapness o f plant and operation; easy and convenient cleansing of the bath and dressing rooms; avoidance of wood or of porous material; rational position of the shower nozzle (at an angle of 45°) out of regard for weakly persons; opportunity to remove adhesive dirt, particularly from the feet; protection against catching cold; avoidance, therefore, of drafts of cold air. The principles enunciated by the judges chosen by the German Brewers’ Association, in 1889, have been quite closely followed in most respects in constructing the model bath house which was exhibited at the Berlin Industrial Exhibition of 1896, by the Berlin Society for Peo ple’s Baths, a description of which is given on pages 463 and 464. The first German shower-bath establishment to attract wide atten tion was placed in the barracks of the Kaiser Eranz Grenadier Regi ment of the Guard in Berlin in 1878, at the instance of Dr. Munnich, a military surgeon. The bath was for the use of officers and soldiers, and was constructed at a cost of about 4,000 marks ($952), so as to permit 300 men to bathe within an hour. It was devised by the firm of David Grove, sanitary engineers, in Berlin. Previous to its installa tion military barracks were without shower baths for the use of soldiers. It is said that they are now to be found in more than fifty barracks of the German army. The same firm installed 1 1 shower baths of their peculiar pattern prior to 1883. Eight of the 11 were placed in garrison buildings for the benefit o f soldiers. In the period from 1878 to 1894, inclusive, this firm installed shower baths in no less than 37 military barracks. Its baths have also been placed in various schools, prisons, factories, and peo ple’s baths. In 1883, at the Exposition of Hygiene in Berlin, Dr. O. Lassar exhib ited a people’s bath house, simply constructed, 11 meters (36 feet 1 inch) long and 5 meters (16 feet 5 inches) wide, built of corrugated iron, by David Grove, at a cost of 6,300 marks ($1,499). It was divided by a middle partition into two sections, one for women and one for men, each section having its own separate entrance. The building was of one story, and contained, besides a ticket office, 2 water-closets, 2 corri dors, a laundry, a drying room and a boiler room, and 10 shower-bath cabins (5 for men and 5 for women). Each shower cabin w a s lj meters (4 feet 11 inches) square, and one corner of the cabin could be closed off by a curtain. The bath house was used by upward of 10,000 persons First floor. MODEL BATH HOUSE OF THE BERLIN SOCIETY FOR PEOPLE'S BATHS, BERLIN INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION, 1896. P lan N o . 3 a . MODEL BATH HOUSE OF THE BERLIN SOCIETY FOR PEOPLE’S BATHS, BERLIN INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION, 1896. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ P lan N o . 3 b . Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis w r r ,-r.. r„ r r r.r J2______________________________ i ' ~ Longitudinal section of dressing and shower cabin. Ground plan of dressing and shower cabin, showing fixtures. MODEL BATH HOUSE OF THE BERLIN SOCIETY FOR PEOPLE'S BATHS, BERLIN INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 1896. P lan N o . 3 c . PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 463 during tlie three months of the exposition. This particular bath house was afterward purchased by a manufacturer and set up for the use of his workmen. People’s baths similar to this, and known as the Lassar-Grove form of people’s baths, have since been built in a number of German cities, as, for instance, Munich, Magdeburg, Hanover, and Frankfort. In these, as well as in the city people’s baths in Vienna, the bath cabins are furnished with shower baths exclusively. The usual price for shower baths in this class of people’s bath is 10 pfennigs (2J cents). The Frankfort Bath, a people’s bath, which is situated on the Meriansplatz, a square at the junction of several streets, was pre sented to the city in 1888. It is a pavilion, octagonal in shape, and contains 14 bath cabins, 10 for men and 4 for women. The build ing cost 20,000 marks ($4,760) and its fixtures 1,400 marks ($333). The entire building, including the partitions between the cabins, is constructed according to the so-called Monier system—that is to say, o f cement upon an iron framework and wire lathing. Each cabin is divided by a curtain of waterproof linen into two parts, namely, a dressing room and a smaller room behind it, which constitutes the bath room proper. The city furnishes the water for the bath house free of charge. For each shower bath 40 liters (42 quarts) of warm water are furnished by an automatic device from a small iron reservoir above the cabin. The cold water can be had by each bather ad libitum . The price per bath, including towel and soap, is 10 pfennigs (2£ cents). The writer tested this bath practically during the past summer, and found it satisfactory and much frequented. In 1890-91 the bath was used by 38,852 persons. Its income was 3,885 marks ($925), and its expenses amounted to 4,692 marks ($1,117). The monthly number of bathers varied from 1,962 in January to 4,731 in May. In the year 1895 the Frankfort Bath was patronized by 45,756 persons. The Berlin Society for People’s Baths, of which Dr. O. Lassar is president, exhibited a model people’s bath house (plans Nos. 3A, 3B, and 3C) in working order at the Berlin Industrial Exhibition during the summer of 1896. The model, with its fixtures, cost 20,000 marks ($4,760), and the following is a description of it: The establishment comprises ten shower cabins. Five cabins and a water-closet are placed on each of the corridors, which open to the left and right, respectively, from the waiting room. By extending the corri dors and adding further cabins it would be easy to enlarge the bath, and by putting a partition through the waiting room, to establish separate sections for men and women. Cabins, corridors, and waiting room are on the same level, which is raised two steps above the ground level. On the other hand, the boiler room is sunk 1.60 meters (5 feet 3 inches) below that level, while the floor of the laundry, which is above the boiler room, is 1.60 meters above the same level. Two advantages arise from this: First, the short distance of half a stairway from the boiler room to the waiting room and the corridors on one hand, and from the laundry to the waiting 464 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. room on the other; second, if a cellar be placed under the showercabin section, adjoining the boiler room, then a room accessible in all its parts at all times and free from frost would be provided for the installation of the plumbing. Again, entrance might be had through the laundry by means of a half stairway into a room situated above the waiting room, in which room a reservoir for serving shower baths is placed. This room in cer tain cases might be used as the living room of the attendant. The reservoir would then be placed in the attic above the laundry. * * * * * * * The cabins are inclosed by walls of first-class Carrara marble, which is placed upon brass supports and fastened together by cramp irons. The floor consists of a layer of cement, over which a light latticework is placed in the dressing rooms and bath cabins. The dressing rooms are shut off* from the corridor by washable curtains. * * * * * * * Shower baths hitherto have involved an inconvenience in that they supplied water to the bather only from above, on which account a thor ough cleansing of all parts of the bather’s body was rendered difficult. The shower bath exhibited here has on that account been constructed upon another principle, which renders it possible for the bather not only to supply himself with water from overhead, but also, by means of the three side pipes (marked b in the plan) of the so-called “ mantel” shower (needle) bath, and by means of an obliquely placed undershower, to spray himself from both sides and from below. Each of these three devices is placed under the control of the bather by a special contriv ance. The bather stands in a depression in the floor, which forms a foot tub, d, which, when the showers are opened, fills with water that covers his feet as high as the ankles. The surplus water runs off through the overflow pipe, e. After the bath the overflow pipe is taken out, whereupon the foot tub completely empties itself. The overhead shower, a, has a cold water supply with a separate cock, by means of which the bather can lower the temperature of the water at will. The heating of the water is effected through a hot-water circulation boiler,/, which is connected with the reservoir, g , by circulation pipes. The heating o f the water may proceed as high as 95° E. The tempera ture o f the water is made clear to the fireman in the boiler room by means of a thermometer. I f the desired temperature is attained, then he closes the throttle valve, t, placed in the perpendicular leading pipe. The heating of the building is provided for by means of a hot-air apparatus, Jc, that stands in the boiler room. The building is also pro vided with a small laundry, sufficient to meet the demand for the wash ing and drying o f towels. The drying apparatus receives its heat through circulation tubes from the hot-water boiler. With ten cabins, the bath is equal to providing from 30 to 40 shower baths per hour, (a) This model workmen’s or people’s bath house not only embodies the requirements laid down by the judges chosen by the Association of German Brewers in 1889 to award a prize o f 1,000 marks ($238) for the best plan or model of a workman’s bath, but in some respects it is an improvement on the specifications of the committee of award, viz, in the use o f marble and of the mantel shower fixture. a Die Thatigkeit des Berliner Vereins fur Volksbader, 1896. PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 465 To the writer, who had an opportunity to make careful inspection of the model people’s bath house described, it seems to be extremely well planned and admirably adapted fo t its purpose. It is his opinion, how ever, that cost might possibly be reduced and the arrangement of fixtures considerably simplified if improved methods of heating water were made use of in baths modeled after it, at least when there is an independent supply of steam. The foot-bath feature has been employed elsewhere and is strongly to be commended. The use of marble for partition walls is a novelty in most people’s baths. In the end its use will probably be justified by its superior durability and cleanliness. In the newest of the public baths in Paris, the Piscine, in the Place Hebert, the walls of the shower-bath cabins are of opaque glass, set in iron frames. Sheet glass inclosing woven wire is used for partitions in some bath houses, the people’s bath near Schilling’s bridge, in Berlin, for example. The partition walls in the shower rooms in the Vienna people’s baths are of cement on wire lathing and are unpainted. In one of the newest and finest private bath houses in Berlin the walls of the shower cabins are painted with a peculiar Japan lacquer paint, so called, which is said to withstand heat, water, and soapsuds, and to be suitable for application to wood, stone, metals, or cement. A somewhat similar kind of paint has been used upon the wooden dress ing-room doors in the swimming hall of the Pompeian Bath, belonging to the parish of St. Marylebone, in London. Enameled slate, as used for partitions and doors of private bathrooms, in the Whitworth baths, Manchester, and the baths belonging to the London parishes of St. Martins-in-the-Fields, St. Mary Stratford Bow, etc., is said to fieck and chip unless it is carefully treated. People’s shower baths, of the Lassar-Grove type, such as the one described at Frankfort, have been introduced by a number o f German cities since 1888, but as Vienna, Austria, was the first city to establish a municipal public bath comprising shower baths only, a general descrip tion o f the Vienna baths may appropriately be given in this connection. The first o f the people’s baths in Vienna was an experimental one, opened in the seventh district of the city in 1887. The bath proved so much of a success that baths of the same type, but on a more generous scale, were opened in the fifth and tenth districts in 1890; in the third district in 1891; in the second, sixth, eighth, and ninth districts in 1892; and in the fourth district in 1893. A tenth bath has since been added in the fourteenth district, and it is the intention of the magistracy of Vienna, as opportunity offers, to further establish people’s baths until each of the nineteen districts of the city is provided with one. Vienna’s population was 1,364,548 in 1891. From 1887 to 1893 Vienna expended upon its nine people’s baths over $160,000. The shower appliances vary in number in these baths from 46 to 70. The dressing rooms are provided with separate lockers and connect with the rooms in which the open bath cabins are placed; 466 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. generally the women’s baths are on one floor and the men’s on another. The baths are open in summer on working days from 7 to 9 a. m. and from 2 to 8 p. m. In winter they are open only from 2 to 8 p. m. On Sundays and holidays they are open only during the forenoon. For a fee o f 5 kreutzers (2 cents) each bather is entitled to a copious shower of warm or cold water, as he may choose. The use of two towels is included in the fee. The general superintendence of the baths is in the hands of engineers belonging to the city building department. Each bath house is in charge of a bath master, who is furnished with a sufficient number of male and female attendants. The total number of bathers in the nine Vienna people’s baths (Volksbader) for each of the five years, 1889 to 1893, was as follows: N U M B E R O F B A T H E R S I N Y I E N N A P E O P L E ’ S B A T H S , 1889 TO 1893. Tear. Men. 1889 ................................................................................................................... 1890 ................................................................................................................... 1891................................................................................................................... 1892 ................................................................................................................... 1893 ...................................................................... ........................................... 70,878 110,740 201,117 277,332 414, 901 Women. 24,841 33,310 47, 759 04, 902 110, 914 Total. 95,719 144,050 248,876 342, 234 525, 815 The largest total number of bathers in any one establishment in 1893 was 87,090 in the fifth district. The greatest number of bathers for all the establishments in any one month in 1893 was in July, 70,924 men and 24,872 women. The smallest number in any one month was in January, 12,378 men and 1,206 women. The ordinary receipts for the nine baths in 1893 were 26,376 florins ($12,720), and the corresponding expenses were 54,704 florins ($26,381). The deficit for the individual baths varied between 1,211 and 4,894 florins ($584 and $2,360). Munich has four people’s baths o f the Lassar-Grove type. The first is an octagonal pavilion like the Frankfort bath and contains 10 cabins for men and 4 for women. It was used in 1890 by 74,221 persons. Its expenses amounted to 5,910 marks ($1,407), and its income to 7,422 marks ($1,766). The population o f Munich was 407,000 in 1895. Mannheim has two people’s baths, erected at a cost of 25,000 marks ($5,950) each. They contain 14 shower cells each. The ground plan of the Mannheim baths is rectangular. In 1892 the number of monthly bathers varied from 1,036 to 5,290. Although the city has a free swim ming bath on the Rhine, June and July were the months in which the baths were most used. The total income from the two baths was 6,741 marks ($1,604), and the total expenses 10,920 marks ($2,599). Mann heim’s population in 1895 was 90,677. Magdeburg has, in connection with the city disinfection establish ment, a people’s bath, costing $20,000 marks ($4,760), containing 16 shower cabins for men and 4 for women. The price per bath is 10 PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 467 pfennigs (2£ cents), except on Saturdays and Sundays, when it is only 5 pfennigs (1 cent). In 1891-92 there were 59,013 men bathers and 10,933 women bathers, or a total of 09,940. The total income was 7,189 marks ($1,711) and the total expenses 7,080 marks ($1,829), showing a deficit of only 497 marks ($118). Magdeburg has built a second people’s bath since 1892. The population of the city was 214,397 in 1895. Hanover x>ossesses two jieople’s shower baths. The first, containing 10 cabins, was erected in 1889. It was found necessary to increase the number of cabins in 1890 to 19, 1 1 for men and 8 for women. The second Hanover shower bath is cruciform in shai>e and contains 26 cabins, 16 for men and 10*for women. Its total cost was 32,000 marks ($7,616). For 10 pfennigs (2J cents) a bath, with soap and towel, is pro vided; for 5 x>fennigs (1 cent), simply a bath. In 1891-92,32,000 baths at 10 pfennigs were taken and 19,000 at 5 xifennigs. The expense for the year was 5,780 marks ($1,376) and the income 4,150 marks ($988), showing a deficit of 1,630 marks ($388). In 1895 Hanover had a population o f 209,116. Brunswick opened a people’s bath in 1890, at a cost of 27,000 marks ($6,426). It contains 19 shower baths and 4 tubs. A s many as 674 baths have been taken in this establishment in one day, namely, 573 shower baths, 58 tub baths, and 43 sitz douche baths. The number of bathers is least from Monday until Wednesday; it then increases, reaching its highest point on Saturday and Sunday. Usually officials of railroads and tax and xiost offices bathe in the morning, teachers in the afternoon, and workmen in the evening. In the year ending August 15,1891, there were given 5,710 tub baths at 30 pfennigs (7 cents), 1,682 sitz baths at 20 x>fennigs (5 cents), and 45,374 shower baths at 10 pfennigs (2J cents), making a total income of 6,587 marks ($1,568). The total expenses were 5,040 marks ($1,200), leaving a surplus, not counting interest on capital, of 1,547 marks ($368). It is estimated that in each tub bath 180 liters (190 quarts) of water were used, but only 40 liters (42 quarts) in each shower bath. The items of expense may be of interest here. They were as follows: Wages.................................................................................................................... G a s ........................................................................................................................ S o a p ...................................................................................................................... Printing................................................................................................................. Fire insurance....................................................................................................... W ater.................................................................................................................... Coal and w ood...................................................................................................... Cleaning and disinfecting o f tow els............................ .................................... Advertisin g ............................................................................................................ Sundries................................................................................................................. $368.90 27.13 195.40 41.41 23.80 66.64 404.60 10.47 25.47 35. 70 Total............................................................................................................ 1,199.52 Brunswick’s population in 1895 was 115,129. Mentz, with a imputation of 77,735 in 1895, xiossesses two people’s baths, one built in 1890, at a cost of 41,225 marks ($9,812), containing 468 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. 15 cabins and 6 tubs, and tbe other, built later, at a cost of 42,850 marks ($10,198), containing 17 showers and 7 tubs. People’s shower-bath houses are also to be found in Bielefeld, Breslau, Ooblentz, Duisburg, Erfurt, Posen, Stettin, and other German cities. Cologne, with a population in 1895 of 321,431, has baths of three sorts: Pirst, the Hohenstaufen Bath; second, the people’s bath, and third, the free swimming bath upon the Bhine. The Hohenstaufen Bath is one of the finest public baths in Ger many. It was built in 1885 at a cost of 480,000 marks ($114,240), out o f a capital o f 660,000 marks ($157,080). It is situated on one of the handsomest streets of the new town and is a massive and architectur ally imposing building. It includes 43 tub and full baths furnished with rain sprays, two children’s baths, a Boman-Irish bath, no less than 11 douche rooms containing 25 showers in all, and three swimming baths. The following table shows the number of bathers, income, and expenses for each of the last five years: NUMBER OF BATH ERS A N D INCOME A N D EXPENSES OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN B A TH , 1891-92 TO 1895-96. Year. 1891-92 .......................................................... .............. 1892-93 .......................................................................... 1893-94 .......................................................................... 1894-95 .......................................................................... 1895-96 .......................................................................... Average Total bathers bathers. per day. 279,767 296,073 314,870 305,531 365, 039 777 822 875 849 1,020 Income. E x penses. $39,883 40,477 39,710 30,504 34,664 $35,156 33, 775 34, 111 28, 503 30,553 Surplus. $4,727 6,702 5,599 2,001 4, 111 The income for each of the years 1891-92 and 1892-93 includes 50,000 marks ($11,900) from the city, and the income for 1893-94 includes 35,000 marks ($8,330) from the same source. In 1894-95 and 1895-96 no sub vention was received from the city treasury. The scale of charges in the Hohenstaufen Bath in 1895 was as follows: Swimming bath, adults......................................................................................... $0.09£ Swimming bath, adults, 10 tickets...............................................................................711Swimming bath, adults, 25 tickets..................................................................... . 1 .66£ Swimming bath, children under 14............................................................................. 08£ Swimming bath, children under 14,10 tickets........................................................... 59£ Swimming bath, children under 14, 25 tickets..................................................... 1.31 Saloon bath....................................................................................................................... 28| Saloon bath, 10 tickets............................................................................................ 2.38 First-class tub bath........................................................................................................ 19 First-class tub bath, 10 tickets.............................................................................. 1.43 Second-class tub bath......................................................................................................12 Second-class tub bath, 10 tick ets.................................................................................. 83£ Roman-Irish and Russian steam baths......................................................................... 47£ Roman-Irish and Russian steam baths, 5 tickets................................................. 1.90£ Roman-Irish and Russian steam baths, 10 tickets........................ ..................... 3.57 Roman-Irish or Russian steam baths.............................................................................35£ Roman-Irish or Russian steam baths, 5 tickets........................................ ........... 1.43 PUBLIC BATHS IN EUBOPE. 469 Roman-Irish or Russian steam baths. 10 tickets..................................................$2.38 Douche bath......................................................................................................................24 Douche bath, 10 tickets........................................................................................... 1.43 Cold shower bath............................................................................................................ C<9£ Shower treatment........................................................................................................... 24 People’s bath, adults, till 6 p. m................................................................................... 05 People’s bath, adults, after 6 p. m., and children under 14...................................... 02£ People’s bath, subscription for 100 baths............................................................. 1.78| People’s bath, subscription for 300 baths............................................................ 4. 76 People’s bath, subscription for100 baths for soldiers and institutions.............. 1.19 The people’s bath establishment opened in 1892, at a cost of 107,937 marks ($25,689). It contains 24 tub and 18 shower baths ; 73,122 per sons bathed in 1893-94, the income being 14,541 marks ($3,461), and the expenses 12,833 marks ($3,054), showing a surplus of 1,708 marks ($407). For 1894-95 the total number of bathers was 77,158, or an average of 214 a day. The surplus for the year was 5,522 marks ($1,314). In 1895-96 the total number of bathers was 89,469, or 242 daily on an average. The income amounted to 24,823 marks ($5,908), there being an excess of expenditure of 7,535 marks ($1,793). The free swimming bath upon the Rhine, built in 1892, cost 12,500 marks ($2,975). This establishment contains a swimming inclosure 50 by 75 meters (164 by 246 feet). It contains a floating dressing hall. In 1892 the number of bathers was 45,000, 25,000 being children and 20.000 adults. The number of bathers in 1893-94 was 26,697 5 in 1894-95, 28,552; in 1895-96, 25,735; the cost of maintaining it as a free bath being for the same years, respectively, 717,688, and 1,308 marks ($ 171, $164, and $311). The two bath establishments of the Society for People’s Baths in Ber lin, which are situated respectively in the city park Gartenstrasse and the city park Wallstrasse, were built in 1887-88. The city of Ber lin gave the building sites for these establishments and contributed 108.000 marks ($25,704) toward their construction. Each establishment contains 4 first-class tub baths, 12 second-class tub baths, 9 first-class shower baths, each, provided with dressing cabin, and 5 shower baths of the second class with 15 dressing cabins, all told, for men; and for women, 4 first-class tub baths, 8 second-class tub baths, and 4 shower baths, each having its own dressing cabin. The cost of the two estab lishments was 225,000 marks ($53,550). The charges for baths are: First-class tub bath................................ ................................................................ $0.12 Second-class tub bath....................................................................................................06 First-class shower b a th ................................................................................................ 06 Second-class shower bath, including soap and to w e l...............................................02£ 696—No. 11----- 6 470 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, The following table shows the number of baths and receipts from baths for the Gartenstrasse people’s bath for each year from 1888-89 to 1895-96: N U M B E R OF B A T H S A N D R E C E IP T S F R O M B A T H S F O R T H E P E O P L E ’ S B A T H I N G A R T E N S T R A S S E , B E R L I N , 1888-89 T O 1895-96. Receipts from baths. Baths. W o m en . M en. T ear. T ub. 1888-89.. 1889-90.. 1890-91.. 1891-92.. 1892-93.. 1893-94.. 1894-95.. 1895-96.. Show Show T otal. Total. T ub. er. er. 43,324 19,032 62,356 19,776 53,769 23,233 77,002 24,498 56,318 20,882 77,200 .25,599 55,711 21,433 77,344 24,581 54,328 23,771 78,099 22,835 58,500 29,129 87,629 24,463 Cl, 146 33,317,94,463 25,692 60,936 35. 043 95.979 26.722 ’ 1 T M en. Total. Tub. Show Show Total] T ub. Total. er. er. Total. I 2,033 21,809 84,165 $2,748 3,961 26,450 103,461 3,400 1,488 27,087 104,287 3,560 953 25,534 102,678 3,512 1,057 i23,892 101,991 3,424 1,122|25,585 113,214 3,720 989i26,681 121,144 3,934 1. T59 27.881 123,860 ’ W o m en . 1 $507 $3,255 $1,204 598 3,998 1,496 526 4,086 3,571 532 4,044 1,517 568 3,992 1,405 720 4,440 1,512 820 4,754 1,583 $48 $1,252 a$4,739 47 1,543 a 5, 714 35 1,606 a5 ,848 23 1,540 a 5 ,720 25 1,430 45.556 27 1,539 a 6, 330 23 1,606 46.556 r a Inclu ding receipts from subscription tickets and school children’s shower baths, not shown in this table. The total receipts for the years from 1888-89 to 1895-96, included in the above table, amounted to 169,171 marks ($10,263). The expendi tures for the Gartenstrasse people’s bath in the same period amounted to 145,210 marks ($34,560), showing a surplus o f 23,961 marks ($5,703). The total expenditures are classified as follows: Salaries................................................................................................................. $3,839.35 Wages................................................................................................................... 2,066.37 Coal and wood.................................................................................................... 8,251.14 Water and drainage............................................................................................ 6,026.94 Gas........................................................................................................................ 1,400.14 Maintenance o f boilers, etc............................................................................... 557.18 Repairs................................................................................................................. 812.16 Laundry and soap............................................................................................... 1,118.99 Printing............................................................................................................... 271.40 Taxes.................................................................................................................... 394.64 Insurance............................................................................................................. 280.00 General charges................................................................................................... 689.49 231.08 Maintenance o f building, fixtures, and furnishings....................................... Total expenditures.................................................................................. 25,938.88 Depreciation.......................................................... ............................................. 8,621.21 T otal.......................................................................................................... 34,560.09 The greatest number of baths taken in any one day was 1,562, with receipts of 378 marks ($90), on Saturday, May 24,1890. The total number of baths given in the Wallstrasse people’s bath for each year in the period from 1888-89 to 1895-96 was as follows: 188889. 1889-90. 1890-91. 1891-92. 91,821 118,432 120,415 120,636 1892-93. 1893-94 1894-95 1895-96. 117,292 118,460 109,019 108,375 471 PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. The preponderance of bathers in summer over winter is indicated by the following analysis of the baths taken in the Wallstrasse establish ment for the years 1894-95 and 1895-96: NUMBER OP B A TE S, W ALLSTRASSE PEOPLE’S BATH , 1894-95 AND 1895-96. Women. Men. Date. Tub. Shower. Total. Tub. Shower. Total. Total. 1894-95. Summer.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W inter.................................... 80,471 24,247 17,974 11,985 48,445 36,232 15,169 8,557 536 80 15, 705 8,637 64,150 44,869 Total............................... 54, 718 29,959 84,677 23,726 616 24,342 109,019 29,987 22,964 18,599 11,336 48,586 34,300 16,499 8,353 423 214 16, 922 8, 567 65,508 42,867 52,951 29,935 82,886 24,852 637 25,489 108,375 1895-96. Summer_____. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W inter............................ Total............ .................. A similar preponderance of baths taken in summer is also shown by the returns from the people’s bath in the Gartenstrasse from 1888-89 to 3895-96, inclusive. The total income in 1895-96 of the Gartenstrasse establishment was 28,042 marks ($6,674); running expenses of the year 15,621 marks ($3,718); charged to profit and loss and interest account, 5,984 marks ($1,424), leaving a net surplus of 6,437 marks ($1,532). The establishment in Wallstrasse for the same year had a total income from bathers amounting to 24,294 marks ($5,782), against an expendi ture for running expenses of 14,120 marks ($3,360); charged to profit and loss and interest account, 6,604 marks ($1,572), leaving a net sur plus of 3,570 marks ($850). The city o f Berlin maintains a system of floating swimming baths on the river Spree. The first of these was built in 1850, the second in 1855, and in 1858 the number was increased to five. The first city floating bath for women was built in 1863 and the second in 1865. Jn 1890 Berlin possessed thirteen floating river baths, two of which were double baths, so-called, affording separate swimming pools for men and women. In the year 1889 the number o f male bathers in these estab lishments was 447,491, and of female, 185,683, making a total of 633,174, of whom 345,342 paid for their baths, while 287,832 had free tickets. The income from the baths was 23,657 marks ($5,630), against an expenditure o f 29,084 marks ($6,922.) In 1893 the swimming basins in the city river baths o f Berlin numbered sixteen, and 952,778 persons bathed in them, 536,588 being pay bathers and 416,190 being free bathers. Instruction in swimming was given to 1,065 persons. The income from the river baths in 1893 amounted to 50,291 marks ($11,969), against an expenditure of 50,602 marks ($12,043), leaving a deficit of 311 marks ($74). During the fiscal year ending March 31, 1895, the number of free bathers in the seventeen city swimming basins of Berlin was 356,294; 472 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. o f pay bathers, 448,911. The total expenditures for 1894-95 amounted to 52,297 marks ($12,447), while the total income was 40,356 marks ($9,605), showing a deficit of 11,941 marks ($2,842). The smaller num ber o f bathers in 1894 as compared with 1893 was attributed to the cooler summer in 1894. The success and popularity achieved by the Society for People’s Baths in the case of the institutions in the Gartenstrasse and Wallstrasse, already alluded to, led the city government of Berlin to establish two people’s baths (Yolksbadeanstalten) at the expense of the municipality. The first of these, in the Thurmstrasse, in the section known as Moabit, which is chiefly inhabited by working people, was opened November 1 , 1892, and the second, near Schilling’s bridge, was opened in June, 1893. The establishment in Moabit contains a large swimming hall, with a pool 18 meters (59 feet) long and 9 meters (29 feet 6 inches) broad, and also contains 15 first-class tub baths, 42 second-class tub baths, 7 first-class shower baths, and 22 second-class shower baths. In the swimming hall, on each of its long sides, are 16 dressing cabins, and in a gallery around the swimming hall are 80 dressing places, chiefly for children, consisting of fixed benches, with lockers above them to contain clothing. A special room opening out of the swimming hall is provided with cold and warm shower baths, wash basins, etc., and everyone using the swimming pool must take a bath in this room, which is called the douche and soaping room, before entering the pool. The total number o f bathers was 188,739 during the year ending March 31, 1895, or a daily average of 517. The total cost of the Thurm street establishment was 366,971 marks ($87,339), and that of the establishment near Schilling’s bridge 431,835 marks ($102,777), in each case exclusive of site. The people’s bath near Schilling’s bridge, in ground plan and general arrangement, is similar to the one just described. It contains 120 dressing places in its swimming hall, a shower and soap room, divided into two sections for children and adults, respectively; 55 shower-bath cabins (9 firstclass and 32 second-class for men, and 3 first-class and 11 second-class for women), and 57 tub-bath cabins (7 first-class and 25 second-class for men, and 5 first-class and 20 second-class for women). The number o f bathers for the year ending March 31,1895, was 326,463, being 894 daily on the average. About 43 per cent o f the bathers used the swim ming bath, although there are 9 river baths within 10 minutes’ walk of the establishment, while about 39 per cent of those using the swim ming bath, or aboutr300 a day, resorted to it during the winter months. ¥requently the swimming bath was used by between 2,000 and 3,100 persons. On Saturday, May 12,1894, there were 4,502 baths taken— 1,599 tub baths, 1,238 shower baths, and 1,665 swimming baths. On the day before Christmas 2,711 persons used the baths. The total income of the Moabit Bath for 1894-95 was 50,066 marks ($11,915), or 0.265 mark ($0,063) per bather. The total income for PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 473 1893- 94 was 47,383 marks ($11,277), or 0.253 mark ($0,060) per bather. The expenditures for 1894-95 amounted to 48,825 marks ($11,620), or 0.259 mark ($0,062) per bather, showing a surplus of 1,241 marks ($295), or a profit of 0.006 mark ($0.0014) per bather. For 1893-94 the expen ditures amounted to 46,220 marks ($11,000), or 0.247 mark ($0,059) per head, showing a surplus of 1,163 marks ($277), or a profit of 0.006 mark ($0.0014) per bather. The establishment near Schilling’s bridge had an average daily num ber of bathers o f 738 between July 1,1893, and March 31,1894, against an average for the period from July 1,1894, to March 31, 1895, of 844. In this establishment there was a profit per bather of 0.041 mark ($0.0098) in 1893-94, and a profit of 0.056 mark ($0.0133) per bather in 1894- 95. Certain of the swimming baths in Berlin have fallen under suspicion of sanitary uncleanliness within the last few years. Cases of illness have apparently been rightly traced to the swallowing of water during instruction or practice in swimming. Dr. Baginsky, o f Berlin, in an address delivered on March 12 , 1896, before the Society of Public Health in Berlin, details a number of cases which had come under his notice or been reported to him o f serious illness of a febrile nature attributable to infection received in the water of certain Berlin swim ming pools. Dr. Baginsky emphasizes the vital importance o f having thoroughly well lighted and ventilated swimming halls; of requiring every bather to cleanse himself thoroughly before entering the swim ming pool; o f providing self-cleansing spittoon-troughs on the sides of the pool; o f frequently and thoroughly cleaning the swimming bath and dressing rooms, and of frequently renewing the contents of the swimming bath completely. He urges that the construction and arrangement of swimming pools, and also their management, be under the continuous control of the sanitary police, in order that sources of infection may be minimized as much as possible. The official scale of charges at Berlin may be illustrated by that established in 1895 for the large people’s bath near Schilling’s bridge: Tub bath, first class................................................................................................. $0.14£ Tub bath, second class................................................................................................. 