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57th C ongress, ) H OUSE O F R EPRESEN TATIVES. J D oc. No. 370,
°2d Session.
\
j
Part 1.
BULLETIN
OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
NO. 44-JANUARY, 1903.
ISSUED EVERY OTHER MONTH.
W A S H IN G T O N :
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1903.
EDITOR,
CARROLL D. W RIG H T,
COMMISSIONER.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS,
G. W . W . HANGER,
CHAS H. V E R R ILL, G. A. W EBER.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Factory sanitation and labor protection, by 0. F. W . Doehring, Ph. D ..........
Agreements between employers and employees...............................................
Statistics of cities— errata......................................................................................
Digest of recent reports of State bureaus of labor statistics:
K ansas...............................................................................................................
M ich igan ...........................................................................................................
Digest of recent foreign statistical publications.................................................
Decisions of courts affecting labor........................................................
Laws of various States relating to labor enacted since January 1, 1896___
in
1-131
132-135
136
137
137-140
141-156
157-174
175-202
BULLETIN
OP THE
DEPARTMENT
No. 44.
OF LABOR.
W ASH IN G TO N .
J anuary,
1908.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
BY C. F. W. DOEHRING, PH. D.
INTRODUCTION.
The welfare o f the laboring class has always been a subject o f the
greatest importance and most far-reaching influence socially and politi
cally. The miserable hygienic conditions existing in the working
places in some industries, fo r example, are unjust to the working
classes, and sometimes react with frightful results upon the public.
The aspiration o f the working classes to improve their condition in
respect to sanitation is not only perfectly justifiable, but by all means
should be encouraged.
W ith the multiplication o f factories the
improvement in the lot o f the laboring man has become a vital question
o f the day. Statistics and clear thinking convince him o f the dangers
to which he is exposed b y the conditions o f his employment.
Under the influence o f long-continued work under insanitary condi
tions the physiques o f the workmen, and especially .those employed in
factories, often show more or less characteristic marks. The height
is usually below medium, the body, weak and thin, is poorly nourished
and o f sickly paleness. This condition is called lymphatic or anaemic.
The spiritual and moral life may likewise become inactive and apathetic.
Even the strongest factory workers under such conditions become
more or less exhausted before they reach 55 or 60 years o f age. Often
they are completely wasted and utterly unfit for work at that age.
Many o f those who w ork in spinning mills, cloth-printing establish
ments, and in general in plants where there is a high temperature and
lack o f pure air, are cut off prematurely. Women suffer even more
than men from the stress o f such circumstances, and more readily
1
2
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
degenerate. A woman’s body is unable to withstand strains, fatigues,
and privations as well as a man’s. This makes her condition all the
worse, because her earnings are correspondingly smaller.
The diseases which most frequently afflict the working class are dis
turbances o f the nutritive and blood-form ing processes. Weavers,
spinners, and workmen employed in branches o f industry*, where work
is done in close, poorly ventilated, cold, or hot rooms, are especially
subject to such diseases. Am ong the diseases to which workmen in
such occupations are most often subject are the so-called inanition,
scrofula, rachitis, pulmonary consumption, dropsy, also rheumatic
troubles, pleurisy, typhoid fever, gangrene, and the various skin
diseases.
Every epidemic, be it typhoid, smallpox, scarlet fever, dysentery,
cholera, etc., draws its greatest army o f victims from this class. F or
every death that occurs among the richer and higher classes there are
many in* the working class. It is the workmen engaged in unhealthy
factories first o f all who fill the hospitals and their death chambers.
Again it is more often the workingwoman who suffers from female
troubles, and even cancer. The reasons for the high mortality and
shortness o f life among the w orking class can easily be perceived
from the foregoing facts. These two evils are always proportionate
to the danger and the insanitary conditions existing in the industry.
Loss o f health and the shortening o f life are looked upon as the
severest evils that can be inflicted upon the individual. The working
classes themselves often call their condition white slavery, and their
factories and workshops slaughterhouses.
A ll the harmful influences which affect the workingman in his
various callings must therefore be thoroughly studied and earnest
effort made toward their amelioration or removal, not only that the
interests and the health o f the weaker members o f society may be pro
tected, but also because the health o f society in general is both directly
and indirectly menaced by insanitary conditions in any industry.
W hen we g o back to those causes to which the nations o f the present
day owe their advance in culture and social conditions, we find that
one o f the most important and essential causes o f this undeniable
advance lies in the deeper recognition o f those natural conditions upon
which depend the life and well-being o f the individual and the pros
perous development o f society.
The sciences alone would have aided but little in any real elevation
o f the general conditions o f well-being. Science, at times, had to
descend from its lofty regions to meet the necessary demands o f daily
life. It had to make the laws and needs o f human existence the object
o f its most comprehensive researches. It had to bring to light their
relation to and connection with the external conditions o f life. It is
only by means o f these that more rational rules o f life can be form u
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
3
lated. It is in the manifold transgressions o f these laws, in the unrea
sonable gratifications o f certain needs, in the almost criminal ignorance
and disregard o f injurious influences, that the causes and sources o f
many evils are to be found. Such evils are especially prevalent in the
conditions which surround industrial establishments and their workers.
T o understand the evils which threaten the industrial classes and to
search for their remedy, is one o f the pressing needs o f the day. T o
obtain the correct point o f view fo r the solution o f these important
questions, an unprejudiced and searching investigation is first o f all
necessary.
The attention o f foreign countries has been fo r a long time directed
to the economic traits o f character o f the American people, and
especially to those industrial traits which aim at the improvement and
extension o f the methods o f production. Nothing is neglected which
may protect and raise the interests o f industry. But hitherto too
little attention has been given to those insanitary factory conditions
which imperil the lives and health o f the workers. These conditions
have arisen largely as the result o f the continuous increase o f popula
tion in manufacturing towns, and they affect not only the workingmen,
but also the manufacturers and the whole nation.
The present concentration o f population in large manufacturing cities
is not in the interest o f public hygienic and economic principles in such
a measure as might easily be assumed. The characteristic increase
o f the industries in American cities is nothing if not remarkable.
The factory is the symbol o f the day, and steam and electricity are the
rulers o f the present. Our age has learned to utilize the forces o f
nature and thus has made gigantic steps forward. The more attention
is paid to the improvement o f the conditions o f health o f the working
class the more surely will those favorable economic results be obtained
for which the American strives.
The successful development o f factory sanitation and the protection
o f the workers in factories require—
1. Systematic education in respect to the many dangers which, in
certain industries, threaten the workman and the public.
2. The institution o f technical preventive measures based upon a
sound practical as well as theoretical foundation, and whose aim shall
be to remove the causes o f all existing evils that injure the health.
Public sentiment is more favorably inclined toward such a problem
than at any previous time. There is now in the industrial occupa
tions little o f that medieval seclusion which made the discovery o f
natural laws the closely kept secret o f a guild or school, and which
always strongly opposed the adoption o f new discoveries. The great
value o f open intercommunication and instruction, in so far as they
concern factory sanitation, labor protection, and the preservation o f
life, is recognized. The exertions and attainments o f the individual
4
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
under these conditions are thus o f greater value to the country at
large. They smooth the way for those who aim at similar results and
make their attainment more certain.
The inhalation o f pure, moderately warm air containing a certain
amount o f moisture must be considered one o f the first conditions for
the preservation o f the health o f the human body. Even the external
air varies in its temperature and degree o f humidity according to the
season o f the year and atmospheric conditions. In factory rooms the
air suffers many alterations injurious to the workingman. Sometimes
these alterations are due to the peculiarity o f the industry and the
materials consumed. Usually, however, they coincide with the deter
ioration caused by the exhalations and expectoration o f the workmen,
and, in winter especially, are hastened by the gas or petroleum illumi
nation. But the air is* vitiated not only by the above-mentioned
factors, but also by the dust which develops in the various industries
and methods o f manufacture. The latter may seriously impair the
health o f the workman and directly or indirectly endanger or shorten
his life.
The list below shows the great number o f varieties o f dust having a
more or less injurious influence upon the health. Just as numerous
are the gases, which exert their dangerous influence upon the work
man, especially in the chemical industry.
The elimination o f these dangers involves many very important tech
nical problems. The manner in which these may be best dealt with
will be more clearly presented by describing fo r certain selected indus
tries the preventive measures which should be established and ♦which
are representative o f the best methods o f preventing or overcoming
the dangers in other industries. These, with the recognition o f the
technical variations in the different plants, can easily be applied and
adapted to other industries.
In the first place, we must concern ourselves with (&) the knowledge
o f the essence and injurious properties o f the dust particles from
various sources; (5) the arrangements fo r the removal o f these varie
ties o f dust; (c) the arrangements fo r the removal o f noxious gases;
(d) the arrangements for a complete prevention o f the generation or
diffusion o f noxious gases. This must be carried out in quite a differ
ent and more practical manner than has hitherto been done either at
home or abroad.
A n explanatory description o f the industry should also be given, so
that not only the manufacturer, but the workman as well, may
understand the import o f these attempts and propositions and see how
the defects can be practically removed.
The injurious varieties o f dust are the follow ing:
1. Needle-grinding dust (pure steel).
2. Carding dust: (a) From a carding factory; ( b) from a cotton mill.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
5
3. Iron dust arising in emery grinding.
4. Needle-grinding dust (steel and emery).
5. Casting-cleaning dust (taken from the air).
6. Dust from a foundry.
7. Dust rubbed off from the lead weights of Jacquard looms.
8. Bronze dust from lithographic establishments.
9. Granite dust.
10. Marble dust from a sculptor’ s studio.
11. Syenite dust from a sculptor’ s studio.
12. Sandstone dust from a stonecutter’ s establishment.
13. Sandstone dust produced by scraping.
14. Stone dust produced in the construction of millstones.
15. Limestone dust from a stone quarry.
16. Meerschaum dust.
17. Slate dust.
18. Quartose-sand dust in the blast of an enamelled sheet-glass factory.
19. Glass dust in wood-turning dust.
20. Glass and"flint dust in a sand-paper factory.
21. Brick dust or crockery dust.
22. Cement dust.
23. Gypsum dust.
24. Basic-slag dust.
25. Mineral-wool dust.
26. Linden-wood dust from a band saw.
27. Cutter’ s dust from thoroughly dried oak wood.
28. Grinding dust from pine wood.
29. Grinding dust from beech wood.
30. Grinding dust from boxw ood.
31. Coal dust.
32. Charcoal dust.
33. Dust from a flax-heckling factory.
34. Hemp-carding dust.
35. Dust from the slubs in hemp spinning.
36. Horsehair dust in balling.
37. Horsehair dust from the m ixing machine.
38. Horsehair dust from the air.
Injurious varieties o f gas are met with in all chemical and in other
industries but it is possible to remove them easily and practically.
O f the manifold arrangements for the removal o f noxious gases that,
for instance, in the etching room o f a European metal-ware factory
is especially efficient. Openings are made in the walls behind the
kettles at a level with the latter’s surface and lead to a perpendicular
canal from which the noxious gases are sucked by means o f a strong
fan.
Those arrangements whose purpose is to avoid completely the gen
eration and diffusion o f noxious gases do not really belong to the
subject o f ventilation, fo r they make special ventilation unnecessary.
However, in respect to their effects they can be placed side, by side
with the improvements which are to be obtained by the way o f ven
tilation. Am ong these belongs the substitution o f plates, heated by
6
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
a mixture o f air and illuminating gas, fo r the coal arrangement in
silk finishing. The generation o f carbon monoxide in the coal scuttles
used in drying the foundry form is prevented and diminished by the
introduction o f air through a system o f pipes. This brings about at
the same time a complete combustion and a diminution o f the smoke.
•Abroad, extensive studies have been made in the ventilation and
humidification o f air in cotton mills. The system employed is prob
ably one o f the best that has been introduced in this industry. It
makes it possible both in summer and in winter to keep the temper
ature o f the air at the desired point— 59° to 63° F. It removes the
dust, makes the degree o f humidity from 55 to 66 per cent, and com
pletely renews the air o f all the working rooms at least three times
per hour.
The facts above given indicate how some o f the injurious conditions
can be removed. The task is to make known and available the experi
ence which has already been gained.
A scheme fo r the systematic treatment and elaboration o f technical
preventive measures against the vitiation o f the air in any industry
should consider:
A . The sources o f the contamination o f air—
(1) Human transelementation o f matter;
(2) The development o f carbon dioxide;
(3) The development o f aqueous vapor;
(4) Gas illumination;
(5) Other impurities.
B . Quantities o f admixtures in air—
(1) Carbon dioxide;
(2) Aqueous vapor;
(3) Dust-form ing admixtures.
C. The remedying o f the contaminations o f the air—
F irst B y the elimination o f noxious gases, fumes, and dust before
they can mingle with the respired air;
Second. B y rarefaction—
(a) Requisite rarefaction;
(b) The amount o f the interchange o f air— (1) the ascertainment
o f the necessary interchange o f air, (2) determination o f the air
supply, (3) necessary quantities o f air;
(c) Influence o f ventilation upon the humidity— (1) aqueous vapor
contents, (2) sweating o f the walls, etc., (3) humidification and
dehumidification o f the air;
(d) Measures fo r humidifying the air— (1) regulation o f the
humidification, (2) apparatus for humidification, (3) self-regu
lating humidification apparatus;
(e) Measures for drying the air.
7
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION*
Third. By introducing fresh air and eliminating vitiated air—
(a) Accidental ventilation— (1) draft, (2) accidental agitation o f the
air, (3) porosity and permeability o f the walls, etc., (4) differ
ence in tensions, (5) difference in temperature, (6) wind;
(b) Artificial ventilation— (1) ventilating openings, (2) the use o f
windows, (3) the introduction o f warm air, (4) the introduction
o f cold aii xrom below, (5) the introduction o f cold air from
above, (6) the location o f openings fo r instreaming air, (7) win
ter and summer ventilation;
(c) The sources o f supply o f fresh air.
IN FLU EN CE
OF
C E R T A IN V O CATIO N S
O F L IF E .
UPON
LE N G TH
The influence o f certain vocations upon the length o f life o f w ork
men has been the subject o f statistical investigations, the results o f
which are given by Dr. J. Uffelmann, substantially as stated in the
succeeding 7 pages, in Eulenburg’s Real-Encyclopadie der gesammten
Heilkunde, under the heading “ Arbeiterhygiene.”
The follow ing table shows fo r each occupation or class the number
o f deaths out o f every hundred deaths o f persons over 20 years o f age
falling within the several ten-year periods o f life up to 50 years, and
those o f persons over 50 years:
PER CENT OF DEATHS OF PERSONS OVER 20 YEARS OF AGE IN EACH SPECIFIED AGE
PERIOD.
Occupations and classes of population.
Grinders (Solingen, "Lennep, and M e ttm a n n )..............................................
Grinders (Sheffield)...................................................................................
Iron workers ( Solineren. etc.) ...................................................................
Total male population of Solingen, exclusive of metal w orkers.........
Total male population................................. ............................................
Male population in Sheffield....................................................................
Male population in the Rhineland, 1816-1860........................................
Male population in B erlin.......................................................................
Male population in Prussia, 1816-1860 ....................................................
Male population in Canton of Geneva....................................................
20 to 30 30 to 40 40 to 50 Over50
years. years. years. years.
31.6
28.4
20.1
15.5
18.5
18.4
13.9
18.9
12.6
11.5
26.9
35.1
16.6
12.1
15.0
16.8
11.0
18.4
11.9
12.0
23.4
23.9
17.4
14.0
15.9
16.0
12.9
18.8
14.6
13.6
18.1
12.6
45.9
58.4
50.6
48.8
62.2
45.8
60.9
62.9
From the above it can be seen that in certain vocations death occurs
much earlier than among the population generally. Am ong the grind
ers a very small percentage pass the fiftieth year.
Similar results will be found if the average length o f life in other
vocations is investigated. Rohe ascertained the average length o f life
in Massachusetts to be as shown in the follow ing statement:
Years.
Factory w ork ers............................................................................................................... 36.3
Craftsm en............................................................................................................................. 50.8
Workingmen (without any definite vocation )............................................................. 47.4
Farmers................................................................................................................................. 65.3
8
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR.
Hirt computes the average length o f life o f persons in various occu
pations as follows:
Years.
Stonecutters..........................................................................................................................36.3
Diamond cu tters..................................................................................................................35.5
Glass grinders....................................................................................................................... 42.5
Agate grinders....................................................................................................................45-48
Cotton w ork ers..................................................................................................................47-50
P otters.................................................. ............................................................................. 53.1
G ilders...................................................................................................................................53.8
P rin ters.................................................................................................................................54.3
M asons...................................................................................................................................55.6
Hairdressers...........................................................- ..........................................................57.9
Oldendorff found the average length o f life, o f the total mortality, to
be as follows:
Years.
Grinders (Solingen, e t c . ) .................................................................................................. 41.4
Dry grinders......................................................................................................................... 40.7
W et g rin d ers............................................................................................................ 43.3-44.1
Grinders (Sheffield, 1832).................................................................................................... 34
Dry grinders........................................................................................................................29-35
W et g rin d ers......................................................................................................................35-38
Grinders (Sheffield, 1 8 7 6 )........................................................................................ 46.5-46
Iron workers (Solingen, etc.) .......................................................................................... 45.8
Smiths (Geneva, 1796-1830).......................................................................................... 54.5
Locksmiths (Geneva, 1796-1830).................................................................................. 47.2
Braziers (Geneva, 1796-1830)........................................................................................ 52.4
Men over 16 years of age (Geneva, 1796-1830)............................................................... 55
Locksmiths and blacksmiths (L iib e c k ).........................................................................48.9
Blacksmiths ( « ) ....................................................................................................................55.1
Locksmiths ( « ) ......................................................................................................................49.1
The average length o f life o f those who died after the age o f 20
years was:
Years.
Grinders (Solingen, etc.) ......................................... *.................................................... 42.8
Dry grinders..............................................................................................................................42
W et grin d ers........................................................................................................... 45.5-46.2
Iron workers (Solingen, e t c . ) .......................................................................................... 47.8
Iron workers in a narrower sense.................................................................................. 48.4
File cu tters......................................................................................................................... 43.8
F ile rs ..................................................................................................................................... 46.3
Locksmiths and blacksmiths (Frankfort on the Main, 1820-1852)........................ 46.3
Men in Solingen, etc. (1850-1874)................................................................................ 51.1
Men in Solingen, etc. (1850-1874), exclusive of metal workers................................ 54.4
Men in Westphalia (1816-1860).................................................................................... 55.5
Men in Rhineland (1816-1860)...................................................................................... 55.4
Men in Prussia (1316-1860)............................................................................................ 54.8
Men in Berlin (1843-1860).............................................................................................. 47.8
Men in Frankfort on the Main (1846-1848)................................................................ 51.7
Men in Canton of Geneva (1838-1855)........................................................................ 58.4
a Hirt.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
9
V ery characteristic are the following statements obtained from Eng
lish sources relating to English conditions. In England the average
length o f life among the higher classes is forty-four years; among the
middle classes, twenty-five years; and among the laboring classes,
twenty-two years.
The infant mortality among the higher classes is 1 death to every
births; among the middle classes, 1 death to every 2£ births, and
among the laboring classes, 1 death to every 2 births.
The mortality in general shows for the whole country (England) 22
out o f every 1,000; for the residences o f the higher classes, 17 out o f
every 1,000; for the laboring districts, 36 out o f every 1,000.
Ogle calculates that in England the death rate among all men from
25 to 45 years is 10.1. A ccording to occupations it is as follows:
Clergymen...........................................
G ardeners...........................................
Bakers...................................................
Locksm iths.........................................
Workers in cotton mills....................
4.6
5.5
8.7
9.1
9.9
Typesetters............................................ 11.1
Chimney sw eep s................................ 13.7
B rew ers..................................................13.9
File cu tters......................................... 15.3
Innkeepers and servants.................. 18.0
V ery instructive also are the follow ing figures o f Ogle, taken from
recent calculations. I f the mortality among the clergymen is consid
ered as the minimum or equal to 100, then that among other occupations
is as follows:
G ardeners............................................. 108
Agricultural la b orers.......................... 126
Fisherm en............................................. 143
Carpenters............................................. 148
Shoemakers........................................... 166
Bakers and m ille rs............................. 172
M asons..................................................... 174
Cabinetmakers..................................... 173
Workers in wool manufactures........ 186
Workers in cotton manufactures___ 196
P rin ters................................................. 193
B ookbinders......................................... 210
Q uarrym en..............................................202
Lead workers, painters, glazers........ 216
C u tlers..................................................... 235
C oachm en................................................267
B rew ers................................................... 245
File cu tters..............................................300
P otters..................................................... 313
Inn servants............................................397
From these figures the great importance o f labor protection from a
social as well as an economic point o f view is seen. This is especially
true when we consider how large a portion o f the total population is
included in the laboring classes.
Ramazzini, the first to attempt a systematic investigation o f indus
trial diseases (1713), divided the resulting injuries and disturbances of
health, according to their causes, into two categories. The one
includes those whose causes must be sought in the material employed;
the other those which result from the movements, positions o f the
body, and exertions customary in the work. Both can be considered
as the immediate result o f employment in certain occupations, or may
be called occupational injuries and diseases. To these two may be added
a third group, in which the causes o f the injurious influences upon the
health are found to be due to the unhealthy and unsatisfactory condition
o f the working room or place o f occupation.
10
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
A s a hygienic precaution the material should be examined from two
points o f view, (a) whether it is o f such a nature that its use gives occa
sion for the development o f dust; (b) whether it is poisonous and in
itself consists o f substances injurious to the health.
The question o f dust generation is o f first importance because o f
the great number o f diseases caused by its inhalation. Catarrhs
o f the respiratory organs are usually the immediate and first result
o f the inhalation o f dust-laden air. These may lead to broncho-blen
norrhea, and, subsequently, to pulmonary phthisis. Other disease
processes, chronic pneumonia, for example, may also result from longcontinued exposure to dust inhalation.
According to Oldendorff, o f the total males above 20 years o f age
in the eight communities o f the districts o f Solingen, Lennep, and
Mettmann, 46 per cent died o f pulmonary consumption; among the
ironworkers, 59.1 per cent; and among the grinders, 78.3 per cent.
According to Hirt, o f 100 diseased workingmen suffering from
phthisis, 28 were exposed to metallic dust, 25.2 to mineral dust, 13.3
to vegetable dust, 20.8 to animal dust, 22.6 to mixed dust, and 11.1 to
no dust.
Perlen reported that, o f 1,425 consumptives treated at the Munich
Polyclinic, 30 per cent had been exposed to metallic dust, 18 per cent
to mineral dust, 26 per cent to vegetable dust, 17 per cent to mixed
dust, and 8 per cent to animal dust. This shows that the men exposed
to the inhalation o f strongly irritating dust contributed the largest per
centage o f consumptives. O f the flint-stone workers, 80 per cent, and
o f the millstone workers 40 per cent were attacked by tuberculosis,
while o f the millers only 10 per cent suffered from it.
It should, however, be stated that dust alone, as such, is not the
cause o f pulmonary phthisis. Coal dust, for instance, may fill the
lungs in masses and even enter into internal organs, such as the liver,
spleen, etc., without necessitating any alteration o f the tissues or
inflammatory conditions. Another cause is directly responsible for the
development o f tuberculosis, namely, specific infection— bacillus infec
tion. The foreign bodies which enter the lungs in the form o f dust
may occasion irritation and lead to little erosions. They may even pass
through the entire lymphatic and blood circulations without caus
ing tuberculosis. Tuberculosis must not be conceived as caused by
these corpuscular elements, though they may be indirectly the occasion
for the development o f tuberculosis in that they prepare the ground,
facilitate the entrance o f the bearer o f infection— the bacillus tubercu
losis—and frequently are themselves the vehicle by means o f which the
bacillus is introduced into the lungs. Different kinds o f dust are not
equal in their effects. For the development o f pulmonary tuberculosis
mineral and especially metallic dusts are the most dangerous, while
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
11
that o f flour is the least dangerous. This variation probably depends
upon the greater or less power o f the dust to irritate the mucous membrane and to produce little erosions, but chiefly upon the source o f the>
dust and the opportunities it has o f lading itself with infection bearers.
Besides, not every chronic affection o f the lungs o f the industrial
workingman which has the symptoms o f phthisis is a case o f true;
pulmonary tuberculosis— i. e., a disease depending on the rapid multi
plication o f the tuberculosis bacillus. This must be especially empha
sized, as phthisis and tuberculosis are often considered identical.
A fine fibrous vegetable dust plays a large role in the origin o f the
various catarrhs on account o f the ease with which it causes them and
the obstinacy o f affections o f the mucous membrane.
Late investigations seem to point to a connection between dust
inhalation and the formation o f tumors. In the cobalt mines o f
Schneeberg, sarcomatous degenerations o f the bronchial glands and
lungs are said to be the cause o f the miners’ sickness (.Bergkrcmkheit)
which reigns there. From an aetiological standpoint, however, the
question has not yet been decided.
Besides these common results o f dust inhalation, a whole series o f
other affections o f the lungs are due to the entrance o f certain particu
lar kinds o f dust into the tissues. They usually present the patholog
ical and anatomical symptoms o f pneumonoconiosis.
Pneumonoconiosis represents a class o f diseases which owe their
origin to the inhalation o f certain definite kinds o f dust, not dust in
general. Thus there are the follow ing special forms:
Coal miners’ phthisis (Anthracom), lodgings of coal and charcoal dust, soot, o r
graphite.
Iron phthisis ( Siderosis), deposits of metallic dust in the lungs in the form of (a )
ferric oxide, (b) magnetic oxide of iron, (c ) phosphoric oxide of iron, and (d) grind
ing dust (a mixture of steel and sandstone).
Flint phthisis ( Chalicosis), lodgings of stone dust.
Clay phthisis (Ahiminosis), lodgings of argillaceous earth dust.
Tobacco phthisis ( Tabacosis).
Cotton phthisis (Pneumonia cotoneuse, Byssinosis pulmonum), lodgings of cotton
dust.
It must be mentioned further that the inhalation o f dust contained
m basic slag, quicklime, various lime salts, and ferrous oxide, induces
inflammations o f the pulmonary tissues, which run their course with
the symptoms o f acute or subacute pneumonia.
Y et the respiratory organs do not afford the only means by which the
various kinds o f dust may exert their injurious effects. Not infre
quently the dust particles, which likewise are the bearers o f patho
genetic microparasites, gain access to the system through very slight
injuries o f the skin and cause general diseases (malignant pustules,
rag-pickers’ diseases, glanders). Finally, the eyes are more or less
12
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
exposed to the influences o f dust. Often blepharcetidia, conjunctivitis,
xerosis, and even severe diseases o f the eyes are due to its influences.
The following categories o f workmen are those who by the exercise
o f their vocation may be exposed to the various kinds o f dust:
1. Metallic dust.— Brass founders, braziers, coppersmiths, cutlers, dyers, engravers,
file cutters, gilders, grinders, lacquer workers, lithographers, locksmiths, molders,
nail makers, needle grinders, needle makers, painters, printers, sieve makers, smiths,
tinmen, tool smiths, typefounders, watchmakers, zinc white workers.
2. Mineral dust.—Carpenters; cement, diamond, and flint workers; masons, m ill
stone workers, painters, porcelain workers, potters, stonecutters, workers in basicslag mills.
3. Vegetable dust.— Bakers, candy makers, chimney sweeps, cigar makers, coal
dealers, etc., joiners, millers, rope makers, weavers, wheelwrights.
4. Animal dust.— Brush makers, button makers, cloth makers, furriers, hair
dressers, hat makers, paperers, saddlers, turners.
5. Mixtures of dust.— Day laborers, glass grinders, glaziers, street cleaners.
A consideration o f material which is in itself poisonous is important
because o f the possibility o f its occasioning industrial poisoning.
Beyond the immediate injury to health induced by the poison, a greater
predisposition to other diseases is caused by the poisonous effects of
these materials and the resulting diminished power o f resistance o f the
workman. It is said, fo r instance, that there is a special susceptibility
to tuberculosis among the lead and mercury workers.
Chemical poisons affect the human organism in three form s— the
powdered, gaseous, and soluble state. The absorption o f the poison
into the body occurs in various ways. In the gaseous and powdered
condition it usually occurs through the respiratory organs or the
alimentary canal, but may occur through the skin, especially if wounds
or erosions are present and if the poisons are rubbed in.
The gaseous substances are divided into those which are only irri
tating to the respiratory organs and produce on sudden inhalation the
phenomena o f suffocation, and those which are poisonous in themselves
and affect the whole organism without causing specific lesions o f the
respiratory organs. The form er produce severe reactions on the
respiratory passages, and gradually bring about chronic affections o f
the mouth and throat cavities, the larynx, and the bronchi. The latter
also produce sudden attacks o f suffocation, but more often the symp
toms o f severe nutritive disturbances, chronic poisoning, etc., are dis
played. Finally both the described properties may be contained*in
one gas.
Below is given a list o f the several poisons which enter into manu
facturing at the present day and the several branched of industry in
which they are used. It must be said, though, that the continued
advances o f industry work frequent changes in these groups, partly
because o f the introduction o f new poisons, partly because o f the
substitution o f other materials for the poisons in use.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
13
The list o f poisons and the occupations or industries in which they
are used is as follows:
Ether fumes.—Among photographers.
Ammonia fumes.—Tanners, tobacco workers, tin-plate workers, sugar refiners, cess
pool workers.
Aniline fumes.—In aniline factories and among dyers.
Arsenic.—Among taxidermists, in tanning and finishing felt, in extracting the
oil from raw wool, in fuchsine factories, in the production of arsenic, among glass
workers, in coloring wall paper, flowers, and textiles green, in the preparation of
bronze colors, among painters, seamstresses, the producers of artificial stones, and
zinc smelters.
Benzene fumes.— In aniline factories and in the finishing of cloth.
Lead.— Among lead smelters, lead miners, workers in white-lead factories, printers
and typesetters, brush makers, enamel workers, glass, gold, silver, and patent leather
workers, painters, tailors, seamstresses, seamen, lace workers, wall-paper workers,
joiners, potters, gilders, lead platers in sulphite and cellulose factories, weavers, and
brickmakers.
Carbolic acid.—In paraffin factories.
H ydrochloric and nitric acid fumes.— Among workers in chemical works, the lead
platers of materials and papers, damask workers, tin-plate workers, and washerwomen.
Chromatic acid and yellow chromate of potassium.— In the preparation of chro
matic salts.
Hydrocyanic-acid fumes.— In Prussian-blue factories, in the production of ful
minate of mercury, in galvanic gold and silver plating, and among photographers.
Denaturized ( denaturirter) spirit (which contains pyridin bases and wood alco
h o l).—Am ong joiners, turners, gilders, hat makers, and dyers.
Dinitro-benzole.—Among the workers in aniline factories.
Hydrofluoric acid.— In the etching of glass.
Fire damp. —In coal mines.
Iodine (brom ine).— In chemical factories.
Carbon m onoxide gas.— Ironers, cooks, worsted spinners, illuminating-gas fac
tories, hydrogen-gas factories, metal foundries, and coal mines.
Carbon dioxide.—Among operators and workers with compressed air, in the man
ufacture of beer and wines, worsted spinning, in glue manufacture, in paper factories,
in fumigating, in cleaning sink holes, in coal mines, and in sugar refineries.*
Carburetted hydrogen.—In coal mines.
Copper.—Am ong bronzers, coppersmiths, filers and founders, and watchmakers,
and in copper mines.
Illuminating gas.—In gas factories, among illuminating gas workers.
M ethyl alcohol fumes.—Among operators writh silk materials and felt hats, and
the lacquerers of furniture.
Nitro-benzol.—Among workers in aniline factories.
Organic fumes.— Among brush makers and horsehair washers, cocoon reelers, gutstring makers, tanners, rag pickers, butchers, glue boilers, soap boilers, sink-hole
cleaners, washerwomen, and sugar refiners.
Petroleum fumes.—Am ong petroleum workers.
Phosphorus.— Am ong phosphorus workers, friction-match workers.
Mercury.—Am ong mercury foilers, taxidermists, bronzers, dyers of artificial flow
ers, fireworks makers, gold and silver workers, hat makers, photographers, and fin
ishers of anatomical preparations.
Sulphurous acid fumes.— Among bleachers of bristles and of guts for strings, lime
burners, in sulphuric-acid factories, in sulphurizing hops, and in bleaching straw
hats and wool.
10615— No. 44— 03----- 2
14
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
Bisulphide of carbon fumes.— Among india-rubber workers, wool washers, and
workers in oil factories which employ bisulphide of carbon.
Sulphide of hydrogen.—In chemical factories, bronzing, among cesspool workers
and sink-hole cleaners.
Turpentine fumes.— Am ong varnishers, painters, and workers in match factories.
Zinc.—Am ong zinc workers.
A s it is impossible in the limits o f this article to make an exhaustive
study o f all the dangerous dusts and poisons mentioned in the forego
ing extract from Eulenburg’s Encyclopedia, three groups o f industries
have been chosen fo r investigation, to show the dangers which threaten
the factory workers and the public, and the methods which may be
employed to ameliorate the insanitary and dangerous conditions. The
industries chosen are (1) the manufacture o f white lead, paint, etc.;
(2) the manufacture o f linseed oil, oilcloth, and linoleum, and (3) the
manufacture o f tallow, fertilizers, etc. A study o f these industries
should indicate the problems to be met and the methods to be employed
in solving them.
As preliminary to the study o f factories engaged in the turning out
o f white lead, paints, and various lead-containing products an exami
nation o f some o f the processes and occupations in which these poisonous
substances are employed and a general examination o f the subject o f
lead poisoning seems necessary. B y such means a better estimate o f
the value o f measures fo r the prevention, or at least the diminution,
o f lead poisoning can be obtained.
TH E L E A D IN D U STR Y .
IND USTR IAL LEAD POISONING.
Metallic lead occurs in nature in many combinations, as with sulphur,
phosphorus, arsenic, carbonic acid, etc. It is usually prepared from sul
phide o f lead, commonly known as galena, which after being separated
from the dead stone by hammers, is assorted by hand, disintegrated,
and washed. The essence o f the whole process is to get rid o f the
superfluous sulphur. The galena is melted with scrap iron in fu r
naces, during which process it disintegrates and forms sulphide o f iron
and melted lead. This is the iron-reduction process. B y another
method the crude material is roasted in the so-called flame roasting
tubes, sometimes even in the open air. This transforms some o f the
sulphide o f lead into lead oxide, and some into lead sulphate. The
half-roasted mass is ttfen melted, which causes both the lead oxide and
lead sulphate to react upon the still undecomposed lead sulphide, and
under the generation o f sulphuric acid anhydrous metallic lead is
produced.
Those workingmen employed in the production, spreading, and disin
tegration o f lead (ore pounders, sieve setters, stampers, etc.) are but
in a slight degree endangered by the lead-containing dust, and seldom
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
15
suffer from any o f the lead diseases. Those who are engaged in the
working off o f the lead ore (precipitators, roasters, and smelters) are
subject to serious illnesses, because, in addition to the lead-containing
dust encountered in the filling o f furnaces, they are exposed to the
gaseous products o f combustion (carbon monoxide, carbonic acid, etc.)
and to the little particles o f lead oxide which are carried along mixed
with the lead fumes. These influences have the power to poison exten
sively the surrounding air, especially in the disturbances occasioned
by looking into the furnaces. The absorption o f the deleterious pro
ducts, which is chiefly done by the respiratory organs, is favored by
the high temperature and the great physical exertions under which
the work is done.
This gives an explanation why the workingmen employed at the
furnaces make up such a large percentage o f those suffering from lead
poisoning.
A ccording to Hirt, out o f 1,000 men employed in the lead mines o f
Freiburg 870 were treated fo r lead diseases in a period o f ten years
(1862-1872). According to the statistics o f the lead mine and smelting
works at Mechernich, which the company physician, Dr. Kollendonk,
furnished the author, 27 cases o f lead poisoning in all occurred among
the 2,000 workmen in the year 1887. These cases were confined to
the smelters, o f whom there were 350, while among those men em
ployed in mining the lead not a single case o f lead intoxication took
place.
In respect to the frequency o f attacks the workmen employed in
cleaning out the often still warm furnaces and in repairing the walls
come next because they are brought into contact with lead fumes and
dust. A fter these come those workmen engaged in fritting the lead
oxide and its purifications from other metallic impurities. They have
to fear the volatilization o f the lead oxide in smelting. Those men
employed in connection with the separation o f silver (by cupellation
or pattinsonization) from silver-containing lead ores are exposed espe
cially to the inhalation o f lead fumes and lead-containing dust.
Accordingly, there are dangers in all establishments in which lead is
won. They arise both from the scattering o f dust from the crude as
well as the roasted ores and the generation o f lead fumes. The con
stitution and the dangerous qualities o f the poisonous substance
naturally vary according to the ores, the apparatus used, the fire
places and furnaces, and the processes by which they are produced.
Despite the fact that a consideration o f these differences is o f the
greatest importance in the framing o f sanitary laws, it would be over
stepping the bounds o f this short study to treat them in full detail.
It must be sufficient, therefore, to describe the most important
methods and operations and the dangers which they involve.
The extracted metal, which is worked into pig, sheet, and rolled lead,
16
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
is very extensively used in manufacture on account of its softness and
malleability. Partly by melting, but mostly by rolling and pressing,
it is employed in the manufacture o f gas and water pipes, sheets for
covering the roofs o f houses, mirror frames, lead polishers, and very
many other articles. The temperature required for melting is such
that lead fumes are not generated, and, besides, the surface of the
molten metal is usually covered with a layer o f fat to prevent the o x i
dation and the volatilization o f the lead. From this it can be seen
that in the employment o f metallic lead usually the only danger is
from the generally unimportant lead dust, and the latter is introduced
only through the lack o f cleanliness o f the workmen who refuse to
wash their hands before meals and thus transfer the dust and dirt to
their food. In all these branches o f industry, therefore, cases of
poisoning are very rare, and can be entirely prevented by a strict
demand fo r the most exacting cleanliness.
The manufacture o f shot is dangerous to the workman.
The
molten lead, mixed with particles o f arsenic, is usually passed through
a sieve at the top o f a high tower, whence it falls in little spheres
into vessels o f water below. This finished shot is then polished in
drums, which are filled with powdered graphite and turned about
their axes. Apart from the generation o f arsenic fumes, the appear
ance o f which could be prevented with slight care during the melting
process, the lead dust driven off in passing it through sieves and
that generated in the sorting o f the grains of shot endanger the
workmen.
Occasionally cases o f poisoning induced by frequent contact with
metallic lead have occurred in branches o f industry and trades where
they would be least expected. Mannkoff observed cases o f lead poison
ing among railroad and customs officials who had the habit o f holding
the lead seal between their lips while sealing the boxes. Fleury
reported five cases o f poisoning among telegraph inspectors, who neg
lected to clean their hands before eating after handling batteries.
Interesting also are the cases o f lead intoxication among the Jacquard
loom weavers, reported by Schuller and others. Through the friction
o f the lead weights o f the weaving chairs, hanging on cotton threads,
little particles o f the metal were worn off and impelled through the air
as a fine lead dust, which caused numerous and severe cases o f sick
ness among the workingmen.
The cases o f lead poisoning among the file cutters and amber workers
have the same origin. The former in sharpening the file, the latter in
cutting and working the amber, use as a base a leaden block, which
often is the cause o f the severest intoxication. A part o f the lead is
freed by the work and inhaled as dust. The dust also gets into the
mouth by means o f the fingers. Cases o f poisoning cease to appear
as soon as a wooden block is substituted fo r that o f lead.
FACTOBY SANITATION AND LABOB BBOTECTlON.
17
Napias found cases o f poisoning in sheet-metal workers and tin
smiths who used the lead in soldering and modeling. The method o f
transmission is similar to that described above.
In polishing, cannons and shells are pressed against rotating lead
disks. W orkmen engaged in this occupation frequently become ill
on account o f the inhalation o f the lead dust which is generated and
the transference o f little particles o f lead upon food.
O f the lead alloys, type metal, consisting o f 75 parts lead, 20 parts
antimony, and 5 parts tin, is o f much interest from a sanitary point of
view because o f its fatal influence upon the health o f a large number
o f workmen (type founders and typesetters). Even the casting o f
type is not without danger, because in melting the alloy the tempera
ture rises so high that lead fumes are generated and, especially in
poorly constructed casting machines, may escape into the factory
rooms. Still more dangerous, on account o f the dust that is developed,
are the occupations o f breaking off o f the feeding head, smoothing the
foundry seams, and dressing, planing, and polishing the type.
Poisoning occurs less frequently among the typesetters than it does
among the type founders, because the manipulation o f the type does
not develop much dust. The diseases are usually due to the careless
ness o f the workingmen; for instance, if they hold the type between
their lips, and if they take their meals without washing their hands,
etc. The fact, however, must not be overlooked that the lead contained
in the letters can be taken into the organism by mere contact with the
hands, and all the more so because erosions and wounds brought about
by cleaning the letters with lye are often found on the hands o f the
printer and facilitate the absorption o f the poisonous metal. The ratio
of the number o f cases o f poisoning among type founders to that
among typesetters was noted by Tanquerel in his statistical lists as
being 96 o f the founders to 24 o f the typesetters. According to Hirt,
out o f 100 type founders 35 to 40 exhibited symptoms o f poisoning,
while out o f the same number o f typesetters under observation during
the same period there were only 8 to 10 cases.
Other alloys, as hard and soft solder, cliche, and sheet-metal alloy,
etc., which serve fo r the greatest variety o f purposes and are employed
in the production o f a great variety o f objects (organ pipes, tin soldiers,
artificial leaves, fruits, insects, etc.), o f course make lead poisoning pos
sible fo r the men in those occupations, but it is an unusual occurrence.
Relatively the rarest sufferers are braziers and tin-plate makers.
The harmful influences upon the workman engaged in these occu
pations rest entirely upon the inhalation o f the loosened dust and its
entrance into the alimentary canal by the way o f dirty hands and food.
The lead combinations require attention in a much higher degree
than metallic lead. They are distinguished as oxides and lead salts.
Lead unites with oxygen in three relations and forms: (1) Suboxide o f
18
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR*
lead; (2) oxide o f lead {impure litharge and massicot); (3) supetoxide
o f lead; there is also an oxygen combination, which, however, is not
considered as a special gradation o f oxidation but as a combination o f
lead oxide and lead superoxide.
Suboxide o f lead is o f very little interest. Oxide o f lead (impure
litharge and massicot) is extracted either as a furnace product in the
separation o f silver from argentiferous lead or by the oxidation of
metallic lead when air is admitted to the roasting tubes in such
factories as employ lead oxide. It is used in the manufacture o f red
oxide o f lead and sugar o f lead, and fo r other purposes.
These occupations endanger the workman, principally through poor
chimneys, lead-containing emanations, and frequent contact with the
very dusty oxide. The most dangerous operations in the process
seem to be the grinding, sifting, and packing o f the litharge. These
operations, unless the greatest care is observed, cause a* tremendous
generation o f dust.
W hile massicot as such is o f almost no importance, litharge is a fre
quently used industrial lead preparation. Its property to combine
easily, in a molten condition, with silica and the silicates has led to its
introduction in the glass industries. It serves in the production o f
strass (pellucid flint glass used in artificial gems), crystal glass, optical
glasses, and in the manufacture o f enameled sheet glass and in stained
glass. The men employed in these branches often work in an atmos
phere impregnated with lead fumes arising from the melting masses.
They also work under the influence o f lead-containing dust, which is
generated very extensively in present-day grinding o f glass, and par
ticularly in the production o f enameled sheet glass.
W orthy o f especial attention is the use o f litharge in the pottery
industry, where it is often the cause o f a very destructive variety of
lead poisonihg— potter’s sickness. M ost pottery is covered with a
glazing, which, beside other mineral substances, contains a large per
centage of impure litharge (also sulphate o f lead). The materials
necessary fo r this glazing are either run together in nature, or melted
over fires where continual stirring is required. This forms a kind o f
glass which, after stamping, is called “ glazing cake.” A fter these
glazing cakes have been powdered in mortars and stirred with water to
a fluid paste, they are taken to the glazing mill where they are again
ground finely and diluted with water. The baked pottery is then
either dipped into the liquid or the latter is poured over it. It seldom
happens that the glazing is produced by dusting. These operations
expose not only the glazers themselves to the danger o f lead fumes as
well as to the poisonous dust, but also endanger all other men
employed in the rooms. This explains why such a large number o f
men in the pottery industry are found to be suffering from lead poison
ing. The lead diseases o f those who are engaged in the enameling o f
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
19
ironware as well as those employed in putting the glazing on the
enamel labels o f chemical and pharmaceutical vessels, depend on the
same causes as those o f the pottery workers, because they are engaged
in the production, melting, and application o f the lead-containing
enamel.
Impure litharge is also used in varnish factories and in the produc
tion o f lacquers. In France the latter are employed to give to furni
ture an antique appearance. The lacquer mass, which contains much
lead oxide (50 per cent), is applied to the wood. The latter is then
dried and afterwards polished with rough sandpaper and pumice stone.
Part o f the dust generated by this process is inhaled by the workman
and results in lead poisoning. T o color horsehair black, hair and
brush workers use a decoction o f litharge, vinegar, and water. Lead
acetate forms and is transformed by the sulphur in the hair into black
lead sulphate. It is the latter that colors the hair. The danger o f color
ing hair by direct contact with dissolved lead salts is not important, yet
the greatest dangers arise in the cleaning and further use o f the hair.
The cleaning is accomplished by means o f drums set with sharp wire
points revolving within a similarly studded mantel. Naturally lead
dust is generated. Even saddlers are exposed to the dangers in uphol
stering and other employment o f hair thus colored.
The third combination o f lead, the superoxide o f lead, is employed
in the manufacture o f friction matches and plays a large r61e in the
industry. It is produced partly by treating red oxide o f lead with
diluted sulphuric acid, partly by boiling a mixture o f sugar o f lead,
litharge, red oxide o f lead, and chloride o f lime solution. According
to Hirt, neither the manufacture nor employment o f this preparation
in the match industry has any particularly detrimental influence upon
the health o f the workman.
O f all the oxides, red oxide o f lead is o f the greatest importance in
the industries. Its preparation consists in transforming metallic lead
into lead oxide in frame tubes with the addition of air, grinding the
oxide thus obtained with water, separating the unchanged remnants
o f lead by means o f sieves, and drying the mass. Then it is ground
again and put through sieves. Finally the free oxide is heated in iron
vessels and is dry-ground and sifted once more. The product thus
prepared is then packed. That this branch o f industry exposes the
workmen to great dangers is evident. The oxidation of the glowing
lead masses in the hot furnace, the frequent handling o f the product
and emptying o f the furnaces, particularly in deficient furnace plants,
impregnate the atmosphere o f the factory room with lead fumes as
well as with lead dust. Further, the continued contact with the poison
after it leaves the furnaces, and especially with the dust produced in
the grinding, sifting, bolting, and packing o f the powdered material,
leads almost always to severe cases o f poisoning, every workman being
20
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
affected after a longer or shorter period o f employment. The employ
ment o f red oxide o f lead in the technical sciences is similar to that o f
litharge. Sometimes they are used together; sometimes one is substi
tuted for the other. The consumption o f the red lead in the industries
offers similar dangers to the workman as litharge.
Sugar o f lead (acetate o f lead) is produced by dissolving litharge in
vinegar and letting it crystallize. The manufacture of this prepara
tion, by the wet method, with a little care and cleanliness, is almost
without danger, if the lead fumes are kept in check by tightly closed
vessels. Nevertheless, the manipulation o f the finished preparation,
the emptying, sifting, and packing, is dangerous on account of the
dust. The industrial employment o f sugar o f lead may also injure the
dyers, who use it in enormous quantities in their industry. Further,
sugar o f lead is used in the production o f wall-paper colors and in
the manufacture o f the acetates and varnish (in the place o f litharge).
It is also used in the silk industries to increase the weight o f the silk.
Those dangers resulting from the industrial consumption of the
poisonous material depend chiefly upon the dispersion o f dust, which
is either inhaled or brought into the system by the way of unclean
fingers and food. Furthermore, in the preparation o f sugar o f lead
by the wet process the development o f lead fumes and their inhalation
as well as absorption through the skin through erosions and wounds
is possible, though only in a very moderate degree. Am ong seam
stresses who use lead-containing silk the biting off and tapering o f the
thread probably offers the best chance to induce poisoning.
O f great importance, from a sanitary point o f view, are the lead
chromates, made by the use o f lead acetate. These are (1) the neutral
lead chromate (chrome yellow), (2) the basic lead chromate (chrome
red), and (3) a mixture o f both (chrome orange). They are insoluble
in water, but have corrosive effects in the stomach. Cases o f poison
ing are very rare in the manufacture o f the chrome colors, because
they are prepared by the wet method. Yet the packing of the fin
ished products and the use, even the consumption, o f materials colored
with them (yarn cotton) may injure the health o f the employees to a
large extent on account o f the unpreventable scattering o f dust.
Many fatal cases o f poisoning are known as results o f the abovementioned color dust. Thus Leopold reports a case o f severe lead poi
soning in a weaver’s family which had worked with yarn dyed in
chromate o f lead. To a 9-weeks* old child, which was exposed to the
influence o f the dust in the room in which the yarn was used, the poi
soning, was fatal. Considerable danger also threatens those employed
in the manufacture and consumption o f the other yellow lead colors, as
cassel yellow (yellow oxychloride o f lead), and naphs yellow (antimonate o f lead), which, however, since the introduction o f chromate of
lead plays but a small part in the industries.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
21
The most important lead combination, from a sanitary as well as
from a technical point of view, is lead carbonate (white lead). Its
preparation is carried on by various methods, the aim o f all o f
which is to decompose the vinegar o f lead obtained from various
sources by means of carbonic acid. In the Dutch method vinegar is
permitted to rest upon lead plates, in vessels surrounded by horse
manure, tan bark, etc. The organic substances generate the necessary
carbonic acid and warmth. In the German method, the acetic acid
fumes, mingled with carbonic acid, are led to chambers in which lead
plates are stored. % In the French method a solution of basic acetate o f
lead, obtained by dissolving litharge in wood vinegar, is decomposed
by means o f the introduction o f carbon dioxide. During the chem
ical process the workmen are not subject to any injurious influence.
The real dangers begin only in the further manipulation and industrial
consumption o f the crude white-lead material that has been extracted.
In the first place, the emptying o f the oxidation vessels, and especially
the chambers, is very dangerous, because it is almost impossible to
avoid the scattering o f dust from the crude material, no matter how
much it is moistened.
Because the lead plates are never entirely transformed into white
lead, the latter must be separated from the remnants of metallic lead.
Fortunately, this separation is now nearly always accomplished by the
wet method in the so-called sack drums, instead of beating and scrap
ing the plate with the hands as in former times. The loosened white
lead falls from the drum upon a fine sieve and then into a vessel stand
ing below, while the remnants o f lead fall out o f the lower end o f the
sifting chamber. The material thus obtained is then subjected to the
wet grinding and washing process in continually circulating water. It
is pressed between cloths, dried, and again, this time in a dry condition,
carried to the mills to be ground fine. Afterwards it is sifted, bolted,
and packed in barrels as a finished product.
It is evident that in these manipulations the workmen are exposed
to great dangers. In the wet production o f white lead sufficient care
and cleanliness on their part can largely prevent absorption through
the skin and introduction into the mouth. There is great danger,
however, in the dry operations o f grinding, bolting, sifting, and pack
ing, in which a great deal of dust is produced, because preventive meas
ures and arrangements are as yet far from efficient.
The owner o f a German white-lead factory, who kept the records o f
the number o f cases o f lead poisoning among the employees during a
series o f years found that wherever the men came in contact with dry
white lead numerous cases o f lead poisoning occurred, while in the
wet process during four years not a single case o f sickness occurred.
Similar conditions appear in other white-lead factories. Their cause
is due to the fact that in every manipulation the dry, finely pulverized
BULLETIN" OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
mass whirls up a cloud o f dust, which impregnates the atmosphere o f
the working rooms, so that with every breath a number of poisonous
particles are taken into the organism.
During an investigation o f a white-lead factory it was observed that
the floor and the beams were covered with a thin layer o f red oxide
o f lead and white-lead dust. There was nothing to indicate in these
rooms that work was done with such a dangerous poison. The men
worked quite unconcernedly around the dry-grinding mill and in the
back rooms, in which the atmosphere was partly filled with a visible
dust. The respirator was usually not over the mouth and nose, but
for the sake o f convenience was drawn down over the neck. It need
hardly be said that under these circumstances a good many more cases
of poisoning occurred here than in the other branches o f the industry.
According to Tanquerel, out o f 2,161 cases o f lead poisoning, taken
from 30 branches o f the lead industry, 691, or almost one-third, were
among white-lead workers. A ccording to statistics taken during a
period o f ten years (1870-1880) in a large white-lead and red-lead
factory, which is said to have paid especial attention and care to the
health o f the workingman, out o f 488 workingmen,.174, or almost 36
per cent, were affected with lead poisoning.
The statistics o f the aforementioned German factory, as well as
other statistics whose details are contained in the yearly reports o f fac
tory inspectors, confirm the assumption in regard to the age and con
stitution o f the workmen, namely, that the powers o f resistance to
the influence o f the poison is increased by strong manhood and good
nourishment.
In the English list o f one hundred dangerous occupations prepared
for a work on occupational mortality, thirteen were selected as show
ing unmistakable evidence o f plumbism. These occupations are as
follows, the figures representing the comparative mortality figures
from lead poisoning in the several trades:
COMPARATIVE MORTALITY* FROM LEAD POISONING IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS,
ENGLAND
Occupations.
Leadworkers........................................
File m akers...........................................
Plum bers.............................................
Painters and glaziers...........................
Potters....................................................
Glass makers..........................................
Copper workers.....................................
Compara
tive mor
tality.
211
75
25
18
17
8
8
Occupations.
Coach m akers......................................
Gas fitters locksmiths.........................
Lead m akers........................................
Printers................................................
Cutters..................................................
Wool manufacturers...........................
Occupied m ales...................................
Compara
tive mor
tality.
7
6
5
3
3
3
1
The above occupations are arranged according to their mortality
from lead poisoning, as shown in the tables. A little consideration,
however, will show that these figures indicate very imperfectly the
relative damage sustained by the operatives as a result o f their occu
pations. If, fo r example, we compare the mortality figure of lead
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
23
workers with that o f potters, it will appear by the table that the
form er workers suffer from plumbism more than twelve times as
much as do the latter. But on closer examination we find that while
all leadworkers are constantly in contact with lead as a necessary con
dition o f labor, not more than a twelfth part o f the potters are so
circumstanced.
It is the dippers and the glost placers who are the chief if not the
only serious sufferers from lead poisoning among potters; but as
these workers are not distinguished in the census returns from the
other potters a false impression is conveyed as to the amount o f mis
chief done by absorption o f lead in those branches o f the industry
where the workers are actually exposed to contact with this metal.
Again, when the figures fo r painters and glaziers are compared with
the figures fo r file cutters a great disparity becomes evident, the file
cutters apparently showing more than four times as many cases o f
plumbism as do the painters and glaziers; but on inquiry we find that
while on the one hand file cutters handle lead continuously in the
course o f their work, on the other hand painters and glaziers are by
no means so constantly exposed to this danger, much o f their time
being spent on labor which does not involve contact with lead or
inhalation o f fumes or dust o f that metal. I f the death rates o f pot
ters and painters engaged in those processes which are continuously
subject to lead poisoning could be separately ascertained, there is no
reason to doubt that they would show results quite as unsatisfactory
as those experienced by leadworkers.
Although leadworking is known to be a very unhealthy trade, it is
evidently impossible to deduce from the vital statistics o f only 2,000
workers more than very general conclusions. Speaking generally,
however, the mortality returns warrant the statement that in the main
working period o f life these operatives sustain a mortality which, on
the average, is about 90 per cent above that o f other workers.
Their comparative mortality from all causes is nearly three times
that o f agriculturists. O f the total deaths occurring among leadworkers, one-third are from “ pulmonary diseases,” i. e., from tuber
cular phthisis and diseases o f the respiratory system taken together,
and one-eighth are from lead poisoning. As compared with the stand
ard fo r employed males, the mortality among leadworkers is excessive
from diseases o f the urinary, nervous, circulatory, and digestive sys
tems, m addition to the causes above specified.
The follow ing fact drawn from the sickness records of a factory is
also interesting. New men usually suffer from an attack of lead colic
soon after they have entered upon their occupation, while those who
have been employed for a long time very seldom become ill. It must
not be considered as a slowly and gradually formed immunity due to
habituation to the poison, but must be accounted for solely by the fact
that the men in time learn to better avoid the dangers o f . their occu
pation and to prevent the absorption o f lead. Immediately upon
24
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
employment they should be instructed in the dangers and how to avoid
them.
The use o f white lead in industries is exceedingly varied and the
cases o f poisoning depending on it for a cause are unfortunately still
quite numerous. Painters, artists, lacquer workers, colorists, and
sign painters, and workers in stained and glazed paper, as well as
playing and visiting card factory workers, suffer from the effects o f
the poisonous material, which is used as a color in their branches o f
industry on account o f its remarkable covering and protecting quali
ties. The absorption o f poison is caused usually by the mixing o f the
colors, at which operation the dust o f the finely powdered dry white
lead is inhaled, or the poison is directly introduced into the alimentary
canal by way o f the hands, brush, etc., as well as by food and drink.
The careless spattering o f the clothes with mixed colors which sub
sequently dry and scatter as dust can under circumstances induce
poisoning. The danger is especially great in solutions in which the
color masses are mixed with water, gum, glue, etc. I f the color is
mixed inside, the other people in the house are also exposed to
the danger o f poisoning. Almost the same is true o f the gilders,
who before they apply the gold cover the vessels about to be gilded
with a paste, which is made by mixing white lead and litharge with glue
and oil o f turpentine. The preparation o f putty, for which white
lead is peculiarly adapted, may endanger the glazier, but poisoning
from this cause is very rare and due only to gross uncleanliness.
W hite lead is also still quite frequentty used in certain o f the lace
industries, partly to cover the laces with dust to make them white and
heavier, and partly to stamp patterns upon dark materials. In these
cases lead intoxication is usually caused by the absorption o f dust
through inhalation. The same is true o f the use o f white-lead powder
in leather finishing, as among tanners and glove makers, and in strawhat factories by the brushing o f the hats with white-lead powder.
Finally, the cosmetics containing white lead, especially the so-called
white rouge, which consists o f almost pure white lead, have caused
cases o f poisoning, both among the producers and the consumers.
The other lead preparations, lead cyanide, lead chloride, lead o x y
chloride, and finally lead nitrate and iodide o f lead, the last two o f
which are used in calico printing, play but a small r61e in the indus
tries and are seldom the cause o f poisoning, except through the
inhalation o f lead-containing dust.
EFFECTS AND SYMPTOMS OF LEAD POISONING.
The salts o f lead, more especially the soluble ones, are strongly
poisonous. Since lead is a cumulative poison its salts and compounds,
such as the oxide and carbonate, produce serious results if taken into
the system 6ven in minute quantities for any length o f time. One o f
FACTORY SALTATIO N AND LABOR PROTECTION.
25
the form s in which lead is introduced into the system is by the use of
drinking waters, some varieties o f which easily attack the lead o f the
pipes used fo r conveying the water. Again, the working people
engaged in the manufacture o f lead and lead compounds, more espe
cially white lead, are liable to suffer from lead poisoning. It is a
regrettable fact that lead as a metal, as well as in its combinations, is a
poison to the human organism, the more to be dreaded because its
influence is stealthy and treacherous. The symptoms o f poisoning
generally are not immediately apparent, but only after the poison
has remained in the organism for some time. In course o f time the
disease becomes chronic, and the symptoms are pain in the stomach
and abdomen, constipation, loss o f appetite, thirst, and nervous pros
tration (known as lead palsy), epileptic fits, and total paralysis. One
o f the signs o f chronic lead poisoning is a blue line at the edges o f the
gums due to the deposition o f lead sulphide. This line is frequently
seen in painters and decorators, who are liable to this form o f poison
ing, because o f the white lead used in making paint. The blue line
is also observed in workmen engaged in the manufacture o f white lead
or in manufactures in which this compound is employed. A portion
o f the lead taken into the system is excreted by the kidneys.
In
cases o f chronic lead poisoning it is stated that the administration o f
potassium iodide aids in the elimination o f lead from the system.
The distribution o f the compounds o f this metal in the different organs
o f the body is shown in the follow ing quotation from Dr. Thomas
Oliver’s work on Dangerous Trades (p. 310) giving the results o f
examinations o f the bodies o f lead workers who succumbed to lead
poisoning:
In most o f my own fatal cases, lead was detected in the liver, kid
neys, muscles, and brain, etc. T o the fact that lead has been found
in the brain, and has probably formed some complex chemical com
pound with it, may be attributed the convulsive seizures, insanity, and
possibly, too, death. A t the most it has always been a very minute
quantity o f lead that has been found in the brain after death. In one
o f my patients Professor Bedson found on chemical analysis only
0.779 grain in a brain and cerebellum that together weighed 51.5
ounces; while from another brain and cerebellum that weighed 48
ounces, he obtained only 0.634 grain o f lead. From another brain
Professor Bedson removed 4.04 milligrams [0.062 grain] o f lead, while
in a case reported by M r. W ynter Blyth there were 99.7 milligrams
[1.538 grains] o f sulphate o f lead found in the brain and 17.4 [0.268
grain] in the cerebellum.
It is scarcely possible to discover all the cases in which poisoning is
induced by means o f this widely used substance. They usually occur
where least expected. Many objects used in housekeeping or as
playthings cause more or less serious illnesses. In consideration o f
this fact the employment o f lead and it° combinations in the arts,
26
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
industries, and housekeeping is o f very considerable consequence
from a hygienic standpoint. This is especially true, as several o f
the lead combinations are indispensable and because up to the present
time no satisfactory substitutes have been found.
Cases o f lead poisoning due to chance or accident, considering their
frequency and the seriousness o f the symptoms, are o f little importance
as compared with cases o f industrial lead poisoning occurring among
those laborers or factory hands whose occupations compel them to be
exposed daily to metallic lead or its combinations.
There is no such immunity or gradual habituation to the poisonous
lead as Gruber assumes, yet the severity o f the effects is not in direct
proportion to the quantity o f poison absorbed. W hile a given quan
tity o f poison in one individual may cause him no inconvenience what
ever, in another the same quantity may cause serious conditions of ill
ness. The reasons for the difference in the power o f resisting the
effects o f the poisonous lead and its combinations in different persons
must be sought not only in individual differences, but in manifold
internal and external circumstances.
In the first place, age is an
important factor. It is well known that the power o f resistance o f the
childish organism against anything o f harmful moment is small. It is
evident, therefore, that children and youthful individuals in whom the
development and maturity o f the most important organs have not been
completed more easily succumb to the disastrous effects o f the poison
than adults. On the contrary, however, the stronger and more per
fectly nourished the individual is the longer he can withstand the dis
turbances caused b y the poison. Alm ost all the causes which diminish
the activity o f the vital functions and the energy and capability o f the
organism, as hunger, exhaustion, chronic diseases, alcoholism, etc.,
at the same time favor the action o f the poison. Thus Trourreau
mentions cases in which the disposition toward lead poisoning was
increased by the use o f absinthe during a period o f many years.
RELATION OF SE X TO LEAD POISONING.
Sex also seems o f importance as regards susceptibility to the poison.
Although statistics o f lead factories do not certainly prove such an
influence, yet it may be assumed that women, who, as is known from
experience, are more susceptible to external influences, especially
poison (mercury, fo r example), than men will be more easily affected
by lead than the latter. This is also confirmed by the observation o f
Labrosse and Hirt.
English investigations as to the influence o f lead on women have
given the follow ing results: A fter a few weeks or, at the most, a
few months o f regular employment in a lead factory, particularly
if much o f the time is spent in stripping the white beds or emptying
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
27
the stoves, young women would suffer severely from lead poisoning.
It is stated by English experts that young women who were strong
and healthy when they entered a white-lead factory have died from
saturnine poisoning within three months. In one instance a young
woman had worked, only forty days, during a period o f nine weeks,
when she succumbed to lead poisoning. Young women, especially,
according to observations o f Dr. Thomas Oliver in England, are
much more susceptible to plumbism than men. The predisposition
to lead poisoning is in both sexes spread over all periods o f life, but in
so far as occupational exposure to lead is concerned, it is believed (1)
that women are more susceptible than men; (2) that while liability in
the case o f women is greatest between the ages o f 18 and 23 years, that
o f men is later; (3) that while females rapidly break down in.health
under the influence o f lead, men can work a longer time in the factory
without suffering, their resistance apparently being greater. In
addition to a sexual susceptibility to plumbism there is also an indi
vidual and a family tendency as well. It is difficult to explain this
susceptibility o f certain persons to lead poisoning; as to the fact,
however, there is no doubt. It is partly a constitutional, and it may
be partly a temporary and accidental condition. W e find illustrations
o f constitutional predisposition to certain maladies in the greater
liability o f some people, fo r instance, to contract infectious diseases
than others; in the readiness, for example, with which they contract
typhoid fever and suffer severely from it. W e have similar illustra
tions o f the influence o f age. The early years of adult life are those
in which enteric fever is most severe. As an indication o f how sus
ceptibility to plumbism may be accidentally and temporarily devel
oped, Oliver instances the influence o f poverty, which, by preventing
the purchase o f wholesome and abundant food, allows the gastric juice
probably to dissolve out more o f the lead that has been swallowed.
No doubt the greater prevalence o f plumbism hitherto observed in
women who have worked in white-lead factories is explained, to a great
extent, by the fact that they have until recently worked in larger
numbers than the men in the dangerous processes, for since June, 1898,
the date in which the English law required that male should replace
female labor in these processes, the number o f cases has increased
among men and correspondingly decreased among women, as will be
seen from the table below.
According to the annual report o f the British Chief Inspector o f
Factories for 1897, there were 370 cases o f plumbism reported as hav
ing occurred during 1897 in white-lead works. The average number
o f persons employed in such works in 1896 was 2,499, and o f these
some were engaged in the manufacture o f red and yellow lead. One
person out o f seven o f those employed in white-lead works suffered
from plumbism during that year. F or 1898 the statistics, as indicated
28
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
below, did not show any abatement— a circumstance which led to a
communication from the home secretary to the manufacturers as to
the desirability o f replacing the old stoves by others o f newer design,
and the introduction o f other mechanical and structural arrangements
with effectual precautions. Since the introduction o f new stoves for
drying and other methods o f mixing white lead plumbism has consid
erably decreased.
The cases o f poisoning reported in 1898, by
months, were as follows:
CASES OF LEAD POISONING IN BRITISH WHITE-LEAD WORKS DURING 1898.
Month.
Male.
Female.
Total.
14
22
13
14
18
21
81
14
24
19
28
9
45
36
37
33
46
30
Jan u ary .............................
F ebruary......................
M a rch ...........................
A pril..............................
May................................
Ju ne..............................
Month.
J u ly ..............................
August.........................
September....................
O ctober........................
November....................
December....................
Male.
Female.
28
31
67
38
34
46
9
5
1
2
1
1
Total.
37
36
68
40
35
47
Lead exerts a most dangerous influence in the course o f pregnancy.
