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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
JAMES J. DAVIS, Secretary
CHILDREN’S BUREAU
GRACE ABBOTT, Chief
ADMINISTRATION OF
MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
HEALTH, HOUSING, EDUCATION, AND
RECREATION
By
MARY F. BOGUE
«
Bureau Publication No. 184
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON
1928
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SINGLE COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE
OBTAINED
UPON APPLICATION TO THE CHIL
DREN’ S BUREAU.
ADDITIONAL COPIES MAY BE
PROCURED FROM THE
DOCUMENTS,
U. S.
SUPERINTENDENT
GOVERNMENT
OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
30 CENTS PER COPY
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OF
PRINTING
CONTENTS
Letter of transmittal_______________ ____________
Purpose and method of the study
ZL/_ _ / / _ ” J / _ _
~ ~"
The laws and general administration in the localities studied__ ___ ~
Scope and purpose of mothers’ aid laws_________________
Attitude toward mothers’ aid______________________
Investigation____________________ §_______
Adequacy of grants_________________ ______ Z Z 1 ___ ~
ulthPi
Qualifications and salaries of administrative staffs
General findings______________________________
Health______________________________ _________ ___
Physical health________________________________ Z Z Z Z / Z Z
Mental health_____________________________
Housing_____________________________
Education___________________________ I I I I I ____I_II_
III!
Education and employment of the children_______________ / ” / ’
Educational activities for the mothers______________
Recreation_____________________________
Budget allowance for recreation___________
Policies of agencies in regard to recreational a c t i v i t i e s /__
^oir!e s ^ n g and weak points in the administration of mothers’ aid.
Mothers allowances in Allegheny County, Pa________________
Provisions of the law____________________ _______
State supervision___________________________
Administration of the law_______/__• _________________ ~__“ Z IZ~'
Administrative agency____________ I ____
The staff___________ i__ !±u*i4_______________ I ___I
Appropriation and volume of work____________ _________
Procedure in making allowances________ ________________
Use of a standard budget____________________ ~______
Supplementing of mothers’ aid_________________ ______ ______
Visiting_____________________________ _
Health___________ ________ ______________ Zl_I_
~
Physical health__________.________________ ~_____ / I I I /
Mental health____________________________ Z Z Z _ / _ / ! /
Housing_______________________________
Education________________________________
Cooperation with the schools and facilities for" e d u c a t i o n / / /
Schooling and work of children 14 and 15 years old___
Educational activities for the mothers____________ I
Recreation_______________________________
Mothers’ allowances in Berks C o u n t y / P a Z / Z / Z / _ _ _ / / / / / / "
Administration of the law______________ Z / Z Z / Z Z I / / ____ /
Administrative agency and staff________________ I ________ ~___'*
Appropriation and volume of work__________________________
Use of a standard budget— _________________ / / _ / _ _
Supplementing o f mothers’ aid__________________
Visiting___ __________________________
Health_______________________________________ ~~~____
Physical health___________________________ Z _______ ~~~
”
Mental health___________________________________ ” __
Housing____________________________________ ~__
Education_____________________________________
Cooperation with the schools and facilities for education____Z Z
Schooling and work of children 14 and 15 years old______
Educational activities for the mothers___________
Recreation______________________
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Mothers’ allowances in Cook County, 111----------------Provisions of the .law-----------------------Administration of the law----------------Administrative agency and staffAppropriation and volume of work-------Procedure in making allowances— —
Use of a standard budget---------Supplementing of mothers’ aid.
V isitin g----------- — — — ------------Health-------------- ---------------------------------Physical health------------------ — —
Mental health--------------.— I---------Housing--------------------- ----------------------------------------- — .--------------- —
Education------------------------------------------------------ - - - — — *----------- --- Cooperation with the schools and facilities for educatioi
Schooling and work of children 14 and 15 years old-----Educational activities for the mothers--------s— ------------------Recreation---------------- -------- r -------------- —
Mothers’ allowances in Erie County, N. Y ..
Provisions of the law-----------------------------State supervision— i------ -------------------------Administration of the la w ----------------- ——
Administrative agency---------------------The s ta ff---------------— -------------------- in
Appropriation and volume of work.
Procedure in making allowances---------Use of a standard budget-------------------Supplementing of mothers’ aid.
V isitin g--------*—
Health______________
Physical health
Mental health—
Housing-------------------EducationCooperation with the schools and facilities for educatioi
Schooling and work of children 14 and 15 years old— -------Educational activities for the mothers—
Recreation--------------------------------------------------------Mothers’ allowances in Hamilton County, Ohio.
Provisions of the law--------------------------Administration of the law------------*----------------Administrative agency and staff-------- —
Appropriation and volume of work-------Procedure in making allowances-----Use of a standard budget----------------------Supplementing of mothers’ aid---------- -----V isitin g----- tJ.----------_ -------- I------ vuMhi-i
---------------Health---------- — --------------------------------------—
— ¡4!- ----- fljMWa------- —
Physical health-------------— ------------------- <—— -—
------------------------Mental h ealth---------------------------- — ——
Housing----------------------------------------------------- ------ - - - - — ;—
’------
Education--------------------------------------— __i
Cooperation with the schools and facilities for education-—
Schooling and work of children 16 and 17 years old------ ■_-----Educational activities for the mothers— —
Becreation______________________ __________— WMothers’ allowances in King County, W ash-----Provisions of the law------ - ------------------------------Administration of the law ^ — *----------- --------- —
Administrative agency and staff------- *—
Appropriation and volume of work--------Procedure in making allowances-^-------- Determination of a llo w a n ces---— 'Mil'!.
Supplementing of mothers’ a id -_______ _
Visiting-------------------------------------------------------
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CONTENTS
Mothers’ allowances in King County, Wash.— Continued.
Health__________________________________ ..________________
Physical health____________________ __Z_Z______ ______ ~ ___ 2 _____ I
Mental health____________________________ _ _ _ __' . .¡Z _____Z_Z_ZZI
Housing_________________ ____________________
Education__________ _______ ______________________ ’ZZ____
Cooperation witli the schools and facilities for education_ZZZ__
Schooling and work of children 14 and 15 years old_________
Educational activities for the mothers__._________________________
Recreation________________ ;_____ ____'___ __ Z_:__„______J
Mothers’ allowances in New Bedford, Mass____ *__________!___ _
Provisions of the law________ :______ _____________________ ZZZZ___ Z__ZZZ
State supervision________________ ___ ;_____ _____ _____ _________
Administration of the la w ________ ________ __ ____ __ZZZ_ZZ__Z_____Z_
Administrative agency and staff____________ ;_________ Z______ .___
Appropriation and volume of work___________ _________ _ZZZZ_Z__
Procedure in making allowances___________________ ______________
Use of a standard budget_________________________
Visiting_________ z ____ _________________
Health____________________’____Z____ _Z_____;_____^_Z_ZZZ__Z- Z""''Z~"''-""
Physical health___________ _______________ ______Z_ZZ_ZZ_ZZI~Z
Mental h ealth _________ __Li:___ ;__________ Z__'__J._Z__
Housing__________________________
Education___________________________________________
Cooperation with the schools and facilities for education__ZZZ~
Schooling and work of children 14 and 15 years old___________ Z
Educational activities for the mothers______ ___________
Recreation____ ________________________________ _________
Mothers’ allowances in San Francisco, Calif_________________________
Provisions of the law___________________________________ ZZ__ Z_Z
State supervision______________________
Administration of the law______________________ A__Z__Z__ Z__ Z___ ZZ_Z
Administrative agencies____________________________________
Staff of the widows’ pension bureau_________________________
Amount of allowances and volume of work___________ ZZZZ__ Z_Z
l
Procedure in making allowances_____________________ Z__ZZ____ Z
"
Use of a standard budget___1_______ _________________________
Supplementing of mothers’ aid_________________________________
Visiting_________________
Health______________________________________ Z__Z____ Z
Z
Z
ZZZZZZZ
Physical health______________________ >__________________________
Mental health__:____________ :__________ l_______________K__Z_ZZZZ_ _Z
Housing_________________________________________________
Education___________________________________________________ ~ _____ ZZZ~
Cooperation with the schools and facilities for education__Z___ Z
Schooling and work of children 14 and 15 years old and work of
children over 16___________ ___________________ 1___ ___________
Educational activities for the mothers____________________ _ __Z~
Recreation_______________________________________
Mothers’ allowances in W ayne County, Mich_____________________
Provisions of the law_____________________________ __________ Z_ZZZ_____ Z
Administration of the law__________ ____________________ Z_______
Administrative agency and staff____ _____________________ Z_Z_ZZZZ
Appropriation and volume of work______________________
Procedure in making allowances__________________ _________________
Use of a standard budget__________________________________________ _
Supplementing of mothers’ aid_____ ________________________________
Visiting___________ ________
Health_______________________________________ _Z____ _Z__Z_______ _____Z___
Physical health______________________ ____________ __ ZZ_____________
Mental health___________________________ ;_______________________
H ousing-----------------------------------"_______________________
Education_______________ 1______________________ ___ _
Cooperation with the schools and facilities for education___
Schooling and work of children 14 and 15 years old____________ Z
Educational activities for the mothers___ __________________________
Recreation____________________________________________
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CONTENTS
Mothers’ allowances in Manitoba, Canada___________________
Provisions of the law______________________ I __ ”
Administration of the law_______________________ I I I I I I
Administrative agency____________________
The sta ff__________________________________ ~____ I I I I
The friendly visitors_______________________ ~__ ~ ~ ~~
The public-health nurses______________ I ___" _____
Appropriation and volume of work_______Z__ZZZ_ZZZ___ I
Procedure in making allowances_______________ I II~ _I
Use of a standard budget____________________I
___ “
Supplementing of mothers’ aid______________ZZZZZZ
V isitin g______________
H ea lth ________________________ ZZ__I I I ___ I .I I I Z I I Z I I
Z~ZI~
Physical health_________________________~___ II_ZIZZI_~ Z
Mental health________________________________
Housing____ _____________________________
Education_________________________________
Cooperation with the schools and facilities for education
Schooling and work of children 14 and 15 years old
Educational activities for the mothers_____
Recreation______ ____ _________
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L E T T E R OF TR A N SM IT T A L
U nited S tates D epartm ent of L abor,
C hildren ’ s B ureau ,
Washington, May 29, 1928.
S i r : Transmitted herewith is a report on the administration in
10 localities of public aid to mothers in their own homes. The study
was made by Miss Mary F. Bogue, State supervisor o f the Mothers’
Assistance Fund, Pennsylvania Department o f Welfare, who has
also written the report. Acknowledgment is made o f the help
Received from officials in the localities studied, who not only cooper
ated at the time the information was being gathered but also read
the sections o f the report dealing with their own work.
Respectfully submitted.
G race A bbott, Chief.
Hon. J am es J. D avis ,
Secretary o f Labor.
VII
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN
TEN LOCALITIES
PURPOSE AND METHOD OF THE STUDY
The study covered by this report was undertaken at the request
of the committee on public aid to mothers with dependent children
in their own homes, first called “ mothers’ pension committee,”
which was organized in 1921 at the request of public officials in the
mothers’ aid field, as a subcommittee o f the family division o f the
National Conference of Social Work. At the conference o f moth
ers’ aid officials held in Washington, I). C., in May, 1923, the com
mittee recommended that the United States Children’s Bureau be
requested to make further studied of standards relating to health,
housing, and education, in the belief that such studies would encour
age public agencies to evaluate their present policies more carefully
and would lead to the definition o f minimum standards of funda
mental importance in child care.
M During 1921-22 the committee made a study by questionnaire of
“ he use among mothers’ aid agencies o f household budgets as the basis
for determining the allowances, and a report was made at a meet
ing of mothers’ aid officials in Providence, R. I., June 28, 1922, at
the National Conference o f Social Work.1
The extension of mothers’ aid in the United States is indicated by
the increase in the number of States that have enacted mothers’
aid laws, in the funds appropriated, and in the number o f children
benefiting under them.2
Because o f these facts and the request o f the committee this study
vyas undertaken to gather material bearing upon standards and poli
cies o f administration with particular reference to health, housing,
education, and recreation. In each o f the 10 localities included in
the study a general schedule was filled out covering the policies and
standards o f the agencies on these four points. Case records selected
by the agencies as representative o f their practices in the four fields
under consideration wei*e given intensive study. Visits were made
by the representative of the Children’s1 Bureau with the family
visitor or the agency executive to the homes o f selected families
in each locality. As the children 14 and 15 years'old (16 and 17 in
‘ See Proceedings of Conference on Mothers’ Pensions, ‘ held under the auspices of the
mothers pension committee, family division of the National Conference of Social Work,
and the Children s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor (U. S. Children’s Bureau Publica
tion No. 109, Washington, 1 9 2 2 ).
2 The U. S. Children’s Bureau estimated in 1923 that about 130,000 children in the
gtfUnited. States on a given date were recipients pf aid. It was estimated in 1927 that at
" a n y given date in that year approximately 200,000 children were receiving public aid in
their homes (Public Aid to Mothers with Dependent Children, p. 21, U. S. Children’s
Bureau Publication No. 162 (revised), Washington, 1 9 2 8 ).
1
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2
ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
one locality) were those who in case of emergency in the home would
be compelled to leave school to go to work, and the data in regard to
those o f this age who were eligible for employment certificates
would indicate therefore the policy of the agency administering,
mothers’ aid, a special study of the records was made on this point;
Individual schedules were filled out for all children o f these ages in
families in which allowances had been granted. Such items were
ascertained as grade and school in which each child was enrolled;
basis on which schooling was continued; grade completed and age at
leaving school; occupation, wages, and contribution to the family
support if the child was working; and some data on physical and
psychological examinations and the vocational and educational
advice given.
It was desired to make this study as representative as possible in
regard to geographical location, the unit covered, and the type of
administrative agency. The following types of unit were studied: 8
1. Six counties in which a large city was included :
Cook County, 111. (including Chicago) ; Wayne County,
Mich, (including Detroit) ; Allegheny County, Pa. (in
cluding Pittsburgh); Erie County, N. Y. (including
Buffalo) ; Hamilton County, Ohio (including Cincin
nati) ; and King County, Wash, (including Seattle).
2. One county coterminous with a large city: San
Francisco County, Calif.
3. One county including a small city : Berks County,
Pa. (including Reading).
4. One city: New Bedford, Mass.
a|
5. One Province of Canada : Manitoba, with especial
m
reference to the city of Winnipeg.4
Four types of administrative agency were represented by the
10 localities, as follows :
1. Administration by an unpaid commission or board
with a paid executive: Allegheny and Berks Counties,
P a .; Erie County, N. Y .; and Manitoba, Canada.
2. Administration by the paid board of public wel
fare (formerly called the overseers of the poor) under
the immediate direction of a paid executive secretary:
New Bedford, Mass.
3. Administration by the juvenile court with or with
out advisory committees: Cook County^ 111.; Wayne
County, Mich.; Hamilton County, Ohio; and King
County, Wash.
4. Administration by a bureau directly responsible
to the finance committee of the county board of super
visors: San Francisco, Calif.
»In the 42 States and the District of Columbia providing in 1927 for the granting of
mothers’ allowances the local administrative agencies were as follows : A court having
juvenile jurisdiction, 19 S tates; county officials granting poor relief, 13 S ta tes; county
or city boards having other functions, 5 States and the District of Columbia ; special
county board, 3 States ; local school board, 1 State ; in 1 State administration is solely
in the hands of a State agency.
* This Canadian locality was selected for study rather than the one small State in t « B
United States that has a similar method of administering mothers allowances (D e la w a r ^
because in addition to illustrating the method of administration in general, Canada a
administration of mothers’ aid holds much of interest to our own country.
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PURPOSE AND METHOD OP THE STUDY
3
As it was necessary in such a study to become somewhat familiar
with the community resources in the four fields covered by the study,
about one-third o f the time was spent in conferences with the social
gencies that in one way or another touched the mothers’ aid
agencies.
The investigation for the study was made within the period Octo
ber 15, 1923, to April 15, 1924.
(For convenience the name of the chief city in the counties con
taining a large city, rather than the name o f the county, is used in
some instances in the pages following.)
*
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THE LAWS AND GENERAL ADMINISTRATION IN THE
LOCALITIES STUDIED
SCOPE AND PURPOSE O F MOTHERS’ AID LAW S
The experiment of granting public aid to children in their own
homes under a State law, which may be said to date from 1911, has
met with prompt legislative approval.1 Its administration has not
kept pace with legislation, but this is due largely to the fact that
public interest in many States diminished when the law had been
passed and appropriations were inadequate in all except a few
States. It may be said that the principle of home care for dependent
children is generally accepted in this country, even though the need
has not yet been met fully. The fundamental principles that must
be observed if such laws are to be effective child-welfare measures
are in general the follow ing:
1. Application broad enough to permit aid whenever
by such aid a suitable home may be maintained.
2. Age limitation to conform to education and childlabor laws.
3. Determination of the amount of aid by the need of
|
each individual family, with due regard to other avail
able resources.
4. Inquiry in each case to determine the home condi
tions and the assistance needed for the proper care of
the children.
5. Continued oversight in order to protect the welfare
of the children and to adjust the aid to meet changing
conditions.
6. Safeguards to protect the public treasury against
fraudulent or unwarranted claims and against burdens
that should be borne by other communities or by indi
viduals legally responsible and able to furnish support.
7. Administration by the public agency best fitted to
carry out the provisions of the law as a constructive
child-welfare measure.
8. Appropriation adequate to carry out the purpose
of the law, with respect both to funds required for aid
and to expenses of administration.
1
As early as 1906 the juvenile courts of some counties of California granted aid to
children in their own homes, and in 1911 the State began to reimburse counties for such
aid given to half orphans. An Oklahoma law of 1908 provided for “ school scholarships ”
to be paid by counties upon recommendation of the school authorities to children whose
widowed mothers needed their earnings. A Michigan law of 1911 also authorized pay
ment from school funds to enable children of indigent parents to attend school. The first
definite legal provision of aid to mothers of dependent children was passed by the M i s s o u r i
Legislature in 1911, applying only to Jackson County (in which Kansas City is lo c a te d )»
and later in the same year extended to the city of St. Louis. The first state-wide mothers’* 7
aid law was enacted in Illinois in 1911.
4
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5
LAWS AND GENERAL ADMINISTRATION
9.
Some form of general oversight by the State com
bined with educational activities to develop high stand
ards in the work of the local administrative agencies.
The earlier laws generally limited the aid to children o f widows,
but the trend of legislation has been toward widening the applica
tion of the law, either permitting aid to be granted to any mother
with dependent children or defining the circumstances, so as to
include those in which the father is dead, deserting, divorced, phys
ically or mentally incapacitated, or imprisoned, with necessary
restrictions pertaining to cases of desertion and divorce. A few
States give aid to relatives or guardians having custody of dependent
children.2
•
The eligibility requirements as to citizenship and residence vary
considerably in the different States, as do also those in regard to the
ownership of property. The conditions determining the granting
of aid refer mainly to economic need and the mother’s ability to
give proper care to the children. The most important consideration
in regard to the age to which a child may be granted aid is that it
shall be in conformity with compulsory school attendance and childlabor laws.
ATTITUDE TOW ARD MOTHERS’ AID
Among all the agencies the point o f view was taken that mothers’
aid is given in the interest o f future citizenship and that it is much
more than a relief measure in that the test of its worth and efficacy
is not wholly and primarily the alleviation o f material distress but
jM also the well-being of the children under supervision, as expressed
in terms o f adequate mother care, health, both physical and mental,
school progress, and preparation for effective manhood and woman
hood. The agencies, the public, and the beneficiaries recognized
that by the passage o f these laws the State acknowledged the invio
lability o f the relation of mother and child, its own stake in the
preservation o f the home, and the unique social value of the service
rendered by mothers in maintaining their homes when fathers u drop
out.”
To this interpretation of the mothers’ aid laws was doubtless due
in large measure the attitude o f the mothers receiving assistance. It
was the testimony of the workers in the field and of the executives
that the aid did not tend to develop a spirit of dependency but on
the contrary developed self-confidence, initiative, and generally a
desire for economic independence at as early a date as possible. This
is illustrated by the following letter written by a mother in Chicago,
who with a crippled 17-year-old daughter was offering to assume
the full financial responsibility for the family of four, including one
girl in high school:
C h ic a g o ,
III.
Ju d ge--------- ,
Juvenile Court, Chicago, III.
Y o u r H o n o r : I am writing to inform you that we will not need the pension
I am receiving any more. The pension certainly helped me to clothe the
wi
2 In 1927 only 5 States limited the grant to children of widows, although the 42 States
then granting aid included widows directly or by implication ; and 8 States and the Dis
trict of Columbia gave aid to any mother with dependent children. A few States and the
District of Columbia gave aid to relatives or guardians.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
6
ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
children and give them a fairly good education. Helen has a very nice
position now and is getting along very well. Ruth will perhaps be able to
do something this summer, which will help a great deal. Frank will soon
be able to do something during the school vacation.
Ju d g e--------- , I want to thank you for what you have given me in the past
years, and also M rs .--------- [the probation officer], I was always glad to see
her coming, and the children surely loved her. She did so much for them, and I
can never thank her enough.
Thanking you again, I am,
Yours truly,
------------ ------ .
Since the mothers’ value as caretakers o f their children is the
corner stone of mothers’ aid this principle gives to the relation estab
lished between them and the State a professional status that they
are quick to apply and that enhances their Sense o f personal worth.
INVESTIGATION
In every agency a social-history sheet or blank was filled out, which
called for and gave reasonably full social data. Facts regarding
residence, property, the father’s death, commitment, or divorce were
always verified; generally, but not always, dates o f children’s birth,
o f marriage, and o f citizenship (not all the laws required citizenship)
were verified. It sometimes seemed that the emphasis upon techni
calities of the law obscured the need of social investigation. The
standards o f the social investigations varied among the agencies.
Usually not much was learned about the father unless he had been
abusive. The interviews with the relatives were apt to be perfunc
tory and to relate solely to their financial ability to assist the fam ily;
they did not open the door to future cooperation. More complete in
vestigations of the background, so far as the records showed it, in- <0
eluding such facts as the circumstances surrounding the childhood,
youthj and married lives o f the parents, their standards of living,
ambitions for themselves and their children, and qualities o f char
acter and temperament would have been valuable.
The social-service exchange was generally consulted as a prelim
inary step, and the social agencies which had known the families
were communicated with where the best standards of work prevailed.
This was followed by visits to school-teachers, the family physician,
the minister, one or more references, and at least one relative and
often two. The summaries which the workers in Pittsburgh sent
to the State office included a statement covering the problems the
investigation brought to light and a tentative plan for meeting them.
It was unfortunate that in a number of communities the steno
graphic facilities were so meager that the dictation had to be reduced
to a minimum, and the case workers often had to give time to typing
their own records.
AD E Q UA C Y OF GRANTS
The ability o f an agency to provide adequate aid for the majority
o f the families under its care was influenced by the amount of the
maximum grant provided by the law as well as by the adequacy o f
the appropriations. The laws of Massachusetts and Manitoba did
not specify the maximum amount of aid that could be given. The
New fo r k law required that the maximum grant should not exceed
the cost of institutional care. In each of the seven remaining local
ities studied the State had defined the maximum grant.
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0
LAW S AND GENERAL ADMINISTRATION
7
In Pennsylvania the maximum allowed was $20 for the first child
and $10 for each additional child in the family; this was inadequate
for between one-third and one-fourth of the families assisted. When
supplementary aid could not be secured the mothers in families so
affected were compelled to spend too much of their time and strength
in contributing to the income (sometimes to the hurt of the children) ,
or the families were falling below the minimum standard o f living
necessary for health and efficiency.
The Washington law provided a maximum of $15 for the first
child and $5 for each additional child. This assistance was often
meager and even pitifully insufficient for the maintenance o f a
standard of family life that would allow the mother a reasonable
minimum of time and strength to devote to the care of her children.
To meet the economic need some mothers worked all day away from
home; sometimes adolescent boys and girls were placed in private
homes where they went to school and worked for their board and
.lodging; and two families were living at a home for destitute mothers
and their children, where the children were cared for while the
mothers worked because they could not maintain a home on the grant
from the court and such wages as they could make and at the same
time care for their young children.
The California law allowed $10 a month per child from the State,
the county at its own option to supplement this by a sum up to $10.
A t the time o f the study San Francisco County was supplementing
by the sum of $7.50 per child (though for some cases no supplement
was given, the State only being drawn upon).
The laws of Illinois, Ohio, and Michigan made the most adequate
M provision o f the localities studied in which a maximum was specified.
Illinois made a higher provision for counties having more than
300,000 inhabitants than for less populous counties, granting $25 a
month for the first child and $15 for each additional child in the
family. Ohio provided $35 for the first child and $10 for each
additional child in the family. Michigan provided $43.33 a month
for the first child and $8.67 for each additional child in the family.
The average monthly grant per family 3 in each o f the 10 localitiesstudied was reported to be as follow s:
Pittsburgh (Allegheny County, P a .)___________________________ $39.10
Berks County, Pa____________________ ,_____________________ .___ 39 . 50
Chicago (Cook County, 111.)________________________
Buffalo (Erie County, N. Y . ) _______________________________ 51.81
Cincinnati (Hamilton County, O h io)_________________________ 30.71
Seattle (K ing County, W a sh .)______________________________
20.00
New Bedford, Mass___________________________________________ 4 43 00
San Francisco, C alif__________ _______________ ________________
37.41
Detroit (W ayne County, M ich .)______________________ '_____
42.45
Manitoba, Canada_____________________________________________
57.40
50.31
In connection with the foregoing figures consideration should be
given not only to the grants allowed by law but also to the average
number o f children per family, which varied from 2.7 in Cincinnati
to 3.9 in New Bedford. The grants were affected also by the
amounts contributed to the family income by the members who
worked.
W
* A s reported for some month in 1924 in Allegheny, Berks, Cook, and Hamilton Counties :
for some month in 1923 in Erie, Wayne, and San Francisco Counties and in M anitoba:
and for 1922 in New Bedford. For K ing County the year was not specified.
* Plus fuel, shoes, and medical attendance.
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8
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
In all except 1 of the 10 localities the needs of the family were
established on the basis of a budget,5 and an effort was made to
provide within the limitations o f the law an allowance that to
gether with other resources of the family would cover their needs.
Because o f insufficiency of appropriations or limitations set by law
many of the agencies found it necessary to seek for families under
their supervision some supplementary aid from other public agencies
(such as outdoor relief) or from private social agencies.
The following table shows for seven localities the amount o f aid
contributed by public and private relief agencies, the number of
families receiving allowances and on the waiting list, and the num
ber given a id :
*
Supplementary aid contributed by public and private relief agencies for families
receiving allowances, number of families receiving allowances, and number
given aid; seven localities
Agencies giving
aid
Families receiving
allowances
Families on waiting
list
Locality
Total
Public Private on given
date
Pittsburgh (Allegheny Coun
ty, P a .)_____________________
Chicago (Cook County, 111.)...
Buffalo (Erie County, N . Y .)_ .
Cincinnati (Hamilton Coun
ty, O h io )...______ __________
Seattle (King County, W ash.)..
Detroit (W ayne County; Mioh.)
1
1
2
4
3
1
477
1,207
354
1
3
5
3
470
453
481
999
2
Aided
in
year
A m o u n t1 Total Aided
A m o u n t1
36
f 186
6
2 $6,300. 53
3 14,850. 63
934.18
425
« j
156
1350
2 $37,427.10
3 48,375.94
'(')
8 17, 791.40
500
(s)
(5)
44
(5)
166
( 5)
73,600.00
(5)
1 Figures for calendar year 1923 or a fiscal year ending within that year except as otherwise specified.
2 Figures for contribution of 1 private agency were for a period o f 14 months.
3 Figures for 2 private agencies; the third gave aid but no figures were reported.
4 From 500 to 600 families were on the waiting list, and some of these received aid from a public agency.
3 Figures incomplete or not reported.
8 Figures for 1922; 1 agency gave medical service also. Although the figures for 1923 were not available
it was reported that 1 of the private agencies that in 1922 gave $6,000 was giving material relief only and to
only 6 families.
7 Estimated.
In two localities no supplementary aid was reported. In Berks
County, Pa., the families needing such aid were cared for through
private benevolences and various other resources, and in New Bed
ford the only aid in addition to allowances was the occasional fur
nishing o f milk for delicate children—generally by private relief
agencies. In Manitoba any needed aid was obtained through the
efforts o f the “ friendly visitors ” and ladies’ auxiliary assisting the
mothers’ allowances commission.
8 The budgets used were based upon the following : Pittsburgh and Chicago— the stand
ard budget issued by the Chicago Council of Social Agencies in 1920 ; Berks County, Pa.—
the Chicago standard budget and also that issued by the New York Nutrition Council in
1 9 2 2 ; Manitoba— the Chicago standard budget and also a budget prepared by the public
welfare commission’ s dietitian ; San Francisco— :for food, the. budget prepared by Pro
fessor Jaffa, of the University of California, and for other items, figures furnished through
the State department of finance ; Buffalo— a budget compiled by the Westchester County
(N. Y .) Department of Child W elfare ; Cincinnati— a budget based on a schedule prepared
by a local social agency; New Bedford-— a budget based on several standard budgets and
also budgets in use in certain localities ; Detroit— a budget prepared by the Visiting
Housekeeper Association. In Seattle the judge of the juvenile court determined the
amount of the allowance for each applicant, and no budget was used.
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9
LAWS AND GENERAL ADMINISTRATION
Q U A LIFIC A TIO N S AN D SA LARIES OF A D M IN ISTR A T IV E STAFFS
The standards o f the 10 agencies in regard to training and experi
ence o f the field staffs varied greatly. The educational background
of the workers was generally good. Among them were 2 physicians,
3 graduate nurses, and 22 college or university graduates, also a num
ber of workers who—though not graduates—-had had some college
training. Three had been well educated in Europe. Previous training
in social case work was reported for 32 of the 73 staff members (ex
cluding the clerical force). The number of persons on the staff
varied from 1 to 24. The visitors took their work very seriously and
gave themselves to it with enthusiasm and devotion.
The organization of the administrative agencies and the volume
o f work reported at given periods are shown in the following tabula
tion:
Organization of the administrative agency and the volume of work, 10 localities
Locality
Administrative agency
Executive officer
P it t s b u r g h
(A lle g h e n y
C ounty, Pa.).
Board of trustees_______ _
Executive secretary.
Chicago (Cook County, 111.). Mothers’ pension division,
juvenile court.
Buffalo (Erie County, N. Y .) County board of child
welfare.
Cincinnati (Hamilton Coun- Department of mothers’
pensions and neglected
ty, Ohio).
children, juvenile court.
Seattle (K in g C o u n ty , Mothers’ pension depart-:
ment, juvenile court.
W ash.).
New Bedford, M ass............... Board of public w elfare....
County,
Mothers’ pension department, juvenile court.
Manitoba. Canada_________
Mothers’ allowance commission.
Detroit (W ayne
M ich.).
Head, mothers’ pension division.
Executive secretary.
Supervisor ...........
Field
work
ers
Cleri Families
receiv
cal
ing al
force
lowances
10
3
477
1
24
1
1
87
1,207
3
354
6
'2
Commissioner______
3
Executive secretary6
1
43
10
-(•)
3
0)
Chief probation offleer for women
and girls.7
Executive secretary.
470
0>)
1
453
1
2
96
473
999
611
1 Devoted part time to field work.
3 Designated probation officers.
3 Probation officer giving part time to mothers’ aid work.
4Assistance in field work was given b y certain other public officers or b y specified private relief agencies.
s None reported.
6 Giving only part time.
•Also referee of the juvenile court.
3 Including a supervisor. The department had also the services of an interpreter and a psychiatric social
worker (part time) and of a volunteer worker.
Even with the various additional services there were only 4 of the
10 localities in which the visitors were not overburdened with an
excessive volume of work. This point should be taken into con
sideration in the later discussions of the extent and quality of the
supervision given to the families. Adequate supervision of the
physical and mental health, education, and recreation of each mem
ber of a family requires much more time than can be given by a
visitor supervising the large number of families that were assigned
to each field worker in many o f these localities.
Apparently the staffs as organized consisted generally of the one
executive officer and the field workers. In the three localities having
10 or more visitors, supervisors would have been desirable to aid in
94535°— 28------ 2
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10
ADMINISTRATION- OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
directing the case work and training inexperienced and untrained
workers, but none were employed, nor were the more expert visitors
so used. Hence the quality of work performed within a single agency
varied, and the agencies were dependent upon outside sources for
filling their ranks, if they required trained staffs. As there were few
or no positions of intermediate rank there was a lack of incentive
to qualify for higher grades of work within the respective agencies.
From the point of view of efficiency, quality of case work, training,
and staff morale the question might be raised as to the possibility and
advisability in the large cities of effecting an organization similar
to that commonly existing in charity-organization societies; that is;
with a superintendent in charge o f each district, with district visitors
(case workers) in the field, with workers in training also, and, if
possible, students in training, provision being made for close super
vision by the director or an assistant director. Under such a method
of organization salary advances would be made not solely on the
basis o f length of service but on that of quality of service as well,
and workers could not assume responsibilities for which they were
not qualified. There would also be the attraction of greater executive
responsibility for qualified workers. The wisdom of making salary
advances contingent upon the workers’ enrollment in specialized
short courses in schools of social work and their attendance at State
and national conferences, and of conducting staff meetings in such a
way as to render them of educational value if regular class instruction
is not given should be considered.
The salaries of directors or executive secretaries of mothers’ aid
agencies were approximately $2,500 in five communities; in one
agency the director received $2,700; in three the salary was less than
$2,500. The salaries of the field workers varied from $1,200 to
$1,800. The majority were in the neighborhood of $1,500.
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GENERAL FINDINGS
HEALTH
PHYSICAL HEALTH
Physical examinations.
Five of the 10 agencies studied required that the children in each
family applying for an allowance be given a physical examination
before the grant would be made. All except one of the five required
that the mother be examined also. The examinations in these five
localities were generally made by public agencies or officers or by
private individuals, as follows:
Berks County, Pa----------------------------Family physician.
Chicago (Cook County, 111.)__________Juvenile-court physician.
Erie County, N. Y . :
Buffalo_______________•_____________ City clinics.
Rural districts____________________ County health officer.
New Bedford, Mass---------------------------- City physician.
Cincinnati (Hamilton County, Ohio). Cincinnati General Hospital.
One agency (Detroit) required that examinations preliminary to
i f grants be "made only of the children of preschool age whose families
lived in Detroit, and of- mothers who gave evidence o f need or who
were known to have been exposed to tuberculosis; but it required that
the visitors consult the reports of the school physical examinations
for those children who were attending school in the city o f Detroit.
Therefore it may be assumed that practically all the children in this
locality also received a preliminary examination. In one locality
(San Francisco) in which no preliminary examination was required
the investigator on the agency’s staff was a physician; and although
no medical-report blank was filled out, this physician, on the occasion
o f her first visit to the family, recorded the height and weight o f
the children and made note o f obvious defects. In the remaining three
localities (Pittsburgh, Seattle, and Winnipeg) there was no formal
requirement that an examination precede the granting of the allow
ance. This does not mean, however, that the physical condition o f
the children under supervision o f the agencies in these localities
received no attention; for at least the school children in these cities
who were members of mothers’ aid families had such medical atten
tion as the public schools gave to all their pupils, and the mothers’
aid workers put forth special efforts in behalf of any child having
obvious or extreme physical handicaps. In Pittsburgh three hos
pital clinics had offered to make examinations of mothers’ aid chil|dren under 12 years of age in the city, and at the time o f the study
. about two-fifths had been examined.
--------t-------^------------------- f---------------------- ;------------------------------------ »T he examinations made here were of the children only.
11
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12
ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Periodic physical examination after the granting o f the allow
ances was not the rule in the localities studied. Erie County, N. Y.
(Buffalo) was the only locality in which yearly physical examina
tions for all mothers and children in families receiving allowances
were required by the administrative agency. In Chicago no exami
nation was made after the allowances had been granted unless the
physical condition of the children or of the mother made such exami
nation clearly necessary ; but here the agency had the advantage of
the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund’s thorough supervision of
groups o f children. This organization weighed and measured about
a third o f the children in families in Chicago receiving allowances
and enrolled part o f these in nutrition classes. In the remaining
eight localities the only members of mothers’ aid families for whom
the workers tried to make arrangements for physical examinations
after the granting o f the allowances were those in obvious need of
medical attention. O f course children in school had the benefit of
such periodic medical inspection or examination as the respective
school systems afforded, and the yearly physical examinations of
school children would have included each year a number o f the
boys and girls in the mothers’ aid families.
Often the health resources o f the child-health centers could have
been used to better advantage. Such centers were accessible in all
the more populous communities, and they generally were recom
mended to mothers o f children under 6 years of age; but it would
seem desirable that the agencies stimulate regular attendance at
such centers and that they make sure that the instructions received
there are carried out by the mothers. Only one agency (in B uffalo)^
had arranged to receive from the child-health centers reports con-®
cerning the attendance of mothers receiving allowances. A more
systematic consultation of school medical reports might well be made
also, following the example of workers in Detroit and Pittsburgh.
Although reports o f school medical inspections may offer only a
rough index o f the children’s health they at least would have been
helpful in the absence o f better information. A number of agencies
were planning to consult these reports in the future.
Follow-up o f special problems.
The facilities for care o f tuberculosis cases or suspects, venerealdisease cases, orthopedic and cardiac cases, and ear, eye, nose, and
throat affections, and the work done by the schools, and by local
clinics and health centers in the several localities are mentioned
briefly in the sections of this report dealing with the respective
localities, whether or not any members o f mothers’ aid families were
known to be having care through these facilities at the time of
the study. All the agencies (with possibly two exceptions) were
careful in their attention to the correction o f physical defects, and
it was the intention o f all of them that no mother nor child should
go without necessary medical care for lack o f knowledge as to the
medical resources available. The discrepancy between the desire
o f all the agencies to have proper attention given and the actual
practice of some o f them was due largely to the excessive case load,
carried by many workers, which made intensive and protracted^
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GENERAL FINDINGS
13
supervision o f health, cases extremely difficult. Careful follow-up
work was done to see that defects were corrected, and the mothers
were urged to have themselves and their children put in good physi
cal condition. Sometimes withdrawal of the grant was threatened,
but generally explanation o f the advantages that would accrue from
the suggested correction was enough to obtain the mother’s consent
for it.
Some agencies were careful to see that every mother and child who
had been exposed to tuberculosis should be examined and that in
cipient tuberculosis cases should be under regular supervision of
tuberculosis clinics, The orthopedic work with children was taken
care o f excellently in practically every locality, and there was much
fine individualizing of the needs of crippled children. In general
where there was an. acute health situation it was well handled; but
where the defect or disease was chronic and required protracted
medical treatment it sometimes happened that no reports were re
corded over long periods of time. This would seem to indicate that
the workers had forgotten to keep in touch with the medical agency
and the patient concerned or failed to make entries in the record.
The agencies in all the communities except .Seattle, San Francisco,
and Winnipeg make provisions either for routine physical exam
inations or for the consultation of the school medical inspection re
ports which uncovered conditions o f malnutrition and anemia and pos
sibilities of tuberculosis among mothers and children under their
supervision. Some facilities for the supervision o f undernourished
children were available in most of the cities, but such resources were
not universally used by the mothers’ aid workers. In Chicago, in ad
dition to taking advantage of the opportunities offered through the
Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, the juvenile court enrolled a
few children from mothers’ aid families in nutrition classes con
ducted by the municipal tuberculosis clinics and various hospitals,
In Buffalo a domestic educator on the staff of the county board of
child welfare conducted three nutrition clinics in parts o f the city
previously without any and had nutritional supervision of individual
families. The schools in most of the cities in the localities studied
had nutrition classes. Perhaps the mothers’ aid workers should fol
low up underweight children more closely and make sure of their
placement in nutrition classes at school or elsewhere. So far as the
records showed, the treatment on the part of the agencies generally
consisted of extra diet and some personal instruction o f the mother
and child by the physician or the social worker. But it would have
been well if the record had stated whether the child who was diag
nosed as undernourished by the physician giving the routine exam
ination had already been so diagnosed by the school medical inspector
and placed in a nutrition class by the teacher or the nurse. Some
workers assumed that as the schools placed underweight children in
nutrition classes no follow-up by the agency was necessary, but it is
hardly safe not to make sure by actual checking that the need is being
met. The records were often lacking in a conclusion to the diagnosis
o f malnutrition or underweight, so that it was not clear when the
child was brought up to weight.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
14
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEH LOCALITIES
M ENTAL HEALTH
There has been a marked growth o f appreciation o f the value and
need o f providing accurate diagnosis and special training for re
tarded and mentally defective children. At the time of the study the
importance of such care had not been fully realized by many mothers
aid workers. Possibly the agencies assumed that seriously retarded
and mentally defective children would be given psychological tests
in the schools and that recommendations would be made for their
care. Yet at the time o f the study several agencies knew of children
in mothers’ aid families who were considered mentally defective but
had not had tests. In a few o f the records studied there were reports
o f retardation and failure o f promotion growing steadily worse over
a period of years, to which little attention had been paid until they
were complicated by delinquency so that court action was required.
A poor school report, retardation, or failure o f promotion may be
preceded, accompanied, or followed by so many serious factors other
than mental subnormality that they are to be construed as symptom
atic in the absence of other well-established causes, such as ill
health. They should be counted serious enough to warrant careful
follow-up by the agency, including a psychological examination, a
personality study, and an attempt to remedy environmental causes.
Buffalo was the only locality studied in which mental examinations
were obtained as a matter of routine for children whose fathers were
insane or in whose families there was a recent history o f mental de
fect or disease. However, all the agencies obtained medical attention
for obvious cases of mental disease. The records studied showed
many examples o f excellent work done for and with psychopathic
or emotionally unstable mothers and a few instances o f similar work
for children.
The agency in Detroit had the part-time service of a psychiatric
case worker under the immediate direction o f the psychologist at
tached to the court, to whom were brought for examination psycho
pathic or emotionally unstable children and mothers. Such families,
if requiring particularly careful supervision, were turned over to
the psychiatric worker, who was given great latitude in the plans she
made on their behalf and who accomplished remarkable reorienta
tions in their mental attitudes. In the matter of behavior problems
of children the most skillful workers made excellent use of the psy
chiatric clinics in the attempt to discover the underlying causes of
the child’s abnormal behavior and so to set about intelligently reme
dying the conditions that accounted for them.
It seems especially desirable that all mothers’ aid workers should
be acquainted (many are already acquainted) with the relations
which often exist between conditions m the home causing mental
conflict in children (and adults as well) and the conduct patterns
through which the conflict expresses itself. Then they could help
to prevent harsh judgments, undue punishments, and unwise recourse
to the courts by scientific analysis o f the facts and modification o f the
children’s environment so as to bring about harmony in their emo
tional lives, and hence conduct that conforms to the social sanctions.
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1A
^
GENERAL FINDINGS
15
HOUSING
A ll the agencies gave serious consideration to the housing of
mothers’ aid families with respect to the desirability of the neighbor
hood, the sanitary condition o f the houses, and the availability of as
much room space, yard or garden space, and open air and sunshine as
local conditions permitted. Good houses or good flats were not
everywhere to be had at reasonable rentals. Except in one large
city, where housing conditions left much to be desired, the families
were for the most part in decent, sanitary dwellings or flats in
respectable neighborhoods; many were in comfortable one-family
houses, and a considerable number had flower gardens. I f families
were found living in too congested quarters, under insanitary condi
tions, or in neighborhoods whose morality was questionable, the
courts required them—or the agencies persuaded them—to move to
better locations. Two localities had housing conditions that per
mitted the agencies to take into consideration the accessibility to
playgrounds and other recreation facilities for mothers’ aid families;
and in another locality this was done “ when possible ” ; but in two
others it was stated that giving as much attention to play space
and accessibility of playgrounds as would have been desirable was
out of the question. In most of the localities the agencies apparently
had to devote most o f their efforts to approximating such standards
o f sanitation, room space, and environment as they wished they could
enforce.
A point was made of having enough rooms so that adolescent boys
and girls should have separate bedrooms, even if this required that
the living room be used for sleeping purposes. Usually the furnish
ings were sufficient for decency and often for comfort. Many fami
lies had plants blooming in the house.
The fact that a large number of families were living in houses
which they owned or were paying for when the father died helped
to maintain their original social status and the security and selfrespect that come from long-continued residence in one home and
neighborhood; it helped also to carry over into the new life memo
ries o f the father and to preserve the continuity o f the family spirit.
The policies in regard to home ownership and other assets were for
the most part very liberal.2 The two extremes observed were in
Detroit and in New Bedford. In the former an allowance might be
granted to a mother having as much as $3,500 equity in a home. In
the latter an allowance could not be granted to a mother who had
more than $500 equity in a home. The amount of equity in real
property or of value of real property owned, the amount of savings
or other assets allowed, and the percentage of mothers’ aid families
2 Restrictions in regard to home ownership had been incorporated in the law governing
only one of the localities studied (Chicago). One locality (San Francisco) was governed
by a ruling made by the State department of finance, one (New Bedford) by a ruling of
the State department of public welfare, and two others (Allegheny and Berks Counties,
Pa.) by a ruling made by the State supervisor of the mothers’ assistance fund. In Mani
toba the provincial commission, which was also the administrative agency, had estab
lished the restriction. The local administrative agency formulated the rulings or estab
lished the policy in the remaining four localities studied (Buffalo, Cincinnati, Seattle, and
D etroit).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
16
ADMINISTRATION OR MOTHERS’ AID. IN TEN LOCALITIES
owning their own homes or having an e q u ity in them in the 10
localities studied are shown in the following table:
Amount of equity in real property or value of real property ownedl, amount of
savings or other assets allowed, and percentage of mothers’ aid families own
ing their own homes or having an equity in them; 10 localities
Locality
Buffalo (Erie C eu n ty ,N . Y . ) . _ . . . i _____ _________________ ‘.ILl____ -
E quity or
real
property
allowed
Savings or
other
assets
allowed
$1,500
1,500
1,000
2, 500
3,500
3,000
2 500
3.500
2.500
2,000
$400
400
300
200
300
8 200
500
4 500
0
Percentage
of families
owning
homes or
having an
equity in
them
8
37
0
18
14
49
3
.43
28
0
1 N ot reported. Since the Illinois law had been amended in 1921 to allow the equity of $1,000, the number
of new families with equity in the home that had been granted allowances was negligible.
2 In house the assessed value of which is not more than $2,500.
8 But not more than $500 total equity plus other assets.
4 If there was ho real property the other assets might total $1,000.
8N ot reported.
E D U CATION
EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE CHILDREN
Contacts with the schools.
Seven of the agencies had developed systems for obtaining school
reports at regular intervals. These were made by the schools on
blanks furnished by the agencies covering attendance, grade, scholar
ship, and conduct; spaces were left also for remarks in regard to
health, punctuality, neatness, and any other items. The blank used
in Buffalo, which was especially good, requested information on the
child’s aptitudes, habits, and personality also. Such reports were
received at least twice a year in Pittsburgh, in Berks County, Pa.,
and in Detroit; and yearly or twice a year in Seattle. In Chicago,
Buffalo, and Winnipeg they werei received quarterly (sometimes
every two months in Chicago). In Cincinnati a semiannual report
was made to the Cincinnati Associated Charities in accordance with
a juvenile-court requirement, and the mothers’ aid workers were
expected to examine these reports. No report was required in San
Francisco nor in New Bedford.3 In every locality studied it was
stated that the mothers’ aid workers maintained more or less close
contact with the schools, except possibly in San Francisco (where
the children themselves frequently reported their grades and prog
ress to the mothers’ aid workers); and in every locality special visits
and special reports were made in case any difficulty or problem
arose in the schools concerning a child in a mothers’ aid family.
8 In New Bedford a system of regular reports from the schools was established in 1926.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
17
GENERAL. FINDINGS
Education of children of legal working age in mothers’ aid families.
It was the well-established policy and practice of the agencies in
the 10 localities studied that the compulsory-education and childlabor laws should be observed scrupulously in all that concerned
children in families receiving mothers’ aid. The laws affecting each
locality allowed assistance to children at least to the age at which
they were eligible for employment certificates under certain specified
conditions, and the majority allowed aid to a higher age.
In Michigan an employment certificate for work during school
hours (with certain negligible exceptions) could not be issued to a
child under the age of 15 years, and in Washington an employment
certificate4 could not be issued at 14 unless the child had completed
the eighth grade or, in the judgment o f the superintendent of schools,
could not profitably pursue further regular school work. With
the exception of these two States and of Ohio, where children
could not obtain certificates for work during school hours until they
were 16,5 and of the Province of Manitoba, where girls under 15
years of age might not work in factories, the child-labor laws in all
the localities studied permitted the issuance of employment certifi
cates at 14 if certain grade and health qualifications were met.6
There were 1,652 children 14 and 15 years of age under the care of
the agencies administering mothers’ aid in the localities stu d ied excluding Cincinnati, where school attendance was required up to
16 years of age.7 O f this number 1,281 (78 per cent) were in school.
The following table shows the number of children 14 and 15 years
old in these nine localities and the number in each of the nine locali
ties attending school at the time of the study:
Number of children Ik and 15 years old in mothers’ aid families and number
attending school at the time o f the study; nine localities
Children 14 and
15 years- old
Children 14 and
15 years old
Locality
Locality
Pittsburgh (Allegheny C ounty,
Chicago (Cook C ounty, 111.).........
Total
Attend
ing
school
1,652
4 281
Buffalo (Erie County, N . Y .) — __
Seattle (King County, W ash.)-----
203
35
521
164
10
347
San Francisco, C a lif-,-...................
Detroit (W ayne County, M ich .)—
Winnipeg (Manitoba, C anada)-—
Total
160
154
26
187
255
111
Attend
ing
school
139
144
14
181
198
84
* This certificate was required where continuation schools were established, as in the
Clt^High^schooi graduates under 16 and children determined incapable of profiting by
further school instruction were exempted.
• In California the need of child’s earnings had to be shown Also.
7 In Cincinnati (Hamilton County, Ohio) there were 167 children 16 and 17 years of
age in the families receiving mothers’ aid and 40 (24 per cent) were attending school.
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18
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
The 1,281 school children among the 1,652 children 14 and 15 years
old in mothers’ aid families were enrolled in the following grades
or types o f school:
Number of
children
Number of
children
T o ta l______________________ 1,281
High school— Continued.
Fourth year___________ ______
Elementary school:
Year not reported__________
Below the seventh grade___
232
Vocational school 8_______
Seventh grade_______________
205
Business school___________ _______
272
Eighth grade________________
Special class_____________________
High school:
Industrial training school______
First y e a r ___________________
205
Agricultural training school— __
Second year____________________
87 Not reported_____________________
21
Third year_____________________
2
1
25
19
27
1
1
9183
That many o f these children were not eligible for employment
certificates on account o f failure to meet grade requirements is
evident from the number that were attending the lower grades.
All the localities except Manitoba had specific requirements, the
lowest being completion o f the sixth grade and the highest comple
tion o f the eighth grade. In addition to grade requirements most
of the localities required a physician’s certificate of physical fitness
before employment certificates could be issued. Although informa
tion was not obtained as to the number o f children actually kept in
school because o f physical disability, there must have been some such
children.10
Several other factors besides eligibility for employment certifi
cates also affect the decision whether children o f legal working age
in the mothers’ aid families shall continue in school or go to work.
Probably the most important o f these is the approval o f continuance
in school and the granting o f an allowance by the administrative
agency for a child who is eligible for an employment certificate.
Another is the availability o f scholarship funds to supplement the
allowances granted by the agencies or to take their place. The extent
to which the schools foster or create a desire for further education
through the development o f a liberalized curriculum is undoubtedly
another element in holding in school many children who otherwise
would go to work because of lack o f interest in their studies and in
their school connections. A less easily measured condition but one
that nevertheless may be important is the value placed upon sec
ondary or higher education by the various social groups with which
the respective boys and girls are associated.
It is impossible to estimate the extent to which any o f these factors
may have influenced the individual children or dominated the situ
ation in each o f the localities studied. In some localities the policy
o f the agency administering the allowances was apparently a dom
inating factor, whereas in others, such as Seattle and San Francisco,
8 Includes 2 children taking prevocatlonal and special courses.
9 Includes 181 children in San Francisco for whom data in regard to grade or type of
school attended were not obtained.
10 Information on this point was obtained for C hicago: Among 187 children reported
Ineligible for employment certificates in February, 1924, were 96 who were physically
unfit; and among 90 who had not completed the required grade a number (not specified)
were physically unfit also. A ll except 2 of the 187 children were attending school.
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19
GENERAL FINDINGS
the community conditions would seem to have been o f nearly equal
importance.11
The proportion o f the mothers’ aid children fully eligible for
employment certificates can not be calculated from the data obtained,
as a number o f those of legal working age who had completed the
required grade were ineligible because of physical disability or still
other reasons on which complete figures were not available; but fig
ures indicating the proportion o f the children 14 and 15 years o f age
who were eligible, so far as age and grade completion were concerned,
but who, nevertheless, were continuing in school are presented in the
following table for seven of the nine localities in which children of
this age could legally w o rk :12
Number of mothers' aid children Ilf and 15 years old eligible in age and grade
for employment certificates, and number and per cent of such children
attending school; nine localities
Children 14 and 15 years of age
Eligible for employment certificates as regards age and
school grade completed
Locality
Total
In school
Total
Number
Per cent
1, 652
Reporting age and grade______________________________________
1,354
911
615
68
Pittsburgh (Allegheny County, Pa.)........................................
Berks County, P a...................- ________ ___________________
Chicago (Cook County, 111.).......................................................
Buffalo (Erie County, N. Y .) ._ ................................. ............ .
Seattle (King County, Wash.)........................ ......... ...............
New Bedford, Mass......................................................................
Detroit (Wayne County, Mich.)__________________________
203
35
521
160
154
26
255
155
32
430
95
78
20
877
128
7
2259
81
74
8
«36
83
0
2 60
85
95
0
47
4298
1 Percentage not shown where base is less than 50.
» Of these children 162 (49 per cent) were eligible in other particulars as well as in age and grade.
8 These children were 15 years old. Children 14 years old were not eligible for regular employment
certificates.
4 Information as to grade completed was not obtained for the 187 children 14 and 15 years old in families
receiving allowances in San Francisco nor the 111 of these ages receiving allowances in Manitoba.
Policies of agencies as to continuance of aid for children of legal working age.
In States where mothers’ aid might be allowed beyond the age at
which children could legally work it became necessary that the agen
cies formulate policies as to the conditions under which aid might be
so continued.
In Pennsylvania no State ruling had been made and the county
boards were free to use their own judgment. The majority granted
11
In 1926 only 10 children 14 years old and 153 children 15 years old took out employ
ment certificates in San Francisco, according to figures furnished to the U. S. Children’s
Bureau by the San Francisco Bureau of Attendance and Guidance (Board of Education).
In 1920 the total number of children 14 and 15 years old in San Francisco was 11,239
(Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, vol. 3, Population, p. 127, Washington,
1 9 2 2 ).
“ Employment certificates could not be issued in Cincinnati to children under 16 years
of age (with certain exceptions). Of the 167 children 16 and 17 years of age in this
locality 164 were eligible for employment certificates as regards grade completed and
38 (1 7 per cent) of them were attending school.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
20
ADMINISTRATION OR MOTHERS’
a id
in
ten
l o c a l it ie s
aid to the age of 16 to children who would profit by further school
advantages if the family could thereby get along without the child’s
earnings, and the State department of public; welfare encouraged
this practice.
In Illinois, where children could obtain employment certificates at
14 years of age, aid might be allowed to the age of 16. It was the
policy of the juvenile court in Cook County to continue aid for
children over 14 who were physically handicapped or who were up to
normal grade and had an average of B in scholarship and wished to
continue in school.
In New York no State ruling had been made, and aid was granted
in Erie County, N. Y., to the age of 16 to a child who would profit
by further schooling, provided this would enable the family to get
along without the child’s wages.
In Ohio the children were required to attend school until 16 years
of age, and mothers’ aid could be granted until children were eligible
for employment certificates. The juvenile court o f Hamilton County
encouraged children to remain in school, a continuance of grant for
younger members of the family frequently permitting the older
children to complete high school or to receive special or further
training.
In Washington, where children 14 years old could obtain employ
ment certificates, the law allowed aid to be granted to 15 years of
age. Ambitious children of legal working age were encouraged in
Seattle to continue in school if the family could get along without
their aid in its support, and the family was helped through the allow
ance of aid for younger children.
In Massachusetts the intent of the law evidently was that children
in mothers’ aid families should go to work as soon as they were
eligible for employment certificates, and the policy of the State
department of public welfare and of the mothers’ aid administrators
in New Bedford was in conformity with it. However, the State
department had ruled that when in industrial depressions children
under 16 could not find work, although legally permitted to work, the
aid might be continued, as the children in such cases were required to
attend day school.
In California the law permitted aid to be granted to 16 years of
age. Children in San Francisco eligible for certificates were encour
aged to continue in school unless their families were in need of the
wages they could earn. All except 6 of the 187 children- in this
group under supervision of the widows’ pension bureau were attend
ing school.
In Michigan the law permitted aid to be granted to children
under 17. Usually the allowance was riot continued beyond 15 years
of age; but for a child who was frail or physically handicapped or
who was finishing a unit of education the allowance could be con
tinued until he was 16.
In Manitoba many children had been permitted to remain in school
up to 16 years of age, but in 1924 the commission ruled that grants
should continue to the age of 15 only.
Community provision for special types of children.
Provision fo r handicapped children.—-As the number of children
in the families receiving allowances who had one or more physical
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
GENERAL FINDINGS
21
defects or who were subnormal or mentally defective or diseased did
not seem large, information in regard to the work of the agencies in
behalf of such children and reports concerning the numbers receiving
special training were not obtained in detail from all the localities
studied. A brief general description of the facilities available, pri
vate as well as public, is given in the sections of this report dealing
with the separate localities, however, and such figures and further
details as were reported are also included.
Provision fo r children wishing further education.—Most of the
agencies were actively interested in obtaining for children of un
usual ability or ambition such opportunities for further education
as were within reach. Generally their activities consisted in giving
the children information concerning scholarships and other aid that
was available in the respective localities, putting them in connection
with the authorities determining the grants of such scholarships or
other aid, or seeking the cooperation of private relief agencies that
were in a position to arrange for such connections. Sometimes they
acted merely as advisers to the ambitious children or their families,
suggesting ways and means, by which the desired education could be
attained in the near future if not immediately accessible. Lastly, a
method followed in a number of agencies was continuance of the
allowances; that is, allowances were granted for the younger children
in a family so that the older boys and girls might continue in school
instead o f being obliged to go to work to assist in the support of the
younger children—as they would be expected to do if this special
arrangement were not made.