07 Shower bath, first class..................................................................................................06 Shower bath, second class............................................................................................. 02£ Swimming bath, including use o f soaping room and shower (persons over 14 y e a rs)............................................................................................................................06 Shower bath (persons under 14 years)................................... 03£ In the Poehhammer Floating Bath in Berlin, a private establishment, which was established in 1825 and remodeled in 1892, 30 pfennigs (7 cents) is charged for the use o f the swimming pool and shower bath and four tickets are sold for a mark (24 cents). Children under 10 years pay 20 pfennigs (5 cents) for a single bath; season tickets to children, 1st of October, cost 12 marks ($2.83J). Family tickets, admitting 3 persons, 474 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. cost 30 marks ($7.14). Instruction in swimming costs G marks ($1.43) for men and 8 marks ($1.90J) for women. As an example o f tlie batli charges in a small German city the follow ing list of charges, established in 1892 in the city of Essen, is appended. Essen had a population of 96,000 in 1895. The swimming bath is open for females pn Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays from 9.30 a. m. to 1 p. m., and on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays from 1.15 until 5.45 p. m.j for males on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays from 6 until 9 a. m., and from 1.15 until 9 p . m.; and on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays from 6 a. m. to 1 p. m., and from 6 to 9 in the evening. Every Tuesday and Saturday evening from 7 to 9 o’clock bath tickets are furnished at 10 pfennigs (2£ cents) a person, towels, etc., not included. Tub baths may be used by males and females daily from 6 a. m. until 9 p. m.; on Sundays and holidays from 6 a. m. to noon only. Yapor baths are open (1 ) for females on Mondays from 6 a. m. until 12 m .; on other days, with the exception of Sundays and holidays, from 6 until 10 a. m.; (2) for males on Mondays from 3 to 9 p. m. and on other week days from 10 a. m. until 1 p. m., and from 3 to 9 p. m.; on Sundays and holidays, from 6 a. m. to noon. In winter the establishment is opened at 7 a. m. and closed at 8 p. m. On Saturdays, however, it is kept open until 9 p. m., and only on those evenings are tickets for the swimming bath to be had at 10 p fe n n ig s (2| cen ts). T h e c h a rg e s are as fo llo w s : Swimming b a tli....................................................................................................... $0.12 Swimming batli, 12 tick ets........................................................................................... 95 Swimming bath, one month’s subscription in winter................................................ 71J Swimming bath, one month’s subscription in summer............................................... 95 Swimming bath, winter subscription................................................................... 2.38 Swimming bath, summer subscription................................................................. 2 .85£ Swimming bath, a year’s subscription.................................................................. 4.76 Swimming bath, school boys and girls, half price. Tuesday and Saturday evenings, from 7 to 9.......................................................... 02^ Instruction in swimming, good for 6 months from date o f purchase: A d u lts.................................................................................................................. 2.38 Children............................................................................................................. 1.43 Tub baths, ad u lts................................................................................................ . . 14| Tub baths, adults, 12 tickets.................................................................................. 1.43 Tub baths, ch ildren.............................................. ....................................................... 07 Tub baths, children, 12 tickets......................................................................................71| Vapor baths (steam), complete vapor bath, including douches, e t c .......................28£ Vapor baths (steam), complete, 12 tickets............................................................ 2 .85£ Vapor baths (steam), single douche..............................................................................14£ Vapor baths (steam), douche, 12 tickets................................................................ 1.43 I f 50 dozen tickets are purchased at one time there is a discount of 10 per cent, or o f 5 per cent for half that number. The establishment furnishes bathing trunks and a towel for use in the swimming bath and a towel for those using the tub baths, one towel and one bathing sheet in the vapor bath, and towel in douche bath. Extra towels are PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 475 furnished at 5 pfennigs (1 cent) each, and suits for women’s bathing for 10 pfennigs (2£ cents) each. The Stuttgart Swimming Bath was built by a stock company whose shares were taken by prominent citizens and toward whose capital considerable sums were contributed by the King and Queen of Wiirtemberg, the city o f Stuttgart, and the Society for the Welfare of the Working Classes. The capital outlay of the portion opened in 1880 was 415,000 marks ($98,770). An extension of the establishment was opened in 1803, at the cost of 590,000 marks ($140,420). The Stuttgart bath house is the most extensive of its kind in south Germany, and one of the most elaborate on the Continent. It contains a swimming bath for men 24 meters (78 feet 9 inches) long by 13J meters (44 feet 3 inches) wide, varying in depth from 0.8 meter (2 feet 7 inches) to 3.5 meters (11 feet 6 inches). Connected with it are 254 dressing cabins. There is a women’s swimming bath 18.5 meters (60 feet 8 inches) long by 12 meters (39 feet 4 inches) wide, having the same varying depth as the men’s swimming bath. Three hundred dressing cabins are connected with it. It contains tub baths of various descriptions, including, in addition to the first, second, and third class tub baths of the ordinary kind, 7 basin and 2 saloon baths, or 102 tub baths in all. It is also provided with a Russian-Roman bath for men and another for women, besides a cold-water-cure section for men, another for women, a sun bath, and a bath for dogs. In the first six months after it was opened, in 1889, more than 115,554 baths were taken. In the year 1890 the number had been increased to about 296,000,* in 1891 it had increased to 320,603, and in 1892 to 339,872, when the establishment contained but one swimming bath. Stuttgart’s population in 1892 was about 147,000. The consumption of water when it is fully in use amounts to 60 cubic meters (15,850 gallons) hourly, though when a renewal of water in the swimming basins is required 550 cubic meters (145,294 gallons) are needed for the large pool and 400 cubic meters (105,668 gallons) for the small one. The establishment is furnished with a separate boiler house contain ing four Cornwall boilers, having a maximum tension of five atmosiiheres, which furnish steam for warming water, for heating the building, and for running the necessary machinery. The building is lighted by electricity. It is interesting to note that the Monier system of construc tion (cement upon iron framework and wire lathing) was employed in lining the swimming baths, the construction of arches and of partition walls. It is claimed that this method of construction has many advan tages, particularly on account of its sanitary and fireproof qualities. The water used in this bath is derived partly from a deep well belong ing to the establishment and partly from the city service pipes. For running the pumps, etc., and the different machines in the laundry an engine of 12 horse power is used. 476 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. Beference to plan Fo. 4 shows the arrangement of baths on the ground floor: (1) Principal entrance, with office; (2) corridor to women's bath; (3) corridor to men's bath; (4) restaurant; (5) hairdresser's room for women; (6) stairway from basement and into second story; (7) swimming bath for women; on the edge o f the pool are two heavy cold douches, and the hall also contains 8 spray showers and 6 marble footbaths and dressing cabins; (8) two warm rooms, with 3 cleansing showers in each; (9) gallery stairway to second floor, where are dressing rooms and a Russian bath for women; (10) dressing cabins, 12 in number, first class; (11) hot-air room; (12) shampooing room, vritli shower bath; (13) steam room, with 3 marble footbaths and spray bath; (14) shower room, containing small cold plunge basin and variety o f douches; (15) warm full-bath basin; (16) water-closet; (17) drying room; (18) first-class resting room, with 14 couches; (19) boiler house; (20) passageway into old bath house; (21) ticket office for second entrance; (22) barber shop for men; (23) general office; (24) saloon with marble basin baths for men; (25) 3 first-class and 8 second-class bathrooms for men; (26) men's swimming bath, 60 close and 194 open dressing cabins, 1 cold-stream spray, 12 ordinary shower sprays, and 8 footbaths; (27) warm room; (28) water-closet. The newest of the public bath establishments in Germany is the City Swimming Bath of FranMbrt, begun in 1894 and finished in August, 1896. It cost 850,000 marks ($202,300), and is said to contain the larg est swimming bath for men as yet built in Germany. The dimensions of the swimming bath are 27.9 by 14.9 meters (91 feet 6 inches by 48 feet 11 inches). In its shallowest portion it is 0.8 meter (2 feet 7 inches) deep, and its greatest depth is 2.8 meters (9 feet 2 inches). The gang way surrounding the basin and the galleries o f the first story contains 76 separate dressing cabins, besides which are two large rooms on the first floor used as common dressing rooms. Fear to the entrance stair way, leading to the swimming pool, there is a douche and cleansing room, divided for the separate use of adults and boys, and every bather before entering the swimming bath is required to use the spray appa ratus in thecleansing room. The temperature o f air and water is gen erally kept at 72° F., though in the summer the temperature of the water is not so high. Water is kept flowing in and out from the basin continually and as need arises the pool is emptied, cleaned, and filled several times a week. The women’s swimming bath is 18.6 by 10.4 meters (61 feet by 34 feet 1 inch). It is provided with 60 separate dressing rooms, open dress ing rooms for school girls in the gallery, while the cleansing rooms are divided into separate cabins for individual bathers. There is a men’s second class swimming bath 12 meters (39 feet 4 inches) square. There are 40 tub baths in separate cabins. The cabins are spacious, light, and airy. The tubs are of masonry, lined with porcelain tiles, and furnished with cold and warm showers. Steam and air baths are also provided. In all there are six cleansing rooms gen erally provided with showers, besides a special shower room for the use o f bathers resorting to the vapor and hot-air baths. Ground floor. STUTTGART SWIMMING BATH, STUTTGART, GERMANY. P lan N o . 4. 477 PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. The prices established are as follows: First-class swimming b a th ..................................................................................... $0.12 First-class swimming bath, one month................................................................. 1.43 First-class swimming bath, summer half year..................................................... 4. 76 First-class swimming bath, winter half year...................................................... 3.57 First-class swimming bath, year............................................................................ 7.14 Second-class swimming b a th ........................................................................................02£ A fund of 20,000 marks ($4,760) has been established by a private donor, from the income of which free baths for persons without means will be furnished. Allusion has already been made to the city swimming bath of Vienna, built in 1876, situated on the right bank of the Danube. The following table shows the number of baths taken in this establishment during the season from May 1 to the end of September in each of the years 1889 to 1893, inclusive: BATH S T A K E N IN THE C IT Y SW IM M ING B A TH , V IE N N A , 1889 TO 1898. Year. 1889................................................................................................................... 1890.................................................................................................................. 1891................................................................. ................................................ 1892................................................................................................................... 1893...................................................................... ........................ ................. Males. 39,321 35,298 40, 513 46,055 39,985 Females. 20,132 18,692 19,605 23,155 20,466 Total. 59,453 53, 990 60, 118 69,210 60,451 It should be said that the Danube baths are quite distant from the center of population. On the left bank of the Danube there is a free bath, belonging to the city of Vienna, which consists of dressing, wash, office, and attendants7 cabins upon the bank and two basins in the stream, separated from each other by a floating fence. The whole arrangement has to be carried at the end of each season out of the reach of freshets. This free bath was used in 1889 by 64,385 persons, in 1890 by 43,910, in 1891 by 48,476, in 1892 by 51,660, and in 1893 by 38,178. The pro portion o f female bathers using the free bath was markedly less than the proportion using the city bath on the right bank of the Danube. The city also acquired, when the suburbs were annexed, the Theresien Bath, originally the property of the suburb Untermeidling. It isopen throughout the entire year and consists of two sections, one containing vapor and the other tub baths. In 1893 the charges in this establishment were— Tub bath, first cla ss.................. *........................................................................... $0.29 Tub bath, second class....................................................................................................24 Tub bath, third cla ss..................................................................................................... 19£ Vapor bath, first class..................................................................................................... 29 Vapor bath, second class................................................................................................ 19£ 478 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. The number of bathers in each o f the following five years is herewith shown: 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 39, 302 40,244 39,831 35,376 39,021 The Hiitteldorf city bath formerly belonged to the suburb Hiitteldorf, but is now the property o f Vienna. It is valued at 30,000 florins ($14,468) and contains two swimming pools and 10 tub-bath cabins. It is leased to a private manager at 1,400 florins ($675) annual rent. It is operated in the summer only. It cost the city 1,230 florins ($593) in 1893. The income and expenditure of the Vienna baths for the year 1893 were as follows: The city bath on the right bank of the Danube, income, 13,131 florins ($6,332), ordinary expenses, 30,561 florins ($14,738); free bath on the left bank *of the Danube, no income, expenditures, 2,634 florins ($1,270); Theresien bath, income 14,284 florins ($6,889), expenditures, 11,388 florins ($5,492); people’s shower baths, nine in number, ordinary income, 26,376 florins ($12,720), expenditures, 54,704 florins ($26,381). The total income from all baths, including the Hiitteldorf city bath, was 55,191 florins ($26,616); total expenditures, 100,517 florins ($48,474); deficit, 45,326 florins ($21,858). The baths of Budapest present the interesting peculiarity of being, for the most part, fed by thermal springs. They also, for the most part, remind one, in respect to their plan and arrangement, of the genuine Turkish bath. Indeed, in certain cases, baths originally built by the Turks are included in the present establishment and are still used. There are five private floating baths upon the Danube open during the summer, in addition to which the city maintains three municipal floating baths on the river. In 1894 the aggregate number of bathers in the three municipal baths on the river was 128,449. In the so-called Kaiser Bath, 108,066 bathers used the swimming pool in 1894, and in the St. Lucas Bath there were 39,820 swimmers. These establishments belong to stock companies which own water-cure establishments, hotels, etc., in connection with their baths. The St. Lucas Bath operates a people’s bath, where only 5 kreutzers (2 cents) are charged for a Turkish pool bath. Budapest maintains two city bath establishments, the so-called Brack Bath and the Artesian Bath, each o f which includes 3 build ings. There are 12 private bath establishments in the city, com prising 46 buildings o f various kinds. The total number of separate bathrooms in these 52 buildings is 463, of which 80 are contained in the two city bath establishments. In these establishments are found 448 tubs, 81 o f which belong to the city; also 66 shallow-plunge pools o f varying size, but not of the kind usually called swimming pools. 479 PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. Ten of these plunge basins are found in the city baths. O f swim ming pools, properly so called, the city owns one,* and the two baths already mentioned, the Kaiser Bath and the St. Lucas Bath, contain two each. Each of the city baths is under the control of a physician, and there are connected with the whole list of baths 11 physicians, 33 other officials, 186 attendants, and 128 other employees, making a total personnel of 358. The total number of bathers in the private and municipal establish ments of Budapest during each year from 1890 to 1894 is shown in the following table: 1890 ................................................................................................................... 1891 .................................................................................................................... 1892 ...................................................................................................................... 1893 ...................................................................................................................... 1894 ...................................................................................................................... 1,364,310 1,395,510 1,463,034 1, 627,098 1, 709, 398 The patronage, income, and expenditures of the Bruck and Artesian baths are shown below for each year from 1890 to 1894: NUMBER OF B A TH ERS AN D INCOME AN D EXPENDITURES OF THE BUDAPEST C ITY BATHS, 1890 TO 1894. Year. 1890.................................................................................................. 1891.................................................................................................. 1892................................................................................................. 1893.................................................................................................. 1894....................................................... ......................................... Batliers. 282,431 271,334 284, 815 293, 039 294, 045 Surplus. Income. Expendi tures. $53,884 51, 111 53,428 54,402 57, 592 $21,144 27,006 33, 847 25, 057 25,433 $32,740 24,105 19, 581 29,345 32,159 The adoption of shower baths for the use of soldiers in barracks by the German military authorities has led not only to the development of the Grove-Lassar type of people’s bath house, of which we have given some account, but also to the development of two other interest ing and useful forms of bath establishment, namely, the workmen’s bath and the school bath. Both of these forms of bath have become popular and numerous on the Continent, more particularly in Ger many, during the last ten years. In the original Grove bath house, constructed in 1878, the bathrooms were placed in the center, and consisted of two rows of 9 shower cabins each, placed back to back, and provided with overhead spray fixtures placed obliquely to prevent the water from falling vertically upon the bather. The rooms adjoining the bathrooms were used as open dressing rooms, the number of seats and clothes hooks in them being 54, so that while a squad of 18 men were bathing a second squad of 18 could be undressing and a third squad of the same number be dressing. In workmen’s baths of the new type, which vary greatly as to the number of showers they contain, the open dressing room is used in many instances, while in many others greater privacy is secured by providing each bather with a double cabin, the front part of which 480 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. is used as a dressing room and the rear section as the bath cabin proper. Both forms of dressing room are found among school baths, but since, as a rule, the school children bathe by detachments during school hours, the school baths usually have the dressing places or cabins separate from the shower cabins and twice or three times as many in number. The first public school bath in Germany was placed in a common school in Gottingen in 1883, the mayor of that city being prompted to utilize two basement rooms for the purpose, through the suggestion of a professor of hygiene that the provision of well-ventilated schoolrooms was likely to be futile if they were occupied by u dirty children having all sorts o f infective germs on their bodies and in their clothing.” The Gottingen school bath comprised two rooms, each 8 feet 3 inches by 16 feet 10 inches in area. One was set apart as a dressing room and the other was furnished with three sprays (fed from a hot-water tank) placed over as many shallow pans of zinc. The bath pans were 39£ inches in diameter and permitted three bathers to stand under the spray at once. The cost of fixtures, tank, and boiler was 780 marks ($186). The bath proved an eminent, not to say a startling, success. The Example of Gottingen was followed by other cities, till it is now possible to name some forty German, Swiss, and Scandinavian cities that have introduced warm shower baths into their common schools. Certain cities, as Munich, Berlin, Frankfort, and Cologne, have adopted the policy o f placing such baths in all new schoolhouses of the class., named. The testimony of officials, teachers, parents, pupils, and sani tarians is of one tenor, and leaves no doubt as to the practicability, economy, usefulness, and popularity o f the school baths. There is a school bath placed in a basemenfroom of one of the com mon schools o f Charlottenburg, near Berlin, which cost only 1,500 marks ($357). It comprises a boiler, tank, etc., 10 showers, and 20 dressing cabins. It is equal to the requirements of 50 to 60 children per hour. The town of Go van, near Glasgow, and Liverpool and Bristol, in England, have introduced plunge or small swimming baths in certain of their schoolhouses. The writer is convinced that the German type o f school bath, besides being less expensive, is better adapted to its purpose than is the British type. Though the demonstration of the efficiency and cheapness of the Grove-Lassar warm shower bath has conduced to the spread o f baths, both shower and tub, for the use of workmen in factories, mines, rail road shops, etc., the introduction of workmen’s baths in Germany con siderably antedates the invention o f barrack, school, and people’s baths. Though the German literature concerning the several forms of baths thus far considered is quite voluminous and fairly exhaustive, it is singularly lacking in comprehensive studies of the development PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 481 and spread of the workmen’s bath, which must be considered one of the most important of recent improvements in industrial hygiene. The following statements regarding this form of bath are based upon the writer’s own observations and upon data gleaned from scattered and inconspicuous though reliable sources of information. It should be noted that the institution of the workmen’s bath is to be credited to the enterprise and good will of the employers of labor, who have not been required by public law or police regulations to place it at the disposal of their employees. It would appear that bath houses designed to meet the special needs of factory operatives have existed in Miilhausen, in Alsace, since early in the fifties, when Miilhausen was, of course, a French city. The first establishment was a bath and wash house, erected in 1851 at the instance o f Mr. J. Dollfus, the moving spirit and president of the Miilliausen Workingmen’s Dwellings Company, whose success in providing model dwellings for workmen at low cost has made Miilhausen famous. Mr. Dollfus bore one-third of the expense of constructing the estab lishment, the remaining two-thirds being borne equally by the State and the city. The establishment was used by 8,000 to 9,000 bathers and 40,000 washers annually. Its fees were low, but in the course of thirteen years it yielded a surplus of nearly $1,000. In 1855 the asso ciation built a similar establishment, which contained 10 tub baths, in the middle o f its new workingmen’s quarter. The fee for a bath was 12 pfennigs (3 cents). This bath house was enlarged in 1886 and again in 1888. In 1864 a third bath and wash house, supplied with warm water from a neighboring factory, was built. The bath was a basin or pool bath, and bathers were charged 4 pfennigs (1 cent) for the use of it. Mention is made in the report of the Industrielle Gesellschaft of Miilhausen for 1891 of the bath and wash houses maintained by the firm of Dollfus, Mieg & Co., for the free use of its operatives and their families. The locomotive shops at Miilhausen contain a bath house in which are 15 shower baths and 9 combined tub and shower baths of the most approved modern pattern. In 1873 the firm o f Friedrich Krupp erected a central bath house in its well-known steel works in Essen, containing 7 bathrooms and a steam bath capable of accommodating 6 persons at once. The bath rooms are furnished with tubs, hot and cold water, and shower appli ances. The bath house was intended primarily for the use o f sick workmen not inmates o f the hospital, under advice of a physician. The fees are 15 pfennigs (3J cents) for a tub bath, and 1 mark (24 cents) for a steam bath. When not needed for patients, the baths may be used by other employees. Free shower baths are provided in various parts of the Essen works for particular classes of workmen, as furnace men. In the Bessemer works, for instance, there is a bathroom which dates from 1893, containing shower appliances. The firm has also built 482 BULLETIN CP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. a commodious and attractive casino for the use of its officials and fore men, which is liberally supplied with baths. A t the Krupp mines near Hanover is a bath house containing 28 shower cabins, which cost 20,000 marks ($4,760). It is said to be used by 1,100 persons daily. Another bath house, having 16 shower cabins and 1 combined shower and tub bath, has been erected at the smelting works near Duisburg at a cost o f 10,000 marks ($2,380). In 1890 nearly 25 per cent of the employees, some 490 in number, made daily free use o f these baths. The Hermann and the Mulkofen smelting works near Heuwied each have a bath house containing 15 shower baths and 1 combined tub and shower bath. Most of the shower baths provided for Krupp’s workmen have been installed since 1889. The writer has compiled a list of nearly 200 workmen’s baths said to have been established in Germany prior to 1896. By far the greater number of these were chiefly furnished with fixtures for furnishing hot or cold shower baths at the bather’s pleasure. The most striking feature of the list, perhaps, is the variety of industries it represents, viz, government shops under the control of the military and naval authorities, respectively; shops and stations belonging to railroads under State control; city gas and water works; mines; furnaces and smelting works; breweries; paper mills; manufactories of chemicals and dyestuffs; cotton mills; potteries; machine shops; shipping com panies, etc. Like the barrack, people’s, and school baths, the work men’s baths are scattered all over Germany. In the case of school baths the average cost of a warm shower bath in Germany is said to be 1 pfennig (about a quarter of a cent) per bather; and it is probably safe to say that, leaving the interest on plant out of account, the cost per bath in the case of workmen’s baths is about the same. In some cases it is less. Yery generally no charge is made to workmen using the baths provided for them in shops and factories. In some instances they are allowed to bathe during work ing hours. A s has been intimated, full and satisfactory accounts of the size, cost, and working of the workmen’s baths in Germany, taken as a whole, are not to be had; but the variety and increasing number of the industrial works in which they are to be found would seem to warrant the con clusion that they are both popular and useful. The following state ment o f facts regarding some of these establishments may be interesting in this connection. Lassar’s original 10-celled shower-bath house, which was exhibited and used at the Berlin Hygiene Exposition in 1883, was purchased by the proprietor o f a factory in Neusalz for the benefit of his workmen. It appears to have been still in use in 1896. Heyl Brothers & Co., of Charlottenburg, near Berlin, shortly after 1883 erected a shower-bath house with 10 cabins, after the Lassar model, for the use of the workmen in their dyestuffs feetory. Ho fee was charged to workmen and their PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 483 children for water, soap, or towels. The bath proved extremely popu lar and excited a sensibly favorable influence upon the health of those who frequented it. In 1884 a bath, costing 3,000 marks ($714), con taining 8 cabins with basins or troughs sunk in the floor, and 4 tub baths was opened in the Hospelt white-lead and color factory at Ehronfeld, and the men in the white-lead works, some 80 in number, were required to bathe every Saturday, while of the hands who had nothing to do with white lead—those engaged in particularly dusty work—were allowed to bathe oftener, even daily if necessary. After the institution of the bath house the per cent of illness decreased and the frequency of cases of lead colic was very much diminished. In 1884 the cases o f illness were less by 20 per cent than formerly, and in 1885 they were 50 per cent less. In the Leipsic W ool Combing Establishment, which maintained 12 tub baths for its workmen and work women, the daily cost for water, steam, and service was reckoned at 05 pfennigs (15J cents) per cabin. In a factory at Dalken, in the Dusseldorf district, there is a shower bath with 12 cabins, which, together with 170 towels and bath caps, cost only 1,430 marks ($340). It is capable of affording 100 warm baths in an hour and as many as 84 children have bathed in it in that time. The cost of running it for two successive hours is reckoned at 1.15 marks (27£ cents), or 0.7 pfennig ($0.00167) per bath. The shower bath be longing to the Tremonia mine, near Dortmund, is said to have been used daily in 1894 by 540 men, on the average, out of 600 miners. The annual expense o f maintaining the bath, including interest and sinking fund charges, amounted to 2,200 marks ($524). The cost o f a single bath was reckoned at 1.412 pfennigs ($0.00336). The largest workmen’s bath in the writer’s list is that at the “ Anna” pit, belonging to the Eschweil Mining Company. It is furnished with 50 shower baths, 2 tub baths, and 12 washbowls. For a one-story bath house, capable of containing 32 shower cabins, each 4£ by 3J feet in area, with dressing-bench accommodations for 96 men, a space of 48 feet 1 inch by 45 feet 8 inches is sufficient. Allow ing fifteen to eighteen minutes per man for undressing, bathing, and dressing, such a bath house is capable of affording 320 to 380 baths in an hour. A generous allowance of water for a workman’s shower bath would be 10 gallons per head, with a shower nozzle supplying 2 gallons per minute. In the foregoing pages the writer has endeavored to bring out the salient facts with regard to the manner in which public bath houses are constructed and managed in Europe. It has been seen that the move ment to provide baths and washhouse facilities which originated in England in 1842 has spread widely in Great Britain and on the Conti nent, and has not yet spent its force. It is to be noted that the estab lishment of public washhouses in connection with bath houses of the combined swimming and cleanliness type is not so common as in the 484 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. early years of tlie movement. The experience o f Glasgow, as brought out in the report of Mr. William Thomson, at least suggests the advisability, where public washhouses are provided, of making them numerous, small, self-contained, and of locating them in the heart of thickly settled districts. The success of the movement in Germany for establishing people’s and workmen’s baths of the shower-bath type suggests that the multiplication of the simpler and less expensive forms of bath establishment is the wisest policy to be pursued by American cities in their first attempts to provide the working classes who have not bathing facilities in their own homes with adequate baths for cleansing and refreshment. The writer is inclined to lay special emphasis upon the fact that in the great industrial centers of Germany diversified forms of public baths have been developed, and that in such cities as Berlin, Cologne, and Frankfort, which possess monumental bath houses provided with swimming, tub, and other forms o f bath, the necessity of also having the simpler form of people’s shower baths has been recognized. Fur thermore, it is to be noted that the adoption of school shower baths has been quite as general in towns and cities already comparatively well provided with swimming baths, and even with people’s baths in addition. A t the present juncture it is believed that the various forms of people’s baths to be found in Germany and Austria will best repay careful study by American sanitarians, philanthropists, and archi tects since the resources of modern technology appear to have been more completely employed in those countries than elsewhere in the construction and management of such establishments. Through recent improvements in the method of supplying the tubs and showers with hot water quickly and at small expense, the installation of cleansing baths for workmen in mines, foundries, factories, etc., has been ren dered a comparatively easy matter, and the writer confidently believes that the lessons o f German experience in regard to workmen’s baths will be fully recognized and ultimately acted upon by the friends and employers of American artisans. BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following list contains the titles of the most important books and pamphlets relating to the construction and administration o f baths. It makes, however, no pretensions to completeness: Arbeiter-Badeeinrichtungen. Ansichten und Grundsatze des Preisgerichts fiber die vom deutschen Brauerbund ausgeschriebene Preisaufgabe. By B. Knoblauch. Carl Heymann, Berlin, 1889. Pt. II, 15 pp. Arbeiter-Brausebad, Has. Eine Abhandlung fiber den Bau und die innere Einrichtung von Brausebadern nach eigenem System mittelst Gegenstromapparate. Mit ? Illustrationen und 8 Tafeln. By H. Schaffstadt. Selbstverlag des Yerfassers, Giessen, 1895. 14 pp. PUBLIC BATHS IN EUROPE. 