It is a fact based on statistical investigation that abortions are unusu
ally frequent among women employed in lead factories. According
to Paul, out o f 141 pregnant lead workers 82 women aborted, 4 gave
premature birth to stillborn children, and 5 to stillborn children at the
regular time. Other physicians who have made observations report
practically the same result. Not only is pregnancy interfered with, to
a high degree, b y the lead, but the harmful influences o f the poison
are transmitted to those children that are born alive. Usually the lat
ter are poorly developed and weakly individuals who soon succumb.
According to Paul, o f 50 children born o f women employed in leadworks 20 died during the first year, 15 the second year, and only 4
reached their fourth year. The influence o f the season o f the year
must also not be underestimated.
The follow ing statement from Dangerous Trades, by Dr. Thomas
Oliver, will give proof o f the high mortality among lead workers5
children:
W here the two sexes are as far as possible equally exposed to the
influence o f lead, women probably suffer more rapidly, certainly more
severely, than men. To a certain extent the reason is to be found in
the fact that lead exercises an injurious influence upon the reproduc
tive functions o f women. It deranges menstruation. Usually there
is an excessive loss at the monthly periods, which causes women to
become anaemic; in a few instances, on the other hand, the loss is
scanty. It is upon pregnant women that the metal exercises its worst
effects. The ecbolic or abortifacient action o f lead is beyond dispute.
It is knowledge o f this fact that has caused women o f the lower classes
when pregnant to resort to diachylon pills, which contain a small
quantity o f lead, fo r the purpose o f producing miscarriage. W hen a
white-lead worker becomes pregnant it is almost impossible for her to
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
29
go to the end o f term if she continues to follow her employment. As
a rule, she miscarries, but if, perchance, she goes to term, the child is
either born dead or dies shortly after birth from convulsions. In the
liver and kidneys o f stillborn children o f female lead workers that I
submitted to Professor Bedson for chemical analysis, there were found
minute quantities o f lead. Chemical analysis, therefore, confirms clin
ical experience as regards the cause o f death in these children. A s to
the injurious influence o f lead upon maternity, I shall give a few illus
trations taken from my own and others’ experience. Mrs. H ., aged
35, worked in a white-lead factory fo r six years, before which she
had 4 children born at full time. Since going to the lead works
she has had 9 miscarriages in succession and no living child. Mrs. M .,
aged 30, has had 7 children and 3 miscarriages. The last 2 children
were born and all the miscarriages took place after entering the lead
factory. Mrs. F. has had 3 miscarriages since taking up lead work.
Mrs. K ., aged 34, had 4 living children before going into the lead fac
tory and 2 living children afterwards. Still following her occupation,
she had 6 miscarriages in succession, became the subject o f plumbism,
and was under my care in the infirmary for a few months on account
o f colic and paralysis; she made a good recovery, but did not return to
the lead factory; next pregnancy she went to term and had a living
child, which survived. I f additional medical testimony were required
to support the opinion I have put forward as to the pernicious influence
o f leaa upon maternity, it is to be found in that o f M. Constantin Paul,
a French physician, who has published in detail his experience o f 15
pregnancies o f 4 women working in a type foundry. Ten o f these preg
nancies ended in abortion, 2 in premature labor, 1 in a stillbirth, and 1
in a living child, who died a few hours after birth. * * * Constantin
Paul, grouping together a large number o f pregnancies, viz, 123, found
that o f these, 64 ended in abortion, 4 in premature confinement, 5 chil
dren were born dead, and 20 o f the infants died within the first twelve
months. O f 1,000 pregnancies reported by Tardien, 609 ended in abor
tion. (Poisons Industriels, Office au Travail, Paris, 1901, p. 5.) In the
potteries, Miss Paterson and Miss Deane, two o f His Majesty’s inspect
ors o f factories, found that “ out o f the 77 married women reported as
suffering from lead poisoning during this period (the year ended March
31,1897) 15 have been childless and have had no miscarriages; 8 have
had 21 stillborn children; 35 have had 90 miscarriages, and o f these
15 have had no child born; 36 have had 101 living children, of
whom 61 are still alive. The great majority o f the 40 who are dead
succumbed to convulsions in infancy.” Dr. J. F. Arlidge, certifying
surgeon fo r Stoke, has published his experience o f 239 married women
working in lead processes in the china and earthenware industry. O f
the children born before the mothers worked in lead 40.4 per cent died.
O f each 100 pregnancies there were 7 miscarriages, while, during or
after lead employment, o f the children born only 36.5 per cent died,
and the percentage o f miscarriages was 11.8. O f the 239 women there
were 71 who had had no children prior to working in lead. These 71
women had subsequently 302 children (of whom 114 died) and 38 mis
carriages; that is, for every 100 children born 37.7 died, and 11.1 of
every 100 pregnancies resulted in miscarriage. Dr. J. F. Arlidge’s
statistics show that in female pottery workers employed in lead proc
esses the percentage of miscarriages is higher than in those engaged
10615— No. 44— 03----- 3
30
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
in other departments, but neither is this nor the death rate o f children
born under these circumstances so great as M. Paul, Tardien, and I
have found.
I f lead exercises a prejudicial effect upon the reproductive powers o f
women, it is also capable, although to a less degree, o f diminishing the
virility o f men. Children o f female lead workers almost invariably die
o f convulsions shortly after birth or during the first twelve months.
I f a child is the offspring o f parents, both o f whom are lead workers,
it is puny and ill nourished, and is either born dead, or dies a few hours
after birth. The power o f lead not only to kill the offspring, but to
destroy fo r the time being the child-bearing powers o f women, is
remarkable, and it is this circumstance, along with the fact that women
suffer more readily and severely from lead poisoning, that are the main
arguments fo r keeping them out o f the dangerous processes in any
industry in which lead compounds are used. * * * Eoques {Mouvement Medical, 1872) is o f the opinion that a mother working in lead
conveys through her milk to the child she is suckling the metallic
poison, and that there is produced a slow and progressive deterioration
o f the infant’s constitution. Professor Bedson has analyzed for me
the milk o f suckling lead workers without finding any trace o f lead
therein. Whether or not lead is only occasionally present in the
mammary secretion, it is undesirable that women who have an infant
at the breast should work in the dangerous process.
VARIOUS W A Y S OF CONTRACTING LEAD POISONING.
Tanquerel des Planches, to whom are due the most valuable accounts
o f industrial lead poisoning, found that the cases o f poisoning occur
most frequently in May, June, July, and August (46.7 per cent, against
27.77 per cent from January to A pril and 25.47 per cent from Sep
tember to December), and in some workingmen they occurred annually
at this period. Archambault has made similar observations. Even
if some o f the cases o f sickness during the hot months can be explained
by the fact that more men are employed in lead industries during the
summer, others can, without doubt, be blamed on the heat, which, by
causing frequent drinking as well as increased perspiration, favors the
solution and absorption o f the lead products. Some o f the French
authors consider this increased lead absorption as due to the higher
nervous susceptibility superinduced by the heat; others claim that it is
due to the increased amount o f wine drunk in France during the sum
mer. This wine is clarified by means o f metallic lead, or stored in
lead-containing vessels, and therefore frequently has additions o f lead.
It must also be mentioned that, with the first attack, lead workers
acquire a predisposition to further attacks. Very often relapses occur
even when the individual has remained absent from his work for a long
time and has not been in contact with lead. Heubel, as well as Mayer,
are inclined to account for the recurrence by the assumption that the
lead, which had been passively stored in certain organs, after a time
again gets into circulation and induces a new succession o f symptoms.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
31
The poison enters the organism through the skin, and the respiratory
and digestive organs.
Tanquerel declares that lead poison is not absorbed through the
skin. Entirely negative results were obtained by Mounereaus in his
experiments with rabbits whose skin had been shaved. In these experi
ments absorption by the way o f the digestive tract had been prevented,
and the animals were able to dwell in lead-containing places without any
injurious effects. Notwithstanding this the following facts will prove
the possibility o f the absorption o f lead products through the skin.
Orifila and others report several cases o f poisoning through the use
o f lead-containing cosmetics; Schotten and Crocker through leadcontaining hair dyes. A ccording to Professor Schulz the use o f leadwater poultices upon the skin has resulted in lead poisoning. A deepseated discoloration o f the skin has several times been observed after
the accidental external use o f soluble lead preparations and sulphur
baths. Naturally the danger o f poisoning is greater where there are
abrasion and wounds on the epidermis. The poison is doubtless
absorbed by the skin glands after it has been transformed by their
secretions into a soluble and absorbable condition.
That lead and its combinations are most easily absorbed by the
mucous membrane o f the digestive apparatus and that the latter is the
most frequent path o f introduction is evident and does not require
further proof. The introduction o f lead into the blood also may be
accomplished easily through the respiratory apparatus, as the large
surface area and the rich supply o f blood to that organ furnish favor
able occasion fo r absorption. The respired lead is dissolved and made
absorbable by means o f the secretions in the bronchial branches. It is
immaterial whether it is introduced as dust from white lead, red oxide
o f lead, etc., or in the form o f fumes. The observations o f LepioiChioti made on animals prove that the absorption o f lead products
very easily takes place in the respiratory apparatus.
The assumption o f Chevalier that metallic lead is insoluble in the
secretions o f the body and consequently not poisonous in its effects is
erroneous, as at every place o f application it may be changed into an
absorbable condition. T o this end the skin furnishes the sweat, the
stomach its juice, and the bronchi their secretions, etc. Though a
large lead sphere, such as a good-sized bullet, is but little attacked by
the digestive apparatus, and the effects are not especially injurious, the
same can not be said o f the little grains o f shot whose relatively larger
surface gives a greater field o f action to the working o f the digestive
fluids, and from them poisonous effects have repeatedly occurred.
Ruva observed a severe case o f lead colic after the swallowing o f 10
grains o f shot; Bronvin, as the result o f a shotgun wound. O f all the
lead combinations rhodan lead, according to Eulenburg, is the only one
which is not poisonous to the animal organism.
32
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
The process o f absorption is very much the same in all surfaces of
absorption. No matter in what form it offers itself for absorption, the
lead must be transformed into a soluble compound, and this occurs
under the coincident influence o f the secretions and albumen. The
lead albuminates are formed which in contact with diluted acids (gas
tric juice, perspiration) or alkaline fluids (blood, chyle, lymph) become
absorbable. They get into the circulation from different parts o f the
body chiefly by means o f the chyle and lymph, and are carried to the
various organs where they are deposited. Between the lead and the
albuminoids o f the parenchyma chemical combinations are formed
which are thrown off very slowly and only with the greatest difficulty
through excrement, urine, milk, and in many cases through the skin.
Traces o f lead have been found in the tissues o f persons months and
years after they have recovered from lead poisoning, and during all
which time they had had no further opportunity fo r the absorption o f
the poison. In chronic lead poisoning the distribution o f the poison
to the several organs is not equal, but certain organs take a relatively
large amount o f lead as compared with others. According to Heubel’s
investigations on dogs fed with lead preparations, the greatest percent
age o f lead was found in the bony tissues, the parenchyma o f the kid
neys, and the liver. The relative quantity of lead in the spinal cord
and the brain was small, and still less was found in the muscle sub
stance. Only traces o f the metal were found in the other organs.
A bove all, only very small amounts were found in the blood, and these
always relatively smaller than those in the organs investigated.
A s has already been shown, all lead products (except the nonpoisonous rhodan lead) possess the power to produce in the body a charac
teristic series o f symptoms, which, as they usually arise from the sum
total o f smaller effects, take a slow and chronic course. No matter
what lead product causes the poisoning, the series o f symptoms is
always the same. As the very first symptoms an increased vascular
tension exists for some time, after which a loss o f appetite and a gen
eral emaciation occur, accompanied by an earthy color o f the skin, a
loss o f strength (sometimes after a relatively short exposure to the
poison), and a manifest loss o f weight.
The victim experiences a certain dryness o f the mouth and a dis
agreeable sweetish, metallic taste. The tongue, especially the poste
rior portion, is covered with a whitish layer. The breath becomes
offensive. A bluish-gray seam o f sulphide o f lead shows at the edge
o f the gums. The latter are often loosened, reddish blue, and partly
shrunken, so that the teeth, which frequently display diseased altera
tions, appear longer.
A t the same time there is more or less severe anaemia. The intensity
o f the symptoms in different individuals, as well as in the same indi
vidual at different periods o f time, varies.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
33
EFFECT OF LEAD POISONING UPON VARIOUS ORGANS OF THE
BODY.
Parallel to these general symptoms, more or less evident affections
o f the other organs are running their course. The stomach and intes
tines present the symptoms o f chronic dyspepsia, want o f appetite,
vomiting, hiccough, etc. Especially in severe cases there is a gray
covering o f the mucous membrane (deposits o f sulphide o f lead, pre
cipitated out by the sulphuretted hydrogen (H2S) formed in digestion).
This settles in the interstices between the connective tissue texture and
produces a shrinking and degeneration o f the mucous membrane.
O f especial importance and interest are the nervous conditions o f
the intestinal canal, whose aggregate has been contracted into the
words “ lead colic.” These symptoms occur at intervals o f various
length. To the many precursory symptoms (like strong navicular con
traction o f the abdomen, which may become as hard as a board, and
severe nausea with vomiting o f bile) an active feeling o f thirst, a weak
voice, a hard, diminished, thread-like pulse, increased respiration
(asthma saturninum), and drawing pains o f varying intensity in the
abdomen, are added. They trouble the victim, and often are the cause
o f the most unnatural positions adopted to allay the pains, which can
sometimes be made bearable by pressure on the abdomen. The seat
o f the pain is usually in the region o f the navel, from which it radi
ates to other parts. In addition, there are localized constipation
existing fo r days, often ischuria, neuralgic pains in the region o f the
genito-urinary system, and pains in the limbs. Lead colic may reap
pear with severe pains and drag through weeks and even months. On
the other hand, it may end in a few days with complete recovery. It is
seldom fatal. O f Tanquerel’s 1,217 patients only 9 died; o f Andrali’s
500 only 5 died.
O f the other vegetative organs the liver is sometimes attacked
(Heubel, Hitzig, and Aubry), so that a genuine case o f icterus, a depo
sition o f bile particles in the tissues and excretion o f the same through
the urine, results. O f especial value are the phenomena o f reaction
which occur in the kidneys. As it is the task o f the kidneys to elimi
nate a part o f the lead from the organism, they are exposed to the
harmful influence o f the poison in almost every case. Yet no great
alterations ought to be produced in their parenchyma.
A diminution o f the diuresis almost always occurs, the urine is often
albumenous and shows the same characteristics (Bartels) as are caused
by the ordinary atrophied kidney. In many cases such an atrophy
has been pointed out, mostly in the form o f the red granular atrophy
(Leyden).
Cicatricial atrophy o f the interstitial tissue, with atrophy of the
glomeruli and hyaline degeneration o f vessels and processes limited
to a small scar, sometimes occurs. So also, especially on the part
34
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
o f English authors (Garrod), the lead kidney is brought in conjunction
with the true gout kidney and lead poisoning is set up as a poison
generating cause. The changes o f the diuresis are looked upon by some
as the principal cause o f the symptoms occurring in the vascular sys
tem. The pressure o f blood and vascular tension rises and causes the
pulse to have a characteristic, hard, thread-like character. Not rarely
hypertrophy o f the left ventricle has been observed. The altera
tions o f the diuresis superinduced by the kidney affections is considered
by many authors, follow ing the precedent o f Traube, as the cause o f
the frequent brain affections— encephalopathia saturnina— and that
because o f its similarity to uraemia.
The English have made extensive investigations in this respect and
the follow ing quotation from the work on Dangerous Trades by
Dr. Thomas Oliver, pages 308 and 309, shows some o f the results
obtained:
The question o f insanity in lead workers has been ably dealt with by
Dr. Robert Jones,a the medical superintendent o f the London County^
Asylum, Claybury, Essex. Taking the proportion o f 1 lead worker,
in the broad sense o f the word, to every 58 o f the adult population,
there ought to be in Claybury 18 male patients belonging to that class.
A s a matter o f fact, however, out o f 1,050 males in the asylum, there
are 35 who have been lead workers, plumbers, painters, and glaziers,
but excluding pottery workers and miners. In examining the histo
ries o f 3,500 male patients admitted into Claybury, Dr. Jones found
that o f these 133 were artisans, who in their trade had possibly become
impregnated with lead; their occupations were as follows:
P ain ters.................................................................................................................................
D ecorators.............................................................................................................................
P lum bers...............................................................................................................................
G asfitters...............................................................................................................................
Laborers in lead w o rk s ......................................................................................................
G rainers.................................................................................................................................
Gasmeter m akers.................................................................................................................
C olor g rin d e r.......................................................................................................................
F ile cu tter.............................................................................................................................
Tea-lead roller......................................................................................................................
75
13
18
13
6
3
2
1
1
1
T ota l........................................................................................................................... 133
O f these 19 had signs o f lead poisoning upon admission, such as par
alysis, colic, and blue line on gums, while in 22 there was a history of
convulsions (encephalopathy), headache, giddiness, and paralysis. O f
the 133 cases the follow ing is the analysis o f their mental condition:
M an ia.....................................................................................................................................
M elan ch olia.........................................................................................................................
D em entia.....................................................................................
Dementia w ith epilepsy......................................................................................................
Dementia w ith general paralysis......................................................................................
(?) General p a ra lysis..........................................................................................................
A lcoh olic m ania....................................*..............................................................................
37
33
19
10
24
7
3
T o ta l........................................................................................................................... 133
« British Medical Journal, September 22,1900.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
35
“ The proportion o f general paralytics among these possible lead
cases is 18 per cent; the average yearly percentage o f general paralytics
to the total average number o f male patients admitted into asylums
fo r the five years 1893-1897 was 13.1, and it appears to me there is a
strong presumptive evidence that lead may be a factor in the cause o f
general paralysis o f the insane.” Elsewhere (a) I have drawn atten
tion to the association o f lead poisoning and general paralysis, and
indicated that as there is in the plumbic form a larger percentage o f
recoveries than in general paralysis proper, the probability is that
the malady is not exactly o f the same nature, but is rather a pseudo
general paralysis. Dr. Jones summarizes his conclusions thus:
1. That lead poisoning is a contributory factor to insanity.
2. That the mental symptoms may be grouped among one or other
o f the follow ing varieties:
(a) Toxaemia, with sensory disturbances, which tend to get well.
(h) Hallucinations o f sight and hearing, usually chronic and irre
coverable.
( c) General paralysis with tremors, increased knee jerks, inco
ordination, listlessness, and dementia, which tend to get well.
There are several other theories besides these concerning the nature
and diagnosis o f encephalopathia. Rosenbaum and Heubel assume that
the brain anaemia resulting from the effects o f lead is the cause o f the
brain diseases. Harnach believes them to be due to the direct influence
o f lead on the various brain centers. The latter view is probably the
correct one in most cases. The brain affections induced by lead may
run a manifold course and range from the mildest to the most severe
cases. Many nervous symptoms figure often as forerunners. Then
headaches, a feeling o f dizziness, and a series o f cerebral phenomena
occur. The latter consist o f a varying combination, partly quiet,
partly raving delirium, comatose conditions, and epileptic-like convul
sions. These three groups o f symptoms sometimes alternate often
and rapidly, and combine with several others (aphonia, etc.), and make
the whole very complicated.
O f particular interest are the symptoms occurring along the several
nerve tracts, which often present themselves in the most typical man
ner. Thus there sometimes arise, to begin only with the higher organs
o f sense, sudden disturbances o f a serious character, such as amblyopia
and even complete amaurosis, with pupil enlargement and suspended
reaction. These conditions, among which objectively no anomalies
can be proved, disappear usually after a few days.
V ery similar attacks have been observed in the auditory organs and
in isolated cases in all the organs o f sense. Often they are observed
in the peripheral nerve endings, where they produce a series o f
interesting symptoms in the sphere o f the sensory nerves. Am ong
these is the so-called arthralgia saturnina and the appearance o f severe
pains in the limbs and joints, such as frequently accompany lead
« O liver, in A llbutt’ s System o f M edicine, V ol. II, “ Lead Poisoning.”
36
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
colic. As precursory symptoms, trembling o f the hands and weak
ness o f the limbs occur, and then sets in the real neuralgia, which is
the severest at night. The latter bears a certain resemblance to gout,
which gives additional strength to the view that there is a close rela
tionship between gout and lead poisoning. Garrod claims to have
found lead-containing uric acid in the blood. Pedell claims to have
found, besides hypertrophy o f the left ventricle and lead atrophy,
deposits o f urates in the various joints o f the lower extremities and in
the kidneys.
According to Garrod one-fourth o f all those suffering from gout
are said to be painters and workers in lead. According to Bucquoy, attacks o f gout are a common occurrence among painters.
Arthralgia also does not continue without intermission, but often has
remissions, during which formication, light drawing pains, etc.,
remain. The group o f lead symptoms, which usually make their
appearance last, are the paralysis o f motor nerve tracts. They are
the lead paralysis that usually occur in one nerve, the radial. The
cause o f the paralysis is probably the occurrence o f alterations in the
anterior gray cells o f the spinal cord (degeneration and atrophy o f the
ganglion cells). (Vulpian and Opperm.) They cause the nerve paral
ysis, and secondly degenerate alteration in nerves and muscles, even
if these changes o f the spinal cord can not always be found.
The paralysis usually begins in the extensors o f the third and fourth
fingers. This, first o f all, makes the extension o f the first phalanges
o f the third and fourth fingers impossible. The end phalanges can still
be extended by the interossei muscles. Then it seizes the other exten
sors o f the forearm, while the supinators usually remain unaffected.
A t this period a characteristic position o f the hand known as dropwrist is obtained in that it hangs down loosely, at right angles, in the
position o f ulnar abduction.
It is evident that the utility o f the hand as well as its strength has
been seriously impaired. The paralysis may now extend to the region
o f the triceps and deltoid muscles, in which process the other regions
o f the arm also do not remain intact. Other nerve tracts seldom pre
sent the symptoms o f lead paralysis. In rare cases, after the exten
sors o f the upper extremities have been attacked those o f the foot and
toes are attacked in their turn. Still later certain o f the trunk muscles
and the diaphragm may become paralyzed. Paralysis may even reach
the muscles o f the larynx and produce complete aphonia. Paralysis
o f sensory nerves may also accompany the motor paralysis.
As already pointed out, degeneration takes place in those nerves and
muscles attacked. A s resulting symptoms o f this degenerate atrophy,
beside the characteristic position o f the arm, emaciation, inutility, and
electric degenerative reaction make their appearance.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
37
AN IN V E STIG A TIO N O F L E A D W ORKS.
MANUFACTURE OF W H ITE LEAD , PAINTS, ETC.
In the prosecution o f this investigation, study was made o f several
factories engaged in two dangerous branches o f the lead industry.
These included two white-lead and paint works and one establishment
for smelting and refining lead and zinc. The larger o f the white-lead
factories will first be taken up, and its processes, condition, and the
effect o f the employment upon the workmen described. This will be
followed by a like description o f the smelting and refining works.
Finally, a statement will be given o f the results o f employment in lead
factories and the preventive measures necessary to guard against lead
poisoning.
In the investigation o f the larger plant visited engaged in the manu
facture o f white lead, paints, etc., the detailed facts (from a hygienic
standpoint) could not be ascertained. The reason for this was the con
tinued absence o f the superintendent, and the technical director could
not, on account o f lack o f time, be spared from the main office as much
as was desirable. However, with his aid the accompanying short
description was made possible.
Some unwillingness to give information at the beginning was due to
the absence o f the director and the belief that the investigation was
connected with the accidental death o f a workman who fell into a ver
tical crushing mill. This could not have occurred if the tank in which
the white-lead mass is mixed had been surrounded with a railing,
through which the men could have added the material. Several months
have passed since the death o f the workman, and the same possibility
exists that a similar fate may overtake the new man employed in his place.
This could very easily occur because o f the elevated floor and the slip
periness o f the material. The surrounding o f this crusher mill with
a railing has probably been neglected because from the factory direc
tor’s point o f view it would hinder the work. A railing could be easily
constructed which would not hinder the work, but would protect the
workman from falling into the mixing tank.
Occupying several acres o f ground, the factory stands isolated from
other large factories, so that the neighborhood is not menaced in any
way whatsoever. Entering the office o f the factory, one sees a force
o f clerks comfortably situated in well lighted and ventilated rooms, with
sanitary arrangements fo r their convenience. On the second floor is
the superintendent’s office and anteroom fo r dining purposes, etc.
In the manufacturing department is a network o f buildings devoted
to the industry in which the firm is engaged. Each o f the numerous
buildings plays its part in producing the finished product. In the
yard hundreds o f tons o f pig lead are stacked, ready for the casting
38
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
kettles which are located at a convenient point adjacent to the corrod
ing houses. The casting house is isolated from the other buildings,
and is amply ventilated by large open doors. The fumes from the
kettles are carried off in large flues intended fo r that purpose. It is
here that the manufacture o f white lead is begun. The process begins
with the “ buckle,” which is formed by allowing the molten lead to
run on an endless chain, from which the buckle assumes its shape.
From the casting house the buckles are carried to the stacks or
corroding houses, where they are subjected to the chemical processes
necessary for their transformation into white lead and so arranged as
to give the best practical results. On a bed o f tan bark 6 to 8 inches
in depth is set a row o f porous earthenware pots, in the bottom of
each o f which is placed sufficient dilute acetic acid and a number of
buckles, which by the action o f the acid and the fermentation o f the
tan bark produce white lead. Upon a complete tier of pots a floor o f
lumber is used as a cover to prevent the tan bark from coming in con
tact with the white-lead formation and as a foundation for the next
layer. The process o f corrosion requires from one hundred to one
hundred and forty days in this “ old Dutch process,” and the process
can be regulated by a system o f flues, which are necessary fo r the
regulation o f the heat generated in the process. The acetic acid attacks
the lead buckle almost immediately, form ing acetate o f lead. The fer
mentation o f the tan bark incidentally generates carbonic-acid gas,
which by its action transforms the acetate o f lead into the commercial
carbonate o f lead.
W hen the corroding process has been completed, the stacks are dis
charged and the lead is carried to the mill house, just outside of which
is a bin into which it is dumped. From this point until the finished
product is made there is no necessity fo r the lead to be handled again.
Falling into the pow erful crushers, the scrap, or uncorroded metal, as
it is sometimes called, is separated from the carbonate o f lead formed
in the process, o f corrosion by machinery, being closed so that no
dust can escape during the separating process. However, as a pre
cautionary measure, blowers and ventilators are installed for the pur
pose o f collecting any dust which may be produced. These carry
such dust to the dust house,” a small building located outside the
mill house and erected especially fo r this purpose.
The crushing and separating process having been completed, the
lead is sent through a long series o f washing and floating tanks, where
all traces o f acid are eliminated. Two floors o f this large mill house
are devoted to this part o f the process. In all the departments the
workmen are instructed to use respirators, in order to prevent the
inhalation o f lead dust, and signs in various languages, distributed
throughout the works, warn the laborers o f the danger from working
in lead, and every assistance for their protection against it is afforded.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
39
When the lead has been thoroughly washed, it is passed to the steamheated copper drying pans, and when it has been thoroughly dried it
is either stored in bins, to be subsequently mixed and ground with
linseed oil, or marketed as dry white lead.
In the erection o f this mill house the com fort o f the workmen
has been properly looked after. There is ample accommodation for
those who desire to remain in the factory during lunch hours, and
suitable arrangements for cleanliness are provided fo r all those
employed in the white lead as well as in the other departments.
Employees are provided with means for preventing lead poisoning;
and cleanliness is always observed. Some o f the employees frequently
indulge in a drink o f very dilute sulphuric acid, a well-known remedy
fo r lead poisoning.
On the second floor, directly under the drying pans, is the chasing
department. Here the lead is mixed with the linseed oil by powerful
chasers, which consist simply o f a large iron wheel made to revolve in
a circular pan set in the floor. From the chasing apparatus the lead
is passed into mixers, which are intended to more thoroughly incor
porate the linseed oil with the white lead, and from here it is sent to
the water-cooled mills to be finely ground and packed in kegs or cans
by automatic machinery.
Adjoining the grinding rooms is a building for the storage o f empty
packages as well as filled stocks. From here orders are shipped to the
trade.
Whatever scrap or uncorroded metal remains after the earlier
process is sent to the oxide department, where red lead, litharge, and
orange mineral are manufactured. In this department there are prac
tically but two operations, first the burning, which is done in furnaces
built especially fo r the purpose, and secondly the grinding and pack
ing. There are over twenty furnaces arranged systematically in a
long, well ventilated room, each furnace being provided with flues
for the escaping gases. The furnace tenders, whose duty it is to reg
ulate the heat and to watch the degree o f oxidation, are men o f expe
rience. Red lead and litharge are made from the scrap metal or pig
lead as it is received from the smelter. Orange mineral is produced
by burning the carbonate or white lead.
Adjoining the furnace rooms is the washing and grinding department,
where the various oxides are treated mechanically with water for the
purpose o f separating any metal which has not been duly oxidized in
the furnace room. This operation having been completed, the red
lead is ground and collected in screen boxes tightly sealed, so as to
keep the rooms used fo r this operation as free from dust as possible.
A s in the case o f the white-lead department, suitable quarters, with all
conveniences, are ready fo r the use o f the workmen and those
employed in this department.
40
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
The flaxseed used in the manufacture o f linseed oil is unloaded from
the cars into a long box through which an endless chain passes. This
carries it to the linseed-oil mill located at a point beyond. The seed
is crushed and heated before being placed in the presses, and the
process is so simple as to need no explanation.
On the first floor, which is devoted to the weighing and filtering o f
the oil, is the electrical department, which supplies the light for the
entire plant, and in an adjoining room is a bath fo r the pressmen.
Numerous surrounding buildings are for, the storage of linseed oil,
none o f which is marketed until it has been allowed to settle for a con
siderable period o f time.
Passing from the oil mill, there are the carpenter shop, machine
shop, empty-barrel house, and numerous other buildings devoted to
storage, and finally the color-making department, a long four-story
brick building recently erected for this purpose. On the top floor are
the various tanks used for dissolving necessary chemicals and ingredi
ents used in the manufacture o f colors, which empty into still larger
tanks where the colors are precipitated and again washed before pass
ing to the filter presses located on the first floor. In a room separated
from the one devoted to the filtering, the colors are dried and then
taken to another building in which they are ground dry or mixed
in various vehicles, as the demand o f the trade may indicate. The
color-grinding building is also o f four stories, well lighted, and painted
white in order to assist nature in affording the workman the best
light.
Because o f its cleanliness and excellent ventilation there
is little or no danger to those who are occupied in the color-man
ufacturing department. The top floor is devoted to storage pur
poses, the third floor to the mixing department, the second to the
grinding, which is done in water-cooled mills especially adapted to
the purpose. The first floor is devoted to the packing and shipping
department. F or those colors which contain lead or other poisonous
ingredients bins have been erected, and as the colors are kept under
cover when not being handled, but little dust is produced. As a safe
guard, however, ventilators have been installed, and so far no ill effects
from working in this department have become apparent. A n adjacent
building is devoted to the advertising department, where at times from
40 to 50 persons are employed. Sufficient light and ventilation are
afforded those occupied here, and the long tables stand in readiness
for luncheon purposes during the noon hour. In this building also is
the chemical laboratory, with scientific appointments, as well as appa
ratus for practical testing purposes. On the third floor are toilet
rooms for girls and women employed in the advertising department.
In connection with the color manufacturing there are a number o f
buildings in which large quantities o f raw materials are stored. A ll
o f these are kept in good order by men whose business it is to look
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
41
after stock. Passing over the large area of this factory, one is
impressed with the well-painted buildings and the clean walks leading
to and from them, and the absence o f refuse so often noticed in large
manufacturing plants. Men are employed whose sole duty it is to took
after the cleanliness, o f the buildings and the surrounding yard, and
each department is under strict orders to maintain a cleanly appear
ance at all times.
Another white-lead factory was also investigated, but it is not nec
essary to enter into the details o f description here, as it does not differ
to any considerable extent from the one already described.
SMELTING AN D REFIN ING OF LEAD AN D ZINC.
Further study o f lead-working employments was made in a factory
occupied only with smelting lead and zinc. Eight kilns were in use,
employing 24 men night and day. No protection against heat, smoke,
or gases was provided. The material employed consists o f refuse
coming from tube works and smelting furnaces, deposits o f smelting
works smoke (75 per cent lead), and zinc ore from Joplin, Mo.
The metallic fumes which develop in the smelting o f lead and zinc
have a very harmful effect upon the workmen, and at the same time
annoy the vicinity within a large radius. A t a neighboring factory
sulphuric acid fumes were very heavy. In this manufacturing proc
ess sulphurous acids are developed. The lead fumes are precipitated
on the chimney and flue walls as a loose whitish deposit which consists
o f lead oxide, the carbonates and sulphides o f lead, antimony oxide,
arsenic acid, zinc oxide, carbonate o f lime, silicic acid, and clay. The
smoke, impregnated with a mixture o f all these oxides, acids, metals,
carbonates, and sulphides, issues from the top o f the iron chimney o f
the factory and is deposited upon men, animals, and neighboring
grounds, where it necessarily must exert its injurious influences.
From these constituents o f the smoke powder-like substances similar
to any other dust are produced. I f they contain anhydrous sulphuric
acids their caustic effects come into consideration, in that under the
influence o f mist and dew concentrated solutions are given.
The gases are especially injurious to vegetation, because it is almost
impossible to condense them completely, and they are diffused over
wide regions. Sulphurous acid, which acts so disastrously upon men,
animals, and plants if the air contains more than 0.004 per cent and at
the same time is full o f mist or moisture, is the most important of
these. In clear or rainy weather its influence is greatly diminished.
Besides the smelting o f lead, which is done by a primitive manu
facturing process, there is the dangerous zinc smelting. In this process,
in which refuse is also employed, very injurious acids are devel
oped. The workmen are subjected to great heat. Much dust arises
42
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
which, in the employment o f arsenical blend, contains a large propor
tion o f arsenic. A strong current o f air carries the dust through the
roof, but this causes frequent cold drafts on account o f the high tem
perature.
On the whole, this establishment must be considered insanitary.
The workmen suffer from catarrhs o f the respiratory organs and from
digestive troubles. The latter are perhaps due to a direct influence o f
the zinc combinations upon the stomach. Perhaps they are the result
o f a general deterioration o f the whole constitution. The usual coin
cident dirty gray, pale color o f the skin was not noticeable in this
factory, as only colored men are employed, probably for very evident
reasons. A fter several years’ occupation in such a factory diseases o f
the spinal cord, and especially its lower divisions, may occur. In
smelting the lead dust (containing 75 per cent lead) chronic lead poison
ing among the workmen necessarily occurs. From the escape o f sul
phurous acids and zinc oxide dust it is evident that the neighborhood
is very much in danger. Very poisonous dust is raised in pulverizing
and sifting the various kinds o f zinc dust.
Lead melts at 633.2° F ., boils with an active white heat, and evap
orates. Therefore, if it is heated as much as is necessary in the
present industry, it gives off poisonous fumes. Because refuse is
almost exclusively used here in extracting the metallic lead, the heat
is considerably higher than in the ordinary smelting o f lead. As a
result the dangers to which the workmen are exposed in standing
before the eight furnaces are very great.
The workmen themselves have no conception o f the danger o f their
occupation, and in this factory it was impossible to gain any informa
tion concerning cases o f illness, because they purposely avoided every
meeting.
The only proper measure o f improvement would be the complete
suppression o f the entire factory, because its location and the con
struction o f the plant produce extensive annoyances and dangers to
the immediate neighborhood, as well as to the public at large. Such
industries should not be carried on within city limits, but in the open
country. Should the dilapidated old factory building be rebuilt, pro
visions should be made for the condensation o f the lead fumes, similar
to those made in large lead works. The method o f condensation o f
lead fumes in such works is as follows:
In consequence o f the volatility o f lead at high temperature, a cer
tain portion o f the metal and some o f its compounds is carried away
by the heated gases in the operations o f smelting, refining, reduc
ing, etc. To prevent the loss and minimize the nuisance which would
arise from allowing the gases produced in these various operations to
pass directly into the chimney, the furnaces are connected with a
FACTOEY SANITATION AND LABOE PEOTECTION.
43
series o f flues or condensing chambers in which the gases are cooled,
and so deposit some o f the solid matter held in suspension before they
issue from the chimney. These flues are cleaned out at stated inter
vals, and the “ f u me ” is collected. Lead exists in the fume chiefly
in the form o f sulphates and oxide, and is recovered by roasting and
smelting it, alone or mixed with ores and slags. A certain proportion
o f silver is always found in lead fume, the amount being considerably
less than that obtained directly from the ores from which the fume
was produced.
The method o f fume condensation most commonly relied on, and the
one said to be most efficient, is simply to connect the various smelting
and other furnaces in the works with a series o f long flues o f large
transverse area. In some establishments the flues used for this pur
pose have an aggregate length varying from 3 to 5 miles, and a cross
section o f from 6 by 7 feet to 8 by 9 feet. Jets o f steam and water
have in some cases been introduced at different points in the flues for
the purpose o f facilitating the fume deposition. Lead smelters differ
in opinion as to the advantages gained by the use o f either steam or
water. Various devices have been proposed to effect the condensation
o f lead fumes without the necessity o f constructing long flues or large
condensing chambers.
The Stagg condenser consists o f a large rectangular chamber divided
by partitions extending alternately from the top and bottom o f this
chamber, leaving free spaces above and below. The lower part o f the
chamber is filled with water, so that the gases pass first down one side
of a partition, through the water, and rising in the next compartment
pass over the next partition and down again to the water. The gases
are drawn through the chamber by means o f air pumps attached to
the exit flue. The fume is, in its passage through the condenser, thus
drawn through water and the greater portion o f the solid particles
removed. The solid matter collecting in the water is drawn off from
time to time into tanks.
In Stokes’s method o f condensing, the gases are drawn off from a
flue by means o f a fan, and are then forced into the condenser, which
consists o f two chambers placed side by side. The chambers are
divided into several compartments by partitions, which alternately
extend from the top, and dip below the surface of the water at the
bottom o f the chambers. Each chamber is divided horizontally by
two floors made o f open joists, upon which fagots are laid, thus form
ing filtering beds, which are washed by a fine spray o f water falling
from a cistern on the top o f the condenser. The gases drawn from
the flue by the fan are forced through a series o f compartments o f the
condenser, and meet in their passage with the fine spray o f water, and
must also pass several times through the filtering bed, where the fume
44
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
as it collects is washed away with the water which accumulates in the
lower part o f the chamber. When the water has reached a certain
height it is drawn off into tanks, and here the solid matter collected
by the water gradually separates out.
In 1878 Messrs. W ilson and French patented a condenser, which has
been adopted at the Sheffield Smelting Company’s works and also by
Messrs. Bewick and partners, Limited, Helburn-on-Tyne. A t the
Bewick works the gases from the ore house, slag house, and rever
beratory furnaces pass first into a long tube, which ascends the ballast
hill at the back o f the works, and, after making a circuit around the
top o f the hill, the gases are drawn off from the tube down a series o f
narrow flues to the condensers. In this way the gases are thoroughly
cooled before they reach the condenser, and a certain portion of the
solid matter in them is deposited in the flues, which are cleaned out
from time to time. The remainder o f the solids is obtained in the
condenser, which consists o f a wooden box having a shelving bottom,
where the solid matter arrested collects, and an opening at the lowest
point by which the contents o f the condenser are run off from time
to time. The gases are forced into the box by a fan along a pipe,
which opens into a chamber formed by a partition running parallel
with the side o f the box. Below, this chamber opens into a series o f
triangular tubes running across the box. These tubes are perforated
above, and through these fine openings the gases are forced into the
water with which the box is partially filled. Near the surface o f the
water a series o f three or four copper-wire screens or screens made
o f wickerwork are fixed and held in position by support. The gases
pass out finally by a pipe in the top o f the box and are conducted by
flues to the chimney. By this arrangement the gases are forced
through a layer o f water o f a given depth, and further intimate con
tact between the water and the particles o f the fume, etc., is insured
by the wickerwork or copper-wire screens. The fume, etc., arrested
by the water collects in the lower part o f the box and is drawn off into
settling tanks, and, after the greater portion o f the water has been
removed, the fume is dried and smelted. W ith three-wire gauge
screens and a depth o f 8£ inches o f water it is stated that at the Shef
field Smelting Company’s works the quantity o f lead and silver arrested
amounts to from 95 to 98 per cent o f that contained in the smoke as
it leaves the furnace.
The follow ing analyses, taken from Dr. P ercy’s work on The Metal
lurgy o f Lead (p. 451), will serve as examples o f the composition of lead
fume. The samples analyzed were collected from the flues o f the lead
smelting works at Bagill’s, and represent the fume from reverberatory
furnaces and slag hearths.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
45
ANALYSIS OF SAMPLES OF LEAD FUME.
Sample
I.
Sample
II.
Sample
P er cent.
46.54
P e r cent.
P er cent.
Composition of lead fume.
Protoxide of le a d ..........................................................................................
Sulphide of lead.............................................................................................
Sesquioxide of iron and alu m in a...............................................................
Oxide of zinc..................................................................................................
L im e ...............................................................................................................
Sulphuric a c id ...............................................................................................
Insoluble residue............................................................................................
Carbonaceous matter.....................................................................................
T o ta l..................................................................................................... 1
4.87
4.16
1.60
6.07
26.51
10.12
62.26
1.05
3.00
1.60
3.77
25.78
1.97
46.88
99.87
99.43
99.67
10.00
4.14
6.73
14.15
14.40
3.37
RESULTS OF EMPLOYMENT IN LEAD FACTORIES.
In the investigation o f the white-lead factories the sickly appearance
o f the workmen was everywhere noticeable, the result o f the absorp
tion o f lead in all possible form s—gaseous, powdered, and dissolved.
In like manner sufficient protection for the workmen by means o f
efficient ventilation, conducting away o f the poison, and personal pro
tection was everywhere lacking. Rooms are too small, too low, and
insufficiently clean and moist. I f protective and preventive arrange
ments are present they are inefficient. Dust and lead laden gases and
fumes not only enter the various working rooms, but also escape from
the windows and skylights, so that even from the street the roof can
be seen covered with a fine white-lead dust. Exhausters are placed at
the entrance to prevent the dust from scattering in the working rooms,
and from escaping to the external air. They are far from fulfilling
this purpose, especially in such operations as dry grinding, packing,
and the like. It must be admitted that from our present knowledge it
is very difficult to perfect arrangements by which the factory rooms
in this industry can be satisfactorily protected from lead dust, gases,
and fumes. Still it is possible to separate them from the other rooms,
so as to prevent the spreading o f the above-mentioned material in the
latter.
In the preparation of lead colors, especially by the wet method, it
frequently happens that the clothes o f the workmen are exposed
to the lead-containing liquid. It is evident that there is great danger
in the continued use o f such clothing.
Respirators have been procured by many employers for the use of
workmen who are engaged in dust-developing occupations. The work
men refuse to wear them. I f the employers insist upon their being
worn, it is done unwillingly, and the men work without them in the
poisonous atmosphere whenever possible. From this it is evident that
up to a certain point protection against poisoning can be obtained by
strict regulations.
Beyond this point, however, one is powerless,
unless the workman o f his own free will concerns himself with the
utmost cleanliness and the use o f protective measures.
10615— No. 44— 03-----4
46
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
The thoughtlessness o f the workman is very great. Men eat their
lunches with unwashed hands in the factory, itself, when a dining
room is provided fo r their special use. Implements covered with
white lead are held in the mouth, because they are too indolent to lay
them down. Hands covered with white lead are used in filling pipes
and cutting off chewing tobacco. Here is one place for reform. The
workman must be educated up to a realization of the danger o f his
occupation, and should know the use and purpose o f all preventive
measures against poisoning. Besides, very strict orders as to conduct
should be given, and implicit obedience should be demanded. It is
evident that there is no protective method which can permanently
prevent the disastrous influences o f lead in long-continued employment
o f the men unless they have a clear conception o f the whole subject.
Propositions fo r such precautions, regulations, and general preventive
measures in color and sugar o f lead factories are fully given below.
They correspond with the prescribed methods that are used in the
German Empire, and have stood the practical test o f experience. It
is self-evident that from time to time they have to be extended as
advances and improvements are made in the method of manufacture.
.Nevertheless, these prophylactic measures are the foundation upon
which these extensions have to be based. Only this much can be
here indicated—that it is necessary to have all plants inspected by an
expert, from a technical and hygienic standpoint. A uniform system
o f inspection should be established and satisfactory instruction given
in this system. In this manner all arbitrary judgment in the investi
gation o f dangerous conditions can be done away with.
A s the result o f personal observations, investigations, and examina
tions o f workmen by the author, it was discovered that a certain
amount o f lead gets into the stomach, from which it is transmitted
to the fluids o f the body. The symptoms are usually catarrh o f the
stomach, sickness, vomiting, and cramps. The diseases o f lead poison
ing are caused, as in all white-lead factories, through the inhalation o f
lead-containing dust and the contamination o f food and drink with lead.
Lead apparently has never been found to cause acute cases o f
poisoning among the workmen. On the contrary, it is a slow and
stealthy poison, which in this way makes doubly sure o f its victims
and scarcely ever permits them to escape. The forms in which lead
is dangerous are essentially the same. The metallic fumes are con
densed, enter the mouth, and are swallowed with the saliva. In other
instances the lead dust is introduced into the stomachs o f the workmen
when they partake o f their meals with unwashed hands. Lead dust
is also inhaled and from the lungs absorbed by the body. The effects
o f the dust taken into the system in the latter manner are less marked.
It is remarkable that the workmen in white-lead factories care but lit
tle for the danger lurking in the material to which they are exposed,
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
47
and carefully endeavor to conceal the diseases which have been caused
by white-lead poisoning. A foreman, for example, told the writer
that he had followed his occupation in a white-lead factory for more
than a decade, and positively insisted that he had never been ill, and
even now did not feel any evil effects. Even at a distance it could be
seen that the lead had completely undermined his health. His pale
complexion and whole appearance indicated that his body and consti
tution had suffered extensively from the stealthy and treacherous
influence o f the poison, and that it had been present in his organism
for a long time. It will not be long until this man will succumb to the
poison unless he gives up his occupation. In this investigation it
was ascertained that those who have once recovered from the disease
are very susceptible to it on a subsequent exposure.
Concerning these two ways by which lead is so rapidly absorbed by
the body no differences o f opinion exist or are possible. W hile the
possibility o f the direct cutaneous absorption o f lead is denied by
some and affirmed by others, the results o f the author’s investigations
leave little doubt that lead poisoning may be induced in this manner.
The almost indescribable carelessness o f the white-lead workers must
be taken into consideration.
The investigations o f the diseases from which lead workers suffer
indicate a disturbance o f the whole organism, even long before a really
severe illness occurs and compels them to lay down their work. These
symptoms display themselves sooner or later, depending largely upon
individual susceptibility. One workman had been employed scarcely
three weeks in the drying chamber o f a white-lead factory. His
duties were to cut furrows through the warm and wet white lead in
order to accelerate the drying process. Even after this short period,
judging from his appearance and answers, he was evidently suffering
from the first symptoms o f lead colic. Another workman would resist
the poisonous influence much longer. From these facts it is evident
that the individuality o f a person plays a large part in the absorption
o f the poison. From those workmen, whose outward appearance
indicates a more or less advanced case o f poisoning, it is ascertained
that there is always a consequent loss o f weight. In white-lead fac
tories the workmen ought to be weighed at definite intervals and
conclusions drawn from the result. This is a simple method o f inves
tigation and is not expensive. The growing decrease in weight indi
cates to both employer and employee that care must be exercised and
the dangerous occupation suspended for a time.
In one case o f lead poisoning observed in this investigation the
symptoms were chiefly a peculiar coloring o f the entire skin o f the
body. The gums were slate colored and formed a bluish girdle about
the brown and almost black teeth. This bluish color was scattered in
spots over the whole mucous membrane o f the mouth; the mouth was
48
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
parched; the appetite had diminished, and thirst had increased for a
long time. W hile eating there was a sweetish taste, a shriveling sen
sation in the mouth, and the breath had a peculiarly disagreeable odor.
The conjunctiva o f the eye was o f a dirty dark color. The face was
thin and sunken. The stool had been retarded for a long time and was
dry and hard; the urine had steadily decreased. Despite these symp
toms o f lead poisoning, the man continued at his work, and could not
be induced to give it up. He should have been compelled to do so.
In every kind o f work concerned with the manufacture o f lead it
has been found that, in addition to the above symptoms, abdominal
pains occur. A t their incipiency they are mild and wandering. Some
times, however, they are violent and localized. Sometimes they occur
spasmodically and at various periods, especially at night, when they
become so violent as to necessitate a convulsive contraction o f the
abdomen. Intestinal gases give the latter a bloated appearance.
I f we take into consideration that from such symptoms it is only a
short distance to fatal and dangerous lead poisoning, it is almost impos
sible to decide who is more culpable, the workman who with such
an evident case o f poisoning continues his work until he finally has to
give it up, or the employer who permits him to w ork in such a condi
tion. I f in such cases o f lead poisoning the usual fainting spells,
impeded respiration, and decreased pulsation appear, it becomes more
and more difficult to effect a cure. Such a case may easily develop
into the so-called lead palsy. Lead palsy proper usually attacks the
extensor muscles o f the arm, less frequently those o f the legs, and
is allied to contractions o f the limbs or separate fingers. The patient
is unable to extend the limb spontaneously, but it can sometimes be
used with comparative ease. This paralysis appears either slowly or
after an attack o f the much-dreaded lead colic. It finally induces a
complete degeneration o f the paralyzed muscle. In the more severe
cases epileptic convulsions (the so-called lead epilepsy), mental aberra
tion, conditions o f deafness, and various disorders o f the mind occur.
These mental alienations are usually indicated by long-continued,
dizziness, headaches, melancholia, and weakness o f mind. A fter a
long subjection to lead poisoning, the so-called lead anaemia occurs.
This causes death through increasing emaciation o f the body and
through dropsy. Lead poisoning thus runs its course in the body o f
a workman unless he takes early preventive measures against the
influence o f the poison. T o this end he must give up his occupation,
or at least take the greatest care and maintain the most exacting clean
liness, besides obeying all measures adopted fo r his protection.
I f the workman is suffering from chronic lead poisoning (we are not
concerned with acute cases), he should employ mucilaginous, fatty, and
nourishing foods and drinks (milk, fo r example). Frequent baths and
clean clothes as well as the greatest cleanliness should be carefully
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
49
looked to. Warm clothing should be worn. He should keep to his
bed as conditions require, and live in a warm and dry house. O f
external measures, especially in lead colic, oily and irritating clysters,
warm cloths on the abdomen, and warm baths are very serviceable.
In all cases o f lead poisoning, and especially in chronic cases, the socalled sulphur baths are very valuable. In lead paralysis the electric
current is recognized as efficient.
The above is to be considered only as a general statement, and not
as a course o f treatment o f lead poisoning to be undertaken without
the aid o f a physician. The latter should be consulted under all cir
cumstances and the necessary course o f treatment with regard to
internal remedies followed.
Among those workmen who have come under the observation o f
the writer lead is absorbed in two forms, either as fumes or as dust.
Experience has shown that the most severe cases o f lead poisoning are
almost without exception caused by the absorption o f the metal in a
powdered condition.
From our knowledge o f the method o f lead absorption into the
organism o f the workman it may be assumed that the condition of
the absorbable poison is irrelevant. The indicated differences in its
effect seem to be entirely due to the absorption o f different quantities
o f lead. The most frequent and severe cases o f lead poisoning are
contracted in white-lead factories, where large quantities o f the poi
son are always able to exert their evil influence. From the latest
researches it is not improbable that the poison which is directly intro
duced into the stomach is absorbed more rapidly and in larger quan
tities than that which enters by the way o f respiration. This is
chiefly in the form o f dust. This fact readily gives an explanation
fo r the difference in the effects o f lead dust and the fumes. Much
more difficult is the question o f the aetiology and pathology o f lead
poisoning. ^Etiology is concerned with the causes o f disease. Path
ology theoretically treats o f the knowledge o f diseases and the exact
manner in which they and their symptoms are brought about. A ll
early and late observations in this respect agree, (1) that the occurrence
o f lead poisoning, lead colic especially, is periodical and in certain
places takes a true epidemic form ; (2) that individual circumstances,
as far as susceptibility is concerned, play a large part in lead poisoning,
while in other respects, such as constitution, age, and temperament,
the individuality is o f no importance whatever.
In details the various observers diverge. The reason for this is
probably that their conclusions are drawn from an insufficient num
ber o f cases. There is no doubt that investigators in this line will
find causes and corresponding effects and reduce everything to order
and regularity as soon as they draw their conclusions from a sufficient
body o f statistics. What appears to be mere chance or extraordinary
50
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
circumstance is only the extreme o f the ordinary and familiar. These
phenomena occur according to definite laws, and even in the most
abnormal cases there is a repetition o f the same symptoms.
These so-called extraordinary cases must not be considered as alone
and isolated, but should be studied in their relations to the ordinary
and familiar cases. T o ascertain this important relation it is neces
sary to study the greatest possible number o f cases that can be obtained.
The result will avoid wrong impressions which might be derived from
a small number o f cases.
Autumn and spring are the seasons in which lead colic periodically
occurs. The heavier atmospheric conditions, especially on the coast,
during these seasons prevent the escape o f the lead fumes. Stagnation
o f the atmosphere containing lead fumes in the usually ill-ventilated
working rooms admits o f their absorption by the body. In addition to
the above, the humidity o f spring and autumn causes attacks in persons
susceptible to such influences and to diseases o f a catarrhal nature.
This condition o f the atmosphere also readily causes new attacks o f lead
poisoning in those individuals who are predisposed to it. It has been
found that these cases occur when only very small quantities o f poison
have been absorbed and even when no new exposure to lead has taken
place.
The periodical occurrence o f lead colic in spring and autumn and
the causes o f this phenomenon are the hints on which more extended
investigation must be based in order that technical protective measures
may be secured which will be perfectly satisfactory.
Another important question which has already been touched upon
is the dependence o f the effects o f lead poison on the individuality o f
the workman exposed to the influence o f the poison. The investi
gation o f the author in factories proves that everybody is not equally
susceptible to the influence o f lead poisoning. It is true that every
person exposed to lead, even under the most favorable circumstances,
is likely to suffer from lead poisoning. Notwithstanding, it is a fact
that in a table o f mortality and sickness submitted by a foreman, there
was a large number o f workmen who had been exposed daily to the
noxious inhalation o f lead fumes fo r a period o f from ten to twentyfive years who had never complained o f the more severe symptoms of
poisoning.
From the foregoing it seems possible that immunity
against the.poison occurs in certain families, while on the other hand
others are particularly susceptible to it.
Through questioning workmen it was ascertained that up to a cer
tain limit it is possible to become habituated to lead poisoning, and
that age is without influence. Persons who begin working with lead
at an advanced age are more susceptible to lead intoxication than
younger people. Three young persons, ranging from 20 to 27 years
o f age, who had been employed in a white-lead factory for a number
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
51
o f years evinced not the slightest trace o f lead poisoning in their
appearance, and according to their statement had never been ill. It
is not necessary to give a list o f the symptoms o f lead colic, as they
are observed in detail. It is customary to divide lead colic into three
degrees— the first or the severe form , which formerly often resulted in
death, the medium, and the light form. The hitherto sharp distinction
between these several forms is not sanctioned by bedside observation
and practice. Transitions from the light to the severe cases, and vice
versa, frequently occur.
The severity o f the disease is not in the violence o f the pains, fo r
they are as a rule easily combatted by present methods of treatment,
but in the manifold complications which occur even in the lightest
attack o f lead colic. They lead to a disease which in its incipiency
appears very innocent, but often ends fatally. Workmen who have
had lead colic have stated that in the beginning it was always
in conjunction with dyspeptic troubles and slight cardialgia. Fre
quent cases in which there was cardialgia without dyspepsia were also
described to the author. These resulted either in the recovery o f the
patient in one or two days or developed into enteralgia, with all the
symptoms o f lead colic. It is impossible, therefore, to prove the rar
ity o f cardialgia without any auxiliary symptom. A large number o f
workmen who claimed to have had lead colic described the symptoms
in such a manner that it was impossible to diagnose them except as
gastralgia. In many cases one or more attacks occurred, which, how
ever, ran their course in the usual and familiar manner. Another
peculiar phenomenon was discovered, which probably has also been
carefully observed by others, namely, that the symptoms o f poisoning
occur in a cycle in those individuals with whom it has not become
chronic. A fter the disease has run its course it may disappear for
months and even years. Such a patient is taken ill several times in
succession for a longer or shorter period o f time, sometimes violently,
sometimes less violently. A fter recovery from these attacks he some
times lives fo r years in the best o f health.
Finally, attention should be directed to another symptom, which has
not been mentioned elsewhere, and yet from the assertion o f the work
m e n ^ one o f the most frequent and obstinate. It is the pain during
the first days o f an attack o f lead colic around the region o f the lower
lumbar vertebrae. Most sufferers complain o f this, and it lingers
after all other pains have disappeared. It is said that sometimes it is
very severe, and completely obscures all other symptoms. Usually,
however, it is not observed by the sufferers until the abdominal pains
have disappeared. They suffer from it all the more because their
power o f resistance has been reduced.
The complications which have been mentioned as occurring either
immediately after the attack or later, during the course o f lead colic,
52
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
may entirely obscure the symptoms. There are three which are
worthy o f especial note— vomiting, icterus, and urinal troubles.
Vom iting may be purely symptomatic, depending on aggravated
dyspepsia, and is o f minor importance, although o f the greatest annoy
ance to.the patient. On the other hand, it may be caused by reflex
action, especially from the urinary organs, and then is an exceedingly
obstinate, and therefore severe, symptom. In the latter case it ma}r
combine with an equally obstinate hiccough, which greatly exhausts
the strength o f the patient. Icterus in light form is a well known
and frequent symptom in the beginning o f lead colic, and results in
dyspepsia, combined with duodenal catarrh. The most serious com
plications in lead colic are the diseases o f the urinary organs. Finally,
complete paralysis o f the bladder, which may .cause death, has been
observed.
PR E V E N T IV E
M E A SU R E S A G A IN S T
POISONING.
IN D U ST R IA L
LEAD
Lead in its various forms is used in many branches o f industry. The
hazards to which workmen are exposed are equally numerous, and
many thousands are in danger o f lead poisoning. Consequently pre
ventive measures against this danger o f poisoning are especially
needed. These can be efficacious only if principles are observed
which can be carried out not only from a sanitary but also from
a technical and economic standpoint. In other words, they must do
justice both to the workman and to the business; to the former, in
that health and life are protected, to the latter in that the business
is not made impossible. Thus it is possible to diminish the large
number o f fatal cases o f poisoning, and eventually to prevent them
entirely. So far it has been impossible to find an individual immunity
from lead poisoning. However, it is certain that the individuality
o f a person plays a very important part in the absorption o f the poison.
I f the factories are thoroughly investigated, and attention especially
directed to the technical methods o f manufacture, certain conscientious
and humane manufacturers are found who o f their own accord endeavor
to do away with the dangerous influences o f the poison. Further, it
must also be noted that the technical sciences have busied themselves
with this important subject without, however, bringing about any
material improvement in the dangerous industries. There are several
reasons for this: First, a lack o f hygienic and technical experience, as
well as ignorance o f really satisfactory remedies; and, secondly, the
regrettable fact that the introduction o f preventive rules never had
sufficient administrative authority.
The chief problem, therefore, must be to oppose this evil o f indus
trial life with measures which have practical value.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
53
The following is an outline o f protective measures which should be
employed in factories, and is based upon the dangers to the workers and
upon the technical processes o f manufacture.
PR O TE C T IV E M EASU RES TO BE A P P L IE D IN L E A D COLOR
AND SU G A R O F L E A D FACTORIES.
1. A ll the working rooms o f factories o f this kind in which lead
colors or sugar o f lead is manufactured must be roomy and high,
well ventilated, and kept moist and clean. The entrance o f lead dust,
gases, and fumes must be prevented by means o f suitable arrange
ments.
2. Dust-generating apparatus must be covered at all joints with
thick layers o f felt, wool, or equally effective material, so that the
entrance o f dust into the working room is prevented.
Apparatus o f this kind must be so constructed that a tension o f
the air can not occur in it and must not be opened until the gen
erated dust has settled and has fully cooled.
3. In dry grinding, packing, shipping, the emptying of lead scum
(impure litharge) and red lead ovens, the boiling o f red lead, and in
other operations in which dust is produced which might enter the
workroom, catchers and conduits must be established at the entrance
to prevent the spreading o f dust into the working room.
4. Those working rooms which the above-mentioned arrangements
can not entirely protect against the entrance o f lead dust or gases and
fumes must be closed against the other rooms, in order not to taint
the air in the other rooms.
The inner surfaces o f the oxidizing and drying rooms must be con
structed as smooth and as tight as possible. The oxidizing chambers
must be kept moist during the process o f storing and emptying their
contents. A fter the end o f the oxidation process, before the cham
bers are entered fo r the purpose o f emptying them, they must be
thoroughly moistened and kept thus during the process o f emptying.
6. In the transformation and the preparation o f lead colors, espe
cially in washing and wet grinding, manual labor must be replaced by
mechanical arrangements as far as it is possible, in order to avoid the
soiling o f the hands and clothes o f the workmen.
The pressing o f the lead mass must be undertaken only after the
soluble lead salts in it have been removed.
7. The employment and occupation o f young persons must not be
permitted in those plants in which lead colors are produced. Women
must be admitted only to those rooms and occupations in which con
tact with the lead products is unnecessary.
8. T o those rooms in which lead color and sugar o f lead are produced
and packed the employers ‘must admit only such persons as have a
54
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
medical certificate stating that they arc neither weak nor suffering
from pulmonary, kidney, or stomach troubles; these certificates must
be filed and open to the inspection o f the factory inspector.
9. Those workmen employed in connection with and who come in
direct contact with lead products must not remain at work more than
twelve hours out o f every twenty-four.
10. The employers must furnish all those workmen who come in
direct contact with lead materials and products with a fully protective
suit o f working clothes, including a cap.
11. In those occupations in which dust is generated without being
immediately removed by mechanical means the mouth and nose o f the
workman must be covered with a respirator or wet sponge.
12. Those occupations in which direct contact with dissolved lead
salts occurs must be carried on only by men who have been supplied
with impermeable gloves or whose hands have been greased with fat.
13. The employer must supply the workmen with individual outfits
o f clothes, respirators, sponges, and gloves as above. There must
be a sufficient number o f them and their efficiency must be beyond
question. He must take care that each separate article o f clothing
is used only by that workman to whom it has been assigned. A t
stated intervals the working clothes, respirators, sponges, and gloves
must be cleaned; the form er at least once a week. W hile in use the
separate objects must be stored in their individual lockers.
14. A bath and dressing room, and separated from it a dining room,
must be established in some part o f the plant where there is no dust.
Both rooms must be kept clean and free from dust. During the
cold seasons they must be heated. The bath and dressing room must
be supplied with soap and towels and with vessels for the purpose of
rinsing the mouth. A sufficient number o f lockers must be provided
for the storage o f those articles o f clothing which are put off before
the beginning o f work. In the dining room or at some other suitable
location arrangement^ must be made for heating the food.
The employers must give their employees the opportunity o f taking
a warm bath at least once a week.
15. The employer must see that the health o f the employees is
watched over by a physician who has been reported in writing to the
inspecting officer. There must be a monthly examination o f the
workmen. Every case o f disease ascertained must be reported to the
employer and chief inspector. Those workmen in whom the symptoms
o f a lead disease have been discovered must be discharged and not
reemployed at occupations requiring direct contact with lead material
until they have fully recovered.
16. It is the duty o f the employer to keep a record of all cases of
illness or to have one kept by one o f his officials, who is personally
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
55
responsible for the completeness and correctness of the records of the
examining physician. This record must contain—
(a) The name o f the one who keeps the record.
(b) The name o f the physician whose duty it is to watch over the
health o f the workmen.
(c) The name o f the sick workman and his previous occupation.
(<d) The kind o f disease.
(<e) The date o f its beginning.
( f ) The date o f recovery, or, if the workman does not return to
his occupation, the date o f his discharge. This record is to be sub
mitted to the inspecting officer upon demand.
17. The employer must issue regulations, which, besides hints as to
the use and employment o f the articles mentioned in paragraphs 10,
11, 12, must contain the follow ing provisions:
(a) The workman must not be permitted to bring whisky, beer, or
other spirituous liquors into the factory.
(b) The workman must be prohibited from taking articles o f food
into the working room, and must leave them in the dining room. The
taking o f meals, in so far as it does not occur outside o f the factory,
must be permitted only in the dining room.
(c) The working clothes, respirators, sponges for the mouth, and
gloves must be used only in those rooms and in those occupations for
which they have been prescribed by the employer.
(d) The workmen must not enter the dining room, take meals, or
leave the factory unless they have previously taken off their working
clothes, cleansed their hair o f dust, carefully washed hands and faces,
cleansed their noses, and rinsed their mouths.
Furthermore, provision must be made that disobedience on the part
o f the workmen in respect to any o f these regulations can be pun
ished—by deduction from their wages, fo r instance.
The manufacturer is responsible for the enforcement o f these regu
lations, and it is his duty to discharge men who repeatedly transgress
them.
18. Plants for the production o f lead products can be built only
after their proposed construction has been reported to the inspecting
officer and the department o f building inspection has given its con
sent. The officers o f inspection must, as soon as possible after the
receipt o f the plans, make a personal examination and decide whether
they conform to the required regulations.
19. In cases o f disobedience to. the prescribed regulations the depart
ment o f inspection must have power to demand a suspension o f the
industry until arrangements have been made which satisfy the pre
scribed conditions.
56
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
H A R M L E SS SU BSTITU TES F O R L E A D .
But even if all manufacturing could be carried on under such condi
tions as have been specified, many dangers are inevitable. The use o f
poisonous material in the arts, trades, industries, and household should
be limited as far as possible, if not entirely suppressed. This limita
tion and suppression is possible because the poisonous lead preparations,
white lead, fo r instance, can be replaced, to some extent at least, by
harmless substances. How this can be done in the industry o f paint
ing is evident from the following methods, in which it is shown that a
white paint can be produced without the aid o f white lead, from the
use o f which so many painters suffer lead poisoning. A ll these sub
stitutes fo r lead have been used to some extent, and more or less suc
cessfully, in European countries, notably France and Germany.
1. In the first method the follow ing is the course o f procedure:
First, the wall or woodwork is given a coating o f zinc oxide diluted
with glue water. I f this has dried within two hours, a coating o f zinc
chloride diluted with glue water follows. The zinc oxide unites chem
ically with the zinc chloride and forms a hard, glossy, and exceedingly
smooth surface. By mixing the colors with glue water any desired
consistency can be obtained. This zinc coating previous to the oil
coating offers the advantages o f extraordinary durability, very rapid
drying, and a more than 50 per cent cheaper method of production.
O f the disagreeable odor o f fresh oil coatings there is not the slightest
trace in this zinc coating.
Zinc chloride is obtained by dissolving metallic zinc in hydrochloric
acid, or most advantageously as a by-product in soda and sulphuric acid
manufactories. The superfluous and often almost valueless hydro
chloric acid while still warm is permitted to react on ground zinc blende
(sulphide o f zinc, false galena, black jack, or black blende), and the
escaping sulphide o f hydrogen is immediately burned and turned into
sulphurous acid and water and again used in the production o f sul
phuric acid. The resulting solution is heated until it has the consist
ency o f sirup. In the employment o f this paint no white lead is used.