Vocational and educational counseling.— Some of the cities iii the
, 10 localities studied were well equipped to give adequate vocational
w guidance to children of legal working age; among them may be men
tioned especially Pittsburgh, Chicago, Cincinnati, Seattle, and De
troit.13 Vocational advice had been given to many o f the mothers’
aid children by interested persons also, including mothers’ aid work
ers, school officials, and friends. Educational advice had been given
to a number of mothers’ aid children by various persons; school
officials and psychologists giving mental tests had given the most
authoritative advice reported. In the larger number of cases their
recommendation was continuance in school, whether to complete a unit
of education, to transfer to special courses or classes, or to take spe
cialized training that would lead to wage-earning vocations.
It would appear that much more intensive use could be made in
some communities of the vocational service available. The span of
years that can be devoted to educational and vocational preparation
for the responsibilities o f adult life are for the dependent child so
short at best that the fullest use should be made of every facility that
will enable him to make the most o f his natural gifts, to capitalize
his interests and aptitudes in choosing an occupation offering oppor
tunity for acquirement o f skill, security of employment, and advance
ment in wages.
♦
18 For details in regard to this work in Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Seattle
see Vocational Guidance and Junior Placement, pp. 157 ff.. 191 ff. 267 ff., 317 ft (U S
Children’s Bureau Publication No. 149 and U. S. Employment Service Publication a !
Washington, 1 9 25).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
22
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Children at work.
O f the 1,652 children 14 and 15 years old in the families receiv
ing allowances 314 (19 per cent) were working. Information con
cerning the occupations o f the working children and their contri
butions to the support o f their families was available from the
majority o f the localities studied. This was o f interest as indicat
ing the degree o f expertness required in the various trades or occu
pations in which the children were engaged and the opportunities
o f advancement open to them.
In several o f the localities from which some information was ob
tained in regard to contributions o f working children to the family
support it appeared that most o f the working children 14 and 15
years old handed over their entire earnings to their mothers; in a
few localities they gave varying proportions, though many o f them
gave half or a larger fraction. The average percentage o f the total
family income derived from the wages o f the working children 14
and 15 years old in Allegheny and in Berks Counties, Pa., in Detroit,
in Buffalo, and in Winnipeg and of those 16 and 17 years old in
Cincinnati was 26. It varied from 16 per cent in Winnipeg to
30 per cent in Detroit. The percentage for the remaining four
localities can not be reported because data were incomplete in regard
to the children’s earnings, other sources o f income, the amount o f the
allowance, or two or more o f these items.
Children neither in school nor at work.
O f the 1,652 children 14 and 15 years old in the families receiving
allowances 57 (3 per cent) were neither at work nor in school at
the time of the study. Some had employment certificates and were
looking for work, some were waiting for their certificates, some were1
in poor health, some were mentally defective, and for a few no precise
information as to the reason was available. Some information was
obtained from seven localities as to the results o f physical examina
tions given at the time that applications were made for employment
certificates; no data were given, however, as to the number of children
who were incapacitated for both school attendance and work.
EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE MOTHERS
The degree to which mothers receiving aid were encouraged to
join clubs and classes o f an educational character varied greatly
from agency to agency. In some communities the grants were too
small to permit the mothers to give their time to anything more than
housekeeping and gainful employment. In one or two cities where
the grants were reasonably adequate little thought had been given
to the matter; in others great stress had been laid upon providing
channels to enable the mothers, especially those o f foreign birth, to
acquire a working knowledge o f English and o f fundamentals re
garding the care o f babies and children. In Detroit, for example,
the chief concern in the five classes conducted by the board o f educa
tion and in the two classes conducted by the Merrill-Palmer School
for mothers receiving aid was to give something o f vital interest and
significance which the women could absorb and utilize immediately.
The acquisition o f English came as a matter o f course, but at the
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
GENERAL FINDINGS
23
beginning the classes almost invariably used an interpreter. These
classes became social centers and provided the mothers through class
and club organization with a means o f self and group expression.
In Chicago all foreign-born mothers were required to have citizen
ship papers as a requisite to mothers’ aid, and those not already
citizens were therefore enrolled in citizenship classes. Some workers
were very active in connecting the mothers with organized mothers’
clubs operating through the settlements and recreation centers. The
nutrition classes of the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund in
Chicago were attended by the mothers with their children, and group
instruction was provided. Mothers also attended the nutrition classes
in Buffalo. In Cincinnati they were encouraged to enroll in evening
classes in cooking and sewing in the public schools. In Detroit, in
Pittsburgh, and in Berks County, Pa., the mothers’ aid workers
had made special efforts to have foreign-born mothers and their
daughters affiliated with the International Institute of the Young
Women’s Christian Association (a department dealing with foreignborn women and girls and their problems). In Detroit, Seattle, and
San Francisco great emphasis was laid upon encouraging the mothers
to join the local parent-teacher associations, and several women
receiving aid held offices of responsibility in these.
The agency administering the allowances in Berks County, Pa.,
had organized a home-craft shop, and it was believed that the
mothers’ work in this shop was a source not only of income and
gratification but in some cases of great therapeutic value also.14
RECREATION
BUDGET ALLO W AN CE FOR RECREATION
The Chicago standard budget,15 which was used by several agencies,
allowed 25 cents a month for recreation for each member of the
family not a wage earner. The San Francisco Widows’ Pension
Bureau allowed 50 cents a month for recreation for children under
working age. Often the allowance for incidentals covered recreation
also.
Working boys and girls were permitted a more generous allowance
by all the agencies, its amount depending somewhat upon their
earnings. In Erie County, N. Y., $5 a month for pocket money was
allowed a working child under 18 years of age. This was for
spending money only and did not include car fare and lunches. In
Chicago a working child earning less than $15 a week was allowed
25 cents a week spending money; in San Francisco he was allowed
$1 to $2 a month; and in Berks County, Pa., $2 a month was allowed
to working children for recreation.
POLICIES OF AGENCIES IN REGARD TO RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES
Only one agency made no effort to associate its children with recre
ational activities. Two others made no effort to do this unless a
child gave special evidence of need; for example, a difficult child
might be encouraged to join the Boy Scouts or the Young Men’s
14 A fter several years’ trial this shop was discontinued, as it could not be made selfsupporting.
ls See footnote 6, p. 34.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
24
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Christian Association. The policy o f the remaining seven agencies
was to stimulate and encourage recreational activities; this was car
ried out with varying degrees o f thoroughness, depending upon the
time and interest of the individual workers. There was considerable
effort to place children in clubs and classes in settlements and com
munity centers, and special attention was given to problem children.
Whenever possible the children were encouraged in musical activi
ties and in taking music lessons, especially at settlements where the
fees were nominal. Special effort was made to get musical training
and musical instruments for handicapped children. Working chil
dren were often permitted to purchase musical instruments in order
that the whole family might derive pleasure from them.
Comparatively few boys and girls were enrolled in scout troops
or similar outdoor organizations. One agency reported that the boys
did not have time because they were working out of school hours,
and others said they could not afford the dues and incidental ex
penses. It might be well to consider the value of this combination
o f outdoor and group activity as a means o f preventing juvenile
delinquency, especially that o f boys and girls whose mothers are
away from home part of the time and therefore can not regularly
supervise their children’s leisure-time activities.
The public library afforded another means for utilizing the leisure
time of children, but apparently the agencies had not given much
thought to this as yet in their recreational programs. As a rule the
children were permitted to attend motion pictures occasionally, but
the policy was that they should go with an adult or older child and
not oftener than once a week.
In Buffalo a number of members of a men’s club acted as “ big M
brothers ” to sons of women receiving allowances. They were espe
cially helpful in planning educational opportunities and in secur
ing good jobs for these boys. Nearly all the agencies did a great deal
in the way of promoting holiday festivities and summer outings; so
far as facilities were available, mothers and children were sent for
a week or two to a summer vacation camp; and the workers spent
many hours of their leisure time in taking individual children to the
circus, theater, zoological garden, parks, and museums. In Pitts
burgh a point was made o f encouraging mothers to take their chil
dren to the parks for a day’s outing as often as possible in the sum
mer; and many Chicago families spent happy days on boat trips on
Lake Michigan.
In Cincinnati one o f the three private relief agencies assisting the
agency administering mothers’ aid in its supervision o f families
planned occasional parties and good times for the mothers and chil
dren. Refreshments were served; often there would be some form
o f entertainment, such as a concert.
The majority o f the agencies did something at Christmas time to
bring cheer to the families. Recognizing the desire of the mothers
to be the Santa Claus to their own children, the administrative
agency in Berks County, Pa., one year asked a fraternal organization
to give directly to the mothers the money it would spend on each
family. The organization agreed, and each mother received $10 to
spend as she saw fit. After Christmas each mother wrote a letter
to the organization telling how the money had been spent. It seems
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
GENERAL. FINDINGS
25
especially important in dealing with dependent families that every
means should be used to give to the mother the power of serving her
children in ways which they can understand in order that they may
preserve to the utmost their confidence in her ability to fulfill their
needs.
A ll the agencies strongly urged that the mother and children join
in the good times of their church and take part in its social as well
as religious activities, and most o f the children under 16 attended
Sunday school. In fact, probably the majority of mothers receiving
aid secured their educational and social life through their children
and their church activities. For many this may have been adequate;
others would surely have profited by and expanded under the influ
ence o f educational opportunities and a broader social life.
SOME STRONG A N D W E A K POINTS IN THE ADM INISTRATION OF
MOTHERS’ AID
Many o f the 10 agencies attempted to do constructive case work
and much o f it was o f a high order. A few agencies did little or no
case work. This appeared to be due directly to a lack of under
standing of the technique and value of case work (and in one in
stance to an inadequate administrative staff), and indirectly to the
lack o f a group o f citizens and coworkers who would support an
administration based upon the case-work method. The latter
agencies were in States where there was State supervision but where
the emphasis was placed upon the administrative rather than the
educational side o f such supervision.
In 5 of the 10 localities studied some form of State supervision
was in force. State supervision is greatly needed, especially outside
the large cities, to help in the establishment and maintenance of
standards o f constructive family work. The question o f what form
o f State supervision is best calculated to effect these results deserves
careful consideration. Is the most responsible local administration
developed under a form of State supervision which is primarily edu
cational in its approach to the local agencies administering the law,
or is it best promoted under a form o f State supervision which is
concerned largely with the direct investigation and visiting of
families independently o f the local agency administering the law?
In four communities the relation between the agency administer
ing mothers’ aid and the private family-relief agencies was one of
great friendliness and mutual confidence; two communities had no
private family agency; in otie the relation was one of indifference; in
three there was a lack of harmony that made teamwork impossible.
In the communities in which the agencies were cooperating a sympa
thetic understanding of the peculiar problems of each agency and an
exchange o f ideas in regard to standards and methods made for highgrade work. In communities where the relations between the
mothers’ aid agency and the private agency were not satisfactory,
and in a less degree in communities where there were no private
family agencies, there seemed to be a tendency on the part of the
mothers’ aid staff not to appreciate that mothers’ aid calls for the
application of family case work technique and that mothers’ aid
94535°— 28------3
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
26
ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
agencies therefore should take pains to employ workers trained in
family case work or should give the workers now employed an
opportunity to acquire this training.
The agencies administered through boards or commissions of
citizens were protected against political assaults and safeguarded in
the maintenance o f standards and personnel—provided the members
were appointed with reference to their capacity for intelligent and
useful service. The boards in Buffalo and Pittsburgh were fortu
nate in each having one member who was the executive of a private
family agency; in Pittsburgh one member was also on the board o f
directors o f a family-welfare society, and a third had been a social
worker prior to her marriage; the board in Buffalo had two mem
bers who were on district committees o f the Charity Organization
Society; and one member o f the board in Berks County, Pa., had
served on the board of the private family society. It was significant
that the aid was administered by such unpaid boards in three o f the
communities where the administrative staff was adequate and in two
where the relation between the mothers’ aid agency and the private
family agencies was good. It was also noteworthy that in Chicago
and Cincinnati the juvenile courts had felt the need of such service
and had organized advisory committees, which in some measure con
stituted themselves guardians of the mothers’ aid divisions o f the
courts. The remaining agencies might have profited by the organi
zation of similar committees.
It is often extremely difficult, even when adequate assistance to
families is provided, to persuade taxpayers and county and city
officials o f the importance o f adequate personnel, and one of the
most serious handicaps in 6 of the 10 agencies was the lack of
an adequate administrative staff. In Pittsburgh, in Berks County,
Pa., in Chicago, and in Buffalo the case load per worker was from
40 to 60 families and from 1 to 8 new investigations each month.
In the remaining six agencies the workers carried from 90 to 250
families, generally in addition to making new investigations. Two
o f the six employed an investigator whose sole task was to make
new investigations. Not only were these workers supervising an
excessive number o f families, but in two agencies they had to do
all their own typing and in a third they did much o i it. In one
agency where the case load was 60 families per worker one stenog
rapher was employed for the whole department of 24 case workers.
As the number o f families per worker rises above 50 or 60 the possi
bilities o f intensive case work diminish correspondingly, and case
recording is bound to be meagerly and poorly done.
However, it was a truism that even in the communities where all
round intensive social case work was not attempted, the regularity
o f financial aid and its continuance over a period o f years, together
with such friendly service as was given and the spirit in which it was
administered, fostered an esprit de corps, a sense of security and
stability, an appreciation of the spiritual values implicit in the law,
and tended to develop and maintain in a large number o f families
a high degree o f personal efficiency and a capacity to organize their
own normal activities on a par with those of self-supporting families
in their communities.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
GENERAL FINDINGS
^1
27
In the following sections describing the work o f each agency and
the kind o f opportunities afforded to the children who were the
beneficiaries o f the 10 agencies studied—discussed briefly in the
foregoing pages—instances will be found o f outstanding service given
to children and their mothers, notably in safeguarding their health,
both physical and mental. Another especially significant fact
brought out by the study is the emphasis being placed in some locali
ties on giving the children educational opportunities that will insure
their future success and happiness, and not, as unfortunately is
often the case because of inadequate provision for aid, requiring these
children prematurely to take up the burden of support—a short
sighted policy, as some of these agencies have recognized.
#
*
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
A
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
MOTHERS’ ALLOW ANCES IN ALLEGHENY COUNTY, PA.1
PROVISIONS OF THE L A W
The law creating a mothers’ assistance fund was passed in 1913
and amended in 1915. It was repealed and a rewritten act substi
tuted in 1919 and further amended in 1921 and 1923.2 In this
amended form only such mothers were eligible as were widows or
wives of men “ permanently confined in institutions for the insane.”
Other conditions of aid were as follows: The mother must be of
“ proved character and ability” ; she must have lived in the State
two years and in the county one year prior to her application for
a id ; she must live with her children in her own home, must be “ poor
and dependent,” and must need aid for the proper maintenance of
her children in their own home. The children must be attending
school and have a satisfactory record o f attendance.
The maximum assistance allowed was $20 a month for the first
child and $10 a month for each additional child. An allowance
might be given for an unborn child if the mother had one or more
children entitled to aid. Aid was permitted for children up to 16
years of age, provided the children were in school with satisfactory
school record or were physically unable to earn wages on attaining
the age necessary for employment certificates.
The following rulings and policies had been formulated by the
State supervisor (see the following section), and some of them had
been considered and approved by the attorney general: A mother
or children might have an equity in their home of $1,500 and $400
in cash or other assets and still be eligible for aid; aid was not to be
granted to a mother who was receiving compensation under the State
compensation law for the death o f her husband by industrial acci
dent; a mother was not to be permitted to keep men boarders or
lodgers other than her brother or father; and she was not eligible
if there were relatives legally responsible for the support of the chil
dren. The State supervisor recommended that a physical examina
tion be required for all children (and, if possible, for all mothers)
as a matter of routine preliminary to the granting of assistance. A
.
P°Palation of tlils county 111 1920 was 1 ,1 8 5 ,8 0 8 ; of this number, 588,343 lived
native white population was 883,181, the foreign-born white popula
tion 248,581, and the negro population 53,517. The nationality of the foreign-born popu
lation was as follows, in the order given : Polish, Italian, German, Austrian, Russian
Irish, Czechoslovakian, English, and Hungarian. The child population within the legal’
age for mothers aid was 398,156.
(Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920. vol. 3
Population, pp. 857, 859, 883, 885, Washington, 1922.) The chief industries o f the county
are the great blast furnaces and steel mills, foundries and machine shops, which line the
shores of the Allegheny, Monongahela, Ohio, and Youghiogheny Rivers.
' Pa., act o f Apr 29, 1913, No. 80, Laws of 1913, p. 1 1 8 ; act of June 18, 1915, No. 439
Lawf of 1915 p 1 0 3 8 ; act of July 10, 1919, No. 354, Laws of 1919, p. 8 9 3 ; a i t of May
27, 1 9 2 !, No. 433, Laws of 1921, p. 1 1 7 5 ; act of May 22, 1923, No. 200, Laws of 1923
p. a07. Appropriations and methods of appropriation have been provided for in the follow]}]&
of June 29, 1917, No. 237, Laws of 1917, p. 6 6 4 ; act of July 10 1919 No
I f 1, Laws of 1919, p 907 ; act of May 27, 1921, No. 438, Laws of 1921, p. 1184 ; act o f May
ii^ i6 i9 fs u p p
’ l92a4 !Sp 4 5 l . f ’ P‘
^
P a ’ S ta t 1920’ secs- 1 6 7 1 7 -1 6 7 3 4 , pp.
29
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
30
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
manual of mothers’ assistance had been issued for the guidance of the
boards in the administration of the law, which defined standards of
investigation, adequacy of aid, and supervision.
STATE SUPERVISION
The law contains the following provisions in regard to State
supervision :
The governor shall appoint a State supervisor, qualified by training and
experience, who shall be a woman. The State supervisor shall have general
supervision over the boards of trustees of the several counties and shall act as
general field organizer. She shall be on the staff of the department of public
welfare.
The State supervisor shall formulate and issue to the boards of trustees of
the various counties rules of procedure by which they shall be governed, to
the end that uniformity of interpretation and practice shall obtain throughout
the Commonwealth. She shall visit, at least twice a year, the boards of
trustees of each county accepting the provisions of this act. She shall, as
general field organizer, visit the county commissioners of those counties which
have not availed themselves of the provisions of this act, and shall explain
to such commissioners the benefits accruing from the act and the advantages
of coming within its provisions, and shall assist such county commissioners
in the organization of boards of trustees.
She shall make a report annually to the commissioner of public welfare,
reviewing the work done under the provisions of this act by the trustees of the
various counties, laying special stress upon educational conditions of the
assisted families.
The State supervisor appointed, with the approval of the governor,
an assistant State supervisor. The law did not give administrative
authority to the supervisor, but provided that the administration
of this act within the several counties should be solely in the hands
of the board of trustees appointed by the governor—subject, howl|&
ever, to the rules adopted and issued by the State supervisor.
The State office o f the mothers’ assistance fund acted as a clearing
house for the gathering of important facts in relation to mothers’
aid in county, State, and Nation, and for redistributing such in
formation to the local boards through circular letters, a manual of
mothers’ assistance, and other literature. It also outlined certain
rulings and policies for the general guidance of the boards. Re
prints of papers read at the National Conference of Social Work and
of magazine articles, as well as bulletins and reports, were fre
quently sent to the boards.
The framework for a fairly uniform record system was insured
by the fact that the State office provided the boards with forms and
blanks, the face card, the school-report blank, the household expense
account blank, the physical-examination blank, and an alphabetical
card index and application book for filing applications. A standard
budget was also furnished to be used as a guide in estimating grants.
The State supervisor passed on all petitions for grants on the basis
o f the face card and summary for each applicant, which were sent
by the local boards to the State office; a monthly pay roll also was
sent to the State office, and a State check for half the amount of the
grant was mailed by the State supervisor, the other half of the grant
being paid by the county treasurer. The State supervisor made a
biennial report to the general assembly as provided by law and took ^
the lead in formulating the legislative program as to both the appro-▼
priation to be asked and the amendments to be introduced.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
ALLEGHENY COUNTY, PA.
31
Either the supervisor or her assistant visited the county boards
twice a year, if possible, working out with them local problems and
difficulties. I f the trustees were themselves acting as volunteers,
doing all the investigating and supervising o f families without
|| paid service (as was true in 28 rural counties), or if part-time paid
workers were employed (as was true in 6 counties) the supervisor or
her assistant, as often as was possible, spent a week or two in the
county visiting applicants or families receiving aid with the trustees
or worker, showing each in turn how to make an investigation,
suggesting constructive steps in treatment, and making clear the
responsibility of the trustees in the supervision of the families. This
demonstration by doing was the most important single step in the
teaching process.
In counties where full-time trained or semitrained workers were
employed (22 in all) families were visited with the workers, occa
sionally also with the trustees, if it seemed advisable; or the survey
might consist o f a study of records. Families were never visited
by the supervisor alone. Her function was not to inspect nor to
investigate claims but solely to aid the trustees and workers in ac
quiring an understanding o f case-work methods and point of view.
Intercounty conferences o f trustees and workers were held at
various points throughout the State as a means o f promoting a sense
o f unity and solidarity, discussing important legislative plans, and
gathering and disseminating knowledge as to the best administrative
methods in use throughout the State.
AD M IN ISTR AT IO N OF THE L A W
ADM INISTRATIVE AGENCY
The administration o f the law was given to unpaid county boards
o f seven women trustees appointed by the governor. These boards
were under the general supervision o f the State supervisor o f the
mothers’ assistance fund. They were allowed traveling expenses
incurred in the administration of the law.
The Allegheny County board of trustees of the mothers’ assist
ance fund consisted o f women o f broad social vision who were iden
tified with the social and philanthropic work o f their communities.
It included a professional social worker and a woman ‘who prior
to her marriage had been a social worker. Two o f the trustees,
including the president of the board, had served continuously
since its organization 10 years before, and two had served for
8 years. The president o f the board was also a member o f the board
o f directors o f a family-welfare society and o f the largest settlement
in the city. She had made a practice for years or interviewing
every mother during the first month in which aid was given to ex
plain the purpose o f the grant and the mother’s responsibility not
only to her children but to the cause o f mothers’ aid in the whole
State.
The philosophy underlying the relation o f the board to the beneficiaries^ o f mothers’ aid could be summed up in these words: The
Instate in passing the mothers’ assistance law assumed responsibility
™ both financial and social for the welfare and nurture of the depend
ent, fatherless children who came within the scope o f the law and
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
32
A D M IN IS T R A T IO N
OF
M O T H E R S ’ A ID
IN
TEN
L O C A L IT IE S
who with their mothers were by this token entitled to all the aids
which case work could give in making satisfactory adjustments to
their environment and in utilizing the health, educational, recrea
tional, and social resources o f the county.
THE STAFF
The board appointed the executive secretary, who in turn, with
their approval, selected her staff of 10 field workers and 3 stenog
raphers. The executive secretary had secured her training and
several years’ experience in private family agencies. Four of the 10
field workers were graduates of the department of social work that
was conducted as an undergraduate school of Margaret Morrison
College for Women of the Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pitts
burgh. All four of these workers had received the field training
while juniors in college under the supervision of the Associated
Charities and while seniors under the supervision of the mothers’
aid staff. They had no other training or experience before their
employment as paid workers. Three other field workers were col
lege graduates. One of these had had a year’s experience in psy
chiatric social work under the supervision of a State hospital for
mental diseases. Another had done volunteer work for one year
with a private family agency and for a second year with a settlement
in connection with university undergraduate courses in sociology.
The third had had a year’s teaching experience and a six weeks’
training course with a private family agency prior to her appoint
ment on the mothers’ aid staff.
One of the remaining three members of the staff had had three
years in college and two years in civilian relief work with the Red
Cross; one had had one year of college work and 18 months’ experi
ence in a charity organization society; and the third was a highschool graduate who had taken a number of special college courses
and a summer course at a school of social work. She had been with
the International Institute of the Young Women’s Christian Associ
ation before joining the mothers’ aid staff seven years before the
study and was able to speak several languages. The staff were en
thusiastic and eager to give the best that was in them to the families
under their care.3
One automobile was at the service of the staff for county work.
APPROPRIATION AND VOLUME OF WORK
The State legislature at its biennial sessions makes appropriations
for the mothers’ assistance fund, and the sums appropriated are
apportioned to the various counties according to population and
need. The State treasurer is required, after deducting the sums
designated for the payment of salaries and expenses, to divide the
balance of the appropriation into two equal sums and to distribute
one of these sums the first of the two fiscal years in the proportions
specified to the counties classified by population; the seven classes
8 The members of the staff were given an opportunity for two hours’ advanced study
each week— one hour for outside courses in social wovk and the second hour for staff
conferences in which a regular course of study of case-work methods wag followed.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
ALLEGHENY COUNTY, PA.
33
made on the basis o f population and the percentages o f the sum to be
distributed among them were as follow s: 4
C lass o f
co u n ty
Population limits
First class___
Second ClassThird class—
Fourth class.
Fifth class___
Sixth class—
Seventh class.
_
..
..
..
.
..
More than 1,500,000.
1,000,000 to 1,500,000.
200,000 to 1,000,000100,000 to 200,000___
50,000 to 100,000____
25,000 to 50,000______
Less than 25,000____
P e rce n ta g e o f
design a ted sum
24
16
19
26
9
4%
1%
No county could receive its allotment o f the State appropriation
available for any year unless it accepted the provisions of the law
in regard to the classification and allotment and placed at the dis
posal o f the trustees a sum equal to the amount available from the
State appropriation for that year.5 Distribution of the sum set
aside for the second of the two fiscal years was made in a manner
analogous to that described for the first fiscal year of the biennium
surplus funds accruing because any counties did not avail themselves
of the provisions o f the act being added to the sums available for
the second fiscal year in each case. The State appropriation to Alle
gheny County for the biennial period June 1, 1923, to May 31, 1925,
was $276,000. This, when matched by county funds, permitted an
annual expenditure of $276,000. Although this was a large increase
over the $156,480 a_year provided by State and county funds during
the previous biennium, it was estimated that an appropriation of
$411,000 would be required to meet the entire need on the basis of
the maximum grants at that time.
i During February, 1924, 477 families, including 1,652 children
under 16, received mothers’ aid. Each o f the 10 visitors supervised
40 to 50 families and made one or two new investigations each month.
In addition, each worker had contact with 6 to 8 other families
during the month, including families whose grants had been canceled
or which required further investigation. There were 425 families
on the waiting list.
PROCEDURE IN MAKING ALLO W AN CES
Application was made personally at the office by each mother
The applications were investigated and acted upon in chronological
order. There was no application blank; the face card was filled out
at the dictation of the mother and she made affidavit to it. It con
tained the following information: The names, addresses, birthplaces
and dates o f birth o f parents and of children; the date, cause of
death, and name of attending physician or hospital if the father was
dead; date o f commitment and name o f hospital if the father was in
a hospital for the insane; the father’s last occupation, name o f last
employer, wages, and whether his occupation was in any way re
sponsible for his death or insanity; physical or mental defects of
parents and children; grades o f children in school, school, and a<*e
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
34
ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
at entering; occupations and wages of children at w ork; previous
residences of the family and address of present landlord; employ
ment and wages of mother, and the nationality, citizenship, religion,
and length of residence in the United States and in the county of ^
father and mother; the financial conditions at the father’s death or ™
commitment to hospital for insane; the present financial situation;
facts regarding property, savings, and insurance; names and ad
dresses of relatives, physician, other individuals, and philanthropic
agencies interested in or assisting the fam ily; the church; an estimate
of the'household budget.
Investigation was made as follow s: The birth dates of children,
residence, marriage, and all statements regarding property, insur
ance, and savings were, verified; the death of the father was also
verified, and if he was insane the commitment was verified and a
statement obtained from the hospital covering diagnosis, prognosis,
and whether the father had venereal disease. The name of the
family was registered in the confidential exchange and the agencies
registered were consulted. A visit was made to the mother’s home,
the children’s teachers were visited, and generally several relatives
were seen in their own homes—if possible, relatives on both mother’s
and father’s side; the minister and the family physician were con
sulted and sometimes—but not always—the landlord, the employer
o f the father if he was recently employed, the employer of the
mother, and other references.
USE OF A STANDARD BUDGET
The Chicago standard budget6 was used for all items except food,
For this the allowance was that of the budget o f the New York
Nutrition Council.7 The budgets were revised at least once in six
months and as much oftener as occasion required. The combination
budget was as follow s:
Rent: As paid, if reasonable.
Food:
Boys’ cost per month
Girls’ cost per month
Age in years
B
A
Under 2 --------------- ------------------------------------------------
9 il
_________ __ ______
—
-------------i l 12
________ ________________
________
12 15............. ........................................................
15 16_________________________ ________ ___
Over 16______________________________________
$5.
5.
5.
5.
6.
6.
7.
8.
9.
9.
10.
20
42
63
85
28
72
58
23
20
75
83
$ 6.
7.
7.
7.
7.
8.
8.
9.
11.
11.
12.
B
A
93
15
15
37
58
02
67
53
00
92
78
$5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
6.
6.
6.
7.
7.
9.
20
20
42
63
85
28
50
93
37
90
10
$ 6.
6.
6.
6.
7.
7.
7.
8.
8.
8.
9.
93
93
93
93
15
37
80
02
45
88
75
6 Nesbitt, Florence : The Chicago Standard Budget for Dependent Families. The Chi^A
cago Council of Social Agencies, Chicago, 1920.
*
7 G00(J Nutrition and Adequate Food Allowances for the Family. Prepared by the Com
mittee on Economic Standards of the New York Nutrition Council. New York, 1922.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
ALLEGH ENY
COTJNTY, P A .
35
Q u a lific a tio n s f o r fo o d a llo w a n c e s:
X.
2.
3.
4.
Family of 3 or less, B allowance for each member.
Nursing mother $13.65 (no extra allowance for baby).
Use B allowances where special nourishment required.
Deduct one-fourth allowance for adults eating lunches regularly away
from home and make special allowance for lunches in budget estimate.
5. For all cases in which B allowance not recommended in above qualifica
tions use A allowance. .
6. Allow for the average mother $9.10 per month.
CLO TH ING AN D T O IL E T A R T IC L E S :
Per month
For a man at ordinary outdoor work— ----------------i--------------------$ 6; 50
(Increase for work involving unusual exposure.)
For a woman at home--------------------------------------------------------------------5- 00
Working girl or boy---------------- -------------------------------------------------------- 8 -1 5 -1 2 .2 0
(Increase according to standard of dress required by
employment.)
For office work where good standard of appearance is
required__________________________________________________________ 10 . 00- 12 . 00
The requirements for girl or boy in high school are much
the same as if the child were at work.
Children 13 years and up in eighth grade-----------------------------------5. 75
Children 10 to 12 years------------------------- -----------------------------------------4. 70
Children 5 to 9 years----------------------------------------------------------------------3. 65
Children 2 to 4 years----------------------------------------------------------------------2. 80
Children under 2 years------------------------------------------------------------------!• 85
In families where there is clothing from older children or
parents to be handed down to the younger ones, these figures
may be reduced by 10 to 25 per cent for the members of the
family receiving such donations.
The larger figure allows $25 a year for “ b est” clothing.
H O U SEH O LD F U R N ISH IN G S A N D S U P P L IE S :
Family of 2 members---------------------------------------------*----------------------4. 00
Family of 3 or 4 members-------------------------------------------------------------4. 75
Family of 5 or 6 members-------------------------------------------------------------5. 50
Family of 7 or 8 members-------------------------------------------------------------6 . 25
Family of 9 or 10 .members-.---------------------------------------------------------7. 00
FUEL AND L IG H T :
Four winter months, three-fourths ton per month.
Four spring and autumn months, one-half ton per month.
Four summer months (gas only), $1 to $1.50 per month.
Kindling, $1 to $2 per month.
When families heat by gas, $2 per month per room; $1 per
month per room in spring and fall.
Light (gas or kerosene), $1 per month.
Health, 25 cents per month and up for each person.
Car fare as used.
Spending money for earning children, 25 cents to $1 per week.
Insurance as used (if reasonable).
Incidentals, $1.50 to $2 per month per family (when there are
no earning children).
The grant was made to fit the need so far as the maximum allowed
under the law permitted. The decision as to the amount to be
granted was made by the board of trustees on the recommendation of
the executive secretary at the regular fortnightly meeting.
The average grants per family and per child in Allegheny County
in February, 1924, were $39.10 and $11.20, respectively. The largest
grant was $90; the smallest grant was $13. A t the time of the study
94 of the 477 families had an income that, with the grant, was
inadequate according to the budget.
During the winter of 1924 philanthropic trust funds in the city
allowed the mothers’ assistance fund $1,000 for gas and coal in addi
tion to the regular grants.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
36
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
A ll mothers were required to keep itemized monthly householdexpense accounts either on loose slips of paper or on blanks provided
by the State office. These were made the basis for suggestions in
regard to diet, the proper cooking of foods, marketing, and espe- 0
cially the use of milk, upon which great emphasis was laid. There
was no visiting-housekeeper association in the city, so that all instruc
tion had be given by the mothers’ aid visitors, one of whom had had
special training in dietetics. The monthly accounts under the items
of the budget were copied on the yearly household-account sum
maries. Following are copies of single monthly and yearly account
blanks :
»
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
#
w
%
[Face]
County_______ _____ ________ ..............................
No.........
Name_____________________
(f o r
food see
other
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
Department of Welfare
Mothers’ Assistance Fund
s id e )
M O N TH LY HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNT
Month.
Day
of
month
Clothing, sewing supplies, shoe
mending, toilet articles, etc.
Item
Amt.
Item
Amt.
Amt.
Item
Amt.
Doctor, dentist,
glasses, medi
cine, etc.
For
whom
Amt.
Fuel,
light
Life and
fire in
surance,
lodge
dues
Amt.
Amt.
Rent, taxes, inter
est, repairs, etc.
Item
Amt.
Incidentals .
Item
Total...
Total......................................
1
Amount on hand first of month—.............. ..................... . . ............ .........
Amount earned by mother-------- }----------------------------------------------------Amount earned by children____ _____ -(full total)--------------------------Name of child
Gifts received during the month—
Clothing, food, fuel. List articles
received.
Amt. earned
Do not write in this space.
Amt.
ALLEGHENY COUNTY, PA.
For
whom
Laundry, house fur
Church, good times,
Car
nishings and sup
newspapers, maga
fare,
plies, soap, farm lunches
zines, postage, etc.
supplies
Amount received from lodgers and boarders,--------- -----------------------Amount received from relatives, lodges, or other sources----------------Amount from Mothers’ Assistance Fund................... ...........................Total received during month--------------------------------------------------Total expenses for month___________ __________________ ____ _
Amount on hand at end of month-._______ _____ ____________
03
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
38
ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
[Reverse]
THE COST OF FOOD FOR THE MONTH
Day
of
month
Quan
tity
Article
Total carried forward
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cost
Day
of
month
Quan
tity
Total carried
Article
Cost
Day
of
month
Grant
Quan
tity
Article
Cost
♦
f i
M OTHERS
Children—
___ under 16 years.
___ over 16 years.
Surname.
ASSISTANCE FU N D OF P E N N SYLV A N IA
HOUSEHOLD A C C O U N T S U M M A R Y ON
BASIS OF T W E L V E M O N TH S
___ Total in family.
Address..
Average age of children
September 1 , ___
County.
Average age of children
March 1 ,___
Number
Expenses
Income
Month
Lodg
ers or
board
ers
Rela
tives
Mothers’ Other
Gifts,
assist
money clothing,
ance
supplies
help
fund
Total
Rent,
taxes,
inter
est,
etc.
Food
Fuel
and
light
Milk
Other
food
Cloth
ing
House
Insur
hold Health, Inci
Car
ance,
doctor, dentals
fur
fares,
union
nish
dentist
dues, lunches
ings
etc.
Total
■i
—
ALLEGHENY COUNTY, PA,
Woman
Chil
dren
CO
CO
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
40
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
SUPPLEMENTING OF MOTHERS’ AID
When the maximum mothers’ aid grant was inadequate to cover
the family budget it was the policy o f the department, as far as was
possible, to secure supplementary aid from some family agency or
itself to organize relief. The four private family agencies in Pitts
burgh all gave supplementary aid both to families receiving mothers’
aid and to families on the waiting list. As a rule these agencies
granted aid only to families that had been known to them prior
to the application for mothers’ aid. The understanding on which
the family agencies gave supplementary aid was that the maximum
grant would be allowed.
The Conference of Catholic Charities gave $627.76 to 14 families
receiving mothers’ aid and $5,058.71 to 43 families on the waiting list
between January 1, 1923, and March 1, 1924. The Pittsburgh Asso
ciation for the Improvement of the Poor during its fiscal year April
1, 1923, to March 31, 1924, aided 10 families on the waiting list to
the amount of $172. No aid was given to families receiving mothers’
aid. The Associated Charities of Pittsburgh aided 46 families on
the waiting list to the amount of $12,416.89 and two families receiv
ing aid to the amount o f $654.77 during 1923. The United Hebrew
Relief Association aided 27 families on the waiting list to the amount
o f $14,460 and 13 families receiving aid to the amount of $4,783
during 1923. The directors o f the poor o f Allegheny County aided
7 families receiving mothers’ assistance to the amount of $235 and
30 families on the waiting list to the amount o f $5,319.50 between
June 1, 1923, and May 31, 1924.
VISITING
It was the policy o f the mothers’ aid workers to visit each family
at least once a month and oftener if the need was urgent. Families
living outside Pittsburgh could not always be visited so frequently,
partly because of the condition of the roads and the inaccessibility
of the homes and partly because of the time required and the pressure
o f other work.
HEALTH
PHYSICAL HEALTH
The allowance for health—25 cents per person per month— was that
provided by the Chicago standard budget. Allowance was made for
special diet and for medical or dental care by increasing the grant
if the maximum was not already being allowed.
Physical examinations and general procedure.
In the fall of 1922 a pediatrician in charge of a clinic in one of the
large hospitals offered to examine, a few at a time, children under 12
years of age in Pittsburgh for whom aid was being granted if they
were not reached by the child-health centers. A physical-health
blank was compiled, and as it included a certain amount of personal
and family health this history was secured as well as information
concerning the health habits o f the child. The blank form was as
follow s:
*
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ALLEGHENY COUNTY, PA.
Face
PH YSIC A L REPORT OF M. A. F. A LLE G H E N Y CO.
N A M E .__ t_________ . . . . . . .
AGE.................. ...................
D A T E .................................. ......................
FAMILY HISTORY
Father,__________ A ge,__________ Date oi death,__________ Cause oi death,_____ ____ _______
Mother,-------------- A g e ,........... . Miscarriage,______ . . . Child.living,................ Child d e a d ,...
Health,------------ Rheum-------------- T b c .,________ Nerv. dis.,________ Alcohol,________ Syph.,.
PERSONAL HISTORY
Child b o m ,_____ mo. Labor,___________ W t. at birth, ......... lbs.
Sat up a t ..........mo.
Talked a t ___ — mo Walked a t ..........mo Teeth at ____ _ mo
General health and habits:
Type of house,__________ No. of rooms,_____ ; outside,______; inside,____ventilation, . . ' . . . .
Sleep,..........; am t.,______ No. in room............; in bed,______; bed-wetter,______; masturbator, -.
Bowels, _____ ; bath,_____ ; mouth breather, ...____
D ie t,..........; tea,______; coflee,.......... ; milk per d a y ,______; regularity of meals,____ _
Feeding history,_________ ; breast,__________; bottle,_____r. f . . .
Previous diseases:
Measles,______ Wh. e g .,____ _ C. pox............ Scarlet,____ _ D iphtb.,_____
Mumps ..
G. measles,_____ Rheu.,______ Gastro-enteric,______ R esp.,______ E ar,______ Throat, _.
Colds,______ Other diseases,____ >
HOSPITAL HISTORY
Where.____________________
D ate,____________________
Cause,____ .______________ _
MEDICAL EXAMINATION
B y ...............................................................................................................................................................................
W eight,_____ lbs. Height,______ in. Norma) weight, for height,______ lbs.
General condition, .................. Color,_________
Muscles,_________
M entality,__________
Head:
E yes,______ N ose,_____ _ Ears,______
M outh ,______ Teeth,______ Throat,______ Tonsil,______ Adenoid,___ __
Chest:
Heart,______ Lungs,______
Abdomen:
Liver,______ Spleen,______ Kidneys, x_____
Lymph nodes,______ Epitrochlears,______ Genitals,______
Skin,........... Extremities,.......... Feet,______
Remarks_______________________________ . . . _________________________ __________________ . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reverse I
DIAGNOSIS:
PROGNOSIS:
R E F E R R E D TO—
LATER EXAMINATION
Date
Age
Wt.
94535°—28----- 4
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Notes
42
ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
By the end o f 1923 this pediatrician had examined 416 children,
and 655 were still to be examined. The pediatric clinics o f two other
hospitals had begun to give their services for the examination of
children in their neighborhoods. For the groups of children exam
ined a foundation for good health work was being laid. No coercion
had been placed upon the mothers, as nearly all of them were ex
tremely glad to take advantage of the opportunity. During the
examination the examining pediatrician gave the mothers advice as
to diet, sleep, rest, and other matters o f child care; and the examina
tions were followed up by the mothers’ aid visitors, who conferred
directly with the doctors. The report o f the examination was filed
with the social record. As less than half of the initial examinations
had been completed no plan had been made for periodic renewal of
the examinations, nor had any provision been made for a continuous
health record of every child.
The social records usually did not give the family medical history
unless there was some striking or unusual malady. In sending a sick
child to a clinic the workers generally secured a medical report on
the blank used for routine examinations. Sometimes they copied the
clinic reports on their medical sheet. The reports were secured
through the social-service departments o f the hospitals, though the
mothers’ aid visitors often conferred directly with the examining
physicians. Records of treatment were kept up to date through close
contacts between the workers and the hospital social-service de
partments.
Every effort was made to persuade mothers to have the necessary
remedial treatment for their children; in extreme cases it was some
times necessary to threaten withdrawal of aid.
The employment of private physicians was discouraged in the city,
since there were excellent clinical facilities, and physicians employed
by-the city were called only in emergencies. I f a private physician
o f good professional reputation was supervising a family or one of
its members and was willing to give his services, this supervision was
encouraged.
Follow-up of special types of problems.
Tuberculosis.—Whenever a mother or child had been exposed to
tuberculosis it was the policy of the department to refer the patient
to one o f the State tuberculosis dispensaries in the county and to
insist upon regular supervision if there was a predisposition to tuber
culosis. The State tuberculosis nurses visited the homes of dispen
sary patients and advised in regard to health habits. Residence in a
sanatorium was insisted upon for active cases of tuberculosis if the
doctor recommended it. The State maintained a free sanatorium
and preventorium for tuberculosis at Cresson (about 80 miles from
Pittsburgh), and tuberculous patients were also cared for at the
Pittsburgh Sanatorium, the Tuberculosis League Hospital, and the
county hospital. The Tuberculosis League maintained or assisted in
maintaining nursing service that covered 22 boroughs or towns in
Allegheny County. The Public Health Nursing Association also
conducted a tuberculosis clinic.
Venereal disease.—Wassermann tests were given to all members of
mothers’ aid families who had been exposed to venereal diseases or
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ALLEGHENY COUNTY, PA.
43
in whom there was reason to suspect infection, and the necessary
treatment was given. There was a venereal clinic at one of the hos
pitals, and the State department of health furnished salvarsan for
treatment.
■
Orthopedic and cardiac affections.— Great care was exercised in
providing expert orthopedic care for all crippled children, and excel
lent facilities were available at the Childrens Hospital and the ortho
pedic clinics o f other hospitals. The Sewickley Fresh Air Home for
crippled children received applications through the Allegheny Gen
eral Hospital. This home provided medical and surgical care and
gave a limited vocational training. It also gave free care to cardi c
and convalescent cases. The D. E. Watson Home for Crippled Girls
provided medical and surgical care and vocational training for girls
between 3 and 16 years of age. The Pittsburgh Industrial Home for
Crippled Children received white and negro boys and girls from 3
to 16 years o f age, the children attending the public schools. Braces
and special apparatus were secured through the Rotary Club or the
social-service departments of hospitals. There was no bus in the
county for transporting crippled children to and from school. Most
o f the hospitals had cardiac clinics or cardiac specialists in connec
tion with their medical clinics. Two hospital clinics assisted in
placing patients in positions suitable to their physical condition.
E ye, ear, nose, and throat affections.—Examinations were made,
treatments given, and operations performed at the hospital clinics.
The choice of the hospital was determined largely by the locality in
which the patient lived.
£ Dentistry.—The school dental clinics provided free care for school
children. The dental school o f the University o f Pittsburgh gave
free treatment also, but it charged for materials. There were dental
clinics in several hospitals, and the Public Health Nursing Associa
tion in Pittsburgh conducted 15 clinics outside the city. The Tuber
culosis League maintained or assisted in maintaining dental clinics in
12 communities outside Pittsburgh.
Health work fo r infants and preschool children.—The city bureau
o f child welfare in the department o f health had charge of all the
municipal child-health work and school medical inspection and nurs
ing. The 14 child-health centers which the bureau maintained cared
for children only up to 2 years o f age. Mothers receiving aid were
encouraged to take their babies to the centers once a week in the
summer and once a month in the winter. Milk was furnished to
them free or at a reduced price.
The Public Health Nursing Association, in addition to bedside
nursing, maintained a variety of services, including 11 weekly baby
clinics and 26 weekly health conferences for well babies. A ll babies
under the regular care of the association were examined thoroughly
once a month; mothers were asked to attend the conferences weekly,
and they were visited monthly by the nurses. One health center
was conducted for children between 2 and 6 years of age. The
association included in its service Pittsburgh, Braddock, and McKees
Rocks, and it supervised the nursing activities ,in 15 other communities
W in the county.
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ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Under the Sheppard-Towner A c t 8 the preschool division of the
bureau o f child health of the Pennsylvania Department of Health
conducted or cooperated in the maintenance of child-health centers
for children up to 6 years of age in 11 communities in the county ||
outside Pittsburgh, and another was soon to be opened.
In Pittsburgh the mothers’ aid workers saw that all babies were
taken to one o f the health centers. The Centers furnished the
mothers’ aid office with reports of the examinations; but after the
first connection had been established the follow-up of the babies under
the care of the Public Health Nursing Association was left with
the association, at its own request. The child-health centers were
within fairly easy reach of most homes; the majority of the mothers
could walk to one o f them and none would have to change cars.
Outside Pittsburgh the children of preschool age visited the centers,
but there was no periodic follow-up. The medical reports were
copied by the workers on the medical blanks used by the mothers’
aid department.
School medical inspection.—The State law provided for yearlv
physical examinations of all school children.9 In Pittsburgh they
were made by the physicians on the staff of the city bureau of child
health. The nurses and their assistants connected with the bureau
had charge of the follow-up o f the physical examinations, which
included also dental examination. The nurses inspected the chil
dren in each schoolroom once a week. The department of education
provided free dental care, X -ray examinations, and eye refractions
for needy school children. The State department of health paid
for the physical examinations in towns o f less than 5,000 inhabitants;^
in these towns in the year prior to the study examinations had been^
made o f only about half the school children because of lack of
adequate funds. The mothers’ aid visitors were expected to examine
the reports o f the school inspectors that were sent to the mothers
and to plan with the school nurses for the correction of physical
defects.
Malnutrition.—In Pittsburgh the school nurses measured and
weighed the school children twice a year. I f a child was 15 per cent or
more underweight the parents were notified and a midmorning lunch
consisting of milk and crackers was suggested. This was provided
free or at cost in all schools. The department of education conducted
no school nutrition classes; the State college extension department
conducted one nutrition class in a public school, and three hospitals
conducted classes. Outside Pittsburgh the State college extension
department supervised nutrition classes in 11 schools in as many
communities; the classes were conducted by the teachers, the children
10 pounds or more underweight being selected for these classes. The
Junior Red Cross furnished milk to the children in the nutrition
classes, and mothers’ meetings were held for the purpose of instruc
tion in proper food and care.
8 See The Promotion of the Welfare and Hygiene of Maternity and Infancy— the a d m i n
istration of the act of Congress of Nov. 23, 1921, for fiscal year ended June 30 1926
(U . S. Children’s Bureau Publication No. 178, Washington, 1 9 2 7 ), with text of the act
on p. 85.
9 Pa., School Code, act of May 18, 1911, secs. 1 5 0 1 -1 5 0 5 , Laws of 1911 p. 309 as w
amended by act of June 20, 1919, No. 253, act of June 23, 1919, No. 271, act of July 17
1919, No. 394, Laws of 1919, pp. 511, 572, and 997, act of May 20, 1921, No. 329, Laws
of 1921, p. 939.
(See Pa., StaL 1920, secs. 5 0 7 0 -5 0 7 4 , pp. 4 6 8 - 4 6 9 ; Supp. 1924, p. 142.)
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The mothers’ aid visitors were expected to report all cases of
undernourished school children coming to their attention through
the routine or other examinations to the school nurses for reexami
nation, midmorning lunches, and extra supervision. I f necessary,
provision was made for extra diet and for the instruction of the
child and mother; and if possible arrangement was made for the
admission of the child into one of the few nutrition classes. The
mothers’ aid visitors, nutrition workers, and infant welfare and
school nurses all gave the mothers advice on nutrition as they came
in contact with them.
Results o f health supervision in two families.
Mrs. H., a widow, had four sons under 12 years of age, a 16-year-old
daughter, an 18-year-old son, and an older son who was married.
The
married son, his wife, and their two children lived with Mrs. H. This family
of 11 persons lived in a dilapidated four-room house i y 2 miles from the street
car and at the top of a steep hill. The 18-year-old son and an 11-year-old
son had heart lesions, the former dropping one job after another because of
this condition, and both being seriously affected by the long walk from the
street car up the hill to their home. The house was dirty and cluttered;
Mrs. H. was lackadaisical and indifferent and left the housekeeping largely
to her daughter-in-law. As a result of the physical examination made in
connection with the granting of an allowance to Mrs. H., the daughter’s eyes
were treated, and the four younger boys had tonsils and adenoids removed
and circumcisions performed. The 18-year-old son was advised to enter a
vocational school where he could learn tailoring, and his physical condition
and mental attitude both showed marked improvement thereafter. After many
weeks of coaxing Mrs. H. submitted reluctantly to a physical examination
and accepted the medical and dental care that she needed. She was aided
also in finding work. Within the 18 months during which this family had
been receiving aid and was under supervision Mrs. H. became a different woman,
not only in her improved physical condition but also in her outlook upon life.
The family moved to a much better locality, everything was kept spotlessly
clean, and all the members of the family were neatly dressed.
When Mrs. M. was granted an allowance her five children, all under 8 years
of age, were undernourished and exceedingly timid. The twins, then 7
years old, ran away and hid when the visitor came to the house. They
were backward in school, and the teacher stated that they cried on the
slightest provocation. The mother appeared dull, though everyone spoke of
her as a willing worker and devoted to her children. Physical examinations
revealed that the twins were greatly underweight and had serious physical
defects. The next younger child was mentally defective and finally was com
mitted to an institution for the feeble-minded. A 4-year-old boy had diseased
tonsils, which were removed. The children all came regularly to the clinics
and much corrective work was done. The twins were entered in a nutrition
class, to which their mother brought them regularly. At first they refused
the unaccustomed food, but within a year they were up to their normal weight,
owing largely to their mother’s cooperation. Part of the treatment consisted
of a recreational program. During the holidays and week ends the visitor
took the children, their mother, and the grandmother (who lived with the
f amily) to the zoological park and to the department stores to see seasonable
exhibits. Summer outings were arranged, and the family went to a vacation
camp, which was a great source of happiness. Mrs. M. showed real delight
after the worker accustomed her to taking the children several times a
week in hot weather to the parks for all-day or half-day picnics. A great
change came over the children; their school work improved greatly, and they
became friendly, unafraid, and spontaneous.
The mother developed also,
becoming more resourceful. She took the children to the clinic on her own
initiative, and as she could leave the eh ldren with her mother she began to
look for part-time regular employment instead of doing washing at home.
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ADMINISTRATION" OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
M EN TAL HEALTH
Available facilities.
The Pittsburgh Department of Public Welfare maintained a psy
chological clinic with a psychiatric social worker on its staff. The
mothers’ aid department referred to this clinic all mental problems,
including psychopathic and behavior cases that were not cared
for by the psychological department of the public schools. The
mothers’ aid visitors followed the clinic’s recommendation and re
ported to the psychiatric worker from time to time on psychopathic
and problem cases. The staff of the psychological bureau of the
department of education consisted of a psychologist, who was also
a physician, and an assistant psychologist, who was a social worker.
No child was placed in a special class or removed from one with
out a mental examination, and routine examinations were made as
long as the child remained in the class. The bureau was used prin
cipally for this purpose, though the teachers and principals of the
public schools might refer to the bureau any school child who
presented a mental problem. Schools were encouraged to refer
problem and psychopathic children to the bureau for examination.
Three of the hospitals had neuropsychological clinics, and the St.
Francis Hospital had a ward for the observation of psychopathic
cases.
Follow-up of special types of problems.
It was the policy of the mothers’ aid department to request
psychological examinations for school children who were 3 or more
years retarded unless there were obvious physical defects that might
account for the retardation. Children under 16 years of age who
were truants, who were becoming incorrigible, or who were develop
ing delinquent tendencies were given psychological examinations.
Prevailing upon children over 16 to submit to an examination was
not always possible. Children whose fathers had been insane or in
whose families there had been insanity were not examined as a
matter of routine unless they, too, presented symptoms of unbalance.
Emphasis was laid upon having a psychiatric examination promptly
if evidence o f mental difficulty appeared. The proportion of
children between 14 and 20 years of age who developed psychopathic
symptoms or behavior difficulties was high, especially in Pittsburgh
among children of foreign-born parents.
Illustrative case histories.
Antoinette A.’s father was in a hospital for the insane with a diagnosis of
dementia prsecox. Mrs. A. spoke almost no English, but she kept her one
cheerful front room in exquisite condition and thought her 12-year-old
daughter Antoinette a model of behavior because she would sit with hands
folded in her lap all day. The visitor had the child mentally examined
within two weeks of the teacher’s report. The psychologist stated that
Antoinette was suffering from depression, that she reacted scarcely at all, had
no free spontaneous emotional life, and would be almost sure to go the way
of her father if something were not done right away to stimulate her mental
and emotional nature; she must be made to play and to express herself. The
visitor’s first task was to tell the mother that she must not let the child sit
with folded hands, that that was not “ perfect behavior” in Antoinette’s casé.
It was not so easy to persuade her, and a few weeks later the visitor took
with her a coworker who could explain in Mrs. A.’s qative Italian. A book
of fairy tales was left, and the visitor prevailed upon the mother to let
Antoinette join a girls’ church club. Three months later the report read as
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follow s: “Antoinette is now very interested in reading and gets books regularly
from the library. A t first she got only fairy tales, then Alice in Wonderland,
then the Life of General George Washington, which she liked best of all.
The visitor gave her a list of good biographies and autobiographies which
she promised to read. Antoinette now belongs to a club connected with the
church that she attends and is much interested in its meetings. She goes
quite regularly, and her mother never interferes but is encouraging her to
go out more.” Every means was used to arouse Antoinette’s emotions and
objective interests. She was in the habit of biting her finger nails very badly;
the visitor gave her a manicure set, which appealed to her pride, and now she
takes a great deal of care of her nails.
When Mrs. O. was first granted mothers’ assistance she was harassed by
business troubles in connection with real-estate deals left unsettled by her
husband at his death. She was also obsessed by all sorts of imaginary fears;
she was afraid to leave the house because it might be dynamited; she was
afraid to let the children out of her sight lest they be burned; she was afraid
to go out in company lest she say something wrong and the neighbors would
molest h er; she was afraid, to go to a hospital for an examination which she
needed or to a dentist to have her decayed teeth extracted; she was afraid of
the policeman on the beat and of the health officer. Then she was examined
by a psychiatrist who attributed her disturbed state to the unhappiness of her
married life and thus helped her somewhat to understand the cause of her
fears. He advised her to talk about her past to her friends, thereby relieving
her mind.
The first victory over her fears was her consent to have the children exam
ined at a hospital clinic. She finally came to the conclusion that the knives
that flashed before her mind’s eye and the screams that tortured her ears were
imaginary and consented to be examined herself. One of her sons was responsible
for the second victory; he had six of his teeth extracted, and his mother decided
she could not be less brave than he. The latest triumph up to the time of the
study was overcoming her fear of lawyers and courts. The roof leaked, the
steps and the railing were falling down, the house needed painting, and other
repairs were necessary. She was persuaded by the mothers’ aid visitor to
borrow money from a building association through the orphans’ court and the
repairs were made, a kind-hearted lawyer doing the legal work free of charge.
Formerly the mother’s neurotic condition was reflected in the worried faces
and manners of the children, but since she had been able to put her mental
house in order their emotional life, too, had become much more stable. She
moved from the two rooms on the second floor to the rooms on the first floor
of the house which she was buying through a building association. She took
great pride in arranging the furnishings and said the children loved to enter
tain their friends in the “ living room ” and she “ didn’t have time now to sit
around and worry.”
HOUSING
A large section of Pittsburgh is built on the steep bluffs and along
the river basins o f the Allegheny, Monongahela, and Ohio Rivers, by
the side o f which stretch the tracks o f five different railroad lines
and the great blast furnaces and steel mills. The topography in
connection with industrial conditions thus induced congestion and in
general an unfavorable housing situation.
The exceedingly high cost of living, especially the high rents, and
the lack of housing and recreational resources made it difficult for
the poorer families, especially those o f foreign birth, to maintain
proper standards o f physical health and family life. Efforts were
made to move a family if the neighborhood was morally bad or
unusually congested or if the house was insanitary.
Though rents were uniformly high, families in the suburbs were
much better cared for than those in the city; a considerable number
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ADMINISTRATION OR MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
lived in good frame houses. As a rule in the city a mother and
three or four children had a flat of three rooms and sometimes more ;
there were separate sleeping rooms for boys and girls, and not more
than two persons slept in the same bed. A living room was con
sidered essential, though not always attainable, and often it was
turned into a sleeping room by night. Sanitary toilets were re
quired, though sometimes two and three families used the same
toilet.. Few families had the luxury of bathrooms; the majority
had running water; nearly all used gas and a few electricity; few
had ice boxes. In the city of Pittsburgh it was not possible for
many families to grow flowers or vegetables.