485 Badeanstalt, Die. Ein Hilfsbuch zum Entwurfe der technischen Einrichtung grosserer offentlicher Badeanstalten. By J. H. Klinger. A. Hartleben, Vienna, Pesth, Leipsic, 1891. 86pp. and 17illustrations. Badeeinriclitungen innerbalb der Scbulen. By Friedrich Bartels. Her mann Haacke, Leipsic. 22 pp. Bader und Bade-Anstalten der Neuzeit, Die. Mit 135 Abbildungen. By Georg Osthoff. Karl Scholtze, Leipsic, 1887. 302 pp. Ban und Betrieb von Volksbadeanstalten. Mit 45 Abbildungen im Text. By Rudolph Schultze. Emil Strauss, Bonn, 1893. 68 pp. Beschreibung einer Badeeinrichtung “ Grove’sches System ’7 fur Militarinstitute, Schulen, Arbeitshauser und dergleicben ahnliche oflentliche sowie privat Anstalten passend. E. S. Mi tier & Son, Berlin, 1880. 1 1 pp. Directiven fur die Anlage von Douehebadern in Militar-Gebauden. Mit 11 Stuck Planen. Wien, aus der kaiserlich konigliclien Hofund Staatsdruckerei, 1892. 21 pp. l’Economiste pratique. Construction et organisation des cr&ches, salles d’asile, ecoles, etc. By fimile Cacheux. Baudry & Co., Paris, 1885. 814 pp. and atlas. (Chapitre IT, Troisieme Partie, pp. 415-470, is entitled u Bains et lavoirs.” ) Glasgow Corporation Baths and Washhouses. Report by William Thom son, General Superinten dent. John Crawford, Glasgow, 1892. 18 pp. Grundriss-Vorbilder von Gebauden aller Art. Abtheilung IV. Gebaude fur Gesundheitspflege und Heilanstalten. Mit 139 Textfiguren und 16 Tafeln. I. Bade- und Waschanstalten, pp. 273-310. By L. Klasen. Baumgartner’s Buclihandlung, Leipsic. Moderne Bader erlautert am Stuttgarter Schwimmbad. Mit 5 Planen, 1 Abbildung, und 2 Tabellen. By Leo Vetter. G. J. Goschen’sche Verlagshandlung, Stuttgart, 1894. 143 pp. On Bathing and Different Forms of Baths. By Wm. Paul Gerhard. Wm. T. Comstock, Kew York, 1895. 31 pp. Public Baths and Cheap Baths for the People. Illustrated. By Francis Vaclier. Knight & Co., London, 1879. 22 pp. Public Baths and Pubiic Comfort Stations, Report on. By the Mayor’s Committee of Kew York City. Illustrated. New York, 1897. 195 pp. Public Baths and Washhouses. Illustrated with plans and sections. By R. Owen Allsop. E. & F. N. Spon, London, and Spon & Chamberlain, New York, 1894. 98 pp. Rain Bath at the Utica State Hospital, The. Illustrated. By Wm. Paul Gerhard. Privately printed, New York, 1894. 24 pp. Stuttgarter Schwimmbad, Das. Seine Geschichte, Einrichtung und Bestimmung. Mit einer Abbildung und zwei Planen. By Leo. Vetter. J. B. Metzler, Stuttgart, 1889. 61 pp. Thatigkeit des Berliner Vereins fur Volksbader, Die. (Veroffentlicht bei Gelegenheit der Berliner Gewerbe Ausstellung 1896.) Mit 4 Tafeln. Julius Springer, Berlin, 1896. 72 pp. 696—No. 11----- 7 486 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. Turkish Bath, The, its Design and Construction. Illustrated with plans and sections. By B. Owen Allsop. E. & F. N. Spon, London, and Spon & Chamberlain, New York, 1890. 152 pp. Ueber Brausebad-Einrichtungen verbunden mit offentlichen Scliulanstalten. By Paul Yoigt. Friedrich Hiickstedt, Charlottenburg, 1896. 50 pp. Ueber Yolksbader. Zweite vermelirte Auflage, mit vier Abbildungen. By Oscar Lassar. Fr. Yieweg & Son, Brunswick, 1888. 45 pp. RECENT REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR STATISTICS. INDIANA. Sixth Biennial R eport o f the Departm ent o f Statistics o f the State o f In d i ana, f o r 1 8 9 5 -9 6 . Simeon J. Tliomi>son, Chief of Bureau. 503 pp. The following statistics are presented in this report: Industrial sta tistics, 240 pages; social statistics, 27 pages; judicial circuits, 19 pages; real estate transfers, 10 pages; mortgages and satisfactions, 14 pages; county expenditures and indebtedness, 25 pages; railroad statistics, 34 pages; farm products, 71 pages; miscellaneous, 44 pages. I n d u s t r ia l S t a t ist ic s .—These were compiled from returns received from 9G8 establishments located in 128 towns and cities, and represent ing 40 distinctive manufacturing industries. Returns were received both from proprietors of establishments and from employees. A set of tables, with analysis, is given for each industry, followed by a general summary of manufacturing industries and an analysis relating to women wage earners. The introduction to the report states that returns received from the 968 establishments show a capital of $42,507,737 invested in buildings, grounds, and machinery. The cost of material used the past year was $83,202,319, the gross value of the goods manufactured $132,788,421, and the amount paid for wages $28,062,083. The establishments employed 80,184 persons, of whom 61,555 were men, 9,735 boys, and 8,894 women and girls. The plants were in operation during an aver age of ten and a half months. In addition to the statements of the xiroprietors of the 968 establish ments, agents o f the bureau personally visited and received statements from 10,275 male and 867 female employees. These statements were used as bases for determining the probable conditions for all male and female employees respectively. The figures, therefore, which are rep resented as employees’ statements are not the actual returns, but are simply estimates based upon a much smaller number o f actual returns. The following tables present for 40 industries some of the more important of the statistics brought out in the report. While the fig ures in the introduction relate to 968 establishments, but 967 are reported in the tables. The reason for the difference is not known. 487 488 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. NUMBER A N D W A G E S OF EMPLOYEES A N D V A L U E OF PRODUCT IN FORTY M A N U FA C TU RIN G INDUSTRIES. Estab lish ments. Industries. A verage months Value o f man Employees. Wages paid. in opera ufactured product. tion. i 6 3 3 5 5 22 10.4 9.2 10.9 12.0 9.9 10.8 10.0 11.3 11.3 9.1 10.0 10.0 10.9 11.3 12.0 10.0 9.2 11.0 11.0 10.6 11.1 9.5 9.0 12.0 10.2 11.9 10.2 12.0 10.0 9.1 7.0 10.0 11.7 10.5 10.8 9.0 11.0 8.0 12.0 10.5 $17, 794,252 8,742, 784 5, 740, 610 725, 000 6, 600, 818 3, 085, 377 1,415, 298 1, 392,980 3,880,874 9,277, 677 2,810,566 3,925,125 2,199.020 505, 275 365, 592 3,276,120 1,921,570 1,926,653 596,457 585, 200 632, 800 528, 500 3,269, 521 29, 790,000 161, 539 1,253, 869 498, 700 586, 000 75, 000 237,170 200, 000 10, 553,000 3, 073, 627 926, 805 865, 720 307, 000 318, 000 366, 500 264, 427 2,037, 995 16,073 Ij $5,435, 895 9,728 1 4,263,051 3,622 i! 1,469,196 526 262, 000 6,503 2, 033,300 2,419 636, 094 1,220 298,546 1,413 328,440 4,824 975,850 6,481 2,149,125 2,435 782, 676 4,248 1, 593, 531 1,585 507,332 523 176, 975 200 80, 029 2,003 731,754 2,056 604,415 1,916 544,411 497 159,668 601 193, 020 388 151,075 337 172,440 305 157, 708 3,043 1,132,000 201 57,070 563 267,458 501 222,490 570 232,440 95 32, 800 93 54,313 241 65,117 1,139 780,400 754 543, 029 364 138,548 767 -212,346 116 44, 000 300 79, 000 313 34,872 65 31,800 956 420,869 967 10.3 132,713,421 79,984 Iron................................................................ Glass.............................................................. Farm m achinery......................................... Flour-mill m achinery................................. Furniture..................................................... Bicycles......................................................... Woolen m ills................................................ Cotton m ills.................................................. Wearing apparel......................................... W agons and buggies.................................. Tin plate....................................................... Car shops and shipyards............................ Paper and strawboard mills....................... Pulleys and shafting.................................. Pump factories............................................. Planing m ills................................................ Cooperage..................................................... Specialties in w ood...................................... Boxes and packages.................................... Handles......................................................... Coffins and caskets...................................... Washing machines...................................... Cerealine and hom iny................................. Packing companies...................................... Basket and fruit packages*........................ Bread and candies....................................... Encaustic tile, pottery, and terra cotta... M usical in strum ents................................... Hames and saddle trees............................. Glue, paint, and varnish........................... Cement factories......................................... O ils............................................................... B e e r .............................................................. Tanneries..................................................... B ra ss............................................................ Zinc works................................................... Hats and caps.............................................. Boots and shoes........................................... S oap .............................................................. Miscellaneous................... .......................... 166 62 36 4 116 17 14 6 35 98 6 11 27 7 11 77 56 9 16 24 Total.................................................... 8 13 9 7 4 12 9 5 6 6 4 4 28 10 28,052,083 E M P L O Y E E S , H O U R S C O N S T IT U T IN G A D A Y ’S W O R K , A N D E S T A B L IS H M E N T S R E P O R T I N G IN C R E A S E O R D E C R E A S E O F W A G E S I N F O R T Y M A N U F A C T U R I N G I N D U S T R IE S . Industries. I r o n . . . . ................................. G lass...................................... Farm m achinery................. Flour-mill machinery.......... F urniture............................. B icycles................................. Woolen m ills........................ Cotton m ills.......................... Wearing apparel................. Wagons and bu g gies.......... Tin p late............................... Car shops and shipyards . . . Paper and strawboard mills. Pulleys and shafting.......... Pump factories..................... Planing m ills........................ Cooperage............................. Specialties in w o o d .......... Boxes and packages............ H andles................................. Coffins and caskets.............. E stab lish m ents. 166 62 36 4 116 17 14 6 35 98 6 11 27 7 11 77 56 9 16 24 8 Employees. M en. 13,951 7,229 3,228 470 5,044 1,949 358 277 601 5,682 2,075 4,052 1,322 461 183 1,818 1,700 1,284 266 496 306 Boys. W om en. 1,905 2,056 356 45 1,068 208 142 220 161 638 255 i90 99 59 15 181 356 573 121 97 40 217 443 38 11 391 262 720 916 4,062 161 105 6 164 3 2 4 59 110 8 42 Establishm ents Hours reporting— constitut ing a Increase Decrease day’s Total. w ork. of wages. o f wages. 16,073 9,728 3,622 526 6,503 2,419 1,220 1,413 4,824 6,481 2,435 4,248 1,585 523 200 2,003 2,056 1,916 497 601 388 10.4 9.2 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.8 10.0 9.9 10.0 9 .5 10.0 10.6 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 33 11 3 9 27 2 12 4 1 9 5 20 1 7 4 4 2 6 1 4 6 2 2 2 REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR— INDIANA. 489 E M P L O Y E E S , H O U R S C O N S T I T U T I N G A D A Y ’S W O R K , A N D E S T A B L I S H M E N T S R E P O R T I N G IN C R E A S E OR D E C R E A S E O F W A G E S I N F O R T Y M A N U F A C T U R I N G I N D U S T R IE S — Concluded. Industries. Estab lish ments. Hours i Establishments constitutreporting— Employees. Men. Boys. Washing m achines.............. Cerealine and hom iny......... Packing companies.............. Basket and fruit packages .. Bread and candies................ Encaustic tile, pottery, and terra cotta.......................... Musical instruments........... Hamds and saddle trees . . . . Glue, paint, and varnish___ Cement factories............ . Oil* B eer........................................ Tanneries............................. TCvftss ____________________ Zinc works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hats and c a p s....................... Boots and shoes . . . . . . . . . . . . Soap ___. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M iscellaneous....................... 13 9 7 4 12 243 294 2,713 80 337 155 69 65 9 5 6 6 4 4 28 10 6 3 3 5 5 22 363 483 91 76 235 1,047 671 341 716 115 110 189 50 524 30 65 2 13 5 84 70 21 50 1 14 30 15 126 T o ta l............................ 967 61,430 9,685 85 day’s work. Women. Total. ! Increase i Decrease ; o f wages.; of wages. 9 11 175 52 161 337 305 3,043 201 563 10.0 11.2 10.0 10.0 10.0 108 22 2 4 1 8 13 2 1 501 570 95 93 241 1,139 754 364 767 116 300 313 65 956 9.6 1 10. o ................ 10.0 ................ 10.0 ................ 10.0 ................ 9.5 ................ io .o ; 3 10.0 ! 1 10.0 ................ 10.6 ................ 10.0 ................ 9.8 1................ 10.0 1.......... . .. 9.7 i 1 176 i 94 ii ! j 306 | 8, 869 79,984 i 10.0 . 1 !................ i................ i................ 2 j 113 2 i 3 79 Referring to the above tables, it will be seen that of the manufactur ing industries iron had the largest number of employees and paid the greatest amount for wages. Ten hours constituted an average day’s work. The average length of the working day varied from 9.2 hours in the glass industry to 11.2 hours in the cerealine and hominy industry. Of the 967 establishments, 113 reported an increase in wages during the year and 79 reported a decrease. The report states that the average daily wages for men were $1.79; for boys, $0.67, and for womeu and girls, $0.75. Strikes were reported in but three establishments, all of which were in the glass industry. According to estimates made from the statements of about 14 per cent of the employees, 47,626 of the men were native and 13,676 were foreign born, 18,172 were single, and 43,130 were married, with an average family of 4.2 persons; and of the married men, 16,983 owned their homes, while 25,994 paid rent at an average monthly rental of $7.73. Reports regarding 153 others were indefinite on this point. It was estimated that building and loan association stock was owned by 8,577 men, holding on an average 5.7 shares each; houses had been built by 2,952 of the shareholders, and life insurance was carried by 17,388 men to the average amount of $1,214 per person insured. The estimated population directly depending upon these industries, namely, employees and their families, was 218,065 persons. Reports received from female employees showed that 20 per cent received 50 cents or less per day; 42 per cent, from 50 to 75 cents; 31 per cent, from 75 cents to $1, and 7 per cent more than $1 per day. The average age of the female employees reporting was 19.5 years, and 490 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. the average length o f time at work 3.4 years. They were employed an average of 214 days during the past year, and the average length of the working day was 9.6 hours. The estimates made for the total number of females employed in 967 establishments showed that of the 8,869 females 8,231 were single, 147 were widows, and 491 were married and had an average family of 2.2 persons each. Of the married women, 213 owned their homes and 278 paid rent at an average rate of $7.41 per month. Building and loan association stock was owned by 515 female wage earners, and the aver age holding was 3.3 shares per member. Houses were built by 98 of the shareholders. Life insurance was carried by 1,120 female employees. The statistics relating to the stone quarry, coal mining, and railroad industries are treated separately. Reports from 112 quarries showed a production of stone valued at $1,958,376 during the year. The amount paid for wages was $940,684. There were 3,519 men and 175 boys employed. The average daily wages were $1.65 for the men and $0.67 for the boys. An estimated population of 11,578 was dependent upon the stone quarries. Reports from proprietors of 86 coal mines showed an investment of $1,912,199 in that industry, a production of 2,737,686 tons of coal dur ing the year, and a total of $2,196,868 paid in wages. The number of employees Avas 8,669 i>ersons. Strikes occurred in 54 of the 86 mines. The estimated population dependent uj)on the 86 mines was 38,418 persons. M o r tg a g e s and S a tisf a c t io n s .—Reports were received from 90 counties in 1895 and 89 counties in 1896 out of a total of 92 counties. Some of these, however, failed to report upon releases or satisfactions. Following is a summary of the reports received: MORTGAGES A N D SATISFACTIONS, 1895 A N D 1896. M ortgages. Satisfactions. R in d o f mortgage. Num ber. A m ou n t. Num ber. #A m ou n t. 1895 . On f a r m s ___ . . . . . ________________ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___ On lo t s ........................................................... ................................ .. School fu n d ........................................................................................ C h a tte l................................................................................................. M echanics’ lien ................................................................. ............. 28,498 22,166 3,193 19,237 6,530 $26,393,167 17,098,152 1,463,600 5,403,873 979, 379' 14,965 9,913 1,687 4,948 2,655 $12,093,603 7, 584,598 867,448 1, 393,069 319) 987 T o t a l ........................................................................................ 79,624 51,338,171 34,168 22,258,705 On fa r m s ......... ... . . . . ________________ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t __ On lo ts ................................................................................................... School fu n d ......................................................................................... C h a tte l................................................................................................. M echanics’ lien ............................................................................... 28,204 18,158 2,278 17,264 7,153 25,408,294 13,872,449 1,109,085 5,191,694 1,029; 149 15,286 9,365 1,341 4,045 2,783 12,886. 538 6,222,149 581, 450 1, 087,115 322, 597 T o t a l ......................................................................................... 73,057 46,610,671 32,820 21,101,849 1899 . REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR— INDIANA. 491 B a il r o a d S t a t ist ic s .—This information is given for the years 1895 and 1890. The report for 1895 is incomplete, only 23 railroads having made returns. In 189G returns were received from 28 railroads. In the latter year, these 28 railroads carried 38,750,309 passengers and 87,756,096 tons of freight. The receipts from all sources were $123,642,999, and the expenditures were $91,403,816. The fatalities and accidents during the year were 251 killed and 2,445 injured. The following table shows the number of railroad employees, average wages, and hours of labor, by occupations, as reported for 1895 and 1896, respectively: NUMBER A N D A V E R A G E W AG ES A N D HOURS OF LABOR OF R A ILR O A D EMPLOYEES, B Y OCCUPATIONS, 1895 A N D 1896. 1896. 1895. Occupations. General officers................. Division superintendents. Civil engineers................. Master m echanics............ Roadm asters..................... Clerks................................. Conductors, passenger---Conductors, freight.......... Engineers, passenger....... Engineers, freight............ Firemen, passenger.......... Firemen, freight................ Brakemen, passenger....... Brakemen, freight............ Baggagemen....................... M achinists........................ Yard employees: Conductors................. E ngineers................... Firem en....................... Brakem en................... W ip e rs......................... Carpenters............................... Section foremen........................ Section men............................... Watchmen................................. Bridge tenders and pumpmen. Soliciting a g e n ts..................... Traveling passenger agents. . . Contracting agents................. Painters.................................... Extra foremen.......................... Other employees...................... Average Average Average Average Employees. daily hours hours Employees.j daily wages. o f labor. wages. of labor. $10.06 350 7.78 49 1 4. 61 59 I 39 5.75 104 3. 36 4, 704 1.96 3. 78 438 3.12 1,470 4.28 552 4.15 1, 800 2.28 558 2.24 l , 799 615 2.06 3,406 2.09 631 1.87 2,225 2.10 643 635 659 1,429 861 1,404 1,148 1,776 3,298 2,046 9,259 1,825 362 44 76 46 596 163 18,965 2.67 2.90 1.78 2.35 2.79 1.89 1.65 1.68 1.91 1.60 1.10 1.23 1.09 3.79 3.67 4.58 1.91 2.56 1.49 9.9 9.2 9 .9 9 .0 9.6 10.2 10.5 10.9 10.7 9.7 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.3 9.5 10.9 9 .2 10.0 10.0 10.0 355 57 62 44 102 4,647 629 1,443 768 1,737 774 1, 758 901 3, 205 732 2, 538 $10.61 7.75 i 5.14 ! 5.78 1 3.63 I 1. 98 1 3. 60 3.14 4. 26 i 3. 99 ! ' 2. 30 2. 27 1 2. 01 2.15 i 1.92 ; 2. 23 j 1 719 726 ; 750 1,629 700 1,581 1 , 253 2,162 3,624 ; 2,351 10,532 2,044 360 55 63 52 657 142 21,219 2.83 3.14 1.90 2. 20 1.30 2. 00 1.65 1.75 1.98 1.61 1.15 1.26 9.2 9 .6 9 .6 8.7 9.3 9 .8 10.0 10.3 10.2 9.7 9 .7 9.6 10.3 1.11 9.9 3.73 3.42 9.3 4.44 9 .0 9 .5 10.0 9.3 1.91 2.52 1.57 6.0 492 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. MAINE. N inth A n n u a l R eport o f the B ureau o f In du strial and L abor Statistics fo r the State o f M ain e . 1895. Samuel W . Matthews, Commissioner. 237 pp. The contents of this report may be grouped as follows: Condition of the working people, 68 pages; railroad employees, 4 pages,* factories, mills, and shops built during 1895, 4 pages; butter, cheese, and con densed milk factories, 10 pages; Maine’s industrial progress and the outlook for the future, 25 pages; short sketches of the woodworking, oilcloth, lime, slate, sardine, and blueberry industries, 37 pages; extracts from the proceedings of the eleventh annual convention of the National Association of Officials of Bureaus of Labor Statistics, 31 pages; the labor laws of Maine, 10 pages; report o f the inspector of factories, workshops, names, and quarries, 35 pages. C on dition of th e W orkings P e o p l e .—In making this investiga tion uniform schedules of inquiry were used, and the facts were ascer tained by special agents, who visited 556 workingmen in 18 different lines of industry. The following tables contain the principal data col lected by the agents: CONDITION OF W ORKINGMEN, B Y OCCUPATIONS. Occupations. Belong Belong Aver ing to Having Work ing to |benefisavings Ownage ingbank '1 ing value labor 1 ciary men. organi organi ac- |homes. o f zations. zations. counts . 1 homes. ! A ver age days lost during year. A ver Wages Wages age an in de nual creased creased earn during during ings o f year. year. head of family. H E AD S OF FAM ILIES. Carpenters................. M asons........................ Masons’ tenders......... Painters....................... Blacksmiths................ Laborers...................... H ostlers...................... House-finish makers.. Granite workers......... Slate workers.............. Lime workers.............. Sawmill hands............ Cotton-mill hands....... W oolen-mill hands---Shoemakers................ Moccasin makers....... Shipbuilders................ Pulp makers................ 67 34 15 30 29 31 18 43 8 31 9 48 61 17 20 21 21 11 19 12 2 3 1 17 11 2 4 1 4 9 6 9 3 6 1 4 1 5 1 10 26 3 6 8 14 11 2 4 34 19 5 13 19 12 6 31 6 4 3 13 16 7 8 9 14 3 42 $1,300 20 1,445 2 2,950 8 1,400 12 1,417 4 1,113 15 6 12 7 16 14 3 7 3 H 5 1,707 933 833 1, 386 1,131 1,430 1,033 2,114 1,567 1,341 960 58 56 54 69 11 48 13 5 34 84 19 63 32 24 27 16 45 24 2 8 $491.89 1 1 2 1 2 1 4 i 2 2 4 2 25 3 1 7 601.00 390* 87 493.10 572.59 375.61 432* 94 644* 23 641.87 376.84 637! 33 429! 29 371.* 43 418.71 605.30 483.19 547! 67 43L91 W IT H O U T F AM IL IE S. Carpenters................. M asons........................ Painters...................... Blacksmiths................ Laborers...................... Sawmill hands............ Cotton-mill hands....... Shoemakers................ 6 3 4 3 3 13 5 5 2 1 2 1 4 85 1 2 x 101 2 500 68 18 66 83 68 43 1 1 2 i 337.50 395!00 416.25 499.33 357! 00 334. 8b 326 20 542! 20 REPORTS OP STATE BUREAUS OP LABOR-----MAINE. 493 S IZ E O F W O R K I N G M E N ’S F A M I L I E S , A V E R A G E E A R R I N G S , E T C ., B Y O C C U P A T IO N S . Heads o f families. Number Average assisted persons by other in Average Average family. members Number. annual daily of family. wages. earnings. Occupations. Carpenters............................... M ason s.................................... Masons’ tenders...................... Painters.................................. Blacksm iths............................ Laborers................................... H ostlers................................... House-finish m akers.. . . . . . . . Granite w orkers..................... Slate w orkers.......................... Lime workers.......................... Sawmill hands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Co -ton-mill hands................... Woolen-mill hands................. Shoemakers............................. Moccasin m akers................. Shipbuilders............................ Pulp m akers............................ 67 84. 15 30 29 31 18 43 8 31 9 48 61 17 20 21 21 11 $2.03 2. 51 1.58 2.13 1. 95 1.47 1.25 2.14 2.41 1.75 2. 25 1.88 1.35 1.49 2.15 1.67 2.19 1.52 $491.89 601.00 390. 87 493.10 572. 59 375. 61 432. 94 644. 23 641. 87 376. 84 637. 33 429. 29 371. 43 418.71 605. 30 483.19 547. 67 431.91 3.79 4.26 4.33 4.00 4.10 4.32 4.28 4.07 5.12 4.16 4.11 4.10 '4.64 4.29 3.50 4.10 4.19 4.82 18 6 6 6 2 16 4 3 8 2 12 27 7 6 4 4 3 Average annual Average earnings annual of other in come of members family. of family. $43.51 20. 74 59. 33 47. 50 13. 79 128.13 51. 39 51.16 67.50 45. 00 24.44 49.31 136. 08 63.82 82.15 78.57 33. 38 151.82 $535.40 621.74 450.20 540. 60 586. 38 503. 74 484.33 695. 39 709. 37 421.84 661. 77 478. 60 507. 51 482.53 687.45 561. 76 581.05 583.73 A V E R AG E EXPEN DITU RES OF W ORKINGM EN’S FA M ILIE S, B Y OCCUPATIONS. [Each item in this table is an average based on the number o f families reporting. As the number of families reporting differs for the various items, the sums o f the items do not equal the average totals which are based on the total expenditures o f all families.] Occupations. Carpenters.......................... M asons............................... Masons’ tend ers................ P ainters............................. Blacksm iths....................... Laborers.............................. H ostlers............................. House-finish m akers......... Granite w orkers................ Slate w orkers..................... Lime worker’s __________ Sawmill hands................... Cotton-mill hands.............. Woolen-mill hands............ Shoemakers........................ Moccasin m ak ers.............. Shipbuilders....................... Pulp makers....................... Rent. Food. $93.60 $180.76 99.07 212.06 69.08 172.07 95. 59 208.30 102. 71 190.17 70. 08 194. 35 78.17 191.50 101. 21 207. 95 104. 00 223. 75 59. 68 192.94 75. 00 219.44 78. 47 194.46 85.00 225.20 86.00 201. 59 106.23 214. 75 89.33 200. 24 80. 60 161.10 80. 67 231. 55 Cloth Fuel and ing. light. $96. 61 117. 53 91.67 93.10 109. 55 90. 35 71. 56 85.35 133.12 60.00 128. 33 75. 06 99.49 77.88 128.20 76.86 226.90 83.18 $37.25 39. 35 37.60 40.10 34.45 33.48 41. 67 38. 05 35.25 30. 35 37.78 35.40 33.93 30.65 43.75 43. 71 28. 71 32.09 Society Life in Other. dues. surance. $0.12 6. 22 5. 33 4.67 3.82 6.36 3.25 3.92 9.17 2.14 10. 00 3.88 6.96 5. 82 5.17 3.22 10. 79 3.75 $25.35 20.11 35.00 25. 50 25. 00 9. 25 12.00 21. 69 31. 67 14.67 | 17.33 16. 63 | 10.00 1 16.38 | 20.80 36. 75 $69. 55 89.82 55. 07 93.37 85.96 60.19 63. 56 107. 91 71. 00 67.39 51.67 78.67 49.00 44.70 106.35 103.00 46. 29 101.64 Total. Sur plus. $428. 75 $106.65 508.38 113 36 420.73 29 47 508.10 32 50 483.52 102. 86 441.23 62.51 448.94 35.39 514.00 181.39 507.88 201.49 389.16 32. 68 460. 55 101 22 441. 08 37 5 2 ! 481.36 26 15 1 430.00 52 53 571.75 115 70 55. «r, ■ 506.71 i 415.57 165.48 1 498.72 85.01 I Of tlie returns made, 433 were for Americans and 123 were for per sons of foreign birth. Of the 556 persons returned, 188 owned their homes, 327 were living in rented dwellings, and 41 did not report on this point. The average value of the homes owned was $1,349.60. Forty-three of the homes were mortgaged, the average amount of the mortgage debt being $413.95. Eighty-two persons were members of labor organizations, and 131 of beneficiary societies. Two hundred and twenty-eight had accounts in savings banks. Three hundred and thirty-two had been able to accumulate savings during the year, while 63 had run into debt. The 514 heads of families returned show an average income per family o f $549.09, or $131.52 per individual member, the average size of a 494 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. family being 4.18 persons. The total expenditure per family was $466.G4, leaving a net surplus of $82.45 per family. The principal items o f expenditure per family were: Rent, $85.68; food, $199.97; clothing, $94.27; fuel and light, $3G.23; society dues, $5.68; life insur ance, $20.55; sundries, $74.96. R a il r o a d E m p l o y e e s .— Returns for the year ending June 30,1895, from 21 railroads in the State, show a total of 4,693 employees (exclu sive of general officers), and a wage roll amounting to $2,268,357.86. This was an increase, both as to employees and wage payments, over the preceding year. F a c t o r ie s , M il l s , an d S hops B u il t D u r in g 1895.— The returns for 1895 show a decided increase of activity in the building of facto ries, mills, and shops over the year 1894. There were 102 buildings constructed, repaired, or remodeled at a total cost of $1,367,800, neces sitating the employment of 2,797 persons. The items of total cost and persons emiiloyed were more than double those for 1894. The infor mation is presented by industries, towns, and counties. I n d u s t r ia l P r o g r ess , e t c .—In this chapter is given a brief account of some of the leading industries of the State, the natural advantages, and the opportunities offered for their development. RECENT FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS. du Dimanche. Volume V, Pays Strangers (Allemagne, Autriche, Suisse, Augleterre). R e p o r ts ijr£sentes a M. le Ministre de Plndustrie et du Travail. Office du Travail, Ministere de Wndustrie et du Travail, Royaume de Belgique. 1896. viii, 334 pp. Travail In Bulletin No. 7 an account was given of the investigation under taken by the Belgian labor bureau concerning the extent of Sunday labor, and the contents of the first of a series of projected reports were briefly summarized. The present report, though numbered Volume V, is the second of this series to be published. It consists of separate reports by different special agents of the bureau concerning the laws relating to, and the extent of, Sunday work in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and England. It being impracticable to conduct original investigations in these countries, the reports are general in character, giving the legal status of the question and the i^robable extent of Sun day work as shown by existing official or other publications. Prom these reports the extent to which Sunday labor is prohibited by law in each of these countries can be briefly summarized. In Germany, prior to the year 1891, Sunday labor was regulated only by the labor laws o f the individual States constituting the Empire. On June 1 o f that year, however, there was enacted the imperial indus trial law (Reiehsgewerbeordnung), the object of which was to provide a uniform system of labor laws applicable to the whole country. The regulation o f Sunday labor constitutes one of the important purposes of this law. For this purpose a distinction is made between industrial and com mercial work. As regards the former, the general principle is first laid down that employers of labor are forbidden to either compel or even to permit their employees to work on Sundays or legal holidays. The determination of which are legal holidays is left to the individual States. This prohibition relates only to factory work proper. It therefore does not apply to persons working alone or aided by members of their families only 5 to persons engaged in agriculture, fisheries, the profes sions, or liberal arts, etc.; to concert, theater, hotel, restaurant, or transportation emjdoyees; or to such persons as seamstresses who go to the houses o f their clients to work. It should be remarked, however, that the labor o f all of these persons may be regulated by the laws of the individual States. To this general prohibition of factory work it was found necessary to make a number o f exceptions. The federal council is in the first place 495 496 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. permitted to exempt from this prohibition those industries, such as blast furnaces, which must be carried on uninterruptedly and those which can be prosecuted only during certain seasons of the year. Sec ondly, exception is made in the case of all necessary work, such as guarding buildings, urgent repair work, and where the public interest demands that it should be prosecuted without intermission. In commercial establishments all work is prohibited during the first days of the three holidays o f Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost, and limited to five hours on all ordinary holidays and Sundays. Under commercial establishments are included wholesale as well as retail stores, banking, insurance, and similar institutions. The individual States can restrict these hours still further if they desire to do so. All peddling or soliciting of trade at the residences of the people is pro hibited on Sundays and holidays. Exceptions to these regulations are made in the case of those estab lishments which should continue work in order to satisfy the daily needs o f the people. It is also permitted that the hours of labor on certain Sundays preceding holidays, when trade is particularly active, may be increased to a maximum of ten hours. It had been provided that the law of June 1,1891, should not go into operation until so ordered by an imperial ordinance. The preparation of the various regulations concerning the excepted industries, the man ner in which the law should be enforced, etc., required a considerable preliminary consideration. The law, therefore, was not put into force until July 1,1892, as regards commercial enterprises, and April 1,1895, as regards industrial. The enforcement of the law is left to the local police of each State. There is naturally, therefore, a considerable vari ation in the strictness with which it is enforced. In general it may be said that it is enforced strictly in large cities and less so in smaller places. The Prussian Government has undertaken an investigation concerning the results of this law, but no report has as yet been published. •In Austria the performance of labor on Sunday is now regulated by the law o f June 21,1894, which prohibits all but absolutely indispen sable work in mines during twenty-four hours on Sunday, the law of April 28,1895, prohibiting peddling on Sunday, and the law of Janu ary 16, 1895, relating to Sunday work in industrial and commercial establishments. It is this last law which constitutes the general code concerning Sunday work. As in Germany, the principle is first enunciated that all labor on Sunday is prohibited except in certain cases. In all industrial work there is permitted such work on Sundays as can not well be deferred, or can not be done on week days during the regular operations of the establishments. The employers, however, must keep an accurate record of such work, showing its necessity, etc., which can be inspected at any time by the factory inspectors. In the second place, the power is given FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS. 497 to the Government to except by special order from the operation of the law those industries which from fheir nature should be carried on with out interruption. In all such cases, however, only such work as is actually necessary can be done, all collateral work not profiting from the exception. Finally, the regulation of all such industries as the handling of perishable food products, etc., is left to the individual states or provinces. In all commercial establishments work is permitted on Sundays during six hours, which can be extended to ten hours for those Sun days preceding holidays. Transportation work is left practically unreg ulated. In Switzerland Sunday work lias long been regulated by numerous enactments on the part of the confederation, the cantons, and the municipalities. Of these the most important is the federal law of 1877. Prior to this date there was no general law relating to the whole coun try 3 though all but three of the twenty-one cantons and four half cantons had regulated Sunday work in some way. The law of 1877 was a general factory act relating to a great many points other than that of Sunday work. Its provisions were made applicable only to those establishments employing more than 25 per sons ; to those presenting the manifest character of factories; to those offering exceptional dangers to the life or health of their employees, and to those employing persons under 18 years of age, or using mechanical motors, or presenting conditions especially dangerous to life or health, provided they employ five or more persons. Although an amendment, passed in 1891, subjected all industrial establishments in which 10 persons were employed to the provisions of this law, it will be seen, nevertheless, that all employees o f small shops and those work ing at home do not come within the scope of the law. The articles relating to Sunday work provide (1) that the work of all women, no matter what their age, is prohibited on Sundays; (2 ) that the work of minors under 18 years of age is prohibited on Sundays, except in certain specified industries, and (3) that the work of adults is prohibited on Sundays, except in certain industries and in certain cases of emergency in all industries. It will thus be seen that for women of all ages the prohibition of Sun day work is absolute. It should be remembered, however, that the large class of women working in small shops or at home is not reached by this law. In the case of minors the exceptions provided for relate to those industries requiring uninterrupted work. For adults the exceptions are the same as for minors, and in addition certain work demanded by public necessity or the nature of the industry. In all these cases it is required that it should be clearly demonstrated that such work is necessary; that those employed shall work only every other Sunday; that the duration of work shall not exceed eleven hours, and that the employed shall work of their own free will. 498 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. There is no federal law regulating Sunday work in commercial estab lishments. A s regards the transportation industry, the law o f June 27, 1890, requires that the railroad companies Shall give to all of their employees fifty-two free days, of which seventeen at least must fall upon Sunday, and that no deduction from wages shall be made for the days not worked. The transportation of all freight, with the exception of that requiring immediate transport, is forbidden. In England the regulation of Sunday labor constitutes a part of the general factory legislation as expressed in the acts of 1878,1883, 1891, and 1895. As in all British factory legislation, a clear distinction is made between the labor of adult males and that of women, young persons, and children. “ A 6child? means a person between 1 1 and 14 years of age; a ‘ young person? means a person between 14 and 18 years of age; a c woman? means a woman 18 years of age and upward.” The right of adult males to work on Sunday is left practically unabridged, while the labor of the latter class is subjected to a considerable degree o f regulation. It is provided that no woman, young person, or child can be employed on Sunday in any factory or workshop except in certain special cases provided for by law. These exceptions relate to necessary repair work, the caring for fish on their arrival, and to the Jews, who are permitted to work on Sunday, provided they observe Saturday as a day of rest. In addition to the prohibition of Sunday work, the law provides for the general observance of a half holiday on Saturday, on certain fete days, and on four days designated as bank holidays. There are various exceptions to this general rule. Vierteljalirsliefte zur Statistic des Deutschen Beiclis * Vierten H e ft. JErgdnzung zum D ie beschaftigungslosen Arbeitnehm er im Deutschen Reich am 14. Juni und 2. Dezem ber 1895. Jahrgang 1890. ben vom kaiserlichen statistischen Amt. 26*, 89 pp. Herausgege- This is a census of the unemployed in the German Empire, published as a supplement to the quarterly bulletin of the imperial statistical bureau. On the occasion of the census enumeration of occupations, June 14, 1895, and again when the population census was taken on December 2, 1895, the enumeration schedules contained inquiries in which persons o f the employee class were asked to state whether or not they were, at the time, employed; if unemployed, how long, and whether or not their present idleness was due to temporary disability. The inquiry covered all males and females of the employee class. It did not include housewives without any other special calling, persons in the civil or military service who were pensioned or the widows of such persons, or the recipients of accident and invalidity pensions who were totally and permanently disabled. The results of the enumeration showed that there were 299,352 persons out of work on June 14, and 771,005 on December 2,1895. There were, 499 FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS. therefore; 471,653, or 157.5G per cent; more persons unemployed in the winter than in the summer time. Comparing these figures with the total population on the two dates named, it was found that 0.58 per cent of the entire population were out of employment in the summer and 1.48 per cent in the winter time. The following table shows the number of persons, by industries, who at the time of the enumeration of June 14,1895, belonged to the employee class, and the per cent that the number of unemployed at that time and on December 2, 1895, was of this total. Persons engaged in domestic and personal service, and those employed in the State, communal, and church service are not included in this table. NUMBER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS OF THE EM PLOYEE CLASS OUT OF EMPLOYMENT JUNE 14 A N D DECEMBER 2, 1895, B Y INDUSTRIES. Persons out o f employment. Industries. Agriculture, gardening, and live stock................ Forestry and lislieries............................................. Mining, smelting, and salt and peat extraction.. Stonework and earthenware.................................. Metal w o r k .............................................................. Machinery, tools, instruments, etc...................... Chemicals................................................................. Forestry products, lighting materials, grease, oils, and varnishes.............................................. Textiles..................................................................... P aper........................................................................ Leather..................................................................... Woodenware and carved g o o d s ............................ Food p rod u cts........................................................ Clothing................................................................... Building trades....................................................... Printing and publishing....................................... Painting, sculpture, decoration, and artistic work 'of all kinds.................................................. Factory hands, artisans, etc., o f whom the in dustry can not be classified............................... Commercial pursuits.............................................. Insurance................................................................. Transportati on......................................................... Hotels, restaurants, etc......................................... Total.............................................................. Persons June 14, 1895. December 2, 1895. in the employee Per cent Per cent class. June total Number. of total 14. 1895. Number. ofem em ployees. ployees. 5,607,313 116,713 564,922 468,489 719, 775 304,463 92, 582 37,144 1,394 8,312 6, 872 20, 834 7,828 1,797 0.66 1.19 1.47 1.47 2.89 2.57 1.94 203,246 5,551 11,487 26, 964 27,015 10,485 2,118 3.62 4.76 2.03 5.76 3.75 3.44 2.29 38,116 878,494 121,526 123, 914 456, 229 656, 970 775, 671 1.151, 851 106,536 798 14, 424 3,158 4,292 13,363 21,465 24,317 33,008 4,454 2.09 1.64 2. 60 3.46 2.93 3. 27 3.13 2.87 4.18 1,045 16, *833 3,475 7, 486 18, 257 28,553 42,078 179, 797 4,667 2.74 1.92 2.86 6.04 4.00 4.35 5.42 15.61 4.38 18,765 28,542 626, 637 18, 216 533,150 316, 951 13,725,825 674 1,415 22, 048 274 6,927 8,061 • 242,857 3.59 1,034 5.51 4.96 3.52 1. 50 1.30 2.54 10,177 26, 334 315 16,230 15, 603 35.66 4.20 1.73 3.04 4.92 1.77 658, 750 4.80 The table shows that the total number of unemployed June 14,1895, was 1.77 per cent o f the total number of persons belonging to the employee class, while on December 2, 1895, it was 4.80 per cent. The largest percentage of unemployed on each of these dates, namely, 4.96 and .35.66 per cent, respectively, was among factory hands, artisans, etc. Aside from this class of unemployed, the percentages were largest in the printing and publishing, the painting and decorating, the com mercial, and the leather industries in the summer time, and in the building trades, the leather, the stonework and earthenware, and the painting and decorating industries in the winter time. The percent ages of unemployed were smallest in the agricultural, gardening, and 500 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. live stock, the forestry and fisheries, and the transportation industries in the summer, and in the insurance, the textile, and the mining and smelting industries in the winter time. With respect to the cause of nonemployment, but two divisions were made, namely, those who were idle on account of temporary disability, such as illness, and those out of employment for other reasons. The returns showed that of the 299,352 unemployed on June 14, 1895, 120,348, or 40.20 per cent, were idle on account of disability, while 179,004, or 59.80 per cent, were unemployed for other reasons. The December returns showed a much greater difference. Out of a total o f 771,005 unemployed on December 2, 1895, 217,365, or only 28.19 per cent, owed their idleness to temporary disability, while 553,640, or 71.81 per cent, were out of employment on account of other causes. The following table shows this division with respect to causes for each industry: NUMBER AN D PER CENT OF PERSONS OUT OF EM PLOYM ENT JUNE 14 AND DECEM BER 2,1895, B Y INDUSTRIES AN D CAUSE OF NONEMPLOYMENT. June 14,1895. Industries. Temporary disability. Num ber. Agriculture, gardening, and live stock........................... Forestry and fisheries......... Mining, smelting, etc.......... Stonework and earthenware Metal work............................ Machinery, tools, e t c .......... Chemicals............................. Forestry products, etc......... T ex tiles................................. Paper...................................... Leather................................... Wooden ware and carved goods.................................. Food products...................... Clothing................................. Building trades..................... Printing and publishing___ Painting, artistic work, e t c .. Factory hands, artisans, etc., not classified.............. Commercial pursuits........... Insurance ............................. Transportation..................... Hotels, restaurants, etc....... Domestic and personal serv ice ........................................ Employees in State, com munal, and church service. Total........................... Per cent. Persons unemployed in December per 100 Other causes. unemployed in June. December 2,1895. Other causes. Temporary disability. Num Per cent. ber. Num Per ber. cent. Tem Other Num Per porary disa causes. cent. bility. ber. 18,702 50.35 632 45.34 5,690 68.46 3,814, 55.50 8,1151 38.95 3,201j 40.89 897, 49.92 393i 49.37 7,887 54.68 1, 383| 43.79 1,437! 33.48 18,442 762 2,622 3,058 12,719 4,627 900 403 6,537 1,775 2,855 49.65 54.66 31.54 44.50 61.05 59.11 50.08 50.63 45. 32 56. 21 66. 52 44,906 1,419 8,065 6,349 10,917 4,212 1,062 551 9,110 1,702 2,164 22.09 158,340 77.91 240.11 25.56 4,132 74.44 224.53 3,422 29.79 141. 74 70.21 23.55 20,615 76.45 166.47 40.41 16,098 59.59 134.53 6,273 59.83 131.58 40.17 50.14 1,056 49.86 118.39 52.73 494 47.27j1 140.20 54.12 7,723 45.88 115.51 48.98 1,773 51.02 123.07 28.91! 5,322 71.09 150.59 858.58 542.26 130.51 674.13 126.57 135. 57 117. 33 122.58 118.14 99.89 186.41 • 5, 295 3S. 62 7,161 1 33.36 7, 851: 32.29 13,600 41.20 1,607 36.08 208 30.86 8,068 14,304 16,466 19,408 2,847 466 60.38 66.64 67.71 58.80 63.92 69.14 7,224 9,607 14,096 34,676 1,803 322 39.57 11,033 60.43: 136.43 33.65 18,946 66.35 134.16 33.50 27,982 66.50 179.54 19.29 145,121 80.71 1 254.97 38.63 2,864 61.37 j 112.20 31.14 712 68.86 154.81 136.75 132.45 169.94 747.74 100.60 152.79 727 15,866 203 4,163 5,948 51.38 71.96 74.09 60.10 73.79 4,986 8,008 88 4,627 3,765 688 6,182: 71 2,764 2,113 48.62 28.04 25.91 39.90 26.21 48.99 30,41 27.94 28.51 24.13 5,191 18,326 •227 11,603 11,838 51.01 69.59 72.06 71.49 75.87 724.71 129.54 123.94 167.40 178.18 714.03 115.50 111.82 278.72 199.02 18,914 37.96 l 30,907 62.04 35,495 34.16 68,423 65.84 187.67 221.38 1,743 26.12 4,931 73.88 2,211 26.52 6,126 73.48 126.85 124.23 120,348;|40.20 179,004 59.80 217,365 28.19 553,640 71.81 180.61 309.29 i The largest percentage of unemployed on account of temporary dis ability, both in the summer and in the winter time, was found in the mining and smelting industries, namely, 68.46 per cent and 70.21 per 501 FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS. cent, respectively. In tlie stonework and earthenware, the textile, and the agricultural, gardening, and live-stock industries in June, and in the textile, the forestry, and the chemical industries in December, over one-half of the unemployed also owed their idleness to temporary disability. The cases where causes other than temporary disability were responsible for nonemployment were found to be most prevalent among employees in the insurance, the hotel and restaurant industries, the State, communal, and church service, and the commercial pursuits in the summer, and among those engaged in the building trades, the agricultural, gardening, and live-stock, and the stonework arid earthen ware industries in the winter time. The duration of nonemployment at the time of the enumeration was found to be over two weeks in the greater number of ascertained cases both in June and in December. The proportion of those unemployed over two weeks was slightly greater in the summer than in the winter time. The following table shows, by groups of industries, the number of days persons out of emjdoyment for causes other than temporary disability had been unemployed at the time the enumerations were taken: NUMBER A N D PE R CENT OF PERSONS OUT OF EM PLOYMENT FOR CAUSES OTHER THAN TEM PORARY D IS A B IL IT Y JUNE 14 A N D DECEMBER 2, 1895, B Y NUMBER OF D A Y S UNEMPLOYED. Days unemployed at time o f enumeration. Agriculture, gardening, live stock, forestry, and fisheries. Mining, smelting, manufac tures, and building trades. Commerce and trans portation. Domestic and personal service. State, communal, and church service. Total. Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. JUNE 14. 1 or u n der................... 2 to 7............................ 8 to 14.......................... 15 to 28........................ 29 to 90........................ 91 or o v e r ................... Unknown.....................‘ T o ta l................. DECEMBER 322 2,007 3,235 1,492 2, 638 2,171 7,339 1.68 10.45 16.84 7. 77 13.74 11. 30 38.22 1,078 10,119 23,060 12,192 21,116 13,572 16,645 1.10 10.35 23.58 12.47 21.60 13.88 17.02 277 2,208 5,265 2,522 7,295 5,196 3,417 1.06 8.43 20.11 9.63 27.87 19.85 13.05 401 2,906 7,291 3,179 6,865 3,360 6,905 1.30 26 0.53 2,104 9.40 231 4.68 17,471 23.59 808 16.39 39,659 10.29 397 8.05 19,782 22.21 1,484 30.09 39,398 10.87 957 19.41 25 256; 22.34 1,028 20.85 35,334 1.17 9.76 22.16 11.05 22.01 14.11 19.74 19, 204 100.00 97,782 100.00 26,180 100.00 30, 907 100.00 4,931 100.00 179, 0041100.00 2. 1 or u n der................... 2 to 7...................... 8 to 14.......................... ]5 to 28........................ 29 to 90........................ 91 or o v e r ................... Unknown . . ................ 3,969 16.804 45,968 36, 077 38,813 6, 868! 13, 973 2.44 10.34 28.29 22. 21 23. 89 4.23 8.60 8,145 40,320 83,993 45,296 61,239 18, 200 17, 432 2.97 1,275 14.68 4,662 30.58 8,219 16.49 5,313 22.30 13,633 6. 63 6, 679 6.35 2, 213 3.04 2, 243 11.10 8, 352 19.57 16,192 12.65 10, 797 32.46 16,915 15. 91 6,052 5.27 7,872 3.28 159 12.21 451 23.66 834 15.78 697 24.72 2, 210 8.85 1, 252 11.50;1 523 2.59 15,791 7.36 70,589 13.61 155, 206 11.38 98,180 36.08 132, 810 20.44 39, 051 8r54 42, 013 2.85 12.75 28.03 17.74 23. 99 7.05 7.59 T ota l.................. 162,472TOO. 00 274,625 100.00 41,994 100.00 68,423 100.00 6,126 100.00 553,640 1 0 0 .0 0 1 The duration of nonemployment is greatest in the case of employees in the State, communal, and church service and those engaged in the commercial and transportation industries, both in winter aud summer, and least among those engaged in the mining, manufacturing, and 696—No. 11-----8 502 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. building industries in the winter, and the agricultural, gardening, live stock, forestry, and fisheries industries in the summer time. As regards the ages of the unemployed, it was found there was an excess o f younger over older persons. This is due chiefly to the fact that young persons are more numerous in the employee class. It may also be in part due to the fact that young, inexperienced workers are more liable to dismissal than those of maturer age. In the summer over one-half and in the winter only a little less than one-half of the unem ployed were from 14 to 30 years of age. The following table shows the ages of the unemployed by sexes: INUMBER A N D PER CENT OF PERSONS OUT OF EM PLOYMENT JUNE 14 A N D DECEMBER 2, 1895, B Y A G E A N D SEX. Age. JUNE 14. 14 to 20 years................................................ 20 to 30 years................................................ 30 to 50 years................................................ 50 to 70 years................................................ 70 years or o v e r ........................................... Males. Per cent. Females. Per cent. Total. Per cent. 40,513 67,981 69, 621 35,658 4, 830 18.53 31.10 31.85 16.31 2.21 20,268 31,494 17,139 10,410 1,438 25.10 39.00 21.23 12.89 1.78 60, 781 99. 475 86, 760 46, 068 6, 268 20.30 33.23 28 98 15. 39 2 10 Total..................................................... 218,603 100.00 80,749 100.00 299, 352 100 00 2. 14 to 20 years.................................................. 95,653 20 to 30 years.................................................. 159, 304 30 to 50 years................................................. 184, 499 50 to 70year8.......... : ..................................... 103,390 70 years or over............................................. 10, 732 17.28 28.78 33. 33 18.67 1.94 49,145 72, 695 53, 608 38,523 3,456 22.60 33.43 24.66 17.72 1.59 144,798 231,999 238,107 141, 913 14,188 18. 78 30.09 30.88 18.41 1.84 Total..................................................... 553, 578 100. 00 217,427 100.00 771,005 100.00 DECEMBER Of the whole number of unemployed 104,520, or 34.92 per cent, were heads of families at the time of the June enumeration. In December the number of heads of families was proportionately greater, namely, 317,282, or 41.15 per cent of the unemployed. 503 FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS. The following table shows the number of heads of families and their dependents for each group of industries : HEADS OE FA M IL IE S OUT OF EM PLOYMENT AND TH E IR DEPENDENTS, JUNE 14 AN D DECEMBER 2, 1895, B Y GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES. Heads o f families out of employment. Their dependents. Industries. Males. JUNE Females. Total. W ives. Children under 14 years Others. o f age. Total. 14. Agriculture, gardening, live stock, forestry, and fisheries. 1................. Mining, smelting, manufactures, and building trades........................ Commerce and transportation.......... Domestic and personal service......... State, communal, and church service. 13,349 4, 954 18,303 9, 345 17,012 3, 645 30,002 54,693 9,699 9, 059 1,310 5,568 468 4,995 425 60, 261 10,167 14, 054 1,735 42, 718 7,789 6,799 974 81, 336 13,229 13, 601 1, 572 11,054 1, 704 2,063 350 135,108 22, 722 22,463 2, 896 Total........................................... 88,110 16,410 104, 520 67, 625 126, 750 18,816 213,191 Agriculture, gardening, live stock, forestry, and fisheries..................... 59, 913 Mining, smelting, manufactures, and building trades........................ 160,752 Commerce and transportation.......... 17, 345 Domestic and personal service......... 26, 861 State, communal, and church service. 1, 681 27, 292 87, 205 45, 225 96,235 15, 732 157,192 10,801 778 11, 363 496 171, 553 18,123 38,224 2,177 134,985 14, 608 21, 605 1, 304 260,672 24, 612 42, 718 2, 043 34,407 3,151 5,577 372 430,064 42,371 69,900 3, 719 50, 730 317,282 217,727 426, 280 59, 239 703,246 DECEMBER 2. Total........................................... 266, 552 The table shows that the number of dependents was 213,191, or 2.04 for each head, in the summer, and 703,246, or 2.22 per head of family, in the winter time. Of the former, 67,625 were wives, 126,750 were children under 14 years of age, and 18,816 were otherwise dependent. Of the latter, 217,727 were wives, 426,280 were children under 14 years of age, and 59,239 were otherwise dependent. It appears from these figures that, in general, where heads of families were found to be out of employment, the number of dependent children was comparatively small, which seems to indicate that employees with large families exer cise greater care in securing and retaining steady employment. There were 16,410 female heads of families out of employment in the summer, and 50,730 in the winter time. DECISIONS OE COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. rThis subject, begun in Bulletin No. 2, will be continued in successive issues, deal ing with the decisions as they occur. All material parts of the decisions are repro duced in the words of the courts, indicated when short by quotation marks, and when long by being printed solid. In order to save space, immaterial matter, needed simply by way of explanation, is given in the words o f the editorial reviser.] DECISIONS UNDER STATUTORY LAW . C o n st it u t io n a l it y of S t a t u t e — A t t o r n e y s ’ F e e s in Su its W a g e s , e t c .— Gulf, C. and Santa F e B y . Go. v. F ills , 17 Supreme fo r Court R eporter , page 255. —This case was brought up from the supreme court of Texas to the United States Supreme Court on writ of error. On April 5, 1889, the legislature of the State of Texas passed an act containing the following language: u Section 1. Be it enacted by the legislature of the State of Texas, that after the time this act shall take effect, any person in this State having a valid bona fide claim for personal services rendered or labor done, or for damages, or for overcharges on freight, or claims for stock killed or injured by the train of any railway company, * * * and the amount of such claim does not exceed $50, may present the same, verified by his affidavit, for payment to such corporation, * * * and if, at the expiration of thirty days after such presentation, such claim has not been paid or satisfied, he may immediately institute suit thereon in the proper court; and if he shall finally establish his claim, and obtain judgment for the full amount thereof, # * * he shall be entitled to recover the amount of such claim and all costs o f suit, and in addition thereto all reasonable attorney’s fees, provided he has an attorney employed in his case, not to exceed $ 10 , to be assessed and awarded by the court or jury trying the issue.” Supp. Sayles’ Rev. Civ. St., p. 768, art. 4266 a. On October 9,1890, defendant in error (Ellis) commenced this action before a justice of the peace to recover $50 for a colt killed by the railway company. The complaint alleged presentation and nonpay ment, as required by the act, and demanded $10 attorney fee. The company answered, admitting everything except the claim for the attorney fee. The case passed, after judgment in favor of the plain tiff for the amount claimed and an attorney fee of $ 10, through the district court and the court of civil appeals, to the supreme court of the State, by which, on May 10, 1894, the judgment against the rail way company was affirmed. To reverse said judgment the company sued out a writ of error before the United States Supreme Court, 504 DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 505 which rendered its decision January 18, 1897, and reversed the judg ment of the State court. The opinion of the Supreme Court was delivered by Mr. Justice Brewer, and it is given below in part: The single question in this case is the constitutionality of the act allowing attorney fees. The contention is that it operates to deprive the railroad companies of property without due process of law, and denies to them the equal protection of the law, in that it singles them out of all citizens and corporations, and requires them to pay in certain cases attorney fees to the parties successfully suing them, while it gives to them no like or corresponding benefit. Only against railroad com panies is such exaction made, and only in certain cases. The supreme court of the State considered this statute as a whole, and held it valid, and as such it is presented to us for consideration. Considered as such, it is simjdy a statute imposing a penalty upon railroad corporations for a failure to pay certain debts. No individuals are thus punished, and no other corporations. The act singles out a certain class of debtors, and punishes them when, for like delinquencies, it punishes no others. They are not treated as other debtors, or equally with other debtors. They can not appeal to the courts, as other litigants, under like conditions, and with like protection. If litigation terminates adversely to them, they are mulcted in the attorney’s fees of the suc cessful plaintiff; if it terminates in their favor, they recover no attorney’s fees. It is no sufficient answer to say that they are punished only when adjudged to be in the wrong. They do not enter the courts upon equal terms. They must pay attorney’s fees if wrong. They do not recover any if right; while their adversaries recover if right, and pay nothing if wrong. In the suits, therefore, to which they are parties, they are discriminated against, and are not treated as others. They do not stand equal before the law. They do not receive its equal pro tection. All this is obvious from a mere inspection of the statute. It is true, the amount of the attorney’s fee which may be charged is small, but, if the State has the power to thus mulct them in a small amount, it has equal power to do so in a larger sum. The matter of amount does not determine the question of right, and the party who has a legal right may insist upon it, if only a shilling be involved. While good faith and a knowledge of existing conditions on the part of a legislature are to be presumed, yet to carry that presumption to the extent of always holding that there must be some undisclosed and unknown reason for subjecting certain individuals or corporations to hostile and discriminating legislation is to make the protecting clauses of the fourteenth amendment a mere rope of sand, in no manner restraining State action. It is well settled that corporations are persons within the provisions of the fourteenth amendment o f the Constitution of the United States. The rights and securities guaranteed to persons by that instrument can not be disregarded in respect to those artificial entities called “ corpora tions” any more than they can be in respect to the individuals who are equitable owners o f the property belonging to such corporations. A State has no more power to deny to corporations the equal protection o f the law than it has to individual citizens. But it is said that it is not within the scope of the fourteenth amendment to withhold from States the power of classification, and that, if the law deals alike with all of a certain class, it is not obnoxious to the charge of a denial of equal protection. While, as a general proposition, this is undeniably 506 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. true, yet it is equally true tliat such classification can not be made arbi trarily. The State may not say that all white men maybe subjected to the payment of the attorney’s fees of parties successfully suing them, and all black men not. It may not say that all men beyond a certain age shall be alone thus subjected, or all men possessed of a certain wealth. These are distinctions which do not furnish any proper basis for the attempted classification. That must always rest upon some difference which bears a reasonable and just relation to the act in respect to which the classification is proposed, and can never be made arbitrarily, and without any such basis. I f it be said that this penalty is cast only upon corporations, that to them special privileges are granted, and therefore upon them special burdens may be imposed, it is a sufficient answer to say that the pen alty is not imposed upon all corporations. The burden does not go with the privilege. Only railroads of all corporations are selected to bear this penalty. The rule of equality is ignored. It may.be said that certain corporations are chartered for charitable, educational, or religious purposes, and abundant reason for not visiting them with a penalty for the nonpayment of debts is found in the fact that their chartered privileges are not given for pecuniary profit. But the penalty is not imposed upon all business corporations, all chartered for the purpose o f private gain. The banking corporations, the manu facturing corporations, and others like them are exempt. Further, the penalty is imposed, not upon all corporations charged with the quasi public duty o f transportation, but only upon those charged with a par ticular form of that duty. So the classification is not based on any idea o f special privileges by way of incorporation, nor of special privi leges given thereby for the purposes of private gain, nor even of such privileges granted for the discharge of one general class of public duties. A mere statute to compel the payment of indebtedness does not come within tbe scope of police regulations. The hazardous business o f railroading carries with it no special necessity for the prompt pay ment o f debts. That is a duty resting upon all debtors, and while, in certain cases, there may be a peculiar obligation which may be enforced with penalties, yet nothing o f that kind springs from the mere work of railroad transportation. Statutes have been sustained giving special protection to the claims of laborers and mechanics, but no such idea underlies this legislation. It does not aim to protect the laborer or mechanic alone, for its benefits are conferred upon every individual in the State, rich or poor, high or low, who has a claim of the character described. It is not a statute for the protection of particular classes of individuals supposed to need protection, but for the punishment of cer tain corporations on account of their delinquency. Neither can it be sustained as a proper means of enforcing the pay ment of small debts, and preventing any unnecessary litigation in respect to them, because it does not impose the penalty in all cases where the amount in controversy is within the limit named in the stat ute. Indeed, the statute arbitrarily singles out one class o f debtors, and punishes it for a failure to perform certain duties,—duties which are equally obligatory upon all debtors; a punishment not visited by reason of the failure to comply with any proper police regulations, or for the protection of the laboring classes, or to prevent litigation about trifling matters, or in consequence of any special corporate privileges bestowed by the State. Unless the legislature may arbitrarily select one corporation or one class of corporations, one individual or one class DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 507 of individuals, and visit a penalty upon them which is not imposed upon others guilty o f like delinquency, this statute can not be sustained. But arbitrary selection can never be justified by calling it classifica tion. The equal protection demanded by the fourteenth amendment forbids this. It is apparent that the mere fact of classification is not sufficient to relieve a statute from the reach of the equality clause of the fourteenth amendment, and that in all cases it must appear not only that a classifi cation has been made, but also that it is one based upon some reasonable ground,—some difference which bears a just and proper relation to the attempted classification,—and is not a mere arbitrary selection. Tested by these principles, the statute in controversy can not be sustained. The judgment of the supreme court of Texas is therefore reversed. The decision in this case was made by a divided court and Mr. Jus tice Gray, for himself and others, delivered a strong dissenting opinion from which the following is taken: The Chief Justice, Mr. Justice White, and myself are unable to con cur in this judgment. The grounds of our dissent may be briefly stated. Costs in civil actions at law are the creature of statute. From early times, there have been statutes making rules as to costs, according to the nature of the issue, and the amount involved; and sometimes allow ing costs to the prevailing party when plaintiff, and not when defendant. The whole matter of costs, including the party to or against whom they may be given, the items or sums to be allowed, and the right to costs as depending upon the nature of the suit, upon the amount or value of the thing sued for or recovered, or upon other circumstances, is, and always has been, within the regulation and control of the legislature, exercising its discretionary power, not oppressively to either party, but as the best interests of the litigants and of the public may appear to it to demand. The statute of the State of Texas, now in question, does but enact that any person having a valid bona fide claim, not exceeding $50, against a railroad corporation, for personal services or damages, or for overcharges on freight, or for destruction or injury of stock by its trains, and presenting the claim, verified by his affidavit, to the corpo ration, and, if it is not paid within thirty days, suing thereon in the proper court, and finally obtaining judgment for the full amount thereof in that court, or in any court to which the suit may be ap pealed, shall be entitled to recover, in addition to other costs, a reason able attorney’s fee (if he has employed an attorney) not exceeding $ 10 , to be assessed and awarded by the court or jury trying the issue. In other words, if an honest claim, of not more than $50, and coming within one o f those classes of small claims which most commonly arise between individuals and railroad corporations, is not promptly paid when presented under oath, and the claimant is thereby compelled to resort to a suit, the corporation, if ultimately cast in the suit, must pay to the successful plaintiff a very moderate attorney’s fee as part of the costs of the litigation. The legislature of a State must be presumed to have acted from law ful motives, unless the contrary appears upon the face of the statute. If, for instance, the legislature of Texas was satisfied, from observation and experience, that railroad corporations within the State were accus tomed, beyond other corporations or persons, to unconscionably resist 508 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. the payment o f such petty claims, with the object of exhausting the patience and the means of the claimants, by prolonged litigation, and perhaps repeated appeals, railroad corporations alone might well be required, when ultimately defeated in a suit upon such a claim, to pay a moderate attorney’s fee, as a just, though often inadequate, contribu tion to the expenses to which they had put the plaintiff in establishing a rightful demand. Whether such a state of things as above supposed did in fact exist, and whether, for that or other reasons, sound policy required the allowance of *such a fee to either party, or to the plaintiff only, were questions to be determined by the legislature, when dealing with the subject o f costs, except in so far as it saw fit to commit the matter to the decision of the courts. C o n st it u t io n a l it y of St a t u t e — H ours H olden , 46 Pacific R eporter , page 1105 .—Albert F. of L abo r — State v. Holden was convicted in the district court of Salt Lake County, Utah, of violating the act regulating the hours of employment in mines, and, upon said convic tion, appealed to the supreme court of the State, raising the question o f the constitutionality of the law. The supreme court rendered its decision November 11, 1896, upheld the constitutionality of the act, and affirmed the conviction of the appellant. The opinion o f the court was delivered by Chief Justice Zane, and the following language was used by him therein: The defendant was convicted of a violation of section 2 of “ An act regulating the hours of employment in underground mines, and in smelters and ore reduction works,” as follows: “ Sectio n 1. The period of employment of workingmen in all under ground mines or workings shall be eight (8) hours per day, except in cases of emergency, where life or property is in imminent danger. “ Se c . 2. The period of employment of workingmen in smelters and all other institutions for the reduction or refining of ores or metals shall be eight (8) hours per day, except in cases of emergency, where life or property is in imminent danger. “ Se c . 