Its value and practicability are indicated by the fact that the French
Government paid the inventor a reward o f 20,000 francs ($3,860) in
order that the invention might be employed in benefiting the masses.
2. A second method to supply the place o f white lead is as follows:
T o 150 parts water add 50 parts o f glue and 2 o f caustic soda and boil
fo r some time. The resulting flocculent precipitations can be used.
A fter cooling, 50 parts o f ordinary silicious solution are added to the
above. Stir this mixture and add sufficient zinc oxide to make a thin
and easily spread solution. To give this mixture an equal consistency,
pass it through a color mill or rub it on a grinding stone. W ith the
mixture obtained as above indicated (which must always be prepared
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
57
fresh), woodwork, metal, or masonry is coated once or twice, and after
the coating is perfectly dry it is covered with a 10 per cent solution
o f zinc chloride. It is only through this last coating that the paint
obtains a beautiful smoothness and great power o f resistance. By the
addition o f earth colors, manganese, umber, etc., to the zinc oxide
any desired shade o f color may be obtained.
This second substitute for white lead is more worthy o f recommenda
tion than the first, as it furnishes more satisfactory results.
3.
The third method is also a wet preparation o f colors. It can be
prepared rapidly, cheaply, easily, and without the aid o f machinery.
A harmless oil color made o f zinc white as well as lead colors (white
lead and red lead), and a likewise harmless black, can be prepared by
this method. It is done as follows. This direction is especially valu
able fo r painters who prepare their own color. First, a thin and
homogeneous paste is prepared by mixing a quantity o f one o f the fo l
lowing finely powdered substances with water:
To 1,000 grams white zinc oxide, 300-350-400 grams water.
To 1,000 grams gray zinc oxide, 150-180 grams water.
To 1,000 grams white lead, 150-180 grams water.
T o 1,000 grams red oxide o f lead, 50-60 grams water.
T o 1,000 grams lampblack, about 1,000 grams water.
The first two produce harmless metallic colors (white and gray); the
last a harmless flash color; the other two are lead colors, which, how
ever, are prepared by the wet method, and in such a manner that the
workman does not come in personal contact with any o f the material.
To the above water mixture, linseed oil is added in sufficient quantity
to produce a consistent color, rather too little than too much. Stir
several minutes with a spatula, which causes the oil to unite with the
metallic oxides. Pour off the perfectly clear water which collects on
the surface and knead the sediment as butter is kneaded, in order to
expel all the water. Finally a greasy mass is left, which to be used is
diluted with oil to such a consistency that it can readily be spread with
the brush.
Zinc white, gray zinc oxide, oxide o f lead, red oxides o f lead, lemon
yellow, and lampblack are the only colors which so far have given
satisfactory results. The color is, as the separation o f the water
proves, a real chemical combination and has all the appearance o f one.
Should other mineral substances, viz, ocher, earth colors, copper
combinations, etc., be treated in the indicated manner, no water would
separate, and, despite stirring and kneading, no matter how long, only
a mixture o f the three original substances (color material, water, oil)
would remain. A chemical combination is formed only by the use of
white and gray zinc oxide, white lead, red oxide o f lead, chrome yel
low, and lampblack. This accounts fo r the preference given these
colors, as practice has proved their value as a protective covering for
58
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
wood and metal. The method o f preparation fo r such oil colors for
painting, either on a large or small scale, is as follows:
Red oxide o f lead, zinc white, gra y •zinc oxide, white lead, or
chrome yellow, in the powdered commercial state, are worked into a
paste by the addition o f water. This paste is diluted by the addition
o f more water till it is o f milk-like consistency, and is then strained
through a silk cloth. The amount o f water used is immaterial. It may
be quite large in order to make the paste fluid enough to pass rapidly
through the sieve. Upon this a small amount o f the color (about
one-tenth per cent), which was not powdered finely enough, remains.
This can be put aside fo r the next operation. Besides this, all other
foreign substances, little pieces o f wood, paper, metal, etc., remain
and the color is cleansed o f them. This is an advantage which can not
be obtained either in a roller mill or a grinding mill with runners.
The color paste can be put in any vessel and left until the color has
settled entirely. F or this several hours and even several days may be
necessary. The water which has collected over the color material is
poured off. A sufficient amount o f oil is then added, as already
noted, rather too little than too much.
The mixture is stirred fo r several minutes. The combination between
the coloring material and the oil continues until the paste collects and
sinks to the bottom o f the vessel. The water which has collected is
poured off and the paste is kneaded to expel all the remaining water.
F or further use the color is preserved in cylindrical vessels, similar
to those customarily used by indoor painters and whitewashes.
Immediately before using the color paste is mixed with a sufficient
quantity o f oil and drier, and forms a homogeneously grained oil color.
Steam roller mills produce at the most only 220 pounds o f ready
made oil color daily. W ith a grinding stone a workman can produce
at the most only one-twentieth of this amount in the same time. In
both cases the result is imperfect. By em ploying the above-described
method a single workman can produce in two hours and almost without
any tools over 220 pounds o f faultless oil color.
The gray zinc blende paste must be dried and powdered, and worked
through the sieve in the latter state. The reason for this is that con
tinued contact with water would cause its complete oxidation and the
formation o f a hard mass almost insoluble in oil would form. Lamp
black stands in the closest affinity with dry oil, and forms a paste
which separates as completely from water as those formed by the
metallic oxides. T o make this substance combine with water it is
necessary to mix with it a small amount o f water containing about 10
per cent alcohol.
A poor grade o f whisky or wine would answer the
same purpose. The lampblack is stirred with the alcoholic liquid by
means o f a trowel until the mixture is o f such a consistency as to unite
very readily with water. It can then be passed through the silk sieve,
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
59
so that the impurities remain behind. It is then left standing, and when
the color paste has settled the water is poured off. The color is then
treated with oil, as has been described in the treatment o f the metallic
oxides. It collects and the water contained in it separates out.
None o f the foregoing substitutes is in all respects equal to the dan
gerous white lead, but in many cases the harmless substitute is entirely
satisfactory. Researches in this direction will doubtless be continued
and the treasures o f chemistry may be further drawn upon.
L E A D POISONING IN IN D U STRIES USIN G L E A D
PRODUCTS.
The pottery industry is one o f the principal industries in which the
substitution o f harmless substances for the dangerous lead seems highly
desirable. Earthenware is shaped, air dried, and then glazed. One
substance for glazing is lead glaze; another is enamel o f lead, which
consists chiefly o f fine galena (pottery ore), clay, and sand. The
materials are ground and mixed in a handmill with stones, similar
to a grain mill. W hile the pottery ore is roasted sulphur escapes as
sulphurous acid, and the oxide o f lead produced by roasting com
bines with the silica and argillaceous earth and forms aluminium lead
silicate. On account o f the great quantity o f ferric oxide contained
in clay and sand this glazing is always colored.
The glazing o f air-dried material is done in three ways— by immer
sion, sprinkling, or powdering. B y immersion cooled earthenware
can be glazed, but this is hazardous to the workman, for his hands
come in direct contact with the lead-containing glaze, consequently
the second method, or that o f sprinkling, is most frequently employed
in glazing earthenware. I f the third method, or that o f powdering,
is employed in glazing crockery, the latter is first immersed in a mass
o f fatty earth and then covered with finely ground glazing material.
This method is also o f the greatest disadvantage to the workman,
because the inhalation o f little pieces o f lead can not be prevented.
I f the lead oxide has been mingled in right proportions with the
silica o f the clay, then the enamel o f lead is insoluble in the ordinary
organic acids that are used in housekeeping. But if a part o f the lead
oxide has not thoroughly combined with the silica some o f the lead
may be dissolved in hot vinegar. The use o f earthenware glazed thus
is evidently not without danger.
A fter it has been proved that every kind o f earthenware can be
produced without the use o f lead, because glazings in which no lead
is used have been successfully introduced in German factories and
compete very well with those containing it, the best rule to be given
is to prohibit entirely any glazing containing lead and to find a trans
gression o f this prohibition a deliberate injury to health. The pro
hibition would be the best protection against lead poisoning in the
60
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
pottery industry. The workmen are extensively exposed, as by rub
bing litharge and suboxide o f lead in the production o f the glazing,
in touching the glazing with the hands during the course of production,
through inhaling the dust during the drying o f the ware, and by put
ting the article in and taking it out o f the oven.
It is also worthy o f mention that the rubber respirators which
have been used abroad fo r the protection o f workmen against lead
poisoning have proved inefficient. They are easily deranged and
are also annoying to the workmen. This protection, therefore, is
entirely out o f the question. I f respirators are worn in those factories
in which lead-free glazings have not been introduced, the following
simple method is efficacious: Take cloths which have been moistened
with ammonium sulphide and tie them over the mouth. The lead
fumes produce with this insoluble sulphide o f lead. It is also to be
noted that the cleanliness o f the workman is the best protection
against lead poisoning. T o this end free baths ought to be instituted
in all factories fo r the benefit o f the employees. Food and drink
should not be consumed in the working rooms. In all rooms in which
there is a great amount o f dust, and especially in those in which the
material is stored, there should be sufficient ventilation, and the dust
should be removed by means o f water, as, for instance, in the dry
grinding o f certain objects.
The follow ing statement as to the manufacture o f glass tiles in
Germany is quoted from Oliver: (a)
During the manufacture, at Velten, in Brandenburg, o f glass tiles
for making earthenware stoves, there recently occurred a considerable
amount o f lead poisoning among the operatives, due to the glazing
o f tiles with oxide o f lead. * * * The glazing material is made,
first, by firing together lead oxide and tin ih the proportion o f three
to one. To the compound thus obtained there are added feldspar,
marine salt, and quartz. These are mixed together, and subsequently
exposed to a great heat so as to form a fritt. The vitrified material
thus obtained is crushed, finely pulverized, and mixed with water,
while the thick liquid is applied to the surface o f the tiles, which are
afterwards heated in a special furnace. During these operations there
are many opportunities fo r the workmen to become poisoned by lead.
In the act o f crushing, a considerable amount o f dust rich in lead salts
rises into the atmosphere. Rasch caused some o f the air to pass
through cotton wool, and he thus arrested the dust. The lead in this
le estimated as sulphide. The quantity found by him in 100 liters
about 3£ cubic }7ards] o f air varied between 0.0012 and 0.0066 gram
0.02 and 0.1 grain], which was equivalent to an amount o f lead oxide
entering into the lungs during the twelve hours’ work in the factory
of 0.05 to 0.6 gram [0.8 to 9.3 grains]. Upon the clothes o f the
workmen he obtained as much as 3 to 4.8 grams [46.3 to 74.1 grains].
It was found that all the lead in the fritt had not been converted into an
insoluble form. There was at least one-hundredth part in the form
« Dangerous Trades, by Thomas Oliver, page 368.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
61
o f lead oxide, a circumstance which rendered the glaze harmful to
those who dipped the tiles, and also to those who handled them after
dipping. It is needless to say that where this industry is carried on,
precautions should be taken similar to those in use in the potteries,
care being taken to have the fritting o f the lead carried on in wellventilated places, and the grinding o f the fritt done in inclosed
machinery.
What has been said about lead* poisoning in the earthenware and
pottery industry is true also o f the enameling o f cast-iron ware as
well as o f all other branches o f industry in which lead or its products
are used.
Enamel originally denoted a mass o f glass which in its produc
tion, both colorless and colored, had been made nontransparent by
zinc oxide. According to a certain formula, enamel is prepared in
this manner: A n alloy consisting o f 15 to 18 parts o f tin and 100
parts o f lead is oxidized by means o f hot air. The oxide is powdered
and skimmed. The resulting mixture o f tin oxide, with lead oxide
(lead stannate), is now fritted with a mass o f glass. A n enamel
like substance is also produced by arsenical acids, silver chloride, cal
cium phosphate, kryolite, feldspar, sodium aluminate, and precipi
tated barium sulphate. It is customary to enamel the inner surface o f
cast-iron ware to protect it against rust and weak acids. This is
done by removing the oxide with dilute sulphuric acid. A glazing
material is then whirled about in the vessel, and a fine powder o f a
metallic oxide or other material is then scattered upon the moist sur
face. The ware is then heated in a muffle until the glazing mass melts.
Here also the use o f lead-containing substance in making cooking
and eating vessels ought to be positively prohibited. A ny transgres
sion o f this prohibition ought to be severely punished, as it would
mean an intentional injury to health, viz, through lead poisoning.
Obedience in this respect to prescribed regulations is the easier,
because there are a sufficient number o f methods by which glazings
which are free from lead can be successfully produced.
In the manufacture o f gloves white lead is used to polish them. In
the place o f this poisonous material a harmless one can be used with
equally satisfactory results— talc, for instance. Talc is a mineral
which is related to meerschaum (sepiolite) and soapstone (steatite).
Soapstone is also commonly called talc. becaifSe there is only a very
slight difference between them. Talc is used in the manufacture of
the so-called Spanish chalk, rouge, and the like.
From what has been said it can be seen that simply by a satisfactory
substitution o f a harmless material fo r a poisonous one many cases
o f poisoning among the workmen can be prevented. The workmen
ought to be acquainted with these facts, and the various means ought
to be taught them by word, example, and writing.
10615— No. U — 03------5
62
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
File cutters and workmen engaged in the manufacture o f amber
articles employ a soft bed o f poisonous metallic lead. This danger to
the workman can be removed if, in place o f the lead bed, tin is chosen.
Files can be cut both by hahd and by machinery, but file-cutting by
machinery is usually carried on in modern and well-ventilated factories,
and no lead is used in the process.
It is otherwise with file cutting b y hand. Seated on a stock, the hand
file cutter has in front o f him a stone block into the center o f which a
small piece o f bar steel, called a stiddy, is inserted, and on this stiddy
is placed a piece o f metallic lead, called the bed. The file about
to be cut is strapped onto the bed. The lines as seen on a file
are made by means o f a chisel and hammer, each line representing a
blow. The reason for using the lead bed to strike the file on is that
there may be as little recoil as possible, and yet sufficient resistance to
develop the line in its entirety as a result o f the blow given by the
hammer and chisel. A s a consequence o f constantly striking files o f
uniform size, a groove is form ed on the lead bed, into which succeed
ing files easily fit. W hen he has cut one face o f the file the workman
rubs that side with charcoal, turns it over, and then proceeds to cut
the other side, after which both faces are briskly rubbed. The file
cutter grips the chisel between the index finger and thumb o f the left
hand, and in order to get a good grip o f the chisel he often moistens
his finger with his tongue. The steel hammer used by a cutter gen
erally weighs from 7£ to 9 pounds, and each line on a file represents
one stroke o f the hammer; There are often on large files as many as
3,800 lines.
File cutting by hand is generally regarded as a dangerous industry.
As a consequence o f hammering and brushing the files a considerable
amount o f dust is created, some o f which must be inhaled, as the man
or woman— fo r both sexes follow the occupation— bends closely over
the stock. In several samples o f dust removed from the stocks and
rafters o f the shops lead was found, the other constituents o f the dust
being particles o f iron, charcoal, and chalk. Dust from rafters con
tained 2.64 per cent metallic lead; from top o f stock, 14.82 and 22.28
per cent; from floor under the stock, 2.63 and 4.37 per cent.
A s a consequence o f the usually diminished vital resisfance and
the practice o f eating ^ s food with unwashed hands, the moistening
o f his fingers while at work, and inhalation o f dust, the file cutter in
course o f time becomes the victim o f lead poisoning. It is metallic
lead dust that is given off during the blows with the hammer and
chisel upon the file. Lead in this form is certainly much less harmful
than when in such a soluble combination as the oxide or carbonate,
but oxidation o f the surface o f the lead is constantly taking place,
thereby rendering the metal more or less absorbable.
In addition to the ill health caused by lead poisoning, pulmonary
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
63
consumption carries off a large number o f file cutters. A ll the workers
look anaemic. Many whom Oliver examined had suffered from colic;
several were completely disabled on account of paralysis o f the exten
sor muscles o f the fingers and wrists. Out o f 100 file cutters examined
b y Dr. W hite, 74 had a blue line on the gums, 28 had lead colic, and
20 paralysis o f the wrists and fingers. The trade is characterized by
a high mortality, the figures being 316 file cutters against 123 occupied
males in general. Only cutters o f handmade files suffer from lead
poisoning.
Lately machines fo r making files have been introduced in the use
o f which lead poisoning can not occur. The manufacture of handmade
files, therefore, should be prohibited unless a bed o f tin or other harm
less material is used instead o f one o f lead. Besides tin, there are also
many other materials which can be employed for the same purpose.
Lead poisoning will disappear among the weavers who use the Jac
quard loom if iron weights are substituted on the warps fo r those o f
lead. Through friction these weights produce a dust which contains
by analysis 56.80 per cent lead, and consequent!j' exerts a direct
poisonous influence upon the workman.
In polishing cannons and shells a rotating lead dish is used which
could just as well be replaced by one made o f tin or a harmless alloy.
Typesetters, who frequently come in contact with lead, very often
suffer from lead poisoning. The present substitute for lead, which
consists o f copper aluminum, is not practical on account o f its high
price.
A ll that therefore can be done at present in the manufacture of
those articles which are cast from molten lead is to get rid of the lead
fumes and dust as far as possible. In order to prevent lead fumes in
the smelting rooms o f type foundries, the following method is em
ployed: Hoods are fastened over the smelting kettles in the foundries.
These hoods can be made o f sheet metal, can be moved vertically,
and are connected with the chimney by pipes. When lead or type
material is melted, the hoods are let down so that they cover the
smelting kettle. There are small doors for the introduction o f more
metal, so it is impossible for fumes to escape into the working room.
Especially hazardous is the dry grinding o f the type. Much lead dust
is produced, which leads sometimes to lead intoxication and sometimes
to pulmonary consumption. The only rule which can be recommended
in this case is a prohibition o f dry grinding. The operation can with
out doubt be replaced by wet grinding, which is much less dangerous.
(Type metal consists o f 75 parts lead, 20 parts antimony, and 5 parts
tin.)
Those workmen who are annoyed by lead dust in composing rooms
have to fear not only direct poisoning from the metal, but also pulmo
nary consumption, with which many o f them are threatened. The dust
64
BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
o f composing rooms contains much lead. On this account the rooms
should be efficiently ventilated and the dangerous operation o f clean
ing the type boxes should be carried on in the open air and not in the
working room, as is usually done. The most satisfactory method is
with a pair o f bellows.
In the manufacture o f shot the arsenic-containing lead alloys are
prepared as follows: The lead is melted in cast-iron kettles, and the
surface is covered with a layer of charcoal dust. In the center o f this
the arsenic-containing substance (arsenious acid, metallic arsenic, or
realgar) is placed. This is very injurious to the health. On stirring
the molten mass, lead and arsenious fumes, which are directly poison
ous, are given off.
A s a preventive, a hood similar to that described in the foregoing
should be placed over the smelting kettle, the arsenious substances
should be added only in a well-ventilated room, and the workmen should
be furnished with respirators.
As it is impossible to prevent contact with the poisons used in the
lead industry at the present time and the hazardous work itself can
not be done away with, improvements should be introduced by which
the danger o f working with lead and its pigments is reduced to a mini
mum. To deal properly with this problem employees in the lead
industries should be protected by preventive arrangements, and laws
should be passed which will protect not only the men working in the
factory, but also their families from harmful influences. In Germany,
for instance, the Government superintends the most dangerous branches
o f the lead industry, viz, the manufacture o f lead colors and sugar o f
lead. The Government regulations, which deserve the most careful
consideration in all lead industries, are able to diminish the danger of
intoxication to a very large extent. Their enforcement must be as
strict as the danger o f working with lead and lead substances demands.
The indolence, ignorance, thoughtlessness, and indifference of the
workman often make such regulations a mere farce. Because the
workmen are so accustomed to the old careless method and consider
this or that regulation as uncomfortable, and because they do not feel
any injury from their carelessness, they refuse to take the proper pre
cautions. This evil must be eradicated by strict and careful super
vision and control. It is a necessary condition, therefore, that the
sanitary regulation must not be based on the good will o f the em
ployees. The workman should be thoroughly informed o f the danger
o f this work and the means o f prevention. Then his obedience to
these regulations must be procured by special measures; he might,
fo r instance, be threatened not only with a fine, but with loss o f posi
tion. The responsibility fo r the observance o f such regulations on the
part o f the workmen can be intrusted by the employers to their mana
gers and supervisors. These must be held accountable for the results
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
o f a lax execution o f the sanitary regulations, as well as fo r all cases
o f sickness, etc. Only in this manner is there a guaranty that the
regulations passed by the Government are not at the mercy o f the
workman’s whim, but are really carried out. In places where the
health o f hundreds is threatened by dangers o f such consequence great
requirements must be demanded o f the employees.
The extent o f the em ployers responsibility depends on circum
stances and has to be carefully considered, as also the various questions
o f administrative details. Inspectors should have a professional apti
tude and especially a technical education to enable them to carry out
the laws with success and tact. Their duties ought to be not merely
a form and they must not hesitate to demand strict and energetic
obedience to the law. In order to do this they must be completely
independent.
The exact regulations in regard to this matter which have already
been adopted abroad enforce (1) the necessity o f frequent careful
cleansing o f the mouth, face, hands, even the whole body, clothes, and
utensils; (2) the strictest prohibition against bringing food and drink
into the working rooms, and against partaking o f it with unwashed
hands.
In England, where investigations have been made, preventive meas
ures have been adopted. The chief inspector o f factories issued
special rules fo r white-lead works, which were an advance upon those
o f previous years, and which have undoubtedly diminished plumbism
in this industry. It is unnecessary to reproduce these rules here, but
the main points included in them are that plans for new works or
structural alterations o f old factories must be submitted to the chief
inspector o f factories; white lead beds must be watered when being
emptied; drying stoves must be ventilated, and no person is allowed
to draw a Dutch stove on more than two days in any week; no woman
is allowed to work in the white beds, rollers, wash becks, or stoves,
or in any place where dry white lead is packed, or in other work
exposing her to white-lead dust; there must be weekly medical exam
inations o f every person employed in the lead process, with suspension
in the case o f illness and medical reexaminations before returning to
work; suitable respirators, overalls, and head coverings must be pro
vided by the occupiers; adequate washing appliances are required,
with cessation o f work ten minutes before each mealtime and the end
o f the day’s work fo r the purpose o f washing. The duties o f persons
employed are similarly defined, and any person obtaining employment
under an assumed name or on any false pretense is liable to a penalty.
It is enacted, too (factory and workshop act o f 1891, secs. 9 and 11),
that the rules shall be kept posted in conspicuous places in the fac
tory, so that they can be conveniently read by the persons employed.
A ny person who is bound to observe the rules and fails to do so, or
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
acts in contravention o f them, is liable to a penalty. In such cases
the occupier also is liable to a penalty unless he proves that he has
taken all reasonable means o f publishing and to the best o f his power
enforcing the rules to prevent contravention or noncompliance. Great
importance is attached to extreme temperance in the use o f alcohol and
to a weekly or fortnightly alteration o f employment fo r the work
people in the factory.
Regulations o f this kind should be introduced not only in the lead
color and sugar o f lead industry, but among all trades that use lead or
lead products in any form , such as lead works, shot factories, type
foundries, and printing establishments. Further, age, sex, and gen
eral condition o f health play an exceedingly important part in lead
poisoning. It is only strong and thoroughly healthy people who can
withstand the dangerous influences o f the work without extensive
injury. Consequently only those workmen who have a physician’s
certificate to the effect that their age, development, strength, and state
o f health enable them to work without special danger should be per
mitted to work in those industries in which there is an extensive devel
opment o f fumes and dust, as in lead works and sugar o f lead factories.
The Government regulations should fully explain the above, as well
as be explicit in regard to the length o f the working day, the employ
ment o f women, the supervision o f the men’s health by a physician,
the management o f the infirmary, etc. In this respect it is worth
while to look to the Germans, from whom in the present case some
thing new and better can be learned. From a physician’s stand
point it would seem valuable to point out means which by increasing
the efficiency o f the organism would likewise increase its power of
resistance against the influence o f the poison. First among these
means is as good, strong, and efficient nutriment for the workmen as is
possible. Experience has shown that either from thrift or real need
the workmen use unhealthy, indigestible, and poor food in the prepa
ration o f their meals. A s a result their strength and assimilative
powers decrease, and favor the action o f the poisonous influence. The
use o f bacon and fatty foods generally is considered o f great value.
Some even claim them as a specific against lead poisoning. The use
o f milk is even more satisfactory (a quart or more a day per person).
Its favorable action is due to its nutritive and gently laxative prop
erties. The latter is o f importance to lead workers because they have
a tendency toward constipation.
Besides good and efficient nourishment fo r the lead workers, health
ful dwellings are o f next importance. They, however, should not be
in close proxim ity to the factories, but at a distance o f from one-half
to one mile. This is to compel the workmen to be exposed every
morning and evening, even if only fo r a short time, to the open air,
and to give them exercise, which increases respiration. Time and
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
67
opportunity should also be given the workmen to frequently cleanse the
mouth, hands, etc. Further, in the most dangerous occupations, such
as the washing o f ores, the emptying o f the oxide vessels, and the dry
grinding, bagging, straining, and packing o f the dusty lead prepara
tions, workmen ought to relieve each other frequently. Attention to
these details would greatly aid in improving the general state o f health.
Obedience to such regulations has done much abroad to decrease the
number o f cases o f industrial lead poisoning, yet in all establishments
where lead is employed other methods are needed to decrease its harm
ful effects. The chief obstruction in the work, as has been shown, is
the lead-containing dust which is developed in all manipulations o f
this industry. In the first place, then, it is evident that in all establish
ments measures should be adopted against this pernicious dust. T o
successfully combat it, three conditions are necessary:
1. T o prevent its development and spread in the working rooms.
2. T o separate the workmen from it if it does form.
3. T o get rid o f it as soon as possible.
In respect to first condition, one o f the most satisfactory m eth od
o f preventing the development o f dust in the use or preparation o f the
dust-producing material consists in moistening the material suffi
ciently. The directors o f lead mines and works should therefore
exert the greatest care to moisten the lead ores sufficiently when
crushing. In potteries, if lead-containing glazings are still used, care
should be taken to apply them only in a wet state by immersion or
sprinkling, never by powdering. The danger o f dry grinding in the
manufacture o f type could be removed by wet grinding.
Lead colors, as well as all dusty lead combinations, if it is in any way
possible without great injury to the industry, should be prepared wet,
or with a stronger moistening. This is especially the case with the
easily powdered and dangerous white lead. In order to protect the
workmen— painters, varnishers, workers in colored and glazed paper
manufacturies, fan painters, gilders, glazers— who use white lead in
their trade, and to free the factory works from the pernicious effects
o f dust, it is necessary to insist that white lead must not be dried, but
that immediately after skimming it in a half dry state it should be
mixed with oil and put on the market in the form o f a paste. This
process, which makes the most dangerous operations, like drying, pul
verizing, sifting, bolting, and packing, superfluous, has been proved
entirely satisfactory. The dry preparation o f white lead should be
used only where it is impossible to use it except in the dry form . The
objection that the paste form , on account o f its rapid drying, is not
suitable fo r shipping is without value, as drying can be prevented by
putting the paste in hermetically sealed vessels.
Finally, there are methods by which it is possible to absorb large
quantities o f lead dust, or at least to prevent its flying about in the
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
rooms, as, for instance, the introduction o f regular and efficient water
sprayers in the factory rooms as well as the frequent mopping of the
floors, which should be as smooth as possible and free from cracks.
Specific methods o f moistening and arrangement o f the most danger
ous factory rooms, viz, the oxidation and drying rooms of white-lead
factories, can be found in the German governmental provisions.
Concerning the prevention o f the spread o f dust through the working
rooms, it is recommended that all apparatus by which dust is devel
oped should, be entirely separated from the working room. A ll open
mills and apparatus by the use o f which it is impossible to granulate
lead without the production o f the fatal dry dust should be separated
forever from the lead color factories. This is especially easy, as roller
mills have been introduced which are entirely closed and prevent any
lead dust from escaping into the factory rooms. They are very satis
factory and grind exceedingly fine. The only place in this mill through
which the dust could possibly escape, viz, its ore funnel, can be closed
by keeping it continually filled with the mineral to be ground, and
thus cutting off every avenue o f escape.
In one o f the largest foreign lead factories this object is attained by
a container which is immediately above the ore funnel, and is filled
with the material. It is operated mechanically by the mill, and keeps
the ore funnel always filled. The dangers from bolting, sifting, and
emptying the material can be efficiently diminished and even entirely
prevented by such an arrangement. The ground material as it is
emitted from the roller system is directly carried on to the other
machine by means o f a dust-proof arrangement, thence in like manner
to the collection box, and thence to the packing room, doing away
entirely with the spreading o f dust in transportation.
To still further prevent the diffusion o f dust in the factory rooms
air-tight inclosures and casings should be put in connection with
exhausters such as have been introduced into many factories, in order
to remove the lead dust by suction as soon as it is formed. W herever
dust is developed and there is danger o f its entering the working room
an apparatus o f this kind should be used. The best arrangement,
and a very simple and cheap one, especially where steam power is
present, is constructed as follows: A long main tube supplied with a
strong exhauster, sends branches to the packing and grinding rooms,
etc., as the case may be. These are funnel shaped at the lower end,
and possess movable telescopic socket pieces. In packing, which is
now done by means o f a shaking apparatus and not by treading, the
movable funnel o f the branch tube is opened and placed immediately
over the empty vessels. This sucks up the developing dust at once,
and prevents it from escaping into the working rooms. Such an
exhaust plant has been used with great success not only in the pack
ing and grinding rooms, but also in the manufacture o f red lead in one
of the largest factories abroad. In emptying the coloring oven in red
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
69
lead making, a dust-receiving box or funnel is placed over the empty
ing wagon and connected with one o f the branch tubes o f the exhaust
plant.
In another dust-consuming arrangement the ver}^ fine white-lead
dust is sucked up, and by mechanical means carried ultimately to two
boxes. These are diagonally divided into two parts by means o f a
flannel partition. The latter gathers up the dust, but permits the air
to pass through. Every time the boxes are disconnected from the
exhaust plant a mechanical beating apparatus frees the flannel from
dust. This drops into a receiving vessel beneath.
Attention should be given to the disposal o f lead fumes, which are a
very important factor and exert a disastrous influence upon the work
men if they escape into the factories. In all establishments where
lead fumes are developed (smelting works, furnaces, shot manu
factories, type foundries) they should be held in check by means of
efficient flues. The fumes could be sucked up by mantle-like casings
fastened over the openings o f the furnaces and smelting kettles.
A fter they have been rendered harmless it would be easy to conduct
them to the open air. In a foreign type foundry the escape o f fumes
is prevented by means o f a fume destroyer which is placed above
the smelting kettle and in connection with a strongly drawing flue.
Through the above-mentioned protective measures for the imme
diate suppression and interception o f lead dust and fumes the dangers
o f lead poisoning have been greatly diminished, yet from experience
it is known that it is impossible entirely to prevent the scattering o f
poisonous lead products in the factories. The best protective meas
ure is as perfect ventilation as possible, and the replacement o f the
dust and fume-laden atmosphere o f the workrooms with clean and
fresh air. The choice o f the ventilation system depends entirely upon
the size o f the plant. In so far as any system is cheap, simple, con
venient, and efficient, to that extent it is preferable to any other.
Such operations as the packing o f lead colors, where a great amount
o f dust is produced, should be carried on only in the open air, as is
almost entirely done abroad. There are certain cases in which the
peculiarity o f the labor makes it impossible to prevent the extensive
formation o f dust and fumes, and which compel the laborer to inhale
with every breath a large number o f poisonous particles. These occu
pations require the strictest supervision, and all who are employed
should be required to tie wet sponges or efficient respirators over mouth
and nose. These permit the passage o f air in breathing, but retain
the greatest number o f lead particles.
One o f the best arrangements for this purpose which is in vogue
abroad is a respirator made o f light plate. B y means o f rubber cush
ions it is made close fitting. In inspiration the lead-contaminated air
passes through absorbent cotton moistened with glycerin or some
other neutralizing substance. In expiration the vitiated air is expelled
70
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
by means o f valves. M ore perfect bat less convenient are those
arrangements which permit the workman, while he is at work, to
inspire air entirely free o f dust from without.
The absorption o f lead in its soluble form is less frequent and can be
diminished by obeying principles o f cleanliness and practical regula
tions. Despite the numberless safeguards for the protection o f the
workman it has been impossible to prevent the occurrence o f lead
poisoning. Consequently attempts have been made to find a prophy
lactic method in the science o f medicine which would counteract the
disastrous influences o f absorption o f poison into the organism. As
it is a well-known fact that lead forms almost insoluble combinations
with various elements, several physicians have proposed to employ
these chemical elements as prophylactics. These elements uniting and
form ing insoluble combinations with lead can thus be eliminated from
the body. The chief elements used for this purpose are iodine and
sulphur in their various forms. It is not known how much lead is
absorbed by the several workmen in the several manipulations. The
use o f iodine and sulphur preparations fo r many months is evidently
irrational, as the organism is not indifferent to them. The results o f
their continued use lead to indigestion and a general diminution o f
strength and assimilative powers, which especially favor lead intoxica
tion. There is no objection to the use o f gargles which contain small
amounts o f sulphur and iodide o f potassium. On the contrary, fre
quent washing o f the mouth and gargling is to be most strongly rec
ommended. The employment o f sulphur and ordinary warm baths
al.so greatly lessens the danger.
Finally, education, an already indicated prophylactic measure, is o f
greatest importance. This is especially the case in those industries
and trades in which the workmen are left to themselves, and handle lead
and its products without supervision. Even though laws and pre
ventive measures are frequently unheeded on account o f the careless
ness o f the workman, yet experience teaches that lead poisoning often
occurs only as a result o f ignorance on the part o f the employee. It
is therefore very important that the workman as well as the public
in general be informed o f the danger o f lead poisoning. This is to be
accomplished by popular articles, lectures before associations, the pub
lication o f disastrous cases o f lead poisoning, and by word and example.
O IL C L O T H A N D LIN O L E U M IN D U STR Y .
PROCESSES OF M ANUFACTURE.
In order that the public at large, and especially the workman, may
gain an understanding o f the injurious conditions in this industry, a
short explanation o f the process o f manufacture seems necessary.
From this should be gained the understanding necessary fo r form ing
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
71
a correct judgment o f the case, and for developing those preventive
measures which should be adopted fo r obviating these injurious influ
ences and thus protecting both the workman and the public at large.
Two establishments were studied, both engaged in the manufacture
o f oilcloth and linoleum. The first v/as a plant employing about 300
persons and comprising over 40 separate buildings.
The linoleum as manufactured consists o f a layer several mil
limeters in thickness. This is a mixture o f oxidized linseed oil,
resin, and ground cork, and is spread over and applied to a rough
ground texture o f cloth. The latter is varnished on its lower surface.
The covering layer is, in consequence o f the imbedding o f the ox i
dized linseed oil in the porous cork particles, absolutely impermeable
to water. The surface is completely closed and free from pores. It
can therefore easily be cleaned with water without injury to the floor.
The poor heat-conducting property o f the cork particles also dimin
ishes that o f the oxidized linseed oil and decreases its inflammability.
Fresh linoleum, in proportion to the completeness o f the oxidation
o f the linseed oil employed in its preparation, has a more or less
perceptible odor. On exposure to the air this odor diminishes, and
finally, when by the combination with oxygen the oxidation o f the oil
has been completed, it disappears. A floor covered with linoleum does
not possess the disagreeable coldness o f varnish or oilcloth. Linoleum
is made either plain, in one color, or in patterns. The patterns are
produced in three ways: (1) B y the application upon the ground
texture o f a mixture o f covering masses o f different colors and grain;
(2) by the juxtaposition and fastening o f differently colored and
arranged patterns upon the ground texture; (3) by printing the plain
linoleum with oil colors. The resulting products are known by the
names o f grain, inlaid, and printed linoleum.
The crude material fo r the production o f ground and powdered cork
consists almost exclusively o f the waste o f cork industry, and is used
extensively in the manufacture o f linoleum. This waste consists o f
pieces o f cork up to a cubic inch in size. The comminution, accom
panied by a great generation o f dust, is carried on by degrees. As
a preliminaiy step machines divide the material into small pieces.
The second step is grinding them in mills into a fine powder or flour.
This w ork is not without danger, because the cork dust is easily
inflammable and, if lighted, explodes with great force. The scraps
o f iron which frequently are among the particles o f cork often cause
explosion by producing sparks in passing through the mills. The
parts o f the machines which cut the cork into little particles are rap
idly revolving adjustable rollers or plates studded with cutting teeth.
The pulverization o f the particles o f cork thus obtained is accom
plished by two methods. A ccording to the older method with rasps
consisting o f large, rapidly revolving drums studded with saw teeth,
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
against which the material is pressed by two slowly revolving feeder
rollers. In the newer method flat stone mills are used, whose whole
construction is very similar to the ordinary flour-grinding mills. The
cork flour is passed through the mills several times until all the parti
cles possess the required fineness. During these several passages the
ground material is separated into various classes by means o f drum
sieves containing about 1,000 meshes to every square inch.
A s a result o f this process, in which not even exhausters are efficient,
it can easily be seen that the workman and the neighborhood are
exposed to great annoyances because o f the very fine consistency and
exceeding small specific weight o f the ground cork. This finely ground
cork dust is carried away by the slightest disturbances o f the air and
transported for long distances. It is very injurious to the respiratory
organs.
The second factor annoying to the workman and to the neigh
borhood is the oxidation o f the linseed oil. O f the various vegetable
oils used in the manufacture o f oilcloth and linoleum up to the present
time linseed oil is the only one that is employed to any large extent.
Not all the linseed oil o f commerce is equally adapted to the manufac
ture o f linoleum. A high degree o f purity is o f great importance in
manufacturing, and on this account these manufacturers usually make
their own linseed oil.
A s with other vegetable oils that dry, the oxygen of the air induces
a chemical change in the linseed oil. It dries when exposed to the air
in a thin layer and forms a transparent resin-like mass, which is more
or less elastic. B y the absorption o f oxygen and the setting free o f
carbonic acid and water the transformation o f linolein into linoxyn
occurs. The other constituents are transformed into the acids o f
palmitin, myricine, and elain, which oxidize on long exposure to
drying influences. Linoxyn is the most important basis in all linseed
oil colors, and also forms that product o f the oxidation o f linseed oil
which is used in the manufacture o f linoleum.
The quantity o f oxygen which is absorbed is far greater than that
o f the carbon and hydrogen which are liberated during the process o f
oxidation. Consequently this process is accompanied by an increase
in the weight o f the material, sometimes amounting to more than 7 per
cent.
The boiling o f the linseed oil, either alone or with oxidizing sub
stances (litharge, sugar o f lead, oxide o f zinc, superoxide o f man
ganese, and the like), as is done in varnish factories, fo r the purposes
o f linoleum manufacture, increases the energy o f the oxygen during
the process o f oxidation and decreases the time required fo r oxidation.
The same result is obtained if it is sprayed in a lighted and heated
room which has a continuous supply o f fresh air.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
73
There are two methods for the oxidation o f linseed oil. According
to the older method the oil, in which the oxidation has already been
begun b y boiling it in sugar o f lead and by the introduction o f a spray
o f warm air, is spread in thin layers upon the extended texture and
exposed to the influence o f continually changing air heated to about
86° F.
According to the other method, the oxidation process is completed
by introducing a stream o f compressed air in to the hot oil.
The products o f these two processes which, as linoxyn is the chief
constituent, are in short called linoxyn, are essentially different in
their physical properties. In the one process the mass is completely
homogeneous, not sticky, but similar to india rubber, like it very
elastic, but not nearly so ductile and less resistant to tearing. On
account o f its lesser viscidity the mass can be ground in a mortar
to a yellowish white powder. This linoxyn has an odor similar to
that o f fresh linseed oil. It remains dry under the influence o f heat.
Linoxyn prepared by the other method is essentially different from
that which has been described. It forms a tough, sticky mass o f a dark
brown color, which easily adheres to any object and can be drawn
out into short threads. In very thin layers the color is yellowish white
like the first kind, yet not nearly so pure. The odor is weakly acid,
similar to that o f freshly boiled linseed oil varnish, but not so strong.
These circumstances indicate that the process o f manufacture and
oxidation has not advanced as far as in the first case.
The boiling o f linseed oil with oxidizing substances is carried on in
vessels, open or covered with a hood, hung over an open furnace fire.
The flame either simply plays around the bottom o f the kettle or is
carried along its side by walled flues. A s a result o f this direct sys
tem o f heating it is easier to carry on the boiling at a temperature
(about 392° to 464° F .) considerably above the boiling point o f linseed
oil. Experience teaches that this greatly diminishes the duration o f
boiling. The objection to it, however, is that a frequent stirring o f
the contents o f the kettle is necessary in order to prevent the excessive
heating o f the oil on its walls and to equally distribute the oxidizing
materials in the liquid.
Another method o f preparing linseed oil fo r more rapid oxidation
is to expose heated linseed-oil dust to the influence o f a weak current
o f air. There are a number o f other methods o f transforming the
linseed oil into linoxyn or, in other words, o f oxidizing its elements.
The linoleum covering mass consists chiefly o f an intimate mixture
o f oxidized linseed oil (linoxyn) with finely ground cork meal.
In order to increase the speed o f drying, and to produce the hard
ness and elasticity various drying materials (sulphurous manganese,
red lead, and others) and resins (colophonium, cowrie gum, and the
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
like) are added to the original components. F or coloring purposes
various mineral colors are added. Linseed oil is also entirely or in
part replaced by other thick vegetable oils, as, for instance, the pitch
like residues arising from the distillation o f palm, cotton seed, and
other oils. In the place o f cork, wood flour, pulverized peat, finely
cut fiber, and the like are sometimes used. The proportion between
the plastic and nonplastic materials in the different mixtures which are
customarily used is alnjost the same. To a hundred parts by weight
o f oxidized linseed oil, thirty-eight parts o f resin (colophonium) and
thirteen parts o f cowrie gum are added. They are mixed in a pan
heated b y steam and a suitable coloring material (Venetian red, ocher,
etc.) is added. This mass is thoroughly mixed with an equal weight
o f cork meal, in mixing machines.
Every manufacturer works according to his own process, and by his
varying proportion, and by the addition o f turpentine and naphtha
(benzine) he increases the plasticity o f the mass and diminishes its brit
tleness. F or the purpose o f boiling it down linseed oil is cooked fo r
several days at a temperature o f 500° F ., until on cooling it congeals
into a mass o f india-rubber-like consistency.
The pitches o f cotton seed and palm oil in equal proportions are also
mixed with oxidized linseed oil between heated rollers. In this method
drying materials amounting to about one-sixteenth the weight o f the
pitch and oil mixture and slight quantities o f coloponium and cowrie
gum are added. This mass is then kneaded with an almost equal
weight o f cork meal, and sometimes cow’s hair is added to give it
greater strength. Cowrie, or New Zealand gum, comes from the
cowrie tree {Pmus hauri or Damarra australis). In color it ranges
from a milky white to a dark brown; sometimes it is colorless and
transparent. F or the protection o f the workman the follow ing prop
erty o f the gum must be noted: It is very easily inflammable and burns
without dropping, with a bright flame. A fter careful melting and
congealing it forms a hard mass similar to shellac, and, like it, is
soluble in alcohol.
Usually a steam-heated vessel, with a stirrer, serves in the prepara
tion o f linoxyn for its m ixing with the other materials. The vessel
is a recumbent cylinder, into which the unprepared material is intro
duced. The casements which serve as the heads o f the cylinder are
double walled. Into the hollow space between the latter steam is led,
and the contents o f the cylinder are heated to such a degree that the
linoxyn is transformed into a plastic mass. The process o f mixing
this with the resins is accomplished by means o f a stirrer within the
cylinder. The axis o f the form er passes through one head wall, and
has a driving wheel on the outside. A fter the mixing has been accom
plished the vessel is emptied by means o f a canal, which during the
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
75
active process is closed by a slide. The mass is either led into forms,
in which it is congealed into cakes o f a specified weight, or it is
emptied into another double-walled cylinder, which is heated so that
the contents remain plastic.
The application o f the linoleum-covering mass to the ground texture
and the process o f making it adhere is accomplished without the use
o f any especial binding material. A t a temperature o f 284° to 302°
F. the mass itself has such plasticity and adhesiveness that under
strong pressure it clings tightly to the texture. The coating o f the
lower surface o f a ground texture, by means o f a lake as protection
against moisture, is sometimes done before, sometimes after, the appli
cation o f the linoleum mass. The drying o f the color coating is
carried on in rooms heated by hot air or steam. Previous to the
application o f the linoleum-covering mass to the ground texture the
form er must be thoroughly mixed in the roller works. The mass comes
from these machines in the form o f thin sheets, which are either
folded and used to cover the texture immediately, or are run through
rapidly revolving rollers and transformed into a coarse powder. The
latter method can be used to especial advantage in spreading the mass
over the texture before its introduction into the press. The finished
product possesses as a result a great uniformity. The hot presses
used in the application o f the linoxyn cork mass to the ground texture
are partly plate presses and partly roller presses (calenders). The
plates or rollers o f the presses are cast hollow and heated by steam
under a tension o f several atmospheres.
The other processes are the cooling o f the mass on cold rollers and
the drying o f the linoleum.
The linoleum-covering mass, which consists chiefly o f linoxyn, cork
meal, and the various resins, is always used in a highly heated condi
tion. By heating it gains the plasticity necessary for shaping it, as
well as the adhesiveness required fo r uniting the little particles to
each other and to the supporting ground texture.
In addition, the mass also develops that penetrating odor which is
noticeable in the oxidation o f the oil. This very circumstance shows
that the oxidation o f the linseed oil was not completed, and that in
deodorization a continuation o f the process o f oxidation takes place.
The drying o f the linoleum is a continuation and completion o f the
process o f oxidation. This is accomplished by exposing the product to
the influence o f currents o f warm air. In proportion as this decreases
the development o f odors it increases the solidity and elasticity o f the
manufactured products, and in a limited degree the weight, because o f
its continued absorption o f oxygen. The fact that a linoleum-cover
ing mass which lay in a warm and dark room for 155 days increased
1.76 per cent in weight proves this.
The proportion between the odor and fluidity is direct and permits
76
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
a conclusion concerning the development o f the oxidation and drying
process. It must also be noted that changes in the properties o f
fluidity depend not only upon the length o f the drying process, but
also upon the condition o f the linoxyn, obtained during the oxidation
o f the oil. The changes are produced much more rapidly in correctly
constructed drying houses, the temperature in which is kept constantly
at from 77° to 86° F. by heating apparatus, and in which there is a con
stant renewal o f air.
The drying process itself, in the drying houses, is accomplished by
the difference in weight between hot and cold air and the consequent
continual upward draw, assisted by ventilatory openings. The lino
leum is hung over rods and in many folds,,as is done in the textile and
paper industries, so that the air may pass along the perpendicular fiber.
Finally the work o f printing and finishing the linoleum must be
mentioned. The printing is done with oil colors and by means o f
forms o f wood or metal upon printing presses or machines. A fter
having been printed the linoleum is taken into the drying house*
where it remains several weeks. A fter it has completely dried it is
cut, the upper surface is washed, and it is wound on rolls.
MEASURES FOR THE PROTECTION OP THE W ORKM AN AND THE
PUBLIC.
From the preceding explanation it is evident that the comminution
o f the cork gives rise to great clouds o f dust and also gives occasion
fo r the production o f sparks. Further, the cork dust is easily inflam
mable, and its ignition produces a disastrous explosion. T o remove
this danger it might prove efficient to pass the pieces o f cork through
a magnetic separator in order to remove the particles o f iron before
they have a chance to get into the comminuting machine.
The boiling o f the linseed oil with oxidizing substances demands a
continuous stirring o f the contents o f the vessel in order to prevent
the overheating o f the oil in immediate contact with the walls o f the
vessel and to completely intermingle the oxidizing substances with
the liquid. The workmen accomplish this b y hand, continually m ov
ing a ladle in the boiling mass. This procedure is carried on by
direct heating and at a temperature (about 392° to 464° F .) consider
ably in excess o f the boiling point o f linseed oil. In this process dense,
injurious fumes escape from the frequently opened vessel and come
in contact with the workman. The steam dome over the vessel does
not offer sufficient protection, as will be shown.
I f mechanical stirrers were used they would make the continual
movement o f the oil mass possible, and would be a great protection to
the workman, who now is exposed to unbearable heat and irregu
larly escaping oil gases, but hardly dares move during the boiling and
generating process, because o f the easy ignition o f the dangerous oil.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
77
The vessel hanging down into the fire requires only to be covered
with the usual kettle dome, pierced at the apex by a stirring ladle.
The lower end o f this ladle is located in a groove at the bottom o f
the vessel. The frame-like wings o f the ladle moving through the
mass are revolved by means o f a bevel pinion. Appliances for filling,
emptying, and watching can easily be introduced into the vessel or
domes. This arrangement is very cheap and practical. It would also
aid considerably in diminishing the great annoyance caused by the
heat and the disagreeable odors generated in boiling. For the com
plete removal from the working room o f disagreeable gases arising
in cooking and boiling down the oil other measures are necessary.
From the description o f the process o f manufacture it is evident
that linseed oil possesses the property o f gradually drying and chang
ing into a tough transparent mass on exposure to the air. This is
brought about very slowly and incompletely. The property is much
more apparent if the oil has been fo r some time exposed to the
air under a higher temperature and with the addition o f certain
oxidizing substances.
The drying o f the oil varnish is not brought about by evapora
tion alone, as the public and workman assume, but by the circumstance
that the varnish absorbs oxygen and chemically changes into a solid
substance. The more rapidly the process o f oxidation goes on the
better the varnish. Experience has taught that oxidation is accom
plished more rapidly in proportion as a greater quantity o f oxygen is
introduced. This is done by the addition o f litharge, sulphate o f lead,
zinc oxide, manganese, etc. From experiments and practical experi
ence it has been found that linseed oil absorbs half its weight o f
oxygen.
The drying o f linoleum is essentially nothing more than a continua
tion o f the oxidation o f linseed oil, which naturally causes an evapora
tion. The latter can be prevented and the rate o f drying increased
by adding pure oxygen to the warm air that is introduced in the dry
ing house. B y this the evaporation is brought to a minimum and,
under careful operation, is scarcely worth mentioning.
The annoyance to the public and to the workmen o f neighboring
establishments, as well as to those who are engaged in this occupation,
is caused by the inefficient removal o f the fumes which escape from the
oil kettles. It is immaterial whether the linseed oil is cooked or boiled
down with or without chemical addition, but it is a fact that, though
the customary hoods have been built over the kettles, the escaping
fumes are removed neither rapidly nor efficiently. The hoods are
joined to a collecting tube, which receives the gases gathered up by
the former. The collecting tube carries the gases and fumes to an
iron chimney.
10615— No. M — 03----- 6
78
BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
As proof o f the statement that the gases, carried into the chimney
as above described, are not first made harmless, we might point out
the annoyances from which the neighboring plants suffer. Further,
it is due to technical defects in the plant that odoriferous and vaporous
gases can not be led into and escape from the chimney with sufficient
rapidity because o f the lack o f draft. A proof o f the defective con
struction is that a fire is kept burning at the foot o f the chimney to
obviate this deficiency. The* fire is supposed to create a draft, but
the trouble is not and can not be satisfactorily removed by this method.
The measures which should be introduced here for the purpose o f
remedying the evil are as follows: The collecting tube must enter the
chimney at an inclination, not horizontally, and must be o f a larger
diameter than at present. The gases which are caught by the hoods o f
the oil boilers must be made harmless by burning before they enter
the chimney. The assumption that the fire which is now continually
kept burning at the foot o f the chimney accomplishes this rests upon
complete ignorance o f a physical law; fo r this fire acts only as a
so-called decoy fire, as will be seen from the following:
A s the air within the chimney, on account o f its circumscribed posi
tion, is o f a different temperature than the air without, the equilibrium
o f the column o f air, which can be imagined as standing on the bottom
o f the chimney, is destroyed. I f the bottom o f the chimney were
closed the equalization between the inner and outer air could be accom
plished only by the power o f expansion and by diffusion, which in this
case would be o f no importance. If, however, an opening is made at
the bottom o f the chimney, then the equalization o f the temperatures o f
the internal and external air will induce a current to pass through the
chimney. This current o f air is from below upward, because the air
being heated at the lower opening o f the chimney becomes lighter than
the external air, and rises. The heated space below then draws a new
supply o f air from without to replace that which has been lost. This
is heated in its turn and rises. Thus a continuous circuit o f air through
the chimney from below upward is produced.
Smoke and dense vapors are not always lighter than the atmospheric
air, but have the power to partake o f the movements o f those atmos
pheric layers into which they are thrown. In the open chimney it is
therefore not the smoke, oil vapors, and varnish fumes which strive to
rise upward and escape, but it is the current o f air in the interior o f
the chimney which must (frag the smoke and varnish fumes that enter
from the collecting tube upward and Ulong with itself. This effect
can be produced only when the current o f air is strong enough to
include the smoke and odoriferous fumes. This, however, is not true
in the present case, as the facts prove.
The chimney, in short, is too low to generate a sufficiently strong
current o f air. A ll that would be necessary to remove the evil would
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
79
be a chimney o f greater height and a satisfactory introduction o f a
collecting tube into the same.
Direct dangers fo r the workman in this manufacturing process are
caused mostly by the exceedingly penetrating and evil-smelling fumes
which arise from the cooking and boiling down o f the linseed oil.
These fumes make the boiling o f oil and varnish an operation much to
be dreaded. The danger rests in the severe irritation of the mucous
membranes, the eyes, and the nose.
Further, in the customary method o f boiling the oil product is likely
to boil over on the open tire and cause severe burns to the workman.
I f litharge or similar chemicals are added to the oils, as is usually the
case, the danger o f lead poisoning is also present.
I f resins are added to the oil, they develop volatile substances which
have a very injurious influence upon the respiratory organs. The
ether oil which forms produces headaches and nausea, sometimes com
plete stupor. The irritation o f the respiratory organs may develop,
according to Eulenburg, into haemoptysis. A s already said, the com
bustion o f the fumes is the best way to prevent the vitiation o f the
atmosphere o f the whole neighborhood.
The most radical measure and the only correct one in the building
o f new plants o f this kind, which on account o f their location, or the
defects o f the establishment might bring about dangers and annoy
ances to the inhabitants o f the vicinity or the public at large, is to
forbid them entirely within city limits. I f they are built outside o f
city limits a satisfactory and permanent supervision o f the industry
must be required, and must aim especially at the protection o f the
workman.
METHOD OF DRYING IN A LINOLEUM FACTORY.
The second factory investigated in this industry comprised 25 build
ings and occupied an area o f several acres. The buildings were chiefly
constructed o f brick. A bout 250 persons are employed, and each o f
these, according to a statement o f the bookkeeper, works 55 hours a
week. The factory has founded a beneficial association which in the
case o f sickness or accident aids its members, and youthful persons
are not employed.
The purpose o f the drying methods used in this establishment is to
dry the material covered with a linoleum covering mass as rapidly as
possible and to decrease the time allowed fo r the exhalation o f the
odors. This is an important factor, as has already been sufficiently
indicated in the discussion o f another linoleum factory, where the proccess o f drying has been explained. The description o f the details o f
the form er factory applies more or less also to this factory, with the
difference, however, that no linseed oil is manufactured here.
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
In the description o f the former factory it was shown how the dry
ing process can be hastened by the introduction o f a spray o f air to
the hanging linoleum, and how the spreading o f the odors over the
surrounding country can be prevented.
Here an attempt has been made to obtain the same results by means
o f a mechanical draft. The odor which spread over a large ter
ritory about the other factory was not at all, or only very slightly,
perceptible here.
The drying apparatus consists o f five compartments, technically
known as stoves. Each o f these compartments is about 100 feet long,
11 feet 6 inches wide, and 56 feet high, with the exception o f the out
side one, which is about 50 per cent wider than the others, and is
intended to be used as a drying room fo r extra wide linoleum and
oilcloth.
In the manufacture o f goods o f this kind several things are necessary:
(1) The ability to maintain a high temperature equally distributed; (2)
the ability to change the air frequently, so that sufficient oxygen may
be obtained to properly cure the manufactured goods, which contain
a large amount o f linseed oil, and (3) after the process has reached the
proper stage, to clear the space o f objectionable odors and gases
quickly, and to reduce the temperature rapidly, so that the workmen
may enter the room and remove the material in comfort.
Under the system installed the circulation and temperature are
under complete control. The air is admitted at a low velocit}r at the
floor, and naturally tends to rise. The return ducts are so arranged
that the air may be taken back at a level o f about one-third of the
height o f the room, at two-thirds o f the height of the room, or quite
at the top o f the room. It can also, by means o f suitable dampers, be
taken in part from any one o f the three points mentioned, which makes
the control o f temperature absolutely positive, and it will be readily
seen that when the goods are sufficiently cured it is simply necessary to
shut off the steam from the heater and circulate cold air through the
stove, and the temperature is reduced very rapidly to any desired
degree.
The apparatus used in connection with this work is the well-known
Sturtevant system, consisting o f a heating coil, together with a blower
having a directly connected engine. The apparatus is very similar to
that used fo r many kinds o f work, the principal variation in this case
being its especial adaptation to this industry.
In this case it has been successful, fo r the reason that it is very com
pact in form , very positive in variation, and thoroughly controllable
under any and all conditions, atmospheric or otherwise, and can be so
quickly adjusted for wide ranges o f temperature as to meet any sud
den or unexpected demand.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
81
This method supersedes the more antiquated one o f putting steam
pipes around the room to raise the temperature to the requisite height.
They do not supply the necessary amount o f air, and, furthermore,
have a tendency to overheat those goods near them and to underheat
those farther away.
LIN SEED O IL M AN U FACTU RE.
Linseed oil is the most important and most commonly used drying
oil. It is met with in commerce as raw, refined, artists’ , and boiled
oil. Raw oil is obtained by pressure from the seeds. Refined oil is
obtained by agitating the raw oil with 1 per cent o f strong sulphuric
acid in lead-lined tanks, after which it is boiled with water or treated
with steam and the water and sediment drawn off into settle tanks.
Artists’ linseed oil is that oil which has been allowed to stand fo r
weeks or months, then treated with litharge, and finally bleached by
exposure. Other processes o f refining are also used. Raw linseed
oil possesses great drying powers, which are considerably enhanced
by the operation o f boiling. Boiled oil is therefore a most important
article to the painter. The drying power o f boiled oils is still greater
if litharge or some other dryer has been added during the operation
o f boiling. The dryer appears to act as a carrier o f oxygen to the
oil, and a definite chemical compound o f the metallic oxide with linoleic acid is formed. Both raw and boiled linseed oil are used in the
manufacture o f ordinary paints, while fo r the more delicate colors
used in the fine arts refined and artists’ oil are preferred.
The process o f manufacture in the factory investigated is as follow s:
The crude material is linseed. It is first carried to the second
story and passed through a sieve. It is then carried below and
crushed between nine sets o f rollers. By means o f elevators and con
veyors this crushed material is carried to four heaters, and after it is
sufficiently prepared is ready for the extraction o f the oil. T o this
end it is put in hydraulic presses, 20 o f which are placed side by side,
and the hot crushed seed is submitted to 3,500 pounds pressure. The
oil that is extracted is led to tanks in the cellar. A fter filtration it is
pumped into storage tanks.
Outside o f the factory building are nine iron oil tanks, which have a
capacity o f about 700,000 to 800,000 gallons o f oil. The oil is pumped
into these tanks by means o f an engine o f about 250 horsepower. The
entire factory makes a very favorable impression upon the visitor.
In the dirty and oily occupation a praiseworthy cleanliness is observed
which is worthy o f imitation. But what is even more worthy o f rec
ognition are the provisions fo r the workman in the hot press rooms,
where efficient protection has been introduced. The temperature here
rises to 125° F ., and is caused by the hot mashed linseed and its intro
duction into the presses.
82
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
F or the protection o f the workmen blowers have been arranged
beside the presses and places o f work. They lead compressed air
from a central air shaft to the workmen in a very efficient manner, so
that they in no manner suffer from the heat. Only one thing might
be here desired, namely, that the air be purified and disinfected before
it is led to the workman. This would be especially desirable here
because the whole vicinity as well as the immediate environment o f
the factory is surrounded with an atmosphere vitiated by a neighbor
ing fertilizer factory.
H ow the disinfection o f this pestilential air can be accomplished has
been explained in another place.
The follow ing is an outline o f the protective measures that should
be applied to varnish and lacquer manufacture as well as to oilcloth
and linoleum factories:
PR O T E C T IV E M E A SU R E S FO R V A R N ISH A N D LA C Q U E R
M A N U FA C TU R E , E S P E C IA L L Y F O R O IL C L O T H A N D
L IN O L E U M FACTO RIES.
1. In new plants those buildings which are to serve in the produc
tion o f lacquers and varnishes must be removed from other buildings
at quite a distance, or at least separated from them by fireproof walls.
2. In new plants the walls, ceilings, and floors must be constructed
o f fireproof materials.
3. The doors must be fireproof, set in iron or stone grooves, and
open outwardly.
4. The windows must be supplied with iron shutters, which can be
locked if there is any danger o f fire from neighboring buildings.
5. W here transportable varnish boilers and furnaces are present,
care must be taken that the oil which boils over can not come in con
tact with the fire.
6. In varnish boilers which are heated directly over the fire, the
lowest point o f the liquid must be at least 3| inches above the highest
point reached by the fire. There must also be a mark in the kettle
to indicate how far it can be filled.
7. The varnish boilers must be filled to only two-thirds o f their
capacity and supplied with an overflow channel to catch any oil which
might boil over.
8. In the immediate vicinity o f the boiling rooms of lacquer and
varnish factories a sufficient quantity o f sand must always be present
to smother the fire if necessary.
9. Vessels o f more than 10 pounds capacity must not be raised from
the fire with the hands. In the case o f larger vessels, mechanical
arrangements, such as stove trucks, windlasses, portable pans, and the
like, must be used to raise and transport them.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
83
10. Those vessels employed in boiling lacquer and varnish, in melt
ing and dissolving resins and the like, must be furnished with arrange
ments which lead the generated vapors either to the external air or
make it possible to render them harmless either by condensing or
burning them. In burning the gases and vapors an arrangement
must be made to prevent the reflux o f the flame and an explosion
which might result from it.
11. The openings, which are in the covers o f the boilers to permit
stirring and looking into them, must be fitted with irremovable slide
valves, trap valves, little doors, stoppers, or the like, which must be
opened only when necessary.
12. I f no other vents are present, a hood must be placed over the
boiler in order to carry into the chimney the vapors that escape dur
ing the temporary opening.
13. The addition o f easily inflammable substances to the molten
resins and the like, in movable boilers, must not be carried on in the
melting room or the vicinity o f fires, unless an apparatus for carrying
away the generated vapors is present and accomplishes this without
permitting them to escape into the working room. Otherwise these
operations must be carried on in a separate room or in the open air
where the generated vapors can be led away. Before the addition o f
the easily inflammable substances the draft must be shut off and the
molten resins sufficiently cooled. The crude materials must not be
stored in the boiling rooms.
14. The working and store rooms in which easily inflammable mate
rials, such as alcohol, ether, benzine, etc., are handled must be lighted
by an isolated internal or external lighting plant. H e y must be
entered only by men provided with safety lamps.
15. The heating o f these rooms must be accomplished by steam, hot
water, or stoves fed from without.
16. In those operations in which the eyes o f the employees are liable
to be injured through the scattering o f hot and caustic liquids the men
must be supplied with protective glasses and required to use them.
17. Smoking in the manufacturing and store rooms must be pro
hibited.
18. In lifting the lacquer and varnish kettles from the fire the damper
must be shut, and the openings upon which the kettles have stood must
be closed with tight-fitting covers.
19. In the boiling rooms o f varnish factories no fluids o f any kind,
not even the so-called chemical extinguishers, must be used, but only
the sand mentioned in section 8.
20. The covers o f the boilers must be kept open only as long as is
absolutely necessary.
21. The handling o f combustible liquids which may develop inflam
84
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
mable gases and vapors must be forbidden in the vicinity o f the fire
places.
22. The cleaning o f melting kettles in the working room is fo r
bidden.
23. The shoes o f the employees must be such as to offer sufficient
protection against hot liquid.
TH E M A N U F A C T U R E O F T A L L O W .
The term “ tallow ” is principally applied to the mixture of olein and
stearin obtained by rendering beef or mutton fat. Various vegetable
fats, the grease obtained by boiling or steaming bones, the solids
obtained b y the expressing o f whale and fish oil, and certain other solid
fats, however, are also known as varieties o f tallow. Inferior kinds
o f animal tallow used for soap making are known as melted stuff,
rough stuff, and town tallow, the latter being also known as kitchen stuff
or pot grease and consisting o f the waste obtained in cooking opera
tions. Varieties whose names depend on the places o f export are
known as River Plata, North American, and Western tallow.
So
important is the tallow industry that in South America and Australia
immense numbers o f cattle were form erly slaughtered and boiled
down for their tallow alone.
The arrangement employed for rendering fat consists o f a strong
iron cylinder, having a charging hole, a manhole near the bottom for
discharging the refuse, taps for drawing off the fats, water-supply
valves, steam-supply valves, and a waste valve. The charge is heated
by steam supplied at 60 to 80 pounds pressure which circulates through
the coil beneath a perforated false bottom supporting the fat, and
water is supplied when necessary. A fter six to eight hours the tallow
is drawn off, alone or with water, by opening the upper or lower tap.
There are a series o f cylinders o f 1,200 to 1,500 gallons capacity
employed in rendering the fats when the tissues are not required in a
condition otherwise than is suitable fo r manure. The cylinders are
filled above a false bottom with the crude fat, and steam is admitted
by a foot valve and perforated pipe at 50 pounds or even as high as
100 pounds pressure. A cock is opened to allow escape of condensed
water when spurting occurs on opening a try cock. A fter ten to
fifteen hours the steam is cut off and the cock and safety valves are
opened, and, after settling, the layer o f tallow is drawn off through a
series o f cocks. The cover o f a discharge hole in the bottom o f the
cylinder is then raised by a rod, and the residue falls into the tub
beneath.
To remove the last traces o f tissue it is necessary fo r the tallow to
be washed, melted, and strained. This process extracts more tallow
from the fat than any other. Sometimes the fat is rendered at the
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
85
atmospheric pressure by boiling a mixture o f the fat with one-fourth
its bulk o f water containing 2 to 3 per cent o f sulphuric acid.
The quality o f tallow varies with the species, age, and sex o f the
animal, and with the part o f the body from which it is obtained. A n i
mals fed on brewery refuse usually yield a tallow containing a lower
proportion o f stearin. Mutton tallow contains the largest proportion
o f stearin, and is whiter than beef tallow.
Tallow consists principally o f stearin, olein, and palmitin, the two
form er largely predominating. Pure tallow is white and almost taste
less, but the commercial product is usually yellowish. W hen saponi
fied it yields about 94 to 95 per cent o f fatty acids. Tallow melts
between 100° to 120° F ., the best varieties melting at about 110°. It
may be distilled in vacuo, but is decomposed when distilled with super
heated steam into oleic, stearic, and palmitic acids, with separation o f
glycerin.