The majority of mothers receiving aid paid between $20 and $30
a month rent and some paid as much as $40. Thirty-seven families
owned their own homes in whole or in part.
EDUCATION
COOPERATION W IT H THE SCHOOLS AND FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION
Contacts with the schools.
It was the plan o f the mothers’ aid administration that all schools
attended by children receiving aid should be visited twice a year.
The school reports were not examined as a matter of routine, but
special report blanks furnished by the State supervisor were filled
out twice a year by the teachers for each child in the families receiv
ing aid. For problem children these reports were sometimes re
quired oftener. The report form used was as follows :
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
Department of Public Welfare
Mothers’ Assistance Fund
SCHOOL STANDING AND ATTENDANCE BECOBD.
City,
Name of sc h o o l,________________ _________T o w n sh ip ,_________________ ___________ ___
Borough,
Report o f ------------------------------------------------- A d d r e ss,_________ l _ _ ___ ____________
G ra d e ,--------.----------------------- A g e ,_____ ____________ !___ D , ;. e , ____________________
Month
The records of this school for the period o f _______________show the follow ing:
Term
Attendance: No. of times t a r d y ,--------------------- No. of days a b sen t,______________
Reasons for absence or tard in ess,____ ____ ___________________________
Scholarship: E x c e lle n t,---------G o o d ,______
F a i r ,______
Deficient,
Deficient branches,_________________ :_________________________
Conduct: _____________________._____ . l J - __ip®____________ ± ' ___llfify ____
Remarks in re physical defects, personal appearance, etc.,______ _____________ 1____,
(Signed)
Teacher.
Provision for handicapped children.
The 'physically handicapped child.—The orthopedic ward of the
Children’s Hospital was supplied with a teacher by the education
department. Th^ bureau of rehabilitation in the State department
of labor and industry provided tuition for the vocational training
o f any crippled person and supplied funds for board if the person
was crippled as the result of an industrial accident. In the public
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schools there were five teachers for children with speech defects, but
no sight-conservation classes nor classes for the deaf. Provision was
made for blind children or those who were partly blind, and also for
deaf-and-dumb children through the State institutions for the blind
and for the deaf and dumb. A workshop in Pittsburgh gave voca
tional training to blind residents of the city.
The mentally handicapped child.-—There were 11 special classes in
the public schools and 5 more were in process of organization at the
time of the study.
Provision for children wishing further education.
As has been stated, the policy of the mothers’ assistance board
was to encourage exceptional children and even those of only normal
ability to continue their school work as long as possible. Jewish
children in families receiving mothers’ aid were eligible to scholar
ships given by the Irene Kaufman Settlement, the only organized
agency administering scholarship funds in Pittsburgh. These were
open to boys and girls over 14 years of age for high school, business
school, vocational school, college, or musical or art or other training.
The high-school scholarships were $15 a month for the 10 months
of the school year. For children attending school where tuition was
charged the scholarship usually covered two-thirds of the tuition,
sometimes all of it. At the time of the study 31 scholarships
(amounting to a total of $4,000) were available.
Scholarships in the University of Pittsburgh were available to
persons who qualified for them, and it was known that one boy in
a mothers’ aid family had been granted such a scholarship. Two
girls were known to hold scholarships at the time o f the study, one
to attend high school and another to take a business course.
The following story illustrates the educational advantages of which
some children were making good use:
Mrs. R. was a confirmed neurotic. She had living with her her daughter
Elizabeth, who was 15 years old, and a son, Frederick, who was 12. Elizabeth
was a sensible, wholesome girl and assumed much responsibility in the home.
She frequently came to the visitor to talk over her plans and took her counsel in
matters of health, diet, and recreation. Frederick also had an excellent school
record and was eager to study electrical engineering. Relatives of Mrs. R .’s hus
band contributed $20 a month and part of the rent and did many kindly acts
besides, such as providing summer outings for the family. The home of
four rooms and bath had been made more confortable by attractive furnish
ings given by relatives, and the children could entertain their schoolmates in
their own living room. Elizabeth was a senior in high school aild had always
ranked high in scholarship. She was on the personal column of the school
paper and had been elected to the national honor society to which all students
ranking in the upper fourth of their class were eligible. She was anxious to
become a librarian, but as she would be under 16 when she graduated from
high school she would not be eligible for the library course at the Carnegie
Library. A plan had been made for her to enter college for one year and then
take the library course, or if that was impossible to take a position as page in
the library for one year.
The Carnegie Institute of Technology offered extension courses in
the evenings and on Saturdays, and many boys who would profit
by the work had been entered in these classes. One boy who lived in
the surburbs could not ride in the cars on account of car sickness.
The visitor, arranged for him to drive into town every Saturday
morning with a neighbor to attend a class in draftsmanship. When
he went to work at 16 he secured an excellent position in the draft-
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
50
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
ing room of a large steel plant. Soon after he entered the mill he
won a prize of $25 offered for the best mechanical drawing in con
nection with work at the plant.
Twenty-four boys and girls over 16 years of age were attending
evening classes. One of these was studying English, another draft
ing, another dressmaking; the remaining 21 were taking secretarial
and bookkeeping courses. A company manufacturing electrical
equipment conducted a school shop course on the apprenticeship
plan, and much effort had been expended to interest boys in the work
and to place them in positions. Three or four boys in families
receiving mothers’ aid were taking the course at the time of the
study. Nineteen children were taking music lessons.
SCHOOLING AND W ORK OF CHILDREN 14 AN D 15 YEAR S OLD
The child-labor, compulsory-education, and mothers’ aid laws.
According to the child-labor and compulsory-education laws, chil
dren could obtain employment certificates at 14 years of age if they
had completed the sixth grade and were physically fit.10 Unemployed
children were not excused from school attendance except for mental,
physical, or other urgent reasons.11 Working children 14 and 15
years old were required to attend continuation school eight hours
a week.12
The mothers’ aid law permitted allowances to be granted for chil
dren up to 16 years of age provided the children were in school with
satisfactory school record or were physically unable to earn wages
on attaining the age necessary for an employment certificate.
Children in school and at work.
The board of trustees of the mothers’ assistance fund occasionally
encouraged a boy or girl over 16 years o f age to complete a course
of study; this was made possible by continuing for younger brothers
or sisters the allowances that would have been withdrawn if the
16-year-old child had gone to work and earned enough to make Jthe
grants no longer necessary for the younger members of the family.
There were 203 children (94 boys and 109 girls) 14 and 15 years
o f age in the families receiving aid; 102 of them were 14 years old
and 101 were 15 years old. O f these 203 children 164 were attending
school, 32 were working, and 7 were neither attending school nor
working.
Children in school.—Among the 164 children 14 and 15 years old
attending school were 128 who had completed the sixth grade and
therefore were eligible for employment certificates so far as educa
tional requirements were concerned.13
The number of boys and girls 14 and 15 years old who were at
tending school and the grade or type o f school attended are shown
in the following table:
10 Pa., act of May 18, 1911, sec. 1416, Laws of 1911, p. 309, as amended by act of May
20, 1921, No. 373, sec. 1, Laws of 1921, p. 1034.
(Pa., Stat. 1920, sec. 5045, p. 4 6 6 ;
Supp. 1924, p. 142.)
11 Pa., act o f May 18, 1911, sec. 1415, la w s of 1911, p. 309. (Pa., Stat. 1920, sec. 5044,
p. 465.)
12 Pa., act o f May 13, 1915, No. 177, sec. 3, Law s of 1915, p. 286.
(Pa., Stat. 1920,
sec. 13287, p. 1308.)
12 This number was more than four-fifths (83 per cent) of all the children in mothers’
aid families who had fulfilled the school-grade requirements for going to work (1 5 5 ).
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51
ALLEGHENY COUN TY, BA.
TUumber of children lh and 15 years old who were attending school at the time
of the study, by grade or type of school; Allegheny County, Pa.
Children 14 and 15 years old attending school
Girls
Boys
Grade or type of school
Total
Total 14 years 15 years Total 14 years 15 years
Total____ _____________________________
164
74
40
34
90
50
40
2
12
21
32
50
7
15
13
22
5
10
8
9
2
5
5
13
2
5
6
19
28
1
4
2
13
13
1
1
4
6
15
8
4
1
6
1
2
3
1
1
11
3
1
1
1
7
3
1
1
3
18
6
2
1
3
Elementary school:
High school:
26
10
3
1
4
13
1
3
1
2
1
1 1 was attending vocational school and 1 an industrial training school.
In addition to the 4 children in business school 19 o f those in other
types o f school were taking commercial courses. The 15-year-old
girl in the third year of high school was taking a teachers’ training
course. Five children were preparing themselves for special types
of work such as drawing, drafting, printing, and electrical wiring.
Occupations and earnings o f the working children.—The occu
pations of the 32 children 14 and 15 years old who were working
were as follows:
Number of
children
Number of
children
T o ta l________________________ __ 32
Messenger----------------------------------------1
Worker in poolroom------------------- -—
1
Not reported------------------------------------- ----- 2
Boys--------------------------------------Laborer------------------------------------------Clerk in store-------------------------------Factory w orker-----------------------------Elevator boy_---------------------------------Clerical worker-----------------------------Errand boy--------------------------------------
21
‘
4
2
2
1
1
Girls_________________________
Factory worker-------------------Houseworker-----------------------------------W aitress----------- ------------------Clerk in store------------------------------------
11
3
4
1
3
The 32 working children had been enrolled in the following grades
when they left school to work: Two in the first year of high school,
9 in the eighth grade, 10 in the seventh grade, 9 in the sixth grade,
1 in the fifth grade, and 1 in the fourth grade.
The monthly earnings of these children were as follow s:
Number of
children
Total_________________________
32
<M PJ________________
1
$20, under $30----------------------------------$30, under $40-----------------------------------
4
9
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Number of
children
$40, under $50----------------------------------$50, under $60-----------------$60, under $70----------------- -----------------Over $70_______________________ _—
Not reported-------------------------------------
4
3
t
2
2
52
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IK TEK LOCALITIES
Twenty-six of the 30 children whose earnings were reported were
giving all their earnings to their mothers. A girl who was earning
$22 a month was contributing $17 a month to the support of the
family; one who was earning $25 was contributing $20; another
who was earning $28 was contributing $24; and the fourth, who was
earning $65, was contributing $39.
Children neither in school nor at work.
The seven children 14 and 15 years of age who were neither in
school nor working were all girls. The grades in which six of them
had been enrolled when they left school to work were from the sixth
to the ninth; for one girl no report was given as to grade. Only
one o f them had left school under 14 years of age. Three of the
seven had been employed previously but were out of work at the
time of the study; two had not been employed but were planning
to enter employment ; and two were helping their mothers at home.
EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE MOTHERS
The Pennsylvania law did not require citizenship for mothers
receiving allowances, but the board of trustees encouraged mothers
who were not citizens to apply for citizenship; mothers of foreign
birth who did not speak English were encouraged to attend citizen
ship English classes. Five women attended classes conducted by the
International Institute o f the Young Women’s Christian Associa
tion, seven attended classes in English or citizenship at the public
schools, and eight were enrolled in sewing and cooking classes at the
various settlement and neighborhood centers.
RECREATION
The allowance for incidentals covered recreation except for work
ing children, who were allowed about $10 a month for lunches and
pocket money. This varied according to individual conditions.
Facilities for recreation were not abundant, and because of the
housing shortage it was seldom possible to have families move to be
near them. In Pittsburgh the chief sources of recreation were mo
tion pictures, playgrounds, scout troops, the activities of the churches
and the International Institute o f the Young Women’s Christian
Association, settlements, parks, free concerts, and summer camps.
Nearly all the families were connected with some church, and the
mothers’ aid workers encouraged participation in church activities
by the whole family. Two down-town churches conducted neighbor
hood activities and the high schools had an educational and recrea
tional program. Children were encouraged to have their good times
at the nearest settlement or social center and the workers spent con
siderable time getting the older children in touch with the neighbor
hood centers or scout troops. About 150 boys and girls were known
to be affiliated with some wholesome recreational activity. A few
mothers took the children in summer on weekly picnics to the zoologi
cal garden and parks, and about half the mothers and children were
sent on summer vacations. Working children were encouraged to
purchase inexpensive musical instruments in order that family
pleasures might be taken together.
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A
MOTHERS» ALLOWANCES IN BERKS COUNTY, PA.1
AD M IN ISTR AT IO N OF TH E L A W 2
ADM INISTRATIVE AGENCY AND STAFF
The board of trustees of the Berks County Mothers’ Assistance
Fund consisted of seven women, who had been intimately identified
with the philanthropic and civic work of the county. Six had served
continuously since the organization of the work in 1918 and the
seventh had served five years. In the earlier years o f the work the
trustees had assumed a large responsibility for regular family visit
ing, and at the time o f this study all but one were doing some visit
ing in the homes. The president in addition to this had carried con
siderable responsibility for the supervision of the executive work of
the office. The vice president had organized and perfected a system
for the tabulation of office statistics and of the mothers’ householdexpense accounts, and another trustee was giving almost full time to
the organization o f the home-craft shop. (See pp. 55-56.)
The staff consisted o f an executive secretary who did some field
work, a field worker, and a clerk-stenographer. The executive secre
tary had had two years o f college w ork; her previous experience had
been in the charity-organization, juvenile-court, and hospital social
^service fields. The case worker Had had no previous social-work
^experience but had been a member o f the mothers’ aid staff for five
years. One automobile was at the service of the staff.
APPROPRIATION 3 AND VOLUME OF W ORK
The State appropriation to Berks County for the biennium June
1, 1923, to May 31, 1925, was $65,550. This when matched by county
funds permitted a possible annual expenditure of $65,550. The actual
expenditure of the county for both grants and administration from
June 1, 1923, to May 31, 1924, was $45,989.44. The unexpended sur
plus may be accounted for in part perhaps by the fact that although
Berks County had a population of more than 200,000 but less than
1 The population of Berks County in 1920 was 200,854 ; 107,784 of this number lived
in the city of Reading. The native white population of the county numbered 187,582, the
foreign-born white 12,097, and the negroes 1,165. There were 61,897 children within
legal age for mothers’ aid. The population of foreign birth, listed in the order of their
numerical importance, was as follows : Polish, Italian, German, Russian, and Austrian.
(Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, vol. 3, Population, pp. 857, 859, 883, 885,
Washington, 1922.)
The chief industries of the county center about the knitting mills,
the foundries, and the machine shops. In the country districts there are many large and
prosperous farms. The residents are largely descendants of Germans from the Palatinate
who came over during the migrations of the first part of the eighteenth century and the
migration of 1848. The people have the characteristic Pennsylvania German traits—
thrift,- cleanliness, kindliness, love of the soil, a strong sense of family and neighborhood
solidarity, the recognition of authority, and thé acceptance of traditions of their fore
fathers.
2 The provisions of the Pennsylvania law and the extent of State supervision have been
discussed in the section of this report dealing with Allegheny County, Pa., pp. 2 9 -3 1 .
8 Details of the law governing the State appropriations and county apportionments are
¿given in the section of this report dealing with Allegheny County, Pa.
(See pp. 32—33.)
53
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54
ADMINISTRATION OE MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
1,000,000, so that it was one o f the five counties designated by law to
receive equal parts o f a 19 per cent allotment from the sum set aside
for apportionment among the counties by the law (see p. 33), the
population over 200,000 consisted of only 800 inhabitants.
During February, 1924, mothers’ aid was being given to 87 families, ,
including 316 children under 16 years of age. The supervision wasflf
fairly evenly divided between the executive and the field assistant.
USE OF A STANDARD BUDGET*
The budget o f the New York Nutrition Council was used for food,
clothing, and sundries and that of the Chicago standard budget for
household furnishings and health needs.5 The budget was as follow s:
R e n t: Amount paid.
Sundries: $1 a month per person with a maximum of $7 for a family.
Food: Same as Allegheny County budget. (See pp. 34-35.)
Clothing:
Woman at work___________________________________________________________ $7 . 50
Woman at home__________ __________________________ I_____________________ 5 . 53
Older girl at work______________________ ___________________________________ 7 . 50
Older boy at work______________________________________________________ ;__ 7 . 44
Girl 10-14 years___________________________________________________________
4 . 41
Boy 10-14 years_____________________________________________________ ,____
4. 54
3 . 62
Child 6-10 years___________________________________________________________
Child 3 -6 years______________________ ___________________________ ___________ j 2 . 67
Child of 2 or under-______________________________________________________
2.7 3
Household furnishings and supplies:
Family of 2 members_________________________________________________ ____ 3 . 00
Family of 3 or 4 members_________________________________________ _______ 3. 75
Family of 5 or 6 members___________ _____________________________________ 4. 50
Family of 7 or 8 members_____________ ____________ .___________ __________
5.2 5
Family of 9 or 10 members_________________________________________ _____
6. 00
H ea lth : Where public physicians and nurses are used 25 cents per month an
up for each person.
Fuel and lig h t:
$9.50 per month for city families.
$8 per month for rural families.
It was the policy o f the board to make the grant large enough
to cover the family budget so far as the maximum allowed under the
law permitted. Unfortunately, the maximum of $20 for the first
child and $10 for each additional child was not adequate for families
in which the mother, because o f illness or the care o f several y o u n g
children, could not do any work except her own housework, nor
was it sufficient for families o f two or three children. The average
monthly grant per family and per child for February, 1924, was
$39.50 and $11.80, respectively. The largest grant was $90, the
smallest $20.
Every mother receiving aid kept, or had the children keep for
her, an itemized monthly household-expense account covering all
expenses and all income. This was made the basis for constructive
suggestions regarding such matters as a balanced diet, the prepara* Procedure in making allowances has been discussed in the section of this report dealing
with Allegheny County, Pa.
(See pp. 33—34.)
* See footnotes 6 and 7, p. 34.
m
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
BERKS COUNTY, PA.
55
tion o f foods, marketing, and planning a household budget. It was
explained carefully to each mother that the account was not a form
o f espionage, but that the trustees acting for the State were anxious
that the mothers should receive the full value o f their money and
^ th a t the children should have nutritious food, and, furthermore, that
^ th e good management o f one mother would prove a source of
helpful information to others. (For copies o f the forms used see
pp. 37-39.)
Literature on proper food and health habits had been distributed
to the families. It was the general opinion that the mothers
who were ignorant or were careless in the management o f their
homes had been much helped in improving the dietary and general
home standards. The board had voted to employ a trained dietitian
to make a home-economics and nutritional survey during the coming
summer. The expense accounts afforded invaluable material for
this purpose. It was hoped that the survey would lead to a closer
correlation o f the nutritional work and health work.6
The mothers were told that they need not be afraid to report
money spent for recreation, as the column heading “ Good times”
indicated that the families were expected to have pleasure and fun.
When the F. fam ily began keeping the expense account it was intrusted to
the 15-year-old son, Thaddeus, who was the sole breadwinner. The visitor
explained what each column meant, especially the one headed “ Good times.”
Thaddeus had been working so hard for the family that it seemed best to
impress upon him that better times were in store for him. When the visitor
inspected the account she found that every day under “ Good times ” had been
entered “ milk, 6 cents.” When she asked Thaddeus what it meant he ex
plained “ Since we have the money I can buy a pint of milk every day at the
* factory, so that is a ‘ good time ’ for me.”
W.
SUPPLEMENTING OF MOTHERS’ AID
Sources of supplementary relief.
The board refrained from asking for supplementary aid from
either a private family agency or the county poor board, as it was
understood that the mothers’ assistance fund assumed complete re
sponsibility for the families to whom it granted aid. A ll supple
mentary relief, therefore, had to be organized through various
resources, including private benevolences. Emergencies were often
met through personal contributions by members of the board. At
the time o f the study 27 of the 87 grants were inadequate according
to the budget standards.
The home-craft shop.
On request the president of the board of trustees prepared the
following statement in regard to the home-craft shop:
After administering the mothers’ assistance fund in Berks County for several
years the trustees of that fund came to the conclusion that the greatest need
6
The home-economics and nutritional survey proved so valuable that a full-time trained
home economist was employed on the Berks County mothers’ aid staff from July, 1924,
until September, 1926.
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56
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
of the pensioned mothers was an opportunity to do home work which would be
remunerative.
For a mother with two or three children under school age some means must
be found to supplement the maximum grant, which is not sufficient for the
support of a family. The mother can not leave her children to go out to work,
and the only available home work in Berks County is stuffing tobacco, which is ¡ A
insanitary; taping underwear, which is tedious and poorly paid; and laundry ™
work, which is back breaking.
In order to supply this need for home work the trustees of the mothers’
assistance fund established a home-craft shop in an old log cabin one-half
block from the central square in Reading. A letter was sent to every mother
receiving a grant in Berks County asking her these questions: 1. W hat means
she was using to get the extra money in order to live. 2. W hat work she had
done before she was married. 3. W hat she liked best to do and would do best.
The last question was emphasized because the trustees felt that an opportunity
should be given the mothers for self-expression so that a certain joy in the
work might be achieved. The shop is not yet self-supporting, but the outlook
is encouraging, and the quality of production is improving every week. An
effort is constantly made to have the mothers enjoy the association with beauti
ful things and afternoon tea is served whenever there is a group of mothers
or purchasers in the log cabin about teatime .1
VISITING
All mothers’ assistance families in Reading were visited by a
member of the staff once a month. More frequent visits were
made if necessary. Families living in the country were not visited
quite so often because of the condition of the roads. The mothers
were expected to call at the office one Saturday morning a month to
bring their expense accounts. As has been stated, the trustees also
did friendly visiting more or less regularly.
HEALTH
PHYSICAL HEALTH
The allowance for health was that provided by the Chicago stand
ard budget.
Physical examinations.
Before a grant was made a physical examination was required for
the mothers and for all children under 16 years o f age. The exam
inations generally were made by the family’s regular physician;
occasionally they were made at a clinic or at a child-health center.
Blanks were supplied to the mother when she applied, and it was
the understanding that physicians were to charge, if anything, only
a nominal fee. The medical report was filed with the record.
The following are the medical-report forms used for the children
and for the mothers:
7
The shop has been abandoned because after several years’ trial it was found impossible
to run on a self-supporting basis.
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57
BERKS COUNTY, PA.
M O TH E R S’ A S SISTA N C E FU N D
PHYSICAL RECORD
N a m e ,--------------------------------
Date of exam ination,______
S e x , ---------- Nationality,
Age,
Family history (cause of death.) :
F a th e r ,-----------------M o th e r ,-----------------C h ild ren ,------------------
Physical or mental disabilities:
F a th e r ,____ ______
M o th e r,----------------- Miscarriages,
C h ild ren ,_________
Previous medical history— B irth | ^ 01vrna^ - ~ - r -----------J
(Instrum ental,----------
T erm i^ mos- » -----(Premature,
3
Previous illness, including accidents— 1 . _________ 2.
4 . ___ ______ 5 . _________ 6___________ 7 . _________
Vaccination and special tests— _________ _________
Physical examination:
H e ig h t ,------------------ Weight (without topcoat and shoes) (child should be
stripped,-------------General appearance,_________
Nutrition— N o r m a l,______ _ M aln u trition ,_______
Mentality,
Normal,
Normal,
S c a lp ,_______
Eyes I
Nosei
Glasses,
Obstruction,
( N o r m a l,__
Teeth— No. of upper / ^ e£ular> D isch a rg e,__»____
(Irregular,
Defective hearing,
C a v itie s,___
Throat,
Hutchinson’s
No. of lower { “
&
(Normal,
G la n d s ,_______ T o n sils,_______I Enlarged,
Speech I Defective> _
Diseased,
(R em oved ,______
Chest— Shape, J-------Developm ent,_______
E xpan sion ,
Heart (examine before and after exertion). M u rm u r,_______ Rate,
L u n g s ,---------- Abdomen— L a r g e ,---------- D isten d ed,_______ Tender,” —
Discharge,
Bones and jo in ts ,______
N e r v e s ,---------Muscles,
Deformities,
Indications for laboratory reports,
H e r n ia ,_______
Skin, _■____
______________ _
Recommendations, ___________________________________________
Signature of examiner— Dr.
A D U L T H E A L T H SH EE T
N am e,------------------------------------ A g e ,------------------ Date of examination,
Physical examination,___________
N utrition,__________________________
H ead:
■ E y e s,___!____________________
T h r o a t,__________ _____________
N e c k ,_________ ;______________
L u n gs,________________ t______
Heart, ------------------------------------ Pulse,
Abdomen,_____ ___ ________________
Menstruation,______________________ _
Extrem ities,______________ 4_________
Signature of doctor,_______
94535°— 28------ 5
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
58
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
The mothers were uniformly willing to comply with the ruling in .
regard to the preliminary examination. Its educational value de
pended largely upon the physician who made the examination and
the medical work that followed. Mothers were required to have
defects remedied with reasonable promptness, and it was rarely 4$
necessary to force the issue by threatening withdrawal o f the grant.
Follow-up of special types of problems.
The follow-up of the medical reports was done by the mothers’ aid
visitors. Defects were corrected at the clinics o f the St. Joseph’s
Hospital and the Reading Hospital. A number o f private physicians
and specialists gave a great deal o f free service, and in special cases
patients were taken to Philadelphia hospitals. As a rule the moth
ers’ aid workers did not have a personal conference with the examin
ing physician unless there was a special problem or unless the patient
was receiving continuous treatment; in the latter case the physician
was consulted and an understanding arrived at as to fees. For the
year 1923 the sum o f $1,947.81 was spent for medical services by the
95 families receiving mothers’ aid. Physicians employed by the city
were not called upon; in an emergency the mothers could send for
a private physician.
The preliminary physical examinations were not followed up by
periodic examinations unless there was obvious need for continued
medical supervision. Written diagnoses were generally secured for
patients who were referred to clinics and hospitals for specific medi
cal or surgical care, but oral diagnoses were the rule from private
physicians. None of the hospitals were equipped with social-service
departments.
^
Entries were made in the running record o f all medical work d o n e * 1
and o f physical defects and ailments as revealed by the statements
of the families. With the comparatively small number of families
under care it was not difficult to keep track o f the health needs.
An attempt had been made to compile a continuous health record
for each individual in the families under care, but so far a satisfac
tory blank for keeping this record had not been devised.
Mothers’ aid workers, school and infant-welfare nurses, and physi
cians advised the mothers in regard to health habits, and literature
on feeding and on infant and child care had been given to the
mothers by the department.
Orthopedic and cardiac affections.—Expert orthopedic treatment
was secured for all crippled children. In general, private orthope
dists gave their services, and occasionally children were taken to
specialists in Philadelphia. Crippled children in two families re
ceiving mothers’ aid had been under the supervision- of orthopedic
surgeons during 1923. Braces and other special appliances were
secured through the Rotary Club or were given by members o f the
board o f trustees. Children in two families had received care for
cardiac difficulties in 1923. Private physicians gave this medical
supervision.
E ye, ear, nose, and throat affections.—A private specialist gave his
services in eye, ear, nose, and throat cases, both for the examina
tions, which he made at his office, and for operations, which he,^|
performed at St. Joseph’s Hospital. The school department made w
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
BERKS COUKTY, BA.
59
eye examinations and furnished glasses to school children. A manu
facturer in a small town in the county whose sister-in-law at one
time had received a grant was so grateful for the oculist’s care given
by the board for his young nephews and nieces that when he was
asked to supply their glasses he offered to donate glasses to any
needy child in a family receiving mothers’ aid. As the glasses pro
vided by the school department were fitted into inexpensive frames,
he made a practice o f donating better frames and the lenses also if
the school did not furnish them or if the person needing them was
not in school. One or. more individuals in 37 families had been
treated for eye, ear, nose, or throat difficulties during 1923.
Health work fo r infants and 'preschool children.— The Reading
Visiting Nurse Association, which employed 28 nurses, was commis
sioned by the city department o f health to carry on the child-health
work in Reading, the expense being borne in part by the city govern
ment. Eleven child-health centers were maintained in school build
ings in the city. Ten o f these were open three hours once a week and
one was open daily; in the summer four conferences were held daily.
The centers were within fairly easy reach of all homes, and no mother
needed to change cars. Although mothers were encouraged to bring
children up to 6 years o f age to the centers, the emphasis was laid
primarily upon work for children under 2. The board o f trustees
encouraged mothers with babies to attend the centers, but did not
check up on their attendance. In May, 1924, the children under
6 years o f age in three families were receiving regular supervision
at the centers, and the children in some other families were taken
occasionally.
Outside Reading the preschool division o f the bureau o f child
mealth o f the State department o f health conducted two centers under
the Sheppard-Towner A c t 8 in cooperation with other agencies, and
the Reading Visiting Nurse Association conducted one center. A l
though this association did not hold prenatal conferences, it gave
prenatal care to such women as came under its observation. All birth
registrations were followed up by a visit to the home. Eight women
who were beneficiaries o f mothers’ aid received prenatal care during
1923.
In Reading the school children were given a physical examination
(including dental inspection) yearly (see p. 44) by a physician, and
later in the year were inspected by a nurse. Eight school nurses and
one dental hygienist were employed. School inspections were made
when deemed necessary, and visits were made at least once a week.
The mothers’ aid visitors had not made a practice of examining the
school medical reports, but they planned to do so in the future. The
form for the school reports o f the children in mothers’ aid families,
which were sent by the teachers to the mothers’ aid office, called for
a statement in regard to physical defects, and the teachers generally
noted any defects brought to light by the school medical inspection.
Malnutrition.—In Reading all school children were weighed and
measured as a part o f the physical examination twice each year, and
among the children in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades health cap8
See footnote 8, p. 44.
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ADMINISTRATION O f MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
tains were chosen, who recorded weight and height once a month.
There were no nutrition classes in the city; the nurses gave some indi
vidual instruction to undernourished children, and milk was sold to
them at a reduced price. Children who could not afford to buy were
supplied free through the Reading Sanitarium for Treatment of
Tuberculosis (the antituberculosis society).
w.
During 1923 one or more children in five families were diagnosed
as undernourished and received treatment and supervision. Milk was
given to them to drink at school, and summer vacations were provided
at the recreation home of the Reading Nurse Association.
M EN TAL HEALTH
An alienist from the State hospital for the insane at Wernersville,
Pa. (10 miles from Reading), with the assistance of a psychologist
from the State bureau o f mental health, conducted a mental clinic in
Reading once a month. There was no social-service worker attached
to the clinic, and all follow-up was done by the mothers’ aid workers.
Any adult or child presenting a mental problem might be referred to
this clinic. A preliminary physical examination was not required.
The school medical inspector examined retarded or subnormal chil
dren who were referred to him by the teachers for placement in a
special class.
It was the policy of the mothers’ assistance board to require that
any child in a family receiving mothers’ aid who was three or more
years retarded in school should be tested at the mental clinic; instruc
tions were followed up by the visitors.
Psychological or psychiatric examinations were not given as a
matter of routine even if there was a family history of mental defect^
or disease; for example, if the father was in a hospital for the insane*
no examination of the children was made unless mental difficulty
was obvious or suspected. I f institutional care was recommended
application was made to the State school for the feeble-minded at
Spring City, Pa., to the training school for feeble-minded children
at Elwyn, Pa., or to the colony for feeble-minded women at Laurelton, Pa. A ll institutions had long waiting lists, and facilities were
far from adequate to meet the need.
Up to the time o f this study no children in mothers’ aid families
had been given psychological or psychiatric examinations because of
incorrigibility or other delinquency. Only two or three children had
given any trouble in this regard. Mothers or children with psycho
pathic symptoms were observed and given a mental examination if
possible.
HOUSING
The majority o f families receiving mothers’ aid in Reading lived
in small, four or five room, semidetached, or row brick houses.
There were no tenements. The houses had some space in the rear
and at the front, and many of them had bright flower patches. The
mothers’ aid families lived in clean, well-cared-for homes with suffi
cient rooms and an abundance of light and sunshine. Families in
the city had running water and gas, and they generally had ice in
the summer; about one-fourth of the families had electricity. E ig h t y
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
61
BERKS COUN TY, PA.
een o f the 87 families had inside toilets, and a few had bathrooms;
the rest used outdoor sanitary toilets or closets.
Care was exercised that the houses should be sanitary, but it was
not always easy to prevail upon a landlord to make repairs. The
women themselves did much papering and repairing. None of
tp the homes were in morally bad neighborhoods. Thirty-three fami
lies owned their homes either in whole or in part, and were thus
able to live in old, well-established neighborhoods. Some lived with
relatives. On applying for aid families were encouraged to retain
the ownership of their homes or to invest in a home any savings
they possessed up to the limit o f $1,500. They were permitted to
make monthly payments •through a building and loan association,
providing these payments and the upkeep did not exceed a reasonable
rent.
The 30 rural families living outside Reading occupied single houses
with space for vegetable and flower gardens. A few lived on farms.
The highest monthly rent paid in the city was $30 and the lowest
$6.50; in the country the highest rent was $15 and the lowest $4.
There was no limit fixed for rental, but the families were required
to keep within a reasonable amount.
t
Mrs. G. had resourcefulness, good sense, moral strength, and charm. Her
husband in a fit of insanity had shot her in the arm and killed himself. Three
months after this the maximum grant o f $60 for the five children was given.
The mother was very ambitious for her children. She wanted to buy a little
place in the country where she could have a big garden and where there would
be play space and good air. She found what she wanted in a near-by suburb,
a cottage with windows on all sides and with plenty of land and fronting open
fields. She had so endeared herself to those who knew her that a worker
in another social agency put at her disposal the necessary funds to meet the
first payments, and the family moved in. They papered and painted the house
throughout and they used every available inch of garden space. Mrs. G.’s
furniture was not sufficient, but the mothers’ aid workers got contributions
from their friends. Potted plants were in the windows, the furnishings were
old but clean and orderly, and the new furniture was not inharmonious.
EDUCATION
C O O P E R A T IO N W IT H TH E SCHO OLS A N D F A C IL IT IE S F O R E D U C A T IO N
Contacts with the schools.
During the preliminary investigation the school records of the
children were always examined. The regular school reports sent to
the parents were not examined by the visitors after the grant was
made, but reports for each child in school were mailed by the teachers
to the mothers’ aid office at least twice a year on special blanks fur
nished by the State office. (See p. 48.) The form o f request used
was as follows:
B
erks
S t a t e B o ard o f E d u c a t io n ,
C o u n t y M o t h e r s ’ A s s is t a n c e F u n d ,
Courthouse, Reading, P a .,------ —, 192
.
The board of trustees of the Berks County Mothers’ Assistance Fund is
granting aid to the mother o f -----------.
Under the laws of Pennsylvania the trustees are responsible for the school
attendance of all children under their care.
May we have your cooperation by promptly sending us the information asked
i|^or on the inclosed blank? Any information or suggestions that you may see
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
62
ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’" AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
fit to give under the head of “ remarks ” will be greatly appreciated by the
boErd of tmstoos.
Should the above-named pupil be transferred or promoted, please state which
school building and grade and the name of the teacher or principal.
A stamped envelope is inclosed for reply. Kindly keep this matter strictly
confidential.
Very truly yours,
The mothers’ aid visitors kept in close touch with the children and
their teachers through frequent visits to the schools. The law laid
emphasis upon the educational purpose o f the aid, and the boys and
girls were taught that the quality of their school work was an im
portant item in the eligibility of the f amily to assistance.
In order to encourage the children in their school work, the presi
dent o f the board of trustees had for several years been giving three
prizes, one to the boy making the greatest progress in the city public
schools, one to the girl making the greatest progress in the public
schools, and one to the child making the greatest progress in the
parochial schools. The prizes were books chosen according to the
tastes of the individual children.
The regular school reports and the frequent conferences with the
teachers made it possible for the mothers’ aid workers to learn about
school difficulties and to apply remedies before the situation became
serious. For this reason very few children had given any special
trouble. A t least once a year the executive secretary reviewed all
cases of school difficulties and in this way guarded against the possi
bility of overlooking any child who might have escaped attention
previously.
Provision for handicapped children.
The 'physically handicapped child—The educational system made
no provision for the treatment o f crippled children nor for their
transportation to and from school. Expert medical and surgical
care was provided for mothers’ aid children by the board of trustees.
There were one open-air school and one open-window room for under
nourished and pretuberculous children, who were supervised and in
structed individually by the school nurses. There were no sightconservation classes. Four teachers gave instruction to small groups
o f children with speech defects, arid one teacher taught lip reading to
deaf children.
The mentally handicapped child.—There were in Reading two or
three special classes, which were not nearly sufficient. These classes
were ungraded, the children being taught in small groups. Rug
weaving, chair caning, and brush making were taught. The children
were given half manual and half academic work.
Provision for children wishing further education.
No scholarships were available for children who wished to continue
their education through high school or college. The John Edgar
Thompson Fund, which in addition to maintaining an institution
for the care of daughters o f railroad men gave aid to such girls in
their own homes, gave an allowance for a 16-year-old girl in a family
receiving mothers’ aid while she completed a business course. As
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BERKS CO UKTY, PA.
63
has been stated, the law allowed aid for children up to 16 years of
age, and the board encouraged older children to remain in school by
continuing aid for younger brothers and sisters.
A
”
When mothers’ aid was first granted to the, Y. family Alice was ju st 16,
Gilbert was 13, and Clara was 5. The family were capable, thrifty, and
extraordinarily ambitious. Before Alice graduated from high school she con- fided to the mothers’ aid worker that she wanted to be a physician and had
decided to take the two-year premedical course, then the four-year medical
course at one of the leading universities. That seemed a stupendous under
taking for a family without any resources but grit. Alice won a scholarship
that paid her tuition, and during her spare time she worked in -a physician’s
office and earned enough to pay her year’s expenses. A t the time of the study
she had worked for three summers and was finishing her premedical work.
Her school work had been so good that she had been exempt from examinations
in several subjects. She was preparing to enter medical school in the fall.
Three girls were taking business courses in evening high school.
One of the girls in high school was taking a business course and
another girl was attending a commercial college. Only one child
was known to be taking music lessions. A textile-machine shop
offered a four-year apprenticeship. The wages were 25 cents an
hour during the first year, 28 cents during the second, 30 cents during
the third, and 33 cents during the fourth. A t the end of the fourth
year a bonus o f $200 was given. Much effort had been expended to
place boys in this shop. A t the time o f the study five or six boys
from mothers’ aid families were working there.
SCH O OLIN G A N D W O R K OF C H IL D R E N 14 A N D 15 Y E A R S OLD
Although the board of trustees of the mothers’ assistance fund
W w as willing to continue a grant to the age of 16 for a child who
wished to continue in school, the financial condition o f many of the
families required that the children contribute to the income of the
family as soon as they could get employment certificates.9 There
were 35 children (17 boys and 18 girls) 14 and 15 years old in
families receiving aid; 17 of them were 14 years of age and 18 were
15 years of age; 32 of the 35 had completed the sixth grade and
therefore were eligible for employment certificates as regards edu
cational requirements.
Ten o f the 35 children, 7 of whom had completed the sixth grade,
were attending school. One boy was in the fifth grade, a boy and
a girl were in the sixth grade, and a girl was in the eighth grade.
Six children were in the high school (three girls in the first year and
a boy and two girls in the second year).
Twenty-five of the children 14 and 15 years of age— all except 7
of the 32 children who had fulfilled the grade requirement for going
to work—were employed. Twenty-one were working in factories,
1 was a cashier, 1 was doing housework, 1 was an errand boy, and
1 was an errand girl. A ll the 25 had completed at least the sixth
grade before leaving school.
9
For a statement of the terms of the compulsory-education, child-labor, and mothers’
aid laws in Pennsylvania, see p. 50.
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
The monthly earnings of these children were as follows:
Number of
children
Total— __________________________ _____________________________
25
2
Under $20
$20, under $30
$30, under $40
$40, under $50
Over $ 5 0 _____
7
11
4
1
Twenty of these 25 children contributed their entire earnings to
the support of the family. A girl earning $18 contributed $6.50, a
girl earning $22 contributed $13, a girl earning $39 contributed $35, a
girl earning $43 contributed $37, and a boy earning $78 contributed
$65.
EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE MOTHERS
Twenty-five mothers of foreign birth, most of whom spoke some
English, received aid. Four beneficiaries of mothers’ aid attended
one of the classes conducted by the International Institute which met
in the home of a Polish mother. There was also a Polish mothers’
club, to which a number of mothers receiving aid belonged. For
eign-speaking mothers were encouraged to attend classes in citizen
ship and to join such clubs as were maintained by the International
Institute. I f they were not already citizens they were encouraged to
take out their papers. No classes in sewing, cooking, or home mak
ing were conducted for mothers by the board of education or any
other agency.
RECREATION
m
The allowance for recreation was that provided by the Chicago
standard budget. Most of the working children up to 16 years of
age, sometimes to 18, turned over their entire earnings to their
mothers, who gave them what they chose; the arrangements made
between the mother and children were not interfered with if they
were reasonable. I f the mother clothed the child an allowance of
50 cents a week was made for his recreation.
The families of Berks County were closely identified with their
churches, and the social and recreational activities of the churches
played an important part in the lives of their members. The board
of trustees were anxious that the tie between the homes and the
church be preserved and that its protection and traditions be passed
on to these fatherless children. Each year they sent to the pastors
of all families receiving aid a form letter and a blank regarding
church and Sunday-school attendance and confirmation, as follow s:
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65
BERKS COUNTY; PA.
B
erks
C o u n ty M oth ers’ A
s s is t a n c e
F
und,
Courthouse, Reading, Pa.
M r D e a r M r . -----------: W e feel that your help and cooperation in regard to
this family might be of great assistance to us.
May we ask you to fill out the inclosed slip and return to our office?
Very sincerely,
-------------------- , Executive Secretary.
m o t h e r s ’ a s s is t a n c e f u n d
of be r k s
county
Telephone No. 2390.
Office hours: Tuesday and Thursday, 10 to 12 o’clock.
N a m e: _______________________
Address: _________________
( R eg u la rly ,------------------------ ----------------------------------------- Occasionally, ---------------- ———------------------ -------------------Not at a l l , _____________________________________________
( Regularly, ______________________________________
O ccasionally,------------------------------------ '■— ------------Not at a l l , ----------------------------------------------------------Members of fam ily confirm ed,____________________________________ ¡¿¿4 ----------- -------(Signature
of pastor)
Any information or recommendations,---------------------------------------------------------------------
The families had the recreational advantages common to a small
city and to the country. There were no settlements, nor were the
schools used as social centers. An excellent recreational program,
however, was being developed by the city recreational department,
and up to the time of the study the chief emphasis had been placed
upon athletics, pageants, and outdoor activities. There was a boys’
club house in Reading and a number of boys whose families received
^ a i d belonged to the club. Only a small number of the children in
^fa m ilies receiving aid were connected with the Young Men’s Chris
tian Association or the Young Women’s Christian Association.
Few children got books from the public library. There were a
number of Boy Scout troops in Reading, and there were troops in
13 other towns in the county. A director of the Berks County coun
cil o f scouts gave his full time to directing activities. Girl Scouts
and Camp Fire Girls were organized, but not in so many places.
Fourteen children under 16 years of age in mothers’ aid families
belonged to clubs of one sort or another. Phonographs were in the
majority of the homes. There were open-air concerts in summer in
the numerous parks. The recreation camp conducted by the Visiting
Nurse Association in the summer had been a source of great happiness
and physical upbuilding to many mothers with young children. To
it were sent for a week or two at a time whole families in need of
rest and good food. Recently it had been used only for under
nourished and convalescent mothers and children, so that the benefits
had been more limited. There were no other summer vacation camps
except for Boy Scout troops. The home-craft shop had provided a
rich source of social and creative life to the mothers who had been
employed. The stimulus which was given them to design and pro-
m
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
duee on their own initiative was a source of pride and joy, and in
one case at least had had a healing and beneficial influence.
Realization of the social needs of the adolescent boy is shown in
the following case history:
The V. family lived in a small, one-industry town that did little to stimulate
wholesome recreational life for its young folk. Fifteen-year-old James had
done well in school and had been allowed to continue in high school. Suddenly
it was reported that he was lazy and was deficient in two of his school subjects.
A t home he was nervous and excitable and wanted more money to spend than
could be afforded. The visitor and the high-school principal had a long talk
with the boy. The principal promised to coach him in his deficient subjects;
and as he greatly desired to become a member of the Young Men’s Christian
Association, which had an imposing new building near his home, he was given
$6 for this purpose. The family grant was also increased in order to provide
more nourishing food and better clothing. The last reports for James V. were
eood.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
MOTHERS’ ALLOWANCES IN COOK COUNTY, ILL.1
PROVISIONS OF THE L A W
The original mothers’ aid law in Illinois, called the “ funds to
parents act,” was passed in 1911 and was superseded by an act passed
in 1913 granting aid to mothers and children, which was amended
further in 1915, 1917, 1919, 1921, and 1923.2 The law of 1923 pro
vide aid to widows with dependent children, to mothers whose hus
bands had become permanently incapacitated for work by reason of
physical or mental infirmity, and to mothers whose husbands had
abandoned their children and could not be apprehended.
Other conditions of eligibility stated in the law were as follow s:
1. A mother must have been a resident o f the county
for three years previous to application.
2. The child or children must be living with the
mother.
3. The court must find that it is for the welfare of
such child or children to remain at home with the
mother.
4. Relief should be granted only when in the absence
o f such relief the mother would be required to work
regularly away from her home and children, or when in
the absence of such relief it would be necessary to com
mit such child or children to a dependent institution
and assistance was therefore necessary to save the child
or children from neglect.
5. A mother could have, in addition to household
goods, an equity or net interest in a home or real estate
or personal property not exceeding $1,000.
6. A mother was required to be a citizen of the United
States or to have declared her intention of becoming
a citizen or to have filed application for citizenship.
(A mother not yet a citizen was entitled to assistance
only for those of her children born in the United
States.)
1 Cook County includes within its
Park,
lived i
the ne&
___ _ _______| H B I H H J M H H H
The chief foreign nationalities in the order of their numerical importance were as fol
lo w s : Polish, German, Russian, Italian, and Swedish (Fourteenth Census of the United
States, 1920 voh 3, Population, pp. 252, 261, 270, 271, Washington, 1 9 2 2 ). The most
important industries are slaughtering and meat packing, the manufacture of men’ s clot'im g the manufacture of foundry and machine-shop products, and printing and publishing.
2 111-, act of June 5, 1911, Laws of 1911, p. 1 2 6 ; act of June 30, 1913, Laws of 1913
£• oln ’•
°;L J? ne 2 oi 1915 > Laws ° f 1 9 1 5 ,P. 2 4 3 ; act of June 11, 1917, Laws of. 1917’
acts ° L i une 21 and June s o > 1919»Laws of 1919, pp. 780, 7 8 1 ; act of June on
1921, Laws of 1921, p. 162 ; act of June 26, 1923, Laws of 1923, p. 169. See also a c t"o f
June 30, 1 9 2 5 ^ a w s of 1925, p. 185.
(See Smith-Hurd Rev. Stat. 1925, ch. 23, secs. 3 2 2 -
67
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
7. Whenever relief was granted to a mother whose
husband was mentally or physically incapacitated and
whose presence in the family was a menace to its physical
or moral welfare the court might require his removal
from the home.
8. Aid might be allowed for children up to 16 years
of age. The order granting aid, however, might be
modified or vacated in the discretion of the juvenile
court, before the child had reached the age of 16 years.
9. In counties having a population of less than 800,000
the allowance to a mother might not exceed $15 a month
for one child and $10 a month for each additional child;
in counties having a population o f more than 300,000,
$25 a month was allowed for the first child and $15 a
month for each additional child.
10. A mother might not receive aid if there were
relatives with sufficient financial means who were obli
gated by court finding and judgment to support her
children.
As the appropriation was insufficient to aid all applicants who
were eligible and as the law gave discretionary powers to the judge
of the juvenile court, he had ruled that grants would not be made
to women who had savings or personal property. The court also
ruled that mothers receiving aid would not be permitted to keep
men boarders or lodgers and that aid would be granted to a deserted
mother only after one year’s desertion and after a warrant had been
issued for apprehension of the father.
0
The judge of the juvenile court and the workers of the mothers
pension division heartily approved of the principle of State super
vision, but the law made no provision for it.
ADM INISTRATION OF THE L A W
ADM INISTRATIVE AGENCY AND STAFF
The administrative agency was the mothers’ pension division of
the juvenile court. The staff consisted of the head of the mothers’
pension division, 24 investigators and visitors (designated probation
officers), and 1 stenographer. The probation officers were appointed
by the judge from a list of persons who qualified by a competitive
examination outlined by representative citizens and social workers
of recognized ability. A high-school education or its equivalent was
required of each candidate, and training and experience counted 30
per cent in grading papers. Three probation officers were college
graduates, 1 of whom had taken graduate work on social problems
at the University of Chicago; 4 had had some college work; 2
(1 of foreign birth and 1 o f foreign parentage) had been well
educated in Europe; 1 was a graduate nurse who had had 1 year
of normal-school work.
The previous social case work training and experience of the staff
before coming to the court were as follows: 7 probation officers^
had worked in case-work agencies and 4 had worked in noncase
work social agencies (it was stated, however, that “ some o f the work
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
COOK
COUNTY,
IL L .
69
done with other agencies was volunteer work and rather meager” ) ;
8 had had some university training at the University of Chicago
School of Social Service Administration or elsewhere; 9 had had no
previous training or experience. Most o f these nine workers had
W been on the staff of the court for many years, having been appointed
before the training standards had been raised. There was a very
small turnover in the personnel of the court. No officer in the
mothers’ pension division had served less than two years; some
officers had worked in several divisions of the court. The salaries of
the probation officers and the stenographer were $149 per month.
Each officer supervised about 60 families and in addition made
from 8 to 10 new investigations per month. Each probation officer
also had to fill out in longhand a number of forms for the court pro
cedure, as a separate application was filed for each child. Some of
the probation officers typed their own records, as there was but one
stenographer for the entire staff.
The preliminary investigations of the probation officers were
checked, and reinvestigations— with reference chiefly to property,
insurance, savings, and the financial ability o f relatives to assist—
were made by representatives o f the county agent of Cook County
(the officer administering outdoor relief).
A conference committee consisting of the chief probation officer,
the supervisor of mothers’ aid, a representative of the county agent,
and the probation officer who investigated or supervised the family
under discussion met each week directly after the regular hearing of
mothers’ aid cases. This committee passed on all new investigations
before they were presented to the judge at the hearing, on all changes
of grants, and on questions involving financial policy.
A P P R O P R IA T IO N A N D V O L U M E O F W O R K
The appropriations for mothers’ aid for the fiscal years ended
November 30, 1921, 1922, 1923, and 1924 were $450,000, $650,000/
$675,000, and $750,000 respectively.3 A ll expenses of administration
were met by the juvenile court and did not come out of the appro
priation for mothers’ aid.
On February 1, 1924, the mothers’ pension division was granting
aid for 3,634 children in 1,207 families. This was not the total num
ber o f children eligible for aid in these families; but as some families
did not need the maximum grant the children not recipients o f relief
were excluded from this count. These children received the same
treatment as those for whom dependency petitions had been filed.
There was a waiting list of 500 to 600 families.
The court set aside one morning a week for mothers’ aid hearings.
The hearing was conducted as informally as possible, but in the pres
ence of other mothers and children. For this reason it lacked some
what the privacy that a hearing in chambers would have had. The
number o f cases to be heard allowed only the most limited discussion.
Generally the hearing consisted merely of a roll call of the names of
the mother and o f each of the children, the address, and the amount
3
The appropriation for 1925 was $760,000 and that for 1926 was $780,000. In 1927
there was an increase of $270,00, the appropriation for that year being $1,050,000.
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
of the grant for each child. Often the judge spoke some kindly
word o f admonition or praise, which did much to relieve the tension
and provide an atmosphere o f kindness and good will.
A representative o f the county agent—the officer administering
outdoor relief—was always present at the hearing and gave his assent 0
to each grant; a change in the amount of the grant could be made
only by means o f a rehearing., It was necessary for a mother to
bring the children when the rehearing was for the purpose o f increas
ing the pension or continuing the grant for a child 14 years o f age.
PR O C E D U R E IN M A K IN G A L L O W A N C E S
Applications were considered in chronological order. An applica
tion blank for each child was filed with the court, covering name,
place, and date of birth o f child; name, birth date, and place o f birth
o f father and of mother; date and place of father’s death, date of
father’s desertion or commitment to hospital or institution for the
insane; present address of parents; date and place of marriage of
mother and father; facts regarding citizenship, property, wages, and.
other income; and all available data regarding relatives liable for
support o f children. This application was made out by the probation
officer and was sworn to and signed by the mother. On the signature
of the probation officer it became her recommendation that aid be
granted, and it was also signed by the judge before the case could be
brought to court.
A face card for each family was filled out when aid was granted;
this also was sworn to by the mother and became the first sheet of the
running record. It called for the following additional information:
Housing conditions and landlord’s name; mental or physical d efects^
o f father, mother, and children; insurance; membership in fraternal
organizations; length o f residence in county, State, and United
States; husband’s previous occupation and wages; religion; previous
addresses; and names o f agencies interested in the family, names o f
relatives, and references.
The first step in the investigation was the registration of the family
in the social-service exchange; form letters of inquiry were sent to
all registered agencies. The investigation included a visit to the
home and the verification of certain facts, including the marriage of
the parents; birth dates o f children; citizenship; residence; death,
commitment, or desertion of the father; property, savings, and insur
ance, and the manner of expenditure; wages of mother and of work
ing children. Relatives were regularly consulted, primarily with
reference to financial assistance; and if the family was under the
care of a physician he was generally interviewed, as was also the
minister or priest.
The children’s school records were sometimes consulted as part of
the investigation, and the references furnished by the mother were
sometimes seen. On the day of the court hearing the mother brought
all the children to the court, and before the hearing the children
were given a physical examination by the court physician,
#
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
71
COOK COUNTY, ILL.
U SE OF A S T A N D A R D B U D GET
A budget, based on the Chicago standard budget, which was
used by family case work agencies in Chicago, was computed for
every family. This budget was as follow s:
SCHEDULE FOR ESTIMATING A BUDGET FOR A DEPENDENT FAMILY
I f family rents and is in satisfactory quarters, count rent as it is paid. I f
rooms are insanitary, too small, in bad neighborhood, or in any way unsuitable,
estimate a rent that will cover suitable housing.
I f the house is owned, ascertain taxes, interest on mortgage, or other pay
ments ; make a monthly average of expense and add to it an estimate, usually
$2 to $5 per month, for upkeep.
FOOD
Where baking is
done at home
Where bread is
bought
Per week Per month Per week Per month
M an at moderately hard muscular w o r k .. ...................... .........
M an at hard muscular work_________________________ _____ W oman at moderately hard muscular w ork_________________
W oman at hard muscular w ork_____ ______ ___________ ____
Child under 6 months_______________________________________
Elderly or incapacitated person not in need of special diet___
$2.70
3.00
2.20
2.35
3.05
2.70
2.70
1.80
1.70
1.35
2.05
$11.95
13.00
.9.55
10.20
13.20
11.70
11.70
7.80
6.40
5.85
8.90
$3.00
3.30
2.40
2.60
3.35
2.85
2.85
1.96
1.80
1.35
2.25
$13.00
14.30
10.40
11.30
14.50
12.35
12.35
8.45
7.85
5.85
9.75
S p e c i a l d i e t .— Where there is a definite recommendation of special food,
Calculate its cost.
Add the cost of a quart of milk in tuberculosis where the patient is in good
condition and for a child 7 per cent or more underweight.
Add a quart of milk, an egg daily, and an allowance for fresh vegetables of
25 to 50 cents a week in cases of tuberculosis where the patient is in poor
condition.
Add the cost of 1 pint of milk daily for a slight tuberculosis infection, such
as slightly enlarged glands in children, and for underweight of less than .7 per
cent if the general condition is good.
Add the cost of a pint of milk, an egg daily, and an allowance for fresh
vegetables; 15 to 30 cents a week for children who have a tuberculous infection
and are in poor physical condition and for children extremely underweight and
anemic.
Add the allowance of the child under 6 months to that of the woman for the
nursing mother and for the expectant mother during the last three months of
pregnancy.
V a r i a t i o n s w i t h s i z e o f f a m i l y .— For a person living alone add 25 per cent
to the food allowance.
I f the weekly allowance amounts to less than $4.25 add 15 per cent; if it is
between $4.25 and $6, add 10 per cen t; if more than $14, deduct 5 per cent.
C lo th in g
and
to ilet
a r tic le s
Per month
For a man at ordinary outdoor work (increase for work involving
unusual exposure) ________________ _____ ______________________________
$6. 50
For a woman at home________________ »___________________ _____________
5. 00
Working girl or boy (increase according to standard of dress re
quired by employment).____________ ___________ ____________________ _ 8 . 1 5 -410. 20
The larger figure allows $25 a year for “ best ” clothing.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
72
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
For office work where good standard of appearance is required
(the requirements for girl or boy in high school are much the
Per month
same as if the child were at w ork)______________________ ._______ $10. 00-$12. 00
Children 13 years up in eighth grade________________________________
5. 75
4. 70
Children 10 to 12 years________________________________________________
Children 5 to 9 years____ _________________ .__________ __________ ______
3. 65
Children 2 to 4 years____________________________ 1_____ ________________
2. 80
Children under 2 years_____ ,___________ _____ ___________________. ’j .
1.85
In families where there is clothing from older children or parents to be
handed down to the younger ones the’se figures may be reduced by 10 to 25 per
cent for the members of the family receiving such donations.
Fuel for heat, light, and cooking
4 winter months :
Where 1 stove is used_________________ _____________________ 1____ $12. 25-13. 25
W here 2 stoves are used___________ :________'_____ _ _____________^ 17 . 25-18. 75
2 spring and autumn months_______________________________________ __
8. 25-9. 25
4 summer months______________ ________ t ___________________________ 2 .5 0 -4 . 00
Average for year:
1 stoves-------------------------------------------------------------- ------ ------------------ 7 . 75-8. 75
9 . 35 -1 0.35
2 stoves---------------------------- -------------- ------------ ,__________ „ _____ ____
Household furnishings and supplies
Family
Family
Family
Fam i’y
Family
of 2 members______ .___ ,_______________________________________________ $4 . 00
of 3 or 4 members:___i_______________________________ §£_________ _ ____
4.7 5
of 5 or 6 members _______________________ _____ __________ fil l i p 1____
5 . 50
6. 25
of 7 or 8 members— ^;____ _____________________________ ___ ___________
of 9 or 10 members___________ _____________________________ ___ 1
______
7 . 00
Car fare
As necessary for work for each member of family.
of housewife to market.