3. Any person, body corporate, agent, manager or employer, who shall violate any of the provisions of sections 1 and 2 of this act, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor.” (Sess. Laws Utah 1896, p. 219.) This case is analogous to the case o f Holden v. Hardy (decided at this term), 46 Pac., p. 756 [see page 387, Bulletin of the Department o f Labor, No. 10 ], except that the defendant in that case was con victed of a violation of the first section of the above act, in employing a workingman in underground mining more than eight hours per day, and the conviction in this one was for the employment of one William Hooley, in his concentrating mill, for the reduction of ores, more than eight hours per day. The conditions with respect to health of laborers in underground mines doubtless differ from those in which they labor in smelters and other reduction works on the surface. Unquestionably, the atmospheric and other conditions in mines and reduction works differ. Poisonous gases, dust, and impalpable sub stances arise and float in the air in stamp mills, smelters, and other works in which ores containing metals, combined with arsenic or other DECISIONS OF' COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 509 poisonous elements or agencies, are treated, reduced, and refined,* and there can be no doubt that prolonged effort day after day, subject to such conditions and-agencies, will produce morbid, noxious, and often deadly effect s in the human system. Some organisms and systems will resist and endure such conditions and effects longer than others. It may be said that labor in such conditions must be performed. Grant ing that, the period of labor each day should be of a reasonable length. Twelve hours per day would be less injurious than fourteen, ten than twelve, and eight than ten. The legislature has named eight. Such a period was deemed reasonable. The people of the State, in their constitution, made it mandatory upon the legislature to “ pass laws to provide for the health and the safety of the employees in factories, smelters and mines.” Const. Utah, art. 16, sec. 6. We do not feel authorized to hold that the statute quoted was not designed, calculated, and adapted to promote the health of the class of men who labor in smelters and other works for the reduc tion and treatment of ores. Nor can we say that the law conflicts with any provision of the Constitution of the United States. Nor do we wish to be understood as intimating that the power to pass the law does not exist in the police powers of the State. The authority to pass laws calculated and adapted to the promotion of the health, safety, or comfort of the people, and to secure the good order of society, and the general welfare, undoubtedly is found in such police powers. The law in question is confined to the protection o f that class of people engaged in labor in underground mines, and in smelters and other works wherein ores are reduced and refined. This law applies only to the classes sub jected by their employment to the peculiar conditions and effects attend ing underground mining and work in smelters, and other works for the reduction and refining of ores. Therefore it is not necessary to discuss or decide whether the legislature can fix the hours of labor in other employments. Though reasonable doubts may exist as to the power of the legislature to pass a law, or as to whether the law is calculated or adapted to promote the health, safety, or comfort of the people, or to secure good order, or promote the general welfare, we must resolve them in favor o f the right of that department o f government. That case [Holden v. Hardy, referred to above] we now reaffirm as governing this one. The application for the discharge o f the defendant is denied, and he is remanded to the custody of the sheriff, until released in pursuance of law. Constitutionality of Statute —Involuntary Servitude — Sailors in the Merchant Service— Robertson et al. v . B ald w in , 17 Supreme Court R eporter , page 326 .—Robert Robertson, P. H. Olson, John Bradley, and Morris Hanson shipped on board the A rago at San Francisco, Cal., for a /oyage to Knappton, in the State of Washington 5 thence to Valparaiso, and thence to such other foreign ports as the master might direct, and return to a port of discharge in the United States. They had each signed shipping articles to perform the duties of seamen during the course of the voyage, but, becoming dissatisfied with their employment, they left the vessel at Astoria, in the State of Oregon, and were subsequently arrested, under the provisions of Rev. St. sects. 4596-4599, taken before a justice of the peace, and by him 510 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. committed to jail until the A ra g o was ready for sea (some 10 days), when they were taken from the jail by the marshal and placed on board the A ra g o against their will. They refused to “ turn to” in obedience to the orders o f the master, were arrested at San Francisco, charged with refusing to work, in violation o f Eev. St., sect. 4506, were subsequently examined before a commissioner of the circuit court, and by him held to answer the charge before the district court for the northern district of California. Shortly thereafter they sued out a writ o f habeas corpus, alleging that they were unlawfully restrained of their liberty by Barry Baldwin, marshal of the northern district of California, which, upon a hearing before the district court, was dismissed, and an order made remanding the prisoners to the custody of the marshal. The petitioners then appealed the case to the Supreme Court of the United States, which rendered its decision January 25, 1897, and sus tained the action of the district court, but only by a divided court. The opinion of the majority of the Supreme Court was delivered by Mr. Justice Brown, and the following, showing the reasons for their decision, is quoted therefrom: The record raises two questions of some importance: First, as to the constitutionality of Bev. St. sects. 4598, 4599, in so far as they confer jurisdiction upon justices of the peace to apprehend deserting seamen, and return them to their vessel; second, as to the conflict of the same sections, and also section 4596, with the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude. Section 4598, which was taken from section 7 of the act of July 20, 1790, reads as follows: “ S e c . 4598. I f any seaman who shall have signed a contract to per form a voyage shall, at any port or place desert, or shall absent himself from such vessel, without leave of the master, or officer commanding in the absence of the master, it shall be lawful for any justice of the peace within the United States, upon the complaint of the master, to issue his warrant to apprehend such deserter, and bring him before such justice; and if it then appears that he has signed a contract within the intent and meaning of this title, and that the voyage agreed for is not finished, or altered, or the contract otherwise dissolved, and that such seaman has deserted the vessel, or absented himself without leave, the justice shall commit him to the house of correction or common jail o f the city, town or place, to remain there until the vessel shall be ready to proceed on her voyage, or till the master shall require his dis charge, and then to be delivered to the master, he paying all the cost o f such commitment, and deducting the same out of the wages due to such seaman.” Section 4599, which was taken from section 53 of the shipping com missioners7act o f June 7,1872, authorizes the apprehension of desert ing seamen, with or without the assistance of the local public officers or constables, and without a warrant, and their conveyance before any court o f justice or magistrate of the State, to be dealt with according to law. Section 4596, which is also taken from the same act, provides punish ment by imprisonment for desertion, refusal to join the vessel, or absence without leave. 1. The first proposition, that Congress has no authority under the DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 511 Constitution to vest judicial power in the courts or judicial officers of the several States, originated in an observation of Mr. Justice Storey, in Martin v. Hunter's Lessees, 1 Wheat. 304, 330, to the effect that “ Congress can not vest any portion of the judicial power of the United States, except in courts ordained and established by itself.” This was repeated in Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 1, 27; and the same general doctrine has received the approval of the courts of several of the States.* The general principle announced by these cases is derived from the third article o f the Constitution, the first section of which declares that “ the judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish,” the judges of which courts “ shall hold their offices during good behavior,” etc., and by the second section, “ the judi cial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and mari time jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States; between a State and citizens o f another State; between citizens of different States; between citizens o f the same State claiming lands under grants of dif ferent States, and between a State or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens or subjects.” The better opinion is that the second section was intended as a con stitutional definition of the judicial power (Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dali. 419, 475), which the Constitution intended to confine to courts created by Congress; in other words, that such power extends only to the trial and determination of “ cases” in courts of record, and that Congress is still at liberty to authorize the judicial officers of the several States to exercise such power as is ordinarily given to officers of courts not of rec ord; such, for instance, as the power to take affidavits, to arrest and commit for trial offenders against the laws of the United States, to natu ralize aliens, and to perform such other duties as may be regarded as incidental to the judicial power rather than a part of the judicial power itself. W e think the power of justices of the peace to arrest deserting sea men and deliver them on board their vessel is not within the definition of the “ judicial power” as defined by the Constitution, and m aybe lawfully conferred ux>on State officers. That the authority is a most convenient one to intrust to such officers can not be denied, as seamen frequently leave their vessels in small places, where there are no fed eral judicial officers, and where a justice of the peace may usually be found, with authority to issue warrants under the State laws. 2. The question whether sections 4598 and 4599 conflict with the thirteenth amendment, forbidding slavery and involuntary servitude, depends upon the construction to be given to the term “ involuntaryservitude.” Does the epithet “ involuntary” attach to the word “ servi tude” continuously, and make illegal any service which becomes invol untary at any time during its existence? or does it attach only at the inception of the servitude, and characterize it as unlawful because unlawfully entered into? I f the former be the true construction, then no one, not even a soldier, sailor, or apprentice, can surrender his lib erty, even for a day; and the soldier may desert his regiment upon the eve o f battle, or the sailor abandon his ship at any intermediate port or landing, or even in a storm at sea, provided, only, he can find means o f escaping to another vessel. If the latter, then an individual may for 512 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. a valuable consideration, contract for the surrender of his personal lib erty for a definite time and for a recognized purpose, and subordinate his going and coming to the will of another during the continuance of the contract; not that all such contracts would be lawful, but that a servitude which was knowingly and willingly entered into could not be termed “ involuntary.” Thus, if one should agree for a yearly wage, to serve another in a particular capacity during his life, and never to leave his estate without his consent, the contract might not be enforce able for the want of a legal remedy, or might be void upon grounds of public policy; but the servitude could not be properly termed “ invol untary.” W e are also of the opinion that, even if the contract of a seaman could be considered within the letter of the thirteenth amendment, it is not, within its spirit, a case of involuntary servitude. The law is perfectly well settled that the first ten amendments to the Constitu tion, commonly known as the “ Bill of Bights,” were not intended to lay down any novel principles of government, but simply to embody certain guarantees and immunities which we had inherited from our English ancestors, and which had, from time immemorial, been sub ject to certain well recognized exceptions, arising from the necessities of the case. In incorporating these principles into the fundamental law, there was no intention of disregarding the exceptions, which con tinued to be recognized as if they had been formally expressed. The, prohibition of slavery, in the thirteenth amendment, is well known to have been adopted with reference to a state of affairs which had existed in certain States of the Union since the foundation of the government, while the addition of the words “ involuntary servitude” were said, in the Slaughter-house Cases, 16 Wall. 30, to have been in tended to cover the system of Mexican peonage and the Chinese coolie trade, the practical operation of which might have been a revival of the institution of slavery under a different and less offensive name. It is clear, however, that the amendment was not intended to intro duce any novel doctrine with respect to certain descriptions of service which have always been treated as exceptional. From the earliest historical period the contract of the sailor has been treated as an exceptional one, and involving, to a certain extent, the surrender of his personal liberty during the life of the contract. In deed, the business of navigation could scarcely be carried on without some guaranty, beyond the ordinary civil remedies upon contracts, that the sailor will not desert the ship at some critical moment, or leave her at some place where seamen are impossible to be obtained,—as Molloy forcibly expresses it, “ to rot in her neglected brine.” Hence, the laws of nearly all maritime nations have made provision for securing the personal attendance of the crew on board, and for their criminal punishment for desertion, or absence without leave, during the life of the shipping articles. Here the opinion refers to the maritime laws of the ancient Bhodians, the Buies o f Oleron, the laws of the towns belonging to the Hanseatic League, the Marine Ordinance o f Louis X IV , the mercan tile law of Germany, the Butch Code, early English law, and some of the modern English acts to show that they contained similar provisions to those referred to in the last clause of the opinion above, and then continues as follows: The earliest American legislation which we have been able to find is DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 513 an act of the colonial general court of Massachusetts, passed about 1668, wherein it was enacted that any mariner who departs and leaves a voyage upon which he has entered shall forfeit all his wages, and shall be further punished by imprisonment or otherwise, as the case may be circumstanced; and if he shall have received any considerable part of his wages, and shall run away, he shall be pursued as a diso bedient runaway servant. The provision of Eev. St. sect. 4598, under which the proceedings were taken, was first enacted by Congress in 1790 (1 Stat. 131, sec tion 7). This act provided for the apprehension of deserters and their delivery on board the vessel, but apparently made no provision for imprisonment as a punishment for desertion; but by the shipping com missioner’s act of 1872 (17 Stat. 243, sect. 51), now incorporated into the Eevised Statutes as section 4596, the court is authorized to add to forfeiture of wages for desertion imprisonment for a period of not more than three months, and for absence without leave imprisonment for not more than one month. In this act and the amendments thereto very careful provisions are made for the protection of seamen against the frauds and cruelty of masters, the devices of boarding-house keepers, and, as far as possible, against the consequences of their own igno rance and improvidence. At the same time discipline is more strin gently enforced by additional punishments for desertion, absences without leave, disobedience, insubordination, and barratry. Indeed, seamen are treated by Congress, as well as by the Parliament of Great Britain, as deficient in that full and intelligent responsibility for their acts which is accredited to ordinary adults, and as needing the protec tion of the law in the same sense which minors and wards are entitled to the protection of their parents and guardians. The ancient charac terization of seamen as u wards of admiralty” is even more accurate now than it was formerly. In the face o f this legislation upon the subject of desertion and absence without leave, which was in force in this country for more than 60 years before the thirteenth amendment was adopted, and simi lar legislation abroad from time immemorial, it can not be open to doubt that the provision against involuntary servitude was never intended to apply to their contracts. The judgment of the court below is, there fore, affirmed. Mr. Justice Harlan dissented from the conclusion of the majority of the court and delivered an interesting opinion in support of his con tention, from which the following quotation is made: If the placing of the appellants on board the A ra g o at Astoria against their will was illegal, then their refusal to work while thus forcibly held on the vessel could not be a criminal offense, and their detention and subsequent arrest for refusing to work while the vessel was going from Astoria to San Pran cisco were without authority of law. The ques tion, therefore, is whether the appellants, having left the vessel at A s toria, no matter for what cause, could lawfully be required, against their will, to return to it, and to render personal services for the master. The government justifies the proceedings taken against the appellants at Astoria by sections 4596, 4598 and 4599 of the Eevised Statutes of the United States. Here the justice quotes at length the above-named sections and then continues as follows: The decision just made proceeds upon the broad ground that one 514 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. who voluntarily engages to serve upon a private vessel in the capacity o f a seaman for a given term, but who, without the consent of the master, leaves the vessel when in port before the stipulated term is ended, and refuses to return to it, may be arrested and held in custody until the vessel is ready to proceed on its voyage, and then delivered against his will, and if need be by actual force, on the vessel to the master. The thirteenth amendment of the Constitution of the United States declares that “ neither slavery nor involuntary servitude except as punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” Slavery exists wherever the law recognizes a right of property in a human being, but slavery can not exist in any form within the United States. The thirteenth amendment uprooted slavery as it once existed in this country, and destroyed all of its badges and incidents. It estab lished freedom for all. “ By its own unaided force and effect it abol ished slavery and established freedom.” The amendment, this court has also said, “ is not a mere prohibition of State laws establishing or upholding slavery or involuntary servitude, but an absolute declaration that slavery or involuntary servitude shall not exist in any part of the United States.” Civil Rights Cases, 109 U. S. 1, 20, 3 Sup. Ct. 18. As to involuntary servitude, it may exist in the United States; but it can only exist lawfully as a punishment for crime of which the party shall have been duly convicted. Such is the plain reading of the Con stitution. A condition of enforced service, even for a limited period, in the private business o f another, is a condition of involuntary servitude. I f it be said that government may make it a criminal offense, punish able by fine and imprisonment, or both, for anyone to violate his private contract voluntarily made, or to refuse without sufficient reason to per form it,—a proposition which can not, I think, be sustained at this day, in this land of freedom,—it would by no means follow that government could, by force applied in advance of due conviction of some crime, compel a freeman to render personal services in respect of the private business o f another. The placing of a person, by force, on a vessel about to sail, is putting him in a condition of involuntary servitude, if the purpose is to compel him against his will to give his personal serv ices in the private business in which that vessel is engaged. The per sonal liberty o f individuals, it has been well said, “ consists in the power o f locomotion, o f changing situation, or moving one’s person to whatso ever place one’s own inclination may direct, without imprisonment or restraint, unless by due course o f law.” 1 Bl. Comm. p. 134, c. 1. Can the decision of the court be sustained under the clause of the Con stitution granting power to Congress to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several States? The power can not be exerted except with due regard to other provisions of the Constitution, par ticularly those embodying the fundamental guaranties o f life, liberty, and property. While Congress may enact regulations for the con duct of commerce with foreign nations and among the States, and may, perhaps, prescribe punishment for the violation of such regulations, it may not, in so doing, ignore other clauses of the Constitution. For instance, a regulation o f commerce can not be sustained which, in dis regard of the express injunctions of the Constitution, imposes a cruel and unusual punishment for its violations, or compels a person to tes tify in a criminal case against himself, or authorizes him to be put twice in jeopardy of life and limb, or denies to the accused the privilege DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 515 of being confronted with the witnesses against him, or of being informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him. And it is equally clear that no regulation of commerce established by Congress can stand if its necessary operation bo either to establish slavery or to create a condition of involuntary servitude forbidden by the Constitu tion. It is said that the statute in question is sanctioned by long usage among the nations of the earth as well as by the above act of July 20, 1790. Reference has also been made to an act of the colonial general court of Massachusetts, passed in 1047, declaring that a seaman who left his vessel before its voyage was ended might be “ pursued as a runaway servant.” But the act referred to was passed when slavery was toler ated in Massachusetts, with the assent of the government of Great Britain. It antedated the famous declaration of rights, promulgated in 1780, in which Massachusetts declared, among other things, that “ all men arc born free and equal, and have certain natural, essential, and unalienable rights, among which may be reckoned the right of enjoying and defending their lives and liberties; that of acquiring, pos sessing, and protecting property; in fine, that of seeking and obtaining their safety and happiness.” Is the existing statute to be sustained because its essential provisions were embodied in the act of 1790$ I think not, and for the reason, if there were no other, that the thirteenth amendment imposes restrictions upon the powers o f Congress that did not exist when that act was passed. The supreme law of the land now declares that involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, of which the party shall have been duly convicted, shall not exist anywhere within the United States. I am unable to understand how the necessity for the protection of seamen against those who take advantage o f them can be made the basis o f legislation compelling them, against their will, and by force, to render x>ersonal service for others engaged in private business. Their supposed helpless condition is thus made the excuse for imposing upon them burdens that could not be imposed upon other classes with out depriving them of rights that inhere in personal freedom. The Constitution* furnishes no authority for any such distinction between classes o f per sous in this country. If, prior to the adoption of the thirteenth amendment, the arrest of a seaman, and his forcible return, under any circumstances, to the vessel on which he had engaged to serve, could have been authorized by an act of Congress, such depriva tion o f the liberty of a freeman can not. be justified under the Consti tution as it now is. To give any other construction to the Constitution is to say that it is not made for all, and that all men in this land are not free and equal before the law, but that one class may be so far sub jected to involuntary servitude as to be compelled by force to render personal services in a purely private business, with which the public has no concern whatever. The voluntary contracts of individuals for personal services in private business can not justify the existence anywhere or at any time, in this country, o f a condition of involuntary servitude not imposed as a pun ishment for crime, any more than contracts creating the relation of master and slave can justify the existence and recognition of a state of slavery anywhere, or with respect to any persons, within the juris diction of the United States. The condition of one who contracts to render personal services in connection with the private business of 516 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. another becomes a condition of involuntary servitude from the moment he is compelled, against his will to continue in such service. He may be liable in damages for the nonperformance of his agreement, but to require him, against his will, to continue in the personal service of his master, is to place him and keep him in a condition of involuntary servi tude. It will not do to say that by “ immemorial usage” seamen could be held in a condition of involuntary servitude, without being convicted o f crime. The people of the United States, by an amendment of their fundamental law, have solemnly decreed that, “ except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted,” involun tary servitude shall not exist in any form in this country. The adding another exception by interpretation simply, and without amending the Constitution, is, I submit, judicial legislation. It is a very serious mat ter when a judicial tribunal, by the construction o f an act of Congress, defeats the expressed will of the legislative branch of the Government. It is a still more serious matter when the clear reading of a constitu tional provision relating to the liberty of man is departed from in defer ence to what is called “ usage”, which has existed, for the most part, under monarchical and despotic governments. If Congress, under its power to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several States, can authorize the arrest of a seaman who engaged to serve upon a private vessel, and compel him by force to return to the vessel, and remain during the term for which he engaged, a similar rule may be prescribed as to employees upon railroads and steamboats engaged in commerce among the States. Even if it were conceded—a concession only to be made for argument’s sake—that it could be made a criminal offense, punishable by fine or imprisonment, or both, for such employees to quit their employment before the expira tion o f the term for which they agreed to serve, it would not follow that they could be compelled, against their will and in advance of trial and conviction, to continue in such service. But the decision to day logic ally leads to the conclusion that such a power exists in Congress. Again, as the legislatures of the States have all legislative power not prohibited to them, while Congress can only exercise certain enu merated powers for accomplishing certain specified objects, why may not the States, under the principles this day announcedl compel all employees of railroads engaged in domestic commerce, and all domestic servants, and all employees in private establishments, within their respective limits, to remain with their employers during the terms for which they were severally engaged, under the penalty of being arrested by some sheriff or constable, and forcibly returned to the service of their employers'? The mere statement of these matters is sufficient to indicate the scope of the decision this day rendered. In my judgment, the holding of any person in custody, whether in jail or by an officer of the law, agaiftst his will, for the purpose of com pelling him to render personal service to another in a private business, places the person so held in custody in a condition of involuntary serv itude, forbidden by the Constitution o f the United States; consequently, that the statute as it now is, and under which the appellants were arrested at Astoria, and placed against their will on the barkentine AragOj is null and void, and their refusal to work on such vessel, after being forcibly returned to it, could not be made a public offense, author izing their subsequent arrest at San Francisco. I dissent from the opinion and judgment of the court. DECISIONS OP COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. C o n st it u t io n a l it y of S t a t u t e — L icen sin g of 517 L au n d r ie s — I n re Y ot Sang , 75 Federal R eporter, page 983 .—Section 4079 of the Political Code of Montana is as follows: u Every male person engaged in the laundry other than the steam laundry business must pay a license of ten dollars per quarter, provided that, where more than one person is engaged or employed or kept at work, such male person or persons shall pay a license of twenty-five dollars per quarter, which shall be the license for one place of business only.” Section 4080 of the Political Code of Montana reads as follows: “ Every person who carries on a steam laundry must pay a license of fifteen dollars per quarter.” One Yot Sang was engaged in the laundry business in Helena, Mont., the same not being a steam laundry and more than one person was uengaged or employed or kept at work” therein. He refused to take out a license, as provided by section 4079 above quoted, and he was arrested and confined in jail by virtue of a writ issued by a justice o f the peace charging him with a misdemeanor. He petitioned the United States district court for a writ of habeas corpus, which was granted after hearing in the decision of said court rendered August 29, 1896. The opinion of said court, delivered by Judge Knowles, contains the following language: In the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States it is provided that: “ No State shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” It is urged that the above statutes show that the State of Montana has not afforded to those carrying on a laundry business other than a steam laundry business the equal protection of the law,* that, in fact, it discriminates against one class of laundrymen, and in favor of another class. Is it not apparent that a law which requires of one man conducting a laundry business, employing one or more persons, a license o f $25, and o f another man conducting such a business a license of $15, is subjecting the one to a burden not imposed upon the other? It seems to me that in this case it appears that an additional burden is cast upon those conducting the business o f a laundry other than by steam, where one or more persons are employed, than is imposed upon those conducting a steam laundry, and that no conditions are presented which would justify the State in adding this additional burden. It is therefore held that the arresting of Yot Sang for the refusal to take out a license, and pay therefor $25, before he could conduct a laundry business in which one or more persons were employed, the same being other than steam, was void, by virtue of the said fourteenth amend ment to the Constitution. C o n st it u t io n a l it y of S t a t u t e — Me ch a n ics 7L ie n A ct — P alm er et ah v. Tingle , and Young-v...Lion H ardw are Go., 45 Northeastern R eporter , page 31 3 ,—Separate actions were brought in the courts of common pleas of Ohio by Palmer and Crawford against William C. Tingle, and by the Lion Hardware Company against L. F. Young, to foreclose mechanic’s 696—No. 11----- 9 518 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. liens. In tlie former case there was a judgment for defendant on appeal to the circuit court of Putnam County, and in the latter case there was a judgment for plaintiff on appeal to the circuit court of Clark County. These cases were carried to the supreme court o f the State on writs of error and were heard and determined together. Said court rendered its decision December 8,1896, and affirmed the judgment in the former case and reversed the judgment in the latter. The decision hinged upon the constitutionality of section 3184 of the Devised Statutes as amended by an act passed April 13,1894 (91 Ohio Laws, page 135), a mechanic’s lien act, and said section was decided to be unconstitutional. The opinion of the supreme court was delivered by Judge Burket, and the following, quoted therefrom, sufficiently states the facts in the cases and the reasons for the decision: The constitutionality of the amendment of the mechanic’s lien law, as passed April 13, 1894 (91 Ohio Laws, 135), is challenged in each of the cases. In the first case, payment was made under the contract in full before the work was done. In the second case, payment was made under the contract as the work progressed, and a final payment in full upon the completion and acceptance of the building, and before any mechanic’s lien was filed, or notice given the owner. The section o f the statute under which a right to a lien in these cases is claimed is as follows: “ Sec. 3184. A person who performs labor, or furnishes machinery or material for constructing, altering or repairing a boat, vessel or other water-craft, or for erecting, altering, repairing or remov ing a house, mill, manufactory, or any furnace or furnace material therein, or other building, appurtenance, fixture, bridge or other struc ture, or for the digging, drilling, plumbing, boring, operating, complet ing or repairing of any gas-well, oil-well, or any other well, or performs labor of any kind whatsoever, in altering, repairing, or constructing any oil-derrick, oil-tank, oil or gas pipe line, or furnishes tile for the drainage of any lot or land by virtue of a contract with, or at the instance of the owner thereof or his agent, trustee, contractor or subcontractor, shall have a lien to secure the payment of the same upon such boat, vessel, or other water-craft, or upon such house, mill, manufactory or other building or appurtenance, fixture, bridge or other structure, or upon such gas-well, oil-well, or any other well, or upon such oil-derrick, oil-tank, oil or gas pipe line, and upon the material and machinery so furnished, and upon the interest, lease hold or otherwise, of the owner in the lot for and on which the same may stand, or to which it may be removed.” The former statute on this subject provided that a lien might be taken by a person who should perform labor, or furnish machinery or material, by virtue of a contract with the owner or his authorized agent, while the statute here in question provides that such lien may be taken by any person who performs labor, or furnishes machinery or material, or tile for drainage, by virtue of a contract with, or at the instance of the owner, or his agent, trustee, contractor, or subcontractor. It is claimed by those opposing the statute that in so far as it undertakes to give a lien on the owner’s property for labor, machinery, or tile not supplied under any contract with him or with his agent, and not at the instance o f either, it is unconstitutional. On the part of those who are upholding the stat ute, it is claimed that the statute is constitutional, and that, by opera tion of law, its terms become woven into the contract between the owner DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 519 md the contractor, and that the owner, having thereby agreed to pay )he debts made by the contractor in comx>leting the building, has no iause for complaint. As to which claim is right must be determined by he constitution, aided by general rules of law. The preamble to the constitution is as follows: “ We, the people of lie State of Ohio, grateful to Almighty God for our freedom, to secure ts blessings and promote our common welfare do establish this consti tution.” It is worthy of notice that the constitution is established to secure the blessings of freedom, and to promote the common welfare. As the constitution must be regarded as consistent with itself throughnit, it must be presumed that the laws to be passed by the general issembiy under the powers conferred by that instrument are to be such is shall secure the blessings of freedom, and promote our common welfare. To make this more emphatic, the first section of the bill of eights provides that, “ A ll men are, by nature, free and independent, ind have certain inalienable rights, among which are those of enjoying md defending life and liberty, acquiring, possessing, and protecting property, and seeking and obtaining happiness and safety.” And by :he second section it is provided that: “ All political power is inherent n the people. Government is instituted for their equal protection and jenefit.” The usual and most frequent means of acquiring property is iy contract, and one of the most valuable and sacred rights is the right to make and enforce contracts. The obligation of a contract, vhen made and entered into, can not be impaired by act of the general issembiy. Const, art. 2, sect. 28. The word “ liberty” as used in the irst section of the bill of rights, does not mean a mere freedom from physical restraint or state of slavery, but is deemed to embrace the right of man to be free in the enjoyment of faculties with which he las been endowed by his Creator, subject only to such restraints as ire necessary for the common welfare. Contracts and compacts have been entered into between men, tribes, ind nations during all the time from the earliest dawn of history; and :he right and liberty of contract is one of the inalienable rights of nan, fully secured and protected by our Constitution, and it may be restrained only in so far as it is necessary for the common welfare and :he equal protection and benefit of the people. That such restraint of the right and liberty of contract is for the common, public welfare, and 3qual protection and benefit of the people must appear, not only to the general assembly, in the face of popular clamor, or the pressure of the lobby, but also to the courts; and it must be so clear that a court of justice, in the calm deliberation of its judgment, may be able to see that such restraint is for the common welfare and equal protection and benefit o f the people. The statute in restraint o f the liberty to contract as to interest on money is valid for the reason that all can see that it is for the common welfare. Our exemption laws can be sustained only on the ground that while they, in a slight degree, limit the liberty of contract, such limitation is for the general welfare of the whole people, and does not interfere with their equal protection and benefit. Iii such cases courts can see that the slight restraint of the liberty of contract is for the common welfare of the iieople, but no court can see that it is for the common, public welfare that the liberty of contract should be taken away from the owner of a building, to enable the seller o f materials to collect their value from a man who never pur chased them, and has already fully paid the one with whom he con tracted for all that he has received. There can be no public necessity for making the contractor the agent of the owner, to enable the seller 520 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. of materials to collect liis pay from one who does not owe him, and with whom he has no contract. An agent can have no interest adverse to his master, but this statute attempts to create an agent for the owner out of the contractor, who is opposed to him in every interest. It is an attempt to make the contractor serve two masters—himself and the owner. This can not be done. The owner has the right to acquire his building upon the best terms possible, and if he can, by making a contract to pay, in advance, or by exchange of securities or other property, acquire his building cheaper than by contracting to pay after four months from its completion, he has the inalienable right to so acquire it, and to be protected in its'enjoyment; and it is not within the power of the general assembly to compel him to pay a higher price for his building, for the protection of laborers and fur nishers with whom he has no contractual relations. To enable the contractor, by force o f this statute, to enlarge the price to be paid, by allowing liens to be taken on the property for labor and materials, would be as unjust as to authorize the owner, by statute, to enlarge the building, without a corresponding increase in payment. But it is urged that the act is constitutional for the reason that the statute itself must be read into the contract, and that thereby the owner agrees that the contractor may obtain labor and materials for which a lien may be taken against the owner’s property. This begs the question, and assumes the constitutionality of the statute. I f the statute is valid, it must be read into the contract; but, if invalid, it binds neither party, and does not become a part o f the contract. The conclusion is that the statute in question, in so far as it attempts to give a lien for materials, machinery, tile or labor obtained by the contractors, is unconstitutional and void. C o n s t it u t io n a l it y of St a t u t e — S u n d a y L a b o r — B a r b e r s — City o f Tacoma v. K rech , 4 6 Pacific R eporter, page 2 5 5 .