Commercial tallow frequently contains a considerable quantity of
free fatty acid and is often adulterated with cotton-seed stearin, bone
fat, the distilled fatty acids from wool grease, and other fats more
easily melted than stearin. Starch, china clay, and whiting are also
used as adulterants.
Several processes are in use fo r bleaching and purifying tallow and
stearin in addition to the mechanical methods o f subsidence and filtra
tion under pressure from a head o f the liquefied tallow. By one p roc
ess tallow fo r soap making is bleached by driving air through it in
finely divided streams while heated to from 180° to 200° F. With
ordinary tallow this process requires from ten to fifteen hours.
The tallow is sometimes agitated with potassium carbonate and
allowed to settle before treatment. It may also be bleached by boil
ing with a solution o f bleaching powder in the proportion o f 1 per
cent, or o f potassium chlorate in the proportion o f less than 0.3 per
cent o f the tallow, with addition o f hydrochloric or sulphuric acid.
A mixture o f manganese dioxide and hydrochloric or sulphuric acid
may also be used.
Tallow is said to be largely bleached by the following process: It is
partly saponified by heating with soda and salt solution, and the upper
and lower saponified layers are drawn off for making curd soap; the
middle, unsaponified portion being filtered through linen, heated to
boiling with a 2£ to 3 per cent solution o f alum fo r fifteen minutes,
and left fo r three to five hours. It is then again heated to from 338° to
392° F. to complete the bleaching, care being taken to arrest the heat
if any unpleasant smell is observed. The fat treated by this process
should not be rancid, neither should it be too fresh.
There is also a method o f purifying in which the melted fat is
agitated at 150° to 212° with a solution o f potassium permanganate
and sufficient dilute sulphuric acid to render the whole distinctly acid.
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BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR.
A fter an hour the liquid is settled and the fat is drawn off and remelted
in water.
Stearic acid may be bleached by agitation with 5 per cent o f sul
phuric acid diluted with 10 per cent o f water. A fter settling and
removal o f the acid water with the aid o f washing, purification may
be completed by stirring in water containing the whites o f 25 eggs to
each 100 pounds o f stearin and heating by steam. The albumen rises
as a scum, containing most o f the chemical impurities.
The tallow factory studied in connection with this investigation is
chiefly concerned in the consumption o f meat offal and bones. These
materials are collected in the city where the factory is located and
taken to the factory in wagons.
In this factory the follow ing unsanitary conditions were found:
Everyone doubtless has noticed the horrible stench which remains
when a wagon loaded with the materials used in such factories passes
along the street. That emitted in unloading such a wagon in the fac
tory is almost indescribable. W hen the factory was visited such wag
ons were being unloaded. A fter the larger bones have been assorted,
the stinking mass o f flesh, consisting mostly o f small particles, is
loaded on carts and taken to the second story by an elevator. There
it is put in the four large digesters and passes through the boiling
process, which, on the average, lasts three hours. A fter the contents
are removed they are pressed and then spread on the floor for drying.
The oil and fat is stored in barrels and transported in them. The
residue is used in the manufacture o f fertilizers.
In the first place the collection o f the stinking meat offal and bones
on the public streets and its transportation on the same ought to be
prohibited. This can only be brought about if the offal is stored in
hermetically sealed cans and hauled to the factory in the latter. These
cans may be made similar to those in which human excrement is trans
ported through the streets.
The employment o f this method has the advantage that in unload
ing the wagons the workmen are no longer compelled to inhale noxious
organic odors o f putrefying masses o f meat, which without any ques
tion are injurious to the health. M oreover, it is possible by means o f
these hermetically sealed cans to bring the stinking masses directly
to the second story and empty their contents into the digesters. In
this way the stench on the street and during transportation to the
factory rooms is prevented. I f it is necessary that the collected meat
offal and the bones be assorted in the factory before they are further
used, a place o f collection should be built, entirely separated from all
other buildings. This place should be connected with the factory
chimney by means o f a flue. The latter would consume a large por
tion o f the gaseous odors o f the organic and decomposing mass, and the
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
87
remainder would be carried high in the air, where they would be scat
tered by atmospheric disturbances and thus not cause any annoyance.
It would be still better to burn the organic fumes before carrying
them to the chimney. This could be accomplished by the introduction
o f a special furnace between the chimney and the storage room. The
gas-impregnated air could be introduced into the furnace by means o f
a steam-jet injector or ventilator, and thence passed into the chimney.
This arrangement would accomplish a further purpose in removing
the great swarms o f flies and preventing their settling, and also
decrease the annoyance which the workmen suffer from them now.
It is true that an arrangement fo r the removal o f the fumes during
the boiling and emptying process has been introduced in the factory,
but it does not serve its purpose. It would be o f great sanitary benefit,
too, if the masses o f already heated bone which lie on the factory floors
were stored in distinct barrels, supplied with a similar ventilating
apparatus. On the whole, the entire factory should be supplied with
a permanent, thoroughly efficient system o f ventilation.
It is also to be noted that the workmen freely handle the offal in
order to assort those parts which seem unsuited for use. The danger
o f blood poisoning is very great, but it can be prevented if in such
work the men are supplied with gloves.
TH E F E R T IL IZ E R IN D U STRY.
THE MANUFACTURE OF FERTILIZERS.
A description o f the process o f the manufacture o f fertilizers and o f
the materials used will give a sufficient basis fo r a consideration o f the
defects o f the plants engaged in their manufacture, as well as for
efficient propositions for removing such defects.
Manures are sometimes classed as general and special. The former
class embraces those which answer most o f the requirements o f a crop.
They can thus be used alone and admit a pretty general application.
Special manures, on the other hand, supply few — occasionally but one—
o f the elements o f plant food, and are applied in certain cases only,
but most frequently used in mixture with other manures. The prin
cipal artificial manures having a claim to be considered general are
seaweed, fish manure, and oil cakes.
Seaweed is largely used in some localities near the sea. When quite
fresh seaweed contains about 80 per cent o f water. Its composition
varies a good deal. The proportion o f nitrogen and potash in fresh sea
weed is thus very similar to that in farmyard manure, while the phos
phoric acid is deficient.
The application o f fish not suited for other purposes to the fields
as manure has been practiced in certain parts o f the country for a num
ber o f years. In many districts on the seacoast, where fishing is the
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BULLETIN OE THE DEPARTMENT OE LABOR.
chief industry, the only way o f disposing o f a superabundant catch of
herrings, fo r example, has been to utilize them as a manure. From
such a practice has sprung up what is now an important and everincreasing industry, viz, the manufacture o f fish guano*
This guano varies considerably in quality, according to the nature o f
the process employed and as to whether made from whole fish or
merely from fish offal. The latter process is the common one. The
manufacture is carried on at the fish-curing stations, and the quality
o f the guano made from this source is somewhat different from that
made from whole fish, fo r a large portion o f the fish offal is made up o f
bones and heads. The best quality o f this guano may contain as
much as 10 per cent o f nitrogen, but as a rule it is nearer 8 per cent.
A very considerable variation occurs in the amount o f phosphoric
acid, owing to the fact that the guano made from fish scrap is natu
rally much richer in this ingredient than whole-fish guano. The phos
phoric acid may be said to range from 4 to 15 per cent, besides there is
present a small quantity o f potash. Guano is also manufactured from
the carcasses o f whales. Such guano contains from
to 8£ per cent
o f nitrogen and about 13£ per cent o f phosphoric acid.
A fish guano is manufactured to a considerable extent from a coarse
variety o f herring. This fish is caught fo r its oil, which is extracted
by boiling. The residue is manufactured into guano after pressing.
That fish guano is a valuable manure there can be no doutot. W hat
impairs its value is the fact that, as a rule, it contains a certain amount
o f oil. The effect o f the oil is to retard fermentation and decompo
sition when the guano is applied to the soil, and this renders its action
slower than would otherwise be the case. It is mixed with farmyard
manure and also with superphosphate o f lime.
F or many years guano occupied the first place among our commercial
manures. The best and largest deposits are now exhausted, although
a considerable quantity still remains.
Guano has been form ed from the excrement and carcasses o f seafowl. The fresh excrement is highly nitrogenous, and consists chiefly
o f acid and calcium phosphate. I f the climate is hot and dry, the
excrements are quickly dried and the nitrogenous matter preserved.
This has been the case fo r instance on the rainless coast o f Peru. In
a moist climate the nitrogenous matter is quickly converted into ammo
nia and dissipated by evaporation or drainage, and a phosphatic
guano practically destitute o f nitrogen remains.
In a dry Peruvian guano the nitrogen chiefly occurs as uric acid and
water, and a smaller proportion as ammonia salts. A damp guano
contains more ammonia and smells strongly o f ammonium carbonate.
Some o f the Peruvian guanos contain distinct amounts o f nitrates.
The phosphoric acid exists chiefly as finely divided calcium phosphate;
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
89
besides this, some is present as ammonium phosphate, and as phos
phates o f other alkalis. A portion o f the phosphate is readily soluble
in water. Guano is an extremely valuable manure, supplying to
larger or smaller degree all the essential constituents o f plant food in
a condition readily assimilated by the plant, or acquiring that condi
tion very soon after admixture with the soil.
Guano is treated generally with 25 to 30 per cent o f sulphuric acid by
which means the ammonium carbonate is neutralized, the urates largely
converted into ammonium salts, and the calcium phosphate rendered
soluble. This process is o f considerable advantage in the case o f damp
guanos. Besides Peruvian, the only other nitrogenous guanos imported
are from South A frica and Patagonia. The South African guanos origi
nally found were phosphatic; these have been removed and a fresh
deposit o f the birds is now annually collected from several islands oppo
site the west and south coast o f Africa. These guanos being fresh
deposits are generally rich in nitrogen and comparatively poor in phos
phates. The small deposits found in the islands off the California
coast may be considered as intermediate between the two classes o f
nitrogenous and phosphatic guanos.
The ancient deposits o f guano occurring in climates in which rain is
frequent have lost almost all o f their nitrogenous matter. They are,
when freed from sand or rock, o f great value as phosphatic manures
and have been much used for the manufacture o f high-class super
phosphates. Some o f these guanos have been considerably altered bv
the action o f water and other natural chemical agents. One common
result o f this action is the formation o f u crusts,” consisting largely o f
calcium phosphate containing considerably less calcium than tricalcic
phosphate, and therefore o f special value as manure. Gypsum is also
present in some cases to a considerable extent.
Cheap or damaged oil cakes or cakes unfit for food (as castor) are
employed to a small extent as manure. They contain 4 to 7 per cent
o f nitrogen, 1.5 to 3 per cent phosphoric anhydride, and 1 to 2 per
cent potash.
Large quantities o f nitrate o f soda and sulphate o f ammonia are
found in stock rooms. Their nature and characteristics as a manure
may be briefly summed up as follow s: Nitrate o f soda is a whitish,
crystalline salt, extremely soluble, and is quickly diffused in the soil.
It contains 95 per cent o f pure nitrate o f soda— i. e., 15£ per cent o f
nitrogen, equal to about 19 per cent o f ammonia. Next to sulphate o f
ammonia it is the most concentrated nitrogenous manure. The rela
tive quantity o f nitrogen in these two manures is as 3 is to 4. Nitrate
o f soda contains nitrogen in the most valuable and readily assimilable
form. It is, as nitric acid, the form into which all nitrogen must first
be converted before it becomes available for plant use.
The oldest and still the chief sources o f sulphate o f ammonia are the
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
gas works, where it is obtained as a by-product. It is also obtained
to a lesser extent from shale, iron, coke, and carbonizing works and
from bones, horn, leather, and certain other animal substances rich in
nitrogen, when subjected to dry distillation, as is the case in certain
manufactures, such as bone charcoal (used in sugar refineries). The
distillation o f horn, etc., and the manufacture o f prussiate o f potash
also constitute less abundant sources.
The coal used in gas works contains on an average from a half to
one and a half per cent o f nitrogen. When it is subjected to dry dis
tillation, as is done in the gas works, the nitrogen is chiefly converted
into ammonia, and in the process o f purification is removed with the
gas liquor, which contains about 1 per cent o f ammonia. The ammonia
recovered from this liquor by distillation is then absorbed in sulphuric
acid. It may be pointed out that not nearly all the nitrogen contained
in the coal is recovered as sulphate o f ammonia.
Next to the gas works the shale works form the chief source for this
valuable manure. In these works the ammonia is obtained in distilling
the paraffin shale by a method somewhat similar to that in use in the
gas works. Recently ammonia has been recovered from the blast-fur
nace gases in iron works. Thousands o f tons are annually obtained in
this way. From coke and carbonizing works the annual production
is about half that obtained from iron works.
Pure sulphate o f ammonia is a whitish, crystalline salt, extremely
soluble in water. The commercial article, however, is generally gray
ish or brownish in color, owing to the presence o f slight quantities o f
impurities. The pure salt contains 25.75 per cent o f ammonia; the
commercial article about 24.5 per cent. The chief impurities which
it is likely to contain are an excess o f moisture, free acid, or insoluble
matter. Some samples contain small quantities o f ammonium sulphocyanate, a substance extremely poisonous to plants. Sulphate o f
ammonia is thus the most concentrated o f all nitrogenous manures in
common use, and is fo r that reason the most expensive.
H oofs and horns form a regular source o f artificial nitrogenous
manure, the latter being obtained as a by-product in the manufac
ture o f combs and other articles. They are stored in the form o f
a fine powder, and in order to increase their rate o f action, which is
very slow, they are often composted with horse manure before use.
They have also been composted with slacked lime. There can be no
doubt that such treatment increases their value considerably. The
percentage o f nitrogen seems to vary much according to the animal
from which they are derived. In nine samples o f horn the nitrogen
was found to vary from 7£ to 14£ per cent, giving an average o f 11£
per cent. The nitrogen seems rarely to exceed 15 per cent. The
amount o f phosphoric acid has been found by various investigators to
range from 6 to 10 per cent.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
91
Also, torrefied horn has been used. This is a horn which has been
subjected to the action of steam. The nitrogen in this material is con
sidered to be more active than in ordinary horn.
Ground hoof is very similar in composition to horn and contains
about 14 to 15 per cent o f nitrogen. Considerable quantities are now
used. It must be remembered, however, that horns, hoofs, hair,
bristles, etc., although rich in nitrogen, possess a comparatively low
value as manure.
Dried blood is a very valuable manure, its nitrogenous matter
becoming readily available to the crop after mixing it with the soil.
Perfectly dry blood contains 16 per cent nitrogen and 4 per cent ash,
o f which one-half is common salt. The commercial-article contains 9
to 12 per cent nitrogen; 10.3 per cent is about the average.
Leather has also been used as a manure. Its nitrogen ranges from 4
to 6 per cent, and it may safely be called the least valuable o f the
nitrogenous manures. Leather is from its very nature admirably
adapted to resist decomposition when applied to the soil, and unless it
is reduced to a very fine condition it will remain undecomposed fo r a
long period. Torrefied leather, however, is probably o f greater value.
It is obtained in the same way as the torrefied horn, already referred
to— namely, by treatment with steam. The grease and fatty matters
which so largely aid it in resisting decomposition being extracted, it
is much better suited fo r purposes o f manure than ordinary leather.
Torrefied leather contains from 5 to 8 per cent o f nitrogen.
What is called meat-meal guano is generally that made from the
carcasses o f cattle after they have been treated for their meat extract.
The meat meal. is used both fo r feeding and manuring purposes.
Considerable quantities are imported. It is a valuable manure, espe
cially so fo r its nitrogen, which varies from 4 to 8 per cent, while it
contains from 13 to 20 per cent phosphoric acid. Some meat-meal
guanos contain as much as 11 per cent o f nitrogen.
In some parts o f the world, more especially in Germany, the car
casses o f horses, as well as cattle, dogs, pigs, etc., which have died o f
disease, are converted into guano. They are subjected to treatment by
steam in digesters. By this means the fat and gelatin are separated and
utilized, while the remaining portion o f the animal is converted into
guano. Other processes are also employed. The resulting manure
contains from 6 to 10 per cent o f nitrogen and from 6 to 14 per cent
o f phosphoric acid.
Meat-meal guano is a valuable nitrogenous manure. The same gen
eral remarks apply to it as to fish guano, although it ferments very
much more quickly than the latter and is undoubtedly a more valuable
manure.
Manure made from waste wool products is a material extensively
manufactured and was form erly much used as a manure. There are
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BULLETIN' OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
three qualities— the first containing 8 to 12 per cent o f nitrogen, the
second 6 to 8 per cent, and the third 5 to 8 per cent. Shoddy is by
no means a very valuable manure. W oolen waste products were fo r
merly much richer in nitrogen than is now the case. This is owing to
the now prevalent adulteration o f w ool with cotton. Pure woolen
rags should contain 17 to 18 per cent o f nitrogen. It has been recom
mended to treat woolen waste with caustic alkali before using it as a
manure. This renders the nitrogen more available and has other
advantages to recommend it.
Soot obtained in the usual way generally contains about 3 per cent
o f nitrogen. This is chiefly in the form o f sulphate o f ammonia and
small quantities o f potash and phosphates. A varying proportion o f
nitrogen is present in the form o f ammonia salts, and this undoubtedly
confers upon soot its value as manure. It has long been used as a top
dressing fo r young grain and grass, and has been applied at the rate
o f from 40 to 60 bushels per acre. It has an indirect value as a slug
destroyer.
Bones are still used in a variety o f conditions, such as in the raw or
green state, bruised, boiled, steamed, fermented, burnt, dissolved, and
broken, or they are ground to various degrees o f fineness, to which the
names o f £-inch bones, i-in ch bones, bone meal, bone dust, and floated
bones are given.
In the early methods bones were fermented before being used in
order to render their action more speedy when applied to the soil.
This fermentation was often effected simply by mixing the bones with
water and allowing them to lie for a week or two. In other cases the
bones were mixed with urine or other refuse matter. The most gen
eral method is to pour sulphuric acid on them.
The composition o f bone tissue varies considerably, and depends on
the age and kind o f animal to which it belongs, as well as on the part
o f the animal it is taken from . Bones are made up o f an organic and
an inorganic part. B y steeping a piece o f bone in dilute acid the
inorganic portion o f the bone is dissolved out and the organic portion,
which fills the framework o f the bone, is left. On the other hand, by
submitting a bone to the action o f great heat the organic portion o f
the bone is driven off and all that remains is a quantity o f ash.
The proportion o f the organic to the inorganic matter varies consid
erably in different bones. The bones o f young animals contain more
organic matter than those o f old animals. In compact bones the inor
ganic matter is greater than in spongy bones. The thigh bone con
tains most inorganic matter. The short bones which have to bear the
greatest strain are richest in inorganic matter. O f the bones o f ani
mals, fish bones exhibit the greatest variety o f composition, some being
almost entirely made up o f organic matter, while others are similar in
their composition to the bones o f quadrupeds.
93
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
The organic portion o f bones is almost entirely made up o f a sub
stance to which the name ossein has been given and which, when boiled
fo r a long time, is converted into gelatin. This ossein, which forms
on an average from 25 to 30 per cent o f the weight o f bones, is
extremely rich in nitrogen, containing over 18 per cent.
The inorganic portion, which form s about 70 per cent, is made up
chiefly o f phosphate o f lime. The dry leg bones of oxen and sheep
have the follow ing composition:
Per cent.
Phosphate of lim e..........................................................................................................58
Carbonate o f lim e ........................................................................................................ 6
Phosphate o f m agn esia.............................................................................................. 1
Fluoride of calcium .....................................................................................................
Organic m atter................................................................................................................25
to 63
to 7
to 2
2
to 30
Raw bones contain 6 i per cent o f nitrogen and 8 per cent o f water.
Bones are used for the manufacture o f glue and gelatin. These are
extracted by steaming the bones. The bones after this treatment are
used as manure.
The fat present in raw bones retards their
decomposition in the soil.
Probably it forms along with lime an
insoluble soap, which prevents the mineral matter in the bone from
being dissolved by the carbonic acid o f the soil. In the process o f
boiling or steaming a certain loss o f nitrogen takes place, greater or
less, according to the length o f time they are boiled or steamed, and
the pressure applied. A more economical method for extracting the
fat has been introduced by using benzine. This process is not used
to any extent. The loss o f nitrogen in the former case is more than
compensated for by their more speedy action as a manure when applied
to the soil. Bone meal o f good quality contains from 45 to 55 per
cent o f phosphate o f lime and 3£ per cent o f nitrogen.
It is well known that bones are a slow-acting manure. They may
be said to possess both a mechanical and chemical action when applied
to the soil. When they putrefy their nitrogen is slowly converted
into ammonia, and carbonic acid as well hs various organic acids are
formed, which, acting upon the insoluble mineral matter in the bones,
render it available for plant uses. Bones, when applied in large
quantities, may act not merely as direct suppliers o f plant food, but in
the course o f their putrefaction they may act upon a certain amount o f
the inert fertilizing matter o f the soil, and render it available. The
more readily, then, that bones putrefy the more speedy will be their
effect.
A s already pointed out, bones, in order to increase their efficiency,
are often fermented before application. The removal o f the fat is
another means o f increasing the rate o f their action, but the fineness
to which they are ground determines this more than anything else.
10615— No. 44— 03----- 7
94
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
Much ingenuity has been expended in perfecting machinery for grind
ing bones. A t one time in Germany they were pounded in stamps
similar to those used fo r ore.
In this country what has been called “ floated bon e” has been pre
pared. This bone is so fine that it actually floats in the air like flour
dust, and is made by whirling the bones against one another in machines.
The action o f bones prepared in this way is, o f course, very speedy,
but the difficulty o f applying a manure in such a fine state o f division
to the soil is great. The expense o f the process is also considerable.
The ease with which finely ground bones putrefy is evinced by the fact
that bone flour has to be salted in order to preserve it. Fermenta
tion, as already seen, requires a plentiful supply o f air and a certain
amount, but not too much, o f moisture.
In view, therefore, o f what has just been said, it might seem best to
use bones in the form in which they are most speedily available or as
dissolved bones. This would be so if the bones were the only source
we possessed fo r the manufacture o f superphosphate o f lime; but we
now have in the various abundant mineral phosphates much more
abundant and cheaper sources fo r this valuable ipanure. Another
reason against dissolving bones is to be found in the difficulty expe
rienced in dissolving their phosphates. Bones, especially when raw,
are not easily acted upon by acids.
Dissolved bones, however, are still manufactured. Formerly the
manure called dissolved bone was often a mixture o f mineral super
phosphate and undissolved bone meal. The composition o f dissolved
bones varies somewhat, the percentage o f soluble phosphate being
about 20 to 23 per cent, the insoluble amounting to from 9 to 10 per
cent, and the nitrogen from 2£ to 3£ per cent.
The bone ash which is left after burning bones was once an article o f
considerable importance as a manure. It is still imported from South
America and is now used chiefly in the pottery industry. It is still
used occasionally in the manufacture o f high-class superphosphates and
is extremely rich in phosphate of lime, o f which it contains between
70 and 80 per cent. It is devoid o f nitrogen. Bone ash is best used
in a dissolved form , as it possesses no characteristic action such as
bones possess.
When heated in a closed retort bones are not converted into bone
ash, but into a body called bone char. This body is similar in com po
sition to bone ash, except fo r a certain percentage o f charcoal, amount
ing on an average to 10 per cent. It contains but little nitrogen or
other organic matter.
In the manufacture o f steel by the basic process, there is a large
percentage o f waste product, which is known as basic slag. This slag
contains about 50 per cent lime, 4 per cent magnesia, 2 per cent
alumina, 14 per cent iron oxide, 5 per cent manganese oxide, 10 to 25
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
95
per cent phosphoric pentoxide (average 17 per cent), and 8 per cent
silica. The process has been adopted to a very large extent.
For several years the slag was regarded as valueless. The large
amount o f iron present led agricultural chemists to believe that the
phosphoric anhydride would not prove available to plants, while the
ferrous oxide would probably be injurious. It is now known that the
phosphoric anhydride in the slag is almost wholly combined with cal
cium, and that this calcium phosphate is easily disintegrated, rendered
soluble in the soil, and that no ill effects arise from the presence o f
the ferrous oxide. Tetra-calcic phosphate is apparently the combina
tion in which most o f the phosphorus occurs. A bout 1.5 per cent o f
the total phosphorus exists as iron phosphide, which is changed into
phosphate in the soil. The phosphate in the slag is not soluble in
water. It is dissolved to a considerable extent by a solution o f
ammonium citrate.
T o be effective the slag must be very finely ground. It should pass
through a sieve having 10,000 meshes to the square inch. The grind
ing requires special machinery. It is advisable to break it first under
stamps, to further reduce it between rollers, then to place it between
separate pieces o f iron by passing over slanting sieves, and, finally, to
grind it between millstones.
Phosphatic minerals which are unsuitable for the manufacture o f
superphosphate, either from their poverty in phosphates or from the
presence o f an objectionable amount o f iron oxide or alumina, are
sometimes treated with acid. The calcium phosphate is dissolved out
and then recovered by precipitation. By a previous calcination the
ferric oxide and alumina o f the mineral may frequently be rendered
more insoluble. By the use o f cold or weak acid many o f these
objectionable ingredients may be left undissolved.
The solution in acid is then precipitated in lime, chalk, or solution
o f calcium sulphydrate, prepared by acting on alkali waste with a solu
tion o f hydrogen sulphide. I f the addition o f the neutralizing base is
stopped while the solution is still acid, the precipitate will consist
chiefly o f dicalcic phosphate. A solution o f calcium sulphydrate is the
best precipitant. Its addition should cease as soon as a dark color
indicates the formation o f some iron sulphide.
The phosphates previously mentioned may be applied directly to the
soil with good effect if in the condition o f fine powder. Many phos
phatic deposits are, however, too hard and insoluble to be used eco
nomically in this manner. They are treated with sulphuric acid and
converted into superphosphates.
The phosphate to be employed is first thoroughly dried and then
reduced to an extremely fine powder. Considerable improvements
have been effected lately, both in respect to economy in the grinding
and in the degree o f fineness attained. When the material is in masses
96
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
it is first broken into small pieces by a stone crusher. It is then trans
ferred to a mill and ground by edge stones on a revolving bed. The
dust is separated from the product by a fan and the grit fed to ordinary
horizontal millstones. A separator is o f great use in removing the
fine dust from partly ground products, thus enabling the remaining
grit to be reduced to powder with a smaller consumption o f power.
The Sturtevant (centrifugal) mill is also employed for reducing phos
phates to powder. The finer the powder obtained the more complete
will be the action o f the sulphuric acid.
The sulphuric acid employed has a specific gravity o f i.57. A cid o f
this strength is, o f course, preferred on the ground o f economy. It
is essential, however, that the acid contain water, as the dryness o f
the product is determined by the formation o f gypsum. The propor
tion o f water necessarily depends on the composition o f the materials
and the nature o f the reaction. I f free phosphoric acid and gypsum
are the result o f the reaction the sulphuric acid used should have
1.65 as its maximum specific gravity. I f hydrated mono calcic phos
phate is the product form ed the maximum specific gravity o f the
sulphuric acid will be 1.55. I f the material contains calcium carbonate
or fluoride, these constituents will require acid o f 1.78 specific gravity
for their conversion into gypsum. In practice the weak chamber
acid answers well. Some water is lost as steam during the mixing,
and a certain proportion o f moisture does not injure the texture o f the
superphosphate if it contains a sufficient amount o f gypsum. It is
clear, however, that when dealing with a phosphate containing much
carbonate or fluoride, an acid somewhat stronger than ordinary cham
ber acid is to be preferred.
The proportion o f sulphuric acid to be used depends, o f course, on
the composition o f the phosphatic material. Theoretically, 100 parts
o f tricalcic phosphate will require 94 of sulphuric acid, specific gravity
1.6, or 100 o f sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1.55, if monocalcic phos
phate is to be produced. One-half more acid must be used to produce
phosphoric acid. The proportion o f sulphuric acid used in practice is
usually as large a one as can be employed without endangering the
dryness o f the product. It is generally somewhat in excess o f that
needed to produce monocalcic phosphate, but is considerably below
that required to yield only phosphoric acid. F or South Carolina
river phosphate (the phosphate most largely used) the ordinary pro
portion is 90 per cent o f sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1.57.
The excess o f lime present in the material (as carbonate or fluoride)
is the principal factor in determining the quantity o f sulphuric acid to
be employed. One hundred parts o f lime will require 260 parts o f
acid, specific gravity 1.6, or 277 parts o f acid, specific gravity 1.55, to
produce calcium phosphate. Phosphates containing a considerable
excess o f lime will yield a poorer phosphate than their percentage o f
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
97
phosphoric acid would seem to warrant, owing to the large proportion
o f sulphuric acid which they require. Siliceous matter is the least
harmful impurity in a mineral phosphate, as it consumes no sulphuric
acid. T o prepare a mineral superphosphate the only ingredients
required are the powdered phosphate and sulphuric acid. When
turnip manure or other manures containing a little nitrogen are pre
pared, crushed bones, powdered hoof and horn, shoddy, or ammonium
salts are added in mixing the ingredients. Superphosphate is very
seldom made from bone alone, as it is difficult to obtain a dry product,
and the proportion o f soluble phosphate yielded is but small. Socalled dissolved bone is usually prepared from a mixture o f mineral
phosphate, bone, and some concentrated nitrogenous matter. The
mixer in which the reaction takes place stands on a platform over an
empty chamber known as the pit. It consists o f a wooden cylinder,
sometimes nearly horizontal, sometimes vertical, furnished in the
center with a revolving shaft, carrying arms set on screw wires. Into
this mixer the charge o f weighed dust is emptied, bag by bag, while
at the same time a measured quantity o f sulphuric acid is run in from
a tank. W hen the charge is completed it is agitated fo r two minutes;
a valve is then opened, and the whole contents o f the m ixer (about 16
hundredweight) are allowed to fall into the pit below. Ten charges
can be easily worked in one hour. The pit below is usually built o f
brick or concrete on three sides. The fourth side consists o f a wooden
boarding which is taken down when the pit is being emptied. A pit
will hold about 140 tons. The fluid material which enters the pit
rapidly reaches a temperature considerably exceeding 100°, and then
becomes solid. In a day or two it is dug out with pickaxes.
The gases given off during the reaction, both from mixer and pit,
are particularly offensive, especially when the phosphate contains
fluorides. Both mixer and pit are provided with flues connected with
a fan, by which all the gases are removed, made harmless in a scrub
ber, and then conducted to a tall chimney.
Superphosphates are porous. They are reduced to powder by being
passed through disintegrators, and if mixed manures are to be made,
the other ingredients are added during this process. Corn, grass,
mangel, and potato manure are produced by the addition o f ammo
nium sulphate or other nitrogenous material, with or without potash
salts. Sodium nitrate can not safely be added to superphosphate,
unless the latter is very dry. I f this precaution is neglected, free
nitric acid is produced, the manure bags are destroyed, and serious
troubles may occur. T o employ ammonium sulphate and sodium
nitrate together is still more objectionable, as ammonium nitrate is
formed. Even when it does not defer decomposition it ruins the
manure by its tendency to become liquid.
98
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
It was form erly supposed that the soluble phosphate produced con
sisted almost entirely o f monocalcic phosphate. It is now recognized
that often a large part o f the soluble phosphate consists o f free phos
phoric acid. In the first stage o f the reaction phosphoric acid alone
is probably produced, and this afterwards reacts on the remaining
undecomposed phosphate. The proportion o f free phosphoric acid in
the resulting manure is greater when strong sulphuric acid has been
employed, because the total soluble acid has been diminished. When
superphosphates are dried at 100°, a loss o f soluble phosphoric acid
occurs. This loss becomes much greater when a higher temperature
is employed. Monocalcic phosphate can, in fact, exist only when in
union with water. A further reaction which is o f great practical
moment to the manufacturer of superphosphate is the loss o f soluble
phosphate while the material is stored. The regenerated insoluble
phosphate is known as reverted phosphate. This deterioration during
storage is not observed in superphosphate prepared from finely ground
mineral phosphate which contains no appreciable quantity o f iron or
aluminium, but it is observed only when ferric oxide or alumina is
present. In few o f the phosphates employed is any considerable
amount o f the phosphoric acid combined with iron or aluminium. In
some phosphates, as Carolina river phosphate, the iron is apparently
present as pyrites, or as ferrous silicate, and exercises no injurious
influence. In many other phosphates the iron exists as ferric oxide.
Ordinary superphosphate is made from a mixture o f phosphates, and
contains 25 to 27 per cent o f dissolved phosphate and 2 to 3 per cent o f
undissolved phosphate. Superphosphate containing 30 to 31 per cent
dissolved phosphate can be produced from good Carolina phosphate.
Far richer superphosphates are obtained by various other processes.
These superphosphates have a special value where manure has to be
conveyed a long distance.
A N INVESTIGATION OF FERTILIZER FACTORIES.
The fertilizer factory first investigated diffuses its penetrating odors
and gases over a wide extent o f territory and causes great annoyance.
A ll the buildings o f the plant, which, according to the statements o f
the proprietors, are about 28 years old, consist mostly o f dilapidated
wooden structures.
The following products are manufactured in this factory: Two
brands o f potato manure; rectified phosphate; fishbone and potash;
No. 1 bone phosphate; farmers’ ammonia bone phosphate; grain and
grass special; all crop phosphate; soluble bone and potash; special
top dressing for grass; bone dust; special compounds.
The bone stock house is divided into several compartments by means
o f wooden partitions. Close by is the mill for the grinding o f the
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
99
bones, which are stored in the bone stock house. A fter being ground
they are carried to the second story by means o f an elevator, sifted,
and put into bags.
The establishment is further divided into stock rooms, mixing rooms,
tank rooms, storage rooms, and storerooms for the crude material.
A railroad switch leads into the building, by means o f which various
materials are taken in and out. The chimney, made o f iron, is 52
feet high. Below the railroad track are tanks for the storage o f lowgrade (12 per cent) potash, city refuse, etc. The factory, according
to the statement o f the foreman, produces about 5,000 tons annually.
The number o f men employed varies with the time o f the year and
the demands o f the trade. A t the time o f the investigation only 13
men were at work. The foreman who has been employed here had
typhoid fever a number o f years ago. On an examination o f the men
employed in the conversion o f raw bones it was discovered that they
had been employed only two or three years, and according to their
statement had never been ill. T o obtain a correct conception o f the
sources o f the noxious odors it is necessary first o f all to take into
consideration all those substances and materials which are stored here
and employed in production.
Dust, gas, and stench are diffused to an incredible extent by this
factory. Defective transportation, filling, and repacking arrange
ments fo r the powdered crude material and end products aid greatly
in this, as well as the entirely unnecessary handling o f shovels, brooms,
and spades. Besides, there is inefficient protection from the dust
generating apparatus and machines, and large quantities o f harmful,
even dangerous, dust are whirled about by every breath o f air and by
the continual traffic. The stairs which lead up to the acid mixers,
which, by the way, are too narrow and too close to the driving belts
o f the machinery, are covered finger-thick with dirt and dust.
The greatest cleanliness should be insisted upon. The escape o f the
dust and gases generated during the acid process should be avoided as
far as possible, and where this can not be done they should be con
ducted away so as not to vitiate the atmosphere o f the working room.
The most efficient system o f ventilation fo r the industry under con
sideration would seem to be a self-acting skylight ventilation. This
object can be attained by means o f the so-called ventilation valves on
the roof o f the factory and storehouse, or by chimney domes and suc^
tion heads.
The suggested arrangement itself would not entirely prevent the
injuries to health that occur in the manufacture o f the superphosphate
and the grinding o f the basic slag. Special care must be paid to
acids— as, fo r instance, carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid, fluoric acid,
and sulphurous and sulphuric acid— in order that they may not exert
their harmful influence upon the health, as is the case at present.
iO O
BULLETIN4 O f THE DEPABTMENT OF LABOB.
Experience has shown that the workmen in all such superphosphate
and artificial fertilizer factories are frequently affected with gastric
and intestinal catarrh unless provision has been made fo r a satisfac
tory and efficient removal o f the poisonous fumes. Haemoptysis has
also been observed in several cases.
In mixing the strongly acid superphosphate with saltpeter for the
production o f fertilizer compounds free nitrous and nitric acid may be
set free. Direct cases o f poisoning have been observed, due to these
dangerous acids.
In the production o f superphosphate either the natural phosphorites
or the phosphatic guano, bones, ground bones, etc., are used as
described in detail in the foregoing. In treating these materials con
taining tricalcxum superphosphate, Ca3(P 0 4)2, the latter is decomposed
into monocalcium phosphate, Ca(H2P 0 4)2, free phosphoric acid, and
calcium sulphate. These materials must previously be well powdered.
In this process dangerous dust is generated, and therefore efficient
protection and dust-preventive measures should be introduced in the
grinding operation. The best preventives are good, dust-proof dis
integrators, which transform the crude material into a powder and
prevent all escape o f dust.
The mixing o f the powdered material with sulphuric acid gener
ates carbonic, hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, sulphurous, and sulphuric
acids. F or the prevention o f evil effects from noxious gases an exclud
ing process may be carried on either by hand in lead vessels, walled
pits, or mechanically; in the latter case by means o f a suitably located
cylinder, in which revolves a shaft with arms. Sometimes the mixing
is done in tanks by means o f a vertical shaft fitted with plow-like
pieces o f iron. The machine is constructed entirely o f iron and steel.
The tank is closed by means o f a wood cover lined on the inside with
lead in such a manner that the generated acid fumes can escape only
by means o f an exit pipe sunken in the cover. The fumes are most
satisfactorily gotten rid o f by conducting them to the factory chimney.
I f there is not sufficient draft, a ventilator must be introduced in the
flue to suck the fumes out o f the machine and push them on.
Another arrangement for the removal o f the gases and fumes gen
erated in this industry is especially effective. This can be introduced
and constructed as follow s: A n elevated tank with sulphuric acid is
placed beside the large mixing pan. From this tank the acid flows
into a vessel standing on scales and thence into the mixing pan. By
means o f this simple arrangement the weighing o f the acid is simplified
and made safe for the workmen. Over the mixing pans there should
be a hood o f sufficient size. A steam jet ventilator opens in this hood.
This receives its steam supply through a steam pipe. From this hood
the gas is driven by the ventilators through a conduit to a furnace
which serves exclusively for the burning o f the gases. This furnace
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
loi
must be connected with the factory chimney. It is an excellent
method fo r destroying the poisonous gases. The whole arrangement
prevents the diffusion o f the gases through the factory rooms. Fur
thermore, the dust generated by the tightly inclosed shaking sieves
and the disintegrators may be led to the same furnace and burned
there. The combustion o f this dust, consisting mostly o f organic
material, is very important.
The most dangerous products are the fumes which are always gen
erated in the treatment o f crude material containing fluorine with
sulphuric acid. These can generally be made harmless by the follow
ing manipulation:
The poisonous fumes must be sucked out o f the mixing room by
means o f a rotary fan. A dilution through superfluous air must be
prevented as far as possible. The gas mixture must be moistened by
the spent steam o f the machine, which is always present, and led into
a large chamber where the fluorine combinations are split up by means
o f an efficient sprayer and precipitated in combination with silicic acid.
The remainder o f the fumes is then filtered through a bed o f moist
pebble stones.
The dust generated in the grinding o f basic slag has very harmful
effects on the respiratory organs. In a factory which was mostly
engaged in the manufacture o f ground basic slag, thirteen cases o f
severe pulmonic diseases occurred in a short time. Besides, there
were fatal cases o f bronchial catarrh and pneumonia. The dust o f this
material to which the workmen are exposed consists o f the phosphate
o f lime, iron, and magnesia, as well as quicklime and oxide o f iron.
As an excellent dust preventive the use o f rolling-ball grinding mills
may be mentioned. The latter are well known, and great advance has
been made in their construction. A very commendable construction
is that in which the mill consists o f several concentric drums that are
successively separated by layers o f balls, while the drums themselves
furnish the grinding surface. In the front walls o f the latter open
ings are made. The dustless feeding o f the mill is accomplished
through the opening o f an antechamber closed on all sides and con
nected with the mill. The emptying o f the ground material into the
collecting vessel without raising dust is accomplished by means o f a
number o f slits in the mantel, which completely surrounds the sifting
drum and makes it dust proof.
Finally, if other kinds o f grinding mills are used, exhausters and
dust collectors must be employed to remove the harmful dust as soon
as it is generated in the mill.
Attention should be called to the necessity o f inclosing the bone stock
house as completely as possible, and the introduction o f an efficient
system o f ventilation by means o f interconnecting canals between the
several storerooms, and their final conduction to the chimney. This
102
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
brings about the removal o f the stench caused by the decomposition
o f the particles o f organic matter lodged on or in the bones. It is
still better to lead this stench to a furnace similar to the one here
tofore described and render it harmless by combustion. This can be
easily, and simply accomplished.
In the investigation o f another fertilizer factory, which also had a
flayer’s yard in conjunction, the following was observed:
The three-story building in which the work is done is large and
roomy. Almost all the materials just discussed in detail are employed
in this factory. In addition to these there are the materials that are
taken to the flayer’s yard, such as blood and meat, mostly o f horses, o f
which during the past year more than 2,400 were consumed.
The mill room is situated in the first story o f the factory, and serves
for grinding certain crude materials, consisting o f Florida, South
Carolina, and Tennessee rock, great quantities o f which lie near the
mill. Besides the mill room there are. large rooms on this floor in
which the ready-made fertilizer is stored in heaps that reach to the
ceiling. In some compartments there are mixtures consisting o f the
dissolved animal matter and powdered rock. These stored materials are
emptied from the upper story through the flooring by means o f a very
primitive arrangement. The bone mill, containing a disintegrator for
the grinding o f bones, is also located on the first floor, and the filling
o f the bags with the powdered material is done here. In another
compartment there is stored, besides other materials, a so-called dryer
substance. This consists o f limestone, and is mixed with the fertilizer
to hasten the drying process .after it has been treated with sulphuric
acid.
The second story is reached by means o f a weak wooden stairway.
Here all sorts o f manure materials are stored, chief among which is
bone phosphate, or bone fertilizer. They are all in a powdered
condition.
The apparatus for m ixing the powdered material with sulphuric acid
occupies the third story. It consists o f separate receptacles fo r the
powdered rock and fo r the acid together with a stirring arrangement.
W hen the material has been mixed, it is emptied through the floor into
a receptacle below, known as the pen. A fter a short time it is taken
out and dried. Mention should also be made o f the fact that the acids
are pumped to the third story by compressed air.
In the third story are also large stores o f feathers, hair, and woolen
materials, which are converted into fertilizers by means o f the proper
acid. Besides, there are also screens fo r sifting. The material is car
ried from below to the screens by means o f a chain-belt arrangement.
In the manufacture o f manure and the conversion o f the material
two large boilers and a steam engine are in continual operation.
On the same ground plot there is besides the factory a one-story
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
103
building in which the dead horses are treated. The manner o f treat
ment is as follows: A fter being skinned they are boiled in vertical
boilers. A t the end o f this operation the fat and bones are separated,
while the meat and other refuse is taken directly to the main factory
to be used in the production o f fertilizer.
The insanitary conditions in this establishment are very evident and
are similar to those found in the preceding factory. In addition great
evils are originated in the flayer’s yard which may be the direct or
indirect source o f the development o f epidemics. It was impossible
in the investigation to ascertain with certainty how far this is true,
but several facts seem to indicate that isolated occurrences o f typhoid
are due to the disease-spreading miasma generated here.
A foreman in one o f the near-by fertilizer factories, as well as a
foreman in the tallow factory previously described, suffered from
typhoid. In both cases the disease was due to putrid meat, offal, and
bones. Further information in this respect could have been gained if
the workmen had not been so taciturn and unresponsive. Colored
men are employed preferably. Their external appearance makes it
much more difficult to judge o f the general state o f health than it
would be in the case o f white men. Precautionary measures for doing
away with the dust generated in m ixing and grinding the several
materials are not present. Only the screens on the third floor have a
box-like casement over them. The reservoirs in which the sulphuric
acid is weighed before it is introduced in the mixer are open and
permit the escape o f the irritating acid fumes which must be injurious
to the men employed in this work. The storage o f large quantities o f
fetid wool, feathers, hair, and other organic material creates a terrible
stench. The stairways and floors, as far as the latter are open to
passage, are covered with a layer o f dust ranging in thickness from
1 to 2 inches. A t every step large clouds o f dust whirl up and make
the atmosphere, already laden with stench and dust, still more danger
ous to the workmen. In this establishment an examination o f several
workmen (colored men) showed that their labor, in the present state o f
the factory, had seriously affected them. Emaciation and idiotic
expression were the general symptoms. It has already been observed
abroad that unless the acid fumes which arise in the mixing process
are entirely conveyed away haemoptysis may finally result.
Those workmen who are employed in those processes which deal
with the dead horses are exposed to the greatest dangers. A t the
time o f the investigation the men were found in a room in which ten
skinned carcasses lay, and work was just being begun on another.
The process is as follows: First the skin is taken off and the hair o f
the tail and mane removed. A fter this the carcasses are cooked in
a boiler, and the fat, bones, and flesh are used for further fertilizer
production. In this work a pestilential stench is generated which
104
b u l l e t in
of
the
b ip a b t m e k t ? of
labob*
affects not only the workmen, but also the surrounding country. The
evil especially affects the neighboring factories and the workmen
employed in them. The stench arises chiefly from the opening o f the
carcasses and the putrefaction which sets in.
This primitive method o f treatment is dangerous, not so much
because no preventive measures for the leading away and counter
action o f the noxious organic gases and miasmas have been adopted,
but because o f the danger that has been proved to lie in the swarms o f
flies that collect. They were observed in great numbers on the ten
skinned carcasses, in the room, and in the neighboring rooms, in which
bones, manure, and prepared flesh were stored, as well as throughout
the whole neighborhood. They are o f the largest kind and are popu
larly known as u strawberry heads.” The dangers caused by these flies
are extraordinary. It is well known that they poison men and ani
mals. They cling very closely to the carcass with their feet, and in
this lies their great danger to man. It has been proved that flies
settling upon all surfaces and materials carry along small particles
when they fly away and deposit them in other places. Should it
happen that they are covered with a sticky poisonous substance, it
annoys the insects themselves and they strip it off with their feet, as
can readily be observed. This cleaning is done by alternately rubbing
one pair o f feet against the other. Sometimes the posterior part o f
the body is cleaned in the same way. These are the manipulations
which are dangerous. The proof can be drawn from the following
facts:
Lately investigations have been made in Vienna concerning small
pox and those suffering from it.
Am ong other experiments the
professor who was carrying on the investigation placed a vessel with
glycerin at an open window. Soon the voracious flies were attracted
by the sweetish liquid, and some o f the sticky material stuck fast to
them. In their efforts to free themselves they went through the
already described manipulation and managed to get rid o f all the fo r
eign substance that clung to them. When the professor microscopically
examined the previously chemically pure glycerin he found foreign
cells in it, such as occur only on persons suffering from smallpox.
Such an observation is o f the greatest sanitary and hygienic value, and
indicates the method by which such dangers m u^ be met. I f such
diseased matter is conveyed by flies in such way as to reach the delicate
mucous membrane, or any wound, the infection is completed. Protec
tion in this case is impossible, as infection takes place without the
slightest suspicion o f it. Those who live near such dangerous fac
tories as have been described must take every precaution to protect
themselves during sleep from these not only disagreeable, but, under
the circumstances, most dangerous insects. Little children must in
no case be exposed to them. During the night the annoyance and
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
105
danger are not so great, especially fo r those who sleep without light, as
fo r those who sleep during the day.
Near this place o f occupation was a linseed-oil factory, o f which an
investigation was also made. Here an opportunity was furnished o f
making an observation o f the dangerous results which the flies cause.
The superintendent o f the linseed-oil factory had been stung several
weeks previous on the left cheek by one o f the large redheaded flies,
which continually carry contamination from the neighboring house,
where dead, horses are treated, and which, as in the present case, enter
offices and dwellings. Immediately after he had been stung the face
o f the superintendent swelled in a critical manner, and in a few hours
was in such a condition that he could scarcely see. W ithout doubt it
was a case o f blood poisoning, which might have had serious conse
quences for the victim if his constitution had not been so strong and
his power o f resistance unusually great. Serious results were also
prevented by the fortunate circumstance that the victim chased the
fly away as soon as he felt it. I f the sting had introduced a greater
amount o f poison and it had gone into a blood vessel he might not
have recovered so easily.
The above-described case proves how threatening are the dangers
o f poisoning and disease transmission through flies which come from
such places and how easily an epidemic may be caused.
From the previous description o f fertilizer and phosphate manu
facture it is evident that the improvements needed in this case must be
very nearly the same as those indicated in the discussion o f the preced
ing factory and which apply to all industries o f this kind. Naturally
a great deal depends on local conditions, and although the end sought
is always the same, the means must differ in the various cases.
In the present case, in order to do away with the described danger
ous conditions, the following measures should be taken:
1. In the first place the collection o f flies on the dead horse must be
done away with, in order to prevent the spreading o f disease-bearing
germs. Care must also be taken against the spread o f the' organic and
miasmatic odors which escape and exert a dangerous influence upon
the health o f the workmen, besides poisoning the air in the vicinity.
Finally, the procedure o f boiling such a large number o f dead horses
(2,400 during the last year) must be perform ed in such a manner that
the escaping fumes can be deodorized and rendered not unhealthful to
those who live in the neighborhood. Concerning the great numbers o f
flies that collect on the skinned horses, we must emphasize first o f all
that poisonous material is often already present in the dead horses;
for instance, if they have died o f malignant pustule, glanders, or some
other contagious disease. In other cases putrefaction has already
largely set in, or dangerous suppurations which hasten it.
As an efficient measure to prevent the transmission o f the poison
106
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
the employment o f compressed air and the combustion o f the organic
miasmas is proposed. The employment o f compressed air is the sim
plest and the cheapest method. It can be introduced and employed
in such establishments at very small expense. To accomplish this
purpose a small air-compressing pump or suitable fan is necessary.
This can be procured cheaply and run by the steam power, which is
always present. The compressed air is conducted oyer the dead horses
b y means o f tubes. This tubing is movable and laid beside the carcass
on lightly constructed tripods. A number o f the latter can be arranged
side by side. The effect o f this simple arrangement is that all flies are
driven away by the strong current o f air that passes over the dead horse
and can not settle on it. A t the same time the organic miasma and
putrescent odors which arise from the carcasses are removed and the
workman who does his work over and beside the bodies is protected
from this harmful inhalation.
In addition to the above-mentioned arrangement the following appa
ratus should be added. Its purpose is to carry away and totally destroy,
not only the putrid organic gases and odors which develop, but also
the flies. F or the accomplishment o f this purpose large tubes of gal
vanized sheet metal ending in a funnel-like extension are placed over
the dead body. The mouth must be at such a height as not to hinder
the workmen in their occupation. As many tubes and mouths must be
introduced as the size o f the establishment and the sphere o f activity
o f each single funnel demands. Local conditions must also be taken
into consideration. The gases and organic fumes which escape from
the bodies are carried to a furnace through these tubes into which
a steam-jet ventilator draws them. This receives its steam supply
from a steam conduit and is fastened in the funnel. The furnace is
exclusively built fo r the combustion o f these gases, and its flue must be
in direct connection with the factory chimney. The compressed air,
the pressure o f which need be relatively small, creates a current o f
air; the steam-jet ventilator produces a vacuum. Between the pres
sure o f the air on the one hand and the suction on the other the
flies and all the gases and odors which escape from the dead horse are
carried to the place o f combustion. Those miasmas which collect
along the ceiling should be collected and destroyed in a similar way.
This complete arrangement is as simple and worthy o f recommenda
tion as it is sure o f satisfactorily and safely accomplishing its pur
pose. The desired end can be reached in no other way than through
combustion by fire. The employment o f chemicals and disinfectants
is impossible from the conditions o f the case. The use o f such reme
dies as sublimate, acids, etc., would under the circumstances expose
the workmen to greater dangers than the evils they are supposed to
obviate.
A very important source o f danger in this industry is in the
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
107
procedure o f cooking or boiling. The aim must be to prevent the
resulting fumes and the generated stench from molesting the neigh
borhood. The boiling can be carried on by the application o f a very
important physical law which is remarkably well adapted to industries
o f this kind. It has the advantage that it can be introduced and
worked cheaply on the one hand, and on the other hand the apparatus
is very simple in construction. Furthermore, it recommends itself
in that it saves fuel and increases the rate o f production. It can also
be used in small plants. The follow ing may serve as an explanation:
Under diminished pressure water boils at a low temperature, while
increased pressure produces a corresponding rise in the temperature
o f boiling. The increased pressure may be caused not only by the
air, but by the steam as well. This occurs when water is heated in a
tightly-closed vessel, which can be made in the simplest way by fitting it
with a tight screw cover. Such a vessel, on a small scale, is called a
Papin’s digester; on a large scale, a steam boiler. In it it is possible to
heat water to a temperature o f 392° F ., and even still higher, while in
an open vessel water can under no circumstances be heated higher than
the boiling point, which at sea level is 212° F.
Such vessels are used to bring about the complete permeation o f
hard and dense bodies with water. For instance, water heated to
212° F. dissolves only a very small part o f the bone gelatine, and that
superficially, while water o f from 230° to 248° F. permeates the bone
completely and dissolves the gelatine stored in the innermost parts.
The question is quite different in the boiling process respective to the
boiling point o f water under low pressure. The influence o f pressure
o f air in boiling water and other liquids is very great, as can be seen
from the follow ing fact: I f water is boiled while the mercury in the
barometer is very low, even though the rise o f temperature is very
rapid, the thermometer will indicate only 210.2° F ., while if the boiling
takes place during clear weather, when the barometer stands very
high, 213.8° F. will be indicated. A s an illustration the follow ing inter
esting and practical experiment will be sufficient: A flask half full of
water is heated until active boiling sets in. It is then taken from
the fire and quickly stopped up. Boiling will immediately cease, but
begin again as soon as cold water is poured on the upper part o f the
flask. It is possible in this manner to cause water to seethe and boil
even if it is only lukewarm. There is no air in the flask. It was
expelled by the steam, and was prevented from reentering by the cork
when the steam was cooled and condensed. There is then no pressure
o f air on the water, which in that condition boils at a temperature o f
68° F. The vacuum in the flask contains only steam vapor, which at
first weighs heavily upon the liquid within and prevents its boiling.
When cold water is poured on the flask a part o f the vapor condenses,
causing a corresponding diminution o f pressure, which is so large that a
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
part o f the water can again be changed to vapor with the accompani
ment o f ebullition.
A low-pressure vessel constructed on the foregoing principle, in
which evaporation takes place much easier and boiling occurs at a
much lower temperature than under ordinary circumstances, can be
employed in this branch o f the industry with success. A ll that is
needed is an iron tube o f sufficient diameter, closed at one end and in
the form o f a boiler. A fter it is partly filled with water and the mate
rial, it is made air-tight. The air in the tube-like boiler is then
exhausted. The contents boil very readily because o f the vacuum
which has been generated by the expulsion o f all air. From the fore
going explanation it will be seen that boiling occurs at a temperature
o f 68° F. The boiler must be fitted with an arrangement either in the
side or the cover by which the air can be exhausted. The air pump
which supplies the room containing the dead horses with compressed
air can be used in exhausting the air from the boiler. The whole con
struction is in itself very simple and does not require any further or
more detailed explanation. The greatest attention must be given to
the described method o f construction by means o f which the lowpressure space is produced and maintained.
In such an extensive industry as is under present consideration the
introduction o f a large number o f boilers is desirable, so that the
dead bodies may not collect, but be used immediately after they have
been skinned. This would greatly lessen the amount o f organic
putrefaction.
Beside the room containing the dead bodies are the bone and dissolved-meat fertilizer magazines, from which the air could also be
collected by the ventilation plant and purified by means o f flues which
are in direct communication with the chimney.
Finally, the small compressed-air plant (pump) can be employed by
means o f a hose and small respirators to furnish the workmen with fresh
air, which would obviate the dangers o f miasmatic gases and dust gen
eration. The movements are, indeed, somewhat restrained by it, and
such respiratories are to be recommended in this, as in other dangerous
occupations, only when the workmen are not compelled to move around
very much. In this investigation the attention o f the foreman was
directed to the dangers o f the dust clouds, acid fume inhalation, and
poisoning by means o f flies, hereinbefore described in detail. Several
men were examined, but it was impossible to ascertain how many and
what workmen in this factory had suffered from diseases caused by
this occupation. They were mostly colored men, and tried to evade
every question.
A n extensive superphosphate factory was visited, but a satisfactory
investigation could not be made. The superintendent would not allow
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
109
it without a permit from the main office, situated in another city.
Nevertheless it was made clear to him that the generation o f dense
dust in the factory was very detrimental to the workmen.
In order to accomplish this in the grinding establishment in the first
story his attention was called to the fact that the generation o f dust
was such that the incandescent lights could scarcely be distinguished,
and, further, that the workmen were not merely dusty but covered
finger thick with it. The two grinding machines could not be dis
tinguished, and it was even dangerous to get close enough to ascertain
what their purpose was.
A more thorough investigation was impossible owing to the disin
clination o f the superintendent, and in consideration o f the fact that
he referred all requests to the main office. Nevertheless, in passing
the bagging place especial attention was called to the lack o f protec
tion under which the men worked. This industry employed about
100 men in the comminution and grinding o f Florida rock, bones, and
other suitable material.
The preceding description o f a fertilizer factory gives an account o f
how the work is done without any protective measures. A ll this shows
how necessary legal measures are. Besides, it shows the need o f an
official inspector with legal authority to make his investigations at any
time, day or night, in order to discover such insanitary conditions
and to direct the attention o f the factory officials or owners to them.
In order to accomplish at least something in the interests o f the
workmen, whose health is endangered to the utmost, it was made clear
to the superintendent that the generated dust caused severe cases of
pneumonia. The dust which the men inhale in grinding and packing
consists o f harmful phosphates and often results in fatal cases of
bronchial catarrh and pneumonia. Further than that, workmen
employed in such superphosphate and manure factories where there is
an inefficient removal o f the fumes are often affected with gastric and
intestinal catarrh, and are even attacked by haemoptysis. In the
process o f mixing strongly acid superphosphates with saltpeter fo r the
production o f fertilizing mixtures, nitric and nitrous acid fumes are
set free, which often result in cases o f direct poisoning.
According to the statement o f the owner o f the flayer yard, this
plant consumes the organic manure material as well as almost all the
products which have been described under the investigation o f the
fertilizer factory.
On account o f the aforesaid reasons it was impossible to enter any
other buildings except the hurriedly visited grinding mill. But there
seems to be no doubt that the whole plant will prove equally danger
ous as the mill in which the phosphate-bearing rocks are powdered
and afterwards treated with sulphuric acid.
10615— No. M —03----- 8
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
The superintendent was asked to remain standing for some time in
the dust in which the men beside the mill work. He was at least frank
enough to declare that he could not stand it. He expressed a desire
to do away with the generation of dust, and in the presence of the pro
prietor o f the neighboring flayer’s yard made a request to be informed
in writing o f the necessary improvements. This wish could not, o f
course, be fulfilled so long as a complete investigation o f the whole
plant and local circumstances was denied.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR FERTILIZER FACTORIES, AND
ESPECIALLY FLA YER AND BONE YAR D S.
The follow ing are the protective measures which ought to be applied
to the factories in the fertilizer industry for the protection of the
employees and the community:
1. The crude bones must, as far as possible, be stored in dry and
well-ventilated rooms.
2. In transporting, sorting, and disintegrating the bones, men with
open wounds on the hands must not be allowed to work. The sorting
must be done only in an airy and well-lighted room. .
3. Crushing work must be so arranged that the machines can easily
be put out o f operation by the workmen, and must be secured against
automatic starting.
4. In crushing works, rolling-ball grinding mills, and chain-pump
works, the opening o f the feeders must be inclosed or made safe in
some other way. The path o f the transporting vessels and feeding
screws must be efficiently secured.
5. The disintegrators must, as a rule, be able to be stopped inde
pendently o f all other operations. I f the introduction o f such an
arrangement can not be accomplished on account o f serious difficulties,
it must at least be possible to give a signal to the engineer or to throw
off the belt. The disintegrators and their loose pulleys must be
protected against all endangering contact.
6. In stamping works the path o f the lifting cogs must be inclosed
wherever it comes within reach o f the workmen.
7. In so far as the scoops o f the running mill are not at least 3 feet
above the floor they must be surrounded by a protective inclosure.
8. Every machine must have a stopping arrangement. Disturbances
during the operation o f the same, such as stopping up, pulling off the
belt, and the like, must only be remedied while the machine is at rest.
9. The exhausters must be sufficiently protected against endangering
contact b y means o f wire netting or by gratings.
10. Oiling, in so far as it is not done automatically, must be done
only from a safe position, or while the machine is at rest.
11. The bone steamers, if they are constructed for low pressure,
must be provided with safety valves, air cocks, steam pressure gauges,
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
Ill
controllers, or the introduction o f a steam protection valve between
the boiler and steamer. It is permissible that one safety valve may
serve fo r several steamers or be placed on the same conduit.
12. The bone steamer must be tested before it is used, and from
time to time thereafter. In this test the pressure must be one and a
half times that o f the highest steam pressure used, and exceed it by at
least one atmosphere.
13. Bone steamer feeders must be so constructed that the workmen
can not fall into them.
14. I f sulphurous acids are used in the manufacture, ventilating
arrangements must be introduced to prevent the escape o f the fumes.
15. The injurious dust generated by the comminution and grinding
o f the bones must be removed as far as possible by suction at its place
o f production. In case it is impossible to accomplish this, the men
must be supplied with respirators, sponges, mold cloths, or other
efficient protectors, and their use must be required.
16. The tanks for treating the bones with sulphuric acid must be
supplied with contrivances to prevent the escape o f injurious and annoy
ing gases and fumes. Crude materials which generate dangerous
quantities o f .fluoric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid fumes must not be
treated in open pits. Treatment o f bones with nondenitrated acid
wastes in open pits must be forbidden.
17. The introduction or addition o f sulphuric acid must be so accom
plished as to prevent the spilling and scattering o f the acid as far as
possible. In emptying the acid carboys, lifters for that purpose must
be used.
W orkm en whose eyes are threatened by the spattering o f acids must
be supplied with eye protectors, and be compelled to wear them.
18. In the extraction o f fat and glue the open boilers must have a
rim o f at least 3 feet in height.
W ork around the open boilers
from an elevated position must be permitted only when it is made firm
and safe by means o f a railing or similar protective contrivance.
I f the fat is extracted with benzine, the following regulations must
be observed:
19. The building fo r the extraction o f fat, in new plants, must be at
a sufficient distance from the other factory buildings, and parallel with
the floor o f the first story. The doors should open outwardly. In
older plants in which the extracting building is connected with the
other buildings, or even directly adjoining, the latter must be separated
from it by high fireproof walls.
20. Doors and low windows which can be opened must not open
toward kettle furnaces and other fireplaces, so as to obviate as far as
possible the danger o f explosion o f the escaping benzine vapors.
Flues which carry the benzine vapors into the open air must have their
openings as high as possible.
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
21. B y means o f an inclined floor and a drain placed at its lowest
level the overflowing benzine must be rapidly gotten rid o f and led
underground into a distant tightly closed pit.
22. There must be a special way o f escape from the upper stories
and the filling rooms.
23. The illumination must be accomplished either by incandescent
electric lamps, whose main and branch wires are outside the building,
or by lamps which are protected by a casing and excluded from the
working room by strong tightly fitting window panes.
24. The use o f open or loosely covered separation vessels in the
extracting apparatus must be forbidden. The volume gauge on the
benzine vessels must be protected against external injury.
25. Smoking and even the introduction o f matches and similar arti
cles must be entirely prohibited.
26. Entrance into the fat-extracting building with lanterns and open
lights must be forbidden, and at night must be permitted in particular
instances with safety lamps only.
27. The admittance o f unauthorized persons into the extracting
building must be positively prohibited.
28. The storage o f benzine supplies must take place only in fireproof
and isolated places.
Other fertilizer factories, including the Thomas slag mills in which
bones are used, should adopt the follow ing measures for the protection
o f the workman:
29. Should rolling-ball grinding mills be used, their belts must be
carefully incased.
30. Each separate machine must have a disconnecting switch. Dis
turbances in its operation, such as stopping up, falling off o f the belt,
and similar accidents, must be remedied only when the machine is at
rest.
31. Ground Thomas slag, or other rocks, must be stored only in
bags or barrels, or if in bulk, only in closed rooms, which are sup
plied with mechanical dust suction.
32. The tanks fo r the sulphuric acid treatment must be supplied
with contrivances to prevent the escape of injurious and annoying
gases. The escaping gases must be made harmless.
33. Crude materials which generate fluoric, hydrochloric, and nitric
acid fumes in injurious quantities must not be treated with sulphuric
acid in open pits.
The use o f denitrated acid wastes in the open-pit treatment must be
forbidden.
34. In emptying the acid-treatment chamber, a strong and efficient
system o f ventilation must be employed.
35. The emptying o f the acid-treatment chamber must be carried on
with the greatest care. The undermining o f the mass, if it is stored
higher than 6 to 7 feet, must be prohibited inside o f the chamber.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
113
36. The introduction and addition o f sulphuric acid must be accom
plished so that the spilling and spattering o f the acid is avoided as far
as possible. In emptying the acid carboys lifters for that purpose
must be used.
37. Materials must not be heaped up in the machine room and the
hallways so as to endanger the people employed there.
38. The storage o f materials against the buildings and surrounding
walls is permissible only so far as the detrimental effects o f their pres
sure is prevented b y the resisting power o f the walls.
39. The undermining o f the stored, half-finished, or finished super
phosphate masses, when they reach a greater depth than 6 or 7 feet,
must be prohibited. In digging it away a precipitation o f the mass
must be prevented by digging terraces o f not more than 6 feet or some
other method.
40. Piles o f bags must be built with corners of the outer layer in
the cross-bond manner. They must be at least 2 feet removed from
the nearest rail o f the track. The piles must be placed upon hard and
level ground. They must be at suitable distances from the free-running
transporting machines, belts, and machine parts, so that the workman
can not come in contact with the moving parts.
The removal o f the bags must be accomplished by means o f steps o f
four bags each. In no case must bags be drawn from any part o f the
heap or opened. I f inclined planes are used, care must be taken that
the workmen are not struck by the sliding bags.
TH E N ECESSITY O F P U R E A IR IN W O R K R O O M S.
Pure air is among the first o f the indispensable necessities o f man.
The hygienic investigations o f the last few years, and especially under
the complicated conditions o f the overcrowded cities, weighed down
with all sorts o f disease and illness, have shown the great importance
o f pure air and its far-reaching influence upon humanity. The extent
o f this influence depends not only upon the quantity, but also upon
the composition o f the air and upon the manner in which it is led into
houses, dwellings, and working rooms. A s water and earth, as dwell
ings, as the manner o f life and the spiritual and moral conditions o f
men exert their influence, so also does the air which we breathe have
its potent powers. This is a power which, according to its proper
ties, promotes health, domestic happiness, and general well-being, or
brings countless ills and manifold disasters upon whole generations.