Include necessary trips
Spending money
v
For working children who turn their wages into the family income spending ^
money is usually 25 cepts to $1 a week. I f the custom of the family is reason
able it should be followed in making out the estimated budget for the family.
This allowance will take care of expenditures for recreation and education for
those members of the family for whom it is estimated ; or three weeks’ wages
of the working child may be counted as family income, allowing the remainder
to cover his clothing, car fare, and spending money, which are omitted from the
family budget. This plan should not be used until the child’s weekly wage
exceeds the minimum estimate for his clothing, car fare, and spending money.
Care of health
Where public physicians and nurses are used, 25 cents a month and up for
each person.
Éducation
Family education expenses (newspaper, magazine, etc.), per month___ $1.00 up
School supplies, per pupil____________________________ _____________________
. 15
Insurance
Insurance premiums, lodge dues, etc., as paid (if reasonable).
Recreation
For members of the fam ily not provided with money for recreation under
“ spending money,” 25 cents per month and up.
Incidentals
Education, care of health, and recreation may be lumped under incidentals.
An average of $1 for each member of the family will cover these items in most
cases.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Æ .
■
COOK
COUNTY,
IL L .
73
The amount granted equaled the estimate o f the family’s expenses
minus the earnings of the family, provided this was within the
maximum allowed by law. At the time o f the study the income of
209 families was at least $5 a month less than that called for in the
budget, even including such supplementary assistance as was ren
dered by other agencies. It was very difficult to secure supple
mentary aid outside Chicago, Evanston, and Oak Park. The budget
was brought up to date at least every six months and the grant
revised in accordance with changing conditions. Uniformity of
computation was insured by having one probation officer in charge
o f the budget work for the entire mothers’ pension division.
When the maximum grant was not adequate on the basis of the
budget requirements, it was the policy o f the court to secure supple
mentary relief from one of the private family agencies which were
generous in this respect. For February, 1924, the average grant
per family was $50.31. The largest grant per family for that
month was $130; the smallest was between $5 and $10. The average
grant per child under 16 years o f age was not ascertained. The
mothers called for their checks twice a month at the office of the
county agent.
Each mother receiving aid was required to keep on prescribed
forms an itemized account o f her household expenses covering a
two-week period. Food expenditures were classified under cereals,
proteins, fats, sweets, fruits and vegetables, and accessories. The
form had been prepared by a trained dietitian who at one time had
been on the staff of the mothers’ pension division of the court and
had supervised this part o f the work. She had visited the homes
o f the mothers and had given much personal instruction in food
values, marketing, and diet for young children. Her work had been
o f great educational value. It had been some years since a dietitian
had been attached to the staff, but the forms were still in use. The
probation officers made them the basis o f recommendations and
suggestions.
A copy of such an expense account is as follow s:
[Face]
M
oth ers’
P e n s io n D iv i s io n , J u v e n il e C o u r t o f C o o k C o u n t y , J u v e n il e C o u r t
B u il d in g , R o o se v e lt R o ad a n d O g d e n A v e n u e , C h ic a g o
Phone, Seeley 8400
Probation officer,_______________________
SEMIMONTHLY STATEMENT OF FAMILY INCOME AND EXPENSE FORTHE PERIODBEGIN
NING MARCH 13, 1924, AND ENDING MARCH 26, 1924
Pension funds granted by the order of the juvenile court are paid on the 8th
and 23d of each month through the office of the county agent. This account
sheet will cover the period between those dates. A new sheet will be given to
the mother with her check for funds each half month.
Accounts are to be carefully kept showing each item of expenditure and each
item of income. This statement is intended not only to account for all money
spent but also to show the mother for what things the money is spent in order
that there may be the most intelligent use of the funds.
These sheets will be called for by the juvenile-court probation officer each
month.
The summary statement for the period should balance. The probation officer
will assist mothers with their accounts if desired.
I certify that the accounts following represent the total family income and
its expenditure:
Name of m o th er,__________________________
A d d r e ss,_______________________ _
94535°— 28------ 6
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
74
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEH LOCALITIES
Miarch 13
March 14
(tern
Quantity
Article
Price
Quantity
Article
Price .
Cereal products (flour, bakery, cereals, maca
roni, etc.)..................................... ................... . . .
High-protein foods (meat, fish, eggs, cheese,
milk, nuts, dried peas and beans)__________
Fats (butter, lard, oil, e tc.),_______ _______ _
Sweets____________ ______ ______ ____________
Fruits and vegetables__________________ ____
Accessories (coffee, tea, yeast, salt, spices, etc.)
Lunch m on ey............ .............. ..............................
Total for fo o d .. ______ ____ ___________
N ote .— Similar columns for the foliowing days to Mar. 20 on remaining face of this blank form.
[Reverse!
[Upper part of form contains columns for Mar. 21 to 26 similar to those on the face of this form.
part only is reproduced]
Lower
Expenditures of the period in addition to food (which is listed daily)
Household
supplies:
Quan Soap, linen, Price
tit y
furniture,
etc
Quan
tity
Fuel
and
light
Price
Clothing.
Specify
article and
for whom
bought
Price
Car
fares
Miscellaneous
expenses, in
cluding rent,
medical and
Price dental bills, Price
spending
money for
children, etc.
S u m m a r y s ta t e m e n t
on hand at beginning of period------ — -----received:
From mother’s work------------------- --------------- _
From children’s work________________________
From children’s work-----------------------------------From children’s work-----------------------------------3. Pension---------------------------- -------------------------------4. Other sources-----------l,— — l m .---------------- t,
Money
Money
1.
2.
Total----------------—
------ '.-L l —
----------------------------------- ------------- $ $ __sfcki
Amount spent during period-------- -— __--------------------- ----------------------Amount on hand at end of period--------------- ------------- 1_____________________
_____
SUPPLEMENTING OF MOTHERS’ AID
The outdoor-relief department of the county did not supplement
mothers’ aid, but it aided families on the waiting list. The United
Charities of Chicago spent in the year ended September 30, 1923,
$51,747.50, divided as follows: $43,922.95 on behalf of 345 families
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
COOK COUNTY, ILL.
A
75
awaiting aid and $8,824.55 as supplementary aid to 168 families
already receiving mothers’ aid.3
The Jewish Social Service Bureau supplemented mothers’ aid to
Jewish families when it was not adequate and helped Jewish families
on the waiting list. In the year ended December 31, 1923, it spent
$6,026.08 in relief to 18 families receiving allowances and $4,452.99
in relief to 5 families on the waiting list. The Bureau of Catholic
Charities likewise assisted Catholic families, but the exact amount
given during the last fiscal year of the organization was not available.
V ISIT IN G
It was the policy o f the court to have each family visited
once a month; many families were visited oftener, as often
a week if necessary. The relationship between the visitors
families under their care was one of mutual respect and
friendship.
at least
as once
and the
genuine
HEALTH
P H Y S IC A L H E A L T H
The budget allowed 25 cents a month for health needs for each
member o f the family. In addition special diet and medicine were
allowed whenever necessary.
Physical examinations.
On the day of the hearing of the families’ applications for aid
all children received a physical examination, which was made by
the court physician and included examination o f eyes, ears, nose,
throat and teeth, heart, lungs, and genitals (o f the boys). A regular
form was not used in reporting the results of the examinations, but
the mothers’ pension division was notified of defects, and the nurse
who assisted the physician made appointments with hospitals and
clinics immediately after the examinations for the correction of de
fects or for treatment. At intervals the nurse checked her records
with those of the probation officers to make sure that the necessary
medical attention had been given. The probation officers were re
sponsible for attending to all medical work, and the services which
the nurse rendered were by courtesy.
5 The expenditure of the United Charities of Chicago for families receiving or eligible
for mothers’ allowances during the three years ended October 1, 1922, fluctuated in almost
exactly inverse proportion to the expenditures made by the juvenile court for the pen
sions.
For example, a considerable increase in the amount expended by the court for
allowances in October, 1919, was paralleled by an approximately equivalent decrease in
the amount expended by the United Charities of Chicago for families on the waiting list.
By February, 1920, the monthly expenditure of the court had risen to $38,000 through
the amendment to the law extending the eligibility requirements and authorizing a larger
appropriation (which became available that m onth), although by November, 1921, it had
decreased to $34,000. As the juvenile court rose to this plane of $34,000 to $38,000 a
month the United Charities of Chicago spent a correspondingly smaller sum because of
the transfer of families from its lists to those of the court. By March, 1922, the juvenile
court had increased its expenditures (from $34,000 in December, 1921) to $60,000 in pur
suance of the amendments of 1921— which increased the allowances authorized from $15
a month for the oldest child in the family to $25 a month and from $10 a month for each
otb r child to $15 for each other child, and also permitted grants to parents having an
equity of $1,000 on a homestead. Increase in both the number of pensions and the amount
granted caused the court to be confronted by a deficit in April, 1922. and retrenchment
was begun. A t once the Unitqjl Charities’ expenditures, which previously had decreased,
began to increase on account of the necessity of aiding families waiting for allowances.
Supplementary aid was not granted to families unless the maximum amount was already
being given by the court-
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
76
ADMINISTRATION' OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
The following is a copy of the report blank for recommendations
by the court physician:
Form 62 A
Probation officer, S_______________________
J u v e n il e C o u r t
of
C o o k C o u n t y , 2246 R
oosevelt
R
oad,
C h ic a g o
REPORT OF PH YSICAL EXAMINATION
N am e,__________ j____________
Is suffering f r o m _______________________
The following treatment is recommended,_______________________
D a te ,_________ ______________
N o ._______
Juvenile court physician.
My consent to above treatment is hereby given {guardian
These examinations did not aim to be exhaustive. They did,
however, uncover an enormous number and variety of physical
defects and pointed the way toward a health program for these
children. The mothers were always present and the physicians fre
quently gave them friendly advice as to health habits as well as
physical conditions calling for corrections. No medical history either
o f the child or of the family was taken, neither were the records com
plete in this regard. Height and weight measurements were not
taken, but if there were signs o f undernourishment the physician
commented upon them. Frequently the mother was questioned and
advised as to the child’s diet, habits, etc. I f a child was found to
have a serious defect his mother was required to have it remedied,
but the policy o f persuasion was adhered to so far as was consistent
with the child’s well-being.
Although the examination by the juvenile-court physician was
brief and hurried, it was obvious that the mothers were impressed
with the value of having their children looked over; some of them
were visibly grateful for his service and advice. He seldom saw the
child a second time; his function was to direct the children to the
proper medical agency. Periodic physical examinations after the
preliminary examination were not the established rule except for the
children receiving attention from the Elizabeth McCorhiick Memorial
Fund (see p. 80) or under the regular supervision of a municipal,
tuberculosis, or hospital clinic.
The mothers either were examined by the court physician or when
it seemed advisable were sent to a clinic. The examinations might
be in the course of investigation of the application for aid or at any
time while aid was being granted. A urinalysis was made and a
pelvic examination if the woman complained of symptoms indicating
that such would be desirable. No Wassermann test was taken, but
if it seemed necessary she was referred to a clinic for more intensive
examination and treatment. The court physician sent to the mothers’
pension division a report of the symptoms, diagnosis, and recom
mendations for treatment, and a statement as to the amount of work
the woman was able to do. The following is a copy of such a report:
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
COOK
77
C O U N T Y , IL L .
C h ic a g o ,
M r . ------------------------
Chief Probation Officer, Juvenile Court, Chicago.
R e : Mrs. S -----------, -----------, 34 yrs.— 5 children, 11, 10, 8, 6, and 2 yrs.
M y D e a r M r . ------------ : Examination shows a healthy-looking woman. Weight,
120 pounds. She was operated on in March, 1923, at Wesley Hospital, when
hysterectomy, appendectomy, and perineorrhaphy were performed. She com
plains of pelvic pains for the past six months. These occur every two or three
weeks and last two or three hours. She has defective vision and needs to have
her eyes refracted for glasses. Pelvic examination does not show any cause
for the pains she complains of. Physical examination is otherwise negative.
She is not physically able to do any laborious work but could do light work,
such as sewing, at home.
Very truly yours,
Juvenile Court Physician.
A health blank was included in each record. The date of the
examination, the name o f the physician who made the examination,
the diagnosis and recommendations were given for the mother and
each of the children. Space was left to enter the date and character
of treatment for each person. The following is a sample:
HEALTH RECORD
Surname: W . _______
Father, F r a n k _______
Mother, M a r y ---------N am e: M a r y (mother) _______
D a te :
3 /2 /2 3 . Ex. by Dr. X _______ 8 Received gynecological treatment (report
attached).
3 /2 1 /2 3 . Under treatment at Central Free Dispensary.
5 /7 /2 3 . Operation for uterine tumor at Presbyterian Hospital.
N am e: M a r y _______
D ate: 3 /2 /2 3 . Apparently O. K .
N am e: G e o r g e _______
D a te :
4 /5 /2 3 . Examined at board of education— undernour.; immature (report
attached).
1 0 /8 /2 3 . Examination at board of education O. K .
N am e: J o h n _—Í ___
4 /5 /2 3 . Examination at board of education— -undernour.; tons, removed.
5 /5 /2 3 . Tons, at Michael Reese Dispensary.
9 /7 /2 3 . Entered nutrition clinic at Northwestern Settlement.
N am e: C h a r l e s ________
D a te :
4 /2 6 /2 3 . Examined by Dr. _______
Circumcision recommended.
5 /1 /2 3 . Circumcised.
.Name : P h i l i p ____
D a te : 4 /2 6 /2 3 . Examined by D r . ----------- O. K .
N am e: A n n i e _______
D a te :
4 /2 6 /2 3 . Examined by Dr. _______
Received examination at Municipal
Tuberculosis Sanatorium.
4/1 5 /2 3 .
Examined at Municipal Tuberculosis Sanatorium. Glandular
observation.
8 /1 5 /2 3 . Sent to Ridge Farm.
The various health agencies to which the court referred families
receiving mothers’ aid generally sent a written statement if they
were reporting on a first examination; but sometimes an oral report
was made. The social-service departments of the hospitals reported
the diagnosis and recommendations as to treatment. The visitors
» Dr. X was the physician on the staff of the juvenile court.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
78
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
were responsible for keeping the medical records up to date and for
follow-up in cooperation with the nurse employed by the juvenile
court, the school and infant-welfare nurses, and the social-service
departments of hospitals. The visitors often conferred directly
with the physicians who examined the patients. This was always
the case when the examination was made by the juvenile-court
physician or at one of the nutrition clinics o f the Elizabeth
McCormick Memorial Fund.
Except in cases of emergency and of some acute illnesses the free
service o f hospitals and clinics was utilized. Physicians employed
by the county could be secured in an emergency on the order of the
county agent. Mothers were not expected to employ private physi
cians unless such physicians gave their services free; an abundance
of free medical service was available, and almost all families made
use of it.
Follow-up of special types of problems.
There were numerous clinics at the hospitals; the municipal tuber
culosis dispensaries and the Social Hygiene Association also main
tained clinics. The court used whichever clinic happened to be most
accessible to a family.
Tuberculosis.— It was the policy o f the court that all mothers and
children who had been in any way exposed to tuberculosis should be
examined, and if there were signs of infection they were placed
under the care of one o f the municipal tuberculosis dispensaries.
Sanatorium care was insisted upon for all active cases, and facilities
for care were said to be adequate at the Municipal Tuberculosis Sana
torium. A few mothers with incipient tuberculosis were given home
treatment on the advice of the dispensary. Both the nurses con
nected with the tuberculosis dispensaries and the probation officer
followed up the cases.
The tuberculosis nurses were intrusted with the nursing supervision
o f the children in the fresh-air classes of the public schools, includin0,
nutrition work for them; they also took these children to the clinics
regularly for examination.
Venereal disease.—It was the policy of the court to have Wassermann tests made for all mothers and children when there was reason
to suspect venereal disease.
Orthopedic affections.—There were numerous facilities for the care
and treatment o f crippled children. The agencies used most exten
sively by the court were the Crippled Children’s Home and Hospital
(which provided both institutional and out-patient care with educa
tional and vocational instruction), St. Luke’s Hospital and Ortho
pedic Clinic, and the Children’s Memorial Hospital and Clinic.
No child was permitted to go without needed orthopedic advice
and care, though patience sometimes was required before foreignspeaking mothers could be persuaded that an orthopedic operation
would really help the child. Braces and special shoes were some
times provided through the hospitals or the jurors’ fund.7
Cardiac affections.—Most of the large hospitals had cardiac clinics.
The court used especially the Michael Reese Hospital and clinic.
court
^ n d in s is t i n g Of fees returned by any jurors who served in the court on
6nC^ CaSes' ^ 1S emergency fund could be used for any cases of ueed coming into
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
COOK COUNTY, ILL.
79
Children having cardiac trouble were admitted to the Crippled
Children’s Home and Hospital either as institutional or as day
pupils. The hospital nurses and social-service departments coop
erated with the probation officers in the follow-up work.
A
Eye, ear, nose, and throat affections.—The Illinois Charitable Eye
■ and Ear Infirmary and the hospital clinics cared for eye, ear, nose,
and throat operations and treatment. The probation officers, court
nurse, and school nurses attended to the follow-up.
Convalescent care.—Ridge Farm was a free preventorium for girls
o f grammar-school age; Arden Shore was a privately financed home
for recuperating boys and girls of grammar-school age who had
been refused employment certificates because they were undernour
ished. Admission to both these homes was through the board of
education, and hundreds of children were sent to them for building
up. Convalescent mothers were sometimes sent to Grove House in
Evanston, 111., or to the Home for Convalescents for Women and
Children, or to Rest Haven. There was also a convalescent home for
crippled children.
Health work fo r infants and 'preschool children.—The Chicago
Department o f Health operated 22 child-health centers, 6 o f which
did prenatal work. The mothers were encouraged to bring babies
under 3 months of age every week, those 3 to 6 months old every two
weeks, and those 6 months to 2 years old once a month. These
centers did not aim to work with children over 2 years of age. The
Infant Welfare Society maintained 27 centers, in 13 of which nutri
tion clinics were conducted for children 2 to 6 years o f age. The
work for children in their other centers was primarily for those
under 2 years of age. The mothers were encouraged to bring the
^ children to the nutrition clinics once a month. The society employed
46 nurses, 7 dietitians, 1 supervising dietitian, and 3 supervising
nurses. The department o f health and the Infant Welfare Society
selected the districts for their centers in such a way that there was no
overlapping of work. Most mothers could walk to the centers in
their neighborhoods, and the few who had to ride could reach a
center without changing cars. The department o f health service of
Cook County, which employed 5 nurses and a supervisor for work
outside Chicago, Evanston, and Oak Park, stimulated and in part
supervised 4 child-health centers for children of preschool age and
16 summer centers for children of preschool age in the county
schools. Though it was the policy of the court to encourage mothers
receiving aid to attend the centers their actual attendance depended
upon the individual probation officers and mothers.
School medical inspection.—Every school child in Chicago was
examined as a matter of routine by a physician about once in three
years. There were 110 school nurses for a school population of
600,000. The nurses often took mothers’ aid children to the dental
clinics maintained by the health department.
Nurses of the county department of health service made yearly
inspections of children in the schools outside Chicago, Evanston, and
Oak Park. Height and weight measurements were taken. There
were no nutrition classes, but individual instruction was given to
^ undernourished children. The nurses frequently arranged for the
correction of physical defects for mothers’ aid children. They were
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
80
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
•usually in rather close touch with the families and often communi
cated directly with the probation officers in regard to the children.
Free dental clinics were available for all school children in Chi
cago. The three dental colleges— of Northwestern University, the
University of Chicago, and the University of Illinois—operated free
dental clinics, charging only for the cost of materials.8 The facili
ties for free dental care for mothers and older w o r k i n g children were
not adequate, however.
The reports of the physical inspections of the school children were
not consulted, as a rule, nor followed up by the probation officers.
Malnutrition.— Through the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund
1,254 children under the supervision of 10 of the probation officers
had been at least weighed and measured. The valuable cooperation
of this organization with the mothers’ pension division had been
developed gradually as one probation officer after another had ex
pressed her interest in having its health supervision extended to the
children in her care. At the time of the study 8 of these 10 proba
tion officers were using its nutrition classes, the remaining 2 having
health inventories made for mothers’ aid children not living in dis
tricts where the fund conducted classes. The children of the first
group (those under the supervision of the eight probation officers)
were first weighed and measured; those who were underweight or
seemed in need of medical care were given complete physical exami
nations by the pediatrician who did the medical and diagnostic work
for the fund, and if he recommended it they were entered in a nutri
tion class. The pediatrician not only made a thorough and careful
examination but was sympathetic in his approach to both mother and
child; he took pains to use language intelligible to them and to
make them see the reasons for his advice and the advantages to be
gained by following it. From September 1, 1923, to May 29, 1924,
there were enrolled in these nutrition classes of the Elizabeth McCor
mick Memorial Fund 131 children who were members of mothers’
aid families. (Children under 6 years of age were not enrolled in
these classes if they lived in districts having health centers for pre
school children.) The mothers attended the classes in which their
children were enrolled and seemed to enjoy them and to be eager for
help. The nutrition classes thus served the purpose of diagnostic
clinics and offered a solid and constructive basis for a program of
child health. Not onlv was expert diagnosis provided but also con
tinuous instruction of the child or his mother until he could be
discharged as well.
For the children under the supervision of the two probation officers
in districts where no classes were conducted the pediatrician made a
survey (1) to learn how many of these children needed intensive
nutrition work, (2) to collect data on the relation of the heightweight index to other signs of malnutrition, and (3) to obtain infor
mation that would be of value to the probation officers in their
handling of the mothers’ aid families concerned. The nutritionist
on the staff of the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund who weighed
8 The facilities for dental care have been much improved through the new clinic at the
Cook County Hospital, which cares for children up to 14 years of age.
N o ch arge is
made, even for materials. The county board supports the clinic, and the Chicago Dental
Society selects the dentists.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
COOK COUNTY, ILL.
81
and measured the two groups of children gave individual instruction
on diet and other health habits to the children and their mothers,
and also usually gave a talk to the entire group on one or two points
that needed emphasis. The children found to be underweight or
apparently in need of medical care were given physical examinations
at a hospital clinic and referred to that hospital’s nutrition class.
The Michael Reese Hospital and the central free dispensary of the
Presbyterian Hospital conducted nutrition clinics, and other hos
pitals did some nutrition work.
Illustrative case histories.—Nutrition classes were the means of
opening the eyes of more than one mother. The following case
history may serve as an illustration :
Mrs. S., who had six children under 12 years of age, had been a hard drinker,
as her husband had been. They had taken men lodgers and the neighbors had
complained of boisterous drinking parties. When aid was granted to Mrs. S.
upon her husband’s death an attempt was made to win her cooperation in
caring for her children, whose physical condition was deplorable, all being
badly undernourished and two having glandular tuberculosis as well as other
defects. The United Charities of Chicago supplemented the maximum allow
ance ($55), bringing the total up to $90 a month. The children were examined
at a nutrition clinic, and when Mrs. S. saw a rosy child and looked at her own
pale brood she exclaimed, “ I got ey es; I can se e ! I bring them every week.”
The following case history shows the long-continued and pains
taking care that is necessary to help the children or the mothers to
overcome physical handicaps or chronic diseases:
Mrs. E. had three children, 8-year-old Helen, 6-year-old Ruth, and 4-year-old
Frank. Her husband had died of tuberculosis after a life of intemperance.
When aid was granted in 1914 Mrs. E. had incipient tuberculosis and was
anemic and undernourished. Helen was much underweight, and one of her legs
was crippled from infantile paralysis. Ruth and Frank were both under
nourished and suffering from glandular tuberculosis. The family was placed
under the care of the municipal dispensary, 'where they continued to report
regularly until the last one was discharged in 1922. On the advice of the
dispensary, Mrs. E. was given home treatment; and as she was an intelligent
woman this worked very well. Helen was taken to an orthopedic hospital,
where an operation was performed in 1916, and braces and a special shoe
secured for her. One of the visiting nurses took her once a week to the clinic
for treatment, and she received expert care during the entire period of super
vision. Special diet was provided, and the grant was continued for her until
she was 16 in order that she might secure a fair education. She attended a
commercial high school near her home where she could get a free hot lunch.
After she passed her sixteenth birthday a scholarship of $15 a month was
secured to enable her to finish her course. In October, 1923, she took a job as
stenographer. A position was found for Mrs. E. as matron in a telephone
exchange, and her physical improvement was no doubt due to some extent to
the feeling of partial independence which her position gave her. In February,
1924, she wrote to the judge offering to relinquish her grant.
M ENTAL HEALTH
Available facilities.
The department o f child study of the Chicago Board of Education
examined retarded and deficient children recommended by school
principals for placement in the special classes; it also examined and
made recommendations for children who presented behavior prob
lems or physical defect. For example, a six-year-old deaf child in a
family receiving mothers’ aid, who was referred to the department
by the probation officer, was placed in a school for the deaf with
excellent results. There were no social case workers on the staff
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
82
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
of the department, and all follow-up work was done by the teachers,
nurses, or social workers in touch with the child.
The Institute of Juvenile Research was maintained jointly by the
Cook County juvenile court and the State department of public
welfare. It had on its staff psychologists, psychiatrists, and psychi
atric social workers. The court referred problem children to this
institute for examination and advice. As an agency designed pri
marily for research the institute aimed to do very intensive work
with a few children, but gladly gave examinations and advice to
all children referred to it. I f the child presented a problem of suffi
cient interest or importance the institute might do the follow-up
through one o f its own staff. Otherwise, the agency reporting the
child did the follow-up work. The institute made detailed recom
mendations in regard to treatment, and if there was any uncertainty
as to diagnosis it requested that the child be returned for reexamina
tion in six months. Social agencies, courts, schools, and private
citizens throughout the State referred to this institute any children
presenting problems in the field of mental hygiene.
The Psychopathic Hospital provided hospital care for psycho
pathic patients while under observation. It was infrequently used
by the mothers’ pension division, however, and only for mothers
about to be committed to a hospital for the insane. The University
o f Illinois maintained a psychological clinic which was used for the
examination of adults.
Follow-up of special types of problems.
The procedure with reference to mental problems varied consider
ably with the different workers. Some probation officers laid great
stress upon early examination, diagnosis, and treatment. Psycho
logical examinations might or might not be arranged for by the pro
bation officers for children two or three years retarded in school, as it
was generally assumed that the teachers took care o f this type of
problem through the child-study department and that children were
placed in the special classes whenever necessary.
For children so defective as to require institutional care application
was made for commitment to the Lincoln State School and Colony
for the Feeble-Minded. This institution was crowded and there was
a waiting list.
I f the family history of the child showed mental disease, as in the
case o f a chila whose father was insane, the child was not given an
examination unless he also showed symptoms of mental unbalance.
I f mental difficulty was suspected the child was examined by the
Institute o f Juvenile Research. The treatment of behavior problems
also varied considerably. It was the desire of the court that all the
light which psychiatry could throw on conduct and the treatment of
delinquency should be brought to bear on difficulties of behavior.
HOUSING
It was not easy for mothers’ aid families to find an adequate num
ber of rooms in desirable neighborhoods at reasonable rentals. Con-
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
COOK COUNTY, ILL.
83
sidering the difficulties to be overcome, it seemed remarkable that
these families were on the whole so well cared for. Very few families
were living in tenements; many o f the families dwelt in the rear
rooms of cottage houses occupied by two families or in rooms in twostory houses occupied by four families. There was usually an inside
toilet for each two families, though the court workers preferred that
each family should have a separate toilet. Every room had a window
opening on the outside, and the houses were not insanitary. Most of
the families had access to some kind of front or back yard, but very
few had a vegetable or even a flower garden.
The average number of rooms for a mother and three children was
four. A living room was considered essential, though it was fre
quently used for sleeping purposes, too. A ll families had inside run
ning water and a few had bathrooms. Most houses were equipped
with gas for lighting and cooking, but only a few had electricity. It
was reported that about two-thirds of the families had ice boxes.
Good homes at reasonable rents were so scarce that it was impos
sible to give as much consideration as would have been desirable to
play space and accessibility o f playgrounds. Great emphasis was
laid upon having families live in sanitary houses and in decent
neighborhoods.
There was no precise limit as to the amount of rent, each family
being considered separately. Generally rents were from $25 to $35
a month. As the law had permitted aid to a mother who had an
equity o f $1,000 in her home only since 1921 the number o f families
who owned or partly owned their homes was small.
The homes of the families were generally furnished with the neces
saries for decent and wholesome living. There was an adequate
number of beds, and with few exceptions the families appeared to
have enough dishes and chairs so that the whole family could sit at
the table together. Most of the houses visited had a homelike atmos
phere, and even those that were sparsely furnished conveyed a sense
o f orderliness, security, and comfort. The probation officers had
done much toward making the homes comfortable by enlisting help
for making repairs or finishing partly built houses. One family was
made happy by having their house painted, the work being done by
the Boy Scouts.
EDUCATION
COOPERATION W IT H THE SCHOOLS AN D FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION
Contacts with the schools.
Reports on special blanks were obtained for each school child every
two or three months and reports for difficult children were obtained
every month. The following is a copy of such a report blank:
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
84
ADMINISTRATION" OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
[Form 9]
SCHOOL STANDING AND ATTENDANCE BLANK
School,
_____ , 1 9
C h ica g o ,
2 — .
C h i e f P r o b a t io n O f f ic e r ,
J u v e n ile
C o u r t B u i l d i n g , 22Jt 6 R o o s e v e l t R o a d ,
C h ica g o :
Attention of probation officer_________________ ___________________
In the matter o f ___ ___________ »___________________________ Room No. -----------Address,______ ________________ ____ <,____ __
The records of this school for the month o f ________, 192— , show the follow ing:
(1) G r a d e -____________________________ ___ .__
(2) Scholarship ILii___________ J_________ l_________
(3) Deportment ______________________ ___________
(4) N eatness________________ :_____ _______________
Absences excused __
(5) Attendance
Absences unexcused
Rem arks:
(Signed)
P r in c ip a l
M
o th ers’
P e n s io n D
J u v e n ile C o u r t o f
or
T each er.
iv is io n ,
C ook
C o u n ty .
It was the policy of the court to have the probation officer visit the
teacher o f each child at least once a year. Some probation officers
visited the schools regularly; others did not. The regular school
reports sent to the parents were not followed up. Summarized
yearly school reports detailed by months were incorporated in the
records of the mothers’ aid families. These reports were left with
the teachers to fill out month by month, or the probation officers
copied the reports received on the special blanks furnished by the
court. A copy of one of these yearly summary blanks is as follow s:
Name of c h ild ,_________ l______________
S ch o ol,---------- ---------- -------------
Room^.Ui-___
1923
19:4
Year
Sept. Oet. Nov
Dee. Jan. Feb. Mar
Apr. May June
(1) Grade....................................... ..............
(2) Scholarship..........................................
(3) Deportment..........................................
(4) Personal appearance.-.......................
/t-N(Absences excu sed.............................
Absences unexcused..........................
(6) Difficult studies..................................
Rem arks:
Provision for handicapped children.
The 'physically handicapped child.—The Chicago school system
gave unusual consideration to the handicapped child. There* were
five schools for crippled children and children with cardiac affec
tions. Each child in these schools was placed under the supervision
of an orthopedic or cardiac specialist and was taken to clinics for
correction work and supplied with braces and necessary apparatus.
A school bus provided transportation. There were 3 classes for
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
♦
COOK COUNTY, ILL.
85
epileptic children, 2 classes for the blind and 9 sight-conservation
classes, and. 5 schools for the deaf and semi deaf. There were 66
open-air rooms for anemic and pretuberculous children, and 12 peri
patetic teachers gave individual speech instruction to pupils having
speech defects. Blind, epileptic, and deaf children were allowed 50
cents a day for the services o f an attendant, generally another child,
to guide them to and from school. In addition to providing medical
and surgical care the court gave extra attention to the provision of
educational opportunities and also to the placement of physically
handicapped children in suitable positions.
The mentaWy lumdica'p'ped child.— There were 110 special classes
for subnormal children in 100 schools. No child with an intelli
gence quotient under 50 was admitted to the regular classes in the
public schools. It was expected that the children in the special
classes would be reexamined mentally on leaving school. A voca
tional counselor from the vocational-guidance bureau of the Chicago
public schools was assigned to special classes. For retarded pupils
14 to 21 years old there were five prevocational schools. The intelli
gence quotients of the pupils in these schools ranged from 75 to 90,
and admission was made on the recommendation of school principals.
The pupils were given mental group tests but not as a preliminary
to entrance.
Provision for children wishing' further education.
Scholarships were obtainable through the Vocational Supervision
League and the Scholarship Association for Jewish Children, private
organizations which were given office room in the quarters of the
vocational-guidance bureau of the Chicago public schools.9 These
two agencies imposed practically the same qualifications for scholar
ship grants. The child must be between 14 and 16 years o f age
and doing good work in school. Physical examinations were given
by the medical examiners o f the bureau and mental tests by the
Institute of Juvenile Research. The administration of the scholar
ships was in the hands o f vocational advisers who were trained social
workers. They visited the homes of the children and studied the
social and economic needs o f the family. The amount o f the scholar
ship was then determined on the basis o f the Chicago standard
budget. The average amount granted was $15 and the maximum
$20 (for 10 months in the year). Usually this was not for a defi
nite period, the grant being continued until the child had completed
the course or had dropped out o f school because the sum granted
was inadequate for his own or his family’s needs, or because of some
other carefully considered reason. At the time o f the study 20
children 14 and 15 years old in families receiving aid were receiving
scholarships from the Vocational Supervision League, 11 were re9
The Vocational Supervision League is one of the two agencies through which the great
majority of Chicago school children receiving grants of money to cover all or part of their
living expenses while attending school receive such scholarships. The other is the Schol
arship Association for Jewish Children.
Both these organizations are given free office
room in the quarters of the vocational-guidance bureau of the Chicago public schools. The
cost of the scholarships as well as of the workers for these organizations is provided for
from private funds, but the work is conducted as if it were a function of the vocationalguidance bureau.
See Vocational Guidance and Junior Placement, pp. 155, 176 (U. S.
Children’s Bureau Publication No. 149 and U. S. Employment Service Publication A,
Washington, 1 9 2 5 ).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
86
ADMINISTRATION- OR MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
ceiving them from the Scholarship Association for Jewish Chil
dren, and 11 were receiving them from some other agency.
The following information was given in regard to assistance to
children 16 years of age or older who wished to continue in school:
Nine children 16 years old and two children 17 years old were
attending school, five of them being members o f families that re
ceived private supplementary aid. Three had scholarships from
the Scholarship Association for Jewish Children and also aid from
the Jewish Social Service Bureau; one had a scholarship from the
Vocational Supervision League; and one received help from the
Chicago United Charities. Two were working also, no supple
mentary aid being received by their families. One who was physi
cally handicapped and one who was a problem child were receiving
special training. Six of these nine children were in the high school
(four in the first year, one in the third year, one in the fourth year)
and one was in the eighth grade.
Working children under 16 who had not completed high school
were required to attend daytime continuation school and conse
quently were not found in evening classes. Very few children over
16 in families receiving allowances were attending evening school.
Apparently not many children in these families were learning
trades. The Chicago typothetae school admitted boys on the basis
o f half-time school instruction and half-time actual work, and one
boy in a family receiving aid was in this school. Opportunity for
musical instruction at nominal fees was given at the settlement
houses.
The following case stories, illustrate the opportunities placed in
the way o f promising children:
Mrs. V. was granted aid when her older daughter, Edith, was 11 years old
and the younger one, Celia, was 9 years old. Edith had exceptional ability,
and as soon as she reached her fourteenth birthday a scholarship was secured
for her from the Vocational Supervision League in order that she might
continue through high school. By going to summer school every year she
graduated from high school in three years and in September, 1919, entered
the university. The Vocational Supervision League helped her to secure a
university scholarship which paid her tuition and allowed her $20 a month
besides. A t the time of the study Edith had graduated from the university
and had taught school for one year. She was helping Celia to finish her
high-school course.
Mrs. Z. had a 15-year-old daughter, Adeline, a 13-year-old daughter, Lily,
and a 9-year-old son, Elmer. Her husband was blind. The family lived in a
shabby but respectable flat in a run-down section of the city. Adeline was in
the third year of high school on a scholarship. Both Adeline and Lily were
enrolled in classes in rhythmic dancing and dramatics at a near-by settlement.
A ll three children had musical ability. Through the help of the settlement
they were receiving violin lessons from one of the good musicians of the city.
Fifteen-year-old Barbara was in her second year of high school on a scholar
ship, and for two summers she had attended summer school in order to make
faster progress. She wished to take a normal course and expected to support
her mother and three younger brothers as soon as she could become a teacher.
She was absorbed in books.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
COOK COUNTY, ILL.
87
SCHOOLING AN D W O RK OF CHILDREN 14 AND 15 YEAR S OLD
The child-labor, compulsory-education, and mothers’ aid laws.
The child-labor law permitted children to work between 14 and 15
years o f age if they had completed the sixth grade, had attended
school 130 days during the preceding year, and were physically
qualified for employment.10 They were required to submit to physi
cal examination by a physician on the staff o f the vocational-guid
ance bureau’s employment-certificate division11 and to obtain em
ployment certificates. Those who had not completed a four-year
course o f instruction in high school were required to attend continu
ation school not less than eight hours a week.12
The mothers’ aid law allowed aid to be granted to the age o f 16.
Children in school and at work.
It was the policy o f the juvenile court to require children to go to
work at 14 if they were eligible for employment certificates unless
they were physically handicapped or unless they were up to their
normal grades, had attained during their last school year an average
of B in scholarship (the same conditions as those required by the
Vocational Supervision League for the granting o f its scholarships),
and wished to continue in school.
There were 521 children 14 and 15 years of age in the families
receiving aid; the number o f boys and girls among them was not
reported, nor the number who were 14 years old and the number
who were 15. O f these 521 children 347 were attending school, and
172 were working; in regard to 2 the information was not com
plete, although it was known that they were not in actual attendance
at school.
Children in school.—Among the 347 children 14 and 15 years old
attending school were 162 who were eligible for employment certifi
cates.13 The school attendance of 136 of these 162 children was
approved by the court. The remaining 26 were attending school
against the court’s advice; 6 were working outside' school hours and
earning $5 or more a week, but the potential earning capacity of the
20 who were not working was estimated as part o f the family in
come, and deduction was made accordingly from the amount o f al
lowance granted.
The grade or type o f school attended by the 347 children 14 and 15
years old who were attending school and the number eligible and
10 111., act of June 26, 1917, Laws of 1917, p. 511, as amended by act of July 13, 1921,
Laws of 1921, p. 435. (Smitli-Hurd Rev. Stat. 1925, ch. 48, secs. 1 7 -3 1 , pp. 1 2 3 6 -1 2 4 0 .)
11 The vocational-guidance bureau of the Chicago public schools had in 1924 among its
six principal divisions an employment-certificate division and a placement office.
See
Vocational Guidance and Junior Placement, pp. 1 5 5 -1 8 9 (U. S. Children’s Bureau Publi
cation No. 149 and U. S. Employment Service Publication A, Washington, 1 9 2 5 ).
12 III., act of June 28, 1919, Laws of 1919, p. 919, as amended by the act o f June 28,
1921, Laws of 1921, p. 816. (Smith-Hurd Rev. Stat. 1925, ch. 122, sec. 639, p. 2403.)
13 These 162 children were eligible not only so far as age and grade completion were
concerned but in all particulars. They constituted nearly half (49 per cent) of the total
number of 14 and 15 year old children (334) in the mothers’ aid families who were
eligible for employment certificates.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
88
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
ineligible for employment certificates are shown
table:
N u m b er
o f
o f
c h ild r e n
th e
stu d y ,
lh
by
and
gra d e
15
or
yea rs
ty p e
o ld
o f
w ho
sch ool
w ere
in the following
a tten d in g
a tten d e d ;
C ook
sch ool a t
th e
C o u n ty ,
III.
tim e
♦
Children 14 or 15 years old attending school
Grade or type of school
Total
Total_____ ,............................................................'.............
Elementary school:
Fourth grade_________________________________________
Fifth grade.____ _____________ _______ ___ _____________
Sixth grade___________________________________________
E ighth grade________ ____ '........ ..................... ...................
High school:
Other.................................................................................. ...........
347
6
21
Not eligi
ble for employment
certificates
185
With ap
proval of
the court
Against
advice of
the court
136
‘ 26
5
44-
16
3
42
28
7
•7
6
21
60
54
81
60
33
34
69
34
20
6
1
2
2
8
1
0
84
Eligible for employ
ment certificates but
attending school—
1
2
16 were working outside school hours.
21 was taking a prevocational course, another a filing course, and 2 were in a special class.
The sources through which the 136 children attending school with
the approval o f the court were able to postpone the necessity of work
ing to contribute to the family income were as follow s:
N
umberof
children
T o t a l - ___________ __________________________________________ | 136
Mothers’ allowances continued_________ :__________ _______________
Scholarships (from Vocational Supervision League, Scholar
ship Association for Jewish Children, or other agency)-^.___
Family’s incolne up to budget, allowance discontinued_________
Assistance from relatives________________________________________ 2
52
42
40
Six months before a child reached his fourteenth birthday he was
sent to the employment-certificate division of the vocational-guidance
bureau for a physical examination in order that any defects might be
corrected by the time he was eligible for an employment certificate.
(Children frequently were sent to Arden Shore; see p. 79.) The
reports of the employment-certificate division for the year ended
June 30, 1923, showed that 45 per cent of the children in families
receiving aid who applied for employment certificates in 1923 were
ineligible because of physical defects.
Children at work.—It was reported that 172 of the 521 children
14 or 15 years of age in the mothers’ aid families were working
but no information in regard to their occupations or their earnings
was obtained.
#
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
COOK COUNTY, ILL.
89
EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE MOTHERS
As the mothers’ aid law required that a mother be a citizen, or at
least that she should have made her declaration of intention to be
come a citizen of the United States, the judge allowed a temporary
fp- grant to a woman who had filed her declaration o f intention. The
grant was allowed only for the two years which must elapse between
the declaration o f intention and the application for citizenship; if
the mother failed to pass her examination the grant was canceled
unless there was some special reason for continuing it, a few months.
It required considerable time on the part of the probation officers to
make sure that all the women were enrolled in the citizenship classes
conducted by the board of education and were equipped to pass the
examinations at the end of the two-year period. The classes were
conducted in schoolhouses, settlements, and neighborhood houses
whenever an enrollment of 20 was guaranteed. Attempts were made
to include some social diversion in connection with these classes.
There was often 15 minutes of singing, occasionally tea was served,
and often a party was the climax of successful examinations. A r
rangements were sometimes made for the care of young children
during the class time. Two classes were conducted exclusively for
mothers receiving aid. A few mothers became quite interested and
continued to attend the advanced classes after they had secured their
citizenship papers.
The number o f mothers attending classes or clubs was not known.
The citizenship classes and the nutrition classes were the group
activities in which the largest numbers o f the mothers were inter, ested. As has been stated, all mothers were expected to attend the
innutrition classes regularly if they had, children enrolled, and a few
mothers attended classes in cooking and sewing at the settlements.
Some o f the probation officers were encouraging mothers to join the
mothers’ clubs conducted in the neighborhood recreation centers.
One probation officer’s weekly schedule o f clubs and classes for
mothers under her supervision was as follows:
1. Four citizenship classes with an enrollment of 16 in
each class.
2. Three mothers’ clubs.
3. Two nutrition clinics conducted by the Elizabeth
McCormick Memorial Fund; one nutrition clinic con
ducted by the Municipal Tuberculosis Dispensary; and
one nutrition clinic conducted by Michael Reese Hos
pital. (There was a total enrollment o f 25 families in
the four clinics.)
4. One monthly weighing and health inventory at a
settlement .house by the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial
Fund.
A yearly round-up o f children receiving aid for the
health inventory by the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial
Fund.
RECREATION
^
The budget allowed 25 cents a month for recreation for each
* member of the family except the working children. I f a working
94535°— 28------7
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
90
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
child earned less than $15 a week, four weeks’ earnings were counted
in estimating the family’s monthly income and an allowance was made
in the budget for his clothing, car fare, lunches, recreation, etc.,, and
25 cents a week was allowed him for spending money; if he earned
more than $15 a week, two and two-thirds weeks’ earnings were jjk
counted and one and one-third weeks’ earnings were allowed him
for spending money, car fare, and clothing.
The city afforded many facilities in the way o f gymnasium and
athletic facilities, boys’^ clubs, girls’ clubs, settlement-house and
neighborhood-house activities. Several municipal agencies con
ducted recreation centers which in addition to providing playgrounds
and both indoor and outdoor athletics afforded women’s club activ
ities and boys’ and girls’ club work. One worker had just succeeded
in persuading 12 Polish mothers to attend one of these mothers’
clubs. The babies and little children were entertained by trained
kindergartners, the club leaders played simple games with the
women (this was only the second or third meeting), and the women
sang one or two of their national songs. Later tea and cake were
served to the mothers and milk ancl crackers to the children. One
o f the mothers was elected president and another secretary.
Some of the boys and girls had cards and used the libraries, though
no special encouragement was given to children to use the public
library.
The settlements provided opportunities for such activities as dra
matics, music, painting, pottery and homecrafts, and dancing. Chil
dren presenting behavior problems were especially encouraged to
join a club at one of the settlements, and the workers sometimes
promised children in the nutrition classes that if they tried to reach
normal weight they would be entered in a settlement class or club.
The court encouraged mothers and children to attend their own
churches and Sunday schools and to identify themselves closely with
them. The Young Women’s Christian Association and the Young
Men’s Christian Association were considered too expensive for the
children to join. It was not known how many children were in scout
troops. Some families had a piano or a phonograph; the purchase
o f either was encouraged only under special conditions, as when a
working child assumed full responsibility. A t least two-thirds o f
the families were in the habit of attending motion pictures. The
probation officers received for distribution many tickets to theaters
and the circus, and these gave great delight. One worker was using
the $50 given her by an anonymous donor to take children on picnics
to the parks or to the Field Museum or the art gallery.
As far as possible the mothers and children were given summer
outings at vacation camps. One favorite form of amusement in the
summer was the all-day boat excursions.
Probably all families had access to several o f these sources of
recreation. The degree to which families were definitely encouraged
to join clubs and classes depended upon the individual probation
officers, some of whom were very active. The records were full of
stories o f good times given children by individual visitors.
#
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MOTHERS’ ALLOWANCES IN ERIE COUNTY, N. Y .1
♦
■
•PROVISIONS
- ,
OF THE L A W
The New York mothers’ aid law was passed in 1915 and amended
in 1916, 1917, 1919, 1920, 1922, and 1923. In its amended form aid
was provided to four groups of mothers with dependent minor chil
dren : Those whose husbands were dead, inmates o f State institutions
for the insane, confined under a sentence of five years or more in a
State prison, or permanently incapacitated or confined in an insti
tution for the care of their particular ailment.2
The following conditions were imposed:
1. The allowance was to be made only on condition
that if such aid were not granted the child or children
would have to be cared for in an institutional home.
2. The mother was required, in the judgment of the
county board o f child welfare, to be a “ proper person,
mentally, morally, and physically, to care for and bring
up the child or children.”
3. The mother or relative must have been for at least
two years prior to application a resident o f the State
and legally entitled to relief within the county or city
in which she resided and in which she made applica
tion; and, further, she must have been (1) a citizen of
lf|
the United States; or (2) the mother o f a child or
children born in the United States whose father had
been a resident of the State for a period of two years im
mediately preceding his decease or commitment and had
declared his intention to become a citizen o f the United
States within a period o f five years immediately preced
ing his decease or commitment; or (3) the mother o f a
child or children born in the United States if she had
resided in this country for a period of at least five
years prior to making application for the allowance and
had declared her intention to become a citizen o f the
United States.
1 Erie County had in 1920 a population of 634,688, 506,775 of whom lived in Buffalo,
u e
of forei&n born was 147.309, or 23.2 per cent of the total. The negroes numo&éd 4,954. The child population under 16 years, the legal age for mothers’ aid, was
J rT rv - Vi Ib e forelKn population in the order o f numerical importance was as follows :
fo u s h , German, Italian, Canadian, and Irish.
(Fourteenth Census of the United States,
1920, vol. 3 Population, pp. 685, 690, 701, Washington, 1922.)
The chief industries cen
ter about the flour and grist mills, slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, and the
foundries and machine shops.
v act of Apr. 7, 1915, ch. 2 28,, Laws of 1915, p. 690, adding A rt. 7 - A to ConsoliLaws 1909 ; ch. 24 (Gen. Municipal L aw ), p. 1399, as amended by act of May 10,
1916, ch. 504, Laws of 1916, p. 1 3 4 8 ; act of May 18, 1917, ch. 551, Laws of 1917, p. 1592 •
act of May 5, 1919, ch. 373. Laws of 1919. p. 1089 ; acts of May 11 and May 13, 1920
chs. 700, 759, Laws of 1920, pp. 1744, 1856 ; act of May 24, 1923, chs. 730, 731, 733
Law s of 1923, pp. 1294r-1295, 1 3 0 4 ; and act o f Apr. 10, 1922, ch. 546, Laws of 1922
p. 1252, adding Art. 7—B to Consolidated Laws 1909, ch. 24 (Gen. Municipal L aw ), p. 1399'
as amended by act of May 24, 1923, chs. 730, 733, Laws of 1923, pp. 1294, 1304.
(See
Cahill s Consolidated Laws 1923, ch. 26, secs. 148 to 1 5 9 -a , pp. 8 3 9 -8 4 4 .) Further amend
ments were made by act of April 25, 1924, ch. 458, Law s of 1924, p. 856.
(See Cahill’s
1Supp. 1925, ch. 26, secs. 153, 157, p. 123.)
91
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
92
ADMINISTRATION OS' MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
4. The allowance might not exceed the amount neces
sary to pay for the care of such child or children in an
institution.
5. An allowance might not be made for a longer
continuous period than six months without renewal
^
but might be continued from time to time at the dis"
cretion o f the local board.
6. A full and complete record was required o f every
case coming either directly or indirectly within the
jurisdiction o f the board, and reports must be filed at
least quarterly.
7. Aid might be granted for a child or children up to
the age o f 16 years.
8. In case of the mother’s death the aid might be
granted for a dependent child to a “ relative within the
second degree of the father or mother.”
According to rulings and policies adopted by the county board,
a mother was permitted to have $300 in savings and to own her
home if the upkeep did not exceed a reasonable rental in satis
factory quarters. Though each case was decided on its own merits,
no mother receiving aid had more than $2,500 invested in a home.
STATE SUPERVISION
The law provided that the county board o f child welfare should
“ be subject to the general supervision o f the State board of charities
and make such reports as the State board o f charities may require.”
It further provided that the State board o f charities, on the c o m -A
plaint that aid was being given in violation o f the law, might make *
investigation and revoke the allowance or “ make such order as it
may deem just and equitable, and such order shall be complied
with by the local board o f child welfare.”
A State supervisor and an assistant State supervisor of the boards
of child welfare served on the staff of the New York State Board of
Charities. The State supervisor in New York, as in Pennsylvania,
was a standard bearer rather than an inspector. Unlike Pennsyl
vania, however, the State of New York provided no funds for the
administration o f the law.' Consequently, grants were not approved
by the State supervisor, nor were there kept on file at the State office
any records of families receiving assistance. State supervision in
New York was thus more unequivocally and exclusively educational
than in any other State having State supervision. The State super
visor acted as a clearing house of information on all subjects touching
mothers’ aid. She prepared forms which were furnished to all the
boards and which insured uniformity of record keeping. She kept
in touch with the boards through frequent circular letters, sent them
literature from time to time, recommended a standard budget, and
kept them informed of important steps in the whole mothers’ aid
field in State and Nation. The State supervisor or her assistant
visited each board at least once a year, studying the county work and
making suggestions for its improvement. Regional conferences were
held under her auspices in different parts of the State about once a ■<($.
year. They were attended largely and were very helpful. The
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
ERIE COUNTY, N . Y .
93
State supervisor interpreted her function a§ that o f teacher and advisor, and her attitude was always one of encouragement to local
initiative and autonomy.
ADM INISTRATION OF THE L A W
ADM INISTRATIVE AGENCY
The administration of the law was lodged in an unpaid county
board of child welfare, consisting of seven members, o f which the
county superintendent of the poor was a member ex officio. As in
other counties in which there was more than one superintendent of
the poor, the county judge designated which superintendent was to
serve, and he also appointed the other six members of the board for
six-year terms, the term o f one member expiring each year. Three
o f the members were women. Two o f the women members and one
o f the men had served since the organization of the board in 1915.
One member was the executive o f an important family agency, two
members were on district committees o f the Buffalo Charity Organi
zation Society, and all but one of the members were closely affiliated
in one way or another with the social and philanthropic work o f
the city.
The board established rules and regulations for the conduct of its
business and provided through the appointment of the executive
secretary and her staff for the careful investigation of applicants
and the adequate supervision of all persons receiving allowances.
THE STAFF
The staff o f the Erie County Board o f Child Welfare consisted
o f an executive secretary, a domestic educator, five field workers, one
clerk, and two stenographers. No member of the staff had had less
than a high-school education. The secretary had received her train
ing in the Buffalo Charity Organization Society, having been a
member o f its staff for some years before her appointment as secre
tary o f the board o f child welfare. She had directed the mothers’
aid department since its organization in 1915. The domestic edu
cator had taken the course in household arts at the State normal
school in Buffalo and had been on the staff o f the board six years.
O f the five other field workers one was a college graduate who had
received one year’s training in the Charity Organization Society
before coming to the board o f child welfare; one had been well
educated in Europe, had had three and a half years’ experience in the
Charity Organization Society, and also had experience in the Young
Women’s Christian Association and Red Cross; one had taken short
training courses in home service and in Americanization, and had
had three years’ experience in Red Cross work; one was a trained
nurse with one year’s experience in the Charity Organization Society;
and one had been with the International Institute of the Youno'
Women’s Christian Association for three years before her appoint^
ment on the mothers’ aid staff. The salary range for the field visi
tors was $1,200 to $1,400. The domestic educator received $1,600
per year. The entire staff were appointed under civil service and
were intelligent, enthusiastic workers.
Two automobiles were furnished by the county, and automobile
maintenance was allowed for three visitors who owned their cars
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94
ADMINISTRATION- OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
APPROPRIATION AND VOLUME OF W O RK
The county board of supervisors appropriated the funds for ad
ministering the law, and to them were submitted estimates of the
sums necessary to carry on the work. The appropriation for 1922
was $245,439.85; for 1923, $250,000; and for 1924, $245,103.89. In
1922, $15,439.85, and in 1924, $19,103.89 was spent for administrative
purposes. There was no waiting list, but the director estimated
that at the time o f the study 84 families were receiving inadequate
grants.
On October 1, 1923, 354 families were receiving assistance, includ
ing 1,163 children under 16. The domestic educator was conduct
ing three nutrition clinics and supervising 40 families, doing all
the case work for these families. The five visitors were thus carry
ing between 60 and 65 families in addition to making new investiga
tions— about 5 a month for each.
0
PROCEDURE IN MAKING ALLOW AN CES
Applications were accepted and investigated in strict chronological
order. A standard application blank was in use which had been pre
pared by the New York State Board of Charities. It was the most
comprehensive and well-correlated form of its kind found in use in
the course o f the study. The following points were covered: Names,
addresses, ages, birthplaces, residence in State and United States,
citizenship, and marriage o f parents; names, ages, and birthplaces of
children; names and addresses of relatives, employers, three refer
ences, family physician, landlord, and pastor; facts regarding prop
erty, savings, wages, debts, insurance, income, and assistance ren
dered to the family; facts regarding the father’s last illness or commitment to an institution; the health of the family; schools and
grades o f children or, if they were working, occupations, hours o f
work, employers, and wages. The application blank was filled out
by the visitor and sworn to by the mother. The board of child
welfare was authorized to verify statements as to property and bank
accounts, and permission was to be secured from the mother for
physical examinations of the children.
The first step in investigation was an inquiry at the social-service
exchange as to what other agencies had been in touch with the
family, and consultation with them. Verification of data was re
quired, i. e., as to marriage, father’s death or commitment, property,
savings, insurance, wages, citizenship, residence, birth dates o f chil
dren, and employment and wages of mother and children. The in
vestigation also included, besides a visit to the home, visits to rela
tives, to the children’s teachers, sometimes to the family’s pastor, and
to two references. Mother and children were always given a physical
examination before the grant was made.
USE OF A STANDARD BUDGET
The allowances were based on the standard budget compiled by
the Westchester County (N. Y .) Department o f Child Welfare. The
following is a copy of the budget used:
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
0
’
ERIE COUNTY, N. Y.
F ood
b u d g e t— E r ie
C o u n ty
B oa rd
o f
C h ild
95
W e lfa r e , J u n e, 1923
Per cent Per monta
Man, 17 years and up_______________________________________ 100
Woman, 16 years and up____________________________________ 80
Boy, 14-16 years_____________________________________________ 90
Boy, 12-13 years--------------------------------------- 1________ £_________ 80
Boy, 10-11 years________________________________ v___ _ __£___ 0 0
Girl, 14-16 years________________________________________
70
Girl, 10-13 years_____ ___________________________
60
Child, 6-9 years________________ „_______________________ _____ 50
Child, 2-5 years________ ________________________ ____________ ■_ 4 0
35
Under 2 years________________________________________
C lo th in g
co s t— E r ie
C o u n ty
Child, 1 -3 _______________
Child, 4 -6 ____________________________
B oa rd
o f
C h ild
W e lfa r e
$13.35
10.68
12.02
10. 68
8. 01
9. 35
8.01
6. 68
5.3 4
4. 67
Per month
$2.00
3.0 0
4. 00
4 .0 0
_______I I
child, 7-14____________________________
Woman at home or day work________________________________________
Boy or girl or woman at work in store, factory, or shop, about one
week’s wages_________________________________________________________ 6. 00 or 8. 00
Girl at housework__________________ ___________________
4.0 0
Fuel, $5.50 from November; $3.50 before November.
Light, $1.
No allowance for insurance.
Sundries, $1 for each of first three members and 50 cents for each of the
others.
Pocket money, $5 per month for each working child under 18.