—Henry Krech was convicted in the superior court of Pierce County, Wash., for vio lating an ordinance of the city of Tacoma prohibiting barbers from pursuing their occupation on Sunday. He appealed to the supreme court of the State and said court rendered its decision September 28, 1896, and reversed the judgment of the lower court, on the ground that the city ordinance under which he was convicted was unconstitutional and void. From the opinion of the supreme court the following is quoted: This judgment is attacked for various reasons by the appellant, but, with the view we take of his last contention, viz, that the law is special, and is obnoxious to the provisions of our constitution in relation to special legislation, a discussion of the other propositions will not be necessary. One class of people is singled out by this law, while other laboring people, in different characters o f employment, are allowed to prosecute their work. Conceding, for the purpose of this case, the right o f the legislature to pass a law restricting or forbidding manual labor on Sunday, yet, under the provisions of our constitution, the restriction must be imposed alike upon all residents of the State, or the effect of the law would be to work privileges and immunities upon one class of citi zens which did not equally belong to all citizens. I f this law is valid, DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 521 then the legislature would have the right to prohibit farm labor on Sunday, to prohibit working for printers on Sunday, to prohibit ninetenths o f the employments which citizens usually engage in in this country, and leave the other one-tenth of the people to pursue their vocations. This would plainly be granting privileges and immunities to one class which did not belong equally to all citizens. The object of the consti tution was to prohibit special legislation, and substitute in its place a general law, which bore on all alike. It seems to us that the ordinance in question is u special legislation,” within the meaning of the constitu tion; and, o f course, if the legislature had no right to pass such a law, it could not delegate such power to a city council. W e therefore hold the ordinance to be unconstitutional. The judgment will be reversed, and the cause dismissed. [For other recent decisions on the same point as the above, see the cases Ex parte Jentzsch, State v, Granneman, and People v. Havnor, pages 670 to 678, Bulletin of the Department of Labor, Ho. 6.] Co n st it u t io n a l it y of S t a t u t e — Su n d a y L abo r — R u n nin g of RAILROAD T r a in s — State v. Southern R ailw ay Co ., 2 5 Southeastern Reporter , page 86 2 .—The Southern Railway Company was convicted in the superior court o f Guilford County, NT. G., of a violation of the statute prohibiting the running of trains on Sunday, and appealed their case to the supreme court o f the State. Said court rendered its decision Novem ber 10,1896, and affirmed the judgment of the superior court. From the opinion o f said court, which was delivered by Judge Avery, the following is quoted: The statute (Code, sec. 1973) under which the indictment is drawn is not unconstitutional. Although it affects interstate commerce to some extent, there is nothing in its provisions which suggest a purpose on the part of the legislature to interfere with such traffic, or indicative of any other intent than to prescribe, in the honest exercise of the police power, a rule of civil conduct for persons within her territorial jurisdiction. Such a law is valid, and must be obeyed, unless and until Congress shall have passed some statute which supersedes that act by prescribing regulations for the running of trains on the Sabbath on all railway lines engaged in interstate commerce. While the State may not interfere with transportation into or through its territory “ beyond what is absolutely necessary for its self-protection,” it is authorized, in the exercise of the police power, to provide for maintain ing domestic order, and for protecting the health, morals, and security of the people. Congress is unquestionably empowered, whenever it may see fit to do so, to supersede, by express enactment on this sub ject, all conflicting State legislation. But until its powers are asserted and exercised, the statute under which the indictment is drawn may be enforced, and will constitute one of the many illustrations o f the principle that the States have the power, at least in the absence of any action o f Congress, to pass laws necessary to preserve the health and morals o f their people, though their enforcement may involve some slight delay or disturbance o f the transportation o f goods or persons through their borders. 522 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. C on tract of E m p l o y m e n t — St a t u t e of F r a u d s — M ood y et al. v . Jones , 37 Southicestern Reporter, page 379 .—Action was brought in the district court of Galveston County, Tex., by John E. Jones against W. L. Moody & Co. to recover damages for the alleged breach of a con tract for personal services. He alleged, and introduced parol evidence (testimony o f witnesses) to prove, that Moody & Co. had employed him on or about September 1,1893, to serve them as cotton clerk in their business as cotton factors for a period of twelve months from January 1,1894,* that on said date he entered upon the discharge of his duties as such clerk and performed them until March 31,1894, when he was discharged without cause, and that his salary had been paid up to the time of his discharge. Upon the trial the defendants objected to the introduction of parol evidence to prove the agreement or contract of employment upon the ground that it came within the statute of frauds requiring an agreement not to be performed within one year to be in writing, and that therefore the introduction of a written agree ment would be the only evidence which could be admitted as proof of the alleged contract. This objection was overruled and judgment was rendered for the plaintiff. The defendants carried the case on writ of error to the court of civil appeals of the State, which rendered its decision October 22, 1896, sustaining the contention of the defendants and reversing the judgment of the lower court. In the opinion of said court, which was delivered by Chief Justice Garrett, the following language was used: Under the statute of frauds (Rev. St. 1879, art. 2464): “ Ho action shall be brought in any of the following cases, unless the promise or agreement upon which such action shall be brought, or some memoran dum thereof, shall be in writing and signed by the party to be charged therewith, or by some person by him thereunto authorized, * * * (5) upon any agreement which is not to be performed within the space o f one year from the making thereof/7 Since the contract of employ ment was to commence at a future date, and run for 12 months, it fell clearly within the statute, and, being a parol contract, no action could be maintained thereon. The fact that the plaintiff’s salary was to be paid monthly does not take the agreement out of the statute of frauds. He has sued upon a contract of employment for a year, to commence at a future date, and in support thereof offers no writing. This brings the agreement clearly within the statute. For the error of the court in admitting parol evidence to prove the contract sued on, and in charging the jury that plaintiff would be entitled to recover the balance of the stipulated salary for one year from the date o f the agreement, the judgment of the court below will be reversed and the cause remanded. E m p l o y e r s ’ L ia b il it y — Co m pete n c y ness — Colorado F u el and Ir o n page 875 .—Richard of P h y sic ia n as W it Co. v. Cummings , 46 Pacific Reporter , Cummings brought suit in the district court of Pueblo County, Colo., against the above-named company to recover DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 523 damages for personal injuries sustained wliile in the employ of said company. He recovered a judgment, and the defendant company appealed the case to the court of appeals of the State, which rendered its decision November 9,1896, and reversed the decision of the lower court. There was but one point of particular interest decided by the court, which was as follows: The plaintiff claimed that while working in a rolling mill of the defendants he had occasion to step onto a part of the rolling machine called a u table 77 to turn a valve; that owing to the negligence o f the defendants the electric light went out, and that owing to that fact he could not see where he had put his right foot, and the machinery starting at that moment his foot was caught in the cogs and badly injured. The theory of the defense was that the plaintiff did not step on the table, but that he was kicking scales out from under the table, and that when the table was lowered it caught his foot. In order to sustain this theory they offered the testimony of the hospital physician, by whom the plaintiff had been treated, to show how, in his opinion, the injury must have been sustained. The district court excluded his testimony on the trial, and the court of appeals sus tained it in so doing, and its reasons therefor are stated by Judge Bissell, who delivered the opinion of the court in that part of the same, which is quoted below: The 0. 0. and I. Co., as the appellant used to be known, and the D. and R. G. Ry. Co., established a hospital in Pueblo for the use of both companies. This hospital was supported by contributions, more or less voluntary or compulsory, from the employees of both corporations, out of whose monthly wages a certain sum was deducted for what was called a “ hospital fund/7 and devoted to the maintenance of the build ing, the purchase of supplies for it, and the hire of physicians and nurses who were employed about it. The companies were apparently responsible for the hospital, and for all bills which were contracted in connection with it, whether for supplies, attendance, or medical service, though the funds which they used may all or partially or otherwise have come from these monthly contributions. Whatever the fact may be, the doctor who was employed by the company, and received his salary from them, under these circumstances, attended Cummings after he was hurt. He was put on the stand, and interrogated respecting his observation o f the foot, and respecting his opinion about the manner in which it was hurt. This was evidently in support of the defendants7 theory that Cummings was not hurt while climbing onto the table to turn the valve, but got his foot underneath the table in kicking out the scales, as one witness testified he had stated to him directly there after, and got his foot caught when the motorman was lowering the table. The importance of this evidence was quite apparent on any theory which the plaintiff had advanced, for if the doctor should testify that, according to his examination, the hurt came by a pressure from above, and not by the interlocking of cogs, it would support the con tention that the injury was received while kicking scales. The testi mony was excluded, and the appellant strenuously insists the ruling was erroneous. According to the better authorities, the testimony is inadmissible if the relation of physician and patient existed. Our statute (Gen. St. sec. 3649) prohibits the examination of a physician or 524 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. surgeon without the consent of his patient as to any information which he may have acquired by tending him. This provision is as broad as the statute o f any State to which our attention has been called. As we view the case, and as we believe the law to be, the inhibition is broad enough to exclude an examination o f the surgeon as to any infor mation which he has acquired while attending a patient, whether this information is deduced from statements or gathered from his profes sional or surgical examination. The authorities hold that no matter how the information may be acquired, whether it comes to the surgeon in the shape o f oral statements, or by reason of his examination, he can not be interrogated respecting it. This leaves only the question whether the relation of physician and patient existed. It is a narrow inquiry, and one possibly a little diffi cult o f satisfactory solution. W e are, however, entirely satisfied that the circumstances under which the doctor was employed, and the relation existing between the company and its employees and the doc tor, were such as to put the physician and the plaintiff directly in the relation o f doctor and patient. The plaintiff’s contributions may have been slight, but the circumstances o f the situation were such as to lead him to put himself implicitly under the care o f the surgeon, and to trust himself in his hands for care, to the same extent and under the same circumstances as though he had sent out for another physi cian, and put himself directly in his charge. Unless something more can be shown than the present case discloses, we are compelled to hold the evidence properly excluded. E m p l o y e r s ’ L ia b i l it y — C on stru ctio n of S t a t u t e — D iscon S u it b y A d m in is t r a t o r — M iller et al. v. Coffin, 36 t in u a n ce of A tlantic Reporter , page 6 .—This suit was commenced by a bill filed in the supreme court of Rhode Island by Jennie L. Miller and others, the widow and next o f kin o f Alfred Miller, deceased, asking for an injunc tion against the respondent, Clarence U. Coffin, to restrain him from discontinuing an action brought by them in his name as administrator of the estate of the said Alfred Miller, against the Newport and Wickford Railroad and Steamboat Company and the Adams Express Com pany, for damages for the death of said Alfred Miller, alleged to have been caused by the negligence of said companies, Miller being in the employ o f one o f said companies at the time of the accident. The respondent, Coffin, demurred to the bill, and the supreme court sus tained the demurrer. The complainants then amended their bill and the respondent filed a plea to the same, in which he set out the decla ration in the suit for damages against the above-named companies. The supreme court rendered its decision September 16,1895, in which it sustained the respondent’s plea and refused to grant the injunction. In the course o f said decision, sections 15 and 18 of chapter 204 of the Public Statutes o f Rhode Island, which provide for a right of action against common carriers for the death of “ any person, whether a passenger or not, in the care o f” such common carriers, were construed. DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 525 The opinion of the supreme court was delivered by Judge Stiness, and the following, bearing on the construction of the statute above mentioned, is quoted therefrom: If the declaration [in the suit for damages against the companies, above named] set out a good cause of action, the respondent ought to prosecute it; if the declaration does not set out a good cause of action, the respondent ought not to be required to prosecute a losing suit. W e think it is clear that the declaration set up in the plea does not show a cause o f action in favor of the complainants. It does not state which corporation was negligent, nor in what way, nor is the happen ing of the accident of such a character in itself as to amount to prima facie evidence of negligence. So far as the steamboat company is concerned, it [the accident] might have been caused by the negligence of a fellow-servant, and this is the question which has been argued. Does the statute which gives a right of action against common carriers for the death of “ any person, whether a passenger or not, in the care o f” such common carrier cover the case o f a servant whose death is caused by the negligence of a fellow-servants Two rules are firmly established in the law of master and servant: First, that a master is not liable for injuries to a servant through the negligence o f a fellow-servant, and not through the negligence o f the master; second, that a servant assumes the risks incident to his employment. Our first statute, passed in October, 1853, which was limited to pas sengers, gave the right of action for the negligence of the common carrier, or its servants. In January, 1855, the law was extended. In the Revision of 1857, the law was put, substantially, into its present form, by extending it to the loss of life “ of any person, whether a pas senger or not, in the care o f” a common carrier. Up to this point there was no provision at all for the loss of life of a servant, and the question comes whether this last change was intended to sweep away the limita tions which had become ingrafted into similar laws by the decisions of the courts. W e think it was not so intended for many reasons. It is a familiar rule that statutes are not to be construed in derogation of the common law, except so far as an intent to do so is plain; and, when a statute is adopted which has already received judicial construction, it is to be presumed that it was adopted in view of such construction. Even where the language of the statute, taken literally, is absolute, it may still be subject to exceptions. The cautious procedure in adopting the limited provisions of the preceding acts leads us to believe that there was no intention in the Revision o f 1857 to make a longer leap than had been made elsewhere. It meant, undoubtedly, to give a right of action even for the death of an employee when it should be caused by the negligence of common carriers by railroads or steamboats, in distinction from other persons who were to be liable only for a wrongful act. To this extent the act is appropriate and effective, and extends to many cases o f negligence by servants or agents, who may be intrusted with duties which belong to the master. But it is not to be presumed that it meant to make a company liable to an employee for the negligence of a fellow-servant. Adopting the construction insisted upon by the plaintiff, a servant injured by a fellow-servant while operating a locomotive or train of cars, although he may be maimed, mangled, and disfigured, and may suffer for an indefinite period of time the most excruciating tortures, 526 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. can have no action against a master or employer; yet, if he die, his representative may recover of his employer. This statement seems to be quite sufficient to show that it would be most absurd to construe this provision, relating to the death of a servant, by a different rule from that which would govern his own action if he had lived. In the latter case the simple question would be whether the employer had been at fault. I f not he could not be made to pay for the wrong done by somebody else, because of greater ability to pay; and it would be just as wrong to compel him to pay for the fault of another if the servant should die as it would be if he lived. Certain duties devolve upon a master, whether a corporation or an individual, and for these he must be responsible ; but for the carelessness of a fellow-servant, outside of such duties, the master can not be held responsible. An analysis o f the statute according to the complainant’s construc tion would come t o : “ Any person, whether a passenger or not, in the care o f ” a railroad or steamboat company, includes an employee. The death of the employee by reason of the negligence of the carrier or its servants or agents is a sufficient basis for an action, without reference to his own negligence or that of his fellow-servants, or the ordinary risks o f his employment. W e can not think that this is so. On the contrary, we are constrained to hold that the statute was not intended to abrogate the rules of the common law in such cases, but to give a right o f action in conformity to them; and so the provision for an action for the death o f “ any person, whether a passenger or not, in the care o f” a railroad company, by reason of the negligence of its servants, does not allow such action, irrespective o f the fact that the deceased was an employee, and injured by the negligence of a fellow-servant. W e therefore decide that the plea is a sufficient answer to the bill, and it is sustained. E x e m p tio n from G a r n ish m e n t — W a g e s — W eaver et al. v. H ill , 37 Southwestern Reporter , page 142 .—Action was brought in the circuit court of Knox County, Tenn., by J. W . Hill against J. R. Weaver and the Southern Railway Company, garnishees. A judgment was ren dered for the plaintiff and defendant Weaver appealed the case to the supreme court of the State, which rendered its decision October 10,1896, and reversed the decision of the lower court. The opinion of the supreme court, delivered by Judge Wilkes, and containing a statement o f facts in the case, reads as follows: This is a garnishment proceeding. The trial judge gave judgment for $12.65, and the defendant Weaver appealed, and has assigned an error that the amount for which the judgment was rendered was not subject to garnishment, but was exempt, under the act of 1895, p. 388, c. 192. It appears that the garnishment was served upon the rail way company February 20,1896, returnable March 5,1896. The com pany answered that, at the time the garnishment was served, it was indebted to Weaver, for wages as a laborer, in the sum of $42.65, and that Weaver claimed an exemption o f $30 o f such amount as laborer’s wages. In the circuit court it appeared that it was the custom of the railroad company to pay wages to its employees on the 20th of each month for the previous month, and the wages were due at that time; that when the garnishment was served the company was owing Weaver DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 527 for January, 1896, $28, and for February, 1896, $14.65; that the amount owing for January, 1896, was then due and payable, but the amount earned and owing for February, 1896, was not due and payable until the 20th of March, 1896. The circuit judge, upon this proof, was of the opinion that $30 of the entire amount owing was exempt, under the statute, and the remainder, or $12.65, then earned but not due, could be reached by garnishment, and*gave judgment accordingly. Mill, and Y. Code, sec. 2931, exempts $30 of the wages of every mechanic or laboringman, and provides that, u the lien created by service o f garnishment shall only affect that portion of a laborer's wages that may bo due at the time service is made and not any future wages." It is said that this section of the Code was construed in Yan Yleet^. Stratton, 91 Tenn. 476, 19 S. W. 428, to hold that wages which have been earned, but are not yet due, may be seized under garnishment, and language to that effect is used in considering that case. The real question involved in that case, however, was that an employer might pay his employee his wages in advance, and this would not be a fraudulent evasion of the garnishment law. After the decision in Yan Yleet v. Stratton the act of May 13,1895, was passed by the legisla ture. This act is entitled ‘A n act to prevent the attachment or gar nishment of the future wages or salary of any employee," and is in these words: “ That hereafter no attachment or garnishment shall be issued to attach or garnishee the future salary or wages of any employee or other person, but any such attachment or garnishment shall only be for salary or wages due at the date o f the service of the garnishment or attachment." It is evident that by this act the legislature intended that only salary and wages due at the time the garnishment notice is served can be seized if in excess of the $30 exemption; and it, in express terms, takes away any right to attach or garnish any salary or wages not due when the notice is served, and we can give effect to the act in no other way than by such construction. It is true that Mill, and Y. Code, sec. 3810, provides that choses in action, whether due or not, are subject to garnishment, under the terms “ property, debts and effects," and section 4226 provides that “ if the debt of the garnishee to the defendant is not due execution will be suspended until its maturity," indicating a clear legislative intent that ordinarily choses in action m aybe garnished, whether due or not; but it is equally clear that, as to wages and salaries o f employees, both in Mill, and Y. Code, sec. 2931, and the act of 1895, it is the legislative intent and provision that only such wages and salaries as are due at the time of the service of the garnishment are liable to it, and the inference is irresistible that the legislature intended to apply a different rule in cases of salaries and wages to that prevailing as to other choses in action. The judg ment of the court below is reversed, and the garnishment proceedings dismissed, at the cost of the creditor Hill. L a b o r e r s ’ L ie n on Crops — E n f o r ce a b le a g a in st P u r c h a se r N otice — P ow ell v. Smith , 20 Southern R eporter , page 872 .— w it h o u t Action was brought by T. C. Smith against J. F. Powell in the circuit court of Yazoo County, Miss., to enforce a laborer’s lien on a crop of cotton. Judgment was rendered for the plaintiff, Smith, and the defendant, Powell, appealed the case to the supreme court of the State, which rendered its decision November 16, 1896, and, while 528 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. reversing tlie judgment of tlie lower court, decided, among other points, that the lien given by statute to an employee “ aiding by his labor to make, gather, or prepare for sale or market any crop ” (Code of 1892, section 2682), is as broad as a landlord’s lien, and may be enforced against a purchaser of the crop in open market, whether he bought with notice of the lien or not. The opinion of the supreme court was delivered by Judge Whitfield, and in discussing the point above mentioned he used the following language: This court has held that the landlord may recover the value of agri cultural products on which he has the statutory lien, whether the pur chaser thereof in open market has notice or not. It follows, inescapa bly, that tlie same rule must be applied to the lien of the employee or other person “ aiding by his labor to make, gather or prepare for sale or market any crop,” etc., and that this lien must be co extensive and reciprocal with the lien o f the landlord. The language of section 2682, defining the lien of the employee, is, “ Such liens shall be paramount to all liens and incumbrances or rights of any kind created by or against the person so contracting for such assistance, except the lessor of the land * * * for rent or supplies;” and that of section 2495, defining the landlord’s lien, is, “ This lien shall be paramount to all other liens, claims, or demands upon such products.” I f there be any difference as to the extent of the two liens, it would seem that the employee’s is the broader. Both are creatures of the statute, neither requiring record, but the statute charging, o f itself, all the world with notice o f the existence o f the lien. Section 2683 provides that the employee’s lien “ shall exist by virtue of the relation of the parties, and without any writing,” or record, if written. In Buck v. Payne, 52 Miss., 277, it was said that “ the policy of the statute is to make sure to the laborer his wages” ; and in Irwin v. Miller, 72 Miss., at page 177, 16 South., 678, that “ the primary and principal purpose o f this section [2682] is to afford security to agricul tural laborers,” in which case the benefit of the lien was extended to a ginner. In view of the fact that our people are mainly agriculturists, and o f this unbroken course of legislation and decision, it is impossible to hold that the lien of the employee or other person does not have equal scope with that of the landlord. DECISIONS UNDER COMMON LAW . B e n e f ic ia l A ssociations — N ot P a r t n e r sh ip s — O w n e r sh ip of P r o p e r t y — Local Union N o. 1, Textile W orkers v. B a rrett , 36 A tla n tic Reporter , page 5 .—This action was brought by the above named union of textile workers against Joseph Barrett to recover money had and received. A judgment was rendered dismissing the action and the plaintiff appealed the case to the supreme court of the State, Rhode Island, which court rendered its decision December 22, 1896, and reversed the judgment of the lower court. The opinion o f said court was delivered by Chief Justice Matteson, and in the course of the same he used the following language: This is assumpsit for money had and received. The plaintiff is a beneficial association, unincorporated. The agreed statement of facts DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 529 shows that, while a member of the association, the defendant received of the funds belonging to it $13.86, which he still retains, though he had ceased to be a member of the association before the bringing of the suit. The court below held that the action could not be maintained, because the association, not being incorporated, must be regarded as a partnership. W e think this was error. The essential element of a partnership, as between its members, is the agreement to share profits and losses. This element is wanting in voluntary associations, such as the plaintiff, formed for social or charitable purposes and tbe like, and not for the purpose of trade or profit, and hence they do not stand on the footing of a partnership. The property of such an association is a mere incident to the purpose of the organization, and a member has no proprietary interest in it, nor right to any proportional part of it, either during his continuance in the partnership, or upon his with drawal. He has merely the use and enjoyment of it while a member, the property belonging to and remaining with the society. But, were the rule otherwise, section 3 of the by-laws of the plaintiff, made a part of the agreed statement of facts, provides that “ none but members in good standing shall be eligible to hold * * * any own ership in any property belonging to the union.” The defendant, on becoming a member of the association, assented to this by-law, and therefore it became a part of the contract between him and the associ ation. On ceasing to be a member of the association in good standing, all his interest in its funds was terminated by the operation of this by-law. Judgment for plaintiff for $13.86, with interest from the date of the writ, and costs. C on tract C o m p e ll in g E m p l o y e e to J oin L abor U nion U n v. Galen et al ., 46 N o rth ea stern R e p o r te r , p a g e 297 .