The beneficent influences o f the air have been shown with the greatest
exactness. Its harmful contents have been proved without the slight
est doubt, and we know how the latter exert their injurious influences
upon the various bodily organs or functions as well as upon a great
part o f our domestic and industrial activities. Science has spoken
loudly and insistently in this respect, yet proportionately little has
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
been done to bring about an acceptance o f its teachings and its warn
ings from a hygienic standpoint. Numbers, even o f those who other
wise watch over their health with hypochondriacal timidity, expose
themselves carelessly or inadvertently to the influence o f poisonimpregnated air. In most o f our populous cities an active and fear
less fight is carried on against epidemics, local diseases, and a whole
series o f pulmonary ills, whose cause ought to be sought primarily in
the poor condition o f the air and its defective distribution in buildings.
The factories o f the country are a most depressing instance in this
respect, though on the other hand they are the foci o f remarkable
intelligence and advance. Statistics also give proof o f the regrettable
hygienic conditions o f our factories, regarding which people are still
in a state o f childish unconcern. Statistics show that improvement o f
the air in factory sanitation is one o f the most pressing demands o f
private and public life.
In most factories there is an indescribable recklessness. The air
supply is used as it is found in the rooms without any previous test.
It is evident that the air, exposed to the most varied influence o f its
environment, must take up substances which can produce the most
manifold ills and disturbances in the human organism. W h y then is it
that, despite the constitution o f the air, so much less attention is paid
to it than to many other substances which influence life?
It is customary to offer without hesitation to the internal organs
those common articles o f food which display nothing offensive to the
sight and are not disagreeable to the organs o f taste and smell. It is
true that the organs themselves rarely rebel immediately, and even the
illnesses, troubles, and diseases which develop seldom indicate the real
causes. The air is one o f those substances which must always be sus
pected. The respective scientific, and especially hygienic, investiga
tions have shown that this distrust and carefulness is, above all, advis
able in large, populous, industrial cities because of the conditions
peculiar to them.
In the first place increased care and a doubly exacting examination
o f the ruling influences become here an undeniable necessity because
o f the recurrence o f distinctive contagions and epidemics and the over
whelming number o f weakly and sensitive constitutions predisposed to
all possible ailments and susceptible to all kinds o f influences. In the
second place these overcrowded localities, in which the air in itself is
bad and where there is an army o f harmful substances, make a certain
community o f life necessary. This latter, as is well known, increases
all the injurious influences by that which is called the power o f affinity.
In fact, as a result o f a number o f coincident experiences and obser
vations, the air o f many large cities, which with its good properties
might have such advantageous influences upon the conditions o f health,
was found to be one o f the most pernicious o f influences. W ould it
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
115
not be remarkable if the inhalation, for a period o f many years, o f air
filled with pernicious substances had not a far-reaching detrimental
influence on the population and in particular the factory workers and
the weaker portion? W ould it not be just as wonderful if it did not
induce a susceptibility to disease and exert an intrinsic influence upon
the generation and spread o f dangerous diseases and epidemics ?
Although the most recognized authorities in natural science and
hygiene have frequently insisted upon and pointed out the detri
mental influences o f infected air, yet at the present time, unfortu
nately, a very exact knowledge as to the kind, degree, and certainly
very harmful results o f these influences is lacking. As already indi
cated, this work is as difficult as it is necessary, because o f the neverabsent coincidence o f other harmful influences which make it almost
impossible to separate a single one with satisfactory exactness. Y et
lately, thanks to the laborious researches o f hygienists, certain funda
mental principles have been established. This was done in Europe,
where the poverty o f great masses and the consequent epidemics in
densely populated manufacturing cities made exact investigations o f
the public conditions o f health necessary.
TH E D A N G E R S O F T H E PRESEN T SOURCES O F A IR FO R
BU ILD IN G S.
W e endeavor to purify the contaminated air in closed rooms by the
introduction o f external air. The supply o f fresh air is drawn from
the great ocean o f air which is itself contaminated at various places
and in various degrees. Thus the effectiveness o f the supply o f fresh
air depends not only on its quantity but to a great degree on its qual
ity; that is to say, upon the degree o f the contamination o f the source.
The impurities must be divided into those absolutely harmful and
those which become harmful only on account o f a certain degree of
intensity. The first includes the germs o f contagious diseases, which
are as dangerous in small as well as in large quantities, and therefore
are injurious in themselves. These impurities are characterized by this,
that they are living organisms and possess the power o f propagation.
Those impurities which are harmful only in certain quantities are:
1.
The gases o f putrefactions, i. e., carbonic acid gas, ammonia, and
aqueous vapors.
Usually these exactly analyzable products do not occur in harmful
quantities. W ith them certain not well known or entirely unknown
decompositions occur, concerning whose influences we have no clear
knowledge, but which most probably break the ground for diseases.
W e know that men exposed for any length o f time to air thus infected
become sick, yet we are unable to prove that these products of decom
position are the direct cause.
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
2. The products o f transelementation in normal animal life which
consist mostly o f carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide) and water, but
probably also contain other harmful substances. The extensive
researches o f Pettenkofer into the impurities o f respired air do not
start with the assumption o f the harmfulness o f the carbon dioxide
(C 0 2), whose proportion can rise to 8 per cent without producing
the slightest evil effects. Contrary to this generally false concep
tion, Pettenkofer used the easily analyzable carbon dioxide only as a
convenient standard o f the degree o f contamination, assuming that
the amount o f unknown harmful products or those analyzed with
difficulty is proportional to it.
3. The chimney gases, which contain chiefly carbon dioxide and sul
phurous acid, besides unconsumed coal and soot. The form er is
harmful, the latter eventually become so, especially to plants, when
they have been oxidized to sulphuric acid.
Am ong the disturbing constituents o f city air are those substances
which originate in the chimneys o f private houses and factories. Par
ticles o f soot, ashes, and also sulphuric, sulphurous, and hydrochloric
acid are the products o f combustion. In Manchester, upon a space o f
1 square mile, 1,455 pounds o f soot, 110 pounds o f sulphuric acid, and
55 pounds o f hydrochloric acid have been found to fall in three days.
In London 6,391,000 tons o f coal were consumed in 1889. In round
numbers they produced 195,720 tons o f sulphuric acid. Berlin annually
consumes about 2\ million tons o f coal.
Not only plants and trees suffer from the effects o f this smoke, but
also consumptives, asthmatics, and all persons with weak lungs.
4. Mechanical dust, which, though consisting o f essentially harmless
materials, may w ork most disastrously by irritating the lungs.
The impurities are scattered broadcast through the air that sur
rounds us by the agency o f atmospheric disturbances and diffusion.
They are destroyed by the oxygen or are absorbed as carbon dioxide—
for instance, by plants— and thus a continual self-purification o f the
air is going on. From this it does not follow that air is everywhere
equally pure. A ir will always be most impure closeeto the places whence
these impurities arise, and therefore such places must be avoided as
bases o f supply. There are three possibilities fo r source o f supply:
1.
Close over the surface o f the earth, without doubt, the products o f
the decomposition o f the organic constituents o f the ground are most to
be feared, even though they vary in different locations. In cities their
amount depends largely on the construction o f the pavements. The
escape o f ground gases is much easier through a porous and loose
pavement than, fo r instance, through one o f dense asphalt. It is true
that a compact pavement prevents the entrance o f impurities from
above, but it also restrains the gases which are generated in the ground.
The latter often find their way into the houses through the cellar,
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
117
whence there is usually an upward draft o f air. In general, sup*
plies o f air taken from over good and clean pavements contain but few
o f the gases o f putrefaction. The addition o f dust is very great here,
but because it is a coarse dust it can easily be thrown out again. The
fine dust is met with in equally large quantities, even at very consid
erable heights. On the whole, those impurities which are close to the
surface o f the ground do not argue much against making it the source
o f supply, provided especially unfavorable locations, such as near cess
pools, halting places o f vehicles, and the like, are avoided. The most
efficient source o f supply is in the underbrush o f a clean garden, under
6 feet above the ground.
2. A t some distance (25 to 40 feet) above the ground the composition
o f the air depends largely upon the spontaneous ventilation o f the
buildings, especially, in this case, when the interchange is produced by
means o f air pressure. There the vitiated air escapes through the pores
o f the building, instead o f escaping above, and thus is likely to cause
an extensive contamination o f the external air. This contamination
depends on definite conditions; therefore in the consideration o f the
contamination o f the external air it is not quite just to condemn this
source o f supply as absolutely untrustworthy.
3. In cities the diffusion o f the impure air takes place above the roofs.
Since all new air must finally come from this place, it has lately been
demanded that here should be the source o f supply. But this source
is in the closest proxim ity to the chimney openings, which just as often
belch forth smoke to either side, or even downward, as upward. It is
true that the whole roof space has been used as a deposit chamber fo r the
soot and dust, yet the combustion gases are carried in great quantities
near the source o f supply. Like smoke, the vitiated air is, as a rule,
expelled over the roof. Usually closets and sewers have ventilation
openings on the roof. During the hot summer the cooler temperature
o f the inner rooms frequently causes a flow o f poisoned air upward.
Thus, especially in this most dangerous season o f the year, the entrance
o f bad air into the lower rooms can not be prevented. In the open,
these gases also diffuse among the lower layers o f air, but are then
very much rarefied.
Consequently, here also there are reasons fo r and against the choices
o f this source o f supply. A s far as contamination o f the air is con
cerned, there is no decisive reason for the adoption o f any one o f these
three locations. The choice rather depends essentially upon an entirely
different consideration, namely, the influence o f the pressure o f the
wind upon the ventilation plant. W ith us this is about 31 pounds per
square foot, while the‘ pressure o f the strongest blast machine can
produce only about 5 pounds pressure, one operated by hand power
only about 1 pound, and one depending on warm air for motive power
only from 0.4 to 0.6 pound. The movement o f the air in a ventilation
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BULLETIN OE THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR.
plant exposed to the wind depends almost entirely on the latter. Those
arrangements fo r the prevention o f the external pressure do away with
the trouble only to a certain extent.
The pressure o f the wind affects those openings at some height from
the ground more strongly than others, because they can not be pro
tected against the whirl o f the often-interrupted but nevertheless
powerfully moving streams o f air. On the ground there is much
efficacious protection on account o f the great number o f walls, bushes,
and the like. There also the supply openings can be turned upward—
a direction in which they are least influenced b y the wind.
From the foregoing it is evident that none o f the described locations
are without drawbacks. Y et it can be seen that, in general, preference
is given either to drawing the air supply from over the roof or from
near the ground rather than from some intermediate height.
The choice o f the source o f supply should depend upon the individual
and local conditions. F or instance, drawing the supply o f fresh air
from the roofs o f the clinic at Halle must be considered a grievous
mistake, because often, probably, the germs o f contagion are again
taken into the rooms by the ventilating apparatus.
On the whole, hospitals should be compelled to purify the used air
before its expulsion. W ithout doubt the impure air does as much
harm as the drains o f industrial establishments, upon which the G ov
ernment places regulations, or even as the annoying smoke from
factory chimneys.
During the last decades the closest attention has been paid to water
supply. Even if water contains only slight and not very harmful
impurities* it is considered unfit fo r use, and expensive plants are
established fo r production o f pure drinking water. The almost com
plete lack o f attention in regard to the air seems a great injustice. It
is now one o f the most urgent duties o f sanitary science to treat the
purification o f the air and its conduction to homes and factories with
the same care as has already been devoted to water for many years.
IM PR O V E M E N T O F T H E A IR S U P P L Y O F FA C TO R IE S B Y
P L A N T IN G TR E E S IN T H E IR V IC IN ITY .
The sanitary and ethical importance o f a garden-like and wooded
environment o f factories fo r its effect upon their fresh air supply must
be emphasized. Science and experience, however much the question
may still be debated, have shown that forests exert a climatic influence
o f the greatest importance. Moss is especially adapted to conduct
along its roots little streams o f water, and to lead it into the earth
where it preserves the latter’s dampness, or, in other words, its “ dust
freeness.” A wooded environment o f factories is therefore not only
an ornament but also a factor protecting both strength and health. It
is well known that where the forests disappear the climates become
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
119
irregular. W ind and electric storms become stronger, hailstorms and
cloud bursts are more frequent, and the latter tend to make the
ground bare and sandy. Vegetation, therefore, in its fullness is inti
mately connected with forests and dependent on them. Hand in hand
with this influence o f forests upon climate and the fertility o f the soil
goes the sanitary importance o f a wooded environment o f factories.
From the remotest times it has been recognized that trees and fresh
vegetation in the vicinity o f human dwellings improve the air. Ever
since the times o f Priestly, when the atmosphere was first chemically
investigated, the phenomenon o f the improvement o f air was ascribed
to the increased amount o f oxygen given off by the plants and the pro
portional decrease o f the carbon dioxide.
Pettenkofer is also said to have published communications in which
it is said that forests aid effectively in warding off cholera.
The follow ing fact, warranted by a communication o f Magistrate
Giere, o f Ruhla, speaks for the sanitary importance o f forests. In the
year 1852 the forest Reuter at Ruhla in Thuringia was felled, and
since then pulmonary consumption, which previously was scarcely
known, has reigned every year in this otherwise healthy place.
The planting o f gardens and wooded promenades in and about cities,
especially around factories, has the effect not only o f beautifying the
region but also o f giving shade and coolness. The aim is at the same
time to improve the air, which in these places is most contaminated.
The forests, in view o f this beneficent influence upon the health o f
human beings, should be drawn in toward the cities and factories.
A knowledge o f the highly important influence o f forests upon the
health has existed for a long time, but only lately have beginnings
been made looking toward a general and practical utilization o f this
knowledge.
The forests in the vicinity o f large cities and factories should be
treated with tw ofold care, and when ignorance and shortsightedness
have destroyed them, trees should be planted. The forests laid out in
certain German cities are daily visited by thousands o f workingmen
with their wives and children. The influence o f these walks upon a
better morality is remarkable and demonstrates that a forest as the
factory environment o f a workingman always speaks to his better
nature and exerts a powerful influence upon his spiritual development
and character.
DEFECTS IN F A C T O R Y CONSTRUCTION.
In respect to the general construction o f the factory, particular
attention should be directed to the effects o f currents o f air. It has
become clear from practical experiments that such currents usually
permit contaminated air to pass through the ceilings between the dif
ferent floors. The ceilings in most factory buildings are, as a matter
120
BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR.
o f fact, so constructed that contaminated air easily passes through
them. The exhalations usually rise in winter, but in summer, when
the external temperature is higher than the internal, they take the
opposite direction.
This method o f ceiling construction is a serious drawback from a
hygienic standpoint. The ceilings should be further examined as to
whether, between them and the floors above, breeding places for ver
min and disease germs can be formed.
This drawback can be easily done away with and at the same time
an efficient system o f ventilation and supply o f pure air can be intro
duced without much expense.
In respect to the construction o f the floors, the introduction o f the
present system o f factory construction and the adoption o f asphalt and
cement is much feared, especially in France.
A s the result o f a very
competent investigation it is said that the feet swell from the use o f
such floors. The sensation o f cold is the same on stone as on asphalt
and cement. The swelling o f the feet is not rheumatic, but, according
to the Society fo r Public H ygiene in Paris, it is the specific effect of
the asphalt or cement.
The floors should be constructed o f any fire and water proof material,
but at the places where the workmen have to stand insertions o f wood
should be introduced. This is especially desirable in rooms in which
typesetting is done.
It should be noted and emphasized that the unavoidable dropping
o f oil from machines forms fatty acids on the asphalt floors, the exhal
ations from which are known by experience to be injurious to the
female organism.
The floors should be constructed o f a material which will permit
them to be scrubbed and washed with soda lye. The so-called Sinzig
and Mettlach flagstones offer such a material.
W here a floor, impermeable to liquids, is to be constructed in fac
tories, it should be made o f a double layer o f flagstones set in cement.
The floor should then be furrowed by a sufficient number o f cement
drains, in order to prevent the stagnation o f liquids. It is immaterial
how the floor is constructed, but from a hygienic standpoint it should
fulfill the follow ing requirements:
(1) Absolute impermeability to fluids as well as air.
(2) The possibility o f easy cleaning.
(3) It should be fireproof.
Further, in the investigation o f factories it should be ascertained
whether the stairways are laid out satisfactorily and meet various
requirements demanded by an efficient labor protection, especially in
the case o f fire.
Finally, in the much-used passageways attention should be paid to
the floors so that nothing smooth or slippery may develop on them,
and thus cause accidents.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
121
I f factory rooms are situated immediately beneath the roof, some
provision should be made to protect the workmen against the injurious
influence o f the heat. The roof should be isolated, simply and prac
tically, so that the heat can not permeate it and enter the factory
room.
Ceilings in factories as a rule have loose floors lying over them, and
are powerful agents not only in the diffusion o f dust and the contami
nation o f air, but also in the transmission o f disease germs. In the
investigation o f factories it was found that almost all o f them, from a
constructional standpoint, contain in themselves a source for the devel
opment o f injurious dust and its transmission to the workman. This
source is found in the defective construction o f the ceilings and floors
in factory buildings o f more than one story.
A great number o f factories have wooden beams.
The beams are,
usually, roughly cut, and have a thickness o f from 2 to 3 inches, with
a height o f from 8 to 15 inches. The height and thickness depend
upon the free bearing length o f the beam. Upon this arrangement o f
beams there is, as a rule, a single floor constructed o f flooring boards
nailed directly on the beams.
It is clear that cracks will form between the boards and that they
will gradually increase in size as the wood dries. Thus the dust
formed on an upper floor is whirled up at every step o f the workmen
and penetrates through the cracks into the story below. There it is
diffused in all directions and part o f it is inhaled before it again settles.
This phenomenon is the more serious in proportion as a strong draft
or opening o f the windows in the lower story causes the dust to whirl
about. A window ventilation introduced with the best intentions
often only increases the evil in that it forces the injurious dust into
the respiratory organs, or at least brings it to them with increased
speed.
But the penetration o f the dust through the floors is not the only
defect o f the method o f construction described. Loads o f dust collect
on the sides and lower surfaces o f the beams. The beams are almost
always cut with a large-toothed saw, so that the sides present rough,
splintery surfaces which offer an excellent opportunity for the deposit
o f dust. The more irregular and the rougher such a surface is the
more certainly the dust will adhere. I f new dust permeates from the
upper story through the cracks o f the flooring, a large portion o f it is
thrown against the rough surface o f the beams and loosely lodged in
countless little indentations. In the course o f time quite a deposit is
formed here, which may even be increased by spider webs. Dust
which is whirled up in cleaning and in window ventilation often rises
as high as the ceiling and is lodged on the beams. Stronger drafts
then loosen and carry it to the respiratory organs. In order to gain
a clearer conception o f the quantity o f these deposits, the following
calculation will suffice:
122
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
Take, fo r example, a comparatively small corner building, such as
is frequently found in cities. Such a building may be assumed to be
100 feet long, 25 feet wide, and four stories high, excluding the base
ment. The beams, as a rule, are 15 inches wide and 3 inches thick
and are separated from each other by a space o f 16 inches. Each
floor, then, contains 75 beams each 25 feet long. Each beam has a
surface o f 2 ( l i feet b y 25 fe e t )+ (i-fo o t by 25 fe e t)= 6 8 f square feet.
As there are 75 beams, each ceiling shows 75 by 68f feet= 5 ,1 5 6 i square
feet o f rough surface fo r the lodging and collecting o f dust. In the
four stories there are, then, 5,156i square feet by 4=20,625 square feet
o f surface, upon which the dust, with all its dangerous contents, can
collect and, after a sufficient deposit, be loosened again and exert all
its injurious influences. This is exclusive o f the under surface o f the
floor boards themselves.
From the conditions o f the case sweeping the beams at regular inter
vals is impracticable. The deposition o f dust is continuous and its
rapidity depends upon the condition o f the floor and the traffic
upon the same. It is the latter which causes the dust to permeate
through the cracks into the lower story. Even should the beams be
swept frequently, the effect would be all out o f proportion compared
with the trouble, and unsatisfactory because this operation would
injure those employed in this occupation, and directly convey the inju
rious contents o f the dust to their respiratory organs.
The floor o f the upper story is not alone the bearer of the dust
which results in industrial operations— as, for instance, in cigar or
tobacco factories and many other industries— but it is also the bearer
o f other substances which have turned into dust and are injurious to
the organism or may be the direct cause o f disease.
O f these injurious substances the most dangerous is the expectora
tion o f persons having pulmonary consumption.
According to the generally recognized results o f investigations all
conditions o f the lungs which are caused by the tuberculosis bacillus
are designated as pulmonary tuberculosis. The expectorations of
every man suffering from such a disease always contains the fatal
bacillus tuberculosis and as soon as it has dried on the floor it mingles
with the other dust. The first condition o f pulmonary tuberculosis is
the entrance o f the tuberculosis bacillus into the lungs. It is evident,
therefore, that with this arrangement o f beams and loose flooring there
is a veritable host o f different infective substances. A fter the expec
toration which contains the germs has dried, it collects on the floors,
penetrates them, and impregnates the air below.
There is no radical remedy for pulmonary consumption. Medical
science is able only to relieve the sufferings o f the patient and to
remove threatening symptoms. From this it is evident how impor
tant it is to find efficient protective measures against the fatal infec
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
123
tion. On account o f the frequency and malignity o f pulmonary
consumption (experience has shown that already one-seventh o f the
population is carried away by it) energetic protective measures are
o f the greatest importance, especially as effective measures against the
spread o f the infective substances are possible.
A s preventive measures against the dangers from the described
deposits o f dust on beams, the follow ing measures are suggested:
1. In the first place, the floors must be replaced by such as make
the passage o f the dangerous dust impossible and which, if possible,
should at the same time be fireproof. Besides the hygienic floors,
attention must also be paid to the ventilation. An efficient system can
always be introduced easily, cheaply, and rapidly and is o f as great
importance as the change o f the flooring.
2. The stable-like appearance o f the factory rooms caused by wooden
beams and the deposition o f dust must not be permitted. It can be
removed by covering them with a ceiling, which will give the factory
room such a habitable character as human beings deserve.
TH E IL L U M IN A T IO N O F FA C T O R T ROOMS.
Investigations in regard to the illumination o f factories are always
very difficult, because no definite standards have been set up. One
branch o f industry may require more light than another, and, on the
other hand, the question o f room is often a hindrance in large cities and
the manufacturing industries are far from being established in faultless
rooms, especially within city limits, where the factory rooms are in the
lower stories.
From an official point o f view, definite specifications can only be
made in the case o f new constructions or extensive repairs.
In the investigation o f factories in respect to natural illumination
the follow ing fundamental principles should be observed:
The amount o f light should be reckoned according to the proportion
between the area o f the wall and the area o f the windows. This
method has the advantage o f simplicity over all others, because in it
we deal with constants. The area o f the windows should occupy about
one-third o f the wall area. Even less has been considered sufficient.
U p to the present time one-fifth o f wall area has been considered
sufficient. In newly built factory rooms in Germany there is already
1 square yard o f window area to 3.5 square yards wall area.
A hygienic authority (Popper) demands 1 square yard window area
for every 30 cubic yards o f space, so that there is at least 0.5 square
yard per head. ^German reports show that such a demand has been
taken into consideration only once. F or the favorable approval o f cer
tain plants, among which cigar, lacquer, varnish, glue, chemical,
artificial wool, and metal-consuming factories, and metal worsted
yarn mills and color mills have been especially mentioned, a light
124
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
area o f 8£ to lO f square feet has been demanded for every person
employed.
This demand seems high, if we consider that according to Hirt 64i
square feet window area in a room containing 20 men, or, in other
words, 3 square feet per man, is more than enough, and that employ
ment in the factory must be forbidden only if there is less than 2
square feet per person.
It is immaterial from what side the light comes, but no glaring light
should be allowed to enter which may injure the workman.
For artificial illumination no rules can be given stating how much
petroleum or how many electric lights will suffice, fo r instance, for ten
men. German authorities on hygiene_(Hirt, Popper) demand one gas
flame consuming about 5 to 6 cubic feet o f gas per hour for every six
or seven men.
In any judgment in this direction experience must be the only stand
ard o f authority. It is a well-known fact that a certain number o f
gas flames are counted to a system o f gas pipes. If, then, at some
time fewer flames are used, they are under higher pressure and burn
unsteadily, and unconsumed gas escapes, which has injurious effects
upon the workman.
T o meet these two drawbacks, and especially the latter, all the pipes
should be supplied with automatic pressure regulators, whose aim is
to cause a steady light, no matter how many flames are burning at the
same time.
In making a test as to whether the illumination o f a factory room is
satisfactory from a hygienic standpoint, or whether the necessary
number o f gas flames is present in a room to supply the demands o f
the eye, and that the eye may not be exposed to injurious exertion,
the follow ing table will furnish an approximate basis:
NUMBER OP NORMAL GAS FLAMES NECESSARY TO ILLUMINATE FACTORY ROOMS OF
VARIOUS DIMENSIONS.
Dimensions o f the room
Height
(feet).
Number Height
Number above
the
of norm al abovethe
of norm al
floor
floor
flames.
Length. W idth. Height. flames.
Height.
(feet).
(feet).
Dimensions o f the room
(feet).
Length.
151
181
241
32$
W idth.
151
181
241
32$
121
141
171
22$
2-3
5-6
9-12
16-20
61-71
71-7$
81-91
9M01
41
521
621
721
41
521
621
721
311
41
46
521
25-30
40-45
60-70
100-120
111-121
13-141
151-171
181-20$
In certain factory rooms, which must be strongly illuminated, the
number o f flames must be considerably increased. One normal gas
flame must be counted fo r not less than 39 i cubic yards o f space. In
rooms more than 32J feet in height it is a rule to establish the lights at
about one-third o f the height o f the room, so that they may serve and
not injure the eye.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
125
As soon as a room more than 41 feet in its longest dimensions
deviates so far from the square form that the proportion o f the length
to the breadth is greater than two to one, it is advisable to introduce
chandeliers. The ground surface o f the room is thus as far as possible
divided into squares, each o f which should contain the number o f
flames indicated in the foregoing table.
The argand flame, which consumes about 5.3 cubic feet gas per hour
and is 15 candlepower in strength, is often called a normal gas flame.
The specific consumption— that is, the consumption o f a single c a n d le equals 0.35 cubic foot per hour. In the so-called incandescent gaslight
this amount can be decreased to 0.018 cubic foot per hour. The standard
o f measure fo r light is, as has been said, the candlepower. It must be
remarked that in Germany the unit o f light is that amount o f light
given by a Hefner lamp, with a definite flame light and wick strength
in a perpendicular direction and at the distance o f 3 feet. The amount
o f illumination on a white surface at the distance o f 1 meter imme
diately below a Hefner lamp is called a meter candlepower. This
standard is tested in the Royal Physical-Technological Institute and
is generally employed in Germany.
From a hygienic standpoint electrical illumination must be preferred
to all other methods. Besides its excellent effects in that it comes
nearest to natural sunlight it has the follow ing advantages:
(a) It does not raise the temperature o f the room in which it burns.
(i)
It does not vitiate the air in it, as no carbon dioxide is produced.
As proof o f this the follow ing is given from Zeitschrift fu r die
deetrisehe Ausstellung in Wien:
AQUEOUS VAPOR, ETC., GIVEN OFF IN ONE HOUR BY VARIOUS KINDS OF LIGHT IN THE
PRODUCTION OF 100 CANDLEPOWER.
Kind o f light.
E lectric arc lig h t...
Incandescent lam p.
Petroleum lam p___
Gas argand bu rn er.
Lamp w ith beet oil.
Paraffin candle.......
Tallow candle........
Carbon
Aqueous dioxide
vapor
(grains). (cubic
feet).
9,259
13,272
13,118
15,278
16,204
33.55
16.24
35.31
43.08
51.21
Units of
heat.
57
290
7,200
4,860
6,800
9,200
9,700
The follow ing comparative figures will show the further hygienic
advantages o f electric illumination:
AQUEOUS VAPOR, CARBON DIOXIDE, AND UNITS OF HEAT GIVEN OFF FROM VARIOUS
SOURCES IN ONE HOUR.
Source.
M an...................... . .......................................................................................
Candle consum ing 154 grains per hou r.......................................................
A gas flame (coal gas) w ith a consum ption of 4.94 cubic feet per h ou r.
10615—No. 44—03-----9
Carbon
Aqueous dioxide
vapor
(grains). (cubic
feet)
509
170
2,407
0.78
.49
2.90
Units of
heat.
92
97
878
126
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
In judging the value of electric illumination of a factory from a
hygienic standpoint, its drawbacks must he considered. Because elec
tric illumination has no effect on temperature, valuable effects on
ventilation are lost. As a proof o f this assertion the following fact,
showing the importance o f this loss, is given: W hile the amount of
carbon dioxide generated by the respiration o f the spectators in a
German theater continually increased, yet with gas illumination it con
tinually sank between acts, because, on account o f the high temperature
o f the house, there was a continual interchange o f air in opening and
shutting the doors. W ith electric illumination this sinking between
the acts did not occur, because o f the decreased interchange o f air
owing to the lower temperature. In a full house with gas illumination
the quantity o f carbon dioxide observed was 2.3 per 1,000, with electric
illumination 1.8 per 1,000.
It is true that the total carbon dioxide production was not so great,
but it is also true that the ventilation advantages effected by the higher
temperature were diminished. Therefore, if electric illumination is
to be introduced into a factory, increased attention must be paid to
ventilation.
But electric illumination must be recommended in industrial circles
not only from a hygienic standpoint, but also from an economic one, as
may be seen from the follow ing instance: Electric illumination was
introduced in a German planing establishment and sawmill in which
about 20 men were employed. Previous to this an insurance com
pany refused to insure the whole plant, valued at 400,000 marks,
($95,200) fo r less than 12 marks per 1,000; now they come down with
their demands to 4 marks per 1,000.
In respect to the danger from fire, the following points of view
must be taken into consideration in electric illumination. In the first
place, fire may arise from the motors necessary fo r electric lighting.
This is a small but nevertheless ever-present possibility. In the sec
ond place, little pieces o f molten copper or glowing charcoal may fall
from the lamps and cause fire. Consequently a support must be placed
below the lamp. In the third place, defective insulation o f the wires
may be the cause o f fire, or, owing to a wrong estimate o f the capacity
o f the wire and the intensity o f the current, the former may become
hot and burn off the insulation. The electric incandescent lamp is very
safe, because it is extinguished by the oxygen when the bulb breaks.
In judging a manufacturing plant in respect to electric illumination
and the danger o f fire, the follow ing precautionary measures should
be observed:
1. Complete insulation o f the wires.
2. Repeated examinations o f the same.
3. Metallic casings for the current and return current and avoidance
o f earth conduction.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
127
4. An interval o f at least 4 inches between the single wires and the
breaking through the walls for the current and return current at points
as far removed as possible.
5. The wires must be so thick as not to become overheated.
6. I f arc lights are used, plates must be placed below to catch any
glowing carbon that might drop off.
IN JU R IO U S S A N IT A R Y IN FLU ENCES D U E TO TH E T E M
P E R A T U R E O F F A C T O R Y ROOMS.
The temperature which causes trouble in factories oftenest is not
cold, but heat. Sources o f warmth are frequently found which must
be considered very carefully, but which in purpose have nothing what
ever to do with heating the rooms. That it is unhealthy to remain for
hours in a room in which boilers and steam pipes create an unbearable
radiation o f heat is evident. This is especially true when one considers
to what difference o f temperature the men, and above all the stokers,
are exposed when they leave the hot room.
Technical knowledge has supplied a remedy in this case which is
invaluable to both parties, the employee as well as the employer.
This consists o f covering the pipes with a poor conductor o f heat,
which prevents the radiation and consequent loss of heat.
The qualities which such a covering should possess are as follows:
(1) It must be as poor a conductor o f heat as possible.
(2) It must be able to withstand the incident temperatures.
(3) It must be elastic, so as not to be injured by the expansions o f
the pipes.
(4) It must, finally, present a pleasing external appearance.
The first condition is evidently fulfilled by all porous bodies, in which
there are many little air spaces, so that its atmospheric contents may
be considered at rest. On account o f the second conditions animal
and vegetable substances can frequently not be used in immediate con
tact with the pipes. The third condition, however, would make the
employment o f such substances very desirable.
The pipes in a water-heating system are covered with straw, wool,
cotton, and silk wastes, cow and calves’ hair, or a rough felt prepared
from them, cork plates, etc. The immediate covering is incased in a
board boxing in laths fastened together like barrel staves, screw-like
rope coils, textures, etc., or the casings mentioned hereinafter are
used. Should the above material be used in covering steam pipes, it
would be advisable to first coat them with clay to which chopped
straw, calves’ hair, or the like has been added.
The so-called'mineral wool can withstand all existing temperatures.
It is, however, not very popular as a pipe covering, because it requires
an individual casement for its own protection and frequently does not
128
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
hold well. The best o f all mineral enveloping substances is infusorial
earth (kiesel guhr) which has been prepared with a suitable binding
material. A covering mass made chiefly o f infusorial earth is there
fore, on account o f its poor conductivity o f heat, convenient applica
tion, and relative cheapness, preferable to all others. I f the coating
is applied with care and then covered with oil paint, it leaves nothing
to be desired in respect to an agreeable outward appearance.
The packing or filling in o f boilers and pipes is also managed in
another way. The pipe is surrounded with a covering o f wire spirals.
They are wound with felt and the latter is fastened by sewing linen
about it. Thus the pipes are surrounded by a layer o f air which is at
rest and prevents the radiation o f heat, because air is a very poor con
ductor o f heat. In one establishment in which this kind o f packing
o f pipes was employed the expenses fo r fuel sank over 17 per cent.
This was not only an advantage to the health o f the workman, but
also a considerable profit to the manufacturer.
Concerning the danger o f mineral wool in its manufacture and
employment, the follow ing facts must be given:
Its manufacture and employment is very injurious, and endangers
the health and therefore the lives o f the men who handle it. It con
sists o f infinitely thin glass threads, and looks like natural white wool.
It is obtained by introducing a jet o f steam into liquid blast-furnace
slag. This transforms the liquid slag into very fine threads, which
carried by ordinary drafts unite in lumps and fall into a wire collect
ing vessel. During this process a great number o f minute particles
are torn loose and fly through the air into the various places o f work.
There they are deposited on the bared, hot, and perspiring parts o f
the body, the neck, face, hands, and feet, and are inhaled in great
quantities. In the first case they cause a severe dermal itching; in the
latter case a continual hacking cough. It is evident without further
explanation that this injurious glass dust which enters the skin, larynx,
and lungs must bring with it great danger to the health. In the manu
facture o f mineral wool it must further be mentioned that besides the
porous pig iron the slag quantitatively is the most important product
o f the blast furnace. From the point o f view o f the technician this
is an important indication o f the working o f the furnace. In cooling it
should show a light color, and after cooling should be glassy and stony.
It is used not only in the manufacture o f mineral wool, but also in the
production o f artificial stones, street-construction material, and argilla
ceous earth preparations, and in the preparation o f cement, as an addi
tion to bottle glass and enameling, and as fertilizer material. It has
also been attempted to utilize the phosphoric acid which, in addition
to argillaceous earth, protoxide o f iron, and the silicates o f potassium,
is contained in the slag in the form o f phosphate o f lime.
FA OTOEY SANITATION AND LABOE PKOTECTION.
129
In a list o f the last-mentioned heat-protecting measures the follow
ing results were obtained. A t a steam temperature o f 300.92° F ., a
naked pipe showed 267.98° F ., while a covered pipe showed a tempera
ture o f only 97.88° F. Naked pipes condensed 205 pounds in four
hours, while the condensation o f those that were enveloped was only
61 pounds.
From this it is evident that the aforementioned nonconductors of
heat furnish entire protection against the radiating o f heat in steam
pipes, and that they should generally be introduced.
W orking rooms in which the temperature is very much increased
not only by steam pipes, but also through the presence o f many men
and lights, should be provided with and cooled by a good system o f
ventilation.
TH E C O O PE R A TIO N O F T H E M E D IC A L AN D TE C H N IC A L
SCIENCES IN FA C T O R Y CONSTRUCTION.
Those plants which supply our buildings with light and air, heat and
water, should also answer hygienic demands.
Hygienic rules should be followed in all buildings which men inhabit.
The observance o f correct hygienic principles can alone prevent the
many diseases which may be caused by defective construction o f build
ings and by industrial occupations.
The physician may find the injurious influences which are the causes
o f disease and prescribe remedies. It is the duty o f the construct
ing technical engineer to solve the problems put by the physician. To
accomplish this it is necessary that the technician should become
acquainted with the injurious influences, and the physician with the
fundamental principles o f hygienic technology, so that they may rightly
judge the problems encountered.
The physician must know what can and can not be done by the
technical sciences and hygienic technology. This does not mean that it
is necessary to command a knowledge o f the whole large sphere o f the
technical sciences, but only o f their‘powers and what they are able to
do. This knowledge from the very nature o f the case can and will
pertain only to the elements o f architectural technique. By this
knowledge is not meant the ability to give a decisive judgment con
cerning the whole o f a technical plan and its constructional details, but
only sufficient intelligence as to whether the hygienic problem put by
the physicians is technically solved if certain architectural conditions
are respected.
In all hygienic technologic plants the medical hygienists to a cer
tain extent put themselves under obligation to sketch the building
programme. Architectural and technical sciences on the other hand,
undertake to solve the problems put in this programme from a correct
technical standpoint.
130
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
But it should never be considered the duty o f the architect or techni
cian to solve the problems put by the medical hygienists exclusively
from a technical standpoint. In most cases local circumstances will
necessitate modifications and changes in hygienic demands. In other
words, medical hygienists and technicians should always consult each
other. Therefore it is o f especial advantage to both if on the one
hand the medical hygienists know the elements o f architecture, and
especially hygienic technology, and the technicians and architects on
the other hand are acquainted with the elements of hygiene. This
warning must be given, namely, that the technician does not go far into
the sphere o f the medical hygienist, and that the latter in planning
hygienic plants limits his judgment only so far as his knowledge goes.
T H E IM PO R TA N C E O F H Y G IE N IC CONSTRUCTION.
The State requires, to a large extent, the aid of the science o f
hygienic technology. I f it aims at the welfare of the people it must
care for an efficient and, above all, sanitary laying out o f cities, and
must regulate the construction o f private buildings so that they will
not endanger the health o f their inhabitants. It is therefore one of
the most important duties o f a State to secure the introduction o f this
mogt important science o f hygienic technology, and more especially o f
factory and dwelling sanitation, by the spread o f important facts con
cerning this subject and to superintend the execution o f sanitary laws
with care.
This should be done from an economic and hygienic point of view.
Public interest in this respect should be directed, first o f all, to the
sanitary construction o f public and generally useful factories and build
ings which should be built, fitted, and kept as examples worthy o f
imitation in private undertakings.
The same interest should be taken in private buildings and indus
trial establishments so that by obedience to hygienic principles the
health and well-being o f the individual and consequently o f the general
nation may be improved.
Thus the purposes o f the legislative activities o f the States and the
supervision o f hygienic technological principles are conditioned both
by building inspection and economic considerations. Their whole ten
dency should be especially directed to a safe and healthy construction
o f buildings and to hygienic technological industrial regulations, so
that a really efficient labor protection may result. This has especial
reference to our industrial establishments and, in a narrow sense, to
a sound factory sanitation and labor protection.
The general means fo r the attainment o f these ends should be sought:
1.
In the establishment o f a special hygienic and technical supervi
sion o f all factory construction.
FACTORY SANITATION AND LABOR PROTECTION.
131
2. In the care for a sufficient instruction o f the whole people by
word, writing, and example in the chief and most important principles
o f hygienic factory sanitation and labor protection.
3. In a very careful, conscientious, and lasting inspection and con
trol o f all the sanitary arrangements in buildings.
A ll those measures which limit the constructive liberty o f the owner,
for the sake o f the general good and the preservation o f the health of
the workman in factories which are about to be constructed, serve
especially in reaching these sanitary ends. Especially, all plans of
intended buildings and reconstructions should be carefully investigated
before the building permit is granted, and should they not fulfill the
demands o f sanitary safety and order the permit should be refused.
In respect to those buildings which are already constructed such
measures should be adopted as will anticipate or remove the dangers
which threaten the general well-being.
AGREEMENTS BETWEEN EMPLOYEES AND EMPLOYEES.
[It is the purpose of this Department to publish from time to time important agree
ments made between large bodies of employers and employees with regard to wages,
hours of labor, etc. The Department would be pleased to receive copies of such
agreements whenever made.]
A G R E E M E N T B E T W E E N H O C K IN G V A L L E Y BITU M IN OU S
C O A L O PE R A TO R S A N D UNITED M IN E W O R K E R S OF
A M E R IC A .
DETAILED M INING SCALE FOE HOCKING V A L L E Y .
(SUBDISTRICT NO. 1 OF DISTRICT NO. 6.)
Effective during the scale year from A pril 1,1900, to A pril 1,1901;.
renewed and continued March 6, 1901, to be effective from A pril 1,
1901, to A pril 1,1902; and by agreement entered into February 25-26,
1902, at Athens, Ohio, by and between the Ohio State officials o f
U. M. W . o f A . and the operators o f the said district by their duly
authorized representatives, to be effective from A pril 1,1902, to April
1, 1903.
Pick mining rate per ton of screened lump coal..................................................... $0.80
run of mine, f lump price....................................................................57\
Entries—Dry entries, per y a r d .................................................................................. 2.00
Break-throughs in entries.......................................................................... 2.00
Break-throughs in room s............................................................................ 1.39
Room turning................................................................................................ 3.03
Timber men, per d a y .................................................................................. 2.28
Track layers, per d a y .................................................................................. 2.28
Track layers’ helpers, per d a y ................................................................... 2.10
Pipe men, per d a y ........................................................................................ 2.22
Trappers, per d a y ........................................................................................ 1.00
Cagers, drivers, machine haulers, water haulers, and all other inside
day labor, per d a y .................................................................................... 2.10
Dumpers and trimmers, per d a y ............................................................. 2.10
Couplers, greasers, slack haulers, firemen, engineers, carpenters, blacksmiths,
cleaners, hostlers, and other outside day labor, special prices according to
nature of work.
MACHINE.
Cutting,
Cutting,
Cutting,
Cutting,
by
by
by
by
Jeffrey styles of machine, in rooms, per ton ..................................... $0.09
Jeffrey styles of machine, in entries.......................................................... 12J
punching machine, in room s........................................................................13J
punching machine, in entries......................................................................14|
132
AGBEEMENT8 BETWEEN EMPLOYEES AND EMPLOYEES.
133
Loading, in rooms, per ton ..................................................................................................41
Loading, in rooms, with hand drilling, per t o n ......................*.................................... 44
Loading, in entries................................................................................................................51J
Loading, in entries, with hand d r illin g ...........................................................................54i
Loading break-throughs in entries (entry price).
Loading break-throughs in r o o m s .................................................................................... 48i
Loading break-throughs in rooms with hand d rillin g .................................................51J
Drilling by h a n d ................................................................................................................... 03
Drilling by machine..............................................................................................................02J
Room turning, cutter and loader (entry price).
RULES AN D CONDITIONS GOVERNING THE HOCKING DISTRICT
FROM APRIL 1, 1902, TO APRIL 1, 1903.
S e c t i o n I.— Turns. There shall be no free turns allowed to either
rooms or entries. The entries shall be driven as fast as operators
desire or conditions permit, but in no case shall entry miners be allowed
more, cars per week than room miners, and at least once each week the
turn shall be made uniform fo r the time previously worked. If, how
ever, the regular turn will not allow cars enough to drive the entries
as fast as desired, the operators shall increase the number o f miners
in each entry, so that, by giving to each the regular turn, the entries
shall be driven as fast as two miners could do. with full work. If,
however, the room men decline to take their place in the entries when
requested to do so by the operators, then the entry men shall have
free turns until the entries are driven the required length; nothing in
the foregoing to prevent fast turns.
S e c . H .—Limit on mine cars. No limit o f weight shall be placed on
loading mine cars, and in case o f loss in transit the company shall not
be held responsible, except where cars are broken by employees or
where a wreck occurs, the average weight shall be made good by the
company. In order that miners can not take advantage o f this clause,
the mine manager and committee o f any mine where complaint is made
o f loading cars over their capacity shall mutually agree on a standard
height o f loading cars.
S e c . I I I .— Check off. The system o f checking off for the United Mine
W orkers’ organization remains in force and must be observed, same
to be checked off by per cent o f earnings. The above to include all
dues and assessments for burial fund and United Mine W orkers’
organization.
S e c . IN .— Clay veins. W here clay veins, roll in bottom, or horse
backs exist, the price fo r removing same shall be determined between
loader, mine boss, and mine committee.
S e c . Y .— Bottoms, sprags, etc. A ll machines shall be fitted with front
shoe not to exceed 2f inches in thickness, and the machine men be
required to cut coal level and close to bottom; and in no case shall
thickness o f bottom exceed 4 inches, except in case o f pots or other
extreme variations; and all machine men leaving more bottom than
above must lift the same or it shall be lifted at their expense. W here
the mine boss or superintendent orders left a greater thickness than
4 inches the company shall take care o f it, and where the bottom is
sulphurous and unmarketable the miner may call the attention o f the
mine boss to it and endeavor to arrive at an agreement fo r its removal
or retention. I f the mine boss and miner fail to reach an agreement
134
BULLETIN OB' THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
as to compensation or otherwise, the matter shall he submitted to the
superintendent and mine committee fo r adjustment. In case of sprags
being left by a machine man, he shall be notified by loader, and if he
refuse to remove the same, the loader shall remove same and be allowed
50 cents for so doing; the said 50 cents to be deducted from machine
runner. And when any machine runner leaves six or more sprags in
any one pay he shall be removed from machine and his services be
disposed o f as deemed best by the general superintendent.
S ec . V I.— Rooms. A ll rooms shall be 30 feet wide, with two tracks
in each room where practicable. W here rooms have to be cut 24 feet
wide or under to 18 feet, same shall be paid 3 cents per ton extra.
Not to affect pillars or entries. Each two men shall be given two
rooms where practicable.
S e c . V II.— Blacksmithing. Machine loaders are not to be charged
foi
rooms in pick mines
wl
_____
_____
ming room, all in excess
o f 18 feet shall be paid fo r at entry price.
S e c . I X .— Wet places. Where the mine boss and miner fail to
agree as to whether the working place is wet and entitled to extra pay,
it shall be referred to the committee and mine boss or superintendent,
and if adjudged wet, 3 cents per ton additional shall be paid.
S e c . X .—Mine idle on account o f idle men. I f four men are out of
cutting or drilling at work time in the morning, and upon investiga
tion by mine boss and committee it is found to be the fault o f the
company, the mine shall be laid idle the next day, at the discretion of
the committee.
S e c . X I . — Slate. The company shall remove the slate from the
working places o f the miner; and if the company fails, after being
notified, the miner shall be employed to remove such slate and be
paid therefor at the price agreed upon between the mine boss and
miner, based on the price o f inside day labor.
S e c . X I I .—Double shift entries. Twenty-five cents per yard shall
be paid for driving double shift entries and break-throughs between
entries.
S e c . X I I I .— Stops. No stoppage shall take place at any mine on
account o f any grievance, except for violation o f agreements or refusal
o f employers to pay on regular pay day without an explanation, until
the matter has been presented to the mine boss and superintendent
and an opportunity fo r adjustment permitted, and, failing to adjust,
then the matter be referred to the officials and operators.
S e c . X I V .— Clean coal. No dock shall be taken for less than 100
pounds o f dirt unless it is apparent that dirty coal has been loaded
intentionally; then 300 pounds o f good coal shall be taken for 100
pounds or less. F or from 150 to 250 pounds o f dirty coal, 700 pounds
o f good coal shall be taken. F or 250 or more pounds o f dirty coal,
1,000 pounds o f good coal shall be taken. F or the third dirty car of
coal in the same day from the same working place, 1,500 pounds of
good coal shall be taken, and if the man or men are found to have an
average place by bank boss and committee, he or they shall be laid off
for one day or more, at the discretion o f the mine boss and committee.
A ll good coal docked to be placed in the burial fund. . W eigh offices
to be so arranged that checkweighman can see chutes and railroad
car.
AGREEMENTS BETWEEN EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYEES.
135
S e c . X V .— Lost coal. If the company insist on the machine men
cutting* places, then the company shall pay for all coal lost by places
falling in.
S e c . X V I .— Break-throughs between rooms. That all break-throughs
between rooms be paid entry price for all coal over three cuts by a
6-foot machine.
S e c . X V I I .— Members* sons. A ll things being equal, sons of mem
bers o f the United Mine W orkers o f America, when becoming of
proper age, shall be allowed the preference o f going into the mine,
same to be a part o f this agreement.
L or operators—
F or miners—
J. M. Roan.
W . H. Haskins.
D. H. Sullivan.
E. B. Pedlow.
Michael Collins.
D. E. Ritchie.
Thomas Cairns.
D. C. Thomas.
Joseph Richards,
C. Gr. Newton.
Attest:
F. S. Brooks.
STATISTICS OE CITIES— ERRATA.
In B u l l e t i n N o. 42, the issue o f September, 1902, in the article on
the statistics o f cities, the follow ing corrections should be noted:
On page 981 the legal borrowing limit o f Providence, R. I . , is, by
a typographical error, given as 30 per cent; the statement should be
3 per cent.
A t the time the statistics for Cleveland, Ohio, were secured the
manuscript o f the annual report relating to the financial affairs o f
the city, from which it was necessary to take much of the data, was
in the hands o f the printer, and use o f it could be made only while in
that condition and piecemeal, a method especially unsatisfactory in the
case o f a complex financial statement. In this way a number o f
errors have been allowed to appear in the statistics for Cleveland, sev
eral o f them o f a considerable amount.
Page 990, actual income for fiscal year from trust funds, interest, and dividends
should be $189,328 instead of $289,070.
Page 992, actual income for fiscal year from loans (long-term bonds, two years or
over) should be $1,367,594 instead of $1,267,852.
Page 1002, expenditures on account of construction and other capital outlay for
police department should be $65,093 instead of $65,083.
Page 1004, total expenditures on account of construction and other capital outlay,
exclusive of loans repaid, $3,939,137, should have note as follows: “ Prob
ably includes $160,200 paid by sinking fund commissioners into city
treasury.99 Total expenditures on account of construction and other capital
outlay, including loans repaid, should be $4,828,951 instead of $4,828,941.
Page 1015, expenditures for maintenance and operation of sewers should be $50,134
instead of $49,134; expenditures for maintenance and operation of street
cleaning (and sprinkling) should be $209,364 instead of $62,263; other
street expenditures for maintenance and operation should be $16,985
instead of $47,982.
Page 1016, expenditures for garbage removal should be $102,506 instead of $102,511.
Page 1017, expenditures for maintenance and operation of cemeteries should be
$29,098 instead of $29,108; other expenditures for maintenance and opera
tion should be $361,595 instead of $478,684.
Page 1052, per capita expenditures for street maintenance, except lighting, should be
58 cents instead of 28 cents; per capita expenditures for all other main
tenance purposes should be $5.23 instead of $5.53.
136
RECENT REPORTS OP STATE BUREAUS OP LABOR STATISTICS.
KAN SAS.
Bulletin o f the Burecm o f Labor and Industry fo r 1901.
Johnson, Commissioner.
W . L. A .
163 pp.
This bureau has issued annual reports siiice its organization, but the
legislature o f 1901 provided fo r biennial reports. The bulletin is
issued as taking the place, in some degree, o f the report fo r the year.
Its contents are as follows: Strikes and labor difficulties, 17 pages;
enforcement o f labor laws, 18 pages; labor organizations, 14 pages;
proceedings o f the fourth annual convention of the State Society o f
Labor and Industry, 54 pages; statistics o f manufactures, 52 pages.
S t r i k e s a n d L a b o r D i f f i c u l t i e s . —Text accounts are given o f the
various troubles occurring between June 30, 1901, and May 1, 1902.
These were 25 in number. Causes, cases o f interposition by the com
missioner, arbitration proceedings, contracts, terms o f settlements,
etc., are given in detail.
E n f o r c e m e n t o f L a b o r L a w s . — Under this head are given court
decisions, opinions o f the attorney-general o f the State, and brief
accounts o f cases arising under the laws o f the State relating to labor.
L a b o r O r g a n i z a t i o n s . —This chapter presents reports from 105
labor organizations in the State, 99 o f which report an average mem
bership o f 68.8. The same number o f organizations report the average
cost per member for maintaining the unions, aside from insurance
features, at $6.75 per annum. The period o f employment is reported
by 99 organizations, the average being eleven months. Eighty-seven
organizations report the hours o f labor, which average 9.6. Railroad
employees work from ten to fifteen hours daily, while in the building
trades work is almost entirely on an eight-hour basis.
S t a t is t ic s o f M a n u f a c t u r e s . — A brief review o f the industrial
development o f the State is presented, together with statistics taken
from the Twelfth Census o f the United States.
M ICH IG AN .
Nineteenth Annual Report o f the Bureau o f Labor and Industrial
Statistics, including the Ninth Annual Report o f the Inspection o f
Factories. 1902. Scott Griswold, Commissioner, xviii, 537 pp.
This report presents the follow ing subjects: The beet-sugar industry,
12 pages; the Portland cement industry, 12 pages; the chicory indus
try, 2 pages; the flax industry, 3 pages; organized labor, 21 pages;
coal mine inspector’s report, 12 pages; manufactures, 5 pages; promi
nent industries, 16 pages; penal and reformatory institutions, 13 pages;
137
138
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTM ENT OF LABOR.
inspection o f hotels and stores, 30 pages; strikes, 7 pages; suicides, 2
pages; boiler and other explosions, 6 pages; factory inspection, 368
pages; advantages and industrial resources o f the State, 8 pages; laws
relating to the bureau o f labor, 15 pages.
B e e t S u g a r . — This industry is o f recent development in the State.
O f the 13 factories in operation, 1 began business in 1898,7 in 1899, 2
in 1900, 2 in 1901, and 1 in January, 1902. The cost o f building the
above plants was $5,776,332. The aggregate capital stock is $1,400,000.
The capacity o f the plants varies from 350 to 750 tons o f beets daily.
Ten o f these factories were in operation during the season o f 1900-01
and consumed an aggregate o f 335,510 tons o f beets. The total amount
paid for beets was $1,702,877, or an average o f somewhat over $5 per
ton.
Coal and limestone are the other principal materials consumed in
this industry, 64,349 tons o f coal and 26,154 tons o f limestone having
been required during the year. These articles are obtained in the State,
each factory burning its own lime. The total production o f sugar was
64,616,358 pounds. The employees numbered 1,839 and received an
average wage o f $1.95 per day.
Five new factories, each o f a capacity o f 600 tons o f beets per day,
are reported as in process o f construction, to be ready fo r the season
o f 1902-03. A general review o f the industry, including a description
o f the processes o f manufacture, detailed accounts o f the various
plants, the cost o f raising beets, etc., is given.
P o r t l a n d C e m e n t . — O f 16 factories built or in process o f construc
tion, 10 were in operation in 1901, the output fo r the year being esti
mated at 1,570,000 barrels. These factories employed 897 workmen,
o f whom 700 were laborers, at an average wage o f $1.60 per day.
Engineers and assistants earned $2.60; machinists, $2.42; millwrights,
$2.53, and foremen, $2.60.
There is a general account o f the industry and oi the processes o f
manufacture, with descriptions o f particular plants.
T h e C h i c o r y I n d u s t r y . — This, like the beet-sugar industry, unites
agriculture and manufacture very closely, the 7 factories obtaining
most o f their supplies by contracting with farmers to furnish them the
roots at a fixed price. A bout $175,000 is invested in this industry,
and 120 men are employed fo r an average o f one hundred days each
season. The average daily wages are $1.65. Three o f the 7 factories
manufacture the finished product and run throughout the year. The
consumption fo r 1901 was 31,500 tons o f roots, produced on 3,500 acres
o f ground. Farmers received an average o f $7 per ton fo r the roots.
F l a x . — Six mills, all under the control o f one company, are engaged
in this industry. They consume about 4,000 tons o f flax annually, fo r
which the farm er receives a contract price o f $10 per ton. Tw o hun
dred employees have steady work and 600 others are employed during
the season immediately follow ing harvest. W ages range from $1.25
per day for laborers to $2 per day fo r machine tenders.
139
REPORTS OF STATE BUREAUS OF LABOR---- MICHIGAN.
O r g a n i z e d L a b o r . —A canvass by the bureau secured returns from
107 unions, o f which 106 reported a total membership of 13,266.
Twenty-four unions report strike benefits paid out during the year to
the amount o f $16,392, and 33 paid sick benefits amounting to $8,148.
The average number o f hours worked per day was 9.2 and the average
working time was 9.7 months. B rief reports from the various unions
are published, and a summaiy o f suggestions as to desired legislation is
presented.
C o a l M i n e s . —Thirty mines were in operation for some portion o f
the year, employing an average o f 1,838 persons. The average num
ber o f hours worked per day was 7.8, and o f days per month 20.2.
The average daily earnings o f employees amounted to $2.44, the range
being from $1.50 to $4.50. The amount o f coal mined was 1,004,109
tons, at an average cost for mining o f $1.41 per ton. The cost of
mining in 1900 was $1.38 per ton.
Accounts are given o f 24 accidents that occurred within the year.
M a n u f a c t u r e s . — Under this head are given the results o f a canvass
o f 200 establishments, representing 58 industries. The principal
statistics are given in the follow ing table. Twenty-three industries
are represented by single establishments, and are grouped as mis
cellaneous
STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURES, 1901.
Industries.
F urniture............................................................
M achinery..........................................................
V ehicles...............................................................
Fancy w oodw ork................................................
C igars...................................................................
W omen’s w e a r....................................................
Boilers and en gin es...........................................
Pure food a rticles...............................................
Lager beer............................................................
Leather.................................................................
Boots and sh oes..................................................
A ir rifles...............................................................
Pumps...................................................................
Printing and engraving.....................................
Land p la ster.......................................................
C onfectionery......................................................
Agricultural im plem ents...................................
R efrigerators.......................................................
F lou r....................................................................
B rick ....................................................................
Coffins and caskets.............................................
Cooperage............................................................
Dressed lum ber....................................................
C lothing...............................................................
Railway supplies.................................................
F urnaces.............................................................
M irror p lates.......................................................
Paper b ox es.........................................................
Shirts and collars.................................................
E xcelsior.................................................. » .........
Mattresses............................................................
Extracts and perfum es.......................................
Brass goods..........................................................
Stone and m arble...............................................
W ooden sh oes......................................................
M iscellaneous.....................................................
T o ta l..........................................................
Estab Capital
lish
ments. invested.
25
25
15
15
11
9
6
5
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
23
Cost of
m aterial.
$2,860,744 $2,391,906
1,207,200
470,776
1,692,364
1,098,860
•580,445
379,990
91,725
76,000
335,790
556,522
245,500
155,669
222,250
190,249
657,000
101,258
443,870
616,310
380,000
311,097
133,328
167,500
621,100
196,340
187,621
450,000
275,000
23,837
178,000
285,000
1,000,000
638,000
145,046
450,000
294,662
1,116,769
149,500
13,291
149,293
96,000
130,000
134,689
85,000
140,848
60,000
115,000
60,000
87,117
45,000
37,000
42,200
87,000
42,000
36,968
18,500
27,800
22,000
13,790
61,000
28,800
18,600
40,000
17,248
49,746
11,000
7,400
535
900
2,263,224
2,198,964
Wages
paid.
$2,051,660
525,386
618,384
373,443
88,473
279,111
116,535
43,407
36,087
76,989
77,856
114,084
141,780
152,125
32,930
42,603
341,565
148,068
34,328
13,986
46,521
49,020
22,770
56,250
32,100
23,150
35,604
29,292
16,208
10,188
35,800
7,815
33,642
13,860
1,650
788,354
Value of
product.
$5,238,196
1,282,724
2,942,990
978,255
299,703
1,146,449
322,750
430,806
269,011
801,322
480,715
312,000
530,537
427,273
139,490
420,000
1,418,607
432,664
1,228,785
58,000
221,253
235,412
187,889
248,000
146,000
71,500
171,000
110,819
57,500
29,352
111,000
76,290
93,131
30,860
2,660
4,149,806
200 <*14,688,486 512,821,549 c 6,511,329 d 25,099,249
a Apparently this total should be $14,696,486; the figures are given as found in the original.
b Apparently this total should be $12,821,655; the figures are given as found in the original.
c Apparently this total should be $ 6,511,024; the figures are given as found in the original.
d Apparently this total should be $25,102,749; the figures are given as found in the original.
140
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
The aggregate number o f employees was 16,263. Their average
yearly earnings amounted to $400.38.
P r o m i n e n t I n d u s t r i e s . — Under this head are given short descrip
tions o f a number o f individual establishments representing some o f
the prominent industries o f the State.
S t r i k e s . — B rief accounts are given o f the various labor troubles
that occurred in the State in the year 1901. No summaries are given.
RECENT FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.
A U ST R IA .
D ie Arbeitseinstellungen und Aussjperrungen in Osterreich wdhrend des
Jahres 1900. Herausgegeben vom k. k. Arbeitsstatistischen Amte
im Handelsministerium. 462 pp.
The seventh annual report on strikes and lockouts o f the Austrian
Labor Office is contained in this volume. A s in the report for the pre
ceding year, the information is contained in six tables, showing (1)
strikes according to geographical distribution, (2) strikes according to
industries, (3) general summary o f strikes, (4) summary o f strikes for
the years 1894 to 1900, (5) a table showing in detail the facts for each
strike in 1900, and (6) details fo r each lockout in 1900. An appendix
gives information concerning economic conditions in 1900, the status
o f the labor movement for the same year, the amount o f the contribu
tions received by the trades union commission in aid o f strikers, and
documents relating to various phases o f the more important strikes o f
the year.
S t r i k e s i n 1900.— During 1900 there was a slight decrease in the
number o f strikes and in the number o f establishments affected as com
pared with 1899; on the other hand, the number o f strikers shows a
marked increase over 1899 and over any year o f the period during
which complete returns o f strikes have been published by the Austrian
Government. The increase in 1900 is due entirely to conflicts occur
ring in the mining industry. I f mining be excluded, the year 1900
will show the smallest number o f strikers o f any year during the
period fo r which statistical information is available.
During the year there were 303 strikes, which affected 1,003 estab
lishments, and involved 105,128 strikers and 7,737 other employees who
were thrown out o f employment on account o f strikes. The strikers
represented 67.29 per cent o f the total number o f employees in the
establishments affected. The average number o f strikers in each
strike was 347. O f the total strikers, 89.37 per cent were males and
10.63 per cent were females. A fter the strikes 97,564 strikers were
reemployed and 4,346 new employees took places form erly occupied
by strikers. O f the 303 strikes, 61 yor 20.13 per cent, were successful;
136, or 44.89 per cent, were partly successful, and 106, or 34.98 per
10615— No. 44— 03----- 10
141
142
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
cent, resulted in failure. The follow ing table shows, by industries, the
number o f strikes, establishments affected, strikers and others thrown
out o f employment, etc., during the year 1900:
STRIKES, BY INDUSTRIES, 1900.
Strikers.
Estab
Total
Per cent
Strikes.
lish em ploy
of total
ments.
ees. Number. em
ploy
ees.
Industries.
M in in g .................................
Stone, glass, china, and
earthen w are....................
Metals and m etallic g ood s..
M achinery and instrum ents.
W ooden and caoutchouc
goods .................................
Leather, hides, brushes, and
feathers..............................
T extiles..................................
W earing apparel and m illi
nery ...................................
Paper.....................................
Food products......................
Chem ical p rod u cts..............
B uilding trades....................
Printing and publishing___
Com m erce.............................
Transportation....................
Other industries...................
40
272
105,578
78,791
74.63
3,817
74,575
2,400
19
26
13
31
91
13
1,251
3,724
2,262
574
1,977
519
45.88
53.09
22.94
37
248
12
427
1,858
422
74
59
88
34
45
3,156
1,391
44.07
332
1,150
191
20
56
30
73
804
22,694
604
12,010
75.12
52.92
74
2,130
496
10,655
55
540
27
9
8
2
23
17
1
2
192
11
43
2
158
17
1
2
22
2,875
1,320
554
86
7,907
397
11
606
3,012
1,644
1,004
229
83
4,849
204
6
546
697
57.18
76.06
41.34
96.51
61.33
51.39
54.55
90.10
23.14
593
19
2
3
399
45
1,288
1,001
78
70
4,152
155
188
2
141
20
6
546
691
1,003
156,237
105,128
67.29
7,737
97,564
6
Total.............................
Others
em
thrown Strikers New
out of
reem ployees
after
ployed.
em ploy
strikes.
ment.
303
574
28
6
4,34«
Strikes in the textile trades were again more numerous than in any
other group o f industries, 56 strikes, involving 12,010 strikers, having
occurred in that group. The mining industries, however, show by far
the largest number o f strikers, 78,791 o f the 105,128 strikers fo r all
industries having been involved in the 40 strikes which occurred in the
mining group.
In the presentation o f strikes by causes, the cause and not the strike
is taken as the unit, and since several causes frequently operate to
bring about one strike, the number o f causes usually exceeds the num
ber o f strikes. Thus the 303 strikes o f 1900 were produced by 379
causes.
The follow ing table shows the causes o f the strikes for 1900 by
industries:
CAUSES OF STRIKES, BY INDUSTRIES, 1900.
Industries.
For
For
For
dis
Against For in change
re charge
in
reduc crease m eth duc o f fore
tion of
of
men,
of tion
wages. wages. od
of work
pay hours.
men,
ment.
etc.
M ining.........................
Stone, glass, "china,
and earthen w are... .
Metals and m etallic
goods.........................
M achinery and in
struments .................
W ooden and caout
chouc goods..............
4
15
3
Against Against
Against
obn ox
dis
Other
ious
charge obnox
ious causes. Total.
treat
o f em
rules.
ment. ployees.
2
11
3
3
8
5
3
2
4
2
2
4
13
12 ■
1
14
1
2
21
6
3
4
33
1
2
4
17
3
43
3
8
1
2
1
4
5
42
143
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- AUSTRIA,
CAUSES OF STRIKES, BY INDUSTRIES, 1900—Concluded.
Industries.
For
For
For
dis
re charge
Against For in change
in
reduc crease meth duc of fore
tion m en,
tion of
of
of
wages. wages. od
of work
pay
ment. horns. men,
etc.
Leather,hides,brushes,
and feathers..............
T ex tiles........................
W earing apparel and
m illin ery...................
Paper............................
Food products..............
Chem ical products. . . .
B uilding trades..........
Printing and publish
ing .............................
Commerce....................
1
4
10
31
S
21
4
2
2
19
1
5
1
1
1
T ransportation.............
Other industries..........
1
2
5
T ota l...................
26
152
1
12
15
1
2
8
4
2
1
4
1
Against Against Against
obnox
dis
Other
ious
charge obnox
ious causes. Total.
treat of em
rules.
ment. ployees.
8
7
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
3
3
12
76
1
1
3
1
38
13
9
3
1
1
25
5
2
5
1
36
14
53
1
6
69
13
10
30
19
1
2
7
379
As in the previous year, the most frequent causes o f strikes were the
demands fo r increased wages and for reduction o f hours, the former
having been one o f the causes o f 50.2 per cent and the latter o f 22.8
per cent o f the strikes.
The follow ing table shows the results o f strikes by industries:
RESULTS OF STRIKES, BY INDUSTRIES, 1900.
Strikes.
Industries.
M ining...............................................
Stone, glass, china, and earthen
w a re ...............................................