A ll mothers receiving assistance were required to keep itemized
expense accounts in books furnished by the department. These
books were examined by the visitors, and furnished the basis for
suggestions as to diet, food values, health habits, economy in expendi
tures, and other matters. Each mother was required also to send
to the board a monthly summary of her expenditures for rent, food,
fuel, light, clothing, insurance, and sundries. Following is a copy
o f such a report:
ERIE COUNTY BOARD OF CHILD WELFARE
Date,
N am e: Mrs. D . '
Address, _______________ ____ ___
Give your monthly expenditures here :
Rent---------------------------------------------------Food__________________________________
Fuel______________*__________ * _______,
Light___ ______________________________
Clothing_________ !_______________ _____
Insurance____________________________
Sundries__________________ __________
$ 4 .1 7
1 6 .3 9
4.OO
.9 0
16. 67
4. 01
Total--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46,14
Allowance, $ 5 9 .
Other income___________________________________________________________
Rem arks:
A ll
a re
w e ll
excep t
h a v in g
co ld s.
(Signature)
Mrs.
D.
These monthly reports were summarized by the workers on a yearly
sheet, on which was tabulated also the standard budget, so that it
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
96
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
was possible to know how nearly the budget conformed to actual
living expenses. The following is one of these yearly summaries:
Index: 5 [61].
Name: Mrs.....................................
1923
Address:
Esti
mate Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
Nov. Dec.
of
needs
Special
needs
EXPENSES
Rent___________
Food___________
Light...................
Clothing_______
Insurance...........
Sundries_______
Total____
$9.00 $9.00 $9.00 $9.00 $9.00 $9.00 $9.00 $9.00 $9.00 $9.00 $9.00 $9.00 — 45.42 53.91 52.99 54.13 51.99 59.99 53.45 59.97 59. 81 64.40 65.99 64.98
13.25
9.25
13.00
5.50 13.25 13.25
.77 .78
.91
.93 .69
.79
.77
.76 .76
1.00 .89 .77
20.00 1.75 1.75 6.69 6.00 6.75 9,08 9.00 11.75 8.53
2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
’ "¿’ ÒÓ 2. 25 1.98 1.75 1.75 6.69 6.00 6.75 9.08 9.00 11.75 8.53
..........
84.92 83.05 82.97 82.04 80.80 107.13 104.93 110.48 99.63 99.42 99. 42 98.18
t NCOME
Allowance......... . 79.00 79.00 79.00 79.00 79.00 64.98 64.98 54.00 54.00 54.00 54.00 54.00
Woman to sup
5.50 5.50 5.50 4.15
4.00
4.00 3.00 1.75 3.00
ply deficiency.
40.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 40.00
Total. . . .
Lessons.
79.00 83.00 83.00 82.00 80.75 107.98 104.98 100.38 99.50 99.50 99.50 98.15
R e m a r k s .—Allowance reduced in May, as Ella became 16 years of age, and was no longer entitled to
the allowance. Allowance reduced in August, as family’s income was over the budget.
The maximum amount of mothers’ aid in Erie County was $5
a week per child. This was considered adequate except for families
with one or two children and in these instances private charities were
sometimes asked to supplement. The grants were paid to the mothers
monthly by check. For October, 1923, the largest grant to any fam
ily was $134 a month, the smallest was $15.70, and the average was
$51.81. The average grant per child was $15.73.
SUPPLEMENTING OF MOTHERS’ AID
The bureau of public welfare disbursed public outdoor relief in
the city of Buffalo and the county superintendent of the poor dis
bursed it in the county outside Buffalo. Neither of these public
agencies made a practice of supplementing mothers’ aid even though
the maximum aid might be insufficient. However, occasional excep
tions had been made. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1923,
the bureau of public welfare had given $66 for one family receiving
mothers’ aid, and during the calendar year 1923 the county superin
tendent of the poor had given $396 in supplementary aid to another
family. During 1923 the Buffalo Charity Organization Society had
given $472.18 in supplementary relief to four families.
VISITING
All mothers who were physically able were required to call at the
office once in two months for their checks and visits were made to
the homes in alternate months. In this way every mother was seen
once a month and if difficulties arose more frequent visits were made.
Some families were seen as often as once or even twice a week.
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ERIE COUNTY, N.
97
Y.
HEALTH
PHYSICAL HEALTH
The standard budget made no separate allowance for medical or
dental care. City or county physicians could always be secured in
an emergency. In cases of undernourishment, underweight, and
suspected tuberculosis 10 per cent was added to the food allowance,
or the higher “ B ” allowance, provided in the standard budget, was
used.
Physical examinations.
A ll mothers and children were given a physical examination before
a grant was made and at least once a year thereafter; in Buffalo the
examinations were made at one o f the seven dispensaries maintained
by the city department o f health. I f there was need o f a more
thorough examination and of treatment the mothers were sent to the
general diagnostic clinic at the Buffalo City Hospital; this hospital,
with its clinics, was the one most generally used for mothers and
adults in families receiving aid. Its social-service department was
in charge of the district nurses’ association, which undertook the fol
low-up o f families in cooperation with the mothers’ aid visitors.
Children who were found by the preliminary examinations to be in
need of further examinations and of treatment were referred to the
diagnostic clinic of the Children’s Hospital. The interested special
ists and the hospital social-service workers cooperated with the visi
tors in making plans for the children. In the country examinations
were made either by the county physicians or by the family’s own
physician, if they preferred, provided he was in good standing and
would make no charge.
The examinations were considered to be o f direct educational value
to mothers and children in promoting a better understanding o f pre
ventive health measures. Mothers were always willing to have the
children examined and usually were willing to carry out the recom
mendations.
The following are copies of medical reports required by the county
board of child welfare:
MEDICAL-EXAMINATION BEQUEST, ERIE COUNTY BOARDOF CHILD WELFARE OF BUFFALO
C e n t e r No. 8 :
Please examine person described in this request and report your findings to
the undersigned:
Name of patient: M r s . M .
Address: _—
____________ _
Persons dependent upon applicant for support or assistance: F o u r c h i l d r e n .
Usual occupation: L a u n d r e s s .
Physical complaint as described by patient to visitor, or as suspected by visitor:
---------------------------------------- General examination required at least once a year.
Special points desired by visitor in report from dispensary:
Name of visitor referring : B . 8 .
D istrict: D o m e s t i c e d u c a t o r .
Telephone number: _______
Respectfully,
H
ealth
E r ie C o u n t y B oard
of
C h il d W
elfare,
----------------------- ,
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
S ecreta ry .
98
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
MEDICAL-EXAMINATION REPORT, DISPENSARY FOR CHILDREN, FILE NO.------(CHILDREN’S DIAGNOSTIC CLINIC)
Buffalo,
N. Y . , ____________
To Erie County Board of Child Welfare:
Complying with your request o f ___________ , the examination of James B.
__________ ; address,_____________ ; age 9 years, discloses the following disease or
condition:
Pulse, 8 8 ; temp., 9 8 -6 ; resp., 2 2 ; weight, 58 lb s.; height, 5 1 ^ inches; 10 per
cent underweight for age; heart and lungs normal; abdomen negative; no
orthopedic defects; vision normal.
_______physical disability i s _____________, the probable duration of which will
b e -----------------Recommendations: (A s made by examiners.)
Throat in good condition; posterior and anterior cervical glands enlarged;
teeth in fair condition; coagulation time, 4 minutes; urinalysis negative: W assermann negative; secondary anem ia; nutrition advised; return to this
dispensary for observation.
Respectfully,
[Signature]
_______________________ _ M. D.
MEDICAL-EXAMINATION REPORT, DISPENSARY NO.------- , FILE NO.------- , DIAGNOSTIC
CLINIC (ADULTS)
Buffalo, N. Y .,________
Attention o f _______________________
To Erie County Board of Child Welfare:
Complying with your request of ___________ , the examination of Mrs.
______ ___ i discloses the following disease or condition: Dental caries, error in
refraction, chronic pharyngitis, deviated septum; hyp. turbinates— left side,
enlarged liver and gall bladder, visceroptosis.
Disability of 50 per cent, the probable duration of which will be three months.
Anacidity; secondary anem ia; external hemorrhoids; varicose veins; possible
gall-bladder trouble; moderate-sized cystocele; lacerated cervix for which
operation is advised; neurasthenia.
Recommendations: (A s made by examiners.)
W e have advised patient to return to the Buffalo City Hospital, 462 Grider
Street, on Tuesday at 1 o’clock for eye, nose, and throat, gastrointestinal, and
surgical clinics.
Dental care at health center No. 7, Saturday morning at 9 o’clock.
Respectfully,
[Signature]
-------------------------I---------- , M. D.,
C ity P h y s ic ia n .
The hospital clinic took the responsibility for making the yearly
report of all mothers and children under its care; the yearly examina
tions in all other cases were made at the diagnostic clinics. The
reports of the physical examinations were not filed with the social
record, but so far as possible were copied on the medical-report sheet,
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
ERIE COUNTY, N. Y.
99
which aimed to give a continuous picture of the health and medical
treatment received by every individual under the care of the board.
The following is a copy of such a medical-report sheet:
[Face]
M E D IC AL -R EP O R T S H E E T
Index: 4.
N a m e :_____________ _____
Address:___________ _______
M O T H E R (Mrs. Elizabeth) ...................................
Age
Date of
exami
nation
5/19/18
7/19/21
Examined
by—
General condition
Dr. B., U. B .. Suffering from ner
vous, mental, and
physical strain.
See attached letter of
Dr. K., psychia
trist.
Recommendations
Follow-up work
Requires 1 or 2 whole
days’ rest from work
each week.
Woman returns to
Dr. K. frequently
for physical exami
nation and advice.
CH ILD R EN
Name and
age
Date of
exami
nation
Examined
by—
General condition
Stanley, 14...
5/7/18
Alice, 12
5/7/18 ___do...........
Stunted in growth;
otherwise normal.
5/7/18
3/9/20
3/9/20
3/9/20
W e ll.............................
5/7/18
3/9/20
5/20
5/20
6/2/20
7/7/20
Dr. L. W -. Adenoids; stunted in
growth; otherwise
normal.
W e ll...........................
Recommendations
Follow-up work
Remove adenoids___
5/23/18, adenoids removed.
All children need attention of dentist.
They should have
more sleep and
play and less work.
Dr. R
Hypertrophied ton
sils.
Dr.
K
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Operation___________
6/27/18, children had
teeth cared for at
U. B. dental dis
pensary.
100
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
[Reverse
M E D IC AL -R EP O R T SH E E T
Address:
Name:
Index: 4.
M O TH E R
Age
Date of
exami
nation
1922
Examined
by-
Dr.
K
.....
General condition
Recommendations
Rheumatic condition,. W . to give up all out
side work.
Follow-up work
Recommendation car
ried out, with ex
ception 1 day every
2 weeks, when W .
does light work for
family
she
has
known for years and
who are very help
ful to her in many
ways.
C H IL D R E N
Name and
age
Date of
exami
nation
Examined
by—
Alice.
7/15/21
Marie.
7/15/21 ...d o ______
Alice..
Do
7/27/22 Dr. K.
9/23 -_.d o .-
Marie
Dr. C.
do.
General condition
Recommendations
Does not require treat
ment at present.
Report at H. C .No.
8 any
Saturday
morning at 9 a. m.
for dental care.
Comparatively nega Thyroid needs no
treatment. Dental
tive adenoma of
thyroid.
Dental
care at H. C. No. 8
caries, oral sepsis.
any Saturday at 9
a. m.
See report attached
Slightly run down— Tonic given_________
not accustomed to
her work yet, which
is quite hard.
Good condition at To continue school
work this year.
present.
Follow up work
Adenoma of thyroid.
Dental caries, oral
s e p s is , negative
neurology.
Later report:
Im
proved and gained
in weight.
The family visitors were responsible for securing up-to-date re
ports and for incorporating them in the medical-report sheet. The
health agencies were careful to send written statements o f diagnosis
and treatment. A medical blank was always sent with the patient
both when he made his first visit and when he went to the hospital
or dispensary for the yearly examination. This blank was to be
filled out and returned. None of the reports required very much
family history, nor was the record full in this regard.
Follow-up o f special types o f problems.
Tuberculosis.— The city department of health maintained tuber
culosis clinics. All mothers and children who had been exposed
were examined and were followed up for periodic examination both
by the nurses connected with the department and by the visitor in
charge of the family. Sanatorium care was insisted upon for all
active cases and if the mothers did not agree to this willingly the
withdrawal of aid was threatened.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
ERIE COUNTY, N. Y.
101
Veneredl disease.— It was the policy of the board to have Wassermann tests taken of all inembers of a family when there was a history
of venereal disease or reason to suspect it. Medical care needed for
^ children was secured through the clinics of the Children’s Hospital
W and for adults at the clinics of the City Hospital.
Orthopedic and cardiac affections.—The Children’s Hospital main
tained an orthopedic clinic as well as an orthopedic ward. The
Crippled Children’s Guild maintained a well-conducted institutional
home, which gave both vocational and school instruction. Braces
and all necessary apparatus were provided by the city and county
departments of charities or by the Rotary Club. The Children’s
Hospital had a cardiac clinic and provided hospital care if necessary.
A t the time of the visit the Goodyear Convalescent Home was having
an addition built exclusively for children with cardiac affections.
Mrs. A .’s daughter, Bertha, was badly crippled and Mrs. A. finally was told
that only an operation would enable the child to walk. She was reluctant to
have this done, and, though urged by physicians and mothers’ aid visitors,
she put off the operation from month to month, waiting a year before she
finally consented. The operation was so successful that she told the surgeon
to send her anyone who was hesitating to have such an operation performed
and she would show what it had done for her child.
Mrs. H ., after the death of her husband, struggled to raise her five children
on the stony farm which had been her only legacy. The oldest son, Robert
16 years of age, had been particularly opposed to his mother’s ’applying
for aid, though he was walking 5 miles twice a day to attend a business
college. She made application chiefly for the sake of her crippled 13-year-old
4^ son, Ralph, who had been born with clubfeet and had spent much of his life
W i n hospitals. Finally one leg was amputated below the knee, and as soon
as possible thereafter he began attending high school, though he was sensitive
and shy because he was retarded on account of continued absence.
A t the
suggestion of the mothers’ aid visitor, the family moved from the farm to a
small apartment in town so that the children could be nearer school. The
Rotary Club furnished a good artificial limb for Ralph and advanced his
tuition at a business college in order that he might become self-supporting
A s soon as Robert started to work he began to pay off the many debts which
the family had been forced to contract before they began to receive mothers’
aid. All the debts had been paid at the time of the visit to this home in
October, 1923, and the family was moving from the small and crowded apart
ment to a house with bath where they would have room for the old square
piano they had had to leave behind when they went away from the farm
The
visitor picked up*a library book which Mrs. H . said Robert was reading; it was
Lamb’s Essays of Elia.
E ye, ear, nose, and throat affections.—Examinations o f the eyes
were made at the health centers. Other treatment and operative
work for affections o f the ear, nose, and throat were done at the
Children’s Hospital.
Convalescent care.—Mothers needing convalescent care were sent
to private homes in the country through the convalescent fund
which was raised by private subscription. The children needing
such care were sent to the Josephine Goodyear Convalescent Home,
which provided excellent medical and physical care.
Health work fo r infants and preschool children.—Seven childhealth centers for children up to 6 years o f age were conducted
W by the city department o f health under the nursing supervision
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
102 ADMINISTRATION- OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
o f the district nurses’ association. The board insisted that all
mothers receiving aid take their babies regularly to the centers, but
less emphasis was put on taking children over 2 years old. I f mothers
with young babies failed to attend, the child-health centers reported .
their nonattendance to the executive secretary o f the county board o f *
child welfare. Most of the mothers in the city could walk to the
centers, and none needed to change cars. For the mothers living
beyond the city limits no such centers were available.
School medical inspection.— School children were given physical
examinations, including dental inspection, once a year. Five dental
clinics were available for children and adults at the child-health
centers. Twenty-four school nurses arranged for the correction of
physical defects. The quarterly school report sent to the board of
child welfare called for the “ result o f the last physical examination
and the need of follow-up work ” and asked whether the child
seemed tired or ill nourished (see p. 105). I f this report indicated
that medical care was necessary the visitor arranged for it; other
wise the school reports of medical inspections were not followed up.
Malnutrition.—Height and weight measurements o f school children
were taken by the teachers or by a member of the physical-education
staff, and nutrition classes were conducted by school nurses for chil
dren 10 per cent or more underweight in 20 schools. These chil
dren were weighed weekly. It was not known how many mothers’
aid children attended the nutrition classes in the schools.
A domestic educator had been on the staff of the board of child
welfare for six years. As a part of her regular duties she supervised
three weekly nutrition classes each having an enrollment of about
20 children. These were in neighborhoods not covered by the nutri-W'
tion classes in the schools. Two classes were held in an Italian and
one in a Polish community. They were conducted by six senior
students in the household-arts department of the Buffalo State Nor
mal School. In addition to the class work the supervision of one
family was assigned to each student, who was required to visit the
family once a week and to submit a monthly written report.
The doctor’s report following the periodic examinations of the
children at the health center was used as a basis of selection for these
nutrition classes. The children were weighed and measured every
other week, and weight charts were made showing their actual and
normal weight and the curves up or down. Health habits were in
culcated by means of games, songs, lantern slides, and plays. Most of
the children reached their normal weight. The mothers were urged
to attend the Saturday morning classes with the children and the
average attendance of mothers was about 14.
When there were cases of malnutrition in families who lived too
far from the city to attend the classes instruction was given in the
homes. The children were given copies of the health rules and
stories and were weighed every two weeks. The charts were drawn
and weights recorded. One child who was reported by the examin
ing physician as weighing 57 pounds and being 12 per cent under
weight was given home instruction and weighed every other week.
The mother was very cooperative, and in three months the child
gained the amount required to bring her up to normal weight. I n '*
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
ERIE COUNTY, N . Y .
103
another case it was the mother whom the doctor reported as being
underweight to the point of emaciation; he recommended close super
vision, good diet, and plenty o f fresh air. The mother followed the
plans faithfully and gained 14 pounds in the course of a year in spite
qk o f a severe attack o f grippe.
Supervision o f selected fam ilies.—The domestic educator supervised
about 40 families selected because of malnutrition, improper diet,
poor management, or untidy and dirty housekeeping. She was re
sponsible for handling all the problems in these homes. Each family
kept an account book o f daily expenditures. Where there were im
proper diet and malnutrition the families were given a dietary to
follow, which was designed to remedy these ills and at the same time
to keep them within the allowance provided in the budget for food.
Keeping within the clothing allowance was a problem; it was often
possible to teach the women how to use patterns and to make over
garments. Few could attend the night-school sewing classes, as they
had no one with whom to leave the children. As a rule they were
very grateful for this help, though it required in some instances a
number o f purely friendly visits before the problems could even be
broached. The following story illustrates the education of such a
mother by the domestic educator:
*
Mrs. D .’s family, who were transferred to the supervision of the regular
mothers’ aid visitor in October, 1923, had been visited first by the domestic
educator in September, 1919. A t that time Mrs. D. and her six children under
12 years o f age were living on the insurance left by Mr. D. at his death. Mrs.
D. owned her little frame cottage, but it was badly in need o f repair. There
was only one bed in the house; those of the family who could not sleep in the
bed slept on a mattress on the floor or on the floor without a mattress. Yet
Mrs. D. had just invested her last $50 in a rug. A grant of $80 a month was
allowed, and the domestic educator sought to inculcate some appreciation of
thrift in Mrs. D. She called once a w eek; and as she often brought with her
a bargain she had picked up, Mrs. D. began giving her a few dollars ahead to
apply on household necessities when she saw bargains. Thus were pur
chased beds, mattresses, and blankets, a stove, sewing machine, sideboard, and
rug. Repairs were made on the house also, and the domestic educator gave
much instruction and help in making clothes for the children.
This progress was not without difficulties, and once or twice Mrs. D. reverted
to her former habit of getting into debt or buying on installm ents; but as she
learned how much she saved by the thriftier method of “ pay as you g o ” she
became entirely converted eventually. When the visitor called it was not
unusual to find Mrs. D. varnishing the woodwork, painting the old beds, or
papering the kitchen. Together with the transformation in Mrs. D. there came
about a great improvement in the children. The school reports, which formerly
had been discouraging, stated, “ The children do well in school and are a
credit to your department.” By October, 1923, the family had been trans
ferred to one of the regular mothers’ aid visitors. Mrs. D. gave the domestic
educator a cordial welcome when she returned for a friendly chat.
M ENTAL HEALTH
Available facilities.
Mental clinics were conducted at the Jewish Community House
and the Children’s Hospital by a psychiatrist from the Buffalo State
Hospital for the Insane. No social worker was connected with the
clinics, but case workers connected with other agencies did the follow
up work under the direction o f the psychiatrist. There was no
psychopathic institute nor any opportunity for observing the psycho% pathic child under hospital care. The City Hospital maintained a
psychopathic ward for adults only.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
104
ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
The psychological department of the board o f education was
chiefly concerned with mental testing as a basis for placement in the
special classes and in the opportunity school. This department also
examined children from the court.
The visitors did n ot’ordinarily ask to have a child examined for
retardation alone, but it was the policy of the board to have children
examined if the recent family history showed mental defect or
disease. Members o f mothers’ aid families who showed symptoms of
mental defect were examined at the mental clinic o f the Children’s
Hospital, and those needing institutional care were placed in the
Syracuse Custodial Institution or in the State custodial school at
Rome, N. Y. Children who appeared to be psychopathic or who
presented behavior problems were likewise examined at the mental
clinic, and the family visitors attempted to carry out the instruc
tions of the psychiatrist. The help of the child’s mother, teacher,
and minister was enlisted, and frequently an effort was made to
interest the child in clubs or to secure a “ big brother.” The court
was appealed to only as a last resort.
HOUSING
Buffalo had not been affected quite so seriously by the housing short
age as had some cities like Cincinnati, Chicago, Detroit, and Pitts
burgh, and it had been possible to define and live up to certain housing
standards.. The board preferred single houses, and much emphasis
was laid upon rearing the children in good neighborhoods. The
families were encouraged to cultivate a small garden, if possible; -W
if the house was not situated on a lot large enough for cultivation,
vacant lots could be secured through the department of public wel
fare, which also provided seed. Nearly all the 66 country families
lived in single cottages in good neighborhoods. They were sanitary
and had abundant room and yard space and small flower and vege
table gardens. Most of them were provided with outdoor closets
and had running water inside the house. These families used the
cellar for cooling and had neither gas nor electricity. Many of the
other families lived in cottages on the outskirts of the city. It was the
policy of the board to have all families move away from the con
gested tenement district, and only one family was living in a down
town tenement, the mother not yet having been persuaded to leave
her friends and neighbors for sunshine and fresh air. A ll city fam
ilies had running water; the majority had gas and some had electric
ity; most families had adequate facilities for keeping food cool
though not always in an ice box.
Three rooms were the minimum requirement for a mother and
three children—the average number o f children per family. A liv
ing room was considered essential, especially where there were grow
ing children, though it might be used as a sleeping room. The board
insisted that there should be a bed for every two people and that
adolescent girls and boys should have separate sleeping rooms. No
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
105
ERIE COUNTY, N . Y .
A
dark rooms were allowed. The board preferred that each family
should have its own toilet, though two families sometimes used the
same toilet. A considerable number of the city families had bath
rooms.
There was no absolute limit as to rent; generally rents were not
more than $20 or $25, though a few families paid $30 or $35 per
month. Home ownership was encouraged, providing the upkeep did
not exceed a reasonable rental. Sixty-five mothers owned or partly
owned their homes. The efforts of the board of child welfare to
have good homes for mothers’ aid families may be inferred from the
following case story:
In one of the good residence sections of Buffalo was an attractive six-room
cottage which had been the home of the B. family for more than a generation,
and in which Mrs. B. and her five children had been born. W ith the idea of
reducing her living expenses, Mrs. B. sold the house. She regretted this step
almost immediately when she realized that the rent for another house as
good was quite beyond the fam ily’s reach. The children were under the super
vision of a tuberculosis clinic and had been making good use of the flower-filled
garden that surrounded this old home. A member of the board of child wel
fare, realizing the importance to the family of the life in their old home,
succeeded in buying back the place— after many tedious parleys with the new
owners— for $500 more than the price for which it had been sold. The good
effects of the return to the familiar surroundings and the renewed contacts
with old acquaintances was plainly shown by the family.
EDUCATION
COOPERATION W IT H THE SCHOOLS AND FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION
Contacts with the schools.
^
The mothers’ aid workers watched over the school progress o f
the children under their care. The schools were visited whenever
special need arose, and confidential school reports covering attend
ance, deportment, aptitude, punctuality, scholarship, disposition, and
health were mailed quarterly by the teachers to the mothers’ aid office
on forms furnished by the State board o f charities.
The following is a copy of such a school report :
E r ie C o u n t y B
oard
of
C h il d W
elfare
CONFIDENTIAL SCHOOL REPORT---- ISSUED QUARTERLY
School: __________________________ D a te : -----------u —
Name of child : J a m e s B . A g e : 1 2 . G rade: 7 t h .
Address: _______________________
Attendance: P e r f e c t . Punctuality: G o o d . Deportment: E x c e l l e n t . Scholar
ship: E x c e l l e n t .
Special aptitude: M u s i c . Is child cheerful? Y e s . Is he cooperative? Y e s . Is
he quarrelsome? N o . Does he make friends easily? Y e s . Does he seem
tired? N o . Does he seem well nourished? Y e s . Does he appear well cared
for. Y e s .
Rem arks: I t i s a p l e a s u r e t o t e a c h t h e B . c h i l d r e n .
Results of physical examination and need of follow-up work, if any___________
(Signed)
-------------------------------- ;-------- -----------T ea ch er.
Less detailed reports were received monthly for each school child,
all children in one family being listed on one sheet. This report
*
94535°— 28------8
i
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
106
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
covered only attendance, grades, and progress.
such a monthly report:
E
r ie
County B
oard of
C h il d W
The following is
elfare
SCHOOL-ATTENDANCE BLANK
School: _______________________
School records of : _______________________
Names
_______ ___________ _______
Annie Z _
Bessie Z
_ ______ ___ _
_ ________
Caroline Z _ ____ __ ___________
Address :
Grade
SixthFifth______
Third
Present
do
39 days____
Absent
1 day.
Progress: Annie and Caroline have average standings of E x c e l l e n t (90 to
100). Bessie has G o o d (80 to 90).
(Signed)
___________________________________
P rin c ip a l.
Provision for handicapped children.
The 'physically handicapped child.—The department of education
conducted two sight-conservation classes, four open-air classes^ and
one class for the deaf; one teacher was employed for the children hav
ing speech defects. The department also supplied a kindergarten and
grade teacher to the Crippled Children’s Guild, a home for crippled
children, where besides expert medical care vocational training was
given, such as manual work, sewing, music, business training, or spe
cial education suited to individual needs. No teacher was assigned to
the orthopedic ward of the Children’s Hospital. No bus was pro
vided for transportation. No mothers’ aid children were in any of
these classes.
The mentally handicapped child.—There were 25 special classes
for subnormal children and also an opportunity school for mentally
defective boys 13 to 16 years of age. Instruction was given in shoe,
rug, and broom making, in chair caning, and in carpentry. Two boys
in families receiving mothers’ aid were in this school. The number
of mothers’ aid children attending special classes was not known.
Provision for children wishing further education.
Very few scholarships were available, and none for work below
college grade. The University o f Buffalo offered freshman scholar
ships based upon academic work in high school, and a woman’s club
had helped several girls in families receiving mothers’ aid. The
mothers’ aid workers expended much energy in ascertaining the spe
cial aptitudes o f children approaching working age and in providing
opportunities for short intensive courses, such as business courses.
Psychological tests were made if it seemed advisable to have them as
a basis for determining the kind o f training necessary. Tuition for
such courses was not given from the mothers’ aid fund, but a loan
was generally forthcoming to be repaid when the child secured work
or an interested member o f a men’s club was appealed to or a relative
or the church.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
ERIE COUISrTY, IT. Y .
107
Few children were attending night school, though one 15-year-oM
boy was attending high school both in the daytime and in the evening
in order to spend as much time as he could on chemistry, in which he
was greatly interested. One boy was taking a correspondence course
in bookkeeping and was doing well; another was apprenticed to a
tinsmith and was making fine progress in learning the trade. A
small number of children were taking music lessons at settlements, a
few o f which provided free music lessons or made only a nominal
charge. The budget did not allow for any special items o f an educa
tional nature. Most families took a daily paper and some a magazine.
The following case story illustrates the work done in securing
opportunity for children capable o f further education than had
seemed to be within their reach:
Margaret L. had been an honor student all through high school. Her father
had been a locomotive engineer up to the time of his sudden death, and there
had been no reason to think that she would not have the college education upon
which she had set her heart. But there were two children younger than Mar
garet, and the mother was suffering from goiter. The maximum grant of $52
a month was allowed, and Mrs. L. was able to take a half-time clerical position.
Margaret worked in the summer and on Saturday and Sunday as a telephone
operator. She won a $200 scholarship at the university, which tided her over
the first year, and the second year she was able to borrow from the university
loan fund the money for her college fees. The board of child welfare secured
still another small scholarship for her from a club.
SCHOOLING AND W ORK OF CHILDREN 14 AND 15 YEAR S OF AGE
The compulsory-education, child-labor, and mothers’ aid laws.
The compulsory-education law required that children should not
leave school to work full time until they were 14 years old. Children
14 years old might obtain employment certificates if certain schoolattendance requirements had been met and they had graduated from
a public elementary school or its equivalent; children 15 years old
might obtain employment certificates if school-attendance require
ments had been met and they had completed the sixth grade; children
16 years old were required to have certificates after September 1,1925,
and might obtain them irrespective o f school attendance or educa
tional requirements. Certificates of physical fitness were required for
all children between 14 and 17 years o f age before they could obtain
employment certificates. Attendance at continuation school was re
quired to the age o f 17 years3 where such schools had been established
(as in Buffalo).4
The mothers’ aid law permitted allowances to be granted for
children up to the age of 16.
Children in school and at work.
The board encouraged children to obtain as much education as pos
sible, and when they were o f normal intelligence and the mother could
be persuaded to consent they were kept in school until 16 years of age.
I f a child had unusual ability or especially desired to stay in school
beyond the age of 16 years some plan was made whereby he might
8 A fter September, 1928, to 18 years.
U ^
'
* N. Y ., Cahill’s Consolidated Laws, 1923, ch. 15, secs. 601, 621, 626, 630, pp. 461, 466,
467 468.
(Cabin’ s Consolidated Supp. 1923, ch. 15, sec. 601, p. 76.)
This was further
amended by act of M ay 1, 1924, ch. 524, Laws of 1924, p. 943.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
108
A D M IN IS T R A T IO N
OF
M O T H E R S ’ A ID
IN
TEN
L O C A L IT IE S
continue even though it was necessary to discontinue the allowance
for his support when he reached this age.
There were 160 children (76 boys and 84 girls) 14 and 15 years of
age in the families receiving aid; 77 of them were 14 years old and
83 were 15 years old. O f these 160 children, 139 (87 per cent) were
attending school, 14 were working, and 7 were neither attending
school nor working.
Children in school.—Among the 139 children 14 and 15 years old
attending school were 81 who were eligible for employment certifi
cates so far as educational requirements were concerned.5
The number of boys and girls 14 and 15 years old who were attend
ing school and the grade or type o f school attended are shown in the
following table:
N u m ber
o f
ch ild r e n
stu d y ,
I lf
by
and
gra d e
15
yea rs
or
ty p e
o ld
o f
a tten d in g
s c h o o l;
sch ool
E r ie
C o u n ty ,
at
N .
th e
tim e
o f
th e
Y.
Children 14 and 15 years old attending school
Boys
Grade or type of school
Girls
Total
Total
Total___________ _______
Elementary school:
Third grade.................
Fifth grade____________________
Sixth grade_______________
Seventh grade________
Eighth grade_____ ____ ________
High school:
First year_______ __________
Second year_____________
Third year___________
Vocational s c h o o l-____
Business school_____ '
Special class______________
Other and not reported_______
11 in parochial college (first year).
14
years
Total
14
years
25
77
37
40
1
7
3
5
13
19
4
8
8
5
3
6
1
20
8
6
12
4
3
139
62
37
1
3
11
32
31
1
2
6
19
12
2
5
12
9
29
11
6
7
4
2
2
19
1
1
1
1
2
15
years
15
years
1
1
22
.
1
21 in agricultural training school; 1 not reported.
The 14-year-old boy in the third grade was a moron, but was not
attending a special class because none was available in the district
school. Twenty-seven of the children in high school or vocational
school were studying commercial subjects or preparing themselves
for special kinds of work, such as cabinet making, drafting, electrical
work, household arts, and painting and finishing. Eleven children
were working after school, helping to pay their expenses in this
way.
Occupations and earnings o f the working children.—A ll the 14
working children had started to work when they were 15 years old
except a girl who had left school at 14 years of age when she was
in the eighth grade. O f these 14 children 1 had left school in the
fifth grade, 3 in the sixth, 2 in the seventh, 4 in the eighth, 3 in the
first year o f high school, and 1 in vocational school. The occupa5 This number was 85 per cent of all the children in mothers’ aid families who had
fulfilled the school-grade requirement for going to work (9 5 ),
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
ERIE COUNTY,
N .
Y.
109
tions of these children were as follow s: Two boys were cabinetmak
ers, two girls were factory workers, and two were housemaids. One
boy was employed in each of the following occupations: Shopwork,
machine operating, driving delivery wagon, working for furniture
company, working in department store, and acting as errand boy. One
girl was kitchen worker in an institution and one was a bundle girl.
Ten of the 14 were earning $30 to $39 a month, 1 was earning $43, 1
was earning $52, 1 was earning $60, and 1 was earning $61. Only
two families had no income except the children’s earnings and the
mothers’ allowances. A ll the children except one contributed their
entire earnings to the family support.
Children neither in school nor at work.
Six boys and one girl had left school and were not working. Three
of the boys were looking for work at the time of the study, however,
and the girl was helping her mother with the housework. The three
remaining children were mentally unstable or inferior, one being in
an institution for epileptics and another on the waiting list for
admission to an institution for the feeble-minded.
EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE MOTHERS
The county board o f child welfare encouraged the foreign-born
mothers under its supervision to attend citizenship and English
classes and about 15 were enrolled. A number attended classes con
ducted by the International Institute o f the Young Women’s Chris
tian Association. Five were members of sewing classes. One who
was interpreter in a broker’s office in a Polish neighborhood was
|¿tending an evening real-estate class in a high school. Home makng, cooking, sewing, food values, marketing, and proper expendi
ture o f money were taught by the domestic educator on the adminis
trative staff and also by the county home bureau.6
f
RECREATION
The budget allowed $5 a month to working children under 18
years of age for spending money. This was not expected to cover
lunches, car fare, nor clothing. When the boy or girl became 18
years old a satisfactory plan was generally worked out with the
mother or reasonable board was paid.
The recreation available to most o f the city families included the
social activities of the churches, the nine settlements, playgrounds,
Boy Scout troops, the Young Men’s Christian Association, and the
Young Women’s Christian Association. Much stress was laid on
a close church connection, and in the country, especially, the mothers’
aid families found their good times in the church and neighborhood
gatherings. Many children had library cards. A few children
belonged to the Young Men’s Christian Association and the Young
Women’s Christian Association, but in general it was felt that the
fees were prohibitive except for those boys in whom members of the
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Kiwanis Club had become interested. The children in many of the
families were in touch with the settlements, which provided oppor
tunities for much wholesome fu n ; but not many mothers had learned
as yet to use them. A number of families owned pianos or phono
graphs, and the board encouraged the purchase o f inexpensive instru
ments by working children as a means of home entertainment.
Many children, but few o f the mothers, were able to get away for
a two weeks’ outing at one o f the summer-vacation camps operated
by the settlements or the fresh-air mission. Members of the Kiwanis
Club were interested in 10 boys in families receiving mothers’ aid.
Each man thus interested visited the home o f the boy assigned to
him, followed his school work, opened a bank account for him, depos
iting $5 to his credit, encouraged him to join a Boy Scout troup,
provided for a two weeks’ summer outing, and planned for educa
tional or employment opportunities. Two brothers under the care
o f one club member visited him every week, were taken on Sunday
motor rides, and were advised as to books and reading.
#
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
MOTHERS’ ALLOWANCES IN HAMILTON COUNTY, OHIO1
PROVISIONS OF THE L A W
The Ohio mothers’ aid law, passed in 1913 and amended in 1915,
1919, and 1921,2 provided for allowances to four classes of mothers
with dependent minor children: Widows, mothers whose husbands
were permanently disabled by reason of physical or mental infirmity
or were prisoners or had deserted, provided such desertion had con
tinued for a period of three years. Two years’ legal residence in
the county granting assistance was required, and the following other
conditions were imposed by the law :
1. The child or children must be living with the
mother.
2. The allowance was to be made only when in the
absence o f such allowance the mother would be required
to work regularly away from home and children.
3. The mother must, in the judgment of the court, be
a proper person morally, physically, and mentally for
the bringing up of her children, and it must appear to
be for the benefit o f the children to remain with the
mother.
4. Such allowance must, in the judgment of the court,
l
be necessary to save the children from neglect and avoid
the breaking up o f the home.
5. A id might be allowed up to the age when a child
was eligible for a work certificate.
An important amendment to the law, which increased the maxi
mum tax levy for mothers’ aid from one-tenth o f a mill to twotenths on the dollar valuation of taxable property in the county,
became effective in 1920. Another increased the maximum allow
ance to $35 a month for the first child and $10 a month for each of
the other children.
The law provided that the order making the allowance to a mother
should not be effective for a period longer than six months, but might
be extended at the end of that time at the discretion o f the judge.
It also provided that the homes of the pensioners should be visited
from time to time by a probation officer or other trained person, the
report o f such visits to be considered by the court in making the
allowance.
1 The population of Hamilton County in 1920 was 493,678. of whom 401,247 lived in
Cincinnati
The native white inhabitants numbered 411,199 ; the foreign born, 4 8 ,6 5 8 ;
and the negro, 33,747. The inhabitants of foreign birth were as follows in the order of
* heir numerical importance: German, Russian, Irish, Hungarian, and Italian. The child
nonnlation within the legal age for mothers’ aid was 124,811.
(Fourteenth Census of the
f
f
i
e
d
3, Population, pp. 778, 784, 793, 794, Washington, 1922.)
The
chief industries center around slaughtering and meat packing, foundries and machine
shops, and the manufacture of men’s clothing, boots, and shoes.
„
_
* Ohio act of M ay 9, 1913, Laws of 1913, p. 877, as amended by act of June 2, 1915,
k l . v 8 nf 1915 n 4 3 6 : act of June 5, 1919, Laws of 1919, p. 6 2 4 ; act of Apr. 8, 1921,
^ Laws of 1921, p. 70.
(See Page’s Annotated Gen. Code, secs. 1683—2 to 1683—10, pp.
8 9 8 -9 0 0 .)
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
112
administration of mothers* aid in ten localities
The law did not designate the amount of property and savings a
mother might have, but stipulated simply that she be “ poor.” I f a
family was paying for its home at the time the mother applied for aid
the juvenile court (which was the administrative agency) encouraged
her to keep up the payments, provided they did not exceed a reason
able rental, the house was a good investment, and the mortgage did
not exceed $3,000 or $4,000. The average value of the homes owned
was about $3,500. A mother was allowed to have cash savings
amounting to $200, but there was no formal ruling on this subject.
' A mother was not permitted by the court to keep men roomers or
lodgers.
ADM INISTRATION OF THE LA W
a d m in is t r a t iv e
agency
and
staff
The administration o f the mothers’ aid law in Hamilton County,
Ohio, was lodged in the department of mothers’ pensions and depend
ency of the juvenile court. The judge of the juvenile court had
appointed a committee of five persons (including representatives
from local private relief agencies) to consider each application for
an allowance and make recommendation to him.
The staff of the department consisted of the supervisor and two
field workers, all of whom were probation officers appointed by the
judge under civil-service regulation. The supervisor gave part time
to the mothers’ aid work, and the two field workers usually gave most
of their time to this work (though at the time of the study one of
them had been giving half time to mothers’ aid work and half time
to the dependency work). The supervisor was a college graduate,
also a graduate o f the New York School of Social Work, and she
had had considerable experience in case work, both in courts and
elsewhere. One field worker had had three and one-half years of
college work, had taken training courses in social work, and had been
on the staff of the juvenile court for six years; the other had had no
case-work experience before she was appointed probation officer three
years previously.
As the juvenile court had not the funds to employ a staff sufficiently
large to supervise all the families to whom allowances were granted,
three private family agencies in Cincinnati gave assistance in the
supervisory work. These were the Cincinnati Associated Charities,
the Bureau of Catholic Charities, and the United Jewish Social
Agencies.
The advisory mothers’ ^pension committee consisting o f five citizens
appointed by the judge o f the juvenile court considered each ap
plication for an allowance and made a recommendation to the judge,
who generally acted in accordance with it. This committee did not
meet except to consider applications, and it had held no meeting for
a year, as the small size of the appropriations had precluded any
grants during that time.
a p p r o p r ia t io n
and
volum e
of
work
The amount spent for mothers’ aid in 1922 was $187,012 and in
1923 was $183,404. There was a waiting list of about 500 families.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HAMILTON COUNTY, OHIO
113
The September payment to mothers’ aid families was $14,649. All
administrative expenses were met by the court from its general
budget. The average monthly grant was $30.71 per family and
$11.40 per child.
The total number of families receiving allowances in October, 1923,
was 470, including 1,285 children under 16 years of age. The
juvenile court was supervising 238 of these families. In general
it retained under its supervision those families whose need was
primarily economic and whose plans could be made with a little
friendly guidance, as the limited staff did not permit intensive visit
ing to many families. The court also supervised all the mothers’
aid families living outside the city of Cincinnati. The average num
ber of mothers’ aid families supervised by each o f the court workers
was 119, not including the work o f the supervisor, who as a rule did
not do actual case work. The three private relief agencies assisting
the court supervised the remaining families as follows: The Cincin
nati Associated Charities, 132; the Bureau of Catholic Charities, 86;
and the United Jewish Social Agencies, 14. (The first two o f these
private agencies assumed responsibility only for the families receiv
ing aid who had been known to them previously; the third supervised
all the Jewish families to whom allowances were granted.)
PROCEDURE IN MAKING ALLOW ANCES
Application was made in person at the mothers’ aid office in the
juvenile-court building. An application form was filled out with
the information given by the mother on date of birth, birthplace,
^citizenship, residence, and religion of both parents; facts regarding
^ th e father (whether dead, imprisoned, disabled, or deserting); names,
ages, schools, and grades (or, if working, employers and wages) of
children; the mother’s occupation, earnings, and hours away from
home; sources of income, insurance, debts, property, and weekly ex
penses; housing conditions; health; names of relatives; names of
pastor, physician, and other references; and the date o f juvenilecourt record if any o f the children had been before the court.
The name of the family was registered in the confidential exchange
and the interested agencies were consulted. Marriage, citizenship,
facts regarding the father’s death, incapacity, desertion, imprison
ment, or insanity, and facts regarding property were verified. A
visit to the home was made, and several references (usually four or
five) such as a relative, landlady, physician, and friends were con
sulted. A written statement covering school attendance and scholar
ship for each child in the family was obtained from the children’s
teachers. Although in the past the private relief agencies had
assisted in the work o f investigation, it was the policy of the court
at the time of the study to make its own first investigations. The
families selected for assistance were those in which the mothers
seemed most able to make good homes for their children.
USE OF A STANDARD BUDGET
A budget following a schedule: prepared by the dietitian of the
^Cincinnati Associated Charities and used by all the local case-work
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
agencies had been adopted. Rent was allowed as paid, and no allow
ance was made for insurance. A copy o f the budget is as follows:
W eekly "budget- for families .of specified sizes
Light Miscel
and laneous Number ofunits1 Food
Number ofunits1 Food Cloth
ing
fuel
10
ik
17
1K
19
20
21
2 3
2 4
2 Ft
2.8 ________
2 9
3 0
3 1
33
3 4
3 ft
37
3 8
39
4 0
$3.18 $1.00
1.55
5.25
5.55
1.63
5.84
1.70
6.13
1.78
6.41
1.89
1.98
6.68
6.95
2.06
7.21
2.15
7.47
2.23
2.32
7.72
2.41
7.99
8.29 { 2.49
2.57
8.59
8.89
2.66
9.19
2.75
9.48
2.84
9.76
2.90
2.95
9.98
10.18
3.01
10.39
3.06
10. 58 3.12
10. 77 3.17
3.23
10.96
3.28
11.13
11. 29 3.34
3.39
11.45
$0.80
.84
.87
.91
.95
1. 01
1.07
1.12
1.18
1.22
1.28
1.33
1.37
1.43
1.46
1.50
1.53
1. 56
1. 59
1.62
1.65
1.67
1.71
1.73
1.76
1.80
1.83
$1.00
1.55
1.63
1.70
1.78
1.89
1.98
2.06
2.15
2.23
2.32
2.41
2.49
2.57
2.66
2.75
2.84
2.90
2.95
3.01
3.06
3.12
3.17
3.23
3.28
3.34
3.39
4.1.................. $11.74
4.2.................. 12.02
4.3__________ 12.30
4.4__________ 12.59
4.5__________ 12.88
4.6_____ ___ - 13.17
13.45
4.7.............. .
4.8............ ...... 13.76
4.9............ ...... 14.02
5.0______ ___ 14.31
5.1______ ____ 14.44
5.2..... ............. 14.72
5.3...________ 15.01
5.4................. 15.12
15.41
5.5..... .........
5.6__________ 15.59
5.7.____ _____ 15.77
5.8__________ 16.05
5,9....___ ____ 16.33
6.0....... ............ 16.41
6.1.................. 16.68
6.2..............—. 16.96
6.3................... 17.02
6.4__________ 17.30
6.5................... 18.57
6.7................... 18.10
7.0................... 18.92
Cloth Light
Miscel
and laneous
ing
fuel
$3.46
3.52
3.58
3.65
3.71
3.78
3.85
3.92
3.98
4.04
4.09
4.15
4.21
4.26
4.32
4.37
4.43
4.49
4.55
4.62
4.68
4.74
4.80
4.87
4.95
5.02
5.09
$1.87
1.91
1.94
1.97
2.01
2.03
2.07
2.12
2.15
2.18
2.21
2.25
2.29
2.31
2.34
2.35
2.39
2.43
2.46
2.50
2.54
2.57
2.60
2.63
2.67
2.70
2.73
$3.46
3.52
3.58
3.65
3.71
3.78
3.85
3.92
3.98
4.04
4.09
4.15
4.21
4.26
4.32
4.37
4.43
4.49
4.55
4.62
4.68
4.74
4.80
4.87
4.95
5.02
5.09
i The family needs were calculated b y using the needs of an adult man as a base and computing for a
family living together the needs of the mother and of children of different ages as percentages of this, as
follows:
................................. 1.0
......................................8
Adult woman, b oy 13-14, girl 15-16-------------- ------------- ------------.............................. 9
........ ............. .............. 7
............. ..................... ................ 6
_________________ .4
Hhilrl fi-97
_
...........................................................
Child under 2_____________________ ______ - ------- --------------------- ........ ......................... ................. 3
A
No special effort was made through the use of expense accounts
or family menus to ascertain the diet of the families receiving allow
ances, and only in individual cases was an attempt made to regulate
food purchases or to give the mothers instruction in regard to foods.
SUPPLEMENTING OF MOTHERS’ AID
Although the maximum aid allowed by law was liberal and it was
intended that the grants should cover the deficit in the family budget,
a reduction in the appropriation had seriously handicapped the de
partment o f mothers’ pensions during the year in which the study
was made, and many families in Cincinnati would have suffered if
the private agencies had not generously supplemented their allow
ances. Information as to how the families outside Cincinnati had
maintained themselves was not available.
In 1922 the Cincinnati Associated Charities spent $6,000 in behalf
o f the mothers’ aid families under its supervision. This did not
include the aid given to families on the waiting list (the amount of
which was not ascertained). A t the time o f the study supplementary^
aid on a large scale had ceased because o f lack o f funds, and was
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HAMILTON COUNTY, OHIO
115
confined to milk for five families and material relief for one; but
a considerable number o f families on the waiting list were still being
aided.
The Bureau of Catholic Charities spent in 1923 the sum of $7,104.75
for supplementary relief to mothers’ aid families. In addition, med
ical service was rendered by its clinics, and relief was being given
to families on the waiting list. During approximately the same
time (in the fiscal year ended February 28, 1923) the United Jewish
Social Agencies gave $4,686.65 in supplementary relief to the 16 Jew
ish families that received mothers’ aid during the year and $3,050.76
to 4 Jewish families on the waiting list.
VISITING
As the court did not have a staff sufficiently large to permit fre
quent visits to all the families under its supervision, some of those
outside the city of Cincinnati could be visited only once or twice
a year by the probation officers. However, the nurses employed
by the county department of health gave much friendly service and
were in touch with these families; and the policy of the private
agencies assisting in supervision required a visit at least once a
month, and oftener if necessary.
H EALTH
PHYSICAL HEALTH
No allowance was made in the budget for medical care, dentistry,
or other expenses incident to health. Special diet was generally
i%)rocurable through relief societies or the Babies’ Milk Fund Asso
ciation.
Physical examinations.
The foundation o f the health work lay in the physical examina
tions o f mothers and children required before or just after the
grants were made. The majority of the city families were examined
at the Cincinnati General Hospital. The Jewish families were exam
ined at the general or specialized medical clinics maintained by the
United Jewish Social Agencies at their community center. No spe
cial forms were used, and the reports were incorporated in the family
medical record, which was not a part o f the social record.
The children living outside Cincinnati, Norwood, and St. Bernard
were examined at the county clinics conducted by the district board
o f health.
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ADMINISTRATION1 OF MOTHERS’ AID IN' TEH LOCALITIES
nurses connected with that bureau. The diagnosis and medical
treatment advised for these families were incorporated in the medi
cal but not in the social record.
Families examined by the Cincinnati General Hospital were re
ferred for corrective work to a specialized clinic as the need indi
cated. This clinic was generally at the hospital and follow-up
work was done by medical social workers at the hospital. A written
statement was sent to the court, which incorporated it in the column
on the medical sheet headed “ Treatment given.” The treatment
given was indicated also on the case record and long-continued
follow-up work was done by the hospital social-service department
or by the family visitor. Mothers and children living in the
country were brought to the city hospitals and clinics by the disfcrict nurses, who attended to all the health needs o f the families,
lh e follow-up o f families by medical agencies often continued for
years, and the records showed that it might be close even though
the case-work agency did not always keep in touch with them.
adults was provided free by the dental clinic of
the Cincinnati General Hospital. Physical defects were generally
corrected prom ptly; mothers were induced to give their consent
through threatened withdrawal of the grant if necessary, though
persuasion nearly always produced the desired results. The mothers
were for the most part very willing to have the preliminary examimade, and the supervisor was o f the opinion that they were
Of direct educational value. A few mothers consulted their own
private physicians, and this was not interfered with if no fee or
only a nominal one was charged. City physicians could be secured
m a n emergency, but they were not generally used. .
M
Tuberculosis.— Tuberculous patients were referred to a healtn
center conducted by the city board o f health and were followed up
by the nurses connected with the department. In the country there
were no clinics, but the district board of health nurses visited the
patients^ and attempted to secure medical care for them. All
mothers’ aid families who had been exposed to tuberculosis were
referred to the clinic, and it was the policy o f all the family agencies
to keep undernourished and pretuberculous families under their
regular supervision.
Venereal disease.—Whenever there was reason to suspect venereal
disease Wassermann tests were taken of all members o f the family.
Ireatment could be obtained at venereal clinics at the health cen
ter and the general hospital.
E ye, ear, nose, and throat affections.—There were numerous clinics
for eye examinations and for affections of the eye, ear, nose, and
throat.
Orthopedic and cardiac affcottons.— Orthopedic cases wTere referred
to the orthopedic clinic o f the Cincinnati General Hospital and were
followed up by the hospital school if treatment was needed. Occasionally a child was committed to the State department of welfare,
which would secure the necessary care and charge the bill to the
county, lh e Rotary Club in the county paid for braces and special
apparatus. Children suffering from cardiac affections were given
medical care at the cardiac clinic of the Cincinnati General H ospital.#
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HAMILTON COUNTY, OHIO
117
Two girls for whom aid was being granted were receiving treat
ment. One who was 13 years old had had infantile paralysis at 7
months of age and her 15-year-old sister had tuberculosis of the hip.
Both were receiving massage, muscle training, posture work, and
other forms of physiotherapy.
Health work fo r infants and preschool children.—In the city the
children under 6 years of age were referred to the six child-health
centers maintained by the Babies’ Milk Fund Association or to one
o f the three centers conducted by the board of health. The children
were followed up by the nurses connected with the centers. In the
summer months the board o f health maintained four additional cen
ters. In Cincinnati at least half the mothers lived near enough to a
center to walk to it, and none needed to change cars nor to ride more
than half an hour.
In the county outside Cincinnati the district board o f health main
tained 15 child-health centers. Conferences for infants and pre
school children were held at these once a month, and clinics were
held for school children 10 per cent or more underweight and for the
care of postoperative cases. Five nurses were employed. The aver
age distance from the home of the children to the schoolhouse where
a center was maintained was about 2 miles.
It was the policy of the court and the private agencies assisting to
advise the mothers to attend the centers; but no method o f insuring
the attendance of infants and children o f preschool age had been
developed, and the workers were not sure how many were in actual
attendance.
School medical work.—A ll school children in Cincinnati were
weighed and measured by the nurses three times a year. I f they
were found to be 10 per cent or more underweight they were ex
amined by physicians. All children in the first three grades were
given a yearly examination by a physician. In the county outside
Cincinnati the five nurses under the district board o f health in
spected all school children once a year, and the children found to
be 10 per cent or more underweight and others thought to be in need
of a thorough physical examination were examined by a physician.
When the children who had attended the child-health centers entered
school their health records were transferred to the school. This pro
vided a continuous health record through infancy and the school
period. Though no formal follow-up work was done by the case
workers in charge of the families, the school nurses were in such
close touch with the court and the social agencies that presumably
much of the necessary corrective work was attended to by them.
The school nurses followed up the nutrition defects, and eighth-grade
girls acted as “ big sisters ” to undernourished children, the nurses
supervising them. Three times a year the nurses gave the eighthgrade girls special instruction in diet and health.
Dentistry.— The child-health center and three dental clinics pro
vided free dental work for school children. Dental examinations
were made in the country schools, but the only corrective work pro
vided was through the city health center, which opened its dental
clinic to country children for one month in the year. The Babies’
Milk Fund Association also did some dental work for country chil
dren, but the facilities were not adequate.
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ADMINISTRATION' OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Malnutrition.—In the county outside Cincinnati there were no
nutrition classes. Nurses gave individual instruction to underweight
children at the child-health centers, and instruction was given to
mothers in diet and hygiene once a year, if possible, through mothers’
clubs and similar groups. In Cincinnati the Babies’ Milk Fund Asso
ciation nurses gave instruction to mothers in nutrition individually
or in groups at its child-health centers. The association planned also
to conduct a nutrition class of 20 children whose mothers were to be
brought into the group. A clinician was to direct the class and stu
dents' in the department of home economics of the University o f Cin
cinnati were to do the field work. The United Jewish Social Agen
cies employed a nutrition worker who followed up all underweight
Jewish children in mothers’ aid families, but there was no regular
method of reporting underweight children to the court nor to the
family agencies. When extra diet was recommended the nurses com
municated with the agency in charge of the family. Undernourished
families, those lacking sufficient income, and those managing poorly
were put under the supervision of the dietitian employed by the
Cincinnati Associated Charities.
There was a camp for undernourished children, where they could
remain for the entire summer, and the United Jewish Social Agencies
operated a convalescent home for Jewish children requiring any
type of care.
M ENTAL HEALTH
Available facilities.
Cincinnati has a number of facilities for the study or care of per
sons having mental defect or disease. Most of these were used for
the mothers’ aid families, in accordance with the affiliations with
hospitals and clinics obtaining among the four agencies giving
supervision. The psychological laboratory of the vocation bureau
of the Cincinnati Board of Education3 served all these agencies as
well as the schools. It gave examinations to children recommended
for special classes. Assignment o f children to these classes, also
to observation classes, opportunity classes, disciplinary classes, and
college-preparatosy classes, and recommendations for' scholarships
all were based upon the tests made by this laboratory.
The juvenile court employed a psychologist who was available for
consultation in regard to any problem involving mothers’ aid fami
lies. The Council of Social Agencies conducted a central clinic; it
employed a psychiatric social worker and served as a general clear
ing house for all cases of mental defect or disease. The United
Jewish Social Agencies conducted a neuropsychiatrie clinic in con
nection with its medical clinic. The psychopathic institute of the
Jewish Hospital employed a psychiatric social worker and provided
temporary institutional care while the patient was under observa
tion. The Ohio Bureau of Juvenile Research at Columbus, Ohio,
provided institutional care for psychopathic patients under observa
tion ; usually a physical examination was given also.
The treatment of children with psychopathic or behavior problems
varied somewhat among the four agencies supervising mothers’ aid
families, but if the difficulty was pronounced, the need of expert
3 See V o ca tio n a l G u id ance a n d J u n ior P la cem en t, pp. 1 9 1 -1 9 7 (U . S. C h ildren ’ s B ureau
P u b lica tio n N o. 149, U. S. E m p loy m en t S ervice P u b lica tio n A , W a sh in g to n , 1 9 2 5 ).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HAMILTON COUNTY, OHIO
^
119
psychological advice was generally recognized. Jewish children
were examined at the neuropsychiatric clinic o f the United Jewish
Social Agencies and sometimes given observation at its psychopathic
institute. Non-Jewish children were examined by the court psychologist, who referred them, if continued treatment was necessary,
to the central clinic of the Council of Social Agencies, to the psycho
pathic institute o f the Jewish Hospital, or more rarely to the Ohio
Bureau of Juvenile Research at Columbus. The follow-up work was
done either by the agency’s family visitors or by its nurses. The
United Jewish Social Agencies had taken advantage o f the services
of the National Committee for Mental Hygiene in its survey of
Cincinnati in November, 1921, and had thorough examinations made
o f a number of children in the families receiving mothers’ aid.
Although it was the ideal o f the agencies supervising mothers’ aid
families to give special consideration to children with mental diffi
culties, it seemed doubtful whether all the workers were familiar
with the services available for psychological examinations, and they
may have neglected to refer to the clinics mothers and children who
needed such help. Probably the policies and practice varied among
agencies giving supervision. It was pointed out that relatively few
behavior problems arose in mothers’ aid families, as the selection of
families to receive grants was based upon the character of the family.