— l a w f u l — C u rra n Action was brought by Charles Curran against Leon Galen and others, in the general term of the supreme court of New York, fifth department, and the plaintiff obtained a judgment. The defendants appealed the case to the court of appeals of the State, which rendered its decision March 2,1897, and affirmed the judgment of the supreme court. The facts of the case are as follows: The plaintiff, Curran, demanded damages against the defendants for having confederated and conspired together to injure him by taking away his means of earn ing a livelihood and preventing him from obtaining employment. He set out in his complaint that he was an engineer by trade, and that, previously to the acts mentioned, he was earning, by reason of his trade, a large income, and had constant employment at remunerative wages. He set forth the existence of an unincorporated association in the city of Rochester, where he was a resident, called the Brewery Workingmen’s Local Assembly, 1796, Knights of Labor, which was composed of workingmen employed in the brewing business in that city, and was a branch of a national organization known as the Knights of Labor. He alleged that it assumed to control by its rules and regu lations the acts o f its members in relation to that trade and employ ment, and demanded and obtained from its members implicit obedience 530 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. iii relation thereto. Plaintiff then alleged that the defendants. Gross-, berger and Watts, wrongfully and maliciously conspired and combined together, and with the said local assembly, for the purpose of injuring him and taking away his means of earning a livelihood, in the follow ing manner, to wit: That in the month of November, 1890, Grossberger and Watts threatened the plaintiff that unless he would join said local assembly, pay the initiation fee, and subject himself to its rules and reg ulations, they and that association would obtain plaintiff’s discharge from the employment in which he then was, and would make it impossi ble for him to obtain any employment in the city of Eochester or else where, unless he became a member of said association. In pursuance of that conspiracy, upon plaintiff’s refusing to become a member of said association, Grossberger and Watts and the association made complaint to the plaintiff’s employers, and forced them to discharge him from their employ, and, by false and malicious reports in regard to him, sought to bring him into ill repute with members of his trade and employers, and to prevent him from prosecuting his trade and earning a livelihood. The defendants’ answer admitted all that was alleged in respect to the organization of the local assembly. It denied, generally and specific ally, each and every other allegation in the complaint, and as a separate answer and defense to the complaint the defendants set up the exist ence in the city of Eochester of the Ale Brewers’ Association, and an agreement between that association and the local assembly described in the complaint, to the effect that all employees of the brewing com panies belonging to the Ale Brewers’ Association “ shall be members of the Brewery Workingmen’s Local Assembly, 1796, Knights of Labor; and that no employee should work for a longer period than four weeks without becoming a member.” They alleged that the plaintiff was retained in the employment of the Miller Brewing Company “ for more than four weeks after he was notified of the provisions of said agreement requiring him to become a member of the local assembly;” that defendants requested plaintiff to become a member, and, upon his refusal to comply, “ Grossberger and Watts, as members of said assembly, and as a committee duly appointed for that purpose, notified the officers of the Miller Brewing Company that plaintiff, after repeated requests, had refused for more than four weeks to become a member of said assembly;” and that “ defendants did so solely in pursuance of said agreement, and in accordance with the terms thereof, and with out intent or purpose to injure plaintiff in any way.” The plaintiff demurred to the matter set up as a separate defense to the complaint, upon the ground that it was insufficient, in law, upon the face thereof. The supreme court sustained the demurrer and the question upon which the case came to the court of appeals was whether the matter set up by way of special defense was sufficient to exonerate the defendants from the charge made in the complaint of a conspiracy to injure the plaintiff and to deprive him of the means of earning his livelihood. DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 531 As stated above, tbe court of appeals decided tbis question in tlie nega tive, and from its opinion the following, showing the reasons for said decision, is quoted: In the decision of the question before us we have to consider whether the agreement upon which the defendants rely in defense of this action, and to justify their part in the dismissal of the plaintiff from his employ ment, was one which the law will regard with favor and uphold when compliance with its requirements is made a test of the individual’s right to be employed. I f such an agreement is lawful, then it must be con ceded that the defendants are entitled to set it up as a defense to the action, forasmuch as they allege that what they did was in accordance with its terms. In the general consideration of this subject, it must be premised that the organization or the cooperation of workingmen is not against any public policy. Indeed, it must be regarded as having the sanction o f law when it is for such legitimate purposes as that of obtain ing an advance in the rate of wages or compensation, or of maintaining such rate. Penal Code, sect. 170. It is proper and praiseworthy, and perhaps falls within that; general view of human society which perceives an underlying law that men should unite to achieve that which each by himself can not achieve, or can achieve less readily. But the social principle which justifies such organizations is departed from when they are so extended in their operation as either to intend or to accomplish injury to others. Public policy and the interests o f society favor the utmost freedom in the citizen to pursue his lawful trade or calling, and if the purpose of an organization or combination o f workingmen be to hamper or to restrict that freedom, and, through contracts or arrange ments with employers, to coerce other workingmen to become members o f the organization and to come under its rules and conditions, under the penalty o f the loss of their positions and of deprivation of employ ment, then that purpose seems clearly unlawful, and militates against the spirit of our Government and the nature of our institutions. The effectuation o f such a purpose would conflict with that principle o f pub lic policy which prohibits monopolies and exclusive privileges. It would tend to deprive the public of the services of men in useful employ ments and capacities. It would, to use the language of Mr. Justice Barrett in People v. Smith, 5 N. Y. Or. E. at page 513, “ impoverish and crush a citizen for no reason connected in the slightest degree with the advancement o f wages or the maintenance o f the rate.” Every citizen is deeply interested in the strict maintenance of the constitutional right freely to pursue a lawful avocation under condi tions equal as to all, and to enjoy the fruits of his labor, without the imposition o f any conditions not required for the general welfare o f the community. The candid mind should shrink from the operation of tha principle contended for here; for there would certainly be a com pulsion or fettering of the individual glaringly at variance with that freedom in the pursuit of happiness which is believed to be guar anteed to all by the provisions of the fundamental law of the State. The sympathies or the fellow feeling which, as a social principle, under lies the association of workingmen for their common benefit, are not consistent with a purpose to oppress the individual who prefers by single effort to gain his livelihood. I f organization of workingmen is in line with good government, it is because it is intended as a legiti mate instrumentality to promote the common good of its members. If it militates against the general public interest, if its powers are directed 532 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. towards the repression of individual freedom, upon what principle shall it be justified? The organization of the local assembly in question by the working men in the breweries in the city of Rochester may have been perfectly lawful in its general purposes and method, and may otherwise wield its power and influence usefully and justly, for all that appears. It is not for us to say, nor do we intend to intimate, to the contrary; but so far as a purpose appears from the defense set up to the complaint that no employee o f a brewing company shall be allowed to work for a longer period than four weeks without becoming a member of the Working men’s Local Assembly, and that a contract between the local assembly and the Ale Brewers’ Association shall be availed of to compel the dis charge o f the independent employee, it is, in effect, a threat to keep persons from working at the particular trade, and to procure their dismissal from employment. While it may be true, as argued, that the contract was entered into, on the part of the Ale Brewers’ Association, with the object o f avoiding disputes and conflicts with the working men’s organization, that feature and such an intention can not aid the defense, nor legalize a plan of compelling workingmen not in affiliation with the organization to join it, at the peril o f being deprived of their employment and o f the means o f making a livelihood. In our judg ment, the defense pleaded was insufficient, in law, upon the face thereof, and therefore the demurrer thereto was properly sustained. Judgment affirmed. Jurisdiction Federal Courts—Injunction—Contempt— case came up in the Supreme Court o f the United States on writ of certiorari to the United States circuit court of appeals for the sixth circuit. The facts in the case and the circumstances connected with its start and progress in the courts are given below in the language of Mr. Justice Brown, who delivered the opinion o f the Supreme Court. This was a petition for a writ of habeas corpus originally filed in the circuit court for the northern district of Ohio. The petitioner alleged that he was a citizen of the State of Ohio, and was unlawfully restrained of his liberty by the marshal, under an order o f the circuit court of the United States, made in a case pending in that court, wherein the Toledo, Ann Arbor and North Michigan Railway Company, a corporation of the State of Michigan, was com plainant, and several railway companies, citizens of Ohio, as well as the Michigan Central Railroad Company, a citizen of Michigan, were defendants. The bill in that case, which was annexed to the petition as an exhibit, averred the complainant to be the owner of a line o f railroad from Toledo, Ohio, northwesterly through the State of Michigan; that a large part of its business consisted in the transportation of freight cars from points in the States of Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin to points in Ohio and other States east thereof, and that it was engaged as a common carrier in a large amount o f interstate commerce, which was regulated and controlled by the interstate act o f Congress. The bill further averred that defendant’s lines of railroad connected with those o f complainant at or near Toledo, and that a large and important part o f its business consisted in the interchange of freight cars between the of E x parte Lennon , 17 Supreme Court Reporter , page 658 .—This DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 535 defendant and complainant companies, and was subject to the provi sions of the interstate-commerce act; that it was the duty of the defend ant companies to afford reasonable and equal facilities for the inter change o f traffic, and to receive, forward, and deliver freight cars in the ordinary transaction of business, without any discrimination; that the defendant companies and their employees had given out and threatened that they would refuse to receive from complainant cars billed over its road for transportation by complainant to their destination, for the rea son that complainant had employed as locomotive engineers in its service men who were not members of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engi neers, “ an irresponsible voluntary association,” and that the locomotive engineers in the employ of the defendant companies had refused to handle cars to be interchanged with the comjdainantfs road, notwith standing that they continued to afford the other railroad companies full and free facilities for the interchange of traffic, while refusing to trans act such business with the complainant, thereby illegally discriminating against it. Upon the tiling of this bill, and upon the application of the complain ant, the circuit court issued an injunction against the defendants, their officers, agents, servants, and employees, enjoining them from refusing to afford and extend to the Toledo, Ann Arbor and North Michigan Bailway Company the same facilities for an interchange of interstate business between the companies as were enjoyed by other railway com panies, and from refusing to receive from the complainant company cars billed from points in one State to points in another State which might be offered to the defendant companies by the complainant. The injunction was served upon the Lake Shore and Michigan South ern Bailway Company, one of the defendants, one of whose employees was the appellant, James Lennon, a locomotive engineer, who had received notice of the injunction and still continuing in the service of the company had refused to obey it. Thereupon the Lake Shore Company applied to the court for an attachment against Lennon, and certain others of its engineers and fire men, setting forth that, with full knowledge of the injunction theretofore made, they had refused to obey the order of the court, and deserted their locomotives and engines in the yard of the company, for the reason that Ann Arbor cars o f freight were in the trains of such company, and that they had refused to haul such cars and perform their service for that reason. The persons named, including the petitioner, Lennon, being served with an order to show cause, appeared in pursuance of such order in person and by counsel, and witnesses were examined as to their knowl edge of, and as to their violation of, the order. The court found that Lennon was guilty of contempt in disobeying the order of injunction, and imposed a fine of $50 and costs. Toledo, A. A. & N. M. By. Co. v. Pennsylvania Co., 54 Fed., 746. Thereupon Lennon filed this petition setting forth the above facts, and alleging that the circuit court had no jurisdiction or lawful authority to arrest or proceed against him in manner as aforesaid, and that its order and judgment—whereby he was committed to the custody o f the marshal—were without authority of law and void: (1) That such order was issued in a suit whereof the circuit court had no jurisdiction, because the complainant and one of the defendants, namely, the Michi gan Central Bailroad Company, were, at the time of the filing of the bill, and ever since have been, citizens of the same State, and that said suit did not arise under the Constitution and laws of the United States; (2) 696—No. 11-----10 534 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. tliat tlie circuit court had no jurisdiction of the person of the petitioner, because he was not a party to the suit, nor served with any subpoena notifying him of the same; had no notice of the application for the injunction, nor was served with a copy thereof, nor had any notice whatever o f the issuing of such injunction, nor of its contents; (3) that the circuit court was also without jurisdiction to make the order, because it was beyond the jurisdiction o f a court of equity to compel the performance of a personal contract for service, and to interfere, by mandatory injunction, with the contract between himself and the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Eailway Company. Upon a hearing in the circuit court it was ordered that the petition be dismissed. Lennon, after appealing to this court, which held it had no jurisdiction and dismissed the appeal (150 U. S., 393, 14 Sup. Ct., 123), thereupon appealed to the circuit court of appeals for the sixth circuit, which affirmed the decree of the circuit court (Lennon v . Eailway Co., 22 U. S. App., 561,12 C. C. A., 134, and 64 Fed., 320), whereupon petitioner applied for and obtained a writ of certiorari from this court. The decision of the Supreme Court, affirming the judgment of the circuit court o f appeals, was rendered April 19, 1897, and Mr. Justice Brown, after stating the facts in the language quoted above, delivered the opinion of the court, from which the following is taken: The only question which can properly be raised upon this writ is whether the circuit court exceeded its jurisdiction in holding the peti tioner for a contempt and imposing upon him a fine therefor. We are not at liberty to consider the testimony, or to inquire whether the facts as they appeared upon the hearing justified the action of the circuit court. It is only upon the theory that the proceedings and judgment of the court were nullities that we are authorized to reverse its action. It has been too frequently decided to be now open to question that a wrifc of habeas corpus can not be made use of to perform the functions of a writ o f error or an appeal. Acting upon this theory, the petitioner claims that the circuit court exceeded its jurisdiction in adjudging him guilty of contempt, for the reason that it had no jurisdiction of the original bill, because one of the defendants to such bill was a citizen of the same State with the com plainant; because petitioner was not a party to the suit, and was never served with a subpoena or the injunction; and, finally, because it was beyond the jurisdiction of a court of equity to compel the perform ance of a personal contract for service. 1. The original bill averred the complainant, The Toledo, Ann Arbor and North Michigan Eailway Company, to be a corporation and citi zen of the State of Michigan, and the several railway companies defend ant to be citizens either of Pennsylvania or Ohio; and there is nothing in the record of that case to show that this averment was not true. It only appears to be otherwise by an allegation in the petition for the habeas corpus; and the question at once arises whether, where the requisite citizenship arises upon the face of the bill, the jurisdiction of the court can be attacked by evidence dehors the record in a collateral proceeding by one who was not a party to the bill. W e know of no authority for such action. The general rule is that parties to collateral proceedings are bound by the jurisdictional averments in the record, and will not be permitted to dispute them, except so far as they may have contained a false recital with respect to such parties. Doubtless the averments with regard to citizenship might have been directly DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR. 535 ittacked by anyone who was a party to that suit. But this can not be lone upon habeas corpus. Irrespective o f this, however, we think the bill exhibited a case arisng under the Constitution and laws of the United States, as it appears :o have been brought solely to enforce a compliance with the provisions >f the interstate-commerce act of 1887, and to compel the defendants to 3omply with such act, by offering proper and reasonable facilities for the nterchange of traffic with complainant, and enjoining them from refusng to receive from complainant, for transportation over their lines, any 3ars which might be tendered them. It has been frequently held by :his court that a case arises under the Constitution and laws of the United States whenever the party plaintiff sets up a right to which he s entitled under such laws, which the parties defendant deny to him, ind the correct decision of the case depends upon the construction of such laws. As was said in Tennessee v. Davis, 100 U. S., 257, 264: x Cases arising under the laws of the United States are such as grow nit of the legislation of Congress, whether they constitute the right or privilege, or claim or protection, or defense of the party, in whole or in part, by whom they are asserted.” 2. The facts that petitioner was not a party to such suit, nor served with process of subpoena, nor had notice of the application made by ffie complainant for the mandatory injunction, nor was served by the >fficers of the court with such injunction, are immaterial so long as it was made to appear that he had notice o f the issuing of an injunction 3y the court. To render a person amenable to an injunction, it is neither accessary that he should have been a party to the suit in which the njunction was issued, nor to have been actually served with a copy of t, so long as he appears to have had actual notice. Conceding the question whether he had such notice in this case to be >pen to review here, we are of opinion that upon the facts appearing n this record this question must be answered, as it was answered in :he court below, in the affirmative. The testimony upon this point is ?ully set forth in the opinion of the circuit court (54 Fed., 746, 757), and t establishes beyond all controversy that Lennon had notice and knowl edge of the injunction. 3. To the objection that it was beyond the jurisdiction of a court of equity to compel the performance o f a personal contract for service, md to interfere by mandatory injunction with petitioner’s contract with :he railway company, it is sufficient to say that nothing of the kind was attempted. The petitioner, as one of the employees of the Lake Shore Kailway, was enjoined from refusing to extend to the Ann Arbor Rail way such facilities for the interchange of traffic on interstate-commerce Dusiness between such railways as were enjoyed by other companies, ind from refusing to receive from the Ann Arbor Company cars billed crom points in one State to points in other States. Eo attempt was nade to interfere with the petitioner’s contract with his own company :>r to compel a continuance of his service in such company. There could 3e no doubt of the power of the court to grant this injunction, which Dore solely upon the relations of the railway companies to each other, it was alleged in the bill to have been a part o f the regular business of the defendant roads to interchange traffic with the Ann Arbor road, xnd the injunction was sought to prevent an arbitrary discontinuance Df this custom. Perhaps, to a certain extent, the injunction may be termed mandatory, although its object was to continue the existing state o f things, and to prevent an arbitrary breaking off of the current business connections between the roads. But it was clearly not beyond 536 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. the power o f a court of equity, which is not always limited to th€ restraint of a contemplated or threatened action, but may even require affirmative action where the circumstances o f the case demand it. It appears from the testimony in this case that Lennon was on his run as engineer from Detroit, Mich., to Air Line Junction, near Toledo, with a train of 45 cars. Having reached an intermediate station called “ Alexis,” he was ordered to take on an empty car from the Ann Arboi road. He refused to take the car into the train, and held the train there for five hours, and then proceeded on his run after receiving a dis patch from the chairman of a committee of the engineer brotherhood instructing him to “ come along and handle Ann Arbor cars.” When he first received the order at Alexis to take the Ann Arbor car, he refused, and said “ I quit,” but afterwards agreed with the superintend ent of the division to take the train to its destination if the order tc take the boycotted car was countermanded. Though he claimed tc have quit Alexis at about 10 o’clock, he brought his train to its destina tion, and, when told what his next run would be, gave no notice of hav ing quit or intending to quit. It is not necessary for us to decide whether an engineer may suddenly and without notice quit the service of a railway company at an inter mediate station or between stations, though cases may be easily imag ined where a sudden abandonment of a train load of passengers in an unfrequented spot might imperii their safety and even their lives. II is sufficient, in the present case, to observe that the court found, upon the testimony, that the petitioner did not quit in good faith in the morning, but intended to continue in the company’s service, and that his conduct was a trick and device to avoid obeying the order o f the court. The finding of the court in this particular is not open to review, and hence the question whether the court has power to compel the per formance of a personal contract for service does not arise. It was a question for the court to determine whether the petitioner’s action in delaying the train five hours at Alexis was taken in pursuance of a determination to abandon the service of the company, or for the pur pose of disobeying the lawful injunction of the court. The finding ol the court was against the petitioner on that point. There was no error in the judgment of the court of appeals, and it is therefore affirmed. LAWS OF VARIOUS STATES RELATING TO LABOR ENACTED SINCE JANUARY 1, 1896. IN D IA N A . ACTS OF 1897. C h a p t e r 65.— Factories and workshops— Employment o f women and children, etc. S e c t io n 1. No person under sixteen years o f age and no woman under eighteen years o f age, employed in any manufacturing establishment, shall be required, per mitted or suffered to work therein more than sixty hours in any one week, or more than ten hours in any one day, unless for the purpose of making a shorter day on the last day o f the week; nor more hours in any one week than will make an average o f ten hours per day for the whole number o f days in which such person or such woman shall so work during such week; and every person, firm, corporation or com pany employing any person under sixteen years o f age or any woman under eighteen years of age in any manufacturing establishment shall post and keep posted in a conspicuous place in every room where such help is employed a printed notice stating the number o f hours o f labor per day required o f such persons for each day o f the week, and the number o f hours of labor exacted or permitted to be performed by such persons shall not exceed the number o f hours o f labor so posted as being required. The time o f beginning and ending the day’s labor shall be the time stated in such notice: Provided, That such woman under eighteen and persons under sixteen years o f age may begin after the time set for beginning and stop before the time set in such notice for the stopping o f the day’s labor, but they shall not be permitted or required to perform any labor before the time stated on the notices as the time for beginning the day’s labor, nor after the time stated upon the notices as the hour for ending the day’s labor. Sec. 2. No child under fourteen years o f age shall be employed in any manufac turing establishment within this State. It shall be the duty o f every person employ ing children to keep a register, in which shall be recorded the name, birthplace, age and place o f residence o f every person employed by him under the age o f sixteen years; and it shall be unlawful for any proprietor, agent, foreman or other per son in or connected with a manufacturing establishment to hire or employ any child under the age o f sixteen years to work therein without there is first provided and placed on file in the office an affidavit made by the parent or guardian, stating the age, date and place o f birth o f said child; i f said child have no parent or guardian, then such affidavit shall be made by the child, which affidavit shall be kept on file by the employer, and said register and affidavit shall be produced for inspection on demand made by the inspector, appointed under this act. There shall be posted con spicuously in every room where children under sixteen years o f age are employed, a list o f their names, with their ages, respectively. (No child under the age o f sixteen years shall be employed in any manufacturing establishment who can not read and write simple sentences in the English language, except during the vacation o f the public schools in the city or town where such minor lives. The factory inspector shall have the power to demand a certificate o f physical fitness from some regular physician in the case o f children who may seem physically unable to perform the labor at which they may be employed, and shall have the power to prohibit the employment o f any minor that can not obtain such a certificate.) Sec. 3. No person, firmor corporation shall employ or permit any child under the age of fifteen years to have the care, custody, management of or to operate any ele vator, or shall employ or permit any person under the age of eighteen years to have the care, custody, management or operation of any elevator running at a speed of over two hundred feet a minute. Sec. 4. It shall be the duty o f the owner or lessee o f any manufacturing estab lishment where there is any elevator, hoisting shaft or well hole to cause the same to be properly and substantially enclosed or secured, if in the opinion o f the factory 537 538 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. inspector it is necessary, to protect tlie lives or limbs o f those employed in such establishment. It shall also be the duty o f the owner, agent or lessee o f each o f such establishments to provide, or cause to be provided, i f in the opinion of the inspector the safety o f persons in or about the premises should require it, such proper trap or automatic doors so fastened in or at all elevator-ways as to form a substantial surface when closed, and so constructed as to open and close by the action o f the elevator in its passage, either ascending or descending, but the requirements o f this section shall not apply to passenger elevators that are closed on all sides. The factory inspector may inspect the cables, gearing or other apparatus o f eleva tors in manufacturing establishments and require that the same be kept in safe con dition. Sec. 5. Proper and substantial hand rails shall be provided on all stairways in manufacturing establishments, and when in the opinion o f the factory inspector it is necessary, the steps o f said stairs in all such establishments shall be substantially covered with rubber, securely fastened thereon, for the better safety o f persons employed in said establishments. The stairs shall be properly screened at the sides and bottom. All doors leading in or to such factory shall be so constructed as to open outwardly when practicable, and shall be neither locked, bolted nor fastened during working hours. Sec. 6. If, in the opinion o f the factory inspector, it is necessary to insure the safety o f the persons employed in any manufacturing establishment, three or more stories in height, one or more fire escapes, as may be deemed by the factory inspector as neces sary and sufficient therefor, shall be provided on the outside o f such establishment, connected with each floor above the first, well fastened and secured, and o f sufficient strength, each o f which fire escapes shall have landings or balconies not less than six feet in length and three feet in width, guarded by iron railings not less than three feet in height, and embracing at least two windows at each story and connecting with the interior by easily accessible and unobstructed openings, and the balconies or land ings shall be connected by iron stairs, not less than eighteen inches wide, the steps not be less than six inches tread, placed at a proper slant, and protected by a wellsecured hand rail on both sides, with a twelve-inch wide drop-ladder from the lower platform reaching to the ground. Any other plan or style o f fire escape shall be suffi cient, i f approved by the factory inspector, but i f not so approved, the factory inspector may notify the owner, proprietor or lessee o f such establishment, or o f the building in which such establishment is conducted, or the agent or superintendent, or either o f them, in writing, that any such other plan or style of fire escape is not sufficient, and may by an order in writing, served in like manner, require one or more fire escapes, as he shall deem necessary and sufficient, to be provided for such estab lishment at such location and such plan and style as shall be specified in such written order. Within twenty days after the service o f such order, the number o f fire escapes required in such order for such establishment shall be provided therefor, each o f which shall be either o f the plan and style and in accordance with the specifica tions in said order required, or o f the plan and style in the section above described and declared to be sufficient. The windows or doors to each fire escape shall be o f sufficient size and be located as far as possible consistent with accessibility from the stairways and elevator hatchways or openings, and the ladder thereof shall extend to the roof. Stationary stairs or ladders shall be provided on the inside o f such establishment from the upper story to the roof, as a means o f escape in case o f fire. Sec. 7. It shall be the duty o f the owner, agent, superintendent or other person having charge o f such manufacturing establishment, or o f any floor or part thereof, to report in writing to the factory inspector all accidents or injury done to any per son in such factory, within forty-eight hours o f the time o f the accident, stating as fully as possible the extent and cause of such injury and the place where the injured person is sent, with such other information relative thereto as may be required by the factory inspector. The factory inspector is hereby authorized and empowered to fully investigate the causes o f such accidents, and to require such reasonable pre cautions to be taken as will in his judgment prevent the recurrence o f similar accidents. Sec. 8. It shall be the duty o f the owner of any manufacturing establishment, or his agents, superintendent or other person in charge o f the same, to furnish and sup ply, or cause to be furnished and supplied therein, in the discretion o f the factory inspector, where machinery is used, belt shifters or other safe mechanical contriv ances for the purpose o f throwing on or off belts or pulleys; and wherever possible, machinery therein shall be provided with loose pulleys; all vats, pans, saws, planers, cogs, gearing, belting, shafting, set-screws and machinery o f every description therein shall be properly guarded, and no person shall remove or make ineffective any safeguard around or attached to any planer, saw, belting, shafting or other machinery, or around any vat or pan, while the same is in use, unless for the pur pose of immediately making repairs thereto, and all such safeguards shall be promptlyreplaced. By attaching thereto a notice to that effect, the use o f any maehinery LABOR LAWS— INDIANA— ACTS OF 1897. 539 may be prohibited by the factory inspector, should such machinery be regarded as dangerous. Such notice must be signed by the inspector, and shall only be removed after the required safeguards are provided, and the unsafe or dangerous machine shall not be used in the meantime. Exhaust pans o f sufficient power shall bo pro vided for the purpose o f carrying off dust from emery wheels and grindstones, and dust-creating machinery therein. No person under eighteen years o f age, and no woman under twenty-one years of age, shall be allowed to clean machinery while in motion. Sec. 9. A suitable and proper wash room and water-closets shall be provided in each manufacturing establishment, and such water-closets shall be properly screened, and ventilated and be kept at all times in a clean condition, and if women or girls are employed in any such establishment, the water-closets used by them shall have separate approaches and bo separate and apart from those used by men. All waterclosets shall be kept free of obscene writing and marking. A dressing room shall be provided for women and girls, when required by the factory inspector, in any manufacturing establishment in which women and girls are employed. Sec. 10. Not less that sixty minutes shall be allowed for the noon-day meal in any manufacturing establishments in this State. The factory inspector shall have the power to issue written permits in special cases, allowing shorter meal time at noon, and such permit must be conspicuously posted in the main entrance o f the establish ment, and such permit may be revoked at any time the factory inspector deems necessary, and shall only be given where good cause can bo shown. Sec. 11. The walls and ceilings o f each room in every manufacturing establish ment shall be lime washed or painted, when in the opinion of the factory inspector it shall be conducive to the health or cleanliness o f the persons working therein. Sec. 12. The factory inspector, or other competent person designated for such pur pose by the factory inspector, shall inspect any building used as a workshop or manu facturing establishment or anything attached thereto, located therein, or connected therewith, which has been represented to be unsafe or dangerous to life or limb. If it appears upon such inspection that the building or anything attached thereto, located therein, or connected therewith, is unsafe or dangerous to life or limb, the fac tory inspector shall order the same to bo removed or rendered safe and secure, and i f such notification be not complied with within a reasonable time, he shall prose cute whoever may be responsible for such delinquency. Sec. 13. No room or rooms, apartment or apartments in any tenement or dwelling house shall be used for the manufacture o f coats, vests, trousers, knee-pants, over alls, cloaks, furs, fur trimmings, fur garments, shirts, purses, feathers, artificial flowers, or cigars, excepting by the immediate members o f the family living therein. No person, firm or corporation shall hire or employ any person to work in any one room or rooms, apartment or apartments, in any tenement or dwelling house, or building in the rear of a tenement or dwelling house, at making, in whole or in part, any coats, vests, trousers, knee-pants, fur, fur trimmings, shirts, purses, feathers, artificial flowers, or cigars, without obtaining first a written permit from the factory inspector, which permit may be revoked at any time the health of the*community, or o f those employed therein, may require it, and which permit shall not be granted until an inspection o f such premises is made by the factory inspector, assistant fac tory inspector, or a deputy factory inspector, and the maximum number o f persons allowed to be employed therein shall be stated in such permit. Such permit shall be framed and posted in a conspicuous place in the room, or in any one o f the rooms to which it relates. Sec. 14. No less than two hundred and fifty cubic feet o f air space shall be allowed for each person in any workroom where persons are employed during the hours between six o’ clock in the morning and six o’clock in the evening, and not less than four hundred cubic feet o f air space shall be provided for each person in any one workroom where persons are employed between six o’clock in the evening and six [o’clock] in the morning. By a written permit the factory inspector may allow j> e r sons to be employed in a room where there are less than four hundred cubic feet o f air space for each person employed between six o’clock in the evening and six o’clock in the morning: Provided, Such room is lighted by electricity at all times during such hours while persons are employed therein. There shall be sufficient means o f ventilation provided in each workroom o f every manufacturing establishment, and the factory inspector shall notify the owner in writing to provide, or cause to bo provided, ample and proper means of ventilation for such workroom, and shall prose cute such owner, agent or lessee if such notification be not complied with within twenty days o f the service of such notice. Sec. 15. The governor shall, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, appoint a factory inspector; said factory inspector shall hold and continue in office, after the expiration o f his term o f office until his successor shall be appointed and qualified. The term of office of the factory inspector shall be two years. The annual salary o f such inspector shall be one thousand five hundred dollars ($1,500), payable 540 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. in monthly installments; said inspector shall, by and with the consent o f the gov ernor, appoint one assistant factory inspector whose salary shall be one thousand dol lars ($1,000) per year, and he shall hold his office subject to removal by said inspector or the governor; shall be paid monthly by the treasurer upon the*warrant o f the auditor, issued upon proper vouchers therefor. Sec. 16. It shall be the duty o f the factory inspector to cause this act to be enforced, and to cause all violators o f this act to be prosecuted, and for that purpose he is empowered to visit and inspect at all reasonable hours, and as often as shall be practicable and necessary, all manufacturing establishments in this State. It shall be the duty o f the factory inspector to examine into all' violations o f laws made for the benefit o f labor and to prosecute all violations thereof. It shall be unlawful for any person to interfere with, obstruct or hinder said inspector while in the perform ance o f his duties or to refuse to properly answer questions asked by him with refer ence to any o f the provisions hereof. The factory inspector shall make an annual report o f his doings as such inspector to the governor during the month o f January o f each year. Such inspector shall have the power as a notary public to administer oaths and take affidavits in matters connected with the enforcement o f the provisions o f this act. Sec. 17. The prosecuting attorney of any county o f this State is hereby author ized upon request o f the factory inspector or o f any other person o f full age, to commence and prosecute to termination before any circuit or criminal court or police court, in the name o f the State, actions or proceedings against any person or persons reported to him to have violated the provisions o f this act. Sec. 18. The words umanufacturing establishment,” wherever used in this act, shall be construed to mean any mill, factory or workshop where ten or more per sons are employed at labor. Sec. 19. A copy of this act shall be conspicuously posted and kept posted in each workroom of every manufacturing establishment in this State. Sec. 20. Any person who violates or omits to comply with any of the provisions, or who refuses to comply with the orders of the factory inspector, properly made under the provisions of this act, or who suffers or permits any child to be employed inviola tion of its provisions, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction shall be punished by a fine of not more than fifty dollars for the first offense, and not more than one hundred dollars for the second offense, to which may be added imprisonment for not more than ten days, and for the third offense a fine of not less than two hundred and fifty dollars and not more than thirty days’ imprisonment. Sec. 21. All laws and parts of laws in conflict with the provisions of this act arc hereby repealed. Approved March 2, 1897. Ch a p t e r 84.