Metals and m etallic g o o d s..............
M achinery and instrum ents..........
W ooden and caoutchouc g o o d s___
Leather, hides, brushes, and feath
ers....................................................
T ex tiles.............................................
W earing apparel and m illin ery___
Paper......................... ........................
Food products...................................
Chem ical products...........................
Building tra des................................
Printing and publish in g.................
Commerce..........................................
Transportation..................................
Other industries................................
T ota l........................................
Strikers.
Suc
Suc
Suc ceeded
Suc
Failed. Total.
Failed. Total. ceeded.
ceeded. ceeded
partly.
partly.
6
21
13
40
2,465
74,321
2,005
78,791
5
7
3
10
6
10
3
10
8
9
7
14
19
26
13
34
156
132
46
349
243
663
98
760
175
1,182
375
282
574
1,977
519
1,391
6
5
3
3
3
16
3
2
6
1
12
8
1
1,026
50
310
8,192
1,485
876
86
62
1,672
91
1
1
1
2
*133
3,595
84
6
143
21
2,151
63
6
3
20
56
27
9
8
2
23
17
1
2
6
161
223
75
122
5
6
11
35
21
4
2
1
6
3
36
50
510
552
95
604
12,010
1,644
1,004
229
83
4,849
204
6
546
697
61
136
106
303
4,891
89,921
10,316
105,128
A s usual, those strikes which are either successful or unsuccessful
are not extensive in comparison with those which are partly success
ful. In 1900 over 85 per cent o f the strikers were included in the
latter class.
The follow ing table shows the results o f the strikes in 1900 accord
ing to their duration. It is seen that the greater number o f strikes
144
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
were o f short duration, 167, or over 55 per cent, having lasted only
from one to five days. Thirty-five strikes lasted over thirty days.
RESULTS OF STRIKES, BY DURATION, 1900.
Strikes.
Days o f duration.
Strikers.
Suc
Suc
Suc ceeded
SueFailed. Total. ceeded.
Failed. Total.
ceeded. ceeded
partly.
partly.
2
57
29
10
5
7
4
74
11
4
3
2
4
2
1
3
2
15
4
2
3
61
136
106
I to 5 .........
6 to 1 0 .......
II to 1 5 ....
16 t o 20 . . . .
21 to 2 5 ....
26 to 3 0 ....
31 to 3 5 ....
36 to 4 0 ....
41 to 5 0 ....
61 to 100 . ..
101 or over.
36
16
3
Total
1
1
1
167
56
17
9
9
10
3
5
4
18
5
1
4,120
372
104
11
10,168
5,187
1,859
631
710
"**90' 1,267
105
72
1,452
174
67,789
17
684
5,076
1,096
107
727
889
42
908
409
351
711
19,364
6,655
2,070
1,369
1,599
1,399
1,013
1,933
525
68,500
701
89,921
10,316
105,128
4,891
S t r i k e s d u r i n g S e v e n Y e a r s . — The following table shows the
number and extent o f the strikes in Austria fo r the period during
which the ministry o f commerce has published reports on strikes:
STRIKES, BY YEARS, 1894 TO 1900.
Year.
Per cent
Estab
o f strik
lish
ers of Days lost.
ments Strikers. total
em
affected.
ployees.
Strikes.
1894..............................................................................
1895..............................................................................
1896..............................................................................
1897...............................................................................
1898..............................................................................
1899..............................................................................
1900..............................................................................
2,542
874
1,499
851
885
1,330
1,003
172
209
305
246
255
311
303
69.47
59.68
65.72
59.03
59.86
'60.23
67.29
67,061
28,652
66,234
38,467
39,658
54,763
105,128
795,416
300,348
899,939
368,098
323,619
1,029,937
3,483,963
The number o f strikes and the number o f strikers fo r each year o f
the seven-year period are shown, by industries, in the follow ing two
tables:
STRIKES, BY INDUSTRIES, 1894 TO 1900.
Year.
M ining.
Stone,
ooden
Metals M achin W and
glass,
and
ery and
china,
caout
Textiles. Building
and
m etallic instru
trades.
chouc
earthen
ments.
goods.
goods.
ware.
Other.
Total.
1894..............
1895..............
1896..............
1897..............
1898..............
1899..............
1900..............
13
4
11
25
29
26
40
22
29
29
27
27
21
19
23
37
33
26
26
32
26
7
6
14
20
13
24
13
23
38
55
27
28
35
34
34
29
43
28
28
84
56
11
24
42
34
49
33
23
39
42
78
59
55
56
92
172
209
305
246
255
311
303
T ota l.
148
174
203
97
240
302
216
421
1,801
145
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- AUSTRIA,
STRIKERS, BY INDUSTRIES, 1894 TO 1900.
Year.
M ining.
Stone,
ooden
Metals M achin Wand
glass,
and
ery and
china,
caout
Textiles. Building
and
m etallic instru
trades.
chouc
earthen goods.
ments.
goods.
ware.
Other.
Total.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
22,986
626
30,120
3,632
7,046
3,477
78,791
6,415
9,943
3,217
3,053
4,491
2,112
574
2,752
3,694
2,973
1,568
991
2,459
1,977
194
253
2,058
4,689
2,471
1,356
519
9,793
2,336
5,972
1,372
1,318
3,198
1,391
6,317
4,085
9,791
11,275
3,171
30,249
12,010
14,975
5,361
5,434
4,995
13,961
7,842
4,849
3,629
2,354
6,669
7,883
6,209
4,070
5,017
67,061
28,652
66,234
38,467
39,658
54,763
105,128
T ota l.
146,678
29,805
16,414
11,540
25,380
76,898
57,417
35,831
399,963
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
The causes o f strikes for the seven-year period are shown in the fo l
lowing table, the cause and not the strike being made the unit:
CAUSES OF STRIKES, 1894 TO 1900.
Year.
For
Against For in change For re
reduc crease of in m eth duction
tion of wages.
od of o f hours.
wages.
pay
ment.
For dis
charge
Against Against
of fore obnox
dis
Other
men,
charge obnox
ious
ious
causes. Total.
work
of em
treat
rules.
m en,
ment. ployees.
etc.
1894............
1895............
1896............
1897............
1898............
1899............
1900............
23
19
28
26
33
29
26
53
89
140
116
124
143
152
5
6
8
7
8
6
6
19
31
67
47
54
73
69
12
22
32
26
29
17
13
6
2
5
13
9
6
10
34
31
40
32
36
40
36
16
8
12
18
20
18
14
32
37
34
45
39
40
53
199
245
366
330
352
370
379
T otal.
184
817
45
360
151
49
249
106
280
2,241
The follow ing table shows, fo r both strikes and strikers, during each
year o f the period, the results expressed in percentages:
RESULTS OF STRIKES, 1894 TO 1900.
Strikes.
Year.
Strikers.
Per cent Per cent Per cent
Per cent Per cent
Number.
succeed
Number.
suc
succeed P ercent
suc
ceeded. ed partly. failed.
ceeded. ed partly. failed.
1894...........................
1895...........................
1896...........................
1897...........................
1898...........................
1899...........................
1900...........................
172
209
305
246
255
311
303
25.00
26.79
20.98
17.48
18.82
15.43
20.13
27.91
24.88
36.40
36.99
41.18
45.02
44.89
47.09
48.33
42.62
45.53
40.00
39.55
34.98
67,061
28,652
66,234
38,467
39,658
54,763
105,128
9.15
12.81
4.60
15.69
8.36
10.21
4.65
37.31
60.69
62.80
47.81
66.46
71.99
85.54
53.54
26.50
32.60
36.50
25.18
17.80
9.81
T o ta l..............
1,801
20.16
37.92
41.92
399,963
8.17
64.53
27.30
146
BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
L o o k o u t s . — In the year 1900 there were 10 lockouts; the most fre
quent causes were the observance o f Labor Day (May 1) and the pro
tests o f employers against strikes. The following table shows the
number, etc., o f the lockouts fo r the period 1894 to 1900:
LOCKOUTS, BY YEARS, 1894 TO 1900/
Lock
outs.
Year.
1894................................................................................
1895................................................................................
1896................................................................................
1897................................................................................
1898................................................................................
1899................................................................................
1900................................................................................
Per cent
of per- Persons
Establish Persons . sons
locked
locked
ments
locked out and
involved.
out.
out o f to reem
tal em ployed.
ployees.
8
10
11
17
211
12
2,317
5,445
1,712
51.25
79.52
54.40
2,183
4,589
1,647
5
10
38
58
3,457
4,036
60.96
75.81
3,448
3,703
FIN LAN D .
Industri- Statistik, 17. A t 1900. Senare delen. Fabriker och Handtverkerier. Bidrag till Finlands Officiela Statistik, X V III . ix,
150 pp.
The seventeenth annual report on the factory and hand-working
industries o f Finland is contained in this volume. The report presents
a general summary o f the industrial condition o f the country, and then
gives fo r each individual industry the gross value o f the product, the
kind and amount o f the product, the capacity o f the steam engines
used, and the persons employed, classed by sex in three age groups, for
the year 1900. The report concludes with an account o f industrial
accidents in 1900 and furnishes a list o f the different insurance, saving,
and other funds in existence at the various establishments.
The accompanying table shows the development o f the factory and
hand-working industries since 1890:
TOTAL ESTABLISHMENTS, EMPLOYEES, AND VALUE OF PRODUCTS OF ALL INDUSTRIES,
EXCEPT MINING AND METAL WORK, 1890 TO 1900.
Establishments.
Year.
1890...........................................................
1891...........................................................
1892...........................................................
1893...........................................................
1894...........................................................
1895...........................................................
1896..........................................................
1897...........................................................
1898...........................................................
1899...........................................................
1900..................................... .....................
E m ployes.
Value o f product.
Per cent
Per cent
of
of
Number. increase Number. increase Amount.
over pre
over pre
ceding
ceding
year.
year.
5,261
5,478
5,623
5,580
5,825
6,012
6,054
6,165
6,331
6,581
6,677
4 .i
2.6
o .8
4.4
3.2
.7
1.8
2.7
3.9
1.5
a Decrease.
48,202
49,467
47,250
46,085
47,783
53,185
59,182
64,927
73,857
83,844
80,556
2.6
o4.5
«2 .5
3.7
11.3
11.3
9.7
13.8
13.5
«3 .9
326,407,321
27,699,836
26,901,947
26,435,976
28,387,175
31,362,472
36,179,375
41,359,599
46,132,465
49,904,491
55,405,702
Per cent
of
increase
over pre
ceding
year.
4.9
o2.9
o l.7
7.4
10.5
15.4
14.3
11.5
8.2
11.0
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- FINLAND.
1 47
The follow ing table shows the number of employees and the gross
value o f the product o f each of the industrial groups for the years 1899
and 1900, together with the per cent o f increase:
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES AND VALUE OF PRODUCT, BY GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES, 1899
AND 1900.
Employees.
Industries.
1899.
Stone, earthenware, glass, etc........................ 8,424
Chemical products........................................... 2,287
Leather and h id es........................................... 3,569
T extiles.............................................................. 11,047
Paper, cardboard work, bookbinding............ 7,173
W oodworking, bone, cork, etc..... ................. 23,704
B uilding trades................................................ 9,416
Food p rod u cts.................................................. 10,788
C loth ing............................................................ 5,171
Printing and allied industries........................ 2,315
T otal......................................................... 83,844
1900.
Value o f product.
Per
cent of
in
crease.
Per
cent of
in
crease.
1899.
1900.
7,578 a 10.04
2,305
3.04
3,514 <*1.54
11,614
5.13
7,079 a 1.31
25,816
8.91
3,736 a 60.32
3.62
11,179
5,240
1.33
2,497
7.86
$2,274,159
1,585,199
3,102,416
6,519,070
4,907,589
14,439,466
1,321,612
12,728,486
1,929,127
1,097,367
$2,175,043
1,663,839
2,933,770
6,753,982
5,761,094
17,090,883
1,263,953
14,647,335
1,936,752
1,179,051
<*4.36
4.96
<*5.44
3.60
17.39
18.36
a 4.36
15.08
.40
7.44
a 3.92
49,904,491
55,405,702
11.02
80,556
<*Decrease.
FRANCE.
Annuaire des Syndicats Professionnels, Industriels, Commerciaux et
Agricoles, constitues conformement a la Loi du 81 Mars, 188h en
France et aux Colonies. Direction du Travail, Ministere du Com
merce, de l’lndustrie, des Postes et des Telegrapher.
624 pp.
1901.
lviii,
This is the twelfth annual report on trade, industrial, commercial,
and agricultural unions and associations organized in France and the
French colonies under the provisions o f the law o f March 21, 1884. (a)
Under this head are included trade unions, employers’ associations,
mixed associations composed o f both employers and employees, and
organizations composed o f persons engaged in agricultural pursuits.
The greater part o f the report consists o f a directory o f these organi
zations arranged by departments.
It also contains several tables
showing the number and membership o f the unions and associations;
a reproduction o f the legislation, etc., affecting organizations since
1884; Government decrees and judicial decisions on the same subject;
a list o f the periodicals published by the organizations; lists showing
the number o f organizations by trades or industries, etc.
a For the provisions of this law see Bulletin No. 25, p. 838.
148
BULLETIN OP THE DEPARTMENT OP LABOR,
The follow ing tables show the number and membership o f the indi
vidual organizations on July 1 of each year from 1884 to 1896, and on
December 31 from 1897 to 1900:
INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS IN EXISTENCE ON JULY
1 OF EACH YEAR FROM 1884 TO 1896 AND ON DECEMBER 31 FROM 1897 TO 1900.
Industrial and com m ercial
associations.
Date.
Agricul
tural
associa
tions.
Employ W orking M ixed.
ers’ .
men’s.
July 1,1884......................................................
July 1,1886......................................................
July 1,1886......................................................
July 1,1887.....................................................
July 1,1888.....................................................
July 1,1889............ ........................................
July 1,1890.....................................................
July 1,1891.....................................................
July 1,1892.....................................................
July 1,1893......................................................
July 1,1894.....................................................
July 1,1896......................................................
July 1,1896.....................................................
December 31,1897..........................................
December 31,1898..........................................
December 31,1899..........................................
December 31,1900..........................................
101
285
359
598
859
877
1,004
1,127
1,212
1,397
1,518
1,622
1,731
1,894
1,965
2,157
2,382
1
4
8
45
78
69
97
126
147
173
177
173
170
184
175
170
162
68
221
280
501
725
821
1,006
1,250
1,589
1,926
2,178
2,163
2,243
2,324
2,361
2,685
3,287
5
39
93
214
461
657
648
750
863
952
1,092
1,188
1,275
1,499
1,824
2,069
2,204
Increase
pre
Total. since
ceding
year.
175
549
740
1,358
2,123
2,324
2,755
3,253
3,811
4,448
4,965
5,146
5,419
5,901
6,325
7,081
8,035
374
191
618
765
201
431
498
558
637
517
181
273
482
424
756
954
MEMBERSHIP OF INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS ON
JULY 1 OF EACH YEAR FROM 1890 TO 1896 AND ON DECEMBER 31 FROM 1897 TO 1900.
Membership o f associations.
Date.
July 1,1890...............................................
July 1,1891...............................................
July 1,1892...............................................
July 1,1893...............................................
July 1,1894...............................................
July 1,1895...............................................
July 1,1896...............................................
December 31,1897...................................
December 31,1898...................................
December 31,1899...................................
December 31,1900...................................
Em ploy W orking M ixed.
m en’s.
ers’ .
93,411
106,157
102,549
114,176
121,914
131,031
141,877
189,514
151,624
158,300
170,030
139,692
205,152
288,770
402,125
403,440
419,781
422,777
437,793
419,761
491,647
588,832
14,096
15,773
18,561
30,052
29,124
31,126
30,333
34,963
34,236
28,519
29,044
A gricul
tural.
234,234
269,298
313,800
353,883
378,750
403,261
423,492
448,395
491,692
512,794
533,454
Total.
481,433
596,380
723,680
900,236
933,228
985,199
1,018,479
1,110,665
1,097,313
1,191,260
1,321,360
Increase
since pre
ceding
year.
114,947
127,300
176,556
32,992
51,971
33,280
92,186
«13,352
93,947
130,100
« Decrease.
In addition to the number and membership o f agricultural associa
tions shown in the tables above, 696 agricultural mutual insurance
societies with a membership o f 48,458 have been brought under the
law governing trade, etc., organizations, by act o f July 4, 1900.
The total membership o f women in trade organizations was 42,686.
O f this number 2,180 were in employers’ associations; 32,065 were in
employees’ (workingmen’s) associations; 4,716 were in mixed associa
tions, and 3,725 were in agricultural associations. In addition 784
females were members o f agricultural mutual insurance societies.
Besides individual organizations, the report also relates to federa
tions o f trade, industrial, commercial, and agricultural associations,
and to labor exchanges.
149
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS— PRANCE.
The following table shows the number o f federations and o f associa
tions federated, and the total membership on December 31 o f each
year, 1897 to 1900:
FEDERATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS IN
EXISTENCE ON DECEMBER 31,1897 to 1900.
Items.
Trade federations:
1897....................................................
1898....................................................
1899....................................................
1900....................................................
Associations federated:
1897....................................................
1898....................................................
1899....................................................
1900....................................................
Membership of federations:
1897....................................................
1898....................................................
1899....................................................
1900....................................................
Industrial and com m ercial
A gricul
organizations.
tural or
Employ W orking M ixed. ganiza
tions.
ers’ .
men’s.
Total.
Increase
since pre
ceding
year.
46
49
54
59
94
76
73
95
9
11
11
9
30
34
35
36
179
170
173
5200
«9
3
27
791
915
927
1,047
1,302
1,132
1,199
1,533
37
49
49
43
1,184
1,192
1,326
1,470
3,314
3,288
3,501
4,093
«26
213
592
87,095
96,585
105,557
136,796
327,638
312,185
432,950
533,575
3,150
4,343
3,331
1,829
700,557
466,529
487,145
527,492
1,118,440
879,642
1,028,983
1,199,692
0 238,798
149,341
170,709
a Decrease.
b Including one federation composed o f em ployers’ and workingm en’s organizations.
The number o f labor exchanges {bourses du travail) in 1900 was 75.
They were composed o f 1,630 associations, with 276,837 members.
Most o f these exchanges received financial assistance from the munici
palities or departments. In 1900 the subsidies received from munici
palities amounted to 349,584 francs ($67,469.71), and those from
departments amounted to 13,300 francs ($2,566.90). The exchanges
secured employment for 61,294 persons during the year.
Am ong other things the organizations conduct 784 technical libra
ries, 26 cooperative loan funds, 553 funds fo r relief o f the unemployed,
462 technical schools and technical lecture courses, 34 expositions and
competitive displays, and 184 periodicals.
HUNGARY.
Die Fahriksindmtrie des Konigreiehs TTngarn.
koniglich ungarischen Handelsminister.
Herausgegeben vom
1901. viii, 211 pp.
The first part o f this report is an account o f the development o f the
Hungarian factory industries since the establishment o f the Kingdom
in 1867. The remainder o f the report gives the results o f investiga
tions undertaken February 25, 1899, relating to the personnel o f the
factory establishments, the power used therein, and the amount and
value o f the annual products.
150
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
The term “ factor}7,” as here used, includes all industrial establish
ments employing 20 or more persons and those employing fewer than
20, but possessing other characteristics o f the factory to a marked
degree.
The industries are arranged in eleven groups. The establishments
are classed as principal and subsidiary. The following table shows
the number o f establishments in each group and the number o f prin
cipal establishments according to the form o f ownership:
FACTORY ESTABLISHMENTS CLASSIFIED AS PRINCIPAL AND SUBSIDIARY AND ACCORD
ING TO FORM OF OWNERSHIP, BY GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES, FEBRUARY 25,1899.
Principal establishments
owned by—
Establishments.
State,
m unic
Prin Subsid Total. Private Stock
com
ipality,
firms. panies. or com Others.
cipal.
iary.
mune.
'iustries.
I
Metals and m etallic g o o d s............................
M achinery, instruments, and transporta
tion apparatus............................................. .
Earthenware, glass, lim e, cem ent, e t c ........
W oodenware and fu rn itu re...........................
Leather, bristle, and hair goods....................
T ex tiles............................................................
Clothing.......................................................... .
Paper and paper goods...................................
Food products..................................................
Chem icals....................................................... .
Printing and allied industries.................... .
1
1
j
1
!
!
i
!
1
230
129
359
175
39
8
8
192
408
394
64
110
114
54
558
175
70
9
4
6
1
3
3
88
294
321
55
79
107
45
427
102
50
67
85
29
5
22
2
9
104
66
16
30
2
2
7
24
13
4
7
3
is
7
1
201
407
400
65
113
117
54
576
182
71
24
4
2
3
3
2
181
2,545
1,743
444
103
74
T ota l...................................................... 1 2,364
i
31
Special attention was paid to securing detailed information as to the
use o f power in the factory establishments.
The follow ing tables show, by industries, the number o f principal
establishments using motors, the horsepower per establishment, and
the number and total horsepower o f each class o f motors used:
PRINCIPAL ESTABLISHMENTS USING MOTORS, AND HORSEPOWER PER ESTABLISHMENT,
BY GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES, FEBRUARY 25, 1899.
Industries.
Principal Principal
Horse
establish establish power per
ments enu ments us establish
m erated. ing motors.
ment.
Metals and m etallic goods ................................................................
M achinery, instruments, and transportation apparatus.................
Earthenware, glass, lim e, cem ent, e t c .............................................
W oodenware and fu rn itu re................................................................
Leather, bristle, and hair goods.........................................................
T e x t ile s .......................... ............. .................................................................
Clothing...................... ..........................................................................
Paper and paper g oods........................................................................
Food products.......................................................................................
Chem icals..............................................................................................
Printing and allied industries............................................................
230
192
403
394
G4
110
114
54
558
175
70
190
175
272
335
45
89
10
45
479
138
64
383
268
58
60
43
142
25
236
146
68
19
T o ta l............................................................................................
2,364
1,842
142
151
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- HUNGARY
MOTORS OF EACH KIND USED IN PRINCIPAL ESTABLISHMENTS, BY GROUPS OF
INDUSTRIES, FEBRUARY 25, 1899.
Sta
Porta
tionary ble
Tur
Water Gas en Other Total
steam steam bines.
wheels. gines. motors. motors.
en
en
gines. gines.
Industries.
Metals and m etallic g o o d s............................
M achinery, instruments, and transportation
apparatus................................. 1...................
Earthenware, lim e, cem ent, etc....................
W oodenware and fu rn itu re......................... .
Leather, bristle, and hair goods....................
T ex tiles............................................................
C lo th in g ..........................................................
Paper and paper g ood s...................................
Food products..................................................
Chem icals........................................................
Printing and allied industries.......................
543
40
35
444
30
15
1,107
301
155
298
44
160
8
61
927
241
15
45
74
79
2
7
2
4
48
13
17
5
23
1
12
2
75
64
7
28
75
227
5
10
12
51
30
5
18
26
12
13
3
3
2
9
1
13
12
12
82
4
65
55
112
453
539
472
66
228
11
151
1,108
338
209
T o ta l.......................................................
2,753
314
179
676
180
580
4,682
TOTAL HORSEPOWER OF MOTORS OF EACH KIND USED IN PRINCIPAL ESTABLISHMENTS,
BY GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES, FEBRUARY 25,1899.
Sta
Porta
tionary ble
Tur Water Gas‘en Other Total
steam steam bines.
horse
wheels. gines. motors. power.
en
en
gines. gines.
Industries.
64,897
893
3,000
3,881
154
67
72,892
41,976
13,078
16,836
1,695
11,287
222
3,962
65,419
8,510
280
1,022
1,751
1,465
21
66
20
49
816
192
2,527
126
783
16
703
8
446
1,165
98
483
1,197
366
15
103
88
6,135
2,809
107
304
471
109
255
18
34
16
48
6
171
94
90
662
4
402
362
290
46,985
15,785
20,298
1,949
12,675
248
10,625
70,011
9,370
1,232
T o ta l....................................................... 228,162
6,295
16,206
6,965
1,548
2,894
262,070
Metals and m etallic goods..............................
M achinery, instruments, and transportation
apparatus.......................................................
Earthenware, lim e, cem ent, etc....................
W oodenware and fu rn itu re...........................
Leather, bristle, and hair goods....................
T ex tile s............................................................
C lothing............................................................
Paper and paper g ood s...................................
Food products..................................................
C hem icals.........................................................
Printing and allied industries.......................
The returns relating to the number o f persons employed and the
character o f their employment were complete enough to allow o f a
comparison for the various industrial groups. This comparison is
shown in the follow ing table:
PERSONS OF EACH CLASS EMPLOYED IN FACTORY ESTABLISHMENTS, BY GROUPS OF
INDUSTRIES, FEBRUARY 25,1899.
Total persons em ployed.
Factory
em
Ap
ployees pren Serv
Com Tech Oth Fore
and tices. ants. Male.
Fe
mer nical. er. men. day
la
m ale. Total.
cial.
borers.
Officers and clerks.
Industries.
Metals and m etallic goods....... 727
M achinery, instruments, and
transportation apparatus___ 1,292
Earthenware, glass, lim e, ce
m ent, etc.................................. 458
W oodenware and furniture___ 713
Leather, bristle, and hair
goods ....................................... 114
T extiles....................................... 247
C loth ing..................................... 203
Paper and paper goods.............. 164
Food products........................... 2,113
Chem icals................................... 671
Printing and allied industries. 281
347
203
519
40,797 2,921
617
44,381
1,750
46,131
803
14
618
33,284 2,806
547
38,663
701
39,364
198
231
33
149
244
385
30,659
27,092
533
393
398
325
28,034 ' 4,489
27,086
2,202
32,523
29,288
73
173
70
87
722
190
96
4,487
13,446
3,298
5,280
44,677
11,862
4,967
151
84
176
120
238
3
106
83
189 1,253
38
245
155
956
3,933
6,564
2,422
3,389
28,749
10,750
4,894
997
7,721
1,398
2,372
20,969
2,428
1,672
4,930
14,285
3,820
5,761
49,718
13,178
6,566
641 3,177 219,849 8,484 3,853 198,865 046,699
245,564
21
105
8
35
603
157
69
Total.................................. 6,983 2,577
18
6
161
15
42
a Of this total, 46,008 were factory em ployees and day laborers.
152
BULLETIN OE THE DEPARTMENT OE LABOR.
The investigation o f the production o f the factory industries included
such points as the source o f the raw materials used, the markets for
the finished products, the countries which compete in the home and
the foreign markets, and the causes which retard the growth o f the
factory industry at home. This information was desired in connection
with the formulation o f a new tariff policy, and forms an important
part o f the report. The period covered by the questions was that o f
the calendar year preceding the census date, or, in the case o f seasonal
industries, the season preceding that date.
The value o f the product o f the factory industries for the year 1898
is shown in the follow ing table, together with the total number o f
establishments and the total number o f persons employed:
FACTORY ESTABLISHMENTS AND PERSONS EMPLOYED FEBRUARY 25, 1899, AND VALUE
OF PRODUCT FOR THE YEAR 1898, BY GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES.
Total*per
Number of sons em
Value of
factory es ployed in
product of
tablish
factory es factory estab
ments Feb. tablish lishm ents for
25,1899. ments Feb. the year 1898.
25,1899.
Industries.
Metals and m etallic goods ..............................................................
M achinery, instruments, and transportation apparatus..............
Earthenware, glass, lim e, cem ent, e t c ........................................
W ooden ware and furniture............................................................
Leather, bristle, and hair goods.....................................................
T ex tiles.............................................................................................
Clothing.............................................................................................
Paper and paper g ood s....................................................................
Food products...................................................................................
C hem icals..........................................................................................
Printing and allied industries.........................................................
359
201
407
400
65
113
117
54
576
182
71
46,131
39,364
32,523
29,288
4,930
14,285
3,820
5,761
49,718
13,178
6,566
$36,918,029
34,691,735
10,415,660
19,325,447
6,278,472
10,854,996
4,142,658
3,238,881
131,133,628
17,017,618
3,467,033
T o ta l........................................................................................
2,545
245,564
277,484,157
IT A L Y .
Relazione sulPapplicazione della legge 11 febbraio 1886, sul lavoro dei
fanciulli negU opijidi industriali, nelle cave e nelle minierre, dal 1°
gennaio 1899 al 31 dicembre 1900. Camera dei Deputati. Presentata
dal presidente del consiglio dei ministri, ministro ad interim per
l’agricoltura, Pindustria e il commercio. 1901. 80 pp.
This report relates to child labor in Italy for the years 1899 and
1900. In accordance with the provisions o f the law o f February 11,
1886, (a) the report contains the information usually found in reports o f
factory and mine inspectors, such as the number o f mines and factories
visited, the cases o f violation found, the number o f prosecutions, etc.
Tables are given showing in detail the number and proportion o f
children employed in various industrial establishments and in the
mining and metal industries for the period covered by the report.
a For an account of this law see Bulletin No. 30, p. 1053.
153
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- ITALY.
The follow ing table shows in condensed form the main features o f the
statistical matter presented in the report as far as it relates to child
labor:
CHILDREN EMPLOYED IN MINES AND FACTORIES, 1899 AND 1900.
Industries and years.
M IN IN G
AND
Children em
ployed.
Children o f from-
Estab
lish
ments
w hich
em
ployed
ch il
dren.
Total
em
ploy
ees.
Per 9 to 10 years.
cent of
Num total
ber.
em Num Per
ploy ber. cent.
ees.
3,440
4,008
75,438
77,878
11,753
11,918
15.58
15.30
348
296
94
375
7,531
36,431
1,086
6,291
14.42
17.27
2
84
10 to 12 years.
12 to 15 years.
Num
ber.
Per
cent.
Num
ber.
2.96
2.48
1,645
1,644
14.00
13.80
9,760
9,978
83.04
83.72
.18
1.34
134
872
12.34
13.86
950
5,335
87.48
84.80
Per
cent.
M ETAL.
1899................................
1900................................
OTHER.
1899................................
1900................................
ON TARIO.
Second Report o f the Bureau o f Labor o f the Province o f Onta/riofo r
the year ending December 31, 1901. R. Glockling, Secretary.
173 pp.
This report contains an address on the value and influence o f labor
statistics by Carroll D. W right; a list o f labor bureaus o f various
States and countries; replies to inquiries o f the bureau as to new
industries established or desired in various localities; a report on labor
organizations, including one on strikes and lockouts; statistics o f man
ufactures; extracts from official publications, showing the results o f the
organization o f labor; a consideration o f free employment offices;
decisions o f courts affecting labor; a digest o f a report on cooperation
in Great Britain, with a contributed article on the cooperative system
o f constructing public works in New Zealand, and a synopsis o f the
labor laws o f Ontario.
L a b o r O r g a n i z a t i o n s . — Schedules were sent to 438 addresses, to
which 216 replies were received, representing 66 trades or other bases
o f union. Detailed reports are published, with a table furnishing a
directory o f officers and other information relating to each union.
Average wages and hours o f labor o f members are also given, but no
summaries are presented.
F or the year ending August 31, 1901, 19 strikes and 1 lockout were
reported; o f the strikes 7 were successful, 7 were settled by com pro
mise, 1 by arbitration, 2 were unsuccessful, 1 was still pending, and
for 1 the result was not reported.
M a n u f a c t u r e s . — F or presentation under this head, returns from
305 establishments were tabulated, showing for each the number o f
employees, days in operation, total wages paid, value o f product, aver
age yearly earnings and daily wages, and per cent o f value o f product
154
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
devoted to wages and to material, other expenses and profits. The
returns were fo r the year ending December 31, 1900.
O f these establishments 249 represent 17 industries, 56 being grouped
as miscellaneous. The following table presents the principal totals for
each o f these industry classes:
STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURES, 1900.
[Certain errors (probably typographical) in colum ns for em ployees, wages, and value of product make
it doubtful in some cases whether the figures given for the details or the totals are correct. The
few corrections w hich seem to be necessary have been m ade only after a careful com parison of
details and totals.]
Estab Employ
lish
ees.
ments.
Industries.
Total
wages.
Average
annual
earnings.
Value of
product.
Agricultural im plem ents...........................................
Brewing and m altin g................................................
Canned g ood s..............................................................
Carriages and w agons................................................
Dairy products............................................................
Flouring m ills..............................................................
F urniture....................................................................
Gas, electric light, etc................................................
L um ber........................................................................
M achinery and iron fou n dries..................................
Brick, cem ent, etc.......................................................
Planing m ills...............................................................
Printing and publish in g...........................................
Pianos and organs.......................................................
Sash, doors, anc* blin ds...............................................
W ood specialties.........................................................
W oolens and cotton s..................................................
M iscellaneous..............................................................
11
5
5
16
14
32
10
16
14
32
10
17
21
5
8
11
22
56
968 #369,120
54,040
129
33,200
377
271,975
651
113,805
a 87
415
185,130
662 213,320
6 791 453,136
910
303,810
648,140
1,968
324
83,633
122,715
357
644 211,308
523 206.360
28,700
77
352 109,580
2,435
692,290
2,662
948.360
$381.32
418.91
88.06
417.78
a 334.43
446.10
322.24
6 556.94
333.86
329.34
258.13
343.74
328.11
394.57
372.73
311.31
284.31
356.26
$1,531,250
330,000
196,600
1,235,600
456,493
8,487,480
577,810
2,897,625
805,000
2,566,800
288,486
495,800
556,100
517,000
78,225
302,160
2,997,335
4,630,825
T ota l...................................................................
305
c 14,332 5,048,622
c 345.47
23,950,589
a Not including 4 establishments not reported.
6 Not including 1 establishm ent not reported.
cN ot including 6 establishments not reported.
SW EDEN.
Undersokning a f den mekaniska verkstadsindustrien i Sverige. I. Storre
egentliga mekaniska verkstader. Pa uppdrag af kongl. kommerskollegium och under dess Ofverinseende verkst&ld af Henning
Elmquist. 1901. 359 pp.
The results o f an investigation into the conditions o f the larger
factory establishments in Sweden in 1899 are contained in this report.
The first 187 pages consist o f text explaining the tables which com
pose the rest o f the volume. The investigation was made under the
supervision o f the Toyal board o f trade. Statistics are shown for 32
factory establishments, the main characteristics o f which are given in
the follow ing table:
VALUE OF PRODUCT AND NUMBER OF PERSONS EMPLOYED IN THE LARGE FACTORY
ESTABLISHMENTS, BY NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES TO AN ESTABLISHMENT, 1899.
Number o f em ployees to an establishment.
Over 500 persons....................................................................................
From 300 to 500 persons........................................................................
Under 300 persons................................................................................
T o ta l...........................................................................................
Number of
establish
m ents.
Value of
product.
10 $6,703,414
6
1,848,490
16 2,037,124
32
10,589,028
Number of
persons
em ployed.
7,187
2,227
2,646
12,060
155
FOREIGN STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS---- SWEDEN
The occupations o f the 12,060 persons engaged in these establish
ments are shown in eleven age groups, as follows:
EMPLOYEES IN LARGE FACTORY ESTABLISHMENTS, BY AGE AND OCCUPATION, 1899.
Employees o f each age group.
Occupations.
65
12 to 18 to 25 to 30 to 35 to 40 to 45 to 50 to 55 to 60 to or
18.
25.
30.
35.
40.
65. over. Total.
45.
50.
55.
60.
Forem en...........................
F ounders.........................
Core m akers....................
Foundry laborers............
Other foundry w orkers..
B lacksm iths....................
Blacksm iths’ h elp ers___
Ship blacksm iths............
B oiler m akers...................
Hoop m akers...................
Sheet-iron laborers.........
Other sheet-ironworkers.
Coppersm iths...................
M acnine m ounters..........
F ilers................................
Pipe workers....................
Setters-up.........................
Lathe w orkers.................
P laners.............................
Turners.............................
D rillers............................
Polishers...........................
Machinists’ helpers.........
Other m achine w orkers..
Metal w orkers.................
Pattern m akers...............
C abinetm akers...............
Carpenters........................
Other woodworkers.........
Painters.............................
Engineers and firemen ..
Other w orkers.................
34
146
29
11
4
66
6
15
190
42
23
4
101
8
151
33
19
14
17
70
74
18
16
3
18
15
2
58
2
251
91
115
33
62
212
37
97
7
430
13
43
27
582
6
42
349
49
56
40
14
103
114
22
61
21
25
42
26
14
54
1
166
17
46
32
73
50
55
80
6
162
8
26
20
308
9
34
136
23
25
29
11
40
53
18
39
13
18
39
15
12
60
17
176
10
44
34
51
37
45
63
9
108
15
13
25
162
4
36
99
30
21
24
7
24
28
6
39
19
25
22
14
9
56
36
131
13
25
45
62
24
48
82
12
67
14
15
15
148
5
22
69
24
7
23
11
16
36
9
44
17
29
30
25
10
77
35
104
3
31
26
56
30
49
81
4
53
13
11
14
143
5
14 !
53
18
11
23
11
10
27
5
31
21
26
30
17
16
56
T otal........................ 1,187 3,040 1,624 1,272 1,191 1,027
47
37
5
21
18
62
24
36
55
8
55
12
12
14
98
5
10
42
16
7
9
5
9
24
1
38
23
31
20
8
12
58
34
30
4
21
18
24
25
42
53
2
37
8
3
16
66
2
5
40
8
3
13
6
11
19
3
23
18
43
20
2
14
62
25
30
2
15
17
39
8
26
41
4
28
6
7
9
45
1
8
15
5
822
675
526
15
4
10
16
2
25
17
35
18
3
9
41
11
20
1
9
6
19
12
16
15
1
10
5
3
6
36
1
2
10
5
1
10
1
5
14
16
12
38
8
1
9
37
340
16
10
3
11
7
21
9
4
23
12
1
6
1
21
1
6
10
7
1
5
1
10
16
1
28
7
54
17
4
5
34
224
989
295
367
247
473
497
364
605
53
1,152
137
162
151
1,710
39
187
a 977
218
151
205
88
308
421
. 85
360
5169
327
264
130
112
593
352 <?12,060
a Including 3 persons whose age was not reported.
b Including 1 person whose age was not reported.
e Including 4 persons whose age was not reported.
The length o f the working day in the establishment^ under consid
eration is shown in the following table:
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES IN LARGE FACTORY ESTABLISHME1 TS, BY HOURS OF WORK
PER WEEK, 1899.
Hours per week.
Number of Per cent of
employees.
total.
Less than 54 hou rs....................................................................................................
54 to 57 h ou rs............................................................................................................
57 to 60 hours ...........................................................................................................
60 to 63 h ou rs...........................................................................................................
63 to 66 h ou rs............................................................................................................
66 hours or over................................................................................................ .......
Not reporting, ........................................ .................................................................
23
795
3,232
6,955
446
540
69
0.2
6.6
26.8
57.6
3.7
4.5
.6
Total................................................................................................................
12,060
100.0
156
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
The annual earnings o f 5,161 persons steadily employed in the large
establishments are shown in five classes in the follow ing table:
PERMANENT EMPLOYEES IN LARGE FACTORY ESTABLISHMENTS, BY WAGE CLASSES
AND OCCUPATIONS, 1899.
Employees in each wage class.
Occupations.
1,500 to 1,200
Over 1,500
kroner ($402
kroner ($402).
to $322).
1,200 to 800
kroner ($322
to $214).
800 to 500
Under 500
kroner ($214
kroner ($134).
to $134).
Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per Num Per
ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent. ber. cent.
Forem en..................................
F ounders................................
Core m akers...........................
Foundry laborers...................
Other foundry w orkers.........
B lacksm iths...........................
Blacksmiths’ h elp ers............
Ship blacksm iths...................
B oilerm akers—......................
H oop workers.........................
Sheet-iron laborers.................
Other sheet-iron w orkers___
Coppersm iths.........................
M achine m ounters.................
F ilers......................................
Pipe workers...........................
Setters-up................................
Lathe w orkers........................
P laners...................................
Turners...................................
D rillers..................................
Polishers..................................
M achinists’ helpers...............
Other m achine w orkers.......
Metal w orkers........................
Pattern m akers......................
C abinetm akers......................
Carpenters..............................
Other w oodw orkers...............
P ain ters..................................
Engineers and firem en .......
Other w orkers........................
29
47
T otal..............................
24.6
9.7
51
82
43.2
17.0
13.2
11.9
12.7
31.8
2.4
12.9
13.2
10.0
1.4
31
276
17
31
55
141
44
127
159
15
161
26
17
41
344
9
93
200
53
35
62
34
15
100
13
114
49
81
63
37
31
68
26.3
57.1
27.9
34.1
55.6
54.7
29.9
64.8
51.9
40.6
41.6
59.1
34.0
52.6
49.9
64.3
65.0
46.5
45.3
43.8
55.9
60.7
22.4
48.8
31.0
63.0
55.7
64.3
50.8
54.4
62.0
31.6
33
12.8
1
12
38
1.1
12.1
14.7
1
7
.5
2.3
37
51
5
18.9
16.7
13.5
3
5
24
6.0
6.4
3.5
2
23
6
3
1.4
5.3
5.1
3.7
1
1.8
2
10
15
100
4
20
48
15
7
10
8
4.6
20.0
19.2
14.5
28.6
14.0
11.2
12.8
8.7
9.0
14.3
4
4
1
2
1.9
9.5
.6
2.3
1
2
3
.8
3.0
6.0
27
5
23
28
3
16
9
5
3
201
3.9
635
12.3
2,542
49.2
7
5.9
52
10.8
23 37.7
51
56.0
32 32.3
46 17.8
89 60.6
31
15.8
82 26.8
15 40.6
189 48.8
14 31.7
16
32.0
12
15.4
174 25.3
1
7.1
25 17.5
100 23.3
30 25.7
27 33.8
36 32.4
10
17.8
37 j 55.2
56 27.3
14 33.3
33 18.2
9 10.2
40 31.7
42 33.9
17 25.0
11 22.0
113 52.6
1,434
27.8
26
21
8
5.4
34.4
8.8
14
9.5
7
2
37
2
4
5
47
2.3
5.3
9.6
4.6
8.0
6.4
6.8
3
59
13
8
3
15
18
6
10
2.1
13.7
11.1
10.0
2 7
5.4
22.4
8.8
14.3
5.5
2
2
3
1.6
1.6
4.4
31
14.4
349
6.8
3
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
[This subject, begun in Bulletin No. 2, has been continued in successive issues.
A ll material parts of the decisions are reproduced in the words of the courts, indi
c t e d when short b y quotation marks, and when long by being printed solid. In
order to save space, matter needed simply b y way of explanation is given in the
words of the editorial reviser.]
DECISIONS UNDER ST A T U T O R Y L A W .
B o y c o t t in g — F r e e d o m
of
Speech
and of the
P ress
under
State
C o n s t i t u t i o n — I n j u n c t i o n —Marx
c& Haas Jecms Clothing Company
v. Watson et al., Supreme Court o f Missouri, 67 Southwestern Reporter,
page 391.— The clothing company here named sought by injunction to
prevent Watson and his associates from declaring or enforcing a boy
cott against it by inducing its customers and others who might become
such not to deal with it to the injury o f its business. A temporary
injunction was granted, but, on a hearing in the St. Louis circuit
court, this injunction was dissolved and the petition dismissed. The
company then appealed to the supreme court, which affirmed the action
o f the court below.
Marx & Haas had had trouble with their clothing cutters for some
years, resulting first in a boycott by the Knights o f Labor in 1895, and
again in a boycott undertaken by a joint board o f the Knights o f
Labor and the United Garment W orkers o f America, affiliated with the
American Federation o f Labor. In furtherance o f this latter effort a
circular reciting at some length the various difficulties and grievances
was issued, and distributed freely among the patrons and possible
patrons o f the firm. This circular concluded: u W e are positive we
have proven to you the justice o f our position, and we hope it will not
be necessary to inform the labor and reform organizations with which
we are affiliated who are in your locality, as we are satisfied we have
convinced you that the stand we have taken in this case is a just one,
and will command the support o f all fair-minded men. W e therefore
request you to write to Messrs. M arx & Haas and inform them that
you would request them to settle the dispute with their employees, or
otherwise you can not afford to handle their goods as long as they are
antagonizing organized labor, who are your friends and customers.
By doing this you will aid us in getting simple justice from this more
than unfair firm. Should this firm make a settlement with us, you
10615— No. 44— 03----- 11
157
158
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
will be informed o f the fact under the seals o f the joint organizations.
Until such time, we trust there will be no report made to our office
that Marx & Haas have shipped you any more goods. Kindly inform
us what action you take in this matter, and any further information
you may desire will be cheerfully furnished by writing to headquarters
o f joint executive board, No. 911 Pine street, St. Louis, Missouri.”
In addition to the sending o f this circular, committees visited vari
ous merchants in St. Louis and vicinity to present the matter more
fully, and in some instances threats were made by members o f these
committees that the patronage o f the boycotters and their friends
would be withheld from certain merchants unless they discontinued
their business dealings with the clothing company. In no instance,
however, were there threats of resort to violence or unlawful intimi
dation.
The petition o f the clothing company concluded with the request
that “ the defendants, their associates, confederates, agents, and rep
resentatives, be enjoined and restrained by a temporary order o f
injunction, to be made final upon the hearing o f this cause, from b oy
cotting, or making effectual, promulgating, or in any wise proclaim
ing any boycott upon or against, the plaintiff or its goods, and from
sending, conveying, or delivering in any way, to any person, firm, cor
poration, or association, any boycott notice, verbal or otherwise, refer
ring to the plaintiff or its goods, and from in any way menacing,
hindering, or obstructing the pM ntiff from the fullest enjoyment o f
all the patronage, business, and custom which it may possess, enjoy,
or acquire independent o f the action o f the said defendants, or any of
them.”
Judge Sherwood announced the opinion o f the court. A fter stating
the above facts and reviewing the evidence given before the court
below, he disposed o f the question o f the jurisdiction o f the Supreme
Court in the case. Proceeding to the points in issue, he said:
Section 14 o f our bill o f rights declares that “ no law shall be passed
impairing the freedom o f speech; that every person shall be free to
say, write or publish whatever he will on any subject, being responsi
ble fo r all abuse o f that liberty.” The evident idea o f that section is
penalty or punishment, and not prevention. Because, if prevention
exists, then no opportunity can possibly arise fo r one becoming respon
sible by saying, writing, or publishing “ whatever he will on any sub
ject.” The two ideas— the one o f absolute freedom “ to say, write or
publish whatever he will on any subject,” coupled with responsibility
therefor, and the other idea o f preventing any such free speech, free
writing, or free publication— can not coexist. And just here it must
be observed that the right o f free speech, free writing, or free publi
cation was not created by the Constitution, which recognizes those
rights as now existing, and onty seeks their protection and perpetuation.
Section 14, supra, maKes no distinction, and authorizes no difference
to be made by courts or legislatures, between a proceeding set on foot
to enjoin the publication o f a libel, and one to enjoin the publication of
159
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
any other sort or nature, however injurious it may be, or to prohibit
the use o f free speech or free writing on any subject whatever; because,
wherever the authority o f injunction begins, there the right o f free
speech, free writing, or free publication ends. No halfway house
stands on the highway between absolute prevention and absolute free
dom. The rights established by section M can neither be impaired by
the legislature, nor hampered nor denied by the courts. Nor does it
in any way change the complexion o f this case by reason o f its being
alleged in the petition 44that the defendants, and each o f them, is [are]
without means, and has [have] no property, over and above the exemp
tion allowed by law, wherefrom the plaintiff might secure satisfaction
for the damages resulting to it from the acts aforesaid.” The Consti
tution is no respecter o f persons. The impecunious man 44 who hath
not where to lay his head” has as good right to free speech, etc., as has
the wealthiest man in the community. And in this connection it is to
be constantly borne in mind that the principle is firmly rooted in equity
jurisprudence that, though there be no remedy at law, this does not
necessarily and o f itself give a court o f equity jurisdiction to afford
relief. The authority to enjoin finds no better harbor in the empty
pocket o f the poor man than in the full pocket o f the rich man. And
such authority to enjoin can have no existence in circumstances such as
the present case presents, if the Constitution is to be obeyed. I f these
defendants are not permitted to tell the story o f their wrongs, or, if
you please, their supposed wrongs, by word o f mouth, or with pen or
print, and to endeavor to persuade others to aid them by all peaceable
means in securing redress o f such wrongs, what becomes o f free speech,
and what o f personal liberty ? The fact that in exercising that freedom
they thereby do plaintiff an actionable injury does not go a hair toward
a diminution o f their right o f free speech, etc., fo r the exercise o f
which, if resulting in such injury, the Constitution makes them
expressly responsible. But such responsibility is utterly incompatible
with authority in a court o f equity to prevent such responsibility from
occurring.
Judge Sherwood then stated that the question o f the power o f the
court to enjoin in cases o f intimidation, threats o f violence, or of destruc
tion of property was not passed upon, as not being involved in the
record, and concluded:
Holding these views, we affirm the decree o f dismissal entered in
favor o f defendants by the court below.
Judge Robinson dissented from the above.
C ontract
of
E m p l o y m e n t — I n j u n c t io n
A
g a in s t
V
io l a t io n —
ip R e s t r a in t o f T r a d e — U n l a w f u l C o m
b i n a t i o n —Harrison v. Ghicose Sugar Refining Co., United States
Circuit Court o f Appeals, Seventh Circuit, 116 Federal Reporter, page
SOlf.— Lee S. Harrison entered into a contract with the company
D
efen ses—
Covenants
named above fo r the term o f five years, during which period he was
to be and remain exclusively in the company’s service and not to be
or become interested in any way whatever in the business 44o f buying,
manufacturing, or selling glucose, grape sugar, starch, or any kindred
160
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
products, or any o f the products o f a glucose factory, within a radius
o f fifteen hundred miles o f the city o f Chicago, Illinois,” except in
the service o f this company. His compensation was fixed by the same
contract at three hundred and thirty-three and one-third dollars per
month, payable monthly.
A fter less than three years had expired, Harrison left the service of
the Glucose Sugar Refining Company and entered that o f the Illinois
Sugar Refining Company at Pekin, Illinois. The latter company wr i a
manufacturer o f beet sugar and not a competitor o f the Glucose Sugar
Refining Company at the time o f Harrison’s engagement with it, but
within a few months it began the manufacture o f glucose and kindred
products from corn, with Harrison as superintendent.
When Harrison first left the Glucose Company’s service, he was
informed by letter that his contract had not expired and was instructed
to report to the general office. Again, when the Illinois Sugar Refin
ing Company began the manufacture o f glucose, he was addressed and
offered a reinstatement in his form er position and at the same time a
protest was made against his violating his contract or using the infor
mation acquired during his service fo r the benefit o f a rival company.
Harrison paid no attention to these letters and the Glucose Company
procured an injunction restraining him from engaging in the service
or being in any way interested in any glucose factory within 1,500 miles
o f Chicago other than the one first employing him, and from impart
ing in any way to the Illinois Sugar Refining Company any informa
tion, knowledge, trade secrets, or processes relating to the business
o f his employers.
In his answer Harrison charged that the company is an unlawful
pool, combination, m onopoly, or trust, and that the area named includes
the entire territory in the United States within which glucose and its
kindred products are or can be successfully manufactured and marketed,
so that the contract was unreasonable and void as being in restraint o f
trade. H e denied the communication o f any secrets by himself or that
he intended to use any information imparted to him by the Glucose
Company in his new position, and claimed that the company had a
sufficient remedy at law fo r any damages sustained.
From the injunction an appeal was prosecuted, which resulted in its
being affirmed. The conclusions o f the court were given by Judge
Jenkins, from whose remarks the follow ing is quoted:
The objection that the appellee is an illegal trust or monopoly con
demned by the law o f the State o f Illinois, and so declared by the
supreme court o f that State, can not be sustained. W e have held in
the case o f an injurious combination o f the nature here asserted that
the remedy is by direct proceedings; that with respect to a contract
which is independent o f the illegal combination, and is merely incident
to other and innocent purposes, one who voluntarily and knowingly
deals with parties so combined can not on the one hand take the bene
fit o f his bargain, and on the other defend against the contract on the
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
161
ground o f the illegality o f the combination. It is to be said also that
since the submission o f this case the Supreme Court o f the United
States in Conolly v. Sewer Pipe Co., 22 Sup. Ct.,431, has declared the
antitrust law o f the State o f Illinois to be in derogation o f the Con
stitution and an invalid enactment.
It is urged that the contract in question is one in restraint o f trade
because o f the covenant that during the stipulated time o f service the
appellant would not, directly or indirectly, become interested in the
specified business within a radius o f 1,500 miles from the city o f Chi
cago otherwise than under his engagement with the appellee. The
doctrine o f restraint o f trade had its birth in conditions anciently
obtaining, and now greatly changed. Then the area o f trade was
confined within narrow territorial bounds. Intercommunication has
become largely extended, and trades anciently limited to a small local
ity have become national in their extent. The rule is bottomed upon
the consideration whether such a covenant was broader than the cove
nantee required fo r his protection.
Notwithstanding some authorities which seem to have followed
blindly the ancient rule, overlooking the reason o f the rule and the
changed conditions, it is not just to limit the territory within which
restraint may be applied by any arbitrary geographical bounds, with
out regard to the nature and extent o f the business in which the
restraint is sought to be imposed. State lines can not justly be applied
within the reason o f the rule. It is a question not o f State policy, but
o f national policy and o f general law. The reasonableness o f the
restraint has respect to the territory occupied by the business. [Cases
cited.]
In the contract in question the restraint is limited, as to time, to the
period o f service engaged for; as to territory, within a radius o f 1,#00
miles o f the city o f Chicago. It is contended that in the latter re%
spect
the restraint is unreasonable. The answer asserts that the territory
described comprises the entire territory in the United States within
which glucose and its kindred products are or can be successfully
manufactured and marketed. The bill alleges that the market occu
pied by the appellee extends throughout the United States and to
various foreign countries, but particularly extends throughout the
territory described. Within the modern doctrine we can not say that
this restraint is invalid, the circumstances being considered. The
appellant engaged his services to the appellee for a specified term.
He was to aid in the manufacture o f glucose and its kindred products.
He was to receive a compensation o f $4,000 per annum, and in addi
tion, as he states, was to have fo r his five years’ service $17,500 par
value o f the common stock o f the appellee. The restriction that
during the term o f service the appellant should not become interested
in the manufacture o f like products in the territory occupied by the
appellee seems not unreasonable.
He engaged his whole service and his entire time fo r the period of
five years and fo r a liberal compensation to be paid him. It is but
common justice that during the period o f service contracted, and from
which service he had not been discharged, the appellant should not
become interested in the manufacture or sale o f the product o f a rival
in the business. The extent o f the restraint here is only that during
the time engaged fo r he should not enter the service o f a rival within
the territory occupied by his employer. There is in this agreement,
as we conceive, nothing contrary to public policy. He is not deprived
162
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
o f the opportunity to obtain the means o f subsistence or o f giving to
the public the benefit o f his skill in the business to which he has been
accustomed. He has only to perform the duty which he engaged to
perform to render himself and his family comfortable. W e know o f
no public policy which requires us to sanction the bald violation o f a
contract lest the public should be deprived o f the peculiar skill o f the
appellant because he will not exercise that skill where he has engaged
to exercise it.
There is, however, another consideration which, as we think, should
prevail to hold this contract valid. The appellant was under his con
tract employed in a confidential capacity in a business which, notwith
standing the denial o f the appellant, we can not but believe upon the
evidence presented required many secret processes. The statement o f
facts which precedes this opinion details the measures o f care adopted
to prevent knowledge o f those secrets by rivals and by the servants in
the business, except those occupying confidential relations. The rec
ord is replete with evidence, not necessary here to be set forth at large,
to the effect that the experts were constantly experimenting to dis
cover processes by which every part o f the product might be utilized
at the minimum o f expense, and that the experiments and the results
obtained were communicated confidentially to the appellant. It also
satisfactorily appears, notwithstanding his denial, that the appellant
entered into the employment o f a concern not at the time engaged in
a rival business, and forthwith superintended for them the construc
tion o f works fo r the manufacture o f glucose and its kindred products
with a view to compete with the appellee in such manufacture. Under
the circumstances it would require something more than his mere
denial to convince us that in the manufacture o f glucose he would not
employ the secrets o f the business o f the appellee which had been con
fidentially communicated to him. He could not well do otherwise.
He was employed b y the rival fo r that purpose. H e was to give all
his skill, including the knowledge confidentially acquired in the busi
ness o f appellee, to his new master. He could not in good faith serve
the one without breach o f duty to the other. In such case it may well
be doubted if the rule with respect to restraint o f trade should apply,
because these secrets o f the business are the property o f the appellee,
to which the public has no right, and may not justly insist that it
shall receive the benefit o f the appellant’s services through breach o f
confidence.
This is not a suit to enforce the specific performance o f a contract
for personal services, which it is conceded can not be done. The
injunction sought to restrain the appellant from violating his covenant
and from disclosing the secrets acquired by him while in the service
o f the appellee under his contract o f employment. There is no ade
quate remedy at law fo r such violation. There are no means to deter
mine the extent o f the damages which would be sustained by disclos
ure o f such secrets. T o vacate the restraint imposed by the court
below would practically decree for the appellant upon the merits o f
the case, fo r a decree would be useless if the secrets were once
disclosed.
W e are o f opinion that the decree awarding the injunction should
be affirmed.
163
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
E ig h t -H o u r L
aw —
C ontracts
for
W
o r k in
A
lask a—
A
rmy
R eg
v.
United States, United States District Courts District o f Washington,
Northern Division , 116 Federal Reporter, page 526.— This was an action
u l a t io n s — C o n t r a c t s
w it h
M
e c h a n ic s
and
L a b o r e r s —Moses
at law to recover from the Government o f the United States under a
contract to perform labor as a carpenter in Alaska. The work done was
under the supervision o f the W ar Department, the contract o f hiring
having been made by an officer in the quartermaster’s department of
the United States Arm y. In the performance o f his work Moses was
required to work ten hours per day during the summer season, the
time being shortened to eight and one-half hours, and then to eight
hours as the days became shorter. No allowance for excess was given,
and it was fo r the purpose o f securing an allowance fo r labor per
formed in excess o f eight hours per day that this suit was brought.
Moses relied on the Federal eight-hour law o f August 1, 1892, and on
article 62, paragraph 812, o f the United States A rm y Regulations,
which provides that “ eight hours constitute a day’s work for all
mechanics and laborers employed b y or on behalf o f the United
States, except in cases o f em ergency.”
Judge Hanford, in announcing the decision o f the court, spoke in
part as follows:
Congress has not, by any express declaration, extended the entire
body o f the national laws to Alaska, but by special acts has made cer
tain specified laws o f Congress effective there, and has enacted a com
plete code o f civil and criminal laws especially for Alaska, and it is
my opinion that its treatment o f Alaska evinces a purpose to govern
that district by special local laws, and fo r that reason I hold that the
eight-hour labor law o f 1892 is not applicable to work contracted for
by the Government to be performed m Alaska. The regulations pre
scribed b y the W ar Department, however, were intended to be com
prehensive, and to govern the conduct o f the Arm y, and all work
under the superintendence o f its officers, whenever assigned to duty.
The paragraph referred to defines what constitutes a day’s work by
laborers on works o f the United States controlled by the War Depart
ment, and according to the regulations the contract must be construed
as an agreement on the part o f M ajor Bingham to pay the plaintiff at
the rate o f $5 per working day o f eight hours. I hold that the plaintiff
is entitled to extra compensation, to be computed at the rate o f $5 for
eight hours o f labor for the aggregate number o f additional hours in
excess o f eight hours per day which he was required to work when
there was no special emergency.
In his petition the plaintiff alleges that by virtue o f a custom having
the force o f law the rate o f compensation for labor in excess o f eight
hours per day should be one and one-half times the contract rate,
* * * but there is an entire failure o f proof as to the existence o f
any such custom.
164
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
E m ployers’ L
l ig e n c e —
ia b il it y —
C ontract
w it h
R a il r o a d C o m p a n ie s — D
R e l ie f
D
epartm ent—
e a th from
E ffect
of
Neg
Stat
R e c o v e r y — Oyster v. Burlington R elief Department o f
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad Co. et ad., Supreme Court
o f Nebraska, 91 Northwestern Reporter, page 699.— Margaret E.
utory
Oyster sued in the district court o f Lancaster County, Nebr., to
recover on a beneficiary certificate issued to her husband, Granville R.
Oyster, who was killed in a railroad accident while in the employment
o f the railroad company named.
She had previously sued as administratrix and recovered $5,000, the
full amount allowed by section 2, chapter 21, Compiled Statutes o f
Nebraska, claiming that this amount was fo r the use and benefit o f the
minor children o f the deceased workman. The present action was for
her personal benefit, as provided fo r in the certificate o f the relief
department. In this certificate was a clause providing that the accept
ance o f the benefits therein secured should operate as a release and
satisfaction o f all claims fo r damages against the railroad company for
such injury, and that, if suit was brought against the company and
should proceed to judgment or be compromised, all claims upon the
relief fund should be precluded. Judgment was in favor o f the relief
department in the court below, and on appeal this was affirmed by the
supreme court.
Judge Oldham, in announcing the judgment o f the court, spoke in
part as follows:
In the case at bar the widow o f the deceased, as beneficiary o f the
certificate in issue, did not, in the first instance, elect to claim the bene
fit provided in such certificate, but, on the contrary, she took out letters
o f administration on the estate o f the deceased, and in her representative
capacity prosecuted the defendant railroad company under the pro
visions or the L ord Campbell’s act, omitting, however, to name her
self as widow among the beneficiaries. The result o f the action was
the recovery o f the full amount allowed by statute fo r the wrongful
killing o f the deceased. In this action it is clear that the administra
trix sued as trustee fo r all the beneficiaries permitted to recover under
the provisions o f section 2, c. 21, supra,— i. e., for the widow and the
next o f kin— and the mere fact that the petition omitted to name some
one o f the beneficiaries would not and could not prevent such benefi
ciary from participating in the distribution o f the fund when recovered.
Seeing, then, that the railroad company has paid the full penalty
prescribed by law fo r the unlawful killing o f Granville R. Oyster to his
personal representative, we must then look to the terms o f the certificate
on which this cause o f action is predicated to determine whether or not
it gives a further right o f action to plaintiff fo r this same injury. It
is plain that, if any such additional right o f action for the wrongful
killing o f this man exists at all, it must be by the terms o f the benefit
certificate o f the voluntary relief department o f the defendant; and
these terms provide that, if any authorized person brought a suit
against the company which was prosecuted to judgment, or afterwards
compromised, the beneficiary would have no claim on the relief fund*
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
165
Plaintiff must take this certificate with the conditions imposed by the
contract, or not take it at all. Without the contract contained in this
certificate, she has no right o f action; and with the contract, b y the
condition it contained, she is barred from a recovery. [Cases cited.]
It is therefore recommended that the judgment o f the district court
be affirmed.
E m ployers5 L
lers
ia b il it y
— P l e a d in g
— R a il r o a d
C o m p a n ie s — S a f e t y
Statute — I nterstate
C oup
T r a f f ic — P r o x im a t e
Cause—
Voelker v, Chicago, Milwaukee and St, Paul Railway Co.,
United States Circuit Court, Northern District o f Iowa, Eastern
Division, 116 Federal Reporter, page 867.— In this case the adminis
tratrix o f Emil Voelker brought action against the railway company
named above to recover damages fo r the death o f Voelker, which was
occasioned by the coming together o f two cars between which he was
standing for the purpose o f adjusting a defective coupler. Damages
were awarded and a motion was made fo r a new trial, which was
denied.
It was in evidence that the railway company had brought a loaded
freight car from the State o f Illinois into the State o f Iowa, and that
it was in the switch yard at Dubuque, where Voelker was employed.
Cars were run upon the switch on which this car was standing for the
purpose o f being coupled thereto, but as the coupler was out o f order
so that it would not work automatically, V oelker undertook, as was
his duty, to set the coupler so that it would work, and while so engaged
other cars were run upon the switch, which caused Voelker to be caught
and crushed between the cars where he was standing, and so occasioned
his death.
Judge Shiras, in delivering the opinion o f the court, said:
In the charge o f the court the jury were instructed that, if the evi
dence proved that the car in question was brought by the defendant
company from a point or station in Illinois to Dubuque, Iowa, then
the company, in handling the same, was engaged in interstate traffic,
and was subject to the provisions o f the act o f Congress approved
March 2,1893, and entitled 44A n act to promote the safety o f employees
and travelers upon railroads, by compelling common carriers engaged
in interstate commerce to equip their cars with automatic couplers and
continuous brakes, and their locomotives with drive-wheel brakes and
for other purposes55 (27 Stat., 531). In support o f the motion for a
new trial it is earnestly contended that neither in the allegations o f the
petition nor in putting in the evidence did plaintiff base the case on
the provisions o f the act o f Congress, and that the defendant was wholly
taken by surprise by the action o f the court in instructing the jury
with respect to the duties imposed upon the company, as a common
carrier engaged in interstate traffic, by the provisions o f this act. The
general rule invoked by the defendant that a plaintiff, to recover, must
bring his proof within the allegations o f his petition or declaration, is
166
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
not questioned; but the real inquiry is whether there was such a
departure between the case declared on in the petition and the case made
by the evidence that the latter will not fairly support the former.
A portion o f the petition is then quoted, in which is set forth not
only the fact that the cars were negligently run upon the track while
Voelker was between the cars, but also the defective condition of the
coupler, which was the cause o f his going into the place o f danger.
Continuing, the court said:
Upon the trial both parties introduced evidence upon this matter o f
the condition o f the coupler, and much time was taken up in the intro
duction o f testimony upon this point, and there is, therefore, no suffi
cient foundation upon which to base the claim that the defendant was
not duly warned o f the fact that the condition o f the coupler was an
issue in the case as one o f the grounds upon which it was charged with
negligence.
It is said, however, that the defendant was taken unduly by surprise,
in that the court, in the charge o f the jury, cited the provisions o f the
act o f Congress o f March 2, 1893, as applicable to the case, it being
claimed that neither in the pleadings nor in the argument o f counsel
for plaintiff was any reference made to the act o f Congress. As mat
ter o f pleading, it certainly can not be said that, in order to base a
right o f recovery on the provisions o f the statute, it was necessary to
cite the statute or its provisions in the petition. When the petition
charged the defendant with negligence with respect to the coupler upon
the car, the defendant must have known that, as the car was used in
interstate traffic, the act o f Congress would necessarily come into con
sideration in defining the obligations resting upon the defendant com
pany. No matter what the views o f counsel are upon the law o f the
case as expressed in their arguments, it is the duty o f the court to give
to the jury the law applicable to the facts, as the court understands it.
I f the law as given to the jury is applicable to the facts before them,
no error is committed. I f the law, as given, is not applicable, that is
error, and cause fo r reversal; but the applicability o f the law given
is not dependent on the views o f the counsel as expressed or omitted
to be expressed in their argument before the jury.
But admitting to the fullest extent the claim now advanced that the
counsel fo r defendant were taken by surprise by the action o f the court
in calling to the attention o f the jury the named act o f Congress, is
this matter o f surprise any sufficient reason fo r granting a new trial?
A t the close o f the charge to the jury the court, follow ing its usual
custom, inquired o f counsel whether there was any point or matter
touching which counsel desired the jury to be instructed which was
not covered by the charge as given. No such requests were made, and
the case went to the jury under the instructions as originally given.