Follow-up of special types of problems.
Teachers, social workers, neighbors, and parents referred school
children who were retarded or whom they suspected of mental defect
to the psychological laboratory of the board of education’s vocation
^ bureau, for examination and recommendation as to placement. I f
W institutional care was required application was made to the Ohio
State Institution for the Feeble-Minded at Columbus. Children in
whose families there had been a history of mental defect or disease
were not given a psychological examination unless they had symp
toms o f mental difficulty.
Illustrative case histories.
The following case histories show what may be achieved when the
results of psychological examination are coordinated closely with
physical care and adequate social activities:
Nine-year-old Elsie was examined by the court psychologist because of
psychopathic symptoms, and her mother was advised to place her for observa
tion in the Psychopathic Institute. This she refused to do, but two years later
she brought Elsie for reexamination, after the little girl had packed her clothes,
taken some money, and with her 4-year-old sister started for another city
where she had relatives.
She was then studied for several weeks at the
Psychopathic Institute. She had a history of impudence, untruthfulness, ex
treme nervousness, poor school work (due partly to absence), and desire for
much attention. The report of the court psychologist stated that she carried
exaggeration, imagination, and dream states so far that it verged on patho
logical lying. It was thought that Elsie’s conduct was based on “ some un
fortunate sex experience or at least on some emotional experience, causative of
mental conflict.” After eight months of careful follow-up and of reeducation
of the mother and of the child it was reported that Elsie had improved wonder
fully in every way, and that there was a marked improvement in her school
work, though it was not yet up to standard.
Mrs. N., who was in a nervous and physically upset condition, was- exam
ined in the general medical clinic of the United Jewish Social Agencies five
weeks after the death of her husband. She continued under the supervision
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ADMINISTRATION" OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
of this clinic for a period of several years. Her eyes were tested, she was
treated for chronic skin disease, and she was fitted with special shoes. Two
of her four children were given psychological examinations, John at 8 years
of age and Henry at 7 years of age. The entire family had been examined
in 1921 during the survey made by the National Committee for Mental
Hygiene. It was reported that Henry had little initiative and much sug
gestibility and that John had “ an inadequate personality.’’ Extra nourish
ment was provided, tonsil operations were performed, and treatment was
given for positive endocrine disturbances. Both boys were under observation
at the Psychopathic Institute. A ll the children were brought in touch with
recreational and social activities at the community center and the recom
mendations of the institute were followed in every detail by the family
visitor; one of the recommendations called for “ big brothers,” who were
accordingly secured. John and Henry reported regularly to the neuropsychopathic clinic of the United Jewish Social Agencies, and the last report the
psychiatrist had given indicated that both were improving mentally and
physically and that they had good school records.
HOUSING
The standards which the agencies would have liked to enforce
in regard to housing and the actual conditions with which they were
confronted were often at variance. In Cincinnati, for example,
though all the workers agreed that a single house was highly desir
able, scarcely anything save tenements was available. It was said
that a large majority of the families receiving mothers’ aid in the
city lived in two-room or at best in three-room tenements— a com
bined kitchen and living room and one bedroom. The rooms, how
ever, were o f fair size, they were generally light and well aired, and
the streets and even the alleys were kept clean. The dark hall
ways were very objectionable. The toilet was usually in the hall
and was shared by another family; some families had outside
toilets.
Among the families supervised by the United Jewish Social
Agencies the housing conditions were markedly superior, as that
agency supplemented the mothers’ aid to insure good conditions.
One family lived in an old well-established residential section on a
wide boulevard, with substantial and even elegant homes in the
immediate neighborhood. The house had been intended originally
for one family, but later was made over to accommodate two fam
ilies. The rent was $55 a month. Another family lived in an
almost equally good neighborhood in a second-floor apartment, with
abundance o f room, sunshine, and air. The standard of the agency
allowed for at least three rooms, including the living room and
generally a bathroom.
All the agencies insisted upon separate sleeping rooms for adoles
cent boys and girls. A living room was considered essential, though
some families had to use a fair-sized kitchen for the living room.
In one such combined kitchen and living room was a much-used
piano, but the room was so neat, cozy, and homelike that the children
had no hesitancy about bringing their friends in for an evening’s
fun. It was significant that this family voluntarily gave up the
grant before they considered moving to a more roomy abode. A
number o f families had to use the living room as a sleeping room.
The families living in the city had running water, but this was not
always true in the country.
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121
H AM ILTON COUNTY, OHIO
The majority of city homes had gas and about half had electricity.
Most families had some provision for keeping ice in summer. The
court placed much stress upon the sanitary conditions of the homes
and the character of the neighborhoods in which the families lived,
and as far as possible consideration was given to play space and
accessibility to playgrounds. The homes visited were in good or fair
condition. There was no fixed maximum rental, but the rents were
generally less than $30 a month. Sixty-seven families owned or were
paying for their own homes. More country than city families owned
or partly owned their homes, and in these cases housing conditions
were good. There were yard space, flower and vegetable gardens,
and more rooms in the houses.
Mrs. C.’s husband committed suicide in a fit of temporary insanity. At the
time application was made for aid her children had been suffering for several
years from lack of adequate nourishing food, and tuberculosis was feared.
This family was moved from poor rooms in a badly congested neighborhood
to bright, sunny rooms in a good suburban locality, where the physical con
ditions would be better. The entire family was placed under the care of the
health center and reported every month.
Mrs. C. became a member of a
domestic-science class, and the three children were entered in a dramatic
class.
Mrs. W . had three children under 5 years of age. Her husband had died of
tuberculosis of the hip.
This family was moved from a crowded, dark
down-town tenement to a cozy little cottage in the country, where the children
could almost live out of doors. This was the more necessary because the
youngest child had rickets. This child was under the care of the Cincinnati
General Hospital.
EDUCATION
COOPERATION W IT H THE SCHOOLS AN D FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION
Contact with the schools.
The Cincinnati Associated Charities twice each year sent the fol
lowing form letter to all schools attended by children receiving
mothers’ aid:
[Name.]
[Date.]
[Address.]
T h e -----------P ublic School,
C in cin n a ti,
O h io .
Ge n tle m e n : W ill you kindly forward us a report relative to the health,
attendance, deportment, cleanliness, and grades of the above-mentioned children,
in whom we are very much interested? This is a requirement of the mothers’
pension department, juvenile court, each year, of the children whose mother
receives a mothers’ pension.
Thanking you in advance, we are,
Very truly yours,
T h e A ssociated C harities ,
f
S u p e r v is o r ,
M o th e r s ’ P e n s io n s .
The visitors of the United Jewish Social Agencies visited the chil
dren’s school-teachers twice each year. The visitors of the Bureau
o f Catholic Charities and the juvenile court examined the school
reports and had occasional conferences with the teachers,
Provision for handicapped children.
The 'physically handicapped child—The Cincinnati public schools
provided two classes for the blind and six classes for children with
defective vision. The oral school had seven classes for the deaf and
94535°— 28------ 9
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ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ SlD IN TEN LOCALITIES
semideaf. Open-air classes cared for anemic and tuberculous chil
dren. The Cincinnati General Hospital had an excellently equipped
school for both hospital patients and out-patients. The latter were
brought to the hospital every day in the school bus. Needlework,
woodwork, and cabinetwork were taught. Trousseaus had been made
by the girls, and their work was for sale. The teachers made special ^
effort to know each child individually and to help him overcome
the timidity and feeling o f inferiority that frequently develop among
crippled children. Music lessons were given them as a means to this
end, and their families were helped to get musical instruments for
them if they had none.
One child in a mothers’ aid family was attending one of the sightconservation classes, one was attending a class for the deaf, and
four were in open-air classes.
The mentally handicapped child.—A special school had 16 classes,
and in addition there were 13 special classes in various schools in
different parts of the city. There was one observation class, to which
children who could not succeed in the first and second grades but
whose intelligence quotients did not indicate mental defect were
admitted, the aim being to return these children to the regular school
as soon as possible. Opportunity classes were reported for six of the
schools.
Provision for children wishing further education.
Cincinnati had a variety and number of scholarships provided to
help needy children to secure an education. The Schmidlapp Bureau
o f Cincinnati, a private memorial fund devoted to promoting the
educational interests of girls and young women, gave scholarships
ranging from approximately $20 a month for the 10 months of the<dp
school year to $700 a year. The vocation bureau o f the board of edu
cation, through contributions from the community chest, the Council
of Social Agencies, and other organizations granted high-school
scholarships to children of legal working age who were financially
unable to remain in school but were of superior scholarship or were
specially granted the scholarship for some other reason approved
by the scholarship committee. Psychological and physical examina
tions were given as seemed necessary. The board o f education was
also authorized to grant relief in order to enable a child to attend
school.4 This so-called scholarship was usually in groceries and in
amounts of $5 per week, but it might take the form o f clothing, shoes,
or car fare. The Council of Jewish Women gave scholarships to
Jewish children who showed merit and were ready for university or
special training. The amounts varied from $20 a month (for 10
months) to high-school pupils to $30 a month in addition to college
fees, books, and other necessary university expenses. The United
Jewish Social Agencies gave scholarships to children in families
under its care if thereby they were aided in rehabilitating them
selves. Some high-school and university scholarships were com
petitive, and there were single scholarships, such as the Helen T.
Woolley scholarship of the Women’s City Club for the first year in
the university. The workers in all the case-work agencies had been
alert and active in planning for higher educational opportunities for .
- -------■:
:----- — - A
|
...
— ------------- , ' ' / ■■ V.—
* Ohio, Gen Code 1910, sec. 7777, p. 1646. as amended
act of Apr. 9, 1921, Laws of
Jp21, p. 376. (Page’s Annotated Gep. Code 1926, sec. 7777, P. 2876.)
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
M
H a m il t o n
county,
Oh i o
m
children under their care and securing through scholarships the
means for their attainment, though it seemed that not all of them
were fully aware of the advantage of referring the children under
their supervision to the vocation bureau of the board o f education
so that they might have the advantage o f its services.
At the time of the study 16 children in families receiving mothers’
aid were receiving scholarships as follows: One from the Schmidlapp Bureau for a course in the University of Cincinnati, seven
from the board of education for courses in commercial high schools,
one from the board of education for an academic high-school course,
and six from private sources for courses in commercial high school.
One boy had won a competitive scholarship for a high-school course.
Carolyn V. was a Jewish girl 16 years old whose father had died of tuber
culosis. Her mother was of low mentality, as were also an older brother and
sister, and another sister was subnormal. The family had been under the con
tinuous care of the United Jewish Social Agencies since before the father’s
death, and at one time aid was withdrawn in order to persuade Mrs. V. to
allow physical examinations to be made of the children. The whole family had
received the most thorough and painstaking social treatment, including medical
care, psychological examinations, and follow-up. Special effort had been made
on behalf of the oldest daughter, who could not hold a job and for whom much
careful vocational work was done. Carolyn, however, was of superior intelli
gence (having an intelligence quotient of 110), and at the request of the
United Jewish Social Agencies the vocation bureau granted to her a scholar
ship of $20 per month. A t the age of 16 she had already finished her second
year in commercial high school, had an average of 85 to 90 per cent in all
subjects, and had been excused from examinations.
Thirteen boys 16 and 17 years old in families receiving mothers’
aid who were working full time were attending night school. Four
were in high school, three were taking business courses, and one was
taking a premedical course at the University of Cincinnati. Each
of the remaining five was taking one o f the following courses:
Show-card writing, salesmanship, commercial art, electricity, and
pattern making. In the vocational school and the university engi
neering school the students could arrange to attend school four weeks
and then work four weeks in plants providing field work that supple
mented the school work. A number of children in mothers’ aid
families were securing their education in this way. Some junior
high-school children were able to take commercial courses on a
similar basis.
Much effort had been expended, especially by the workers in the
Cincinnati Associated Charities, upon securing pianos for children
and encouraging them to take lessons at the Union Bethel Settle
ment, where only a very small charge was made. Piano stores had
been generous in donating used pianos for this purpose, particularly
to crippled children or those physically handicapped otherwise.
The Women’s City Club conducted classes in dramatics and the family
visitors had entered about 25 children from mothers’ aid families in
these classes.
W hile calling upon Mrs. Z. one day the mothers’ aid visitor was told that
Dick was to take part in a school entertainment, and at the mother’s suggestion
he sang his part for her. The visitor noticed the fine quality of his voice and
set about securing free lessons for him in voice culture. During the visit of
the Paulist Choir to Cincinnati Dick entered a vocal contest, successfully passed
the test, and was selected as a prospective choir member. He was taken to
New York and for two years received excellent vocal training. Then his voice
began to deepen, and he was sent home to wait until his voice had changed.
He was to reenter the choir if the tone quality was not impaired.
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
When Mrs. F. applied for mothers’ aid in June, 1918, her husband had just
died. The family had high standards and a fine sense of solidarity. There
were two children 15 years of age or over and three under 15. Sarah, the
oldest girl, was a senior in high school and worked in a private family for her
board and $5 a week. The oldest boy, 15-year-old Jonas, was in his second
year at high school and earned $2 a week carrying papers. Sarah was awarded
a scholarship from the Schmidlapp Bureau to enable her to take a nurses’ 4 »
training course at the Cincinnati General Hospital, from which she graduated
in June, 1923. She had since repaid the loan. Out of her earnings of $85 a
month and board at the hospital, where she was still employed, she gave her
mother $40 a month and in addition put away $5 a month toward a building
fund for a home for the family. She also bought a used piano and was paying
for music lessons for her 11-year-old sister. At the time of the study Jonas
was taking an engineering course at the University of Cincinnati on the co
operative plan, according to which he worked four weeks and studied four
weeks.
The family lived in four rooms on the second floor of a cottage in the out
skirts of the city, facing the hills and open fields. They were a little crowded
with a combined kitchen and dining room, but that was the alternative they
chose in order that the children might have every possible advantage.
In October, 1923, Mrs. F. voluntarily gave up her grant, saying the children
had talked it over and had decided that they could take care of the family.
• Thirteen-year-old Lucy T., bent on a university degree, was granted a scholar
ship of $5 a week by the board of education, beginning in September, 1922.
She was at the time of the study (October, 1923) in her second year in high
school. It was reported that during the previous school year she had not
missed a single day’s attendance ; she passed with high marks and was at the
head of her class in Latin. Through the encouragement of thé mothers’ aid
visitor, Lucy had been a member for three years of the dramatic class con
ducted by the Women’s City Club, and she had taken many leading parts.
Her mother, who had had a very unhappy life, had started to work at 12
years of age and could hardly read or write. Mrs. T. had become interested
in making Lucy’s costumes and in going to the rehearsals with her. She told ^
the visitor that when her daughter first began to tell her of Dickens a n d ^ p
Shakespeare and what they were reading in the English class at school she
was bored, but after a set of Dickens had been given her and many passages
had been read out loud she grew more and more interested. The mother’s
personality, too, was unfolding.
W illiam P., who was 17 years old, had graduated from high school in June
preceding the study. His intelligence quotient was 116. He had received a
scolarship of $5 a week from the board of education throughout his highschool course. In addition he had been employed at the office of the depart
ment of education in the evenings and on Saturday afternoons. He wished
to become a physician. It was necessary that he make a contribution to the
family support, as there were two younger children and his mother was not
strong. The mothers’ aid worker secured a clerical position for him at the
university and he was taking French and German in the university evening
classes. In addition to the stimulating contact of the vocation bureau and
his association with a “ big brother ” he also joined the Young Men’s Chris
tian Association and had been able to spend some vacation time at its summer
camp.
SCHOOLING AND W ORK OF CHILDREN 16 AND 17 YEAR S OLD
The child-labor, compulsory-education, and mothers’ aid laws.
A minor between 16 and 18 years of age was of compulsory school
age under the Ohio law, and if not employed under an age and
schooling certificate or determined to be incapable of profiting sub
stantially by further instruction was required to attend a public,
private, or parochial school. An age and schooling certificate could
be issued to a minor over 16 years o f age who had completed the 0
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
HAMILTON
COUNTY, OHIO
125
seventh grade (with certain exceptions) . 5 Attendance at a continua
tion school was required for minors between 16 and 18 where such
schools were established.6 Boys and girls who had not completed the
required grade were considered individually to determine whether
they should be granted employment certificates on the ground that
they were not mentally able to complete the required academic work.
I f necessary, these children were tested in the psychological labora
tory of the board o f education’s vocation bureau. The mothers’
aid law allowed a grant to be made for a child until he was eligible
for an employment certificate.
Children in school and at work.
The juvenile court encouraged children to remain in school and
continued the grant for younger children to enable the older bovs and
girls in the family to go through high school or the university or to
receive special training. The fact that all children were in school to
the age o f 16 years enabled many to get an excellent start. There were
167 children (85 boys and 82 girls) 16 or 17 years o f age in the families
receiving mothers’ aid. O f these 167 children, 40 were attending
school, 114 were working, and 13 were neither in school nor working
Children in school.—Among the 40 children 16 and 17 years old
attending school were 38 who had completed the seventh grade and
thus were eligible for employment certificates so far as educational
requirements were concerned.7
The number of boys and girls 16 and 17 years old attending school
and the grade or type of school attended are shown in the following
table:
6
N u m b er o f
of
c h ild r e n
th e
stu d y ,
16
and
17
by gra d e
yea rs
or
o ld
ty p e
w ho
o f
w ere
a tten d in g
s c h o o l; H a m ilto n
sch ool
C o u n ty ,
at
th e
tim e
O h io
Children 16 and 17 years old attending school
Grade or type
of school
Boys
Girls
Total
Total
Total.
16 years 17 years Total
«40
21
15
1
6
3
3
5
11
3
2
8
4
5
5
2
2
2
2
4
3
1
1
2
1
Elementary school:
Seventh grade..
Eighth grade...
High school:
First year______
Second year___
Third year____
Fourth year___
Business school____
Other__________
6
16 years 17 years
19
18
1
3
3
1
2
1
1
6
1
5
1
»1
6
2
6
*2
1
1
"CIO nuiiuus uuisiue scnooi nours.
in the third year of a seminary preparing for the priesthood.
« ¿tfssg & i s s s fla s s s * hosp“al
,or
ae
°*iet ™ "»"■"*^
>»*
1 9 1 ? , 864” - . « ° « F
M U ’ 2866 W o 8)“
P,Se'S A“ “ otated G“ - Code } # > . sets. 7762, 7702 6, a n d S kmT pp
p.
S!4&;
HZ mi
Laws of 1921, p. 378. (This was amended further by act of Mar. 27, 1925 Laws of 1925’
28733')
^
^
8 Annotated Gen’ Code 1926> secs. 7 7 6 2 -5 . 7766, 7767, pp 2866, 2870,’
*38 chlldF«i in school who had fulfilled the grade requirement for employment
this requlreme^t1 (164) C6nt ° £ aU the children ln families receiving aid who could satisfy
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
126
ADMINISTRATION' OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Occupations cmd earnings o f working children.—O f the 167
children 16 and 17 years of age 114 (more than two-thirds) were
working. Their occupations were as follows :
Number of
children
Total______________________
114
Boys___ ____________________
61
Factory worker__________________ :
Clerical worker-----------------------------Clerk in store____________________
Stock boy— -------------------------------Printer’s helper--------------------------Errand or messenger boy---------Automobile mechanic----------------Worker in shipping department
in store-------------------------------------Bell boy-------------------------- £------------
11
8
7
5
4
3
2
2
2
Number of
children
Tinner’s helper___ _______________
Odd jobs _________________________
Other________________ _____________
2
2
813
Girls_____ _______— _______
53
Clerical worker_______ __ ____ —
Factory worker----------- .---------------Clerk in store
:— _— — —
Cashier___________________________
Bundle w rapper------ ----------------Telephone operator--------------- T—
Seamstress____ _ - l ----------------------Other___:________ ____ ________ — —
17
811
86
84
4
3
3
10 5
O f the 61 boys who were working 24 had been in high school when
they left school to go to work (1 1 in the first year, 12 in the second,
1 in the fourth), and 26 had been in the eighth grade. Four had
been in the seventh grade and 5 in the sixth, and for 2 the grade
was not reported. O f the 53 girls who were working 28 had been
in high school when they left school to go to work (1 2 in the first
year, 15 in the second, and 1 in the fourth), and 18 had been in the
eighth grade. Four had been in the seventh grade and 2 in the sixth,
and 1 was attending continuation school.
The earnings of the 114 children who were working and of the 8
school children who were working outside school hours were as
follows:
Number of
children
Total______________________
122
Under $ 2 0 -----------------------------------$20, under $30----------------------------$30, under $ 4 0 — ___________________
$40, under $ 5 0 __________________
$50, under $ 6 0 ----------------------------
3
3
19
28
26
Number of
children
$60, under $70__________________
$70, under $80___________________
$80, under $ 9 0 ___ — ______
$90, under $100____________ ,-----$100, under $110-----------------------—
No earnings_______________ _____
Not reported--------------------------------
26
6
5
2
2
1
1
There were three cases in which two children in the same family
were earning money. One brother and sister were earning a total of
$146 a month; but as the boy was paying back money he had bor
rowed the only contribution to the family was $43 of the $81 which
the girl earned. Two brothers were earning $68 and $83 a month,
respectively; they contributed a total of $121 a month to the family’s
support, and $31 a month was the allowance granted to the family.
A brother and a sister who were earning $43 a month apiece were
contributing all their earnings to the family’s support. A girl who
was earning $108 a month was working in another city and making
no contribution to the family’s support. All but one of the children
working after school or on Saturdays contributed something, though
their earnings were small. About 40 per cent of the children gave
8 Includes one who was reported for each o f the follow ing: Parcel-post clerk, helper in
bakery, helper in laboratory, machinist’s helper, electrician, locksmith, butcher, clothing
cutter, driver on ice wagon, assistant on truck, cobbler, laborer, and helper in drug store.
8 1 of these was reported as mentally defective or feeble-minded.
10 Includes 1 laundry operator, 1 waitress, 1 employed at housework, 1 model m an art
school, and 1 who was doing embroidery ana crocheting at home.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
H AM ILTON COUNTY, OHIO
127
their mothers all their earnings. One of these was a boy earning
$108 a month. The next largest amount contributed was $91 a
month.
Children neither in school nor at work.
Among the 13 children 16 and 17 years o f age who were neither
attending school nor working were 3 boys who were temporarily out
o f work, 4 girls who were assisting in housework (or farm work) at
home, 4 girls who were married, and 1 girl who was in an institution
for the feeble-minded. Five of these children had completed the
grade requirements for employment certificates, 2 were still in the
seventh grade, and for the remaining 5 (excluding the feeble-minded
child) the grade was not reported.
EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE MOTHERS
The mothers were encouraged to attend cooking and sewing classes
in the public schools. The board of education conducted eveningschool classes for adults in domestic science, including cooking, dress
making, and millinery in nine school centers. A class was organized
whenever 20 women were enrolled (at a fee of $2 a year). Five
mothers receiving aid from the group supervised by the Cincinnati
Associated Charities had attended such a class during the winter
preceding the study and the teacher reported that they were the most
eager and responsive members of the class. It was expected that 25
mothers from among those under the care of the Cincinnati Associ
ated Charities would attend during the coming winter.
Foreign-speaking mothers, o f whom there were very few, were
encouraged but not required to attend English or citizenship classes.
The Jewish Community House and the American House conducted
classes in English, and mothers receiving aid had attended classes in
both centers.
Mrs. R., who had been married at the age of 17, was left a widow with
four young children. She was hysterical, untrained, and spoiled, and in the
first days of supervision was wont to throw shoes at the visitor over the
fence when reprimanded for her constant visiting among her neighbors. She
could neither read nor write and knew nothing of sewing or of housekeeping
Finally, after much fruitless effort the agency offered her a prize if she
would keep her house clean. She responded with enthusiasm to this sugges
tion and the prize turned out to be a refurnishing of the entire house
This
was the turning point for Mrs. R. The friendly visitor started to teach her
to read and write, to cook, to keep house, and to sew.
In the fall of 1923, seven years later, the family was .living in an apartment
of four comfortable rooms in a good residential section, for which they were
paying $55 a month. Elizabeth, 19 years old, was receiving a scholarship
of $20 a month to enable her to continue her nurse’s training. Katherine at
18 years of age was a telephone operator earning $20 a week. She was taking
special work in dramatics and lessons in singing and dancing and frequently
appeared in recitals. Estel,le had just left high school in her third year and
gone into the telephone exchange. She had been taking piano lessons. Ferdi
nand was doing well in his second year of high school and was bent on becoming
a doctor.
RECREATION
The small item for sundries in the budget included recreation as
well as health, education, and household supplies. The allowance
was of course only nominal, as, for example, $3.71 was allowed for
sundries for a family consisting of the mother and five children.
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As a rule working children were expected to give two-thirds o f their
earnings to the upkeep o f the home and to buy their clothing and
provide themselves with car fare, lunches, and recreation out of the
remaining third. Some boys and girls over 18 years o f age con
tributed a definite amount for board; and some working children
gave their mothers all their wages and the mothers purchased
clothing and gave them spending money.
Cincinnati was well supplied with recreational resources. The
public schools were used as social and community centers and were
within access o f most city families. The following types of recrea
tion were available through the school centers, the six church
centers, and the three settlements, one o f which was the Jewish
Community Center: Mothers’ clubs, girls’ and boys’ clubs, athletic
and gymnasium facilities, dramatics, music, dancing, scout activi
ties for both boys and girls, and classes in cooking, sewing, and home
economics.
One or more o f these forms o f recreation was easily available
to the children in mothers’ aid families, and, as has been shown,
much effort had been expended in connecting children with educa
tional and semirecreational activities. Mothers, too, were encour
aged to take advantage of opportunities afforded in a social way.
Not so much stress had been laid upon their membership in mothers’
clubs.
An interesting experiment was being tried by the worker of the
Cincinnati Associated Charities in charge o f mothers’ aid families in
an attempt to bring good cheer and social intercourse to the mothers
under her care. Since October, 1919, informal monthly gatherings
of mothers had been held at which refreshments were served.
Sometimes there was a program o f music, motion pictures, or a talk
on cooking or home economics. Sometimes there was no program,
and simple games were played. The attendance had varied from 20
to 2 0 0 . These meetings had been very happy occasions, and on
October 12,1923, an organization was effected and a president elected
from the group o f mothers for the purpose o f encouraging them to
initiate activities o f their own and to develop self-confidence and
self-expression.
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MOTHERS’ ALLOWANCES IN KING COUNTY, WASH.1
PROVISIONS OF TH E L A W
The Washington mothers’ aid law was passed originally in 1913
rewritten in 1915, and amended in 1919.2 It provided for aid to a
mother with dependent children under 15 years of age, regardless of
her marital status. The allowance might not exceed $15 a month for
the first child and $5 a month for each additional child. Aid was
granted on the following conditions:
I f a mother had been a resident of the State for three years and
o f the county for one year; if her children were living with her: if
she was a “ proper person, morally, physically, or mentally, for the
upbringing o f her children,” she was eligible for a pension. In the
absence o f any specification in the law as to the amount of property
or savings a woman might have, the juvenile court of King County
as a rule did not grant aid to a woman who had an equity o f more
than $3,000 in her home and more than $300 in savings. The court
had also ruled as follow s: In a case of desertion a woman was re
quired to swear out a warrant; aid would not be given if the father
had been gone less than six months 5 if the father was apprehended
the grant was revoked and the father was sentenced to the stockade
^ o r a six-month period. In that case his earnings of $1.50 a day
were turned over to his wife. Some men who had been apprehended
had been ordered by the court to return in monthly installments the
entire amount o f aid given to the family. Mothers’ aid was not
granted to divorced women if alimony had been allowed. Mothers
were not allowed to keep men roomers or lodgers other than a father
or brother unless there were two or more.
ADM INISTRATION OF THE L A W
ADM INISTRATIVE AGENCY AND STAFF
The administrative agency was the mothers’ pension department
o f the juvenile court. The staff o f the department was appointed
by the judge and included a commissioner o f mothers’ pensions, an
investigator, two visitors, and a stenographer. The commissioner
had been a member o f the staff for a number of years prior to her
appointment as commissioner. She had a background of professional
social work training and experience. The visitors and the investi
ng1 The. population of King County in 1920 was 389,273, of whom 315,312 lived in Seattle
The native white population was 281,694, the foreign-born population, 91,207. The p o d u lation of foreign birth was as follows in the order of numerical importance: Canadian
Swedish, Norwegian, English and German.
(Fourteenth Census of the United States’
voi 3 Popuiation, pp. 1086 1088, 1093, Washington, 1922.)
The child population within
legal age for mothers’ aid (under 15 years) was 91,083 (unpublished figures furnished by
the U. S. Bureau of the Census). The chief industries of Seattle center around the flour
^ ¡m lls , meat packing, foundry and machine shops, lumbering, shipbuilding, and various
'■prpes of manufacturing. In rural sections farming and dairying are leading industries
2 W ash act of Mar. 24, 1913, ch. 179, Laws of 1913, p 6141 l e t of Mar 17 1915
ch. 13o, Laws o f 1915, p. 3 6 4 ; act of M ar. 13, 1919, ch. 103, Laws of 1919, p 2 5 4 ’ (See
Remington’s Comp. Stat. 1922, secs. 9 9 9 3 -9 9 9 8 , pp. 2 6 8 0 -2 6 8 1 .)
P
l&ee
129
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gator were all high-school graduates; one of them had had some
college work and had been a church visitor, one had had a number of
years of business experience, and all three had received their pro
fessional training in the mothers’ pension department. The spirit
of the department was informal and cooperative, and there seemed
to be great friendliness and confidence between the workers and
the families. The salaries of the field staff ranged from $1,500 to
$1,800 a year. There was no State supervision of any kind.
APPROPRIATION AND VOLUME OF W O RK
The appropriation for mothers’ aid was fixed at the beginning
o f each current year, but the department was permitted to overdraw
and the deficit was covered by a superior-court order. There was
no waiting list. The expenditures had been steadily increasing, as
follows: 1920, $59,983.71; 1921, $77,996.87; 1922, $99,494.32; 1923,
$108,147.50.
4
....
In December, 1923, 453 families, including nearly 1,000 children,
were receiving assistance. Supervision of these was divided between
the two family visitors, each of whom supervised about 225 families.
The investigator made all the investigations of applications for
aid—between 25 and 35 a month— out of which an average of 10 to
18 were given assistance. The visitors and the investigator did
most o f their own typing.
PROCEDURE IN M AKING ALLO W AN CES
Application was made by the mothers in person at the office of the
mothers’ pension department in the juvenile-court building. The^
application was taken by the commissioner and the mother signed*
a petition under oath. The petition included the following: Name,
age place of birth, address, former addresses, and length of residence
in átate and county of the man and woman ; whether they were citi
zens and whether the father had served in the United States Army
or Navy; facts regarding organizations, societies, churches, and
Sunday schools to which the parents or children belonged; facts
regarding property, savings, income, previous support, rent, debts,
and relief from other sources; facts regarding the father’s death,
commitment, desertion, or divorce; facts regarding employment,
wages, insurance, and boarders; names, places of birth, ages, school
grades, and health of children; employment and wages of working
children; names and addresses of relatives and of five references.
Investigations were made by the investigator in the order in which
the applications were received. The first step was consultation of
the social-service exchange and communication with agencies that had
known the family. Verifications were made of the marriage of the
parents; the death, desertion, or commitment of the father or the
divorce of the parents; residence; dates of birth of the children;
insurance, property, savings; and all legal data. A visit was always
made at the home. The schools attended by the children were visited,
also the family physician or lawyer, and at least three of the refer
ences whose names were furnished by the mother. Relatives, minis
ters, and employers were not visited as a matter o f routine, unless
there was reason to doubt the mother’s statement.
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KING COUNTY, W A SH .
A summary o f the investigation and the important facts was sub
mitted to the judge at a private hearing. One day a month was
devoted to these hearings, which were in the nature o f conferences
between the judge and the mothers’ aid staff. The mothers were not
obliged to attend unless there was some matter of special importance
in regard to which the judge desired a personal interview.
DETERMINATION OF ALLOW ANCES
No standard budget was used. The judge determined the amount
of the grant on the basis of the mother’s statement of all income,
debts, and rent. The average grant per family was $20 a month;
the highest grant was $40 a month, the lowest, $7.50. Payment was
made by check once a month at the office of the county auditor where
the women called for their checks.
The “ spirit fund ” (consisting o f cash donations from friends of
the court, amounting to $200 to $300 a year) was used for emergencies
such as tiding a family over an illness, extras such as a dentist’s bill,
providing special shoes, or repairing a phonograph for a family
in the country. The 1922 report showed that the greater part of this
fund was used for groceries, clothing, and fuel.
Every mother at some time kept an expense account for a period
o f at least a month; if she was a poor manager she might be required
to keep it regularly. About 100 mothers were keeping such accounts
at any one time. The itemized accounts were written on loose slips
o f paper and the total summarized monthly on a blank form under
the headings rent, food, light and fuel, clothing, car fare, lunches,
debts, installments, and insurance. A copy o f such report follows:
F m a n o ia l
N am e:_______________________
RESOURCES
Property valu e,---------- E q u ity,____
S a v in g s ,___________
Other so u rces,___________
T o t a l ,___________
MONTHLY INCOME
Mother’s earnings, about $40.
R o o m ers,___________
Boarders, ___________
Older children: Two boys gave $42.
Other sources: Pension, $25.
Total, $127.
sta te m en t
D ate: Jan. 2, 1920.
OBLIGATIONS
Debts, about $57.85.
Installments, 2 firms.
Premium on ins., _*__________
T o t a l,___________
NECESSITIES
Rent, $28. C a r fa r e ,___________
Food, $50. L u n ch es,___________
Light and fuel, $1.50 and $11-$12.50.
Clothing, ___________
Total, $90.50.
SUPPLEMENTING OF MOTHERS’ AID
The county public-welfare department gave emergency aid, con
sisting o f fuel, groceries, rent, and shoes, when asked to do so. Its
workers made no investigation. During the year before the study
the department had given assistance amounting to about $100 to
20 families receiving mothers’ aid. Four private societies had given
emergency aid to a total o f 22 families.
Because o f the straightened economic conditions in two families,
the court was allowing them to live at the Theodora Home, which
was operated by the Volunteers of America and was located on the
extreme outskirts o f the city. This institution provided a home
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ADMINISTRATION- OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
for families and also cared for babies and children while the mothers
worked. A mother and children generally were given two rooms
for their own use. One mothers’ aid family which had been at the
home more than a year had just moved with the help o f the insti- ^
tution to a near-by cottage on the grounds.
*
VISITING
The visitors were able to visit the families under their super
vision about once in six weeks, and the commissioner made occasional
visits to their homes. The mothers came frequently to the office to
consult the visitors or the commissioner. The relation o f the judge,
the commissioner, and the visitors to the families was exceedingly
friendly. Occasionally the judge visited the homes in which the
father was incapacitated.
HEALTH
PHYSICAL HEALTH
General procedure.
The court had formerly required all mothers, before aid was given,
to have a physical examination made (including a blood test) at the
City Hospital dispensary. This practice had been discontinued, how
ever, as satisfactory results had not been obtained. At the time
o f the study no physical examinations were required of the mothers
or the children at any time, unless there was obvious need or unless
there was a question of the mother’s ability to work. In Seattle
the mothers and children were sent for examination, diagnosis, and
treatment—if this could be supplied through the clinic—to the
City Hospital dispensary, which was operated by the board of
health. A steering blank was used, which was returned with the
report o f the examination in writing. A copy of such a report is
as follows:
CITY HOSPITAL DISPENSARY
Diagnosis for mothers’ pension department, juvenile court:
D a t e : __________
N a m e :__________
A d d r e s s :______________
Prev. d iag.: ------------------Made b y ___________ , M. D.
D ep t.: ------------------------R a ce: ___________
S. M. W .
Sep.
Age, ___________
H t . , ___ ;________ W t., ___________
Final diag., ____________
Confirmed b y ___________ M. D.
H istory: ------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------Transferred or referred, ___________
Taken b y ____________
D a t e : ______________
There was no hospital nor medical social service in the city.
A ll follow-up work except that resulting from the school health
work was done by the mothers’ aid visitors. Whenever it seemed
necessary the visitors conferred directly with the examining physi- f
cians. In addition to the services of the City Hospital dispensary
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the court secured much free service from private physicians and
specialists.
Hospital care was provided by the City Hospital, the King County
Hospital, and the Children’s Orthopedic Hospital, and occasionally
a free bed in a private hospital was available.
In Seattle the Junior Red Cross clinic served all children in the
public schools whose parents could not afford necessary medical care,
and it did both diagnostic and corrective work. Though intended
primarily for the use of the schools, it was at the disposal of the
social agencies, which used it freely.
Physicians employed by the city or county could be called upon by
mothers’ aid families in cases of acute illness anywhere in the county,
but they were rarely used except in emergency.
The families outside Seattle were under the care of private physi
cians and the county health department. When the families were
under the care of private physicians the mothers’ aid visitors con
sulted with them in regard to the family, and if there were no work
ing children the physicians frequently gave their services. Often the
investigator or the visitor was able to have a doctor’s bill canceled.
However, if older children could do so, they were encouraged to pay
a small fee. The services of a specialist in the city were some
times secured for a country family when the case required expert care.
It was seldom necessary to threaten withdraw al of the grant in order
to persuade mothers to have necessary treatment given. Instruction
in food values and health habits was often given incidentally in
the course of the visit by the workers. No attempt was made to
^ give a continuous or complete record o f the health history o f each
^ individual in the family.
Follow-up o f special types o f problems.
Tuberculosis.—It was the policy of the court to have all contact
cases examined; adequate sanatorium care was insisted upon for
active cases. The city department of health maintained a tuber
culosis clinic, and the Firland Sanatorium took care of both city
and county patients. Children with incipient tuberculosis or with
a family history of tuberculosis were placed under the care of the
tuberculosis clinic and the nurses kept in touch with them. Two
tuberculosis nurses employed by the county department o f health
had charge of the home visiting in the county outside Seattle.
Venereal disease.— The city department of health conducted vene
real clinics. Wassermann tests were made for all mothers and chil
dren if there was reason to suspect venereal disease.
Orthopedic and cardiac affections.— The Children’s Orthopedic
Hospital treated orthopedic, cardiac, and other pediatric cases. It
conducted orthopedic clinics and often provided braces, shoes, and
special apparatus. Braces were purchased through the previously
mentioned spirit fund. The visitors arranged for treatment for all
children that needed it.
E ye, ear, nose, and throat affections.— Children’s eye, ear, nose, and
throat work was done at the Red Cross clinics and the Children’s
A Orthopedic Hospital and free of charge by specialists. Adults’ cases
w were treated at the City Hospital clinics.
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Medical welfare work fo r infants and preschool children.—The
child-welfare division of the city department of health conducted
eight district child-health centers. Two of these were at the central
office of the department. A nurse was assigned to each center and
did the follow-up work in the district. Mothers were encouraged
to bring their children under 6 years of age at least once a month,
and the nurse visited at least once the home of every child who had
visited a center. It was estimated that a third of the mothers receiv
ing aid lived near enough to a center to walk to it and that the
majority of them would not need to change cars. They were en
couraged to attend the centers, but no special stress was laid upon
their doing so, as it was necessary for the majority of them to con
tribute to the family income by working for wages outside or within
their own homes. There were no child-health centers in the county
outside Seattle.
The Visiting Nurse Association conducted three prenatal clinics
under the sponsorship of the Red Cross.
School medical inspection.-^-The school children in Seattle were
inspected once a year by the school nurses. This inspection included
height and weight measurements and a dental survey. There were
12 nurses, and each nurse supervised 4,000 children, visiting the
schools in her district at least once a week. The nurses took children
to the Red Cross clinic for the correction of physical defects. In the
schools outside Seattle there were no school nurses, but examina
tions o f some children were made by physicians.
The school physical inspection reports were not followed up
regularly by the mothers’ aid visitors. School reports were sent to
the parents about twice a year, and at the same time a report of the
child’s school record was sent to the court on a special blank fur
nished by the mothers’ pension department. This report blank did
not request a health report, but if there were special health needs
the teacher often mentioned them. The visitor examined the school
report or consulted the teacher in regard to a child’s health if there
appeared to be special need. Each visitor made a practice of calling
on the principals of the schools in the country districts where children
from mothers’ aid families were enrolled whenever she was in the
neighborhood, and she discussed with them any school problems, in
cluding the child’s health.
Malnutrition.—No nutrition classes were conducted by the school
department, but the antituberculosis league maintained seven centers
for undernourished children in Seattle and five in the county outside
Seattle. These centers were conducted for the children whom the
school nurses had examined and found to be 10 per cent underweight.
A ll the children were given a thorough examination by a pediatrician
and were weighed and measured each week. The mothers were
encouraged to attend the centers, but as few of them could arrange
to do so the dietitian and her assistants gave individual and group
instruction and demonstrations in the homes of the mothers. Thè
school department of Seattle operated 50 milk stations in the public
schools, and the children were encouraged to buy. milk regularly.
It was furnished free if they were not able to pay for it. In the
country the league encouraged the school-teachei's to conduct nutri-
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tion classes under its supervision. The league also furnished speakers
to give health talks illustrated with slides.
In the summer of 1922, 14 children receiving mothers’ aid attended
a summer camp for undernourished children; a smaller number
W} were at the camp in 1923. The court referred few children to the
nutrition classes, nor was there close and regular follow-up of the
children by the mothers’ aid visitors. I f extra diet was needed the
Fruit and Flower Mission was often asked to provide it.
M ENTAL HEALTH
Available facilities.
The child-study laboratory or clinic of the public schools gave
psychological examinations to school children referred to it by
principals, teachers, and other school officials, the juvenile court,
and other social agencies. Its staff included a psychologist and
three assistants and had the part-time services of two nurses and a
physician. A ll first-grade pupils were given a group test, all the
pupils were given another test at least once during their years in
school, and individual tests were given for the purpose of assigning
children to special classes, making other classroom adjustment, recom
mending double promotion, and determining whether a child might
be allowed to go to work because he could make no further progress
in school. Children suspected to be defective or psychopathic were
referred to this clinic, also children having behavior problems.
Problem children were put into an observation class at the clinic one
to seven days before permanent adjustment was made. Reports on
home conditions were obtained by a nurse, and physical examina^ tions were given if this seemed necessary. All pupils in the special
^ classes for defectives were retested each year.
The psychological clinic of the Bailey and Babette Gatzert Founda
tion, conducted under the auspices of the University of Washington,
gave examinations to a number of ohildren, especially those referred
to it because of physical or nervous disorders. Some psychiatric
work was done in connection with the mental and physical measure
ments. No social worker was employed, the case work being done
largely by students. The court used this clinic for the examination
of patients who were likely to require long-continued observation.
There was no psychopathic hospital or ward in the county for the
observation of psychopathic cases. The court frequently consulted
private psychiatrists, who gave their services.
Follow-up o f special types o f problems.
The mothers’ aid workers did not ask for psychological examina
tions of children who were retarded, as the child-study laboratory
o f the public schools handled this problem. The children in a family
having a history of mental defect or disease were not examined as
a matter of routine unless there were symptoms o f mental trouble.
I f there was obvious or suspected mental defect a psychological
examination was arranged for at the child-study laboratory or at the
psychological clinic of the Bailey and Babette Gatzert Foundation,
and application was made if necessary for admission to the State
^ custodial school at Medical Lake. Any patient presenting a psycho^ pathic difficulty was taken to a private psychiatrist. The staff visitors
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ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
attempted to solve any behavior problem through conferring with
the child and getting a clear understanding o f the underlying factors
o f the misbehavior. Sometimes the child was brought to court and
a conference arranged with the judge; and if the occasion seemed
serious enough to warrant it he was sent to the parental school main
tained by the board of education. If, in the judgment of the worker
or the commissioner, a psychiatric examination was desirable the
child was taken to a psychiatrist. A ll follow-up work was done by the
mothers’ aid workers.
HOUSING
In general the families receiving mothers’ aid occupied comfortable
bungalow cottages in good neighborhoods with an abundance of
sunshine and air and ample play and garden space. The judge had
ruled that families must live a reasonable distance away from the
down-town district, beyond the railroad, cheap rooming house,
factory, and water-front section. A family was told to move if the
neighborhood was morally undesirable or if the house was in bad
repair or insanitary; sometimes also if a mother had had neighbor
hood difficulties, if it was thought best for the mother to live among
people o f her own nationality, or if a change o f schools was desirable
for the children.
The court saw to it that flower and garden seeds were available.
A number o f families lived in attractive little bungalows among
the young firs and spruces in the uncleared or partly cleared woods
across Lake Washington where the natural landscape was of great
beauty. A mother and three children generally occupied not less
than four rooms. There was always a living room, which was
Sometimes used also as a sleeping room with a folding bed or couch,
but this was not often necessary. There were always separate sleep
ing rooms for adolescent boys and girls. Nearly all houses had
electricity and running water; in the city all houses were required
to have sanitary toilets. Few households used gas; wood or coal
was used for cooking; and there was no need of ice.
Rents were seldom more than $20 a month. A few mothers paid
from $25 to $50, but these sublet or rented rooms. H alf the women
owned or partly owned their own homes. Much resourcefulness and
thought had been expended in helping mothers to build or buy
cottages, real homes to live in. For example, the mothers’ aid worker
had succeeded in having a carpenters’ union send its members to
finish out of working hours a partly built house for one family.
The worker, too, had been able to have the lumber donated, and
herself had cooked 20 dinners for the men while at work. For
a family of eight, who had been moved by the Theodora Home to
a large seven-room house on the grounds o f this home in the open
country, the worker had solicited wall paper for five room,s, a gallon
o f ivory enamel, a gallon o f white paint, and 20 pounds o f calci
mine. The mother and children did the renovating and the Volun
teers of America the much-needed repair work.
Mrs. O. came to Washington from England by way of Canada.
On the
death of her husband, who had been insane, she was left with four children
to provide for. She had $425, which she said she would like to put into a
home. The judge persuaded a woman who owned some property on the out
skirts of the city to donate 50 square feet of ground on which Mrs. O. could
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KING COUNTY, W A SH .
build a five-room cottage; a lumber company furnished lumber and a hard
ware store gave locks, screws; and all necessary hardware. The paper and
paint also were donated. The building was erected by neighbors at a minimum
cost. Two years later the judge prevailed upon a liberal-minded friend to
install a bathroom.
The house was colorful with plants and flowers and was well kept. In
the summer Mrs. O. had cultivated a garden for which she had won a neigh
borhood prize. She was thrifty and she always had something for a neighbor
needier than herself; she mentioned mending and washing clothing that her
children had outgrown for a family a few doors down the street. Her only
extravagance had been the enlarging to photograph size of an old daguerreotype
of her husband to keep on the parlor table so that the children might not
forget “ that their father was as good as he looked.”
EDUCATION
COOPERATION W ITH THE SCHOOLS AND FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION
Contacts with the schools.
The most important contact with the schools was by means of
personal visits, particularly in the country where the workers con
sulted the principals and teachers on their regular bimonthly rounds.
The school reports sent to the parents were not consulted, but special
reports on a form provided by the court were mailed by the teachers
to the mothers’ pension department once or twice a year. A copy of
such a report is as follow s:
SCHOOL RECORD
D a te : _________________ ‘_____
To the M others’ P ension D epartment ,
J u v e n ile
C o u r t,
200
B road w ay,
B e a ttie,
W ash .
Name of ch ild: ________________________
Address:------ ----------------------------------------Name of school: _______________________
G rade: ---------- A g e : ------The records of this school for the period o f ------------ .----------------------- show the
follow ing:
Attendance: No. of times t a r d y ,---------- No. of days absent, ----------Scholarship: E x cellen t,_______; g o o d ,----------- ; p o o r ,-----------Deficient b ra n c h e s:_________________________________________________________
C o n d u ct,_______ Parental c a r e ,----------(Signed)
P rin c ip a l.
Provision for handicapped children.
The 'physically handicapped child.—In the Seattle schools there
were three classes for blind children or those having defective vision,
six classes for deaf and semideaf children, and three classes for
children having speech defects. Three teachers (one giving half
time only) gave instruction to children individually in the Ortho
pedic Hospital.
The mentally handicapped child.—There were four special classes
o f primary grade and four special-class centers or school^ (each
occupying an entire building) for children o f various ages with
intelligence quotients o f 50 to 70. Eight children in families receiv
ing mothers’ aid were attending special classes.
Provision for children wishing further education.
Much interest was shown by the court in the ambitious boy or girl
who was eager to continue education. No scholarships were available
except those provided by Jewish organizations for Jewish children.
94535°— 28------ 10
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ADMINISTRATION" (IF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Two Jewish children were receiving scholarships of $20 a month
each to enable them to go through high school. Aside from the aca
demic high-school work 27 children were receiving special training.
Eight were attending college or normal school, 10 were in business
school, and 4 were in an electrical school; 4 were learning banking,
and 1 was studying pharmacy.
The following case histories illustrate the educational advantages
that the court aided promising boys and girls to obtain:
Laura had had one year in the high-school art course; as she was com
pelled by family need to go to work, the mothers’ aid visitor secured a posi
tion for her at the School of Fine Arts and introduced her to a commercial
artist. She did tinting very well and the artist gave her some of his overflow
work, such as coloring cards and pictures, at which she was very successful.
She got a position later in the art section of a department store and attended
art school at night. Her work was frequently exhibited in art shops and
music stores. Finally the visitor learned that Laura had a well-to-do uncle
in another State, and he was written to and told of Laura’s ambition to go
to art school. He became interested in his bright young niece and promised
to send her in the fall for a two or three year course at an art school.
Agnes B., the oldest daughter in a family receiving aid, had worked her
way through normal school. During the entire last year of her course her
mother sent her but $3.45. A t the time of the study she had been teaching
four years and was earning $135 a month. She had put her younger sister
through business college and provided so wel,l for the home that her mother
could stop work.
She was attending the university summer school and
expected to get her degree.
Irene, the oldest daughter of a crippled mother, graduated from a city
high school and was sa,lutatorian in a class of 350 students. She paid her
expenses by working afternoons and Saturdays during the entire four years.
Her ambition was to be a lawyer.
She had learned stenography and had
worked for a year, but she was planning to enter a law school and work
half time in the office of a prominent lawyer.
SCHOOLING AN D W ORK OF CHILDREN 14 A N D 15 YEAR S OLD
The child-labor, compulsory-education, and mothers’ aid laws.
A ll children not high-school graduates were required to attend
school up to the age of 18 years, with the following exceptions: A
child 14 years old who had completed the eighth grade or who, in
the judgment of the superintendent of schools, could not profitably
pursue regular school work might obtain an employment certificate,
provided the need of the family or the welfare of the child required
it; and a child 15 years old might obtain an employment certificate,
regardless of school-grade attainment, i f the need of the family or
the welfare of the child required it. A ll children under 18 years
of age were required to obtain employment certificates and to attend
part-time school four hours a week unless excused according to the
provisions of the law, which permitted exemption to high-school
graduates, to children who could not profitably pursue further study,
and to those for whom attendance would be injurious to health.3 The
mothers’ aid law permitted allowances to be granted to children under
15 years o f age.
3 W ash., act of Mar. 18, 1919, ch. 151, Laws of 1919, p. 420.
Stat. 1922, secs. 4 9 0 7 -4 9 0 9 , 4912, pp. 7 6 4 -7 6 5 .)
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(Remington’s Comp.
139
KING COUNTY, W A SH .
Children in school and at work.
Although aid could not be granted to children who had passed their
fifteenth birthday, the court allowed aid for the younger children in
a family in order that an ambitious boy or girl might continue in
school, if this enabled the family to get along without the wages the
children 15 years old could have earned. The mothers’ pension de
partment also found for a considerable number of boys and girls
homes in which they earned their board and were permitted to go to
school. This practice, o f course, required careful supervision to
guard against any exploitation o f the children and to insure good
moral surroundings. As the high school was on the two-session basis,
it was possible for pupils to go to school half time and work half
time.
There were 154 children (78 boys and 76 girls) 14 and 15 years
old in the families receiving mothers’ aid; 108 were 14 years old and
46 were 15 years old. O f these 154 children 144 (69 boys and 75
girls) were attending school, 8 were working, and 2 were neither
in school nor at work.
Children in school—Among the 144 children 14 and 15 years old
attending school were 74 who were eligible for employment certifi
cates so far as educational requirements were concerned.4
The number of boys and girls 14 and 15 years o f age attending
school and the grade or type of school attended are shown in the
following table:
N u m b e r o f c h ild r e n
o f
th e
H
stu d y ,
and
15
by gra d e
yea rs
and
o ld
ty p e
w ho
o f
w ere
a tten d in g
s c h o o l; K in g
sch ool a t
C o u n ty ,
th e
tim e
W ash .
Children 14 and IS years old attending school
Boys
Grade or type of school
. Girls
Total
Total 14 years 15 years Total 14 years 15 years
Total---------------------------------------------------Elementary school:
Eighth grade------------------------------------------High school:
First year.........................................................
Second year.....................................................
Special class---------------------------------------------------
144
69
55
14
75
52
23
1
15
59
8
30
7
26
1
4
1
7
29
1
7
24
5
43
16
2
8
19
5
1
6
16
2
3
3
1
2
24
11
1
2
17
2
4
1
7
9
1
1
Twenty-four o f these 144 children were working outside school
hours, earning from $2 or $3 for work on Saturday only to $5 to $12
a week for work on both week days and Saturdays. Five were deliv
ering newspapers, 4 were delivery or messenger boys, 3 were clerking
in stores 3 were doing housework, and 2 were doing janitor work.
One child was engaged in each of the following: Newspaper work,
electrical work on school plant, milking cows and serving on milk
4 This number was 95 per cent o f all the children in mothers’ aid families who had
fulfilled the school-grade requirement for going to work (7 8 ).
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ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
route, ushering in theater, and doing odd jobs. The kind o f work
was not reported for two children.
Occupations and earnings of working children.—Three of the 8
children 14 and 15 years old who were working were messenger
boys, 1 boy and 1 girl were working in stores, 1 boy was working in
a garage, 1 on a milk route, and 1 in a factory. Six of the eight were
attending vocational school part time, and one was taking a business
course at night school and intended to return to school the following
year.
Three boys were earning $43 a month, 1 was earning $56, 1 was
earning $57, and 2 boys were earning $65. The earnings of one boy
were not reported. The boy who was earning $56 and a boy who was
earning $65 were contributing their entire earnings, and a boy who
was earning $43 was contributing $22 to the family support. No
information was obtained as to the contribution of the remaining
four boys. The one girl who was working contributed to the sup
port of her family, but the amount was not reported.
Children neither in school nor at work.
Two boys 15 years of age were neither attending school nor work
ing at the time of the study. One was ill at home, the other was a
cripple, who helped in garden work at home.
EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE MOTHERS
The mothers who did not speak English were encouraged when
possible to attend an Americanization center, three of which were
conducted by one of the down-town churches. The Woman’s Chris
tian Temperance Union operated a housekeeping center where classes
were conducted in cooking and sewing. The Hebrew Benevolent
Society employed visiting housekeepers who visited in the homes
o f Jewish families receiving mothers’ aid whenever necessary. Four
teen mothers were attending various classes in citizenship, housekeep
ing, and home nursing.
RECREATION
The court made no ruling as to the amount which working chil
dren must turn over to the mother, but it was the expectation o f the
court that “ a good mother would get all the money the children
earned up to the age of 16 years.” She was allowed to make her
own arrangement with the children as to spending money. Lunches
were carried from home. Children over 16 paid their board, amount
ing to at least half of their earnings.
Twenty city playgrounds provided recreation for young children,
and there were community dance halls supervised by matrons ap
pointed by the chief of police. The schools conducted some special
activities with a “ mothers’ night,” “ dads’ night,” “ open house,” and
“ community sings,” but were not generally used as social centers.
The parent-teacher association was very active, and membership
in it was encouraged by the court. Weekly or biweekly meetings
were held in nearly all the schools. Two mothers receiving aid were
presidents of parent-teacher associations, and one mother had organ
ized a group in the school attended by her children.
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KIN G COUNTY, W A SH .
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Children were encouraged to attend the story-telling hour at the
public library, and mothers’ aid visitors were expected to see that
the children had library cards. Attendance at church and Sunday
school and participation in the social activities o f the church were
also encouraged. One o f the down-town churches conducted a
neighborhood center and had a strong juvenile department in con
nection with its Sunday school. This furnished the children all
kinds o f sports and opportunities to join classes in wood carving
and cabinetwork, sewing, and cooking (attendance at church and
Sunday school was required o f children who wished to participate
in the social activities). Two other churches conducted vacation
Bible schools where children were provided with play space. Mem
bership in the Young Men’s Christian Association and the Young
Women’s Christian Association was precluded by the cost. Boys
and girls were encouraged to join the .scout troops if they could
afford it, but few of them had time or money for these forms of
recreation. Factories and stores conducted recreation camps for their
employees and their families, who occupied small cottages and used
a common meeting hall. Thirty mothers and their children were
given vacations in this way by one company that employed the
mothers ap elevator operators or janitresses. The Lions’ Club gave
to 65 girls 14 to 18 years old in families receiving mothers’ aid a
week’s vacation at a summer camp, the wives o f the members acting
as chaperons. A t Christmas time they gave to the same group of
girls a banquet, theater party, and Christmas tree. Children were
not expected to attend motion pictures oftener than once a week.
Families were encouraged to own or buy a cheap phonograph or
piano.
»
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MOTHERS’ ALLOWANCES IN NEW BEDFORD, MASS.1
PROVISIONS OF THE LAW
The Massachusetts mothers’ aid law, applying to all mothers with
dependent children o f specified ages, was passed in 1913 and remained
unchanged except for an amendment in 1922 which raised the age
limit to conform with the compulsory education law .2 The con
ditions o f eligibility were as follows:
1 . A mother must have resided within the State for
not less than three years immediately prior to her appli
cation for aid. There was no citizenship requirement
nor legal-settlement requirement. The amount of State
reimbursement in a given case depended, however, upon
whether the mother aided had a legal settlement; that •
is, a claim for support upon a particular city or town
within the State. I f she had, the city or town granting
the aid sent a bill to the State department of public wel
fare and was reimbursed by the State for one-third the
amount granted. I f she had no settlement, the State
reimbursed the city or town for the total amount. I f
she had a legal settlement in another town, two-thirds
o f the amount of the aid given might be recovered from
that town and one-third from the State.
2. The mother must be “ fit to bring up her children
and the other members of the household and the sur
roundings of the home must be such “ as to make for
good character.”