— Coal m ines— E xam ination o f bosses and engineers . Section 1. After three months from the taking effect o f this act it shall be unlaw ful for any person to serve in the capacity o f mine boss, fire boss, or hoisting engi neer at any coal mine in this State without having first received from the inspector o f mines a certificate o f service or o f competency as hereinafter described and provided. Sec. 2. Certificates o f service shall be issued by the inspector o f mines to any person who shall furnish satisfactory proof that he has been engaged as, and has successfully discharged the duties of, mine boss, fire boss, or hoisting engineer at coal mines in this State for three years preceding the granting of such certificate. Sec. 3. Certificates o f competency shall be issued by the inspector o f mines to any person who shall prove satisfactorily upon examination, either written or oral, or both, as may be prescribed by such inspector, that he is qualified by experience and technical knowledge to perform the duties o f either mine boss, fire boss, or hoisting engineer at the coal mines o f the State. Examinations for certificates o f service or competency shall be public and open to all citizens o f the United States, and at least fifteen days’ notice o f such examination shall be given by publication in a newspaper published in the city where such examination is to be held. No certifi cate shall be issued to any person entitling him to serve in more than one o f the capacities set out in this section, but two or more certificates may be issued to the same person on proper examination. Sec. 4. It shall be the duty o f the inspector o f mines to hold examinations for certificates o f service and competency within sixty days after this act takes effect in each o f the cities o f Brazil, Terre Haute, Washington and Evansville, and to publish notice o f such examinations as provided in section three o f this act, stating the time and place where examinations are to be held, and shall make and publish rules and regulations under which such examinations shall be conducted, previous to the first o f such examinations. Sec. 5. It shall be unlawful for any owner, operator or agent o f any coal mine in LABOR LAWS-----INDIANA— ACTS OF 1897. 541 this State to employ in such capacity any person in the capacity o f mine boss, fire boss, or hoisting engineer, unless such person has a certificate o f service or compe tency as provided in sections one, two and three o f this act, or to allow any person not having such certificate to continue in his employ in such capacity after three months from the time this act takes effect, unless he has procured such certificate. Sec. 6 For the purpose o f providing for the expense o f holding the examinations and issuing the certificates herein provided for, each applicant, before entering upon examination, shall pay the inspector o f mines one dollar, a receipt for which must be endorsed upon such certificate before it becomes effective. . Sec. 7. Any person violating any of the provisions of this act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction shall befined in any sum not less than five dollars nor more than fifty dollars. Approved March 4,1897. C h a p t e r 88.— Labor commission— Arbitration and investigation o f labor troubles. Se c t io n 1. There shall be, and is hereby, created a commission to be composed o f two electors of the State, which shall be designated the labor commission, and which shall be charged with the duties and vested with the powers hereinafter enumerated. Skc. 2. The members of said commission shall be appointed by the governor, by and with the advice and consent o f the senate, and shall hold office for two years and until their successors shall have been appointed and qualified. One o f said commissioners shall have been for not less than ten years o f his life an employee for wages in some department of industry in which it is usual to employ a number of persons under single direction and control, and shall be at the time o f his appoint ment affiliated with the labor interest as distinguished from the capitalist or employ ing interest. The other of said commissioners shall have been for not less than ten years an employer o f labor for wages in some department of industry in which it is usual to employ a number o f persons under single direction and control, and shall be at the time o f his appointment affiliated with the employing interest as distin guished from the labor interest. Neither o f said commissioners shall be less than forty years of age; they shall not be members of the same political party, and neither o f them shall hold any other State, county, or city office in Indiana during the term for which he shall be appointed. Each o f said commissioners shall take and subscribe an oath, to be endorsed upon his commission, to the effect that he will punctually, honestly, and faithfully discharge his duties as such commissioner. Sec . 3. Said commission shall have a seal and shall be provided with an office at Indianapolis, and may appoint a secretary who shall be a skillful stenographer and typewriter, and shall receive a salary o f six hundred dollars per annum and his traveling expenses for every day spent by him in the discharge o f duty away from Indianapolis. Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of said commissioners upon receiving credible informa tion in any manner of the existence o f any strike, lockout, boycott, or other labor complication in this State affecting the labor or employment o f fifty persons or more to go to the place where such complication exists, put themselves into communica tion with the parties to the controversy and offer their services as mediators between them. I f they shall not succeed in effecting an amicable adjustment o f the contro versy in that way they shall endeavor to induce the parties to submit their differ ences to arbitration, either under the provisions o f this act or otherwise, as they may elect. Sec. 5. For the purpose o f arbitration under this act, the labor commissioners and the judge o f the circuit court, o f the county in which the business in relation t > which the controversy shall arise, shall have been carried on shall constitute a boar? 1 of arbitrators, to which may be added, if the parties so agree, two other members, one to be named by the employer and the other by the employees in the arbitration agreement. If the parties to the controversy are a railroad company and employees o f the company engaged in the running o f trains, any terminal within this State, o f the road, or o f any division thereof, may be taken and treated as the location o f the business within the terms o f this section for the purpose o f giving jurisdiction to the judge of the circuit court to act as a member o f the board of arbitration. Se c . 6 An agreement to enter into arbitration under this act shall be in writing and shall state the issue to be submitted and decided and shall have the effect o f an agreement by the parties to abide by and perform the award. Such agreement may be signed by the employer as an individual, firm or corporation, as the case may be, and execution o f the agreement in the name o f the employer by any agent or repre sentative o f such employer then and theretofore in control or management o f the busi ness or department o f business in relation to which the controversy shall have arisen shall bind the employer. On the part o f the employees, the agreement may be signed by them in their own person, not less than two-thirds o f those concerned in the . 542 BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR. controversy signing, or it may be signed by a committee by them appointed. Such committee may be created by election at a meeting o f the employees concerned in tlie controversy at which not less than two-thirds o f all such employees shall be present, which election ai\d the fact o f the presence o f the required number of employees at the meeting shall bo evidenced by the affidavit o f the chairman and secretary o f such meeting attached to the arbitration agreement. I f the employees concerned in the controversy, or any o f them, shall be members o f any labor union or workingmen's society, they may be represented in the execution o f said arbitra tion agreement by officers or committeemen o f the union or society designated by it in any manner conformable to its usual methods o f transacting business, and others o f the employees represented by committee as hereinbefore provided. Sec. 7. I f upon any occasion calling for the presence and intervention o f tho labor commissioners under the provisions of this act, one o f said commissioners shall be present and tho other absent, tho judge o f the circuit court of tho county in which the dispute shall have arisen, as defined in section 5, shall upon the application of the commissioners present, appoint a commissioner pro tem. in the place o f the absent commissioner, and such commissioner pro*tem. shall exercise all tho powers o f a commissioner under this act until the termination o f the duties of the commission with respect to the particular controversy upon tho occasion o f which tho appoint ment shall have been made, and shall receivo the same pay and allowances provided by this act for the other commissioners. Such commissioner pro tem. shall represent and be affiliated with the same interests as the absent commissioner. Sec. 8. Before entering upon their duties the arbitrators shall take and subscribe an oath or affirmation to the effect that they will honestly and impartially perform their duties as arbitrators and a just and fair award render to tho best o f their ability. The sittings o f the arbitrators shall be in tho court room o f tho circuit court, or such other place as shall be provided by the county commissioners o f tho county in which tho hearing is had. The circuit judge shall be the presiding member o f the*board. He shall have power to issue subpoenas for witnesses who do not appear voluntarily, directed td the sheriff o f the county, whose duty it shall be to serve the same without delay. He shall have power to administer oaths and affirmations to witnesses, enforce order, and direct and control the examinations. Tho proceedings shall be informal in character, but in general accordance with the practice governing the circuit courts in the trial o f civil causes. All questions o f practice, or questions relating to the admission o f evidence shall be decided by the presiding member o f the board summarily and without extended argument. The sittings shall be open and public, or with closed doors, as the board shall direct. I f five members are sitting as such board three members o f the board agreeing shall have power to make an award, otherwise, two. The secretary o f the commission shall attend the sittings and make a record o f the proceedings in shorthand, but shall transcribe so much thereof only as the commission shall direct. Sec. 9. The arbitrators shall make their award in writing and deliver tho same with the arbitration agreement and their oath as arbitrators to the clerk o f the cir cuit court o f the county in which the hearing was had, and deliver a copy o f the award to the employer, and a copy to the first signer o f the arbitration agreement on the part o f the employees. A copy o f all the papers shall also be preserved in the office o f tho commission at Indianapolis. Sec. 10. Tho clerk o f the circuit court shall record the papers delivered to him as directed in the last preceding section, in the order book o f the circuit court. Any person who was a party to the arbitration proceedings may present to the circuit court o f the county in which the hearing was had, or the judge thereof in vacation, a verified petition referring to the proceedings and the record o f them in the order book and showing that said award has not been complied with, stating by whom and in what respect it has been disobeyed. And thereupon the court or j udge thereof in vacation shall grant a rule against the party or parties so charged, to show cause within five days why said award has not been obeyed, which shall be served by the sheriff as other process. Upon return made to the rule the judge or court i f in session, shall hear and determine the questions presented and make such order or orders directed to the parties before him in personam, as shall give just effect to the award. Disobedience by any party to such proceedings o f any order so made shall be deemed a contempt o f the court and may be punished accordingly. But such punishment shall not extend to imprisonment except in case o f willful and contu macious disobedience. In all proceedings under this section the award shall be regarded as presumptively binding upon the employer and all employees who were parties to the controversy submitted to arbitration, which presumption shall be overcome only by proof o f dissent from the submission delivered to the arbitrators, or one o f them, in writing before the commencement o f tho hearing. Sec. 11. The labor commission, with the advice and assistance o f tho attorneygeneral o f the State, which he is hereby required to render, may make rules and regulations respecting j>roceedings in arbitrations under this act not inconsistent LABOR LAWS— INDIANA— ACTS OF 1897. 543 witli this act or the law, including forms, and cause the same to he printed and fur nished to all persons applying therefor, and all arbitration proceedings under this act shall thereafter conform to such rules and regulations. Sec . 12. Any employer and his employees, not less than twenty-five in number, between whom differences exist which have not resulted in any open rupture or strike, may o f their own motion apply to the labor commission for arbitration o f their differences, and upon the execution o f an arbitration agreement as hereinbefore provided, a board of arbitrators shall be organized in the manner hereinbefore pro vided, and the arbitration shall take place and the award be rendered, recorded and enforced in the same manner as in arbitrations under the provisions found in the preceding sections o f this act. Sec . 13. In all cases arising under this act requiring the attendance of a judge of the circuit court as a member o f an arbitration board, such duty shall have precedence over any other business pending in his court, and if necessary for the prompt transac tion o f such other business it shall be his duty to appoint some other circuit judge, or judge o f a superior or the appellate or supreme court to sit in the circuit court in his place during the pendency o f such arbitration, and such appointee shall receive the same compensation for his services as is now allowed bylaw to judges appointed to sit in case o f change o f judge in civil actions. In case the judge o f the circuit court, whose duty it shall become under this act to sit upon any board o f arbitrators, shall be at the time actually engaged in a trial which can not be interrupted without loss and injury to the parties, and which will in his opinion continue for more than three days to come, or is disabled from acting by sickness or otherwise, it shall be the duty o f such judge to call in and appoint some other circuit judge, or some judge of a superior court, or the appellate or supreme court, to sit upon such board o f arbitrators, and such appointed judge shall have the same power and perform the same duties as member of the board o f arbitration as are by this act vested in and charged upon the circuit judge regularly sitting, and he shall receive the same com pensation now provided by law to a judge sitting by appointment upon a change o f judge in civil cases, to be paid in the same way. Sec. 14. I f the parties to any such labor controversy as is defined in section 4 o f this act shall have failed at the end o f five days after the first communication of said labor commission with them to adjust their differences amicably, or to agree to sub mit the same to arbitration, it shall be ther|luty o f the labor commission to proceed at once to investigate the facts attending the disagreement. In this investigation the commission shall bo entitled, upon request, to the presence and assistance o f the attorney-general of the State, in person or by deputy, whose duty it is hereby made to attend without delay, upon request by letter or telegram from the commission. For the purpose o f such investigation the commission shall have power to issue sub poenas, and each o f the commissioners shall have power to administer oaths and affirmations. Such subpoena shall be under the seal of the commission and signed by the secretary o f the commission, or a member o f it, and shall command the attend ance of the person or persons named in it at a time and place named, which subpoena may bo served and returned as other process by any sheriff or constable in the State. In case o f disobedience of any such subpoena, or the refusal o f any witness to testify, the circuit court o f the county within which the subpoena was issued, or the judge thereof in vacation, shall, upon the application o f the labor commission, grant a rule against the disobeying person or persons, or the person refusing to testify, to show cause forthwith why he or they should not obey such subpoena, or testify as required by the commission, or be adjudged guilty o f contempt, and in such pro ceedings such court, or the judge thereof in vacation, shall be empowered to compel obedience to such subpoena as in the case of subpoena issued under the order and by authority o f the court, or to compel a witness to testify as witnesses in court are compelled to testify. But no person shall be required to attend as a witness at any place outside the county of his residence. Witnesses called by the labor commission under this section shall be paid $1 per diem fees out o f the expense fund provided by this act, if such payment is claimed at the time o f their examination. Sec. 15. Upon the completion of the investigation authorized by the last preced ing section, the labor commission shall forthwith report the facts thereby disclosed affecting the merits o f the controversy in succinct and condensed form to the gov ernor, who, unless he shall perceive good reason to the contrary, shall at once author ize such report to be given out for publication. And as soon thereafter as practicable, such report shall be printed under the direction o f the commission and a copy shall be supplied to anyone requesting the same. Sec. 16. Any employer shall be entitled, in his response to the inquiries made o f him by the commission in the investigation provided for in the two last preceding sections, to submit in writing to the commission, a statement of any facts material to the inquiry, the publication o f which would be likely to be injurious to his busi ness, and the facts so stated shall be taken and held as confidential, and shall not be disclosed in the report or otherwise. 544 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. Sec. 17. Said commissioners shall receive a compensation o f ten dollars each per diem for the time actually expended, and actual and necessary traveling expenses while absent from home in the performance o f duty, and each o f the two members o f a board of arbitration chosen by the parties under the provisions o f this act shall receive the same compensation for the days occupied in service upon the board. The attorney-general, or his deputy, shall receive his necessary and actual traveling expenses while absent from home in the service o f the commission. Such compen sation and expenses shall be paid by the treasurer o f state upon warrants drawn by the auditor upon itemized and verified accounts o f time spent and expenses paid. All such accounts, except those of the commissioners, shall be certified as correct by the commissioners, or one o f them, and the accounts o f the commissioners shall be certified by the secretary o f the commission. It is hereby declared to be the policy o f this act that the arbitrations and investigations provided for in it shall be con ducted with all reasonable promptness and dispatch, and no member o f any board o f arbitration shall be allowed payment for more than fifteen days' service in any one arbitration, and no commissioner shall be allowed payment for more than ten days' service in the making o f the investigation provided for in section 14 and sec tions following. Sec. 18. For the payment o f the salary o f the secretary of the commission, the compensation o f the commissioners and other arbitrators, the traveling and hotel expenses herein authorized to be paid, and for witness fees, printing, stationery, postage, telegrams and office expenses there is hereby appropriated out o f any money in the treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum o f five thousand dollars for the year 1897 and five thousand dollars for the year 1898. Approved March 4, 1897. Chapter 111.— Coal mine regulations—Accidents, ventilation, etc. [Amending sections 12,14,17, and 24, of an act in force June 1,1891, the same being sections 7472, 7474, 7477, and 7483 o f the Annotated Statutes of 1894, and 5480 M, 5480 O, 5480 R, and 5480 Y o f the Revised Statutes o f 1896.] Section 1. Section fourteen is Jiereby amended to read as follow s: Section 14. Whenever any accident whatsoever shall occur in any coal mine in this State which shall delay the ordinary an& usual working o f such mine for twentyfour consecutive hours, or shall result m such injuries to any person as to cause death or to require the attendance o f a physician or surgeon, it shall be the duty o f the person in charge o f such mine to notify the inspector o f mines o f such accident without delay, and it shall be the duty o f said inspector to investigate and ascertain the cause o f such accident as soon as his official duties shall permit: Provided, That i f loss o f life shall occur by reason o f any such accident said inspector shall imme diately, with the coroner o f the county in which such accident may have occurred, go to the scene o f the accident. They shall investigate and ascertain the cause or such loss o f life and have power to compel the attendance o f witnesses and adminis ter oaths or affirmations to them and the cost o f such investigation shall be paid by the county in which the accident occurred, as costs o f coroner's inquests are now paid. Sec. 2. Section seventeen o f said act, the same being section 5480 R, o f the Revised Statutes o f 1896, [shall] be amended to read as follow s: Section 17. The currents o f air in mines shall be split so as to give separate cur rents to at least every fifty (50) persons at work, and the mine inspector shall have discretion to order a separate current for a smaller number o f men i f special condi tions render it necessary. Whenever the mine inspector shall find men working without sufficient air, or under any unsafe condition, the mine inspector shall first give the owner, operator, agent or lessee a notice giving the facts and a reasonable time to rectify the same, and upon his or their failure to do so, the mine inspector may order the men out o f said mine or portions o f said mine, and at once order said coal mine, or part thereof stopped until such mine or part o f mine be put in proper condition. And the mine inspector shall immediately bring suit against such owner, operator, agent or lessee for failure to comply with the provisions o f this section, who, upon conviction, shall be fined in any sum not exceeding one hundred dollars ($100) for each and every day or part o f day that said mine was operated. Sec . 3. Section twenty-four [shall] be amended to read as follows: Section 24. For the violation o f the provisions o f any section o f this act, where no special penalty is provided herein, the person or persons violating the same or any part thereof shall be held and deemed guilty o f a misdemeanor, and shall upon conviction be fined in any sum not less than five dollars ($5) nor to exceed two hun dred dollars ($200) in the discretion o f the court trying the cause. Sec. 4. Section twelve o f said act, being section 5480 M, o f the Revised Statutes o f 1896, is hereby amended to read as follows: Section 12. The mining boss shall visit and examine every working place in the mine, at least every alternate day while the miners o f such place are, or’ should be 545 LABOR LAWS— INDIANA— ACTS OP 1897. at work, and shall examine and see that each and every working place is properly secured by props and timber and that safety o f the mine is assured. He shall see that a sufficient supply o f props and timber are always on hand at the miners’ working places. He shall also see that all loose coal, slate and rock overhead wherein miners have to travel to and from their work are carefully secured. Whenever such mine boss shall have an unsafe place reported to him, he shall order and direct that the same be placed in a safe condition; and until such is done no person shall enter such unsafe place except for the purpose o f making it safe. Whenever any miner’working in said mine shall learn o f such unsafe place he shall at once notify the mining boss thereof and it shall be the duty o f said mining boss to give him, properly filled out, an acknowledgment o f such notice o f the following form: I hereby acknowledge receipt o f notice fr o m .........o f the unsafe condition o f the mine as follows: ................... dated t h is ...........day o f ...........18... Mining Boss. The possession by the miner o f such written acknowledgment shall be the proof o f the receipt of such notice by said boss whenever such question shall arise; and upon receipt o f such notice such mine boss shall at once inspect such place and proceed to put the same in good and safe condition. As soon as such unsafe place has been repaired to the approval o f such boss, he shall then give permission for men to return to work therein, but no miner shall return to work therein until such repair has been made and permission given. Approved March 6, 1897. Chapter 145.— Coal mine regulations— Outlets, approaches, hoisting apparatus, etc. Section 1. Section one o f the above entitled act, the same being [section 7430 of the Annotated Statutes o f 1894 and] section 5459 of Horner’s Revised Statutes of 1896, [shall] be amended to read as follow s: Section 1. It shall be unlawful for any owner, agent or operator to allow more than ten persons to work in any shaft, slope or drift at any one time after five thousand square yards have been excavated until a second outlet shall have been made. The said outlet or manway, and all approaches thereto, shall be separated from the hoisting shaft and its approaches by at least one hundred feet in width of natural strata, and shall be available at all times to all Snployees engaged in such mine, and for every shaft used as a manway there shall be provided stairways at an angle o f not more than sixty degrees, with landings at easy and convenient dis tances and with guard rails attached to each set o f stairs from the top to the bottom o f the same: Provided, That where such shaft shall be more than one hundred and fifty feet deep, the operator, owner or agent may elect to provide at such outlet or manway a hoisting apparatus which shall be at all times available to miners and other employees o f the mine, the same signals to be used as provided by law for use at hoisting shafts. The traveling roads or gangways to said outlet shall not be less than the height of the vein worked and four feet wide, and shall be kept as free from water as the average hauling roads in such mines. All water coming from the surface or out o f any strata in such shaft shall be conducted by rings, or otherwise to be prevented from falling down the shaft so as to wet persons who are ascending or descending the shaft. Approved March 8, 1897. C h a p t e r 173.— Coal mine regulations—M aps, reports to mine inspector, etc. Se c t io n 1. Within three months from the time this act takes eftect, the owner, operator or agent of each coal mine shall make or cause to be made, an accurate map or plan o f the workings o f such mine on a scale o f not less than one inch to one hnndred feet, showing the area mined or excavated, the arrangement of the haulage roads, air-courses, breakthroughs, brattices, air-bridges and doors used in directing the air-currents in such mine, the location and connection with such excavation o f the mine, o f the lines o f all adjoining lands, with the names o f the owners o f such lands, so far as known, marked on each tract o f land. Said map shall show a com plete working o f the mine and, when completed, shall be certified to by the owner, agent, or engineer making the survey and map, to be a true and correct working map o f said mine. The owner or agent shall deposit with the inspector o f mines, a true copy o f such map within thirty days after the completion o f the survey for the same, the date o f which shall be shown on such copy, the original map and survey to be kept at the office of such mine, open for inspection o f all interested persons at all reasonable times. Such map shall be corrected each year between the first day of 546 BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. May and the first day o f September, and a new map and copy o f the same shall be filed as required in the original survey, or the original map may be so amended as to show the exact workings o f the mine at the date o f the last survey. Sec. 2. In case the owner, agent or operator o f any coal mine shall fail or refuse to comply with the provisions o f section one (1) o f this act it shall be the duty o f the inspector o f mines to appoint a competent mining engineer to make the survey and maps, and file and deposit them as required by said section one (1), and for his services he shall bo entitled to a reasonable fee to be paid by the party whose duty it was to make such survey and map, and shall be entitled to lien on the mine and machinery to the same extent as is now provided by law for other work and labor performed in and about the coal mines o f this State. Sec. 3. The owner, operator or agent, o f every coal mine in this State shall be and is hereby required to report to the inspector o f mines on or before the 15th day o f each calendar month the name o f the person in charge o f such mine, the number o f tons o f coal produced at such mine during the preceding month, the amount o f wages paid employees during such month, the amount o f money expended for improvements during the said month, together with such other information as may be necessary to enable said inspector to prepare his annual report as is now required by law. Sec. 4. Any person who shall fail, refuse or neglect to do or perform any act or duty required by this act shall be held guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction shall be fined in any sumnot less than five nor more than twenty-five dollars. Sec. 5. In order that maps, reports and other records pertaining to the office o f inspector o f mines may be properly preserved, a room in the state house shall be set aside and furnished in a suitable manner as an office for said officer. Sec. 6. Provided, That the provisions of this act shall apply to all coal miners in this State except to those employing less .than ten men. Approved March 8, 1897. C h a p t e r 187.— Convict labor— Contract system abolished, etc. Section 1. The contract prison labor in the State prisons and reformatories [shall] be abolished, and the boards o f directors o f the State penal and reformatory institu tions are hereby authorized to establish as soon as practicable the public account system, to institute in said prisons an industrial and labor system by which the convicts shall be employed at such trades and vocations as will be required to supply said institutions as nearly ap possible with all necessary articles o f prison consump tion, or as will in the judgment o f the directors be expedient and wise. The regular hours for day work in said prisons shall not exceed eight hours, subject to temporary change under necessity, or to fit special cases to be sanctioned by the directors. Sec. 2. In the event o f more articles being produced than are needed to supply the said Stato penal and reformatory institutions, such surplus shall be furnished to such other State institutions as may need the same at the usual market price for which such articles are sold in the locality where such other institutions may be located. Sec. 3. The warden shall appoint a superintendent, who shall be a competent and skillful person to have general supervision over all the buildings and work in the various industrial departments. The warden shall assign the convicts to such work as in his opinion they are particularly adapted to, and shall recommend to the board o f directors from time to time such necessary materials, tools, apparatus or accommodations as are needful for the purpose o f carrying on and conducting such industries as may be authorized under the provisions o f this act. He shall make quarterly detailed statements o f all materials or other property procured and the cost thereof and o f the expenditures made during the last preceding quarter for such manufacturing purposes, together with a statement o f all materials then in hand to be manufactured or in process o f manufacture and the amount o f all kinds o f work done and the earnings realized during said quarter, and file same with the auditor o f state. Sec. 4. It shall be unlawful from and after the passage o f this act to hire out under contract any o f the convicts confined in the State penal and reformatory institutions, and the State and prison authorities are hereby forbidden to hereafter allow said convicts to perform any service whatever under contract or otherwise, for any one other than the State, under penalty o f fine not to exceed one thousand dollars ($1,000) and the forfeiture o f office, to which may be added imprisonment in the county jail, not to exceed one hundred (100) days: Provided, That the oper ations o f this act shall not affect any contracts for convict labor made previous to the passage o f this act, and which contracts have not yet expired. Sec. 5. It is the intent and purport o f this act that all work done by inmates o f any of the State penal or reformatory institutions shall, as far as practicable, be hand work. LABOR LAWS— INDIANA— ACTS OF 1897. 547 Sec. 6. Any State benevolent or correctional institution in need o f any o f the prod ucts ’which may be manufactured in any of the State penal or reformatory institu tions, shall give at least three months’ notice of such demand to the auditor of state, who shall in turn notify the wardens o f the penal or reformatory institutions, and no State institution shall purchase in the open market any product which can be furnished by the State penal and reformatory institutions: Provided, That nothing in this act shall be so construed as to compel State institutions to forego the purchase o f goods in the open market, when such can not be furnished within a reasonable time by the State penal or reformatory institutions. Sec. 7. It shall be the duty o f the board o f directors of the State penal and refor matory institutions to institute such instructions of an educational and technical character as in their judgment is to the best interest of the inmates. Sec. 8. All laws and parts of laws relating to the employment of convict labor, in conflict with the provisions of this act are hereby repealed. Approved March 8, 1897. N O RTH C A R O LIN A . ACTS OF 1897. Fellow-servant act— Railroad companies. Section 1. Any servant or employee o f any railroad company operating in this State, who shall suffer injury to his person, or the personal representative o f any such servant or employee who shall have suffered death in the course o f his services or employment with said company by the negligence, carelessness or incompetency of any other servant, employee or agent o f the company, or by any defect in the machinery, ways or appliances o f the company, shall be entitled to maintain an action against such company. Sec. 2. Any contract or agreement, expressed or implied, made by any employee of said company to waive the benefit o f the aforesaid section shall be null and void. Sec. 3. This act shall be in force from and after its ratification. Ratified February 23,1897. RECENT GOVERNMENT CONTRACTS. [The Secretaries of the Treasury, War, and Navy Departments have consented to furnish statements o f all contracts for constructions and repairs entered into by them. These, as received, will appear from time to time in the Bulletin.] The following contracts have been made by the office of the Super vising Architect o f the Treasury: W i l m i n g t o n , N. 0.—April 22,1897. Contract with D. Getaz & Co., Knoxville, Tenn., for erection and completion, except heating appa ratus, of the new ward building for the marine hospital, $6,887. Work to be completed within three months. P o r t T o w n s e n d , W a s h .— May 12,1897. Contract with Oby & Co., Canton, Ohio, for low-pressure, return-circulation, steam-heating and ventilating apparatus for the marine hospital, $4,100. Work to be completed within one hundred and twenty days. F o r t W o r t h , T e x .— May 27,1897. Contract with Smith & Bardon for new toilet room and other changes in post-office, $3,361.55. Work to be completed within three months. 548
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