The question o f the actual condition o f the coupler was thoroughly
gone into before the jury, and evidence was introduced by both parties
on this issue. Under such circumstances it can not be supposed that
the court would be justified in granting a new trial upon the bare state
ment that perhaps it might be shown that the condition o f the coupler
was not in violation o f the act o f Congress.
It is next contended that it was error on part o f the court to call the
attention o f the jury to the provisions o f the act o f Congress, because
167
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
it was not averred in the petition that the defendant had hauled or per
mitted to be used on its lines the ear in question, or that it was hauled
or used in connection with interstate traffic. I f by this contention it
is meant to assert that, in order to come within the purview of the act,
it must be shown that at the time o f the accident the car was loaded
with freight which had been brought from another State, the answer
is that the evidence proved such to be the fact in this case. But,
further, that is not the proper construction o f the act. The statutes,
State and Federal, requiring railway companies to equip their cars
with automatic couplers, were not enacted to protect the freight trans
ported therein, but fo r the protection o f the life and limb o f the
employees who were expected to handle these cars. The beneficent
purpose o f these statutes is defeated if the employees are required to
handle cars not equipped as required by the statutes, without regard
to the question whether the cars are loaded or not. Whenever cars
are designed for interstate traffic, the company owning or using them
is bound to equip them as required by the act o f Congress; and when
it is shown, as it was in this case, that a railway company is using the
car for transportation purposes between two States, sufficient is shown
to justify the court in ruling that the act o f Congress is applicable to
the situation.
It is next assigned as ground fo r a new trial that “ it was error to
leave it to the jury to find that the condition o f the coupler was a
proximate cause o f the injury,” it being claimed that the allegations of
the petition and the evidence show that the alleged negligent kicking
o f the cars was the proximate and sole culpable cause o f the injury.
Subjecting an employee to risk to life and limb by calling upon
him to use appliances which have become defective and inoperative
through the failure to use proper care on part o f the master is cer
tainly * negligence, which will become actionable if injury results
therefrom to the employee; and liability therefor can not be avoided
by the plea that, if the company was thus guilty o f actionable negli
gence in this particular, it can not be held responsible therefor, because
it was guilty of another act o f negligence which aided in causing the
accident. This accident happened because Yoelker, in the perform
ance o f his duty, was called upon to place his person in a position
where he might be caught between the cars he was expected to couple
together. H e was required to place himself in this dangerous posi
tion because o f the negligent failure o f the company to have upon thq
car a coupler in proper and operative condition, and certainly this
negligent failure to [of] the company was a proximate cause o f the
accident.
The motion for new trial is overruled, and judgment will be entered
on the verdict in favor o f the plaintiff.
E m ployers’
lers—
L
S u f f ic ie n t
ia b il it y —
R a il r o a d
C o m p a n ie s — S a f e t y
E q u ip m e n t — I n t e r s t a t e
T r a f f ic — A
C oup
s s u m p t io n
R i s k — Johnson v. Southern Pacific Company, United States Circuit
Court o f Appeals, Eighth Circuit, 117 Federal Reporter, page
—
of
This case came before the circuit court o f appeals from the circuit court
o f the United States for the district o f Utah. In that court Johnson
168
BULLETIN OE THE DEPARTMENT OE LABOR.
had been denied damages fo r an injury received while employed by the
Southern Pacific Company as brakeman, which judgment was affirmed
in the circuit court o f appeals.
Johnson undertook to make a coupling between a freight engine
equipped with a Janney coupler and a dining car provided with a
Miller hook or coupler. Both these couplers were automatic and
worked satisfactorily with others o f their kind, but would not work
together, so that Johnson undertook to make the coupling with a link
and pin, and in the effort his hand was caught and crushed so that it
had to be amputated at the wrist. This was on a side track leading to
a turntable where the car was being prepared fo r a return trip later
in the day from Prom ontory, Utah, to San Francisco,Cal., from which
latter city it had been brought in the regular course o f traffic. John
son was an experienced and competent brakeman and knew the risks
o f his calling, but it was held by his counsel that the common-law
doctrine o f assumption o f risk was not applicable under the provisions
o f the act o f Congress o f March 2, 1893 (27 Stat., c. 196, p. 531),
entitled “ An act to promote the safety o f employees and travelers
upon railroads by compelling common carriers engaged in interstate
commerce to equip their cars with automatic couplers and continuous
brakes and their locomotives with driving-wheel brakes, and fo r other
purposes.” Section 1 o f this act forbids the use, after January 1,1898,
o f “ any locomotive engine in moving interstate traffic not equipped
with a power driving-wheel brake and appliances for operating the
train-brake system.” Section 2 relates to the hauling or use o f “ any
car used in moving interstate traffic not equipped with couplers
coupling automatically by impact, and which can be uncoupled with
out the necessity o f men going between the ends o f the cars.” Sec
tion 6 prescribes the penalty for violation, while section 8 reads as
follows:
“ A n y employee o f any such common carrier who may be injured
by any locomotive, car, or train in use contrary to the provision o f
this act shall not be deemed thereby to have assumed the risk thereby
occasioned, although continuing in the employment o f such carrier
after the unlawful use o f such locomotive, car, or train had been
brought to his knowledge.”
Johnson’s counsel contended that this was a remedial statute, and
that it should be broadly construed so as to relieve Johnson o f any
charge o f assumption o f risk or contributory negligence. This con
tention the court denied.
Judge Sanborn, speaking for the court, said:
The act o f March 2,1893, is a penal statute, and it changes the com
mon law. It makes that unlawful which was innocent before its
enactment, and imposes a penalty, recoverable by the Government.
Its terms are plain and free from doubt, and its meaning is clear. It
declares that it is unlawful fo r a common carrier to use in interstate
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
169
commerce a car which is not equipped with automatic couplers, and
it omits to declare that it is illegal fo r a common carrier to use a
locomotive that is not so equipped. A s Congress expressed in this
statute no intention to forbid the use o f locomotives which were not
provided with automatic couplers, the legal presumption is that it had
no such intention, and provisions to im port such an intention into the
law and to effectuate it may not be lawfully enacted by judicial con
struction. The statute does not make it unlawful to use locomotives
that are not equipped with automatic couplers in interstate commerce,
and it did not m odify the rule o f the common law under which the
plaintiff assumed the known risk o f coupling such an engine to the
dining car.
Continuing, the judge said:
There are other considerations which lead to the same result. I f
we are in error in the conclusion already expressed, and if the word
66car,” in the second section o f this statute, means locomotive, still this
case does not fall under the law, (1) because both the locomotive and
the dining car were equipped with automatic couplers; and (2) because
at the time o f the accident they were not “ used in m oving interstate
traffic.”
F or the reasons which have been stated, this statute may not be law
fully extended by judicial construction beyond the fair meaning o f its
language. There is nothing in it which requires a common carrier
engaged in interstate commerce to have every car on its railroad
equipped with the same kind o f coupling, or which requires it to have
every car equipped with a coupling which will couple automatically
with every other coupler with which it may be brought into contact
in the usual course o f business upon a great transcontinental system
of railroads. A car equipped with practical and efficient automatic
couplers, such as the Janney couplers or the Miller hooks, which will
couple automatically with those o f their kind, fully and literally com
plies with the terms o f the law, although these couplers will not couple
automatically with automatic couplers o f all kinds or constructions.
Again, the statute declares it to be unlawful for a carrier “ to haul
or permit to be hauled or used on its line any car used in moving
interstate traffic not equipped,” etc. It is not, then, unlawful, under
this statute, fo r a carrier to haul a car not so equipped which is either
used in intrastate traffic solely, or which is not used in any traffic at
all. On the day o f this accident the dining car in this case was stand
ing empty on the side track. The defendant drew it to a turntable,
turned it, and placed it back upon the side track. The accident
occurred during the performance o f this act. The car was vacant
when it went to the turntable, and vacant when it returned. It moved
no traffic on its way. H ow could it be said to have been “ used in
moving interstate traffic” either while it was standing on the side
track, or while it was going to and returning from the turntable ? The
argument o f counsel for the plaintiff is that because it had been used
in moving interstate traffic on its way from San Francisco to Promon
tory, and because it was the intention o f the defendant to put it to the
same use in a few hours, when a west-bound train arrived, it was
impressed with the use o f moving such traffic in the interim. But
this statute must be read not only in the light o f the rules o f construc
tion to which we have adverted in the earlier part o f this opinion, but
also in view o f the limitations upon the power o f Congress in this
170
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
respect. It is by virtue o f the power granted to Congress to regu
late commerce among the States,” and by virtue o f that authority
alone, that this statute was enacted and has efficacy. Congress had
neither the authority nor the purpose to interfere with or to touch by
this act anything except commerce among the States. Is the turning
o f a vacant car which its owner intends to use at some future time in
moving interstate traffic any part o f commerce among the States?
Does the intention o f the owner as to a future use o f an implement o f
transportation affect the character o f the act o f turning this car? I f
the defendant had intended to use this dining car for traffic within the
State o f Utah only, if it had intended to send it to the shop to be
destroyed or repaired, or if, after the car was turned, it had changed
its intention and concluded that it would not use it to move interstate
traffic, would any o f these intentions or this change o f purpose have
affected the act o f turning the car, and have impressed it with a use
in interstate commerce or intrastate commerce? The only answer to
these questions is a negative one, and, if this be true, then the inten
tion o f the defendant to use this car at some future time in interstate
commerce would not make the act o f turning it a part o f such com
merce, nor bring it under the ban o f the act o f March 2, 1893. The
judgment below must accordingly be affirmed, and it is so ordered.
Judge Thayer concurred in affirming the judgment o f the court
below because the car and the locomotive were each equipped with
automatic couplers, even if not fitted for use together, holding such
provision to be a compliance with the law. He dissented from other
conclusions o f the majority, however, saying:
In my judgment, it is a very technical interpretation o f the provi
sions o f the act in question, and one which is neither in accord with
the spirit nor with the obvious purpose o f the lawmaker, to say that
Congress did not intend to require engines to be equipped with auto
matic couplers. The statute is remedial in its nature; it was passed
for the protection o f human life; and there was certainly as much, if
not greater, need that engines should be equipped to couple automat
ically, as that ordinary cars should be so equipped, since engines have
occasion to make couplings more frequently. In my opinion, the true
view is that engines are included by the w ords “ any car,” as used in
the second section o f the act. The word “ ca r” is generic, and may
well be held to comprehend a locomotive or any other similar vehicle
which moves on wheels; and especially should it be so held in a case
like the one now in hand, where no satisfactory reason has been assigned
or can be given which would probably have influenced Congress to per
mit locomotives to be used without automatic coupling appliances.
I am also o f opinion that, within the fair intent and import o f the
act, the dining car in question at the time o f the accident was being
hauled or used in interstate traffic. The reasoning by which a con
trary conclusion is reached seems to me to be altogether too refined
and unsatisfactory to be o f any practical value. It was a car which at
the time was employed in no other service than to furnish meals to
passengers between Ogden and San Francisco. It had not been taken
out o f that service, even fo r repairs or for any other use, when the
accident occurred, but was engaged therein to the same extent that it
would have been if it had been hauled through to Ogden, and if the
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
171
accident had there occurred while it was being turned to make the
return trip to San Francisco. The cars composing a train which is
regularly employed in interstate traffic ought to be regarded as used
in that traffic while the train is being made up with a view to an
immediate departure on an interstate journey as well as after the
journey has actually begun.
E m ploym ent
of
W
om en—
H
ours
of
L
abor—
C o n s t it u t io n a l it y
Wenham v. State, Supreme Court o f Nebraska, 91
Northwestern Reporter, page 1$1.— In this case William Wenham was
of
Statute—
convicted o f a violation o f an act o f the legislature which restricts the
hours o f employment o f females in certain industries and provides for
the enforcement o f its requirements. It was charged that Wenham
in operating a laundry had employed one Lizzie Falconer for fourteen
hours per day and eighty-four hours per week. Section 1 of the law
referred to provides “ that no female shall be employed in any manu
facturing, mechanical, or mercantile establishment, hotel, or restau
rant in this State more than sixty hours during any one week, and
that ten hours shall constitute a day’s labor. * * * ” Other sec
tions relate to the posting o f printed notices stating hours o f labor,
mealtime, time o f beginning and ending the day’s work, the provid
ing of seats for female employees, the penalty for violation, and the
method o f enforcing the law.
Wenham claimed that the law was unconstitutional, as relating to
more than one subject, the constitution o f the State declaring that
no bill shall contain more than one subject, and the same shall be
clearly expressed in the title. It was further held that the bill was
an amendment in unconstitutional form o f a previous enactment, that
it was special or class legislation, and that it deprived certain citizens
o f property rights without due process o f law.
On these claims o f unconstitutionality the district court of Douglass
County allowed error, and on the points named the case came before
the supreme court o f the State, where the law was upheld and the
conviction affirmed.
The following syllabus by the court presents its conclusions on each
o f the points mentioned:
1. The act o f the legislature approved March 31, 1899, “ to regu
late and limit the hours o f employment o f females in manufacturing,
mechanical and mercantile~establishments, hotels and restaurants; to
provide fo r its enforcement and a penalty fo r its violation,” contains
but one subject, and in its terms is no broader than its title, in which
its subject is clearly expressed.
2. Such law does not amend the act o f 1883 to protect the health of
female employees in stores, offices, and schools. It is an act complete
in itself, and is not repugnant to the provisions o f section 11, article 3,
o f the constitution,
172
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
3. The law as expressed therein has a uniform and general applica
tion to all women employed in the establishments described therein,
and is not class legislation, within the meaning o f section 15, article 3,
o f the constitution.
4. The act, in effect, is only a fair and reasonable exercise o f the
police power. It does not deprive any citizen o f his property, or the
reasonable use thereof, without due process o f law. It does not pro
hibit the right o f contract. It merely regulates the same in a reason
able manner. It is therefore not in conflict with the constitution, and
is in all things valid.
E m ploym ent
of
W
om en—
H
ours
of
L
abor—
C o n s t it u t io n a l it y
v. Buchanan, Supreme Court o f Washington, 70
Pacific Reporter, page 52.— This case arose under an act o f the legis
of
S t a t u t e —State
lature o f 1901 (Session Laws, p. 118), which closely resembles the
Nebraska statute in question in the foregoing case o f Wenham v. State.
Information was submitted charging a violation o f this law, to which
information a demurrer was interposed on the ground that no offense
was charged. The superior court o f K ing County, W ash., sustained
the demurrer, whereupon the State appealed and secured from the
supreme court a reversal o f the court below.
Buchanan relied on the constitutional provision that no person shall
be deprived o f life, liberty, or property without due process o f law.
On this point Judge Dunbar, who delivered the opinion o f the court,
said:
It may be conceded without discussion that a citizen’s right to con
tract his or her labor is a valuable property right, which can not be
restricted by the legislature, unless such restriction is necessary in the
proper exercise o f the police power o f the State. Conceding that
an arbitrary exercise o f the legislative will, which, under the guise
o f a police power, restricts constitutional rights, can not be main
tained, we are o f the opinion that the act in question was a legiti
mate exercise o f the police power o f the State, enacted for the welfare
o f society at large, and is therefore constitutional. On this subject
the authorities are somewhat divided, though we think the great
weight o f modern authority sustains statutes similar to the one under
consideration.
The case o f Ritchie v. People, 155 111., 98, 40 N. E ., 454 (see Bul
letin o f the Department o f Labor, No. 2, p. 203), is cited as the only
case found in which an act o f this kind has been declared unconsti
tutional by a court o f last resort. Com. v. Hamilton M fg. Co., 120
Mass., 383, and Holden v. Hardy, 169 IJ. S., 366, 18 Sup. Ct., 383
(see Bulletin o f the Department o f Labor, No. 17, p. 625), are cited as
supporting the conclusions o f the court.
The follow ing is quoted from In re Jacobs, 98 N. Y ., 98, 50 Am.
Rep., 636: “ W hen a health law is challenged in the courts as uncon
stitutional on the ground that it arbitrarily interferes with personal
liberty and private property without due process o f law, the courts
DECISIONS OF COURTS AFFECTING LABOR.
173
must be able to see that it has at least in fact some relation to the
public health, that the public health is the end actually aimed at, and
that it is appropriate and adapted to that end.”
Judge Dunbar then said:
Accepting this statement o f the law, we think it is easily ascertain
able from a perusal o f this act that its object was the public health,
and that its provisions were appropriate, and adapted to that end. W e
think no constitutional right is invaded by this law, and the case will
be reversed, with instructions to overrule the demurrer to the
complaint.
G a r n i s h m e n t — W a g e s o f L a b o r e r — P a y m e n t — ffillv . Arnold et
al., Supreme Court o f Georgia, 1$ Southeastern Reporter, page Jfl5.—
In this case A rnold & Co. sued J. B. H ill on a promissory note in the
city court o f Elberton and caused summons o f garnishment to be
served on the bank o f Elberton. The bank answered that it held,
subject to the order o f the court, the sum o f $127.38 that had been
“ deposited in the bank o f Elberton to the credit o f ” Hill. Hill
claimed that said sum was deposited in the bank by Mrs. R. C. Mattox
at the request o f S. P. Mattox and not at his request nor with his
consent. It was further claimed that $100 o f this sum was earned
by H ill as a farm laborer in the employ o f S. P. M attox and was there
fore not liable to garnishment.
The judge o f the city court, presiding without a jury, rendered
judgment in favor o f Arnold & Co. fo r the entire sum in the bank,
whereupon H ill moved for a new trial, which was not allowed, and
Hill excepted. On this exception the case came before the supreme
court, which reversed the judgment o f the court below.
It appeared that Mattox gave Hill an order on his mother, who
went with H ill to the bank to get the money, but the bank was closed,
the day being a holiday. Mrs. Mattox then promised to arrange with
the cashier fo r H ill to get the money there. In the afternoon o f that
day the cashier drove out to the home o f Mrs. Mattox, and she gave
him the money due Hill. When H ill applied at the bank for the
money he was told that it was garnisheed and not subject to his order.
Mrs. Mattox testified that she did not know that anything was said
about depositing the money in the bank to H ill’s credit; that she just
told Mr. H ill that if she should go to Atlanta she would make arrange
ments with Mr. Heard for him to get his money at the bank. Hill
testified hat he did not agree that Mrs. Mattox should deposit the
money in the bank to his credit.
Judge Cobb, who delivered the opinion o f the court, having stated
the facts, said:
It is not contended that the wages o f Hill as a farm laborer were not
exempt from garnishment, but it is insisted that the judge could have
found from the evidence that the money was deposited in the bank to
10615— No. 44— 03----- 12
174
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
the credit o f Hill with his consent, and that, this being so, it became
mingled with the general funds o f the bank, and stood in the position
o f an ordinary debt due by^ the bank to Hill. In other words, it is
claimed that the transaction which took place between all these parties
was equivalent to a payment o f the money to Hill, and a deposit o f it
by him in the bank to his credit. W e do not think this conclusion is
fairly warranted by the evidence. The real meaning o f the transac
tion was that S. P. Mattox constituted his mother his agent to pay Hill
the money, and that Mrs. Mattox constituted the cashier of the bank
her agent to do this; and the evidence probably warranted the infer
ence that Hill consented that the cashier should so act. There was
never any payment o f the money to Hill, and we do not think the evi
dence authorized a finding that he so regarded the transaction. The
code provides that the wages o f certain classes o f laborers, u whether
in the hands o f their employers or others, ” shall be exempt from gar
nishment. (Civ. Code, sec. 4732.) This being so, the money in the
hands o f the bank o f Elberton was not subject to garnishment unless it
had first passed, either actually or in legal contemplation, through
Hill’s hands. The judge erred in rendering judgment in favor o f
Arnold & Co. for the entire sum in the hands o f the garnishee.
M
e c h a n ic s ’
L
ie n s —
E ffect
of
D
ebtor’s
D is c h a r g e
in
Bank
Holland v.
Cunliff et al., Court o f Appeals at St. lou is , Mo., 69 Southwestern
Reporter, page 737.— This was a suit to enforce a mechanic’s lien under
ruptcy—
P ersonal
J udgm ent
a g a in s t
C ontractor—
the Missouri statute (Rev. St. 1899, sections 4203-4227) after a dis
charge in bankruptcy o f the debtor in accordance with the Federal
statute o f 1898. Holland obtained judgment on his lien in the St.
Louis circuit court, from which the defendants appealed. Judge Bar
clay delivered the opinion o f the court o f appeals, affirming the judg
ment o f the court below. From the syllabus prepared by the judge
the follow ing matter is reproduced:
2. Under Missouri statutes, the lien of a mechanic or materialman
dates from the time o f the commencement; o f the improvement. Such
a lien is u not obtained through legal proceedings,” within the mean
ing o f the Federal bankrupt act o f 1898, and is not discharged thereby.
3. The intent o f the bankrupt act o f 1898 appears to be to make the
discharge personal to the debtor, and not to release other parties liable
with him, or liens not declared to be released.
4. W here a judgment lien has been obtained against the property o f
a garnishee, the discharge in bankruptcy o f the principal debtor will
not release the lien.
5. A personal judgment against the contractor is not essential to a
mechanic’s lien under the Missouri statute. Even the omission to
make the contractor a party to the lien sidt is a mere irregularity.
9. W here separate buildings have been erected upon contiguous lots
under one general contract, a mechanic’s lien may be obtained, on
proper proceedings, against all o f the property, under the Missouri
statute.
10. A mechanic’s lien fo r labor or materials in erecting a building is
a paramount lien on the building as against a prior deed o f trust on
the land on which the building is situated.
LAWS OF VARIOUS STATES RELATING TO LABOR ENACTED SINCE
JANUARY 1, 1896.
[The Second Special Report of the Department contains all laws of the various States and Territories
and of the United States relating to labor in force January 1,1896. Later enactments are reproduced
in successive issues of the Bulletin from time to time as published.]
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
U. S. STATUTES—ACTS OF 1901-02.
C h a p t e r 1352.— E xp e n s e s o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t .
Exemption from taxation.
S ection 6, P a r a g r a p h 10. The following personal property shall be exempt from
taxation:
Second. Libraries, schoolbooks, wearing apparel, articles of personal adornment,
all family portraits, and heirlooms.
Third. Household and other belongings, not held for sale, to the value of one
thousand dollars, owned by the occupant of any dwelling house or other place of
abode, in which such household and other belongings may be located.
License tax for employment offices, etc.
S ec . 7, P ar . 42. Proprietors or owners of intelligence offices, information bureaus,
registries, or employment offices, by whatsoever name called, shall pay a license tax
of ten dollars per annum.
Approved July 1,1902.
GEORGIA.
ACTS OF 1900.
A ct N o . 175.—
Taxation—Emigrant agents.
[Page 21.]
S ection 2. In addition to the ad valorem tax on real estate and personal property,
as required by the constitution and provided for in the preceding section, the following
specific taxes shall be levied and collected for each of said fiscal years:
Tenth. Upon each emigrant agent, or employer or employee of such agents, doing
business in this State, the sum of five hundred dollars for each county in which such
business is conducted.
Approved December 21, 1900.
ACTS OF 1901.
A ct N o . 428.—
Wages due deceased employees o f corporations.
[Page 60.]
S ection 1. From and after the passage of this act it shall be lawful upon the death
of any person employed by any railroad company, or other corporation doing busi
ness in this State, wrho may have wages due him "by said railroad company, or other
corporation, and who shall leave surviving him a widow or minor child or children,
to pay all of said wages, when they do not exceed one hundred dollars, and in case
such wages exceed one hundred dollars, to pay the sum of one hundred dollars
thereof to the surviving widow of such employee, and in case he has no surviving
widow, but leaves surviving a minor child or children, then said sum shall be paid
to said minor child or children without any administration upon the estate of said
employee, and that said fund to the amount of one hundred dollars, after the death
of said employee, is hereby exempt from any and all process of garnishment.
175
176
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
Sec. 2. Such railroad company, or other corporation, are hereby required to pay
over said fund on the demand of said widow, and in case there be no surviving
widow, then on the demand of said minor child or children, or the guardian thereof.
Sec. 3. Said railroad company, or other corporation, paying over said fund as
aforesaid, shall be, and are, hereby protected and released from all claims whatso
ever against said fund by the estate of said employee or creditors thereof, or the
claims of said widow or minor child or children, or the guardian thereof.
Sec. 4. A ll laws and parts of laws in conflict with this act are hereby repealed.
Approved December 18, 1901.
A ct N o. 390.— Contract of employment—Interference by third parties.
[Page 63.]
Section 1. W hen the relation of employer and employee, or of landlord and ten
ant of agricultural lands, or of landowner and cropper, has been created by written
contract duly executed before an officer authorized to administer oaths, it shall be
unlawful for any person during the life of said contract, made and entered into in
the manner above prescribed, to employ or to rent lands to, or to furnish lands to be
cropped by said employee, tenant or cropper, or to disturb in any way said relation,
without first obtaining the written consent of said employer, landlord, or landowner,
as the case may be.
Sec. 2. Any person violating the provisions of the foregoing section shall at the
option of the party alleged to have been injured, be prosecuted as for a misdemeanor,
and upon conviction punished as provided in section 1039 of the Penal Code, or he
shall be liable in damages to said alleged injured party, as follows: (1) In case of
employer and employee, the damages shall not be less than double the amount of
wages or salary for the entire period of said contract. (2) In case of landlord and
tenant, or of landowner and cropper, the damages shall not be less than double the
annual rental value of the lands rented or cropped, said value to be fixed at 1,000
pounds of middling lint cotton to the plow.
Sec. 3. In addition to other defenses, the following defenses in both civil and
criminal cases arising under the*provisions of this act shall be good and sufficient,
when proved in every item to the satisfaction of the jury, to wit:
1. For the defendant to show that prior to the alleged violation of this act said
employee, tenant or cropper, as the case may be, had for good reason and just cause
abandoned his said contract and terminated the relation created thereby.
2. For the defendant to show as a complete defense all of the following facts, to wit:
That prior to employing or otherwise contracting with said employee, tenant or crop
per, he received from said employee, tenant or cropper an affidavit to the effect that
said employee, tenant or cropper was not at the time under a prior existing contract,
w hich affidavit defendant shall show to the court, and that immediately on proof
that said employee, tenant or cropper was under contract defendant discharged him,
and refused to permit and did not permit him to remain on his (defendant's) premises.
Whenever in a suit for the recovery of damages the defendant shall urge his defense
successfully, he shall have judgment against the plaintiff for all costs and reasonable
attorney's fees, and in case of a like result in the prosecution of a criminal case under
the provisions of this act, the defendant shall have a like judgment against the
prosecutor.
Sec. 4. The provisions of this act shall not apply where the employment given is
of such duration and of such nature as to make it certain that it could not result in
injury to the plaintiff or prosecutor.
Sec. 5. A ll laws and parts of laws in conflict with this act are hereby repealed.
Approved December 17,1901.
A ct N o. 343.— Laborers’ liens—Hauling logs, lumber, etc.
[Page 80.]
Section 1. From and after the passage of this act all persons hauling stocks, logs
or lumber, with teams for another person, shall have a lien against the personalty so
hauled by them to the extent of the amount of the indebtedness, if by contract, and
to the extent of the value of said services so rendered, if the price to be paid for the
same is not agreed upon.
Sec. 2. Such lien, when so created, shall have and take the same rank as is now
provided in section 2809 of the Civil Code of Georgia.
Sec. 3. The mode of enforcing said lien, when so created, shall be as prescribed in
section 2816 of the Civil Code of Georgia.
Sec. 4. A ll conflicting laws are hereby repealed.
Approved December 16, 1901.
LABOB LAWS---- UTAH---- ACTS OF 1901.
177
UTAH.
ACTS OF 1901.
C hapter 41.— Hours of labor— Eight-hour law.
Section 1. Section 1336 of the Kevised Statutes of Utah, 1898, is hereby amended
to read as follows:
1336. Eight hours shall constitute a day’ s work on all works or undertakings car
ried on or aided by the State, county or municipal governments. Any person, cor
poration, firm, contractor, agent, manager, foreman or any officer of the State, or any
county or municipal government thereof, who shall require or contract with any per
son to work upon such works or undertakings longer than eight hours in any one cal
endar day, except in cases of emergency where life or property is in imminent danger,
shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor.
Approved this 14th day of March, 1901.
Chapter 44.— Coercion of employees— Company stores and boarding homes.
Section 1. Every person, body-corporate, agent, manager, or employer, doing busi
ness in the State of Utah, who by coercion, intimidation, threats or undue influence,
compels his employees to boarding at a particular boarding house, or to trade with or
at a particular store, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor.
Sec. 2. This act shall take effect upon approval.
Approved this 14th day of March, 1901.
Chapter 52.— Protection of street railway employees—Inclosed platforms.
Section 1. From and after the first day of November, 1901, it shall be unlawful
for any person, partnership, or corporation owning or operating a street railway in
this State, or for any officer or agent thereof, superintending or having charge or
control of the management of the said line of railway, or of the cars thereof, operating
electric, cable or other cars propelled either by steam, cable or electricity, which
require when in operation the constant services, care or attention of any person or
persons on any part of such car, to require or permit such services, attention or care
of any of its employees, or any other person or persons between the first day of
November, and the first day of April of each year, unless such person, partnership
or .corporation, its officers or superintending or managing agents have first provided,
at least one-third of the entire number of cars so owned, with a proper and sufficient
inclosure, constructed of wood, iron and glass or similar suitable materials, sufficient
to protect such employees from exposure to the inclemencies of the weather: Pro
vided, That such inclosure shall be so constructed as not to obstruct the vision of the
person operating such car. That two-thirds of the said cars so owned shall be pro
vided with inclosures as heretofore described, on or before the first day of Novem
ber, 1902; and that the remaining one-third of such cars so owned shall be provided
with inclosures in a similar manner on or before the first day of November, 1903.
Sec. 2. It shall be unlawful for any such person, partnership or corporation so
owning or operating a street railway using steam, electric or cable cars, or any super
intending or managing officer or agent thereof, to cause or permit to be used upon
such line of railway, between said first day of November, ana said first day of April,
of each and e v e ry of said years, any car or cars upon which services of any employee
such as specified in section 1 of this act, is required, unless said car or cars shall be
provided with the inclosure required by said section 1 of this act.
Sec. 3. A ny person, partnership, or corporation owning, operating, superintending
or managing any such line of street railway, or managing, superintending officer or
agent thereof, w ho shall be found guilty of a violation oi the provisions of sections
1 or 2, of this act, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction
thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than $50 nor more than $250. Each
day any of said persons cause or permit any of their said employees to operate such
car or cars in violation of the provisions of section 1 of this act, or cause or permit
cars to be run or operated in violation of section 2 of this act, shall be deemed a
separate offense: Provided, That the provisions of this act shall not apply to cars
used and known as trailing car or cars used solely in construction or repair work, or
car or cars known as open or summer cars.
Approved this 14th day of March, 1901.
178
BULLETIN Ob’ THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
C h a p t e r 55 .—Bureau
of statistics.
S e c t io n 1. A State bureau of statistics is hereby created and shall be under the
control of a commissioner, who shall be appointed by the governor, by and with the
consent of the senate, and whose term of office shall be four years and until his
successor is appointed and qualified. He shall have an office at the capital of the
State, and shall have the power to appoint a deputy and such other assistants,
from time to time, as shall be necessary for the transaction of the business of his
office.
Sec. 2. The duties of said bureau shall be to collect, assort, systematize and pre
sent in annual reports to the governor, statistical details relating to agriculture, mining,
manufactures and other industries in the State; said reports to be published annu
ally and distributed under the direction of the State board of examiners.
Sec. 3. The commissioner of the bureau o f statistics shall have power to issue
subpoenas, administer oaths and take testimony in all matters relating to the duties
herein required by said bureau, said testimony to be taken in some suitable place in
the vicinity to which testimony is applicable. Witnesses subpoenaed and testifying
before the commissioner of the bureau shall be paid the same fees as witnesses before
a justice’ s court, such payment to be made out of the contingent fund of the bureau
in advance, but such expense for witnesses shall not exceed $100 annually. Any
person duly subpoenaed under the provisions of this section, who shall willfully neg
lect or refuse to attend or testify at the time and place named in the subpoena, shall
be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof before any court
of competent jurisdiction, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding $50 and costs
of prosecution, or by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding thirty days:
Provided, however, That, no witness shall be compelled to go outside the county in
w hich he resides to testify.
Sec. 4. Said commissioner shall give a bond of $10,000 for the faithful performance
of the duties required by this act. The commissioner shall receive a compensation
of $1,500 per annum and actual traveling expenses, to be audited and paid as with
other State officers.
Sec. 5. In the reports of the commissioner no use shall be made of names of indi
viduals, firms or corporations supplying the information called for by this act, such
information being deemed confidential and not for the purpose of disclosing personal
affairs; and any officer or employee of the bureau of statistics violating this provision
shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, upon conviction thereof, shall be
fined in a sum not exceeding $500 and costs of prosecution, or by imprisonment in
the county jail not exceeding one year.
Sec. 6 No report or return made to said bureau in accordance with the provisions
of this act, and no schedule, record or document gathered or returned by its officers
or employees, shall be destroyed within two years of the collection or receipt thereof.
At the expiration of two'years all records, schedules or papers accumulating in said
bureau during said period, that may be considered of no value by the commissioner,
may be destroyed: Provided, The authority of the State senate be first obtained for
such destruction.
Sec. 7. Said bureau may collect the information called for by this act, or such
information as the commissioner shall consider essential to perfect the work of the
bureau, from the several State, county, city, town, precinct and school district
officers, and from officers of prisons, penal and reformatory institutions; and it shall
be the duty of all such officers to furnish, upon the written or printed request of the
commissioner, such information as shall be considered necessary for the purposes of
this act, upon blanks furnished by said bureau. Each owner, operator, or manager
of industrial, mining or agricultural business, or other person having information
necessary to the work of the bureau of statistics, shall, upon request of the commis
sioner, furnish the same, upon blanks to be provided b y the said bureau.
Sec. 8. Each county assessor, or his deputies, at the time of taking lists of prop
erty for taxation for each year, shall require each person, company and corporation
in his county or district, to make a statistical statement of the previous year, as indi
cated on blanks furnished by the bureau, as follows:
Agriculture: Number of acres, and production per acre, of each kind of crop;
number of acres of different kinds of pasture; number of fleeces of wool, and aver
age weight of the same; name of manager of farm; size of farm; quantity of land
under fence; quantity of land not under fence; quantity of land under cultivation;
assessed value of farm and of farming implements; number of different kinds of live
stock, poultry, stands of bees; amount of honey produced; number of acres of nur
series, orchards and vineyards, with the production thereof and the amount of cap
ital invested therein; number of mules, horses, cattle, sheep and hogs, subdivided
into the breeds or classes where they belong; number and value of slaughtered
animals; canals, reservoirs, .etc., constructed and cost thereof.
.
LABOR LAWS---- UTAH---- ACTS OF 1901.
179
Manufactures: Number of establishments; name and post-office address of corpora
tion, company or individual producing; name of business; kind of motive power;
average number of hands employed; capital invested; raw material used; product;
number of flouring mills, woolen mills, saw mills, or factories of different classes;
number of pounds of cheese and butter produced in factories; number and kind of
cows used; number of mercantile establishments, average number of employees in
each; and amount of capital invested; number of workshops and average number of
employees; minimum wages; maximum wages; average wages; number of hours per
day employees are required to work.
Mining: Quantity of precious or other metals produced or handled; capital
employed; approximate area of property; area of undeveloped property.
In addition they shall furnish such other information as shall be practicable in
the discharge of their duties, as listed on the blanks provided by the bureau.
These blanks shall be returned by the county assessor to the State bureau of
statistics.
S ec . 9. An appropriation of $6,000 or so much thereof as may be necessary, is
hereby made to carry out the purposes of this act.
Approved this 14th day of March, 1901.
C h a p t e r 68. —Board
of labor, conciliation, and arbitration.
S ection 1. Upon the approval of this act the governor, by and with the consent
of the senate, shall appoint three persons, not more than two of whom shall belong
to the same political party, who shall be styled a State board of labor, conciliation
and arbitration. One shall be an employer of labor; another shall be an employee
and be selected from some labor organization; and the third shall be some person
w ho is neither an employee nor an employer of manual labor, and shall be chair
man of the board. One shall serve for one year, one for three years, and one for
five years, as may be designated by the governor at the time of their appointment.
At the expiration of their terms their successors shall be appointed in like manner
for the term of four years. Should a vacancy occur at any time, the governor shall,
in the same manner, appoint some one to serve the unexpired term, and until the
appointment and qualification of his successor. Each member of said board shall,
before entering upon his duties, take the constitutional oath of office. The board
shall select from its members a secretary and shall establish suitable rules of pro
cedure.
S ec . 2. W henever it shall come to the knowledge of the said board that a strike
or lockout is seriously threatened in the State, involving any employer and his
employees, if he is employing not less than ten persons, it shall be the duty of the
said board to put itself into communication as soon as may be with such employer
and employees, and endeavor by mediation to effect an amicable settlement. Said
board shall also request each of the parties to forward, to its secretary, an applica
tion for arbitration.
S ec . 3. As soon as practicable, after receiving such applications, the board shall
request each of the parties to the dispute to agree upon a written statement of facts,
relating to the controversy, and to submit the same to the board: Provided, That,
when such agreement and statement can not be reached, each of said parties may
separately submit to the board a written statement of grievances. Applications to
th e . said board for arbitration on the part of employers must precede any lock
out, and, on the part of the em ployee[s], any strike: Provided, That, in case a lockout
or strike already exists, the board shall accord arbitration if the parties shall resume
their relations with each other, as employers and employees. Said applications
shall include a promise to abide by the decision of the board and shall be signed by
the employer or employers, or his or their authorized agent, on the one side, and by
a majority of his or their employees on the other.
S ec . 4. As soon as practicable, after receiving said applications, the board shall pro
ceed to arbitrate. W hen it shall be necessary, in the judgment of said board, it may
engage the services of a stenographer to take and transcribe an account of any arbi
tration proceedings.
S ec . 5. The board shall have power to summon as witnesses b y subpoena any
operative or expert in the departments of business affected, and any person who
keeps the record of wages earned in those departments, or any other person, and to
administer oaths, and to examine said witnesses, and to require the production of
books, papers and records. In case of disobedience to a subpoena the board may
invoke the aid of any court in the State in requiring the attendance and testimony of
witnesses, and the production of books, papers ana documents under the provisions
of this section. Any of the district courts of the State, within the jurisdiction of
which such inquiry is carried on, may, in case of contumacy, or refusal to obey a
180
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
subpoena issued to any such witness, issue an order requiring such witness to appear
before said board and produce books and papers if so ordered, and give evidence
touching the matter in question. Any refusal to obey such order of the court may
be punished by such court as a contempt thereof.
S ec . 6. It shall be the duty of mayors of cities and sheriffs of counties, when any
condition likely to lead to a strike or lockout exists, in the cities, or districts where
they have jurisdiction, to immediately forward information of the same to the secre
tary of the State board of conciliation and arbitration. Such information shall include
the names and addresses of persons who should be communicated with by the board.
Sec. 7. A ny notice or process issued by the State board of labor, conciliation and
arbitration shall be served b y any sheriff, to whom the same may be directed, or in
whose hands the same may be placed for service, without charge.
Sec. 8. As soon as practicable, after the board has investigated the differences
existing between employer and employees, it shall make an equitable decision, which
shall state what, if anything, should be done b y either or both parties to the dispute,
in order to amicably settle and adjust the differences existing between them. The
findings of a majority of the board shall constitute its decision.
Sec. 9. This decision shall at once be made public; shall be recorded upon the
proper book of record to be kept by the secretary of said board, and a short statement
thereof published in an annual report to be made to the governor before the first day
of March, of each year.
Sec. 10. The members of the board shall each receive a compensation of $4 for
each day’ s services, while engaged in arbitration, said compensation to be paid by
the parties to the controversy m such proportion as the board may decide; they shall
also receive the actual and necessary expenses incurred in the performance of their
official duties, which expenses shall be paid out of the State treasury.
Sec. 11. Chapter 1 of title 36 of the revised statutes of Utah, 1898, is hereby
repealed.
Sec. 12. This act shall take effect upon approval.
Approved this 14th day of March, 1901.
C hapter 85.—Mine regulations— Inspection.
Section 1. For the purpose of securing an efficient and thorough inspection of coal
and hydro-carbon mines within the State of Utah and to provide for an adequate force
therefor, the governor shall appoint, b y and with the consent of the senate, one mine
inspector for coal and hydro-carbon mines. The inspector so appointed shall hold
his office for the term of four years from the date of his appointment and until his
successor is appointed and qualified: Provided, That such inspector may be removed
at the pleasure of the governor. In case of resignation, death or removal, the
vacancy shall be filled by the governor for the unexpired term.
Sec. 2. The said inspector o f coal and hydro-carbon mines shall receive a salary of
two thousand ($2,000) dollars a year and actual necessary traveling expenses incurred
in the proper discharge of his official duties, to be paid quarterly by the State treas
urer out of any moneys appropriated for that purpose, on the certificate of said
inspector of mines showing service rendered, and also on presentation of the certifi
cate of said inspector of coal and hydro-carbon mines showing a statement of all
moneys received b y him for fees, and the actual amount necessarily expended for
actual traveling expenses for the quarter; and on presentation of such certificates the
State auditor shall issue his warrant for the amount thereof, to be paid out of any
appropriations aforesaid. He is hereby authorized to procure such instruments and
stationery from time to time as may be necessary to the proper discharge of his duties
under this act, at the expense of the State, w hich shall be paid by the State treasurer
upon accounts duly certified b y him and audited by the proper department of the State.
Sec. 3. Before entering upon tfie discharge of his official duties, the inspector shall
give a bond to the State in the sum of ten thousand ($10,000) dollars, to be approved
b y the proper officers, conditioned for the faithful performance of his duties. Said
bond shall be deposited with the secretary of state. The person so appointed must
be a citizen of Utah, and must have attained the age of thirty years. H e must have
a knowledge o f different systems of working coal mines, and he must produce satis
factory evidence to the governor of having had at least five years’ practical experi
ence in the coal mines of Utah. H e must have had experience in coal mines where
noxious and explosive gases are evolved. H e must hold the certificate of examina
tion required by law to be held by mine foremen of the State.
Sec. 4. The said inspector shall not act as manager or agent or lessee for any min
ing or other corporation during his term of office, but shall give his whole time and
attention to the duties of his office.
LABOR LAWS---- UTAH---- ACTS OF 1901.
181
Sec. 5. Every owner, agent, manager or lessee of any coal or hydro-carbon mines
in this State shall freely admit the inspector or his assistants to such mine on the
exhibition of his certificate of appointment, for the purpose of making the examina
tion and inspection provided for in this act, whenever the mine is in active opera
tion, and render any necessary assistance for such inspection; but said inspector or
his assistants shall not unnecessarily obstruct the working of said mine. Upon the
refusal of the owner, agent, manager or lessee to admit the inspector or his assistants
to such mine, such owner, agent, manager or lessee shall be subject to a fine of not
less than fifty dollars nor more than five hundred dollars for each and every such
offense.
Sec. 6. The owner, agent, manager or lessee of any coal or hydro-carbon mine in
this State shall make, or cause to be made, an accurate map or plan of the workings
of such mine, on a scale of one hundred feet to the inch, which said map shall show
all the openings or excavations, shafts, tunnels, slopes, planes, entries, cross-headings,
rooms, etc., and show the directions of the air current and also the water system
therein, and shall accurately show the boundary lines between said mine and
adjoining mines. Such map or plan, or true copy thereof, shall be furnished to the
inspector, and one copy shall be kept at such mme for the inspection of the inspector
or employees thereof. The owner, agent, manager or lessee, at least once in every
six months, shall place or cause to be placed on the map or plan, an accurate show
ing of all additional excavations which have been made in the mine during the said
six months. The several maps or plans of mines in this State, which are furnished
to the inspector, shall be the property of the State, and shall remain in the care of
the said inspector, and shall be transferred by him to his successor in office; and in
no case shall any copy of any of them be made without the consent of the owner,
agent, manager or lessee. If the inspector shall find or have good reason to believe
that any map or plan of any mine made or furnished him, in pursuance of the provi
sions o f this act, is materially inaccurate or imperfect, he is authorized to cause a
correct plan or map of said mine to be made, at the expense of the owner, agent,
manager or lessee thereof: Provided, That if the map or plan w hich was claimed to
have been inaccurate shall be found to be practically correct, then the State shall
have to pay the expense of making the new map or plan of such mine.
Sec. 7. It shall be unlawful for the owner, operator or superintendent of any mine
to employ any person or persons in such mine for the purpose of working therein,
unless there are in connection with every seam or stratum of coal, worked in such
mine, not less than two openings or outlets, separated by a stratum o f not less than
one hundred and fifty feet at surface and not less than thirty feet at any place, at which
openings or outlets, safe and distinct means of ingress and egress shall at all times
be available for the persons employed in the said mine. The escapements, shafts or
slopes shall be fitted with safe and available appliances b y which the employees of
the mine may readily escape in case an accident occurs deranging the hoisting
machinery at the outlets. In slopes used as haulage roads where the dip or incline
is ten degrees or more, there must be provided a separate traveling way, which
shall be maintained in a safe condition for travel, and kept free from dangerous
gases. No inflammable structure, other than a frame to sustain pulleys or sheaves,
shall be erected over the entrance to any mine; and no inflammable structure for
the purpose of storing coal shall be erected nearer than two hundred feet to any such
opening. But this act shall not be construed to prohibit the erection of a fan and
its approaches for the purpose of ventilation, nor of a trestle for the transportation of
cars from any slope or other opening. A ll entrances to any place, not in actual
course of working, where explosive gas is known to exist, shall be properly fenced
across the whole width, so as to prevent all persons from entering the same.
Hand rails and sufficient safety catches shall be attached to, and a sufficient cover
overhead shall be provided on every cage used for lowering or hoisting persons in
any shaft. The ropes, safety catches, links and chains shall be carefully examined
every day that they are used by a competent person employed for that purpose by
the mine owner, agent, manager or lessee, and any defect therein found shall be
immediately remedied.
Sec. 8. It shall be the duty or [of] every owner, agent, manager or lessee to keep
at the mouth of every mine, or at such other places as may be designated by the
mine inspector, stretchers properly constructed for the purpose of carrying away any
employee working in and around the mine, who may be injured in and about his
employment.
Sec. 9. Every owner, agent, manager or lessee of coal or hydro-carbon mines shall
provide and maintain a constant and adequate supply of pure air.
1.
It shall be unlawful to use a furnace, for the purpose of ventilating any mine
wherein explosive gases are generated.
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
2. The minimum quantity of air provided shall not be less than 100 cubic feet per
minute for each and every person employed in every mine, and 300 cubic feet for
each and every animal employed therein, and as much more as thevcircumstances
may require.
3. The ventilating current shall be conducted and circulated to the face of each and
every working place through the entire mine, in sufficient quantities to dilute, render
harmless and sweep away smoke and noxious or dangerous gases to such an extent
that all working places and traveling roads shall be in a safe condition for working
and traveling therein.
4. All worked out or abandoned parts of any mine in operation, so far as practi
cable, shall be kept free from dangerous bodies of gases or water; and if found imprac
ticable to keep the entire mine free from a dangerous accumulation of standing gases
or water, the mine inspector shall be immediately notified.
5. Every mine wherein are employed more than 75 persons, must be divided into
two or more districts. Each district shall be provided with a separate split of pure
air, and the ventilation shall be so arranged that not more than 75 persons shall be
employed at the same time in any one current or split of air.
6. A ll cross-cuts connecting the main inlet and outlet air passages, when it becomes
necessary to close them permanently, shall be substantially closed with brick or other
suitable material laid in mortar or cement, whenever practicable, but in no case shall
said cross-cut stoppings be constructed of plank, except for temporary' purposes.
7. All doors used in assisting or in any way affecting the ventilation shall be so
hung and adjusted that they will close automatically. Main doors regulating the
principal air currents of a mine shall be so placed in all cases where it is practicable,
that when one door is open, another, which has the same effect upon the same cur
rent of air, shall be and remain closed.
8. All permanent air bridges shall be built of such material and of such strength
as the circumstances may require.
9. The quantities of air in circulation shall be ascertained with an anemometer, or
other efficient instrument; such measurements shall be made by the inside foreman
or other competent person at least once every week. A report of these air measure
ments shall be forwarded to the mine inspector, together with the statement of the
number of persons employed in each district, on or before the twelfth day of each
-month for the preceding month.
10. For the purpose of properly ventilating rooms and entries, cross-cuts in rooms
shall not be more than 70 feet apart, and cross-cuts in main entries shall not, except
in cases of urgent necessity, be less than 70 feet, nor more than 200 feet apart, the
said provisions as to air shall not apply to hydro-carbon mines.
S ec . 8. Every owner, agent, manager or lessee of mines within the State of Utah
shall provide and maintain a water system for the purpose of conducting water to
the face of each and every working place, and throughout the entire open part of
the mine, in sufficient quantities for sprinkling purposes to wet down the dust that
shall arise and accumulate in and around the mine: Provided, That in mines or parts
of mines where by reason of the natural wet condition, or the moisture derived from
the introduction of steam into the air currents, or both, such sprinkling may not be
necessary. And it shall be the duty of the superintendent, mine foreman and
inspectors to see to it that this is done.
S ec . 9. It shall be the duty of every owner, operator, superintendent, or mine
foreman to furnish to the miners all props, ties, rails and timbers necessary for the
safe mining of coal and for the protection of the lives of workmen. Such props, ties,
rails and timbers shall be suitably prepared and shall be delivered within 100 feet of
the face of the room, or entry, free of charge.
S ec . 10. The following general rules shall be observed by every mine owner, opera
tor, superintendent, mine foreman and employee within the State of Utah:
1. Every owner or operator of every mine shall use every reasonable precaution to
insure the safety of the workmen, in all cases and shall place the underground
workings thereof under the charge and daily supervision of a person, who shall be
known as “ mine foreman,” and who must hold a mine foreman’ s certificate.
2. All accessible parts of abandoned portions of mines in which explosive gases
have been found or are known to exist, shall be carefully examined by the mine
foreman or his assistants, at least once in each and every week, and all danger exist
ing therein from such gases shall be removed as soon as possible. A report of each
and every examination shall be recorded in a book kept for that purpose, signed by
the person making the examination.
3. In all mines known to generate explosive gases, the mine foreman, or fire bosses,
shall make a careful examination every morning of all working places and traveling
ways, and all other places which might endanger the safety of the workingmen,
within three hours prior to the time at which the workmen shall enter the mine.
LABOR LAWS— UTAH— ACTS OF 1901.
183
Such examination shall be made with the safety lamp. No person except those
whose presence is necessary to prepare the mine for the entrance of the workmen,
shall enter the mine or any part thereof, until the mine foreman or fire boss of his
district shall report to him that his place is in a safe condition.
The mine foreman or fire boss making such examination shall record the result
of his examination in a book kept for that purpose, which book shall be opened to
the inspection of the mine inspector and all employees.
4. In any working place approaching any place where there is likely to be an
accumulation of explosive gases, no light or fire other than locked safety lamps shall
be allowed or used. Whenever safety lamps are required in any mine they shall be
the property of the owner or operator, and a competent person, wTho shall be
appointed for that purpose, shall examine every safety lamp immediately before it
is taken into the mine for use. He shall clean, lock and otherwise ascertain if it is
safe for use: Provided, That all fire bosses, or those who inspect the mine for the
presence of explosive gases, must also personally examine their own lamps and be
responsible for their safe condition.
5. Any miners or other persons having charge of a working place in any mine shall
for his own protection keep ihe roof and sides thereof properly secured by timber
ing or otherwise, so as to prevent such roof and sides from falling and injuring him
or his fellow-workmen; and he shall not do any woijk or permit any work to be done
under loose rock or dangerous material, except for the purpose of securing the same.
6. No more than ten persons shall be hoisted or lowered at any one time in any
shaft or slope. This, however, shall not prohibit the hoisting or lowering of ten or
more persons at any one time on slopes where five or more loaded cars are regularly
hoisted.
7. No person in a state of intoxication shall be allowed to go into or loiter about
the mine.
8. Any miner or other workman who shall discover anything wrong with the
ventilating current or with the condition of the roof, sides timbers or roadway, or
with any other part of the mine in general, such as would lead him to suspect dan
ger to himself or his fellow-workmen, or the property of his employer, shall as soon
as possible report the same to the mine foreman or other person being in charge of
that portion of the mine.
9. Any person or persons who shall knowingly or willfully damage, or without
proper authority remove or render useless any fencing, means of signaling, appara
tus, instrument or machine, or shall throw open or obstruct any air way, or open
any ventilating door and not leave the same closed, or enter a place in or about a
mine against caution, or carry fire, open lights or matches in places where safety
lamps are used, or handle without proper authority, or disturb any machinery or
cars, or do any other act or thing whereby the lives or health of persons or the secu
rity of property in or about the mine are endangered, shall be deemed guilty of a
misdemeanor.
10. Gunpowder or any other explosive shall not be stored in a mine, and a work
man shall not have at any time in any one place more than one can or box contain
ing six and one-quarter pounds of powder: Provided, That under special conditions a
larger amount may be allowed in a mine for immediate use, when approval of such
action is made in writing by the State inspector.
11. Every person who has gunpowder or other explosives in a mine, shall keep it
in a wooden or metallic box, securely locked, and such box shall be kept at least ten
feet from the tracks in all cases where room at such a distance is available.
12. In charging holes for blasting in coal, slate or rock in any coal or hydro
carbon mine, no iron or steel-pointed needles shall be used, and a tight cartridge
shall not be rammed into a hole in the coal, slate or rock with an iron or steel tamp
ing bar, unless the bar is tipped with copper or other soft metal.
13. The charge of powder or any other explosive in coal, slate or rock which has
missed fire, shall not be withdrawn or the hole reopened, except where such holes
are tamped with wet w ood pulp.
14. Before commencing work and also after firing of every blast, the miner working a
room or other place in the mine, shall enter such room or place to examine and
ascertain its conditions, and his assistant shall not go to the face of such room or
place until tne miner has examined the same and found it to be safe.
15. No person shall be employed to blast coal or rock unless the mine foreman is
satisfied that such person is qualified by experience to perform the work with ordi
nary safety, or unless he is placed at work with an experienced miner.
16. Every passageway equipped with mechanical haulage used by persons as a regu
lar traveling way for travel, and also at the same time used for transportation of coal
or other material, shall be of sufficient width to permit persons to pass moving cars
with safety, but if found impracticable to make any passageway of sufficient width,
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
then holes of ample dimensions, and not more than 150 feet apart shall be made on
one side of said passageway. The said passageway and safety holes shall be kept
free from obstructions and the roof and sides of the same shall be made secure.
Safety holes when necessary shall also be made at the bottom of all slopes and plans
and kept free from obstruction to enable the footman to escape readily in case of
danger.
17. It shall be unlawful for any owner, operator, superintendent or mine foreman,
of any mine which generates explosive gases, to employ any person who is not com
petent to understand the regulations of any mine evolving explosive gases.
18. No person or persons shall be permitted to enter any dry gilsonite or elaterite
mine with any kind of light other than an electric or other safety lamp.
19. For the purpose of making known the provisions of this act to all persons
employed in and around the mines the owner and operator of each and every mine
within the State, to which this act applies shall post m a conspicuous place or places
at or near the entrance of the mine, where they may be conveniently read by all
persons employed therein, the foregoing rules, ana keep the said rules posted at all
times.
S ec . 11. The duties of the mine inspector, other than those heretofore enumerated,
shall be as follows:
1. It shall be the duty of the mine inspector to make a careful and thorough
inspection of each coal and hydro-carbon mine operated within the State at least
once every three months, and oftener if the condition of the mines require his atten
tion. H e shall make an annual report to the governor, showing the condition of
each and every coal and hydro-carbon mine in the State. H e shall examine into
the condition as regards the safety of the workmen of such mine working, machinery,
ventilation, drainage and the method of lighting or using lights, and into all other
matters connected with the working safety of persons in such mine, and give direc
tions providing for the better health and safety of persons employed in or about the
same. The owner or operator is hereby required to freely permit such entry, inspec
tion, examination, inquiry and exit, and to furnish a guide when necessary. The
said inspector shall make a record of his visit, noting the time of the inspection and
the material circumstances of the same, and shall also notify the owner or operator
of the mine by a written report of the condition of the mine at the time of such
inspection.
2. If the inspector finds that a mine is not properly worked, or is not furnished
with proper machinery or appliances for the safety of the miners and all other
employees, it shall be his duty to give written notice to the owner or manager of
such mine that it is unsafe, and such notice shall specify in what particulars the
mine is unsafe, and shall direct the owner or manager thereof to make such improve
ments as are necessary within a reasonable period. If the improvements are not
made as required in the notice, it shall be unlawful for the owner or manager to
operate such mine until such improvements are completed.
S ec . 12. In shaft or slope mines where persons are lowered or hoisted by machinery,
a metal speaking tube or other suitable appliance shall be provided in all cases so
that conversation or signaling may be carried on through the same from the top to
the bottom of the shaft or slope.
S ec . 13. Whenever by reason of an explosion or any other accident in any coal or
hydro-carbon mine or the machinery connected therewith, loss of life or serious per
sonal injury shall occur, it shall be the duty of the person having charge of such mine
or colliery to give notice thereof promptly to the said mine inspector, and if any per
son is killed thereby, to the coroner of the county, who shall give due notice of the
inquest to be held. If the coroner shall determine to hold an inquest, the inspector
shall be allowed to testify, and offer such testimony as he shall deem necessary to
thoroughly inform the said inquest of the causes of death, and the said inspector
shall have authority at anytim e to appear before such coroner and jury and question
or cross-question any witness, and in choosing the jury for the purpose of holding
such inquest, it shall be the duty of the coroner to impanel at least, two men expe
rienced in coal mines on such jury. It shall be the duty of such inspector, when
possible, upon being notified as herein provided, to immediately repair to the scene
of the accident and give such directions as may appear necessary to secure the future
safety of the men, and he shall proceed to investigate and ascertain the causes of
the explosion or accident, and make a record thereof, which he shall file; and to
enable him to make the investigation, he shall have the power to compel the attend
ance of persons to testify and to administer oaths and affirmations; the cost of such
investigation shall be paid by the county in which the accident occurred, in the
same manner as the costs of coroner’ s inquests are paid by law.
S ec . 14. On the petition of the mining inspector, the district court in any county
in this State shall at the first term, after the approval of this act, appoint an examin
LABOR LAWS---- UTAH---- ACTS OF 1901.
185
ing board for such county, consisting of the State inspector of coal mines, and opera
tor of a coal mine and a coal miner, who shall be citizens of the United States, and
the latter two of which board shall have at least five years of experience in the mines
of the State, whose duty it shall be to examine any person applying thereto as to his
competency and qualifications to discharge the duties of mining boss; said board of
examiners shall meet at the call of the inspector, and they shall grant certificates to
all persons whose examination shall disclose their fitness for the duties of mining
boss, and such certificate shall be sufficient evidence for the competency and qualifi
cation of the holders for the duties of said office: Provided, That any person who shall
have been employed as a miner at least five years in the coal mines of Utah and as
a mining boss continuously by the same person or firm or corporation, for the period
of one year preceding the approval of this act, may be entitled, if in the judgment of
the inspector he be qualified, to a certificate without undergoing such examination;
but he shall not be employed by any other person or firm or corporation without
having undergone such examination. The members of the examining board, other
than the inspector, shall hold the office for the period of two years from the date of their
appointment, and shall receive four dollars per day for each day necessarily and actu
ally employed, and actual and necessary traveling expenses, while employed in their
official duties, to be paid by the State. Vacancies in the membership of the board
shall be filled by the court of the proper county except the vacancy in the office of
inspector. Sessions of the examining board shall not exceed three days in each
quarter, and for any certificate granted the board shall receive the sum of one dollar,
the same to be paid into the State treasury. No person shall act as fire boss unless
granted a certificate of competency by the State inspector of coal mines. After the
approval of this act no owner, operator, contractor, lessee or agent shall employ any
mining boss or fire boss who does not have the certificate of competency required.
Said certificate shall be posted up in the office of the mine, and if any accident shall
occur in any mine in which a mining boss or a fire boss shall be employed w ho had
no certificate of competency, as required by this chapter, by which any miner shall
be killed or injured, he or his estate shall have a right of action against such opera
tor or owner, lessee or agent, and shall recover the full damage sustained; in case
of death such action to be brought by the administrator of his estate, within three
years from the date of accident, the proceeds recovered to be divided among the
heirs of the deceased according to law.
Sec. 15. The provisions of this act shall not apply to or effect [affect] any coal or
hydro-carbon mine in which not more than six men are employed in twenty-four
hours.
Sec. 16. The neglect or refusal to perform the duties required to be performed by
any section of this act, or the violation of any of the provisions hereof, shall be
deemed a misdemeanor, and any person so neglecting or refusing to perform such
duty or violating such provisions, shall, upon conviction, be punished by a fine of
not less than one hundred dollars, nor more than five hundred dollars for each and
every such offense.
Sec. 17. Chapter 2 of title 42 of the Revised Statutes of Utah, 1898, is hereby
repealed.
Sec. 18. This act shall take effect upon approval.
Approved this 14th day of March, 1901.
C h a p t e r 128.— Mine regulations—Protection
against fire.
Section 1. A ll mines having but one exit, and the same is covered with the build
ing containing the mechanical plant, furnace room, or blacksmith shop, shall have
fire protection. W here steam is used, hose of sufficient length to reach the farthest
point of the plant shall be attached to feed pump or injector, and the same kept
ready for immediate use. In mines where water is not available, chemical fire
extinguishers or hand grenades shall be kept in convenient places for immediate use,
and it shall be the duty of any owner or operator of a mine in the State of Utah, to
provide fire protection as mentioned in this section, by July 1, 1901.
Sec. 2. Any person or corporation who shall refuse or neglect to comply with the
provisions of this act, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor.
Approved this 25th day of March, 1901.
C h a p t e r 129.— Mine
regulations—Safety cages.
Section 1. It is unlawful for any person or corporation to sink any vertical shaft,
where mining cages are used, to a greater depth than two hundred feet, unless the
shaft is provided with an iron-bonneted safety cage to be used in lowering and hoist-
186
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
mg employees, or any other person. The safety apparatus, whether consisting of
eccentrics, springs or other device, must be securely fastened to the cage and of suf
ficient strength to hold the cage loaded at any depth, to which the shaft may he
sunk. The iron bonnet must be made of boilersheet iron of good quality, at least
three-sixteenths of an inch in thickness and must cover the top of the cage in such
manner as to afford the greatest protection to life and lim b from any debris or any
thing falling down the shaft.
Sec. 2. Any violation of this act is punishable by a fine of not less than two hun
dred or more than five hundred dollars, the same to be paid into the county treasury
of the county in w hich the case is tried.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect upon approval.
Approved this 25th day of March, 1901.
WEST V IR G IN IA .
ACTS OF 1901.
C h a p t e r 5.— Trade-marks,
etc., of trade unions.
1. Whenever any person, firm or corporation, or any association or union of w ork
ingmen, has heretofore adopted or used, or shall hereafter adopt or use any label,
trade-mark, term, design, device or form of advertisement for the purpose of desig
nating, making known, or distinguishing any goods, wares, merchandise or other
product of labor, as having been made, manufactured, produced, prepared, packed
or put on sale, by such person, firm, corporation or association or union of working
men, or by a member or members of such association or union, and shall register
the same as provided in section three of this act, it shall be unlawful to knowingly
counterfeit or imitate such label, trade-mark, term, design, device or form of adver
tisement, or to knowingly use, sell, offer for sale, or in any way utter or circulate
any counterfeit or imitation of any such label, trade-mark, term, design, device or
form of advertisement.
2. W hoever so knowingly counterfeits or imitates any such registered label, trade
mark, term, design, device or form of advertisement; or knowingly sells, or offers
for sale, or in any way utters or circulates any counterfeit or imitation of any such
registered label, trade-mark, term, design, device or form of advertisement; or know
ingly keeps or has in his possession, with intent that the same shall be sold or dis
posed of, any goods, wares, merchandise or other product of labor to which or on
which any such counterfeit or imitation is printed, painted, stamped or impressed;
or knowingly sells or disposes of any goods, wares, merchandise or other product of
labor contained in any box, case, can or package to which or on which any such
counterfeit or imitation is attached, affixed, printed, painted, stamped or impressed
or knowingly keeps or has in his possession, with intent that the same shall be sold
or disposed of, any goods, wares, merchandise or other product of labor in any box,
case, can or package, to which or on which any such counterfeit or imitation is
attached, affixed, printed, stamped or impressed, shall be punished by a fine of not
more than five hundred dollars or by imprisonment for not more than three months,
or by both such fine and imprisonment.
3. Every such person, firm, corporation, association or union that has heretofore
adopted or used, or shall hereafter adopt or use, a label, trade-mark, term, design,
device or form of advertisement as provided in section one of this act, shall register
the same by filing the same for record in the office of the secretary of state by leav
ing two copies, counterparts or facsimiles thereof, with said secretary and by filing
therewith a sworn application specifying the name or names of the person, associa
tion or union on whose behalf such label, trade-mark, term, design, device or form
of advertisement, shall be filed; the class of merchandise and a description of the
goods to which it has been or is intended to be appropriated, stating that the party
so filing, or on whose behalf such label, trade-mark, term, design, device or form of
advertisement shall be filed, has the right to the use of the same; that no other per
son, firm, association, union or corporation has the right to such use, either in the
identical form or in any such near resemblance thereto as may be calculated to deceive,
and that the facsimiles or counterparts filed therewith are true and correct. There
shall be paid for such filing and recording a fee of one dollar. Said secretary shall
deliver to such person, association, or union, so filing or causing to be filed any such
label, trade-mark, term, design, device or form of advertisement so many duly attested
certificates of the recording of the same as such person, firm, corporation, association
or union may apply for, for each of which certificates said secretary shall receive a
fee of one dollar. Any such certificates of record shall in all suits and prosecutions
under this act be sufficient proof of the adoption of such labels, trade-marks, terms,
designs, devices or form of advertisement. Said secretary of state shall not record for
LABOR LAWS---- WEST VIRGINIA---- ACTS OF 1901.
187
any person, union, or association, any label, trade-mark, term, design, device or form
of advertisement, that would probably be mistaken for any label, trade-mark, term,
design, device or form of advertisement theretofore filed by or on behalf of any
other person, firm, corporation, union or association. But the said secretary shall
file and record under this act any label, trade-mark, term, design, device or form of
advertisement, which may have been previously filed by any person, firm, corpora
tion or any association or union of workingmen, provided the person, firm, corpora
tion, association or union seeking to file and record under this act is the same per
son, firm, corporation, association or union that previously filed or recorded the same
label, trade-mark, term, design, device or form of advertisement.
4. A ny person who shall for himself, or on behalf of any other person, firm, cor
poration, association or union, procure the filing of any label, trade-mark, term,
design or form of advertisement, in the office of the secretary of state under the pro
visions of this act, by making any known false or fraudulent representations, or
declaration, verbally or in writing, or by any fraudulent means, shall be liable to
pay any damages sustained in consequence of any such filing, to be recovered by or
on behalf of the party injured thereby in any court having jurisdiction, and shall be
punished by a fine not exceeding five hundred dollars or b y imprisonment not
exceeding three months, or by both such fine and imprisonment.