3 . Aid must be necessary to enable the mother to
“ bring up her children properly.”
4. A id was allowed up to the age o f 14 years “ or
between the ages of 14 and 16 if and during the time
when such children are required * * * to attend
a public day school.”
.
,
5 . No maximum grant per child was specified. The
law provided that “ the aid furnished shall be sufficient
to enable them [the mothers] to bring up their children
properly in their own homes.”
i The population of New Bedford, M ass., in 1920 was 121,217. The native white popu
lation wasP 67,453. the foreign-born population 4 8 ,6 8 9 ; and there were 4,998 negroes.
The population of foreign birth in the order of numerical importance was as foU ow s.
French-Canadian, natives of Atlantic islands (including the Azores), English, and Portu
guese
The child population within the legal age for mothers allowances was 33,448.
fFourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, vol. 3, Population, pp. 446, 467, W ash
ington 1922.)
The chief industries are the manufacture of cotton yarns, cotton and silk
goods tw ist drills and machine tools, fine cut glassware, and lubricating oils.
^ M a s s a c h u s e tts act of June 12, 1913, ch. 763, Acts and Resolves o f 1913, p. 726 (Gen.
I^ w s 1921?ch . 118, sees. 1 -6 , pp. 1 1 7 2 -1 1 7 3 ), as amended by act of May 2 1922, ch 376,
Aets and Resolves of 1922, p. 393.
(This was amended further by the act of Apr. 1 4 ,1 9 2 6 ,
ch 241, Acts and Resolves of 1926, p. 236, dealing with reimbursement of the counties,
cities, and towns by the State.)
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ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
The department of public welfare had established rules and poli
cies as follows:
Aid might be granted to widows; to women whose husbands
were totally incapacitated by reason of chronic illness or insanity;
to women whose husbands were serving a prison sentence of more
than one year; to women who were divorced or legally separated
from their husbands under certain conditions; and to women whose
husbands had deserted, provided they had been gone more than a
year and an application had been made for the issuance o f a warrant
for nonsupport in accordance with the law. The applicant was
not debarred from consideration if the court refused to issue the
warrant. Aid might not be granted to a mother of illegitimate
children except with the approval o f the department o f public
welfare.
Aid might not be granted to a mother who had savings or easily
liquidated assets in excess of $2 00 , or equity in a house in which
the family resided in excess of $500, the assessed value of which did
not exceed $2,500. The total assets of the mother, including equity
in her home and savings, might not exceed $500. No mother who
received aid was permitted to have any men lodgers other than
her father or brother. It was recommended that every member of
the families aided under the law receive a medical examination.
A id was granted by check (except as to fuel, shoes, and medical
care, which were furnished by the local overseers of the poor)
and the women called for their checks once a week at the mothers’
aid office.
STATE SUPERVISION
The State department o f public welfare was required to—
supervise the work done and the measures taken by the overseers of the several
towns in respect to [mothers’ aid] families subject to this chapter; and for this
purpose may make such rules relative to notice as it deems necessary and may
visit and inspect any or all families so aided, and shall have access to any
records and other data kept by the overseers or their representatives relating
to such a id ; and the department shall include in its annual report a statement
of the work done by its own agents and by the overseers of the poor in respect
to such families, any of whose members are without legal settlement in the
commonwealth; and a separate statement of the work done by the overseers
of the poor in respect to such families in which all the members have a legal
settlement in the commonwealth.
In interpreting the function of the department of public welfare
so far as it related to the supervision of mothers’ aid under the
section o f the law quoted in the preceding paragraph the director
o f the division of aid and relief, which was responsible for the
supervision of mothers’ aid, stated: “ It has always been the opinion
o f the department o f public welfare that unless each family was
investigated by our own agents we would not have sufficient knowl
edge to formulate proper policies for the guidance of the over
seers and would not be able to act properly upon claims for reim
bursement.”
The department o f public welfare formulated policies for the
guidance o f the local overseers and established forms for applica
tions, notices, and quarterly statements. It also recommended as
a guide certain budget figures.
The State supervisor and the 10 visitors under her supervision
were appointed under civil-service rules and formed a subdivision
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145
of mothers’ aid in the division of aid and relief o f the department
of public welfare. The State mothers’ aid visitors investigated all
families in whose behalf the local overseers sent notices to the depart
ment o f public welfare requesting State reimbursement. No reim
bursements were made for any part of the administrative expense.
The State agents visited all families receiving mothers’ aid at least
once in six months and reported any conditions needing attention
to the State supervisor who on the basis of these reports made recom
mendations to the overseers. The contacts between the State agents
and the overseers offered many opportunities for helpful sugges
tions.
One o f the State workers spent one day each week in New Bedford.
She was in close touch with the overseer’s office and made many
constructive recommendations, especially in regard to medical care.
The records showed that increases in aid were not infrequently
recommended and that the overseers generally complied but often
did not increase the grant to the total recommended. The visits
which the State mothers’ aid visitor made to families receiving
aid were independent of those made by the local mothers’ aid visitor,
though sometimes they visited together.
ADM INISTRATION OF THE LAW
ADM INISTRATIVE AGENCY AND STAFF
The law gave the administration o f mothers’ aid to the town or
city boards o f public welfare (the department administering out
door relief ) . 3 In New Bedford the board of public welfare consisted
of two men and one woman appointed by the mayor for a period of
three years, one vacancy occurring each year. Their appointments
were confirmed by the city council, and either the mayor or the city
council could remove them at any time. Each member received $500 a
year. This board employed a paid executive secretary, who might
or might not be a member o f the board, and who administered both
mothers’ aid and outdoor relief.
One visitor investigated applications and supervised families re
ceiving mothers’ aid. She worked under the general direction o f
the board, which at its regular weekly meeting discussed mothers’
aid families and determined upon the grants. This worker was
appointed by the board of public welfare under civil-service regula
tions. She had had practical experience in home making and had
established friendly contacts with the mothers and children under
her care.
APPROPRIATION AND VOLUME OF W O RK
The expenditures for mothers’ aid were $68,673.88 in 1922 and
$69,014.99 in 1923. The grants averaged $10 to $15 a week. The
average grant in money during 1922 was $43 per month. The small
est weekly grant was $4, the largest was $2 0 . Fuel (about one-half
ton a month), shoes, medical attendance (at home or in the hospital)
and medicine, and some merchandise were provided in addition. In
March, 1924, 96 families, including 377 children under 16 years of
age, where receiving allowances. The one mothers’ aid worker was
8 Formerly called overseers of the poor.
The change of name was authorized by act of
Feb. 20, 1923, ch. 26, Acts and Resolves of 1923, p. 12.
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
responsible for investigating and supervising all the families receiv
ing allowances, and she also saw the mothers each week when they
called for their checks. She did her own typewriting.
PROCEDURE IN MAKING ALLO W AN CES
The mothers applied in person at the mothers’ aid office and the
visitor filled out at the mother’s dictation an application blank,
which she signed. The following information was called fo r: The
names, addresses, and places and dates of birth o f mother, father,
and children; the place and date of marriage, and name of person
by whom the parents were married; the date of the father’s death,
commitment, or desertion, or o f the decree of divorce or separation;
the school and grade of children in school, and the wages and places
of employment o f working children; the names and addresses of rela
tives and their ability to aid; the length of residence in Massachu
setts and places of residence; facts as to savings, property, insurance,
income, debts, and installments; health; the families’ religious prefer
ence and the church attended; a weekly estimate of the family ex
penses and income.
The investigation by the New Bedford mothers’ aid worker in
cluded a verification of legal data and an especially careful inquiry
as to settlement. A visit was always made at the home and the
amounts of the mother’s and children’s wages were verified. The
mother and the children were examined by one of the physicians
employed by the board of public welfare.
USE OF A STANDARD BUDGET
The State department of public welfare recommended as a guide
certain budget figures which had been prepared very carefully by
the mothers’ aid department in consultation with dietetic experts.
Budget systems already in use elsewhere, the reports o f the Massa
chusetts special commissioner on the necessaries of life, and the recom
mendations o f dietitians and hospital social workers were used in
preparing this budget, which was as follows:
Mother (according to amount of work)
$ 2 .45-$2. 80
Older boys (over 14 years)______________
3. 30
Older girls (over 12 years)___________
2. 75
Children, both sexes, 6 to 12 years-___
2.00
Children, both sexes, under 6 years____
1.5 5
N o t e .— Food for incapacitated father at home.
2.4 5
Food for mother’s adult brother (if a boarder in her
h o m e )_________________________
3 .4 0
Food for adult woman boarder.
2.7 5
Food for elderly parent___!'____
2.20
II. Clothing:
Mother (according to whether she works out or stays at
h o m e )_________________
1. 10- 2.00
Children over 16 years.
2.00
Children 12 to 16 years.
1 .2 5
Children 6 to 12 years..
.8 5
Children under 6 years.
.6 0
N o t e .— Clothing for elderly parent.
1.10
Clothing for incapacitated father.
1.10
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N E W BEDFOKD, MASS.
III. Fuel and light:
Summer months_________ ____________________________________ $ 1 .1 0
Spring m onths________________________________________ — ____
2. 50
Fall months_________________________________________________ _
2. 50
3. 90
W inter months_______________________________________________
N ote .— A verage fo r whole year__________________________________ „
2 .5 0
IY. R e n t: As charged.
Y. Sundries:
Allow for the first 3 members__________________________eachAllow for all other members____________________________ do__
. 40
. 20
N o t e .— Food costs equal 43 per cent of the entire cost if sundries are included
in the total, or 46 per cent if sundries are not included in the total.
The board of public welfare o f New Bedford, however, did not
base its grants upon a budget estimate of household expenses,4 and
the mothers were not required to keep household-expense accounts.
The board kept at its offices a supply of shoes, and it occasionally
furnished such merchandise as sheets, towels, or bedding. Milk was
furnished to families in which the children were delicate. Few
mothers receiving aid did work outside their homes ; about one-half
earned a little through laundry work in their own homes; a few did
day’s work. No children were in day nurseries.
As the mothers’ aid law permitted adequate relief, the private
agencies as a rule did not give supplementary aid, although they
occasionally furnished milk for a delicate child.
VISITING
The mothers’ aid law required that the board or its duly appointed
agent should visit each mother and her dependent children in her
own home at least once in three months and after each visit should
make to the State department o f public welfare a detailed statement
(on a form furnished) as to the condition o f the home and family
and all other data which might assist in determining the wisdom
o f the measures taken and the advisability o f their continuance.
(A t least once a year the reconsideration of each grant was required.)
The visitor went to the homes more frequently than once in three
months if she felt that circumstances required it. As has been
stated, the State visitor also visited each family at least once in
six months.
HEALTH
PHYSICAL HEALTH
Physical examinations and general procedure.
A ll applicants for mothers’ aid and their dependent children
under 16 years of age were given physical examinations before aid
was granted. These examinations were given by one o f the five city
physicians employed by the board of public welfare, and written
reports o f the diagnosis and recommendations were made on blanks
furnished by the board. The board provided medical care and all
* The use of a budget for determining the amount of the grants was begun after the
period of the study.
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ADMINISTRATION" OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
medicines prescribed by the city physicians. These reports were filed
with the record. The following is such a report form :
No. 1.
D a te :_______________________
City of New Bedford
BOARD OF PUBLIC WELFARE
Physician’s Diagnosis
Name of patient: _____________________________________________________________________
A ddress: __________________ ___________________________________ J____________ _____
Diagnosis: _ _____ _________________________________________________________________
Recommendation: __________________________________
Doctor’s signature: _______________________________________ _________________ ________ ”
The examination did not include any recorded individual or family
medical history, nor was the weight indicated. The mothers’ aid
visitor followed up the examinations. She saw the physicians per
sonally or conferred with them by telephone. The necessary treat
ment was generally given by the physician who made the examina
tion. I f an operation requiring hospital care was needed the board o f
public welfare paid for surgical and hospital care at the rate of
$15 per'week.
The preliminary examinations were not followed by further
examinations except in individual cases where special need was
indicated. Continuous health records o f each individual in the
families assisted were not kept systematically. Physicians employed
by the city generally were used except for hospital care and special
ized treatment; the mothers’ aid visitor endeavored to follow up
their medical advice and treatment. I f a specialist’s advice was
necessary the patient might be referred to a clinic at St. Luke’s
Hospital. Service at the clinics was free, but none was extensively
used for mothers’ aid families except the orthopedic clinics and the
tuberculosis clinics of the department of health. The follow-up
work had generally been attended to by the hospital social service
department or by the nurses attached to the clinic.
Mothers were given advice in regard to food and health habits
by the mothers’ aid visitors, the nurses, the doctor, or the socialservice departments of hospitals.
As free medical care was provided for the families receiving aid,
the services o f private physicians were not requested. Mothers who
consulted these did so at their own expense and entirely on their own
initiative.
Follow-up o f special types o f problems.
Tuberculosis.—I f a mother or children had been exposed to tuber
culosis or if there was any reason to suspect that they had tubercu
losis it was the policy to advise them to attend the tuberculosis clinic
o f the board of health. It was the expectation of the worker that
the clinic would attend to the follow-up work, which, however, had
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*
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149
not been very close; nor had regular examinations and treatment
been required. This seemed especially important in view of the fact
that from a study of 20 records selected at random it was found that
three fathers had died of tuberculosis and that in three other families
the mothers had been in a hospital for tuberculosis. Both the super
visor of public-health nurses, who directed the three tuberculosis
nurses attached to the clinic, and the mothers’ aid worker were
planning for a close follow-up of all tuberculosis cases. Care for
active tuberculosis cases at a sanatorium at Sassaquin, about 10 miles
from New Bedford, was generally insisted upon. This hospital,
operated by the antituberculosis association, was used by the city
for tuberculosis patients and had ample facilities for both adults
and children.
Venereal disease.—It was the policy o f the department to have
Wassermann tests taken if there was reason to suspect venereal
disease. Patients were examined and treated at the venereal clinic
operated by the board of health, which required a patient to attend
regularly if the disease was found to be active. A nurse from the
clinic was in close touch with all patients and visited in the homes.
Orthopedic and cardiac affections.— Children who were crippled
or who had cardiac trouble were referred to St. Luke’s Hospital,
which operated both orthopedic and cardiac clinics. A new building
was being erected for a children’s orthopedic hospital which would
have better facilities. The Massachusetts Hospital School at Canton,
Mass., provided medical and surgical care and educational and voca
tional training for deformed and crippled children. Special shoes
and all necessary appliances were paid for by the board of public
welfare.
E ye, ear, nose, and throat affections.—A ll cases of eye, ear, nose,
and throat affections were treated by the specialist employed by
the board o f public welfare or at one o f the hospital clinics.
Medical welfare work fo r infants and preschool children.—The
board of health maintained five child-health centers under the super
vision of eight nurses. A ll birth registrations were followed up.
Mothers with babies under 1 year o f age were encouraged to bring
them to a center every week; nurses supervised all the babies under
1 year o f age and any undernourished babies up to 2 years of a^e.
No work was being done for children between 2 and 6 years of age.
Most o f the centers were within walking distance from the homes, and
none of the mothers who were farther away needed to change cars.
The board encouraged the mothers to attend the child-health
centers, but it was not known how many attended regularly. Often
they went directly from the mothers’ aid office in the city hall,
where they called for their weekly checks, to the center at the
central office of the board o f health, which was in the same building.
School medical inspection.— Physicians employed by the board of
health examined all children in the public and in the parochial
schools at the beginning of the first term of school and again at
the beginning of the second term. The mothers’ aid visitor had not
made a practice o f examining the children’s school medical reports,
but she planned to do so in the future. There were seven school
nurses, one o f whom was attached to the mental clinic; each school
was inspected every day. The nurses gave health instruction at
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHEBS* AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
least three times a year. Through the continuation schools the
nurses were in touch with all working children 14 and 15 years of
age.
D entistry.— Three dental clinics were maintained; seven dental
hygienists made inspections and cleaned the children’s teeth twice , jL
yearly. They also gave instruction on the care o f the teeth.
™
Malnutrition.—Height and weight records were taken for all
school children twice a year by the teachers. I f children were
underweight, they were weighed every month. The schools in poor
neighborhoods furnished milk at 3% cents a half pint, and under
nourished children were encouraged to buy mid-morning lunches
o f bread, butter, and milk. It was reported by the health department
that there was not a large number of underweight children. There
were no nutrition classes, but the school nurses gave individual
instruction whenever necessary. There was no arrangement whereby
the teachers or the nurses notified the mothers’ aid visitor in regard
to underweight children. The principals o f the school gave reports
to the overseers when requested, but the overseers hesitated to make
known the fact that the children were being aided.
M ENTAL HEALTH
Available facilities.
Two psychiatrists and a psychometrist from the Taunton State
Hospital for the Insane, assisted by two social workers from the
same institution, conducted a mental clinic one afternoon a week
in the clinic rooms o f the New Bedford Board of Health. Psy
chopathic and behavior problems were given careful attention,
and patients returned to the clinic regularly for advice and treatment. ^
A traveling clinic conducted by a physician and a psychologist from W
the State training school for the feeble-minded at Waverley, Mass.,
visited New Bedford for periods of 1 , 2 , or 3 weeks about three
times a year. They examined retarded children whom the teachers
in the public schools recommended for examination. The director
o f special classes in the schools obtained full social histories o f these
children. The visiting physician first made a physical examination
of the children selected, then the psychologist gave a psychological
examination and determined their mental ages. Only the children
for whom this clinic recommended enrollment in a special class
(usually those whose intelligence quotient was 40 to 70) were put
in the special classes of the schools. No child who could return
to the grades was placed in such a class.
The director of special classes in the public schools tested any
15-year-old children who had not completed the sixth grade and
who made application for employment certificates. She also gave
individual mental tests occasionally to children markedly deficient.
Follow-up o f special types o f problems.
Children whose families had a history of mental defect or disease
were not given special examinations unless mental trouble was
apparent. Those obviously defective were referred to the traveling
clinic previously mentioned, and if institutional care was recom
mended an application was made for their admission to the Wrentham
State School or the State school for the feeble-minded at Waverley. W
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BEDFORD, M A S S .
151
One child with a psychopathic difficulty had been referred to the
weekly clinic conducted by the psychiatrists and psychometrist from
the State hospital for the insane, but at the time o f the study no
child in a mothers’ aid family had had behavior difficulty sufficiently
serious to make reference to this clinic seem advisable.
HOUSING
The families receiving mothers’ aid that were visited in New
Bedford lived in clean' homes, comfortably furnished, and in decent
neighborhoods; the city was well lmown for its clean and orderly
streets. The majority of families receiving aid lived in four-room
or five-room flats in tenement houses containing two, three, four,
or more tenements. The rooms were all outside, well aired and
lighted and good sized. A ll the flats were equipped with running
water and gas and about half o f them had electricity. Most families
had ice boxes, and many had bathrooms, though the latter were not
considered a necessity. The law required that all houses should
have inside toilets,5 though in the large tenement houses one toilet
was shared by two families. A mother with three children generally
had a flat consisting o f kitchen, two bedrooms, and parlor. The par
lor was seldom used for sleeping purposes.
The tenement usually had a small rear yard space shared by all the
families in the house; but this seldom was sufficient for individual
family garden plots. Many families had small flower beds, and some
families— especially the Portuguese—raised vegetables even if there
were only a few feet o f available space.
Families were required to move if they were living in too congested
Jfe quarters, if the neighborhood was undesirable from a moral stand
point, or if the tenements were in poor repair or below standard.
Only five or six families lived in cottage houses and only three fam
ilies owned or partly owned their own homes. The average rent
was $5 a week and the maximum rent allowed was $7 a week.
EDUCATION
COOPERATION W IT H THE SCHOOLS AND FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION
Contacts with the schools.
The mothers’ aid worker visited the schools only when special prob
lems or questions required personal contact. She frequently examined
the reports that the children brought to their parents, but no regular
supervision of the school progress had been undertaken. The depart
ment was planning, however, to supply to the schools blank report
forms to be filled out and returned at regular intervals.
Provision for handicapped children.
The 'physically handicapped child.—The public schools supplied
a teacher for the crippled children in St. Luke’s Hospital, but no
arrangement had been made for the transportation o f crippled chil
dren to and from school. There were two sight-conservation classes,
one for the primary grades and one for the intermediate grades, and
1
* M ass.,
Geo. Laws 1921, ch. 144, sec. 32, p. 1 4 8 7 ; sec, 35, p. 1488.
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
two open-air classes. Children who had serious physical handicaps
were encouraged to learn trades at the vocational school. The school
nurses referred underweight and undernourished children to the
tuberculosis clinic.
The mentally handicapped child.—There were eight special classes.6
There were also opportunity classes to which teachers recommended ™
children, and “ helping teachers” gave special assistance.
Provision for children wishing further education.
No scholarships seemed to be available. Children in mothers’ aid
families were expected to go to work as soon as they could get em
ployment certificates, regardless of ability or desire for further edu
cation. However, there were an excellent night vocational school
and numerous classes in vocational subjects at the community centers,
the city mission, and the church centers.
SCHOOLING AN D W O RK OF CHILDREN 14 AND 15 YEAR S OLD
The compulsory-education, child-labor, and mothers’ aid laws.
The compulsory education law required that children between 7
and 14 years o f age and children between 14 and 16 without employ
ment certificates or special permits authorizing them to work at
home should attend school or receive instruction equivalent, to that
provided in the public schools. Exemptions were made as to school
attendance o f children “ who^e physical or mental condition was
such as to make attendance inexpedient or impracticable.” 7 Children
over 14 and under 16 years of age were eligible for employment
certificates if they had completed the sixth grade and were physically
fit, provided they had attended school 130 days after becoming 13 .
years o f age.8 Working children o f these ages were required to W
attend continuation school four hours a week.9 The mothers’ aid
law permitted allowances to be granted to children up to the age o f
14 years, or between 14 and 16 during the time they were required
to attend public day school.10
Children in school and at work.
The clear intent o f the law wa,s that children in families receiving
aid should go to work as soon as they were eligible for employment
certificates, and the policy o f the State department of public welfare
and o f the board o f public welfare in New Bedford was in accordance
with this.
There were 26 children (15 boys and 11 girls) 14 and 15 years
o f age in the families receiving aid; 16 of them were 14 years old
and 10 were 15 years old. O f these 26 children 14 Were attending
school, 10 were working, and 2 were neither attending school nor
working.
®The establishment of special classes was required in all towns where 10 or more
children were retarded three years or more (Mass., Gen. Laws 1921, ch. 71, sec. 46, as
amended by act of Mar. 31, 1922, ch. 231, A cts and Resolves of 1922, p. 2 5 3 ).
M ass., Gen. Laws 1921, ch. 76, sec. 1, p. 731, as amended by act of May 27, 1927,
ch. 463, Acts„and Resolves of 1921, p. 552. Children might also be excused for “ necessary absence
(not exceeding seven days in six m onths).
t,
i*1, 149, sec. 87, p. 1 5 7 0 ; sec. 88, p. 1572, as amended by act of Feb. 19, 1925,
ch. 47, A cts and Resolves of 1925, p. 26. Provision was made permitting the sixth-grade
requirement to be waived under specified conditions.
• Ibid., ch. 71, sec. 22, p. 706.
10 It frequently happened, especially in the textile towns, that during an industrial
depression children eligible for employment certificates could not find work. These chil
dren were then obliged to attend day school, and the department of public welfare had
ruled that aid might continue in such cases.
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NEW BEDFORD, MASS.
153
Children in school.—Among the 14 children 14 and 15 years old
attending school were 8 boys and 6 girls; 8 o f them had completed
the sixth grade and thus were eligible for employment certificates
so far as educational requirements were concerned.11 Four o f these
14 children were in the fifth grade, 2 were in the sixth, 2 were in
the seventh, 5 were in the eighth, and 1 was in the high school
(year not reported).
Occupations end earnings o f the working children.—Among the
10 children 14 and 15 years old who were working were six 15-yearold boys employed in the textile mills and two 14-year-old girls
working in these mills as learners and not receiving any pay. One
girl 15 years old and one boy 14 years old were clerks in stores.
Three of these 10 children had left school in the sixth grade, 2 in
the seventh, 3 in the eighth, and 2 in the first year of high school.
The monthly earnings o f the 8 children being paid for their work
were as follow s: 1 boy was earning $22, 2 were earning $39, 1 was
earning $43, 1 was earning $48, 1 was earning $49, and 1 was
earning $52. One girl was earning $35. A ll these children con
tributed their entire earnings to the support o f the family.
Children neither in school nor at work.
Two girls, one 14 years old, the other 15 years old, were neither
attending school nor working. Both were reported to be mentally
defective.
E D U C A T IO N A L A C T IV IT IE S FO R TH E M O TH ERS
Mothers o f foreign birth were encouraged to learn English and
to get citizenship papers. Many classes were available, and three
mothers receiving aid had attended Americanization classes. About
12 of the mothers were enrolled in sewing, cooking, millinery and
basketry classes in the evening.
RECREATION
Children up to 18 years of age turned over their entire wages
to their mothers, who bought their clothing and allowed them $1 50
to $2 a month for spending money.
The recreational facilities provided by the public and private
agencies were excellent and varied. The library was well equipped
to serve young and old, and there were children’s story hours. The
seven community centers in the public schools were under the
direction of a full-time supervisor attached to the board o f educa
tion. The activities were patterned somewhat on the Detroit model;
9
? &H(1 women s clubs formed the nuclei for the various
athletic, educational, and social activities. In two centers forums
were conducted. Scout troops were organized as part o f the boys’
and girls work. It was estimated by the director that every home
was within walking distance of a community center. In addition
to the community centers in the public schools there were two centers
conducted by churches; and the city mission, a settlement house, had
health, educational, recreational, and social activities. .An extensive
of sports, handicraft, and dramatic activities was promoted
.u o tl^ e r s ^ id clfildi'en.8 lf^ a n d 1 l ^ y e a / s ^ o ^ a g e f 01" em p l° y meQt ce rtifica te s
94535°— 28------ 11
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th e
20
154
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
during the summer on the playgrounds under the direction of the
department o f parks.
The tie between the families and their churches seemed close.
Several churches had established a variety o f neighborhood activities,
which met many o f the social and recreational needs o f their people.
Scout troops also were organized in the churches, both Protestant
and Catholic. It was not known how many mothers’ aid children
were members.
The Young Men’s Christian Association and the Young Women’s
Christian Association offered opportunities for amusement and social
life, and the International Institute o f the Young Women’s Christian
Association organized clubs and classes among foreign-born women
and girls. The Boy Scouts had a summer vacation camp of their
own, and the Rotary and Kiwanis Clubs financed boys* vacation
camps. The Country Week Association provided a two weeks’ vaca
tion on farms in the summer to sick or undernourished mothers and
children. However, few members of families receiving mothers’ aid
were offered these opportunities. Occasionally the theaters gave
tickets, especially at Christmas time, and fraternal organizations ar
ranged summer picnics and outings to which families receiving
mothers’ aid were invited.
Every family had abundant sources of wholesome recreation almost
at its very threshold, and doubtless many boys and girls, and possibly
mothers, were taking advantage of them. The mothers’ aid depart
ment had not assumed any responsibility in directing recreation.
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MOTHERS’ ALLOWANCES IN SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF.1
PROVISIONS OF TH E L A W
1^13 the California Legislature defined, the general provisions
of its constitution (ratified in 1879) relating to half orphans so as
to embody them into what became known as the half-orphan aid law
and these provisions were further amended in 1917, 1919, 1921, and
1923.2 I f the child for whom application was made for aid had not
been born in the State, residence in the State for two years preceding
the application was required. A mother entitled to aid for her child
or children could receive it anywhere in the State, regardless of her
county residence. The amount of the grant was not to exceed $120
per child per year. It was provided also that in addition to the
amount paid by the State the county, city and county, city, or town
might pay an amount equal to the sum paid by the State. (As the
law did not require that the county match every State expenditure
for aid, it frequently happened that State aid was all that was
given to a family; if the family need was met sufficiently by the
State s maximum allowance the administrative agency would draw
the entire allowance from State funds and use no county funds.)
Abandoned children and the children o f permanently incapacitated
or tuberculous fathers were eligible for aid, as well as orphans and
half orphans. Allowances could be given to children under 16 years
of age. The local administration, though not specifically mentioned,
was obviously the responsibility of the county, city and county citv
or town maintaining the children. Applicants denied grants‘by the
local authorities might appeal to the State board o f control
STATE SUPERVISION
The State board o f control had defined a half orphan as a child
whose parent wa^ dead, had been committed to a State hospital
for the insane or to a State or Federal prison, or had deserted for
a period o f seven years (affidavit to this effect by five disinterested
persons being required). The State exercised supervision through
the State department o f finance.3 This department had a bureau
of *San I S S S )
fS B
l
?
French, and Canadian
The child population within
ances was 103,296.
(Fourteenth Census of the United
legal a a e T o r
S tates iq V
L
motheks’
a !’
5 1 . 1 allow-
ch 890, Stat. 1921, p. 1 6 8 7 ; act of W y 2, 1923 c h 7 7 S t a t 1923 n
l ? 21'
ing’s Political Code, 123, secs. 2 2 8 3 -2 2 8 9 , pp. 6 7 4 -6 7 8 .) ’ &tat' 1923, P' 14 8 '
<-See Deer'
A State department of finance, created bv the Ipsl^lpfnro nf 1 qoi
, ,
.
duties, powers, and responsibilities of
s^ cceeded
the
the governing body of the department of finance, f c a l i f act of May
Laws of 1921, p. 1027.)
(See Deering’s Political Code, 1923? secs 3 6 0-3 d 0 g pp. 9 2 -9 5 )’
155
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156 ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
o f children’s aid, which maintained offices in Sacramento, San Fran
cisco, and Los Angeles. The bureau, whose staff included a chief
children’s agent and six field agents, was authorized to inquire into
the management of any institution or agency caring for children
who were recipients o f State aid, to visit such institutions and
agencies, and to visit the homes of children receiving State aid.
It issued rules of procedure by which the agencies administering
mothers’ aid (generally called half-orphan aid) should be governed,
furnished forms for the use of the agencies, and approved the
grants and annual renewals of grants. I f there was any doubt
as to the proper course o f procedure it made independent investigation,s of families on its own initiative, at the request of a local
agency, or at the request o f a mother applying for aid. Possibly
the bureau assumed that investigation was incumbent upon it in
view of the fact that State aid was nearly always in excess of
county aid and the maximum State aid was drawn upon before any
aid was demanded o f the county. As a considerable part o f the
time of its agents was spent in administration and the making of
investigations, the bureau’s functions were administrative as well
as supervisory.
The law permitted the State board o f control to appoint advisory
county committees to act in cooperation with the agents o f the
bureau o f children’s aid, but no such boards had been appointed
at the time o f the ¿study.
Among the rulings and policies of the State department of finance
were the following: A mother was allowed to possess property free
from debt the assessed value of which did not exceed $2,500, or
she might have an equity o f $2,500 in the home if the upkeep did
not exceed a reasonable rental. She was permitted to have money
in the bank or other asset,s amounting to $1,000, but if she had real
property the other assets might not exceed $500. As a general policy
men roomers and boarders were not permitted. In order that the
mother might remain at home, unless there was some other care
taker, a full allowance o f State and county aid was recommended
when there were young children or when the family was large.
Payments for insurance on children were not allowed. When the
father wa,s incapacitated on account o f tuberculosis, mothers’ aid
was conditional upon his treatment in a sanatorium involving sep
aration from his family. The mother was required to live with
her children and to be able to maintain a good home for them if
aid were granted.
ADM INISTRATION OF THE L A W
A D M IN IS T R A T IV E A G E N C IE S
After the earthquake and fire in 1906 provision had been made
for the care of dependent children in the home through the depend
ency department of the juvenile court in San Francisco. This had
been accomplished by interpreting the early provision of the consti
tution in regard to half-orphan children—that those in institutions
should be paid for at the rate of $100 a year until they were 14 years
old— as permitting direct payment to the mother by substituting her
for the institution. The court committed the children to the chil-
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dren’s agency o f the San Francisco Associated Charities, the Eureka
Benevolent Society (which later became the family-welfare depart
ment of the Federated Jewish Charities), or to the Catholic Humane
Bureau (which later became the Little Children’s Aid Society).
These three social organizations supervised the children in their
own homes, in foster homes, and in institutions. In 1913, a few
months after the half-orphan aid act was passed, the juvenile court
separated its cases of widows with children from those o f other
dependent families under its care and protection, and the board of
county supervisors established the Widows’ Pension Bureau of
San Francisco.
Mothers who were not widows but whose husbands had deserted,
were tuberculous, incapacitated, or in a State or Federal. prison
continued to make application to the juvenile court for their allow
ances. I f the court granted their applications they were committed
to the supervision of one of the three private agencies previously
mentioned and a dependency order was made upon the county.
The widows’ pension bureau granted the allowances to "needy
mothers who were widows. This bureau was directly responsible
to the finance committee of the county board of supervisors, which
nominally passed upon all grants and whose chairman signed the
monthly pav roll, though in actual practice the entire administra
tion was left to the bureau’s director.4 The administration o f the
widows’ pension bureau only is discussed in this report.
The State payment of $10 a month for each child was given to
the county, regardless of which agency acted as the unit of admin
istration.
STAFF OF THE W IDOW S’ PENSION BUREAU
The staff of the widows’ pension bureau consisted of a director, an
assistant director, two visitors, and a secretary-bookkeeper. The di
rector was a university graduate who had had 7% years’ experience as
worker and director o f a settlement and 10 years’ experience as visitor
and then director for the widows’ pension bureau. The assistant di
rector was a physician who had had previous experience in hospital,
immigration, and housing work and had been with the widows’
pension bureau since 1916. One of the visitors was a university
graduate who had had experience in settlement work and in volunteer
work with the widows’ pension bureau before joining its staff in 1919.
The other visitor had worked for short periods with two private
family-relief agencies, a juvenile court, and a national relief organi
zation before her appointment to the staff in 1921. The salaries
of the field workers were $1,800 to $1,920 a year.
AM OUNT OF ALLOW ANCES AND VOLUME OF W ORK
The distribution of State and county aid administered by the
widows’ pension bureau for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1923, was
as follows: 10 per cent of the families receiving allowances had
State aid only, 25 per cent had maximum State and part county aid,
and 65 per cent were receiving State and county aid. San Francisco
County allowed $7.50 a month for each child as a maximum supple4 In addition to its administration of mothers’ aid the widows’ pension bureau also
administered the county pensions to blind persons, 75 to 100 of whom were receiving
assistance at any one time.
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
ment to the State’s allowance of $10. The average monthly grant
for the year ended June 30, 1923, was $37.41 per family and $15.32
per child. The largest monthly grant per family was $122.50 and the
smallest $10. The director of the bureau estimated that about
$6,000 a year more would have been granted to mothers if the county
had permitted $10 per child a mopth to match the $10 allowed by
the State, instead o f only $7.50; and this difference would have pro
vided reasonably adequate aid to all families.5
As before the establishment of the widows’ pension bureau the
court had had the assistance of the three social agencies mentioned,
the custom of giving the mothers their checks through these agencies
had not been changed to conform with altered conditions. The
Jewish mothers who received allowances were permitted to call for
their monthly checks at the office of the Eureka Benevolent Society,
the Catholic mothers at the office of the Little Children’s Aid Society,
and the remaining mothers at the office of the San Francisco Associ
ated Charities. These agencies were then reimbursed by the county.
(According to a recent understanding with the bureau, however,
these agencies were not to supervise widows’ families unless they had
been known to the agencies before the granting of the allowances or
had been granted a dependency order by the court.)
In January, 1924, the widows’ pension bureau was granting aid
to 473 families, including 1,139 children under 16. Each of the two
family visitors therefore supervised about 236 families, and in addi
tion they typed all their records. The visitors did not work with the
same families continuously.
^
yr
PROCEDURE IN MAKING ALLO W AN CES
Application was made in person by the mother at the office of the
widows’ pension bureau in the city hall. A preliminary investiga
tion by the secretarj^-bookkeeper at this time brought out any clear
cause for disqualification, such as lack of evidence bearing on resi
dence, marriage, death o f husband, age of children^ or property or
income above the limit set. The application blank called for the
following information: Names, addresses, places and dates of birth,
and state o f health o f child’s parents and their marital condition;
date, place, and cause of the father’s death; residence in State and
county; names o f fraternal organizations o f which father or mother
was a member; name and address of father’s last employer; names,
addresses, places and dates of birth of all children; if in school,
grade and health; if over school age, occupation, employer, and
wages; and if married, the number of children, date and place of
marriage; religion, facts regarding property, insurance, savings,
lodgers; names, addresses, and occupations of relatives; names and
addresses of teacher and of three references; an itemized estimate of
the family income and the necessary expenses. Legal data were
to be verified and a brief summary to be made under the heads of
finance, health, moral standards, and habits of sobriety; housing; rel
atives and their ability to assist; references and their recommenda6 Since the date of this study the county supervisors of San Francisco County have
granted $10 per month for each child.
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tions. The worker who filled out the application blank was re
quired to state whether she had visited the home and to give her
own recommendations and plans for the family.
When filled in the application blank thus recorded the important
k legal »nd social facts concerning the family, gave to the State bureau
ox children s aid a picture o f the whole family situation, and guaranteed that adequate investigation had been made. Before the appli
cation was forwarded to the bureau of children’s aid the affidavit of
the mother and the written approval of the county board o f super
visors were required. (Procedure for renewals required the filing
o f a new application blank containing up-to-date information.)
One o f the two visitors on the staff was in charge of visiting and
investigating for all new applications, verifying legal data, and
filling out the State and county blanks. On the first o f the month
following receipt o f the application she visited the widow’s home
and verified such items as dates and places of children’s birth, mar
riage o f parents, death of father, residence, facts regarding prop
erty, insurance, lodge benefits, savings, and wages o f mother and
children. One or two relatives and. the three persons whom the
mother gave as references were asked to call at the office. The chil
dren’s school-teacher, the family physician, and sometimes the min
ister were consulted; and an attempt was made to see working chil
dren. The names o f families were not registered in the social-service
exchange, but the San Francisco Associated Charities records were
consulted.
I f the information obtained through this investigation indicated
that the need was primarily economic and that with financial assistance the applicant would have little or no difficulty in making her
own adjustments she and her family were retained under the super
vision of the widows’ pension bureau after the allowance had been
granted. The assistant director, assisted by the second visitor on the
staff, was in charge o f the revisiting and the renewal o f allowances.
These workers promoted friendly relations between the widow and
the pension bureau’s office and helped her to use the allowance wisely
and to adjust it to the changing needs o f her family. The assistant
director (a physician, as has been stated) made note of obvious
physical defects in the families visited; and the physical condition
and the general welfare of the family were looked after to such
extent as the case load o f the bureau’s staff permitted. If, however
it appeared that the mother would need careful supervision in
order to guarantee adequate home life for her children, or if she was
given aid on probation, she was turned over to the juvenile court,
which granted a dependency order and committed the children for
supervision to one of the three child-caring agencies that were co
operating with the court.
#
U SE OF A S T A N D A R D BUD GET
The estimate of the cost of food for a given family was based
on the Jaffa budget.6 The bureau of children’s aid had formulated
and recommended the allowance that was made for clothing and ink
6 Formulated by Professor Jaffa, of the University of California.
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ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES *
cidentals. The budgets used were revised twice a year at the time
o f renewal o f allowances. Following is a copy o f the budget:
Amount
allowed
Amount
allowed
Woman doing light work_______$11. 83
Man doing light work__________
15. 78
Man doing hard work_________ 17. 75
Boy over 13 years______ ii______
15. 78
Girl oyer 13 years______________ 11.83
Child
Child
Child
Child
9 to 13 years____________ $10. 36
9.8 9
6 to 9 years______________
2 to 6 years-___________
7. 40
under 2 years_____________
5.0 7
To this family budget 20 per cent was added where there was a his
tory of tuberculosis or where the family had been exposed to tuber
culosis and was below par. Where working members bought lunch
one-third was deducted from the food budget and $7.80 allowed
for lunches.
For rent the mother’s statement was taken providing the sum was
not in excess of the average rental required to cover cost o f living
in a normal house. Five dollars a month per person was allowed for
shoes and clothing, except where wage earners must meet the public,
and then $10 per person was allowed. The mother’s figures as to
the allowance for insurance were taken, provided the insurance
was not excessive and did not partake of the nature of saving. For
working members of families who were under 21 years of age the sum
of $1.50 was allowed for amusement, and for members not employed
50 cents a month. Working sons and daughters over 21 years of age
were required to pay a reasonable board and provide their own
amusement and incidental expenses. The sum of $1.50 per person
was allowed for sundries, and 50 cents a month per person was
allowed for medicine.
There was no allowance for extensive medical care, as the mothers
and children could obtain very satisfactory care at the clinics and
the San Francisco Hospital. The numerous health centers estab
lished throughout the city under the board o f health had offered
their cooperation in making health surveys for the mothers’ pension
work.
SUPPLEMENTING OF MOTHERS’ A m
Supplementary aid was given to families under the care o f the
widows’ pension bureau only in emergencies, when the maximum
grant of the State and the county was inadequate, as the bureau did
not wish its beneficiaries to receive aid from other sources. The
amount of supplementary aid contributed annually by the three
private relief agencies to the families under the care of the bureau
was estimated to be approximately as follow s:
From the children’s agency of the San Francisco Associated Chari
ties, $1,800; from the Eureka Benevolent Society, $1,200; and from
the Little Children’s Aid Society, $600. (A ll these agencies also
gave supplementary aid to the mothers committed to them by the
juvenile court and under their immediate supervision.)
VISITING
The policy of the widows’ pension bureau was to have each family
visited about four times a year unless some required more frequent
visits. The relation o f the workers in the bureau to the families re
ceiving aid was one of constant and uniform friendliness. The
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mothers retained under the bureau’s supervision were those who
seemed capable enough to make their own plans. Doubtless they
would have profited by further guidance in regard to health, educa
tion, recreation, and employment; but the bureau held that for the
sake of preserving individual liberty and initiative, eligibility to aid
having once been established, the mothers should be free to manage
their households in their own way without close follow-up, however
friendly According to this interpretation, as long as the mothers
conformed to the regulations, any case work would be an impertinence unless the mothers expressed a desire for it. Unfortunately,
the staff was not large enough to enable the bureau to do intensive
case work except occasionally nor to demonstrate to the families
and to the community its worth in terms of helpful service.
On the occasion o f the semiannual renewal o f her allowance the
mother visited the office and had a conference with the director who
covered at length all matters relating to health, education, work of
mother and children, and income. These visits were made the
special occasion o f explaining to the mothers their relation and
obligation to the State and county. This loyalty to a cause was
stressed as an incentive to good conduct. An effort was also made to
bring home to the mothers the fact that the officers of the bureau
were there as public servants to express to them the good will and
protection of the State, and to administer a law which in their capac
lty as citizens the beneficiaries sanctioned and upheld and the pro
visions of which were entirely in their interest.
r
HEALTH
PHYSICAL HEALTH
General procedure.
The mothers were required to give the height and weight of each
child at the time of application, and these were recorded on the
application blank. On her first visit to the home the physician who
was assistant director observed the general appearance o f the family
especially m regard to nutrition and nervousness, and gave the
mothers advice as to health habits and food. No blanks were used
nor was any attempt made to get a medical history o f the individual’
children or o f the family nor to embody in the record a continuous
medical history o f each child. No comment was made in the records
or application blank regarding the physical condition unless there
were obvious defects.
I f the investigator or the visitors in the course of treatment or
the director at the semiannual renewal o f allowance suspected phvsical detects the mother was given information in regard to one of
the hospital clinics—generally those o f the University o f California
or Deland Stanford University—where examination and treatment
could be secured. A steering card was given to the mother and
this was returned, giving the name o f the clinic and phvsician to
whom she had been referred. Generally if the bureau had referred
the patient a written report was returned to it covering diagnosis
and treatment prescribed. This report was filed with the record.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
162 ADMINISTRATION OR MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Following is the form of steering card used in referring to the
University of California medical department:
[Face]
Referred from the W idows’ Pension Bureau, Room 462, City Hall.
Park 8500; Local 403
D ate: _______________________
N a m e :--------------------- ------------------------------------------- ---------- ----------------------------------------------A d d r e s s :---------------------------------------------------------------- — - — - - - -------------------------------------N ativity: _____ *----------------------------------------------------Married---------------------------[Reverse]
University of California Medical Department, Second and Parnassus Avenues
(Take Hayes Street car No. 6 on Market Street and get off at Second Avenue)
Referred to----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Clinic.
Especially referred to---------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------——
To report (d a te)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------■
Remarks---------------------------1-----------—--------------------------- 1
The policy of the bureau was to encourage the mothers to have the
necessary medica^ care for themselves and for their children. It
directed them to clinics, but it did not actually insist upon care
unless the children were a menace to the other children in the family
or to the community. In keeping with this policy, the examinations
and treatment of patients at clinics or under the care of private
physicians were not closely followed up as a matter of general prac
tice, the bureau staff believing that no pressure should be exerted
in such matters and that the initiative of the mother should be pre
served.
Mothers were permitted to employ private physicians, who were
expected to reduce their fees at the request either of the mothers or
of the bureau. Physicians employed by the city could be secured
in an emergency. Families were encouraged, however, to secure
medical care through the hospital clinics.
The guaranties o f physical well-being were those afforded by the
initial observation o f the staff workers, the general appearance of
the family, their failure to complain of specific ailment, and the close
inquiries made by the director at the time of renewal of allowance.
The bureau recommended to all the mothers semiannual examina
tions of children of preschool age at a child-health center.
On the whole the policy of the bureau in regard to health super
vision was to recommend medical care when advice was asked but
not to follow up these cases. This practice was attributable in part
to the desire to encourage the mother to take the initiative in the
care o f her children and in part to the lack of an adequate staff,
and also possibly to the fact that the need for such follow-up did not
seem pressing inasmuch as the general health was reported as excel
lent and housing conditions were good.
Follow-up of special types of problems.
Tuberculosis— It was the policy o f the bureau to ask for examina
tions o f all contact cases. Active cases were cared for in Sanatoriums
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or boarding homes. Incipient cases or pretuberculous patients were
advised to report regularly at the tuberculosis clinics conducted by
the department of health. The bureau would not use coercion in
regard to a tuberculous child or mother but “ would expect to get
the cooperation of the jnother,” and the pension has sometimes been
held up pending the receipt of a promised medical report.
Venereal disease.—Wassermann tests were given whenever there
was reason to suspect venereal disease. The bureau encouraged in
fected patients to take treatment at one o f the hospital clinics.
Orthopedic and cardiac affections.—Orthopedic clinics were avail
able at the University of California Hospital, the Leland Stanford
University Hospital, and the Children’s Hospital; and orthopedic
examinations and treatment were advised for children in need of
them. Braces and special apparatus were secured through one of
the family agencies, the Fruit and Flower Mission, or an organiza
tion called the “ Doctors’ Daughters.” Cardiac cases were treated
by the hospitals or in their homes in accordance with the advice of
the clinic. There was a convalescent home, but it was used very
seldom for this purpose.
E ye, ear, nose, and throat affections.—The San Francisco (city)
Hospital and clinics were used for examination, operations, and
treatment of diseases o f the eyes, ears, nose, and throat.
Medical supervision o f infants and preschool children.—The newly
organized division of child welfare of the San Francisco Board of
Health was to have as its function the direction o f school medical
work, including infant-welfare work and the nutritional supervision
o f undernourished children. It conducted eight child-health centers,
including one child-health conference held three days each week at
the largest department store in the city. Babies under 1 year of age
were brought once a month. The mothers were encouraged to bring
children up to 6 years of age, but particular attention was given to
the care o f babies under 2 years o f age. Two health centers were
maintained by neighborhood houses. It was stated that all mothers
who could not walk to the neighborhood centers could reach the
conference held at the down-town store without a change of cars as
many car lines converged at the shopping district. The widows’
pension bureau workers did not place great emphasis upon regular
attendance at the centers by mothers with babies.
A form letter was given to mothers of children of preschool age
recommending a semiannual examination at one o f the child-health
centers. It was not known how many children had been examined
as no follow-up work was attempted. Following is a copy of the
form used:
Cit y
and
County
of
S a n F r a n c is c o
W idows’ Pension Bureau
Room 462, City H all
Telephone Park 8500, Local 403
Refer to No. ________
D e a r M a d a m : The widows’ pension bureau of this county and the children’s
bureau at Sacramento are interested in promoting and safeguarding the health
of the families on the widows’ pension bureau list. Your cooperation is there
fore requested. It has been suggested that it might be well as a preventive
measure to request reports twice a year on the health of the children from one
of the following health centers or clinics.
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID I N TEN LOCALITIES
HEALTH CENTERS
The Emporium— Monday and Thursday, 9 to 1 2 ; Friday, 2 to 4 p. m.
Quesada and Railroad Aves.— Tuesday, 9 to 12 o’clock.
Bernal Heights, 300 Bennington— Friday, 9 to 12 o’clock.
Visitación Valley, 66 Raymond Ave.— Wednesday, 9 to 12 o’clock.
Telegraph Hill Neighborhood House, 1736 Stockton St.— Tuesday, 9 to 1 2 ;
Wednesday, 1 to 4 p. m.
South of Market St., 228 Harriet St.— 2d and last Saturday of month, 9 to 12
o’clock.
Precita Ave, and Harrison St.— Monday, 1 to 4 p. m.
Association of University Women, 953 Haight St.— Wednesday, 1 to 4 p. m.
CLINICS
Children’s Hospital, California and Maple Sts.— every day, 9 to 11 a. m.
Lane Hospital, Sacramento and Webster Sts.— every day, 8.30 to 10.30 a. m .;
1.30 to 2.30 p. m.
Mary’s Help Clinic, 14th and Guerrero Sts.— every day, 9 to 11 a. m.
Mount Zion Hospital clinic, Post and Scott Sts.— every day, 8.30 to 9.30 a. m.
St. Luke’s Clinic, 27th and Valencia Sts.— every day, 9 to 12 o’clock.
St. Mary’s Hospital clinic, Hayes and Stanyan Sts.— Children: Tuesday,
Thursday, Saturday, 9 to 11 a. m.
W o m en : Monday. Wednesday, Friday.
9 to 11 a. m.
San Francisco Hospital Chest clinic, 23d and Potrero— every day except Wednes
day and Saturday, 8.30 to 10 a. m .; Wednesday evening, 6.30 to 8 p. m. for
adults; Saturday, 8.30 to 10 a. m. for children.
San Francisco Polyclinic, 1535 Jackson St.— every day, 9 to 12 o’clock.
University of California clinic, 2d and Parnassus Aves.— every day, 8.30 to
10.30 a. m.
You are not to understand that any coercion is to be used. Your cooperation
is simply asked and desired. Should you think well of the plan kindly have
the suggested examination made and request the people in charge of the health
center or the clinic to mail this office a report on the condition of the person
examined.
Very sincerely yours,
D ir e c to r
W id o w s ' P e n s io n B u r ea u .
The division o f child welfare did prenatal work on behalf of the
women (about 40 a month) who registered at the San Francisco
Hospital for free confinement. There were no prenatal clinics except
at the hospitals.
School medical inspection.— School children were examined by
physicians four times during the elementary-school course. Exami
nations were made of all children entering the first grade and all
children in the last semester o f the eighth grade, and examinations
were made twice between the first and eighth grades. Twenty-nine
school nurses made classroom inspections four times a year, each nurse
supervising a school population of about 2,500. Free dental care was
provided by the four school dental clinics and a municipal dental
clinic. The school medical records of children receiving mothers’
aid were not consulted by the visitors.
In the preschool health drive held every summer the division of
child welfare o f the San Francisco Board o f Health aimed to have
all children who were going to enter school in the fall examined
at a health center, and the board of health dodgers were mailed
by the widows’ pension bureau to all mothers under its care having
children who would enter school the following year.
Malnutrition.—At the beginning o f each school year the school
nurses weighed ahd measured all children, and those 10 per cent or
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more underweight were weighed every other week and were given
instruction individually or in small group conferences by teachers,
nutrition workers, or nurses. A ll underweight children were ex
amined by the school physician, and visits to the homes were made
for follow-up o f remediable physical defects. The nutrition work
was under the supervision o f the division o f child welfare of the
San Francisco Board o f Health. A director o f nutrition work and
two dietitians worked in 5 schools; in 33 others the teachers did
some nutrition work, under the supervision o f the director, for which
they were paid $10 a month by the Tuberculosis Association. Three
school nurses also were doing nutrition work, one o f whom was en
gaged in placing a health-education program in the schools.
Lunches o f milk and crackers were served in all schools and were
supplied to needy children without cost.
The nutrition workers who visited the homes o f underweight chil
dren in mothers’ aid families reported cases to the widows’ pension
bureau only if there were special problems. The bureau did not at
tempt to keep in touch with the nutrition workers or nurses who were
working with undernourished children nor to place children found
to be undernourished at the time o f the semiannual renewal of al
lowances under the supervision of the nutrition division.
M EN TAL HEALTH
Available facilities.
There were ample facilities in the county for psychological and
psychiatric examination and for treatment. The neuropsychological
clinic o f the University o f California Hospital conducted examina
tions for the juvenile court and was at the service o f the public
schools for special problems which might be referred by the teachers,
the director of the special schools, or the parents. This clinic was
also at the service of the social agencies and the general public. The
majority of children receiving mothers’ aid whom the workers judged
to be in need of such service were referred to this clinic. Generally
a careful physical examination was required preliminary to or ac
companying the psychological examination; the follow-up might be
done by a social worker or student connected with the clinic, by the
physician on the staff o f the widows’ pension bureau, or by the
visitor in charge of the family.
The Leland Stanford University Hospital maintained a phychological clinic and the San Francisco Hospital had recently in
stalled a ward for the observation o f psychopathic patients.
The school psychologist was the supervisor of special classes; he
examined children referred by the teachers and principals on ac
count o f retardation, mental defect,, behavior problems, and psy
chopathic difficulties. Some children were placed in special classes
for several weeks’ observation. Physical examinations were not
made as a routine preliminary to the psychological examinations but
might be given if need was indicated. Children whose intelligence
quotient was below 70 were assigned to the special classes. The
follow-up work was done by the teachers or nurses.
Follow-up o f special types o f problems.
It was the policy o f the widows’ pension bureau to have children
under its supervision given a special examination i f they presented
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ADMINISTRATION- OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
serious problems o f retardation or if the father was in a hospital
for the insane or if there was a family history of mental defect or
disease and the children also gave evidence o f mental difficulties.
The procedure in regard to children who presented behavior prob
lems varied somewhat according to the individual situation. The
usual plan, however, was for the visitor or the director o f the
widows’ pension bureau to endeavor to win the cooperation of the
child and the mother by a conference with them and with the teacher.
Sometimes the child was asked to report at the office twice a month,
bringing from the teacher a statement in regard to his conduct.
I f this method failed the child probably would be given an exami
nation.
Illustrative case history.
The following case history shows the result o f efforts made to
improve the mental attitude of a child in a mothers’ aid fam ily:
Life for 12-year-old W alter C. consisted of school, which he hated, and odd
jobs in the sordid neighborhood in which his widowed mother lived. Eight
months before the mothers’ aid visitor went to the home he was reported as
a hopeless truant.
An interview was had with him at the widows’ pension
bureau, and it was made plain to him that he must attend school regularly.
H e was told that it was his job to get an education and that he would have
to attend to his school duties regularly whether he wanted to or not. The
cooperation of the teachers and of the principal of the school was asked
and gladly given. The boy was told to call at the mothers’ pension office with
his report every two weeks. At the end of the first two weeks the report
showed that W alter had attended school every day and had not been tardy,
his conduct left nothing to be desired, and his scholarship was good. This
report was duplicated every two weeks. It had become apparent to the visitor
that W alter was a great lover of beauty, and arrangements were made for
him to take a trip to Berkeley, where he visited the State university and
was much impressed by the natural beauties of the place.
He was also
taken to Golden Gate Park for the first time in his life, though he had
always lived in San Francisco. The museum and the aquarium were of great
interest to him, and he could not believe that all. these opportunities were
offered the public gratis. He felt that he must take his mother as soon as
possible and show her what he had seen. W hat he needed more than any
thing else was normal healthful association with boys of his own age, and at
the time of the study an effort was being made to place him with the Boy
Scouts. He gave promise, and there was no doubt that he had some special
gifts.
It was the visitor’s plan to watch for these and develop them if
possible.
HOUSING
Fully half the families receiving mothers’ aid lived in single houses,
most of the others lived in flats, and only a very few lived in rooms.
All houses and many flats had yard space and a number of mothers
had flower gardens. A mother with three children occupied at least
four rooms, including a living room, which was rarely used as a bed
room. A ll rooms were outside rooms and there was abundance of
air and sunshine. As a rule each family had its own sanitary toilet.
A bathroom was not considered essential if the children were very
voung. A ll families had running water and gas and nearly all had
electricity. Most of the houses were equipped with coolers; ice was
not used.
Emphasis was laid upon the importance of bringing up the chil
dren in good neighborhoods, and families were advised to move if the
locality was morally undesirable or if the house was in poor repair
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167
or below standard. Consideration was given also to play space and
accessibility to playgrounds and sources of education and recreation.
The average rent per family was about $22 a month and no family
paid more than $40 a month. The State ruling allowing a mother
to have an equity o f $2,500 in her home permitted families possessed
of homes to live in good neighborhoods amid surroundings congenial
to them. Many bore testimony to the fruitful savings and sacrifices
of the parents in their early married lives and were a constant in
centive to the maintenance of the same high standards of comfort
and order. Twenty-eight per cent of the Families owned or partly
owned their own homes; about one-half o f these owned them clear
and one-half mortgaged.
EDUCATION
COOPERATION W IT H THE SCHOOLS A N » FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION
The budget contained no provision for items that were educational
in character. The allowance for sundries covered any expense for
papers or magazines. A ll the families took a daily paper. Families
were encouraged to incur moderate expenses for educational pur
poses, such as music and radio.
Contacts with the schools.
The visitors o f the widows’ pension bureau communicated with
the teachers or visited the schools only when they felt there was
some special need. The teachers did not make reports to the visitors,
nor were the school reports examined periodically. I f children were
in difficulty at school a plan was worked out whereby a child might
be said to be on probation. Some boys and girls reported at the
bureau at regular intervals with their reports on attendance
and scholarship. It was stated that whenever such an effort to en
courage the children had been made, an improvement resulted in
both school work and general behavior.
Provision for handicapped children.