5. Every such person, firm, corporation, association or union adopting or using any
such registered label, trade-mark, term, design, device or form of advertisement, as
aforesaid, may proceed by suit for damages to enjoin the manufacture, use, display
or sale of any counterfeits or imitations thereof, and all courts of competent jurisdic
tion shall grant injunctions to restrain such manufacture, use, display or sale, and
award the complainant in any such suit damages resulting from such manufacture,
use, sale or display, as may be by the said court deemed just and reasonable, and
shall require the defendants to pay such person, association or union, all profits
derived from such wrongful manufacture, use, sale or display; and such court shall
also order that all such counterfeits or imitations in the possession or under the con
trol of any defendant in such cause be delivered to an officer of the court, or to the
complainant, to be destroyed.
6. Every person, firm, corporation, association or union, who shall knowingly use
or display the genuine label, trade-mark, term, design, device or form of advertise
ment of any such person, firm, corporation, association or union when registered as
aforesaid, in any manner, not being authorized so to do by such person, firm, cor
poration, association or union, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be
punished by imprisonment for not more than three months or by a fine of not more
than five hundred dollars. In all cases where such association or union is not incor
porated suits under this act may be commenced and prosecuted by any officer or
member of such association or union on behalf of and for the use of such association
or union.
7. A ny person, firm, corporation, association, or union, who shall in any way
knowingly use the name or seal of any such person, firm, corporation, association or
union, or officer thereof, in and about the sale of goods or otherwise, not being
authorized to so use the same, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punished
by imprisonment for not more than three months or by a fine of not more than five
hundred dollars.
8. Nothing contained in this act shall be construed as affecting or impairing any
right or remedy at law or in equity now existing for the protection of any label,
trade-mark, term, design, device or form of advertisement, whether or not the same
is registered under the provisions hereof.
Passed February 21,1901. In effect ninety days from passage. Approved February
23, 1901.
C h a p t e r 8 . —Protection
of street railway employees—Inclosed platforms.
1.
From and after the first of January in the year of our Lord 1902, it shall be unlaw
ful for any person, partnership, or corporation, owning or operating a street railway
in this State, or for any officer or agent thereof having charge or control of the man
agement of such line of railway, or the cars thereof, operating electric, cable or other
cars propelled either b y steam, cable or electricity, which require the constant serv
ices, care or attention of any person or persons upon the platforms of any such car,
to require or permit such services, attention or care, of any of its employees, or any
other person or persons, between the first day of November and the first day of April
thereafter of each year, unless such person, partnership or corporation, its officers or
superintending or managing agents, have first provided the platforms of said car or
cars with a proper and sufficient inclosure constructed of wood, iron and glass, or
similar suitable material, sufficient to protect such employees from exposure to the
188
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
winds and inclemencies of the weather: Provided, That such inclosure shall be con
structed so as not to obstruct the vision of the person operating such car, or to endan
ger or interfere with its safe management b y the operator.
2. From and after January first in the year of our Lord 1902, it shall be unlawful
for any person, partnership or corporation, so owning or operating street railways
using steam, electric or cable cars, or any managing officer or agent thereof, to cause
or permit to be used upon such line of railway, between said November first and
April first of each and every year thereafter, any car or cars upon w hich the services
of any employee, such as specified in section one of this act, is required, unless said
car or cars shall be provided with the inclosure required b y section one of this act.
3. Any person, partnership or corporation, owning, operating, superintending or
managing any such line of street railway, or managing or superintending officer or
agent thereof, w ho shall be found guilty of a violation of the provisions of section
one or two of this act, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction
thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than twenty dollars nor more than
one hundred dollars; and in default of payment of the same, imprisonment in the
county jail in which such conviction is had until such fine shall be paid. Each day
that any said person or persons, partnership or corporation, cause or permit any of
their said employees to operate such car or cars in violation of the provisions of sec
tions one and two of this act, or cause or permit a car or cars to be used or operated
in violation of said section two of this act, shall be deemed a separate offense: Pro
vided, That the provisions of this act shall not apply to cars used and known as
trailing cars.
4. It is hereby made the duty of the prosecuting attorney of any county in which
any such street railway is situated and operated, upon information given him by any
credible person, or upon knowledge that he may possess, that any person, partner
ship or corporation, has violated any of the provisions of this act, to promptly prose
cute such person, members of such partnership or corporation, for such violation.
Passed February 11,1901. In effect ninety days from passage. Approved February
18, 1901.
Chapter 14.—Employment of children—Certain occupations prohibited.
2. A n y person having the care, custody, or control of any minor child under the
age of fifteen years, who shall,in any manner sell, apprentice, give away, or otherwise
dispose of such child, or any person who shall take, receive or employ such child for
the vocation or occupation of rope or wire walking or as an acrobat, gymnast, con
tortionist or rider, and any person who, having the care, custody, or control of any
minor child whatsoever, shall sell, apprentice, give away or otherwise dispose of such
child, or w ho shall take, receive or employ such child for any obscene, indecent or
illegal exhibition or vocation, or any vocation injurious to the health, or dangerous
to the life or limb, of such child engaged therein, or for the purpose of prostitution,
and any person w ho shall retain, harbor, or em ploy any minor child in or about any
assignation house or brothel, or any place where" any obscene, indecent or illegal,
exhibition takes place, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be fined not less
than five dollars, nor more than one hundred dollars, for each offence.
3. A ny person having the care, custody, or control, lawful or unlawful, of any minor
child under the age of eighteen years, w ho shall use such minor, or apprentice, give
away, let out, hire or otherwise dispose of, such minor child to any person, for the
purpose of singing, playing on musical instruments, begging or for any mendicant
business whatsoever in the streets, roads, or other highways of this State, and who
soever shall take, receive, hire, employ, use or have in custody, any minor for the
vocation, occupation, calling, service or purpose of singing, playing upon musical
instruments or begging upon the streets, roads or other highways of this State, or for
any mendicant business whatever, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be fined
not less than five dollars nor more than one hundred dollars.
4. A ny person having the care, custody, or control of any minor child under the
age of fifteen years, who shall in any manner sell, apprentice, give away or permit
such child to sing, dance, act, or in any manner exhibit it in any dance "house, con
cert saloon, theater or place of entertainment where wines or spirituous or malt liquors
are sold or given away, or with w hich any place for the sale of wines or spirituous or
malt liquors is directly or indirectly connected by any passageway or entrance, and
any proprietor of any dance house whatever, or any such concert saloon, theater, or
place of entertainment, so employing any such child, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor,
and shall be fined not less than five dollars nor more than one hundred dollars for
each offense.
Passed February 13,1901. In effect ninety days from passage. Approved February
13, 1901.
LABOR LAWS---- WEST VIRGINIA---- ACTS OF 1901,
C h a p t e r 15.— Free public
189
employment bureaus.
1. The commissioner of labor is hereby authorized to organize and establish, in con
nection with the bureau of labor, a free public employment bureau, for the purpose
of receiving applications from persons seeking employment and applications from
persons seeking to em ploy labor.
2. No compensation or fee shall be charged or received directly or indirectly from
persons applying for work, information or help through said department. The com
missioner of labor is hereby authorized to employ such assistance, and incur such
expense as may be necessary to carry into effect the purpose of this act. But such
assistance and expense shall not exceed five hundred dollars per annum.
3. The expenses of the employment bureau shall be paid in the same manner and
way as other expenses of the bureau of labor, and there is hereby appropriated five
hundred dollars to carry out the provisions of this act.
Passed February 13,1901. In effect ninety days from passage. Approved February
15, 1901.
C h a p t e r 19.— Factory
inspection.
1. In all manufacturing, mechanical and other establishments, in this State, where
the machinery, belting, shafting, gearing, drums and elevators, are so arranged and
placed as to be dangerous to persons employed therein, while engaged in their ordi
nary duties, shall be safely and securely guarded when possible, and if not possible,
the notices of the danger shall be conspicuously posted in such establishments, and
no minor or female of any age shall be permitted to clean any of the mill gearing or
machinery in such establishments while the same is in motion.
2. The opening of all hatchways, elevators and wellholes, upon each floor of every
manufacturing, mechanical, mercantile or public building in this State, shall be pro
tected by good and sufficient trapdoors, self-closing hatches, or strong guard rails at
least three feet high. All due vigilance shall be used to keep such trapdoors closed
at all times, except when in actual use.
3. In every factory, workshop or establishment, in this State, where females are
employed, where unclean work of any kind has to be performed, suitable places shall
be provided for such females to wash and to change clothing, and stairs in use by
females shall, in all such establishments, be properly screened, and separate waterclosets shall be provided for the use of employees of either sex, in all manufacturing,
mechanical, mercantile and other establishments in this State where persons of both
sexes are employed.
4. In every manufacturing, mechanical, mercantile and other establishments, in
this State, wherein females are employed, there shall be provided, and conveniently
located, seats sufficient to comfortably seat such females; and during such times as
such females are not necessarily required b y their duties to be upon their feet, they
shall be allowed to occupy the seats provided.
5. And all establishments, to which this act applies, must be kept in a clean con
dition; the sanitary and hygienic regulations shall be such as will not endanger or
be injurious to the lives or health of the employees employed therein.
6. Any person or persons, firm or corporation of any manufacturing, mechanical,
mercantile or other establishments, business or calling, in this State, to which this
act applies, w ho shall violate any of the provisions of this act shall be deemed guilty
of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction, in any court of competent jurisdiction in
this State, shall be fined not less than twenty dollars nor more than one hundred
dollars, and in default of payment of such fine shall be imprisoned until such fine
and costs are fully paid.
7. It shall be the duty of the commissioner of labor or his assistant to enforce the
provisions of this act, and to prosecute all violations of the same before any magis
trate or court of competent jurisdiction in this State.
8. A ll fines collected for violation of this act shall be paid into the common school
fund of the county in w hich the offense was committed.
9. The provisions of this act shall become effective within ninety days after the
date of its passage, and as soon as possible thereafter the commissioner of labor shall
cause a printed copy thereof to be transmitted to all employers of labor in this State.
Passed February 14,1901. In effect ninety days from passage. Approved February
16, 1901.
C h a p t e r 20.— Mine
regulations—Check weighmen.
1.
Where the amount of wages paid to any of the persons employed in any manu
facturing, mining, or otherwise public enterprise employing labor, depend upon the
amount produced by weight or measure, the persons so employed may, at their own
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190
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
cost, station or appoint at each place appointed for the weighing or measuring of the
products of their labor a check weighman or measurer, who shall in all cases be
appointed b y a majority ballot of the workmen employed at the works where he is
appointed to act as such check weighman or measurer.
2. Every corporation, company, or person engaged in the business of mining coal
in this State, where such check weighman is employed by the miners working at
such mines, shall furnish such check weighman wTith a check or number and pay
the said check weighman for all coal placed to his check or number same .per ton as
is paid to the miners. Each of the persons so employed to see [to] the weighing of
said coal before entering upon the discharge of the duties of his employment shall
take and subscribe an oath before a justice of the peace or a notary public, that he
w ill honestly and impartially do and perform the duties of his employment and do
equal and exact justice between employers and employees to the best of his judg
ment, skill and ability.
3. This act shall apply to all weights, balances, steelyards, and weighing machines
and measures used in any factory, mine, mill or otherwise industrial concerns, for
determining the wages payable to any person employed according to the mineral or
otherwise products produced by them through their labors.
4. W here the weighman is mutually selected by the consent of a majority of the
miners working in any mine and the operator or agent of said company, it shall not
be considered necessary to employ said check weighman, but at any time that either
of the parties to said agreement should become dissatisfied with said weighman they
may dismiss him on ten days’ notice or the miners may em ploy a check weighman.
A n y corporation, company, or person violating any of the provisions of this act shall
be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall be fined for each and
every offense not less than ten nor more than two hundred dollars.
It shall be the duty of every court in each county, in w hich any such coal mine is
operated and in w hich a grand jury is impaneled, to give this act in charge to the
grand jury.
Passed February 22,1901. In effect ninety days from passage. Approved February
23, 1901.
C h a p t e r 31. —Mine regulations— Inspection,
etc., of oil.
1. Only animal, vegetable or paraffine oil or other oil as free from the evolution of
smoke as a standard cotton-seed oil, when burned in a miner’ s torch, shall be used in
any open lamp or torch for illuminating purposes in any coal mine in this State, and
kerosene and blackstrap oil, or a mixture of kerosene and blackstrap, shall not be
used in miners’ torches for illuminating purposes in any coal mine in this State;
except that a mixture of mineral oil (other than blackstrap oil) and vegetable oil
can be used upon machinery used as a motive power to haul coal m any mine in this
State, and except, further, that a mixture of mineral and vegetable oil can be used
for all stationary lights.
2. A standard cotton-seed oil shall have the following test:
(1) It shall be free from mineral oils or mineral-oil compounds.
(2) It shall be tested in a glass tube one and one-half inches in diameter b y eight
inches deep, and the oil shall be at a temperature of sixty degrees Fahrenheit when
the test is made, and shall not exceed twenty-four degrees Tagliabue hydrometer.
3. If the oil to be tested is below forty-five degrees Fahrenheit temperature, it
must be slowly heated until it reaches eignty-five degrees temperature. Should the
oil be above forty-five degrees temperature and below sixty-five degrees it must be
heated to seventy degrees, when, in either case, it must be well shaken and allowed
to cool gradually to a temperature of sixty degrees, when the test must be made.
4. In testing the gravity of oil the hydrometer must be, when possible, read from
below, and the last line which appears under the surface of the oil shall be regarded
as the true reading.
5. W here the oil is tested in difficult circumstances an allowance of one-half of one
degree may be made for error of parallax.
6. All oil sold to be used for illuminating purposes in the mines of this State shall
be contained in barrels, casks or packages, branded conspicuously with the name
and address of the manufacturer o f said oil, the specific gravity of the same and the
date of shipment.
7. A n y person, firm, or corporation, either b y themselves or an agent or employee,
w hich snail sell or offer for sale for illuminating in any mine, in this State, any oil
or any mixture or compound of oils which does not comply with the tests as pre
scribed in section one of this act, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon
conviction thereof shall be fined not less than twenty-five dollars nor more than one
hundred dollars for each offense.
LABOR LAWS---- WEST VIRGINIA---- ACTS OF 1901.
191
8. And any miner, or employee in any mine, or employee of any mine operator or
mine owner, w ho shall knowingly use or permit to be used for illuminating purposes
in any mine, in this State, any oil other than that prescribed in section one of this
act snail, upon conviction thereof, be fined not less than five dollars nor more than
twenty-five dollars for each and every offense; and in default of payment of such
fine within twenty days from the day of conviction shall be given a sentence in the
county jail for a period of not less than ten nor more than sixty days.
9. It shall be the duty of the district mine inspectors wherever they have reason
to believe that oil is being used, or sold or offered for sale, in violation of the provi
sions of this act, to take samples of the same and have them tested under the direc
tion of the chief mine inspector; and if they are found to be inferior to the quality
prescribed b y this act, the inspector shall make complaint to the prosecuting attor
ney of the county in which the offense is committed, who shall forthwith commence
proceedings against the offender in any court of competent jurisdiction. A ny miner,
mine employee, firm, corporation or their agents, who shall refuse to permit the
mine inspector to examine his or their oil used for or sold for illuminating purposes
in the coal mines, in this State, shall be guilty of a violation of this act, and may be
taken before any justice of the peace and fined five dollars or imprisoned in the
county jail for ten days for each offense.
10. In all cases of prosecution, where the accused stands convicted of a violation
o f this act, the costs of such prosecution shall be borne by the person, firm or cor
poration so convicted, and in case of failure to convict the accused the State shall
pay the costs in the same manner as in other prosecutions for misdemeanors.
Passed February 15,1901. In effect ninety days from passage. Approved February
20, 1901.
C h a p t e r 106.—Mine
regulations— Inspection.
1. Chapter fifty-nine of the acts of the legislature of West Virginia of one thousand
eight hundred and ninety-seven, “ concerning mine ventilation and inspection”
[shall] be amended and reenacted so as to read as follows:
la. The governor of the State, by and with the consent of the senate, shall appoint
one district mine inspector for each of the five mining districts created by this act,
and a chief mine inspector who shall supervise and control the mine inspection of
the State of W est Virginia, and the chief shall have power to call the assistance of
any one of the other five mine inspectors to any district in the State of West Vir
ginia in case of emergency; a£nd the chief mine inspector shall keep the reports
furnished him b y the five mine inspectors, and in addition thereto he shall copy
said reports in a book or books by him purchased and kept for the purpose, and he
shall index the same, and said books shall be open for inspection upon the request
of any citizen of the State, and upon the request of the governor or attorney-general
of this State, the said chief mine inspector shall lay said books and reports before
either of said officers, and also maps of mines furnished him by the said district mine
inspectors.
b. A n y chief mine inspector who shall violate any of the provisions of this act
shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined not less than twenty-five nor more than tw o
hundred dollars, and may, in the discretion of the court, be imprisoned in the
county jail not exceeding one year.
A nd each of the five mine inspectors shall report in writing monthly to the chief
mine inspector, the number and condition of all the mines inspected by him during
each month. The chief mine inspector shall have power to remove any of the five
mine inspectors, mentioned in this act, for causes hereinafter mentioned in this act,
and the governor of the State shall fill all vacancies caused b y removal from office.
Mine inspectors created by this act shall hold their office for the term of four years,
as hereinafter provided, unless they be sooner removed, as hereinafter provided.
They shall continue in office until their successors in office are appointed and
qualified.
c. Every person appointed chief mine inspector must be a citizen of West Virginia
and be a competent person, having had at least eight years’ experience in the work
ing, ventilation and drainage of coal mines in this State, and a practical and scientific
knowledge of all noxious and dangerous gases found in such mines.
d. Every person so appointed district mine inspector must be a citizen of West Vir
ginia, having a practical knowledge of mining and properly ventilating and draining
mines, and a knowledge of the gases met with in coal mines, and must be a miner of
at least six years’ experience as a miner in the coal mines, or having been otherwise
engaged as an employee for six years within the mines of this State; and he shall not
w hile in office, be interested as owner, operator, agent, stockholder, superintendent
or engineer of any coal mine, and he shall be of good moral character and temperate
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
habits. An inspector of mines shall be removed from office by the chief mine inspector
of this State for incompetency, neglect of duty, drunkenness, malfeasance and for
other good causes.
2a. Vacancies in office of inspectors shall be filled by appointment b y the governor
of the State for the unexpired term. Every person appointed inspector of mines,
shall, before entering upon the discharge ot the duties of his office, take the oath
before some person authorized by law to administer oaths, that he w ill support the
Constitution of the United States and the constitution of the State of W est Virginia,
and that he w ill faithfully and impartially, to the best of his ability, discharge the
duties of his office, and file a certificate of his having done so in the office of the sec
retary of state, and he shall give a bond in the penalty of two thousand dollars, with
sureties to be approved by the governor of the State, conditioned that he w ill faith
fully discharge the duties of his office.
b. The salary of the chief mine inspector shall be eighteen hundred dollars per
annum and not more than five hundred dollars for expenses, and the other five
mine inspectors shall have twelve hundred dollars salary each, per annum, and not
more than five hundred dollars each for expenses. Such salary and expenses shall
be paid m onthly out of the State treasury upon the approval of the chief mine
inspector: Provided, That before payment of traveling expenses shall be made to the
inspector, he shall file an account oi such expenses verified by his affidavit showing
that they accrued in the discharge of his official duties.
c. On the first Tuesday in April, one thousand nine hundred and one, and every
four years thereafter, the governor of the State shall, with the consent of the Senate,
appoint a chief mine inspector and one mine inspector for each of the five mining
districts of the State created by this act, whose term of office shall begin when he
has taken the oath of office and has given the approved bond, as required by this
act, and whose term of office shall be four years, or until his successor shall be duly
appointed and qualified.
d. Inspectors of mines shall devote their whole time and attention to the duties of
their office and shall make personal examination, as set forth in sections three and
four of this act, of the interior of all coal or other mines and outside of the mine
where any danger may exist to the workmen employed in their respective districts.
3a. A nd it shall be the duty of each district mine inspector to visit each mine in
his district at least once every three months, and it shall be unlawful for any mine
inspector to do any surveying for any mine owner or owners, during his term of office,
and it shall be unlawful for any mine inspector to appoint any deputy or other per
son to do and perform any work required of such mine inspector, and it shall be his
duty to personally perform the duties of his office hereunder. H e shall also in each
year, ending with the thirtieth day of June, make a written report to the chief mine
inspector of his proceedings, stating therein the number of mines in his district, the
improvements made in and at the mines, the extent to w hich this act is obeyed or
violated, and such other information in relation to mines and mining as he may
deem of public interest, or required of him by the chief mine inspector. He shall
also suggest or recommend such legislation on the subject of mining as he may think
necessary. Such report shall be filed with the chief mine inspector on or before the
thirtieth day of September next succeeding the year for w hich it was made. The
chief mine inspector shall annually make a full and complete written report of his
proceedings as such chief mine inspector to the governor of the State for the year
ending the thirtieth of June. Such report shall include the reports from the district
mine inspectors, the number of visits and inspections made in the State b y the dis
trict inspectors, the quantity of coal and coke produced in the State, and the number
of men employed, number of mines operated, ovens in and out of blast, improve
ments made, prosecutions, etc., and such other information in relation to the subject
of mines, mining inspection and needed legislation, as he may deem of public interest
and beneficial to the mining interests of the State. Such report shall be filed with
the governor on or before the thirtieth day of December next succeeding the year
for which it was made, and such report shall be printed upon the requisition of the
governor, and in order that the report may be annually printed and distributed
among the operators, miners and citizens of this State, the sum of fifteen hundred
dollars shall annually be allowed out of the State treasury for this special purpose.
6. A ny mine inspector failing t o com ply with the requirements of this act shall be
guilty o f a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not less than
one hundred dollars nor more than five hundred dollars, and be dismissed from
office.
c. The governor of the State of W est Virginia, together with the chief mine
inspector created by this act, shall divide the State of West Virginia into five mining
districts.
2. Sections 5, 10, and 11 of the acts of one thousand eight hundred and eighty-
LABOR LAWS---- WEST VIRGINIA---- ACTS OF 1901.
193
seven, concerning “ the working, ventilation and drainage of coal mines, etc.,”
[shall] be amended and reenacted to read as follows, and section 20 be added thereto.
5.
The operator or agent of every coal mine shall, within six months after the
passage of this act, make, or cause to be made, unless already made and filed, an
accurate map or plan of such mine, on a scale to be stated thereon, not exceeding
one hundred feet to the inch. Such map or plan shall show the openings or exca
vations, the shafts, slopes, entries, airways, headings, rooms, pillars, etc., and such
portions of such mine or mines as may have been abandoned, the general inclination
of the coal strata, and so much of the property lines and the outcrop of the coal
seam of the tract of land on which said mine is located, as may be within one thou
sand feet of any part of the workings o f such mine. A true copy of such map or
plan shall, within the six months aforesaid, be delivered b y sucn operator to the
inspector of his district, to be preserved among the records of his office, and turned
over to his successor in office; and the original map, or a true copy thereof, shall be
kept b y such operator at the office of the mine, and open at all reasonable times for
the examination and use of the inspector; and such operator shall, twice within
every twelve months, and not more than seven months apart, while the mine is in
operation, cause such mine to be surveyed and the map thereof extended so as to
accurately show the progress of the workings, the property lines and outcrop as
above provided; and he shall immediately thereafter notify the inspector of his dis
trict, who shall forward to the said operator, or his engineer, the maps held by such
inspector to be extended as above required.
10.
The operator or agent of every coal mine, whether worked by shaft, slope or
drift, shall provide and hereafter maintain for every such mine ample means of
ventilation, affording no less than one hundred cubic feet of air per minute for each
and every person em ployed in such mine, and as much more as the circumstances
may require, w hich shall be circulated around the main headings and cross headings
and working places, to an extent th?t w ill dilute, render harmless and carry off, the
noxious and dangerous gases generated therein; and as the working places shall
advance, break-throughs for air shall be made every one hundred feet in the pillars,
or brattice shall be used, so as to properly ventilate the face, and all the break
throughs, not required for the passage of air, shall be properly closed with brattice,
or brattices shall be used, so as to keep the working places well and properly venti
lated. In all mines generating fire damp and where there is every reason to believe
that gas will be constantly encountered in the future workings and developments of
the mine, all stoppings on the main entries shall be constructed in a substantial man
ner and as nearly as practicable air-tight, except for temporary purposes; doors on
main haul-ways shall be avoided in gaseous mines where practicable, and overcasts
adopted when and where the same may expediently be built, and where doors are
used they must be built in a substantial manner and hung so as to close automatic
ally when unobstructed. A ll old unused workings and abandoned parts of the
mines must be protected by such safeguards as w ill prevent the dangerous overflow
o f any standing gas therein, and all avenues leading thereto shall be so arranged and
conducted as to give cautionary notice to all such workmen in such mines of the
danger in entering therein. A nd in order to secure the safety of the workmen in
general against danger in said abandoned or worked-out parts of the mines notices
shall be put up and kept standing as far as practical, which shall afford warning to
all such workmen not to enter in such parts of said mines; and in addition thereto,
all persons, other than those specially charged with that duty, are hereby forbidden
to enter such abandoned parte of such mines where gas may be found. And for
violation of this provision of this act, such person or persons so offending shall be
guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not less than
five dollars nor more than one hundred dollars and be confined in the county jail
not less than ten days nor more than one year. No miner or other employee shall
take into the mines in this State any larger quantity of powder or other explosive
than he or they may reasonably expect to use during their term of employment of
one day of twelve hours. In all mines where explosive gas, or other gas of a danger
ous or poisonous nature, is known to generate in large and dangerous quantities, the
workmen shall be immediately instructed to withdraw from the mine in case of stop
page of the fan, or heavy falls of the roof which may obstruct the main intake or
return airway, until such obstruction is removed. And it shall be unlawful in all
mines where gas is being generated in large and dangerous quantities, to use any
other mechanical power for ventilation purpose except fan power, or the equal
thereof; and the fan or other power, shall be kept in operation night and day
unless written permission to do otherwise be granted by the chief inspector or the
district inspector in whose district the mine is situated; but no mine operator shall
be required to keep such fan going where it is necessary to shut it down for the pur
poses of repairing machinery or doing other work in the mines which may make it
194
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
necessary. It shall be unlawful for any miner after having exploded in any working
place sixty cubical inches or more of powder, in one or more blasts, in any mine
known to generate gas in large and dangerous quantities, to enter such working place
and attempt to resume work in any manner whatever with a naked light in less than
twenty minutes after the blast has been exploded,.
It shall be the duty of every mine owner or operator in this State whose mine or
mines are known to generate fire damp or other dangerous gas or gases, in danger
ous quantities, to employ a ‘ 4fire boss” or “ bosses” where necessary, who shall be
a citizen or citizens of this State, and have such knowledge of fire damp and other
dangerous gases as to be able to detect the same with the use of safety lamps, and
shall have a practical knowledge of the subject of ventilation of mines and the
machinery and appliances used for that purpose, and be a person with at least three
years7 experience m mines generating such fire damp and dangerous gases. It shall
be the duty of said fire boss or bosses where employed in said gaseous mines to fix
and determine upon some intelligent plan to warn ana give notice to all the employees
of such mines when they may be permitted to enter such mine or mines to begin
work upon each shift of their employment; and it shall further be the duty of said
fire boss or bosses to go into all the working places of such mine or mines where gas
is knowTn to exist, or liable to exist, in dangerous quantities, and carefully examine
the same with a safety lamp, and do, or cause to be done, whatever may be necessary
to remove from such working place or places all dangerous gases and make the same
safe for persons to enter therein as workmen in such mine or mines; such examina
tion and removal of said gases shall be made immediately before each shift begins to
w ork in such mines, ana thereafter to at once give such notice or warning to the
employees in said mine or mines on the outside thereof that the same is safe for them
to enter therein and begin work. In the performance of the duties on the part of
the fire boss or bosses they shall have no superior officer, but all the employees
working inside of said mine or mines shall be subordinate to said fire boss or bosses
in this particular work. It shall be unlawful for any person to enter said mine or
mines for any purpose at the beginning of work upon each shift therein until such
signal or warning has been given b y said fire boss or bosses on the outside of said
mine or mines as to the safety thereof, as herein provided, except under the direction
of said fire boss or bosses, and then for the purpose of assisting in making said mine
safe; and each person who shall enter such mine before such notice or signal has
been given shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be
fined not less than fifty dollars nor more than five hundred dollars, and imprisoned
in the county jail not less than sixty days nor more than one year. In all mines
generating fire damp, accumulations of fine, dry coal dust shall, as far as practicable,
Be prevented, and such dust shall, whenever necessary, be kept properly watered
down. The safety lamps used for examining any mine or which may be used for
working therein, shall be furnished by, and be the property of, the operator of the
mine, and shall be in charge of some person to be designated b y the “ fire boss,”
and at least one safety lamp shall be kept at every coal mine whether such mine
generates fire damp or not.
11.
In order to better secure the proper ventilation of every coal mine and promote
the health and safety of persons employed therein, the operator or agent shall employ
a competent and practical inside overseer, to be (jailed “ mining boss,” w ho shall be
a citizen of this State and an experienced coal miner, or any person having three
years7 experience in a coal mine, w ho shall keep a careful watch over the ventilating
apparatus and the airways, traveling-ways, pumps and drainage; and shall see that,
as the miners advance their excavations, proper break-throughs are made to properly
ventilate the mine, and that all loose coal, slate and rock overhead in the working
places and along the haul-ways be removed or carefully secured so as to prevent
danger to persons employed in such mines; and that sufficient props, caps and timbers,
as nearly as possible of suitable dimensions, are furnished for the places where they
are to be used; and such props, caps and timbers shall be delivered and placed at
such point as the rules for the government for each respective mine provide for them
to be delivered; and every workman in want of props, cap pieces and timbers shall
notify the mining boss, or such other person who may be designated for that purpose,
at least one day in advance, giving the length and number of props or timbers and
cap pieces he requires; but in case of an emergency the timbers may be ordered
immediately upon the discovery of any danger; and it shall be the duty of each
miner to properly prop and secure his place in order to make the same secure for
him to work therein. The said mine boss shall have all water drained or hauled
out of the working places where the same is practicable, before the miners enter, and
said working places kept dry as far as practical while the miners are at work. And
in mines in which the operations are so extensive that all the duties devolving upon
the mine boss can not be discharged by one man, competent persons having had two
years7 experience in a coal mine may be designated and appointed as assistants, who
LABOE LAWS— WEST VIBGTNIA---- ACTS OF 1901.
195
shall act under the mine boss’ s instructions, and who shall be responsible for their
conduct in the discharge of their duties under such designation or employment. On
all haul-ways, space not less than ten feet long and two feet, six inches wide, between
the wagon and the rib, shall be kept open at distances not exceeding one hundred feet
apart, in which shelter from passing wagons may be had. It shall mrther be the duty
of the mining boss to have bore holes kept not less than twelve feet in advance of the
face, and, where necessary, on sides of the working places that are being driven toward
and in dangerous proxim ity to ah abandoned mine or part of mine suspected of con
taining inflammable gases or w hich is filled with water. On all haul-ways where haul
ing is done by machinery of any kind, the mine boss shall provide a proper system of
signals and a conspicuous light, and also for the carrying o f a conspicuous light on the
front car of every trip or train of cars when in motion in am ine, and when the hoist
ing or lowering of men occurs before daylight in the morning or at evening after
darkness at any mine operated by shaft, the said mine boss shall provide and main
tain at the shait mouth a light of a stationary character sufficient to show the land
ing and all surrounding objects distinctly, and sufficient light of a stationary
character shall be located at the bottom of the shaft so that persons coming to the
bottom may clearly discern the cages and other objects closely contiguous thereto.
No cages on w hich men are riding shall be lifted or lowered at a rate of speed greater
than six hundred feet per minute. No mine cars, either empty or loaded, shall be
hoisted, while men are being lowered or hoisted, and no cage having an unstable
self-dumping platform shall be used for the carrying of workmen unless the same is
provided with some device b y which the same can be securely locked when men are
being hoisted or lowered into the mine. A t every mine where fifty men are employed
underground, it shall be the duty of the operator thereof to keep always on hand at
the mine a properly constructed stretcher, woolen and a waterproof blanket, and all
necessary requisites which may be advised by the medical practitioner employed by
the company, and if as many as one hundred and fifty men be employed two stretchers
with the necessary equipments as above advised. The mining boss, or his assistant,
shall visit and examine every working place in the mine as often as practicable and
as to him may seem necessary while the miners of such places are at work, and shall
direct that each and every working place shall be secured b y props or timbers when
ever necessary, w hich shall be placed and used by the miners working therein as in
this act provided, to the end that such working places shall be made safe, and the
said mine boss shall not direct anyone to work m an unsafe place unless it be for
the purpose of making it safe. The mining boss shall notify the operator or agent of
the mine of his inability to comply with any of the requirements of this section, and
it shall then become the duty o f any operator or agent to at once attend to the mat
ter complained of by the mining boss, so as to enable him to com ply with the pro
visions hereof if the same can be practicably done.
20. There shall be adopted by the operator of every mine in this State special
rules for the government and operation of his mine or mines, covering all the work
pertaining thereto in and outside of the same, which, however, shall not be in con
flict with the provisions of the mining laws of this State. Such rules when estab
lished shall be printed on cardboard and shall be posted up in the drum-house,
tipple or some other conspicuous place about the mines where the same may be
seen and observed by all the employees at such mines, and when said rules are so
posted the same shall operate as notice to all the employees at such mine of their
acceptance of the contents thereof. And it shall be the duty of each mine operator
to furnish a printed copy of said rules to each of his employees when requested by
either or any of them.
Passed February 14,1901. In effect ninety days from passage. Approved February
21,1901.
WISCONSIN.
ACTS OF 1901.
C h a p t e r 239.—Sweat shops— Licensing,
inspection, etc.
S ection 1. No room or apartment in any tenement or dwelling house or in a
building situated in the rear of any tenement or dwelling house, shall be used for
the purpose of manufacturing, altering, repairing or finishing therein, for wages or
for sale, any coats, vests, knee pants, trousers, overalls, cloaks, hats, caps, suspenders,
jerseys, blouses, dresses, waists, waist bands, underwear, neckwear, knit goods of all
kinds, furs, fur trimmings, fur garments, skirts, shirts, purses, feathers, cigarettes,
cigars or umbrellas, unless a license is secured therefor as provided in this act.
Application for .such a license shall be made to the commissioner of labor and indus
trial statistics b y any family or a member thereof or any person, firm or corporation,
196
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
desiring to manufacture, alter, repair or finish any such articles in any room or
apartment in any tenement or dwelling house or by any person, firm or corporation
desiring to perform such work in any building in the rear of any tenement or dwell
ing house. Such application shall describe the room or apartment, shall specify the
number of persons to be employed therein, and shall be in such form as the commis
sioner of labor and industrial statistics may determine. Blank applications shall be
prepared and furnished by the commissioner of labor and industrial statistics.
Before any such license is granted, an inspection of*lhe room, apartment, or building
sought to be licensed, must be made by the commissioner of labor and industrial
statistics, factory inspector or assistant factory inspector. If the commissioner, of
labor and industrial statistics, factory inspector, or assistant factory inspector, ascer
tain that such room, apartment or building, is in a clean and proper sanitary condi
tion, and that the articles specified in this section may be manufactured therein
under clean and healthful condition, he shall grant a license permitting the use of
such room, apartment or building for the purpose of manufacturing, altering, repair
ing or finishing such articles. Each license shall state the maximum number of
persons w ho may be employed in the room or rooms to w hich such license relates.
The number of persons to be so employed shall be determined by the number of
cubic feet of air space contained in each room or apartment mentioned in such license,
allowing not less than two hundred and fifty cubic feet for each person employed
between the hours of 6 o’ clock in the morning and 6 o ’ clock in the evening, and
unless by a special written permit of the commissioner of labor and industrial statis
tics, factory inspector, or assistant factory inspector, not less than four hundred cubic
feet for each person employed therein between the hours of six in the evening and
six in the morning, but no such permit shall be issued unless such room or apartment
has suitable light at all times during such hours, while such persons are employed
therein. Such license must be posted in a conspicuous place m the room or apart
ment to which it relates. It may be revoked b y the commissioner of labor and
industrial statistics, factory inspector or assistant factory inspector, if the health of
the community or of the employees requires it, or if it appears that the rooms or
apartments, to w hich such license relates, are not in a healthy and proper sanitary
condition. Every room or apartment in which any of the articles named in this
section are manufactured, altered, repaired or finished, shall be kept in a clean and
sanitary condition and shall be subject to inspection and examination by the com
missioner of labor and industrial statistics, factory inspector, or assistant factory
inspector, for the purpose of ascertaining whether said garments or articles or any
part or parts thereof are clean and free from vermin and every matter of infectious
or contagious nature. No person, firm or corporation, shall hire, employ or contract
with any member of a family or any person, firm or corporation not holding a,
license therefor, to manufacture, alter, repair or finish any of the articles named in
this section in any room or apartment in any tenement or dwelling house or in any
room or apartment in any building, situated in the rear of a tenement or dwelling
house as aforesaid; and no person, firm or corporation shall receive, handle or con
vey to others or sell, hold in stock or expose for sale, any goods mentioned in this
section unless made under the sanitary conditions and in accordance with this act.
This section shall not prevent the employment of a tailor or seamstress b y any per
son or family for the purpose of making, altering, repairing or finishing any article
o f wearing apparel for such person or for family use.
Sec. 2. W henever the commissioner of labor and industrial statistics, factory
inspector or assistant factory inspector in his judgment revokes or refuses to grant a
license to any person or persons because of the unhealthy or unsanitary conditions in
or surrounding the place where any of the aforesaid goods are or are to be manufac
tured, the person or persons aggrieved by such decision may appeal to the board of
health of such city, village or town wherein said license was refused or revoked.
The board of health after receiving a written notice of the appeal from the person or
persons aggrieved, shall immediately investigate the conditions and surroundings of
the place wherein any of the goods are or are to be manufactured as mentioned in
the aforesaid, and if they find that a license can be granted without injuring or
impairing the public health, then such finding shall be immediately reported in
writing to the commissioner of labor and industrial statistics who shall thereupon
grant such license.
Sec. 3. The commissioner of labor and industrial statistics, factory inspector or
assistant factory inspector, may when he deems it necessary, require that all rooms
or apartments used for the purpose of manufacturing, altering, repairing or finishing
therein, any of the aforesaid goods or articles as mentioned in section 1 shall be
separate from and have no door, window or other opening into any living or sleeping
room of any tenement or dwelling and that no such rooms or apartments shall be
used at any time for sleeping purposes and shall contain no bed, bedding or cooking
utensils. H e may further require or direct a separate outside entrance to the room
LABOR LAWS---- WISCONSIN---- ACTS OF 1901.
197
or apartments where the work is carried on, and if such work is carried on above the
first floor, then there may be directed a separate and distinct stairway leading thereto
and every such room or apartment shall be wTell and sufficiently lighted, heated and
ventilated by ordinary, or if necessary, by mechanical appliance. H e may also
require suitable closet arrangements for each sex employed as follows: W here there
are ten or more persons and three or more to the number of twenty are of either sex,
a separate and distinct water-closet, either inside the building witn adequate plumb
ing connections or on the outside, at least twenty feet from the building, shall be
provided for each sex. W hen the number employed is more than twenty-five of
either sex, there shall be provided an additional water-closet for such sex up to the
number of fifty persons, and above that number in the same ratio, and ail such closets
shall be kept strictly and exclusively for the use of the employees and employer and
employers. A ll closets shall be regularly disinfected and the commissioner of labor
and industrial statistics, factory inspector or assistant factory inspector may require
all other necessary changes or any process of cleaning, painting or whitewashing
which they may deem necessary, before the issuing of the license.
Sec. 4. A ny person, firm or corporation, by themselves or b y their agents or man
agers, contracting for the manufacturing, altering, repairing or "finishing of any of the
articles mentioned in section 1 of this act, or giving out material from w hich they or
any part of them are to be manufactured, altered, repaired or finished, shall keep a
register of the names and addresses, plainly written in English, of the persons to
whom such articles or materials are given to be so manufactured, altered, repaired or
finished or with whom they have contracted to do the same. Such register shall be
subject to inspection on demand, by the commissioner of labor and industrial statis
tics, factory inspector or assistant factory inspector, and a copy thereof shall be fur
nished at his request.
Sec. 5. If the commissioner of labor and industrial statistics, factory inspector or
assistant factory inspector find that infectious or contagious diseases exist in a work
shop, room or apartment of a tenement or dwelling house or of a building in the rear
thereof in which any of the articles specified in section 1 of this act are being manu
factured, altered, repaired or finished or that articles manufactured or in process of
manufacture therein are infected or that goods used therein are unfit for use, he shall
report to the local board of health, and such board shall issue such order as the pub
lic health may require. Such board may condemn and destroy all such infectious
article or articles manufactured or in the process of manufacture under unclean or
unhealthful conditions.
Sec. 6 The owner, lessee or agent of a tenement or dwelling house or of a building
in the rear of a tenement or dwelling house shall not permit the use thereof for the
manufacture, repair, alteration or finishing of any of the articles mentioned in this
act contrary to its provisions. If a room or apartment in such tenement or dwelling
house or in a building in the rear of a tenement or dwelling house be so unlawfully
used, the commissioner of labor and industrial statistics, factory inspector, or assistant
factory inspector, shall serve a notice thereof upon such owner, lessee or agent.
Unless such owner, lessee or agent shall cause such unlawful manufacture to be dis
continued within thirty days after the service of such notice or within fifteen days
thereafter, institutes and faithfully prosecutes proceedings for the dispossession of the
occupant of a tenement or dwelling house or of a building in the rear of a tenement
or dwelling house w ho unlawfully manufactures, repairs, alters or finishes such
articles in any room or apartment therein, he shall be deemed guilty of a violation of
this act as if he himself was engaged in such unlawful manufacture, repair, alteration
or finishing.
Sec. 7. A n y person, firm or corporation, agent or manager of any corporation
w ho whether for himself or for such firm or corporation or by himself or through
agents, servants or foremen shall violate any of the provisions o f this act shall upon
conviction thereof be fined in any sum not less than twenty dollars nor more than
one hundred dollars for each offense, or imprisoned not less than twenty or more
than sixty days or both, and in all prosecutions brought by or under the direction
of the commissioner of labor and industrial statistics for the violation of this act, he
shall not be held to give security for costs or adjudged to pay any costs but in all
cases where the accused be acquitted or is found to be indigent, the costs shall be paid
out of the county treasury of the county in which the proceedings are brought the
same as the costs in all other cases of misdemeanor.
Sec. 8. Chapter 232 of the laws of 1899 is hereby repealed.
Sec. 9. This act and the repealing clause shall take effect and be in force, from
and after the first day of August 1901.
Approved April 27, 1901.
.
198
BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
C h a p t e r 257.—Protection
of employees on buildings.
S ection 1. A person employing or directing another to perform labor of any kind
in the erection, repairing, altering or painting of a house, building or structure shall
not furnish or erect, or cause to be furnished or erected for the performance of such
labor, scaffolding, hoists, stays, ladders or other mechanical contrivances, which are
unsafe, unsuitable or improper, and w hich are not so constructed, placed and oper
ated as to give proper protection, to the life and limb of a person so employed or
engaged. Scaffolding or staging swung or suspended from an overhead support,
m ore than twenty feet from the ground or floor, shall have a safety rail of wood,
properly bolted, secured and braced, rising at least thirty-four inches above the floor
or main portions of such scaffolding or staging and extending along the entire length
of the outside and the ends thereof, and properly attached thereto, and such scaf
folding or staging shall be so fastened as to prevent the same from swaying from the
building or structure.
S e c . 2. Whenever complaint is made to the factory inspector that the scaffolding,
or the part thereof declared to be unsafe. After ladders, irons, or ropes of any swing
ing or stationary scaffolding used in the construction, alteration, repairing, painting,
cleaning or painting of buildings within the limits of a city are unsafe or liable to
prove dangerous to the life or lim b of any person, such factory inspector shall imme
diately cause an inspection to be made of such scaffolding, or the slings, hangers,
blocks, pulleys, stays, braces, ladders, irons or other parts connected therewith. If,
after examination, such scaffolding or any of such parts is found to be dangerous to
life or limb, the factory inspector shall prohibit the use thereof, and require the same
to be altered and reconstructed so as to avoid such danger. The factory inspector
or deputy factory inspector making the examination shall attach a certificate to the
scaffolding, or the slings, hangers, irons, ropes, or other parts thereof, examined b y
him stating that he has made such examination, and that he has found it safe or
unsafe, as the case may be. If he declares it unsafe, he shall at once, in writing,
notify the person responsible for its erection of the fact, and warn him against the
use thereof. Such notice may be served personally upon the person responsible for
its erection, or by conspicuously affixing it to the scaffolding, or the part thereof
declared to be unsafe. After such notice has been so served or affixed, the person
responsible therefor shall immediately remove such scaffolding or part thereof and
alter or strengthen it in such manner as to render it safe, in the discretion of the offi
cer w ho has examined it, or of his superiors. The factory inspector and any of his
deputies whose duty it is to examine or test any scaffolding or part thereof, required
by this section, shall have free access, at all reasonable hours, to any building or
premises containing them or where they may be in use. A ll swinging and station
ary scaffolding shall be so constructed, as to bear four times the maximum weight
required to be dependent therefrom or placed thereon, when in use, and not more
than four men shall be allowed on any swinging scaffolding at one time.
S e c . 3. A ll contractors and owners, when constructing buildings in cities, where
the plans and specifications require the floors to be arched between the beams
thereof, or where the floors or filling in between the floors are of fireproof material
or brickwork, shall complete the flooring or filling in as the building progresses, to
not less than within three tiers of beams below that on w hich the ironwork is being
erected. If the plans and specifications of such building do not require filling in
between the beams of floors with brick or fireproof material all contractors for car
penter work, in the course of construction shall lay the under flooring thereof on
each story as the building progresses, to not less than within tw o stories below the
one to w hich such building hasbeen erected. Where double floors are not to be used,
such contractor shall keep planked over the floor two stories below the story where
the work is being performed. If .the floor beams are of iron or steel, the contractors
for the iron or steel work of buildings in course of construction or the owners of such
buildings, shall thoroughly plank over the entire tier of iron or steel beams on which
the structural iron or steel work is being erected, except such spaces as may be rea
sonably required for the proper construction of such iron or steel work, and for the
raising and lowering of materials to be used in the construction of such building, or
such spaces as may be designated by the plans and specifications for stairways and
elevator shafts. Ii elevating machines or hoisting apparatus are used within a build
ing in the course of construction, for the purpose of luting materials to be used in such
construction, the contractors or owners shall cause the shafts or openings in each floor
to be inclosed or fenced in on all sides by a barrier at least eight feet in height. If a
building in course of construction is five stories or more in height, no lumber or tim
ber needed for such construction shall be hoisted or lifted on the outside of such
building. The chief officer, in any city, charged with the enforcement of the build
LABOB LAWS
WISCONSIN— ACTS OF 1901.
199
ing laws of such city and the factory inspector are hereby charged with enforcing the
provisions of this section.
Sec. 4. Any owner, contractor, subcontractor, foreman or other person having
charge of work on building, if found guilty of violation of any of the former sections
of this law shall be subject to a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars and not more
than one hundred dollars, or imprisonment of not less than three months or not
more than one year by any court having jurisdiction.
S ec . 5. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage and
publication.
Approved May 2, 1901.
C h a p t e r 409.— Factory
inspector—Female assistant.
S ection 1. The commissioner of labor and industrial statistics shall have power to
appoint one assistant factory inspector in addition to those now authorized by law
who shall be a woman and who shall perform her duties under his direction and who
may be removed by him for cause.
Sec. 2. Said additional assistant factory inspector shall be paid a salary at the rate
of one thousand dollars per annum, together with necessary traveling expenses to be
paid out of money in the general fund not otherwise appropriated.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage and
publication.
Approved May 14, 1901.
C h a p t e r 420.— Free public
employment bureaus.
S ection 1. A free employment office is hereby created in each city of a population
of thirty thousand or over according to the last State or national census, for the pur
pose of receiving applications of persons seeking employment, and applications of
persons seeking to employ labor. Such office shall be designated and known as
Wisconsin free employment office.
S ec . 2. W ithin thirty days after this act shall have been in force, the commis
sioner of the bureau of labor and industrial statistics shall recommend, and the gov
ernor, shall appoint a superintendent for each of the offices created by section one
of this act, and w ho shall devote their entire time to the duties of their respective
offices. The tenure of such appointment shall be two years, unless sooner removed
for cause. The salary of each superintendent shall be twelve hundred dollars per
annum, which sum, together with the proper amount for defraying the necessary
costs of equipping and maintaining the respective offices, rent for such offices not to
exceed five hundred dollars per annum, shall be paid out of any funds in the State
treasury not otherwise appropriated.
Sec. 3. The superintendent of each such free employment office shall, within sixty
days after appointment, open an office in such locality as shall have been agreed
upon between such superintendent and the commissioner of the bureau of labor and
industrial statistics as being most appropriate for the purpose intended; provided
that said employment office shall be occupied in conjunction with the bureau Of
labor and industrial statistics when such bureau has an office in any of said cities,
and in case said bureau has no office in any of said cities, then and in that case
the city council wherein said free employment office is established shall furnish and
equip an office for said employment bureau, either in conjunction with a department
of said city or separately without cost to the State, such office to be provided with a
sufficient number of rooms or apartments to enable him to provide, and he shall so
provide, a separate room or apartment for the use of women registering for situations
or help. Upon the outside o f each such office, in position and manner to secure the
fullest public attention, shall be placed a sign w hich shall read in the English lan
guage “ Wisconsin Free Employment Office,” and the same shall appear either upon
the outside windows or upon signs in such other languages as the location of such
office shall render advisable. The superintendent of each such free employment
office shall receive and record in books kept for that purpose names of all persons
applying for employment or help, designating opposite the name and address of each
applicant the character of employment or help desired. Separate registers for appli
cants for employment shall be kept, showing the age, sex, nativity, trade or occupa
tion of each applicant, the cause and duration of nonemployment, whether married
or single, the number o f dependent children, together with such other facts as may
be required b y the bureau of labor and industrial statistics to be used by said bureau:
Provided, That no such special register shall be open to public inspection at any time,
and that such statistical and sociological data as the bureau of labor may require
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
shall be held in confidence by said bureau, and so published as not to reveal the
identity of any applicant: And, provided, further, That any applicant who shall
decline to answer the questions contained in special register shall not thereby forfeit
any right to any employment the office might secure.
S ec . 4. Each superintendent shall report on Thursday of each week to the State
bureau of labor and industrial statistics the number of applications for positions and
for help received during the preceding week, also those unfilled applications remain
ing on the books at the beginning of the week. Such lists shall not contain the
names or addresses of any applicant, but shall show the number of situations desired
and the number of persons wanted at each specified trade or occupation. It shall
also show the number and character of the positions secured during the preceding
week. Upon receipt of these lists, and not later than Saturday of each week, the
commissioner of the said bureau of labor and industrial statistics shall cause to be
printed a sheet showing separately and in combination the lists received from all
such free employment offices; ana he shall cause a sufficient number o f such sheets
to be printed to enable him to mail, and he shall so mail, on Saturday of each week,
tw o of said sheets to each superintendent of a free employment office, one to be filed
b y said superintendent and one to be conspicuously posted in each such office. A
copy of such sheet shall also be mailed on each Saturday b y the commissioner of the
State bureau of labor and industrial statistics to the State inspector of factories. It
is hereby made the duty of said factory inspector to do all he reasonably can to assist
in securing situations for such applicants for work, to secure for the free employm ent
offices the cooperation of the employers of labor in factories, to immediately notify
the superintendent of free employment offices of any and all vacancies or opportuni
ties of employment that shall come to his notice.
S ec . 5. It shall be the duty of each such superintendent of a free employment
office to immediately put himself in communication with the principal manufacturers,
merchants and other employers of labor, and to use all diligence in securing the
cooperation of the said employers of labor, with the purposes and objects of such
employment offices.
S ec . 6 It shall be the duty of each superintendent to make a report to the State
bureau of labor and industrial statistics annually, not later than December first of each
year, concerning the work of his office for the year ending October first of same
year, together with a statement of the expenses of the same, and such reports shall
be published b y the said bureau of labor and industrial statistics annually. Each
such superintendent shall also perform such other duties in the collection of statis
tics of labor, as the commissioner of the bureau of labor and industrial statistics may
require.
S ec . 7. No fee or compensation shall be charged or received, directly or indirectly,
from any person or corporation applying for employment or help through said free
employment offices; and any superintendent or clerk w ho shall accept, directly or
indirectly, any fee or compensation from any applicant, or from his or her representa
tive, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, upon conviction shall be fined
not less than twenty-five dollars nor more than fifty dollars and imprisoned in the
county jail not more than thirty days.
S ec . 8. In no case shall the superintendent of any free employment office created
b y this act, furnish or cause to be furnished, workmen or other employees to any
applicant for help whose employees are at that time on strike or locked out; nor shall
any list of names and addresses of applicants for employment be shown to any em
ployer whose employees are on a strike or locked out; nor shall such list be exposed
where it can be copied or used by an employer whose employees are on a strike or
locked out.
S ec . 9. The term *‘ applicant for employment ’ ’ as used in this act shall be construed
to mean any person seeking work of any lawful character, and “ applicant for h elp ”
shall mean any person or persons seeking help in any legitimate enterprise. Noth
ing in this act shall be construed to lim it the meaning of the term ‘ ‘ work ’ * to manual
occupation, but it shall include professional service, and any and all other legitimate
services.
S ec . 10. No person, firm or corporation in the cities, designated in section one, of this
act, shall open, operate or maintain a private employment agency for hire or where
a fee is charged to either applicants for employment or for help, without first having
obtained a license from the secretary of state, for which license he shall pay one
hundred dollars per annum; and no such private agent shall print, publish, or cause
to be printed or published, or paint on any sign, window or newspaper publication,
a name similar to that of the Wisconsin free employment offices. A nd any person,
firm or corporation violating the provisions of this act, or any part thereof, shall be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction such person, firm or, if a cor
poration, all the officers thereof, shall be fined not less than twenty-five dollars nor
more than fifty dollars.
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LABOR LAWS---- WISCONSIN---- ACTS OF 1901.
201
S ec . 11. Whenever, in the opinion of the commissioner of the bureau of labor and
industrial statistics, the superintendent of any free employm ent office is not duly
diligent in the performance of his duties, he may summon such superintendent to
appear before him to show cause w hy he should not be recommended to the governor
for removal, and unless such cause is clearly shown the said commissioner may so
recommend. In considering, such a case a low percentage of positions secured to
applicants for situations and help registered, lack of intelligent interest in the work,
or a general inaptitude or inefficiency may be deemed b y said commissioner sufficient
to recommend a removal. A nd if, in the opinion of the governor, such lack of effi
ciency can not be remedied by reproval and discipline, he shall remove such person
from office as recommended by said commissioner: Provided, That the governor may
at any time remove any superintendent or clerk for cause.
S ec . 12. A ll such printing, blanks, blank books, stationery and postage as may be
necessary for the proper conduct of the business of the offices herein created shall
be furnished by the secretary of state upon requisition for the same made b y the
commissioner of the bureau of labor and industrial statistics.
S ec . 13. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage and
publication.
Approved May 14,1901.
W YOM ING.
ACTS OF 1901.
Chapter 33.—Seats for female employees.
Section 1. Every person or corporation employing females in any manufacturing,
mechanical or mercantile establishment in the State of W yom ing shall provide suit
able seats for females so employed, and shall permit the use of such seats by them
when they are not necessarily engaged in the active duties for which they are
employed.
S ec . 2. Any person or corporation who shall violate the provisions of this act shall,
upon conviction thereof, be considered guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be pun
ished b y a fine of not more than ten dollars, nor more than thirty dollars for each
and every offense.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage.
Approved February 13, 1901.
UNITED STATES.
ACTS OF CONGRESS OF 1901-02.
C h a p t e r 641.—Exclusion
of Chinese laborers—Island territory.
S ection 1. A ll laws now in force prohibiting and regulating the coming of Chinese
persons, and persons o f Chinese descent, into the United States, and the residence
of such persons therein, are hereby, reenacted, extended, and continued so far as the
same are not inconsistent with treaty obligations, until otherwise provided b y law,
and said laws shall also apply to the island territory under the jurisdiction of the
United States, and prohibit the immigration of Chinese laborers, not citizens of the
United States, from such island territory to the mainland territory of the United
States, whether in such island territory at the time of cession or not, and from one
portion of the island territory of the United States to another portion of said island
territory: Provided, however, That said laws shall not apply to the transit of Chinese
laborers from one island to another island of the same group; and any islands within
the jurisdiction of any State or the district of Alaska shall be considered a part of
the mainland under this section.
S ec . 3. Nothing in the provisions of this act or any other act shall be construed to
prevent, hinder, or restrict any foreign exhibitor, representative, or citizen of any
foreign nation, or the holder, who is a citizen of any foreign nation, of any conces
sion or privilege from any fair or exposition authorized by act of Congress from
bringing into the United States, under contract, such mechanics, artisans, agents, or
other employees, natives of their respective foreign countries, as they or any of them
may deem necessary for the purpose of making preparation for installing or conduct
ing their exhibits or of preparing for installing or conducting any business authorized
or permitted under or by virtue of or pertaining to any concession or privilege which
may have been or may be granted by any said fair or exposition in connection with
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BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.
such exposition, under such rules and regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury
may prescribe, both as to the admission and return of such person or persons.
S ec . 4. It shall be the duty of every Chinese laborer, other than a citizen, right
fully in, and entitled to remain in any part of the insular territory of the United
States (Hawaii excepted) at the time of the passage of this act, to obtain within one
year thereafter a certificate of residence in tne insular territory wherein he resides,
w hich certificate shall entitle him to residence therein, and upon failure to obtain
such certificate as herein provided he shall be deported from such insular territory;
and the Philippine Commission is authorized and required to make all regulations
and provisions necessary for the enforcement of this section in the Philippine Islands,
including the form and substance of the certificate of residence so that the same shall
clearly and sufficiently identify the holder thereof and enable officials to prevent
fraud in the transfer of the same: Provided, however, That if said Philippine Commis
sion shall find that it is impossible to complete the registration herein provided for
within one year from the passage of this act, said Commission is hereby authorized
and empowered to extend the time for such registration for a further period not
exceeding one year.
Approved April 29, 1902.
C h a p t e r 1093.— Irrigation
works—Hours o f labor—Mongolian laborers.
S ection 4. Upon the determination b y the Secretory of the Interior that any irri
gation project is practicable, he may cause to be let contracts for the construction of
the same, * * * Provided, That in all construction work eight hours shall con
stitute a day’ s work, and no Mongolian labor shall be employed thereon.
Approved June 17, 1902.
C h a p t e r 1356.— Mine regulations.
S ect io n 6. The owners or managers of every coal mine shall provide an adequate
amount of ventilation of not less than eighty-three and one-third cubic feet of pure
air per second, or five thousand cubic feet per minute for every fifty men at work in
said mine, and in like proportion for a greater number, w hich air shall b y proper
appliances or machinery be forced through such mine to the face of each and every
working place, so as to dilute and render harmless and expel therefrom the noxious
or poisonous gases. Wherever it is practicable to do so the entries, rooms, and all
openings being operated in coal mines shall be kept well dampened with water to
cause the coal dust to settle, and that when water is not obtainable at reasonable cost
for this purpose accumulations of dust shall be token out of the mine, and shall not
be deposited in way places in the mine where it would be again distributed in the
atmosphere b y the ventilating currents: Provided, That all owners, lessees, operators
of, or any other person having the control or management of any coal shaft, drift,
slope or pit in the Indian Territory, employing twenty or more miners to work in
the same, shall employ shot firers to fire the shots therein. Said shots shall not be
fired to exceed one per day; at twelve o’ clock noon in cases .where the miners work
but half a day, and at five o ’ clock in the evening when the mine is working threequarters .or full time, and they shall not be fired until after all miners and other
employees working in said shafts, drifts, slopes or pits, shall be put of same. The
violation of this act shall constitute a misdemeanor and any person convicted of such
violation shall pay a fine of not exceeding five hundred dollars.
Approved Ju ly’l, 1902.
C h a p t e r 1369.— Philippine
Islands—Slave labor.
S ec t io n 5. Neither slavery, nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for
crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist in said islands.
S ec . 74. The government of the Philippine Islands may grant franchises, privi
leges, and concessions, including the authority to exercise the right of eminent
domain for the construction and operation of works of public utility and service,
* * * Provided further, That it shall be unlawful for any corporation organized
under this act, or for any person, company, or corporation receiving any grant, fran
chise, or concession from the government of said islands, to use, employ, or contract
for the labor of persons claimed or alleged to be held in involuntary servitude; and
any person, company, or corporation so violating the provisions of this act shall
forfeit all charters, grants, franchises, and concessions for doing business in said
islands, and in addition shall be deemed guilty of an offense, and shall be punished
by a fine of not less than ten thousand dollars.
Approved July 1, 1902.
LEADING ARTICLES IN PAST NUMBERS OF THE BULLETIN,
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1. Private and public debt in the United States, by George K . Holmes.
Employer and employee under the common law, by V. H. Olmsted and S. D.
Fessenden.
2. The poor colonies of Holland, by J. Howard Gore, Ph. D.
The industrial revolution in Japan, b y William Eleroy Curtis.
Notes concerning the money of the U. S. and other countries, b y W . C. Hunt.
The wealth and receipts and expenses of the U. S., b y W . M. Steuart.
3. Industrial communities: Coal Mining Co. of Anzin, by W . F. Willoughby.
4. Industrial communities: Coal Mining Co. of Blanzy, by W . F, Willoughby.
The sweating system, b y Henry White.
5. Convict labor.
Industrial communities: Krupp Iron and SteelWorks, by W . F. W illoughby.
6. Industrial communities: Familistere Society of Guise, b y W . F. W illoughby.
Cooperative distribution, by Edward W . Bemis, Ph. D.
7. Industrial communities: Various communities, by W . F. Willoughby.
Rates of wages paid under public and private contract, by Ethelbert Stewart.
8. Conciliation and arbitration in the boot and shoe industry, b y T. A. Carroll.
Railway relief departments, by Em ory R. Johnson, Ph. D.
9. The padrone system and padrone banks, b y John Koren.
The Dutch Society for General Welfare, by J. Howard Gore, Ph. D.
10. Condition of the Negro in various cities.
Building and loan associations.
11. Workers at gainful occupations at censuses of 1870, 1880, and 1890, b y W. C.
Hunt.
Public baths in Europe, by Edward Mussey Hartwell, Ph. D., M. D.
12. The inspection of factories and workshops in the U. S., by W . F. W illoughby.
Mutual rights and duties of parents ana children, guardianship, etc., under
the law, by F. J. Stimson.
The municipal or cooperative restaurant of Grenoble, France, by C. O. Ward.
13. The anthracite mine laborers, b y G. 0 . Virtue, Ph. D.
14. The Negroes of Farmville, V a .: A social study, b y W . E. B. Du Bois, Ph. D.
Incomes, wages, and rents in Montreal, by Herbert Brown Ames, B. A.
15. Boarding homes and clubs for working women, by Mary S. Fergusson.
The trade-union label, by John Graham Brooks.
16. Alaskan gold fields and opportunities for capital and labor, by S. C. Dunham.
17. Brotherhood relief and insurance of railway employees, by E. R. Johnson,
Ph. D.
The nations of Antwerp, by J. Howard Gore, Ph. D.
18. Wages in the United States and Europe, 1870 to 1898.
19. Alaskan gold fields and opportunities for capital and labor, by S. C. Dunham.
Mutual relief and benefit associations in the printing trade, by W . S. Waudby.
20. Condition of railway labor in Europe, by Walter E. W eyl, Ph. D.
21. Pawnbroking in Europe and the United States, by W . R. Patterson, Ph. D.
22. Benefit features of American trade unions, by Edward W . Bemis, Ph. D.
The Negro in the black belt: Some social sketches, b y W . E. B. Du Bois, Ph. D.
Wages in Lyon, France, 1870 to 1896.
23. Attitude of women’ s clubs, etc., toward social economics, b y Ellen M. Henrotin.
The production of paper and pulp in the U. S. from Jan. 1 to June 30, 1898.
24. Statistics of cities.
25. Foreign labor laws: Great Britain and France, b y W . F. W illoughby.
26. Protection of workmen in their employment, by Stephen D. Fessenden.
Foreign labor laws: Belgium and Switzerland, b y W . F. Willoughby.
27. Wholesale prices: 1890 to 1899, by Roland P. Falkner, Ph. D.
Foreign labor laws: Germany, b y W . F. W illoughby.
28. Voluntary conciliation and arbitration in Great Britain, by J. B. McPherson.
System of adjusting wages, etc., in certain rolling mills, by J. H. Nutt.
Foreign labor laws: Austria, by W . F. Willoughby.
No. 29. Trusts and industrial combinations, by J. W . Jenks, Ph. D.
The Y ukon and Nome gold regions, by S. 0 . Dunham.
Labor Day, by Miss M. C. de Graffenried.
*o. 30. Trend of wages from 1891 to 1900.
Statistics of cities.
Foreign labor laws: Various European countries, by W . F. W illoughby.
*o. 31. Betterment of industrial conditions, by V . H. Olmsted.
Present status of employers’ liability in the U. S., by S. D. Fessenden.
Condition of railway labor in Italy, b y Dr. Luigi Einaudi.
*o. 32. Accidents to labor as regulated by law in the U. S., by W. F. W illoughby.
Prices of commodities and rates of wages in Manila.
The Negroes of Sandy Springs, M d .: A social study, b y W . T. Thom, Ph. D.
The British workmen’ s compensation act and its operation, b y A. M. Low.
So. 33. Foreign labor laws: Australasia and Canada, b y W . F. W illoughby.
The British conspiracy and protection of property act and its operation, by
A. M. Low.
So. 34. Labor conditions in Porto Rico, b y Azel Ames, M. D.
Social economics at the Paris Exposition, by Prof. N. P. Gilman.
The workmen’ s compensation act of Holland.
So. 35. Cooperative communities in the United States, by Rev. Alexander Kent.
The Negro landholder of Geoigia, b y W . E. B. Du Bois, Ph. D.
Sq. 36. Statistics of cities.
Statistics of Honolulu, H . I.
So. 37. Railway employees in the United States, by Samuel McCune Lindsay, Ph. D.
The Negroes o f Litwalton, Va.: A social study of the “ Oyster Negro,” by
W illiam Taylor Thom, Ph. D.
So. 38. Labor conditions in Mexico, b y Walter E. Weyl, Ph. D.
The Negroes of Cinclare Central Factory and Calumet Plantation, La., by
J. Bradford Laws.
.So. 39. Course of wholesale prices, 1890 to 1901.
So. 40. Present condition of the hand-working and domestic industries of Germany,
b y Henry J. Harris, Ph. D.
W orkmen’ s compensation acts of foreign countries, by Adna F. Weber.
So. 41. Labor conditions in Cuba, b y Victor S. Clark, Ph. D.
Beef prices, by Fred C. Croxton.
So. 42. Statistics of cities.
Labor conditions in Cuba.
So. 43. Report to the President on anthracite coal strike, by Carroll D. Wright.
@FedFRASER