The physically handicapped child.—There were in the public
schools a sight-conservation class, an oral school for deaf children
a class for children having speech defects in every elementary and’
high school, and three open-air schools. A teacher was assigned to
each of the three children’s orthopedic wards in the hospitals. No
busses were provided for transportation o f crippled children to and
from school. The widows’ pension bureau made an effort to assist
physically handicapped children in obtaining their education and in
adjusting themselves in industry.
The mentally handicapped child.—There were 21 special classes
throughout the city, also an ungraded school of 5 classes. One of
the teachers in the ungraded school helped the children of subnormal
mentality in their efforts to find suitable employment.
Provision for children wishing further education.
No scholarships were available, but, when possible, encourage
ment was given to children desirous o f continuing in school both by
allowing aid up to the age of 16 and also by continuing aid for
younger brothers and sisters if the older child was over 16. A few
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boys were taking electrical courses in the technical high school and
a few girls were taking courses in home economics. Some were
taking university extension courses, but none were in college. A
few boys and girls were taking business or vocational courses at
night, or were taking art courses at the art institute affiliated with
the University of California. Possibly 100 children were receiving
piano or other music lessons.. Some of them were given free instruc
tion and others were paying a nominal charge at a settlement house
or were using the recreation allowance for this purpose.
The R. family had lived for years on so inadequate an income that when,
the daughter Harriet became 15 years of age there seemed to be no alternative
but for her to go to work, much as she desired to continue her education. To
her great happiness, the San Francisco Associated Charities arranged with a
business college for her to take a course in the college and pay for her course
after she began to earn. A t the time of the study she had been working for
a year and her salary had been increased 50 per cent. Her education had
proved to be worth while.
.
SCHOOLING AND W O RK OF CHILDREN 14 AND 15 YEAR S OLD AND W O RK OF
CHILDREN OVER 16
The compulsory-education, child-labor, and half orphan aid laws.
The compulsory education law required children between 8 and
16 years of age to attend school unless they were 14 years old and
had employment certificates. A child was permitted to obtain an
employment certificate at 14 years of age if he had completed the
eighth grade and was physically fit and the family was in need.
At 15 he could obtain an employment certificate, regardless of family
need, if he had completed the seventh grade and was physically fit
for work. A t 16 he could work without regard to school grade
completed. All working children not graduates of high school were
required to attend continuation school four hours a week until they
were 18 years of age.7
The half orphan aid law permitted aid to be granted for children
up to the age o f 16.
Children in school and at work.
Although the law provided that 14-year-old children could obtain
employment certificates if they had completed the eighth grade and
the family needed their earnings, the widows’ pension bureau encour
aged children to remain in school to the age of 16 unless the lack
o f their wages entailed too great a hardship on the rest of the family.
A id was continued for younger children to enable a child 16 years
old or over to remain in school i f he was especially anxious to
continue or showed promise.
There were 187 children 14 and 15 years of age in the families
under supervision; 181 o f these were in school and 6 were working.
A ll except one of the working children were 15 years of age. Aboxit
75 per cent o f these children were in high school or vocational school.
The majority of those in high school were attending the commercial
high school; the next largest group were in the polytechnic high
school. It was also reported that 35 children 16 years o f age or
7 Calif., Deering’s General Laws, 1923, act 7487, secs. 1 (5) and 3a, pp. 3033,
3 0 3 4 ; act 7496, sec. 3, p. 3054. Children disqualified for attendance because o f physical
or mental condition or living more than a specified distance from school were exempted
from attendance at regular day and continuation school.
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SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF.
over were still in school, most o f them attending public or private
business schools.
The occupations and earnings of the six children (all boys) 14 and
15 years o f age who were working were not reported. For this
reason the occupations o f the 188 boys and girls 16 years of age or
over, which were reported, are shown in the following list in order to
indicate to some extent the character o f the employment entered
by children in families receiving allowances under the supervision
ox the widows’ pension bureau:
Total
Boys _
________
Number of
children
Number of
children
____ _ 188
____
_______115
Clerical workers _ ___________ ___
Errand boys _ _ ___________
__
_____
Factory workers _ ______
Paper carriers (after school)____
_____ ____________
Apprentices
Truck d r i v e r s ____ _________
_
___
_
Jitney drivers _
Cabin boys ___ ______
Draftsmen............
S a le s m e n __
______
___
. _ __
_
Musicians ____ __
37
21
17
12
9
7
4
2
2
2
2
Girls
Clerical workers___________________
Factory workers___________________
Stenographers---------------------------------Telephone operators_______________
Bookkeepers-------- .--------------------------Saleswomen_________________________
Comptometer operators------------------
73
24
16
16
7
4
3
3
The wages o f working children under 21 years ranged from $43
to $100 a month. The average was about $80.
EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE MOTHERS
The few foreign-speaking mothers were not required to take
courses in English or citizenship, but the bureau encouraged their
doing so. Six evening schools conducted Americanization classes,
but so far as the bureau knew only two mothers receiving allowances
were enrolled in these classes. The settlements conducted classes in
sewing, cooking, and child care, but no mothers who received aid
were attending these classes.
RECREATION
The budget allowance for recreation was $1 to $2 a month apiece
for working children and 50 cents a month for children under work
ing age. Working children under 21 years of age gave their mothers
all their earnings and were allowed $1 to $2 a month for spending
money and $10 a month for clothing if their occupation required
them to dress well. After they reached their twenty-first birthday
they were expected to pay a generous board.
Families were allowed to attend motion pictures once a week.
Playgrounds were used considerably by the younger children. A
few boys and girls belonged to the Young Men’s and Young Women’s
Christian Associations and to scout troops, though no effort was
made to link children with these agencies except for special reasons.
Nor was any effort made to get children to use the libraries and
settlements, though some boys and girls were connected with the
94535°— 28------ 12
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
settlements and community centers. The parent-teacher association
used the schools for plays, games, and motion pictures. The recrea
tion centers conducted athletic activities. The families availed
themselves o f these forms of recreation according to their own in
clination. Many families owned or were paying for pianos or
phonographs. There were free concerts at the civic auditorium, and
a few o f the families visited the parks and the museums. A daily
paper operated a summer vacation camp which provided outings for
some children, but no provision was made for summer outings for
mothers. Some families had relatives in the country whom they vis
ited. A number of the mothers belonged to mothers’ clubs or parentteacher organizations, and membership in these was encouraged by
the widows’ pension bureau.
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MOTHERS’ ALLOWANCES IN WAYNE COUNTY, MICH.
PROVISIONS OF THE LAW
W
The Michigan law provided aid to the following classes of mothers
with dependent children: Widowed, deserted, divorced, or unmarried;
mothers whose husbands were insane, feeble-minded, epileptic, para
lytic, or blind, and confined in State hospitals or other State institu
tions; mothers whose husbands were inmates of State penal institu
tions or mothers whose husbands were suffering from tuberculosis
in such a stage that they could not pursue a gainful occupation.
Aid was allowed for a dependent child under the age o f 17 years;
the mother must be “ poor and unable to properly care and provide
for said child, but otherwise a proper guardian,” and it must be “ for
the welfare of such child to remain in the custody of its mother ” ;
the amount of aid should not exceed $10 per week nor be less than
$2 a w0ek for the first child with an allowance of $2 per week for
each additional child. The law did not provide for State super
vision in any form.2
The judge of the Wayne County juvenile court had ruled that in
cases ox desertion a mother must have been deserted for two years
and the whereabouts of the father must have been unknown during
that period; in cases of divorce a year must have elapsed from the
date on which the divorce was granted before the mother was con
sidered eligible for mothers’ aid. In case the father was ill with
tuberculosis he was required to live in a sanatorium before aid was
«►granted. Mothers receiving aid were not permitted to have men
lodgers or roomers. A mother was permitted to have $500 in sav
ings and an equity in her home of $3,500. The mother must have
had a residence of two years in the State and one year in the county
directly preceding aid.
ADM INISTRATION OF THE LAW
ADM INISTRATIVE AGENCY AND STAFF
The administrative agency was the mothers’ pension department
of the county juvenile court. The juvenile-court procedure was set
forth in the law dealing with dependent children and needy mothers.3
1 Wayne County contains the cities Detroit, Hamtramck, and Highland Park. Though
the latter two are within the geographical limits of Detroit, they have their own city
administration and are entirely distinct political units. The population of the county in
1920 was 1,177,645, of which number 993,678 lived in Detroit. The native white popula
tion numbered 788,297, the foreign born 344,725, and the negroes 43,720. The population
of foreign birth, in the order of numerical importance, was as follows : Polish, Canadian,
German, Russian, English, Italian, and Hungarian. The child population within legal
age for mothers’ aid (under 16, as interpreted by the juvenile court, which was the admin
istrative agency) was 344,420.
(Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, vol. 3.
Population, pp. 487, 488, 493, 494, Washington, 1922.) The chief industries center about
the manufacture of motor cars and automobile bodies, and foundry and machine-shop
products are next in importance, the great bulk of industry in Detroit calling for unskilled
labor.
3 M ich., Comp. Laws 1915, sec. 2017, p. 890, as amended by act of Apr. 28, 1921, No. 92,
Public Acts of 1921, p. 199, act of June 15, 1921, No. 16 (first extra session). Public
Acts of 1921, p. 785, and act of May 25, 1923, No. 294, Public Acts of 1923, p. 467.
3 Mich., Comp. Laws 1915, se cs.. 2012, 2015, 2016, pp. 885, 887, as amended by
acts of June 15, 1921, Nos. 16 and 24 (first extra session). Public Acts of 1921, pp. 785
and 797, pud açt of May 2, 1923, No. 105, Public Acts of 1923, p. 143,
171
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172
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
The mothers’ pension department in Wayne County was under the
general direction of the chief probation officer for women and girls,
who was also referee of the court and who heard all mothersT aid
cases except so-called “ trouble cases,” which were heard by the judge
o f the juvenile court.
The workers in the mothers’ pension department were probation
officers of the juvenile court. They were appointed by the judge on
the recommendation of the chief probation officer for women and
girls. A t the time of the study there were a supervisor, nine field
workers, and two stenographers; the department had also the serv
ices of a Slavic interpreter and o f a psychiatric social worker for
one-third time. In addition one volunteer, a college graduate, gave
full-time service. Several workers used their own automobiles, for
which they were allowed upkeep. The supervisor was a college
graduate who had been on the staff of the Detroit Associated Chari
ties for three years, both as a volunteer and as a paid worker. Four
o f the nine field workers were college graduates, one having special
ized in sociology and another having taken graduate work at the
school o f social service administration of the University of Chi
cago. One of the other five (a physician) had had experience in a
correctional institution for children, one had had experience in medi
cal social service, one had had a year’s social-service training in a
religious training school and experience in church social work, one
had been executive secretary in a city charity organization society,
and one was a normal-school graduate with special training in do
mestic science.
APPROPRIATION AND VOLUME OF W O RK
The appropriation for the fiscal year December 1, 1922, to Novem
ber 30, 1923, was $650,000. This was more than adequate to meet
the needs on the basis o f the maximum aid allowed by the law. The
appropriation for the following fiscal year ended November 30, 1924,
was $625,000. Though a definite appropriation was made, the ex
penditures for mothers’ aid were not limited to the amount provided,
and any deficit incurred one year was made up in the appropriation
for the following year. The entire appropriation was for relief.
The administrative expenses o f the mothers’ pension department
were borne by the court.
.
During October, 1923, the court aided 999 families, including
about 2,990 children under 16 years of age. Each of the nine field
workers had under her supervision from 100 to 130 families. One
county worker had 92 families. In addition each worker made an
average o f 7 new investigations a month.
PROCEDURE IN MAKING ALLO W AN CES
Mothers were required to make personal applications, to which
they made affidavit. Social and legal data were recorded on a face
sheet which called for the following specific information: Names,
addresses, birthplaces and birth dates of man, woman, and children;
date and cause o f man’s death, date of his commitment or desertion
or date of divorce; school grades, occupations, and wages o f chil
dren; mental and physical defects, relatives, church, citizenship,
time in county, court records; charitable agencies interested; housing
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
W AYNE
COUNTY,
173
M IC H .
conditions: facts regarding property, insurance, debts, and income,
and an estimate of thé budget.
It was the policy of the court to verify all data such as dates of
^ birth, marriage, date of man’s death, commitment, or desertion,
# divorce of couple, residence, and facts regarding property, insurance,
savings, and wages of working children. Inquiry was made of the
social-service exchange, and all registered agencies were consulted
through a form blank or by personal interview. School reports, in
cluding medical reports, were secured for the children attending
school.
. .
A visit was always made to the home. It was customary to visit
one or more relatives, the minister, and the family physician, and
generally one or more references.
The juvenile court devoted one morning each week to the hearing
o f mothers’ aid cases. The hearing was conducted in a small private
room by the chief probation officer for girls, who as referee heard
all but “ trouble cases,” as has been stated. No one was present but
the mother and children, the supervisor, and the clerk who took
stenographic notes. The hearing was informal and an atmosphere
o f friendliness prevailed. The purpose of the aid and the necessity
for following the orders of her pension officer were explained to the
mother as well as the advisability o f adequate medical attention.
USE OF A STANDARD BUDGET
A standard household budget prepared by the Visiting House
keeper Association and revised quarterly was used as a guide in esti. mating the budget for each family. It included food, fuel and light,
♦ clo th in g and toilet articles, rent, household furnishings and sundries,
and extras. The actual expenses of the family for rent, insurance,
payments on property, gas, and electricity were allowed, however, if
they were reasonable. Following is the standard budget :
V is itin g
H ou sek eep er
A s s o c ia tio n
b u d g e ts
fo r
(D
e tr o it)
d ep en d en t
s c a le
fo r
e s tim a tin g
m in im u m
fa m ilie s
(including man)
September 1, 1923.
Food :
The amount of food per person varies according to age, size of person, and
occupation. The average cost per day per person i s :
Per
Calories needed
3,600 for man-------------------------------------------------------------------------------2,800 for woman----------- ---------------------------------------------- - -------------3,450 for boy 14-17 years--------------------------------------— -----------------2,950 for girl 14-17 years---------------------------- ------------------------------2,825 for boy 11-14 years------------------- ------------- i------------------------2,500 for girl 11-14 years-----------------------------------------------------------2,200 for boy 9-11 years------------------------------------------------------------2,075 for girl 9-11 years------------------------------------------------------------1,875 for boy 7 -9 years--------------------------------------------------------------1,750 for girl 7 -9 years-------------------------------------------------------------1,580 for child 5 -7 years-------------------------------- -------------- -------------1,460 for child 3 -5 years------------------------------------- ----------------------1,380 for child under 3 years-----------------------------------------------------In families of 5 -7 people reduce grocery bill 8 per cent.
In families of 7-9 people reduce grocery bill 10 per cent.
In special-diet cases add 10 per cent.
I f man carries lunch add 10 per cent to his food allowance.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
day
$0. 49
.3 8
.4 7
.4 0
.3 8
.3 4
.3 0
.2 8
.2 5
.2 4
.2 1
.2 0
,1 9
Per
month
$14. 70
11.40
14.10
12.00
11.40
10. 20
9 .0 0
8 .4 0
7.5 0
7 .2 0
6 .3 0
6 .0 0
5 .7 0
174
A D M IN IS T R A T IO N
O F M O T H E R S ’ A ID
IN
TEN
L O C A L IT IE S
Fuel and lig h t:
This is figured out for the entire year, and it is expected that money will
be set aside in summer for winter months.
LigM__
Per month
Kerosene, at $0.18 per gallon------------------------------------------------------------ $0. 77
Gas, at $0.79______________________________________________ __________
1 .0 0
1.1 0
Electricity_________________ ,__________________________________________
Fuel—
Cook stove—
6 tons soft coal, at $10.75--------------------------------------- -------------------- 5. 38
y 2 cord of wood for summer, at $21------------------------------------------. 88
Coal and wood-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6.2 0
Gas for cooking, at $0.79---------------------------:---------------------------------- 2.1 1
Heating—
2 tons hard coal (when coal is used for cooking), at $16.25__ 2. 71
5 tons hard coal (when gas is used for cooking), at $16.25— 6. 77
5 tons soft coal (when gas is used for cooking), at $10.75— 4 .4 8
7 tons soft coal (for furnace), at $10.75---------------------------------- 6.2 7
Clothing and toilet articles:
Clothing for man----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9.3 3
Clothing for woman_________1-------------------------------------------------------------------- 7.1 8
Clothing for boy 12-14 years--------------------------------------------------------------------- 6.0 2
Clothing for girl 10-12 years--------------------------------------------------------------------- 6. 61
Clothing for child 5-10 years------------------------------------------------------------------- 4. 85
Clothing for child 3 -5 years------------------- ------------------------------------------------- 3. 99
Clothing for child under 3 years----------------------------------------- ------------------- 3 .4 9
I f some clothing is made at home reduce allowance 7 per cent.
For dependent families reduce allowance 8 per cent.
Deduct 20 per cent if part of the clothing is bought secondhand.
R en ts:
Unheated—
Three rooms-------- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------------- 25. 50
Four rooms---------------------------------------------------------------- r-------------------------36. 00
Five room s------------------- ----------------------- --------------- -----------------------------— 45. 00
Six room s____________________________________________________________ 50. 00
Heated—
Three rooms-----------------------------------------------------------------------Four rooms— ----------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- 62. 00
Five room s------------------------------------------------------------------------------67.00
Household furnishings and household sundries (household furnishings
include cleaning and laundry supplies, repair and replacement of fur
nishings ; sundries include thread, darning cotton, pins, needles, etc.) :
Family of tw o ---------------------------------------------------------------------Family of three___________________________________________________________
7.1 7
Family of four-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8.10
Family of five__________________ _____ _____________________________________ 9. 02
I f secondhand furniture is bought reduce this item 36 per cent.
Extras (this includes recreation, education, car fare, etc.) :
Family of two, including man who works________________________________ 5.00
Family of three, including man who w orks_____________________________
5.67
Family of four, including man who works________________________________ 6.34
Family of five, including man who w orks------------------------------Sixty-seven cents per month is added for each additional member.
Family of two, not including man who w orks_________________________ - 3 .0 2
Family of three, not including man who w orks_________________________ 3. 69
Family of four, not including man who works— _______________________
4 .3 6
Family of five, not including man who w orks__________________________ 5. 03
Sixty-seven cents per month is added for each additional member.
I f children are under school age reduce the extras 14 per cent.
N e w a p p lic a n ts w ere r eq u ire d t o k eep s u m m a r iz e d d a ily ex p e n se
a cco u n ts f r o m th e tim e o f th e ir a p p lic a tio n to th e t im e o f th e w o r k
e r ’s v is it to th e ir h o m e s.
A f t e r th e first tw o w eek s o r m o r e th e
fa m ilie s w e re req u ire d to k eep a cco u n ts o n ly w h e n th ere seem ed to be
b a d m a n a g e m e n t a n d th e c o u r t w ish e d to le a r n w h e ie tliq d ifficu lty
la y .
T h e f o ll o w in g is a c o p y o f a n ex p e n se a cc o u n t f
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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7.0
175
W A YN E COUNTY, M IC H .
J uvenile Court, D etroit, M i c h ., M others’ P ension D epartment
Name : ________________ _______
E xp en ses
fo r
tw o
w eeks
Thurs
day
e n d in g
Friday
F eb ru a ry
Satur
day
21, 1923
Sunday
Monday Tuesday Wednes
day
Rent __ __ _______________
$25. 00
G roceries_____________ __ $4. 00 $3. 12 $1. 40
1. 74 $2. 86 $0. 84
M eat. _ __ ______________
Hard coal_________ ____ __ _
Soft coal___________________
. 50
. 50 1. 00
. 50
. 50
G a s ______ __________ __ 3. 47
Car fare___________________
. 24
. 12
. 12
. 12
. 12
Electric light___________
3. 80
Medicine _________________
. 20
. 25
T a x e s _____________________
W a t e r .__ ________________
. 30
Insurance__________________
Clothing___________ _______
. 60
. 45
. 95
Debts___________________
3. 00
$1. 77
. 75
. 12
.5 0
A representative of the court will call on you within two weeks. Please
have ready contract of house, tax receipts, bills, and all receipted bills, birth
certificates, pay envelopes, or badge numbers of all members of family who
work.
The grants conformed to the family’s need, as shown by the budgets,
as far as the maximum under the law permitted. The average
monthly grant per family for the year 1923 was $42.45, or $14.17
per child. The largest monthly grant to a family was $104 and the
smallest was $8.66. The mothers were required to call at the office
twice a month for their checks unless excused because they lived at
a considerable distance or had young children.
SUPPLEMENTING OF MOTHERS’ AID
The Detroit Department o f Public Welfare had a liberal policy in
regard to supplementing mothers’ aid when the maximum grant was
inadequate, and it furnished temporary, emergency, or continued aid
on the recommendation o f the court without further investigation.
During the winter of 1924 this department gave supplementary
assistance to 166 families receiving mothers’ aid. It made no con
tact with the families, all supervision being left with the court,
which made a monthly report to the department. Relief took the
form of milk and coal principally, though monthly grocery orders
were allowed. Outside the city there were township overseers of the
poor who disbursed outdoor relief. They were not so willing as the
Detroit Department o f Public Welfare to supplement the allowances,
and sometimes it was extremely difficult to secure additional relief
from them.
There was no private relief agency in Wayne County.
VISITING
It was the aim of the department to have the probation officers
visit the home every other month and to see the mothers at the office
at least every month on one o f their semimonthly calls for their
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176
ADMINISTRATION" OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
checks. The probation officers were able to visit the families under
their care only once in two or three months unless some special prob
lem arose. The 18 families under the care of the psychiatric worker
were sometimes visited as often twice a week, but they had been
turned over to her for intensive supervision because they presented
serious problems.
HEALTH
PHYSICAL HEALTH
No special allowance was made in the budget under health but
an extra 10 per cent was added to the food allowance for children
who were suffering from tuberculosis or malnutrition. Special
effort was made to see that the income reached the budget needs*
and, if necessary, extra help was secured from the city department o f
public welfare. Practically all medical service could be secured free.
Physical examinations.
, xt was the policy of the court to require as a part o f the investiga
tion a physical examination o f all children o f preschool age whose
families lived in Detroit and of mothers who gave evidence of
need or who had been exposed to tuberculosis. These examinations
were given usually at the Harper Hospital clinics, but sometimes
children were examined at the children’s clinics o f the city board of
health and women at the clinics o f the Women’s Hospital. Following is a copy o f the form used in referring to Harper Hospital:
COOPERATION BLANK
B ef' ^ w o ’rlerT " ° f “
S
i t a
f " ’ Jn' r™ lle < * » « , to Harper Hospital, 2 /4 /2 4
Name of patient: Adeline D.
Address : __1_____________________
Date of b irth : ____________
Kind of w ork: ___________
Hours e m p lo y e d :_____ _____
Household (names and a g e s ):
F a t h e r :___ _________ ___________
Mother: Adeline D., 30.
Children—
Linda D., 8.
Jergus D., 4.
Boarders: 1.
Health record of patient:
Dr. J. M. B. states woman is suffering from pelvic inflammation, which mav
need surgical treatment.
^
Previous medical treatment, places and dates: i
Significant facts in family history, social and medical Z Z ’I I I I I I I ___ ~
Financial situation: Woman receives mothers’ pension of $20 58 tier moriflT
This is supplemented by $47.33 paid by boarder and $10.83' which woman
Reason for referring: General examination.
REPLY TO REFERRING AGENCY
N am e: Adeline D.
Age, 30.
D ate: 2-9-24 .
M departmentCy reporting: Harper out-patient department to mothers’ pension
Name of social worker: C. J. M.
Examined b y : Drs. L. and K.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
177
W A YN E COUNTY, M IC H .
A
Significant medical facts brought out: Wassermann, neg.; urine, negative;
lacerated infected cervix.
D ia g n o s is :_______________________
Explanation o f : _______________________
Prognosis: Recovery.
Probable length of time under tre a tm e n t:_______________________
Probable outcome if treatment faithfully c o n tin u e s:_____________i____
Character of tr e a tm e n t:_______________________
Days to r e p o r t :---------------------------------------- How often: __________________________
W ays in which agency can cooperate in doctors’ plan: ___________________
T o
en ter
h o s p ita l
fo r
o p e r a tio n
2 -1 2 -2 4 •
For children in school a copy of the last school report, including
the report o f the physical examination, was secured before the grant
was made. The following is a copy of such a report:
m o t h e r s ’ p e n s io n
d e p a r t m e n t , s c h o o l record fo r
JUVENILE COURT, W AYN E
COUNTY, M ICH.
Please state if medical record shows any physical defects.
School: _______________________
Below is the record of attendance, conduct, etc., of _______________________ ;
(Name)
------------------------------------ , from new sem ester,____________, 1924, to date:
(Address)
Month
Days
present
Days
absent
Conduct
Month
Days
present
Days
absent
Conduct
February____ *
March_________
April___________
Total days p resen t,-------Average con d u ct,_______
Grade, — —
Rem arks: Hearing, _ _____
T o n s ils ,_______
T e e th ,_______
Total days absent,
E f fo r t ,____ _
Date of B i r t h ,____
P r in c ip a l.
A court worker was at the Harper Hospital out-patient department
four mornings a week to steer mothers through the clinics, to make
direct contacts with the doctors and the social-service department,
and to secure detailed statements as to diagnosis and treatment.
Preliminary examinations were seldom made by private physicians,
but mothers were permitted to call upon their own doctors in case of
sickness if the latter gave their services. No medical history was
taken for the child or family unless something unusual presented
itself and the physician called for it, nor was there provision for a
continuous medical record of each member o f the family. The pro
bation officers were responsible for keeping up to date the record of
all examinations and medical care received by families under their
supervision. The follow-up work was done by the probation officer
if the examinations were conducted by the board of health clinics, and
j^ll by both the probation officers and the social-service department if
w they were conducted by the hospital clinics. There were no periodic
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178
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
examinations except when treatment was required and in the case of
tuberculosis suspects. The mothers were required to have serious
physical defects o f children attended to with reasonable promptness.
Only occasionally was it necessary to threaten the withdrawal of the
grant. As a rule the mothers were quite willing to permit the jk
examinations, and some had an appreciation of their value.
^
Follow-up of special types of problems.
Tuberculosis.— Tuberculosis clinics were conducted in Detroit by
the city board o f health, which also operated one sanatorium for in
cipient tuberculosis cases and two sanatoriums for advanced cases. A
new preventorium had just been completed for children. Sanatorium
facilities were adequate. In the country the Red Cross nurses visited
contact cases and brought them to the city clinics for examination.
In families receiving mothers’ aid all mothers and children who had
been exposed to tuberculosis were placed under the care of the clinics,
which advised whether sanatorium care was necessary, the court act
ing on the basis of the clinic’s advice. It was the policy of the court
to require sanatorium care for active tuberculosis cases, and if the
father was ill with the disease he was always required to accept sana
torium care.
Venereal diseme.—When there was a history of venereal disease or
reason to suspect it the court had Wassermann tests taken for the
mother and the children. The city board of health and Harper Hos
pital both maintained clinics for venereal diseases.
Orthopedic and cardiac affections.—Expert surgical and medical
care was obtained for all crippled children. The Children’s Hospital
and the Harper Hospital provided all necessary hospital treatment.
Most of the orthopedic work for children (not requiring h ospitaliza-^
tion) in the city and county was done by the Sigma Gamma ortho
pedic clinic, which was excellently equipped and free. Two social
workers were employed in its. medical social-service department.
Two physiotherapists and a nurse were assigned to the Leland Day
School for Crippled Children, operated by the board of education,
and all children attending it were under the medical supervision of
the Sigma Gamma clinic. Braces, shoes, and special apparatus for
mothers’ aid children were generally paid for by the city department
o f public welfare at the request of the court.
Children with cardiac trouble were cared for at the clinics at the
Harper Hospital or the Children’s Hospital and were placed in the
open-air rooms of the public schools.
E ye. ear, nose, and throat affections.—The Harper Hospital and its
clinics were used by the court for treatment for most cases of eye,
ear, nose, and throat affections. Operations were paid for through
a special fund known as the Coyle Fund.
Medical w elfare work fo r infants and preschool children.—The
Detroit Board o f Health conducted in various parts o f the city 13
health centers for babies and children o f preschool age (8 o f these
clinics did prenatal work a lso); they were used occasionally by the
court. Though not within walking distance o f many homes, they
were accessible to most mothers without change of cars. Nurses
and court workers did the follow-up work. There was but one , ±
child-health center outside the city. The court had no fixed rule in 'W-
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
W A YN E COtTNTY, M IC H .
170
regard to the attendance at centers of mothers with children under
6 years of age. This was left to the discretion o f the individual
workers, who as a rule did not lay great emphasis on routine supervi^ sion of well babies.
w
School medical inspection.—At the beginning o f each year the
nurses in the schools in Detroit inspected all children except those
in the first and fifth grades. Height and weight measurements were
a part of the yearly physical inspection. The children found to be
15 per cent underweight were referred to. the physicians, who ex
amined these as well as the children in the first and fifth grades. As
an experiment in some schools, the nurses were making preliminary
inspections of all the children. Those whom they suspected of hav
ing physical defects were then examined by the physicians. The court
expected each visitor to review quarterly the school medical reports
for all school children under her care in order that she might work
with the nurses in the correction of defects. In the rural districts
medical inspection in the schools was not uniformly provided. How
ever, a health educator, supported by a group of health agencies,
public and private, was engaged in a health-education training pro
gram in the schools of the county. The Red Cross provided nursing
service. The teachers referred children having obvious physical
defects to the nurses, who took them to a clinic in one of the larger
towns or in Detroit. The nurses were in close touch with the
mothers’ aid visitors and did much follow-up work for the health
o f the children under their supervision.
The dental bureau made yearly examination of the children’s
teeth, and the 12 free dental-school clinics provided ample dental
IP" facilities in Detroit. School nurses did the follow-up work for both
physical and dental examinations.
Malnutrition.-^—Much nutrition work was being done in the schools.
Forty-five nutrition classes were conducted weekly for 12 weeks by
the school nurses. Children found to be 15 per cent or more under
weight, who had been examined by the school physicians, as has been
stated, were classified in A and B groups, according to whether they
had defects that could be corrected. It was required that such de
fects be corrected and that the parents’ consent be obtained before
children were enrolled in a nutrition class. The mothers did not
attend these classes, but the nurses instructed these mothers in their
visit to the homes. The milk for undernourished children was fur
nished by women’s clubs. The quarterly inspection o f the school
medical reports was a, means o f checking the children who were in
"nutrition classes or who were underweight and undernourished. It
was estimated that about 40 children in mothers’ aid families were
attending nutrition classes.
The Harper Hospital conducted a nutrition department and sent
dietitians into the homes of patients for instruction in cases where
diet was involved. I f the patient was a member of a family re
ceiving mothers’ aid diet lists were sent to the court and its coop
eration enlisted.
The Merrill-Palmer School was conducting two nutrition classes
. for the benefit o f Italian women who were receiving mothers’ aid.
W One o f the school dietitians gave the instruction and a worker from the
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ADMIttlSTEATlOET OP MOTHEES’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
International Institute interpreted. The classes met once a week for
one and one-half hours, and once a month there was a cooking lesson.
The subjects taught included besides nutrition such subjects as child
care, discipline, psychology, and habit forming. The women ap
peared to be greatly interested and to consider their attendance at
the classes a real privilege. As a part o f their field work two student
dietitians gave home supervision to mothers receiving aid. The Vis
iting Housekeeper Association included nutrition among the subjects
taught to families referred to it for supervision.
M ENTAL HEALTH
Available facilities.
A t the request o f teachers, social agencies, or parents, the psycho
logical clinic of the department of education gave individual psy
chological examinations to school children who presented behavior
problems or who were emotionally unstable.
Every child entering school was given a psychological test, as were
over-age children and the so-called repeaters. Children whose intel
ligence quotient was found to be below 75 were enrolled in the special
classes, and all children in the special classes were examined again
before leaving school. Psychological tests were given also to chil
dren with sensory defects who were recommended for tests by the
teachers, and to children entering the Leland Day School for Crip
pled Children. The medical department o f the psychological clinic
made physical examinations at the time of the psychological exami
nations. The examinations of this department were followed up by
the social workers on the clinic staff, though they might secure the
cooperation o f the court workers for mothers’ aid families.
¿Jit
The juvenile court and the domestic-relations court had a court” '
clinic, employing a psychiatrist and case workers. The juvenile
court had four psychiatric case workers, one of whom gave about a
third of her time to families receiving mothers’ aid. The case work
ers referred all mental problems to the court clinic. Physical exami
nations did not invariably precede the psychiatrist’s examinations,
but that procedure was preferred. He determined for each case
separately whether the follow-up should be done by the psychiatric
worker or by one o f the family visitors.
Follow-up of special types of problems.
The probation officers rarely asked for a test because o f retarda
tion, as it was understood that these examinations were attended to
by the school department as a matter o f routine. A child whose
father was or had been insane or in whose family there had been a
history o f mental difficulty was not examined unless he, too, exhibited
unfavorable mental symptoms. Obvious or suspected cases of mental
defect were examined at the court psychiatric clinic or at the psycho
logical clinic o f the department of education. I f institutional place
ment o f a child was required an attempt was made first to persuade
the mother to apply for commitment to the Michigan Home and
Training School at Lapeer; if she refused to do this and the case was
urgent proceedings might be instituted through the probate court.
Problems o f behavior or mental instability, whether exhibited by ^
the mothers or their children, were referred for advice to the p s y ch i-*
atric clinic o f the juvenile court as a matter of routine. The women
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W AYH Ê COtTHTY, M IC H .
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most frequently referred were those whose burden had been extremely
heavy and who manifested symptoms o f instability, often coupled
with bad management and shiftless housekeeping. Much o f the work
with the mothers was done by a psychiatric worker, but in some cases
.jgt a few conferences between the psychiatrist and the mothers sufficed.
To the psychiatric worker were assigned for intensive supervision
mothers who were bad managers, erratic, or unresponsive for divers
reasons. The standards of aid in the families turned over to this
worker were somewhat higher than those for the usual mothers’
aid families, and she was given great freedom in the plans she made
for them. These mothers were not expected to work outside their
homes; the children sometimes were allowed to continue in school for
a longer period ; and such families were often referred to the Visiting
Housekeeper Association, whose workers gave friendly instruction
in home management.
Illustrative case histories.
The following case histories illustrate situations in which improve
ment resulted from the efforts o f the psychiatrist and the psychiatric
worker :
Mrs. J. and her five children under 7 years of age lived in a four-room house
which she owned in the village. Her husband had been committed to a hospi
tal for the insane several years before, and disorder and confusion evidently
prevailed in the management of the household. A worker from the Visiting
Housekeeper Association helped to plan a weekly budget and showed the
mother how to cook nutritious food. Mrs. J. was responsive and evidently eager
to learn. Finally she stated that her youngest child, Ethel, had violent fits
of crying about once a month, and one Sunday while in church suddenly began
to scream and to bite her mother. Ethel was taken to the juvenile-court
^^psychiatrist, who said that her tantrums were the result of bad habit formation.
^ M r s . J. had several talks with the psychiatrist and followed explicitly her
directions in good habit training. Ethel improved wonderfully, the psychiatrist
reporting that she had never been consulted by a mother who tried more care
fully to follow instructions.
Mrs. W . never exhibited a real psychosis, but she was crushed and broken
by abuse and the misery of her life with her husband. For years he had been
in and out of jail for forging checks, breaking contracts, stealing, and other
crimes. When he was not in jail warrants generally were out for his arrest.
Both the mother and her children appeared undernourished and in need of
medical supervision. W ith the strain of her husband’s constant misdeeds
and the lack of income it is not astonishing that Mrs. W . became nervously
exhausted, emotionally unstable, and easily discouraged. She had accepted
alms so long that she needed to learn the lessons of self-restraint and disci
pline, and even to build some ideals afresh ; but in the course of three years
this family, accustomed to living in cheap rooming houses, had acquired a
neat, seven-room eottage in an excellent suburban neighborhood, with fur
nishings of their own. The children made rapid progress in school when their
health improved,^ and at the time of the visit all were up to grade and in school
regularly. Previously some of them were absent as often as three and onehalf days a week. The 16-year-old daughter was taking a business course at
the intermediate high school and was planning to go to work in a few months.
Mrs. W . became a good housekeeper, took great pride in her family, and joined
the parent-teacher association of the school attended by her children. The
assurance of a grant of $78, the security of an allowance of alimony, and the
very good case work of a psychiatric worker had enabled her to reconstruct
her life.
W
Mrs. Q. was diagnosed as a “ psychopath of the turbulent type.” She at
first refused to cooperate with the court or the social workers. Her five
children were undernourished, but she would not take them to the clinics.
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ADMINISTRATION OR MOTHERS’ Ait) IN TEN LOCALITIES
though the grant was increased to the maximum and the department of public
welfare was supplementing it. The family lived on sausage, canned milk, and
delicatessen food. Mrs. Q. swore at the worker from the Visiting House
keeper Association and abused the nurse. The record, unfortunately, did not
show by what process the results were obtained, but the first visible sign of
this woman’s regeneration was her voluntary enrollment for an English c l a s s i
composed of Polish 'women receiving mothers’ aid. The Visiting Housekeeper
Association’s worker was welcomed, and after some months she reported that
Mrs. Q. was capable of managing her own work, that her house was clean,
the children better dressed, and the food satisfactory.
HOUSING
Most o f the families receiving mothers’ aid in Detroit lived in small
houses ; those of foreign birth usually were in houses which had been
made over into flats. In the down-town section old homes had been
utilized for apartments, one apartment to each floor, or sometimes
two on a floor. There were few families living in tenements. No
outside toilets were allowed in the city limits. Families living on
the outskirts o f the city often had yard space for a small vegetable
garden or flower plot. A mother and three children generally occu
pied at least three rooms, one of which might be used as a living
room. There were no dark rooms; a number o f houses had bath
rooms, but that was not the rule. The majority had inside running
water and gas ; few had electricity or ice boxes.
The court workers made every effort to move families out of dis
reputable neighborhoods or insanitary houses, and were very desirous
that they have an adequate number of rooms, especially separate
sleeping rooms for boys and girls. The housing bureau o f the Com
munity Union cooperated in finding suitable homes and in h a v in g ,
the sanitary laws enforced. Rents for good homes were extremely^
high. According to an old ruling which could not be enforced
strictly on account of the housing shortage a mother might not pay
a rental of more than $35 a month if heat was supplied and $30 a
month without heat. A few families paid $50, but these took lodgers,
thereby reducing their own rent. The court had ruled that a mother
might have an equity of $3,500 in her own home, and about 430 of
the families receiving aid (43 per cent) owned or partly owned their
homes.
The following stories illustrate the efforts o f the visitors to obtain
fit homes for the families under their supervision :
The father of the three little R .’s had been sentenced to prison for deserting
his family, and Mrs. R. was granted a divorce on the ground of desertion and
extreme cruelty. The mothers’ aid visitor found the family living on a dark
alley in what had once been a shed, one part of it still being used for that
purpose. The house could be reached by a narrow alley or by going through
a saloon in front. There was no floor and the roof leaked. The only toilet
accessible was that in the basement of the saloon, which was used by thè saloon
patrons. For this dwelling place Mrs. R. had paid $17 a month in pre-war days.
The court worker moved the family into four light, sanitary rooms in a good
neighborhood.
Mrs. B .’s husband had become insane from chronic alcoholism and was com
mitted to a hospital for mental diseases. He previously had saved $2,400 and
had invested it in eight lots, which he mortgaged for $2,800. W ith this sum h e ^
built a comfortable, two-family house on one of the lots. Mrs. B. was ignorant“
of financial affairs, and when mothers’ aid was granted the house was about to
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W A YN E COUNTY, M IC H .
183
be sold for taxes and special improvements, which amounted to more than
$2,000. The court worker determined to save the home by selling the lots
which had increased greatly in value. A special dispensation had to be given
by the orphans’ court for the sale of the property, as it was in the father’s
name. The worker displayed perseverance and tact in preventing a forced sale
^ of the house. When everything was settled Mrs. B. owned the house clear, the
» t a x e s were paid, and some very necessary repairs had been made. Besides there
was a balance of $900 in the bank, on which the mother received a court order
. of $50 a month fop the support of her children.
EDUCATION
COOPERATION W ITH THE SCHOOLS AN D FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION
Contacts with the schools.
The court workers kept in touch with the school progress of the
children principally by means o f the individual school-record blanks
which were mailed by the teachers to the court every quarter. These
reports covered attendance, conduct, effort, and grade. Following
is a copy of such a report:
SCHOOL RECORD FOR JUVENILE COURT, W AYN E COUNTY, M ICH .
Miss
---------------------------------
School: _____________________
Below is the record of attendance, conduct, etc., of nam e:
a d dress,---------_ ------------ i ------- from Sept. 6, 1921, to date.
Month
£
1921
^September____
October-_____
Novem ber.
December.......
Days
present
Days
absent
13H
15
4^
4X
3
16V 2
2H
15
Conduct
2
2
2
2
Month
1922
January_______
March________
E liz a b e th
Days
present
Days
absent
15
18
14
2
2
6
•
W
Conduct
2
2
Total days present, 107% . Total days absent, 2 4 % . Average conduct, Good
( 2 ) ; effort, Good (2). Grade, B -7th. Date of birth, 9-16 -0 8.
Rem arks: Elizabeth was absent the week o f March 13 on account of her
father’s illness and death.
———— — — —
“ ------------ -------------------y
P r in c ip a l.
The court workers visited the schools at intervals and whenever
any special need arose in connection with some child. They were
expected to examine, also the children’s quarterly reports, including
the reports of the physical examination.
Provision for handicapped children.
The physically handicapped child.—The department o f education
conducted the Leland Day School for Crippled Children for children
5 to 18 years of age; both academic and vocational instruction was
given. It operated also a day school for deaf children, a class for
blind children, and 12 sight-conservation classes. Lessons in typing
and piano lessons were given to the blind children in addition to
regular school work. There were 180 classes in 60 school centers for
^children having speech defects, and there were 9 open-air classes.
^School busses were provided for transportation to and from schooi
for all children who required such assistance. The Community
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Union operated a bureau for the handicapped, which was o f service
in finding employment for the children.
The mentally handicapped child.—The department of education
conducted 63 special A classes for subnormal children under 13%
years of age and 19 special B classes for children 13% to 16 years £
o f age; a few older children were also enrolled* This work was
primarily vocational in character.
Provision fo r children wishing further education.
Twenty-three children 14 and 15 years old were in high school and
a few boys and girls over-16 were in school full time or part time.
Seven children had scholarships and were taking commercial courses
in the high schools. These scholarships generally amounted to $15
or $20 per month; six o f them were given by the council o f Prot
estant churches and one by the public-welfare department o f Hamtramck. A few children (the exact number was not known) were
taking business or other vocational courses at night school. Twentyseven boys in mothers’ aid families were enrolled in a school main
tained by a local automobile company that combined school and
trade training but conformed to the board of education’s curriculum.
As the boys worked one week and attended classes the alternate week
this afforded opportunity for trade training. Boys between the
ages o f 12 and 15 could enroll provided they were up to the school
grade for their ages. They were paid $1 a day from the start, at
tended the school until they were 18, then were given work in the
factory.
Comparatively few children .in the mothers’ aid families were
known to be receiving musical instruction, and no special effort was
expended in this direction, although instruction could be had at a' W 1
nominal charge at various settlements. Free vocal lessons had been
secured from the conservatory of music for two children, however.
SCHOOLING AND W ORK OF CHILDREN 14 AND 15 YEAR S OLD
The child-labor, compulsory-education, and mothers’ aid laws.
Children were required to attend school from 7 to 16 years o f age
with the following exceptions: I f the child had completed the eighth
grade, provided he had an employment certificate and was employed
or had an excuse for work for which an employment certificate was
not required; if he was physically unable to attend school; if he was
14 and had completed the sixth grade and his work was essential to
the support of his parents, in which case he might be excused by the
county or city superintendent o f schools, at his discretion.4 Em
ployment certificates were granted to children 15 years old but under
16 who had completed the sixth grade if it was demonstrable that
their wages were necessary to the support o f their families, each case
being considered individually. Children 16 years old were subject
to the same requirements except that certification that their wages
were essential to the support o f their families was not required.
The requirement of a physical examination was optional with the
officer issuing employment certificates. Working children under 17
years of age who had not completed the second year o f high School
4Mich., Comp. Laws 1915, Cahill’ s Annotated Supp. 1922, sec. 5979, p. 6 5 0 ; sec. 5331,
p. 523, as amended by act of May 17, 1923* No. 206, Public Acts of 1923, p. 319.
(This
was amended further by act of May 26, 1925, No. 312, Public Acts of 1925, p. 469.)
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W A YN E COUNTY, M IC H .
li
were required to attend continuation school unless they were physi
cally unable to do so or unless such attendance would deprive them
of wages essential to their support and that o f their families.5
The mothers’ aid law permitted allowances to be granted to chil
dren under 17 years o f age.
Regular employment certificates were granted in 1923 to only 277
children between 14 and 15 yearj of age in Detroit, although there
were about 24,000 children o f these ages in the city.6
Children in school and at work.
9
The court had ruled that with certain exceptions allowances
could be granted to children only until they were eligible for em
ployment certificates. I f a child was frail or physically handi
capped, or if he was finishing a unit of education such as a com
mercial course, the allowance might be continued until he was 16
years of age.
There were 255 children (137 boys and 118 girls) 14 and 15 years
of age in the families receiving aid; 141 of them were 14 years
old and 114 were 15 years old. O f these 255 children 198 were
attending school, 29 were working, and 28 were neither attending
school nor working.
Children in school.—Among the 198 children 14 and 15 years o f
age attending school were 36 who were eligible for regular employ
ment certificates so far as age and completion of school grade were
concerned; that is, they were 15 years old and had completed the
sixth grade.7
The number o f boys and girls 14 and 15 years old attending school
and the grade or type of school attended are shown in the following
table :
Number of children 14 and 15 years old in school at the time of the study, by
grade and type of school ; Wayne County, Mich.
Children 14 and 15 years old attending school
Boys
Grade or type of school
Girls
Total
Total 14 years 15 years Total 14 years 15 years
T otal______________ ____ ______ _____
Elementary school:
Fifth g r a d e ....................................... - .........Sixth grade ................................. ...................
Seventh grade. ...........................................
E ighth grade. . . - ..........................................
High school:
First year________________________ ______
Special class_______________________ _____ ___
#
198
105
66
39
93
67
26
1
5
17
44
49
29
3
11
19
27
12
3
6
10
20
11
5
9
7
1
1
2
6
25
22
17
1
1
4
22
17
11
1
2
3
5
5
4
1
3
9
5
7
2
2
3
1
2
3
14
8
1
15
15
3
i
15
10
8
4
7
6
5
6
5 Mich. Comp. Laws 1915, sec. 5988 ( 1 ) , ( 2 ), pp. 6 5 3 -6 5 4 .
o See Trend of Child Labor in 34 Cities in the United States, 1922 to 1923, Monthly
Labor Review (U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics), vol. 18, no. 5 (M ay, 1 9 2 4 ), p. 114, and
Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920, vol. 2, Population, p. 293 (U. S. Bureau
of the Census, Washington, 1 9 2 3 ).
. . .
v.
.
7 This number was nearly half (47 per cent) of the whole number of 15-year-old children
in mothers’ aid families who had fulfilled the school-grade requirement for employment
pertificates (76)
94535°—28---- 13
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ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AÏÏ) IN TEN LOCALITIES
Occupations and earnings o f working children.—All the 29 children
14 and 15 years of age in families receiving aid who were working
were 15 years old, and only 2 had started working before they had
become 15. One of these 2 was a girl who became inspector in a
department store; the other was a boy who had run away when he -4R
was 14 years and 6 months old and had enlisted in the Army. The
occupations of the 29 children were as follows:
Number of
children
Number of
children
_____
29
Girls
Bbys_i___,------ ----------------*— L -
15
Factory worker___
Clerk in store_____
W a itress._________
Inspector in store.
Cashier____ _______
Messenger________
Kitchen helper_____
Total
Messenger----------.— ------ —
4
, Clérical worker------ , 1 _______ '------ !—
2
1Factory worker.
_________]_____
2
Laborer_____________________________
2
Delivery boy
------ ___>—
2
Stock-room helper.________________
1
Worker in bakery
14..1_____ .
1
In United States Army____ ______
1
_____
14
5
3
2
1
1
1
1
None of these children had left school before reaching the sixth
grade; 6 had been in that grade when they left school; 9 had been
in the seventh, 9 in the eighth, and 5 in the high school (3 in the first
year, 2 in the second).
The monthly earnings o f the 29 children (all of whom contributed
their entire earnings to the support of the family) were as follows:
Number of
children
T otal..:_____ _______________ ___;_______:____________ 29
$30, under $40______________________________________________
$40, under $ 5 0 ..._____________ y---------- ----------— .<___ y____ ___
$50, under $60_,_________ .. .__ ...__________ .___ _____________
$60, under $70___ !______________ÌIL___ ._____________ ___ _____
Over $70______________ ___________ _____________ :__________ ?__
Other and not reported___ _________ _________________________
-----
3
4
10
7
83
92
Children neither in school nor at work.
Twenty children 14 and 15 years old in families receiving allow
ances were neither attending school nor working. Eight were look
ing for work, 1 was waiting for an employment certificate to be
issued, 1 was about to take a business course and work half time,
and 2 were getting some trade instruction. Two had been employed
(1 having run away from trade school and worked at odd jobs before
returning home), and 3 were married (only 1 of these 3 girls was at
home). A tuberculous child was in a sanatorium, a mentally de
fective cripple was in the school for crippled children, and a feeble
minded child was at home.
Eight children were in institutions (5 delinquent, 2 feeble-minded,
and 1 epileptic).
EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE MOTHERS
A remarkable program of group instruction had been developed
among the mothers who did not speak English. These classes had
■ 8 One was earning $87, one was earning $108, one was earning $121.
" Includes a boy receiving Army pay and subsistence and a girl whose earnings were
not reported.
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W A YN E COUNTY, M IC H .
187
gradually furnished the nuclei for social activities and seemed to
offer a real outlet for group expression. There were seven classes
organized for instruction in English and civics, homemaking, nutri
tion, and child care.
j*
The first group was organized in the winter o f 1920. It consisted
o f Sicilian mothers who not only had not learned English but were
also illiterate in their own tongue. They were brought together by the
International Institute of the Young Women’s Christian Association
at the suggestion o f the mothers’ pension department. They seemed
helpless, inferior, and without ambition. The class began with in
struction in their own language as to the care of babies and the home.
The second year the department of education supplied a teacher and
it was made an English class; the teacher used the direct method
without an interpreter, and once a month a nurse from the board of
health conducted the lesson. The class had continued to meet each
year and had gathered momentum, awakened new interests, and
stimulated new ideals. It was meeting twice weekly for 2-hour
sessions at a public school. On the day of the visit the mothers
appeared alert and clearly interested in the world and life around
them. Some had taken out citizenship papers or were preparing to
do so. They had just organized into a club with officers o f their own
choosing and were planning social activities.
A number of Italian mothers were enrolled in a class which had
been meeting for six months. This class was not made up entirely
of mothers who were receiving aid. A teacher from the department
of education was giving instruction in nutrition, homemaking, child
care, and English. They, too, met twice weekly for two hours. The
^ Widows’ Club of St. Anne’s consisted o f 22 Polish mothers receiving
^ aid who met at St. Anne’s Community House in Hamtramck once a
week. Their first .class work had been the Red Cross course in home
nursing, from which they had been proud, to receive diplomas. The
club had held many socials and parties. They were given instruction
in sewing during the winters o f 1923 and 1924 and were looking
forward to having a Christmas sale. Six o f these mothers attended
an English class besides, with the hope of taking out citizenship
papers. Another Polish group was just being organized by the
Polish Aid Society under the auspices o f the League of Catholic
Women, 50 women having responded to the invitation. English and
domestic science were being taught. A group of Hungarian mothers
were studying English, civics, and child care in the combination
course prepared by the city departments of education and of health.
This was the instruction generally given to any new group. The
Merrill-Palmer School conducted two classes for Italian mothers
receiving aid. These included instruction as to child care, habit
forming, nutrition, and discipline.
Individual instruction in household management and cooking was
given to mothers by the Visiting Housekeeper Association. Item
ized expense accounts were kept by these mothers as a basis for
helpful advice. When a family was assigned to its care its workers
sometimes did all the case work, with the collaboration of the court
worker. At the housekeeping center was a model flat, which was
A occupied by a whole family for three weeks at a time and used for
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
demonstration and teaching purposes. About 30 mothers’ aid
families were under the supervision of the association.
RECREATION
The budget allowance for extras covered such items as recreation,
education, health, car fare, and church contributions. For a family
o f a mother and three children $6.34 per month was allowed for
extras. I f it was deemed advisable a special item such as car fare
to a gymnasium was included in the budget, or a scout outfit might
be secured through a special contribution. Working boys and girls
were expected to turn most of their wages into the home. The family
were permitted to make their own adjustment, and if it was reason
able it was not interfered with. Special difficulties were solved
case by case. A boy or girl 18 or over was expected to pay a
reasonable amount for board—a boy at least $10 a week and a girl
$7 or $8 a week.
There were many recreational facilities in Detroit. The depart
ment o f recreation used 60 or 70 school buildings for recreational
activities, 30 of which were utilized full time. It also operated a
large, well-equipped community house and several smaller neighbor
hood centers. An all-round development program for women and
girls designed to promote physical and mental poise and self-expres
sion was being successfully carried out. The physical education in
cluded gymnastics and athletics, games, hikes, swimming, gardening,
and dancing; the manual education included handicrafts, modeling,
painting, interior decoration, and designing of theater costumes and
scenes; the mental education included dramatics, pageantry, chorus ijf|
work, story-telling, and study courses. A ll the work was presented
through organized clubs. The eight settlements. o f the city were
utilized freely, and the mothers’ pension department endeavored to
have the families under its supervision make use of the nearest
neighborhood center. The court encouraged regular church and
Sunday-school attendance, and many churches conducted clubs and
social and recreational activities. Though the housing shortage
made it impossible to move families in order to make more recrea
tion facilities available, the workers believed that the variety of
activities afforded by churches, settlements, playgrounds, and school
centers enabled every family to have access to one or more o f these
sources of social life.
The court laid great emphasis upon membership by the mothers
m the parent-teacher associations. All the visitors were asked to
have every mother join the association in the school attended by her
children. The purchase of cheap phonographs was encouraged as a
means o f promoting family unity, and payments on pianos were not
forbidden if they were already nearly paid for. Some children be
longed to scout troops, and the court encouraged this recreational
activity. ^ About one-third of the city mothers with their boys under
10 and girls under 11 years of age were sent for a two weeks’ vaca
tion each summer to Bay Court, a summer-vacation camp operated
by the Community Union. The seven classes for foreign-born
women mentioned in the preceding section- were o f social as well as
educational value.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
MOTHERS’ ALLOWANCES IN MANITOBA, CANADA1
PROVISIONS OF THE LAW
The Manitoba law “ to provide allowances for mothers ” with
“ neglected or dependent children ” was passed by the Provincial
Parliament in 1916.2 It provided for aid to widows, to mothers
whose husbands were inmates of penal institutions or insane asy
lums or who because of physical disability were unable to support
their families, provided the mother was without means to care
properly for her children and their welfare and best interests would
be served by permitting them to remain in her custody. Rules as
to residence, citizenship, property, and amount o f aid were left to
a provincial commission appointed to administer the law subject
to the approval of the lieutenant governor in council.3
The following regulations as to eligibility were in force:
1. Applications were considered only from mothers
who were widows or whose husbands were confined in
a hospital for mental diseases, provided there were two
or more children.
2-. The husband of an applicant must have been a
Canadian citizen.
3. An applicant must have resided in the Province
with her husband and family for two consecutive years
#•
(with certain exceptions) prior to his death or admis
sion to a hospital for mental diseases. There was no
municipal residence qualification.
4. Applicants were allowed to retain $200 in cash for
emergency use. Any additional sums which the family
had were turned over to the commission and the interest
applied toward the beneficiary’s allowance. The prin
cipal to the amount o f $1,000 was returned when an
allowance“was discontinued.
5. Ownership of real estate was allowed up to the
amount of $2,000, if the family actually resided in the
home and the taxes, the insurance, and the interest on
the mortgage did not exceed what would otherwise have
to be paid for rent.
6. Mothers receiving allowances were not permitted to
keep boarders or roomers, a mother’s brother or father
only being excepted.
„ 1 T he population of Manitoba, Canada, was 610,118 in 1921. Of this number 179 087
lived in Winnipeg, the capital and only large city. There were 222,372 inhabitants of
foreign birth, of whom 113,114 were British born. The main racial sources of the popula
tion were as follows, in order of their numerical im portance: English, Scotch Irish
hrench, Austrian, Ukrainian, and Dutch.
(Sixth Census of Canada, vol. 1, Population’,
pp. 221, 245, 357, Ottawa, 1924.)
The area of the Province is 231,926 square miles, or
more than five times the area of the State of Pennsylvania. The chief industries are
farming, fishing, dairying, trapping, and mining.
2 Manitoba, act of Mar. 10, 1916, ch. 69, Stat. 1916, p. 221.
(See Stat. of Manitoba
i p r ' l s l ^ e f c l ^ ^ s i k t 1926! p l l . j ' S6CS 19~28’ PP> 156~ 1 58’ a« amended by act of
8 The act of Apr. 23, 1926, made a citizenship qualification.
189
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
190
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
ADM INISTRATION OF THE LAW
ADM INISTRATIVE AGENCY
Manitoba is nearly as large as the State o f Texas, and traveling
over its entire area is impossible part o f the year because of the
lack of railroad facilities, the snow, and the extreme cold. Still
the Parliament o f Manitoba clearly intended that the law should be
administered directly by the provincial government; no provision
was made in the act for local administrative groups of any kind, and
their development was due to necessity. The central provincial
agency ultimately delegated a considerable share of administration
to local groups and became itself both administrative and super
visory in character. A mothers’ allowances commission of five mem
bers (three men and two women) was appointed by the lieutenant
governor in council to administer the law. This unpaid provincial
commission met at least once a month, generally twice a month, and
acted upon all cases requiring a financial decision.
On the recommendation of the mothers’ allowances commission the
lieutenant governor in council ratified, on March 16, 1917, a ruling
that provided for the appointment by every municipality of a com
mittee o f not less than three members whose duty it was to “ receive
applications for allowances, investigate all applications received,
forward a complete record of all investigations to the commission,
and supervise all families receiving allowances.” Often the secre
tary-treasurer of the municipality was secretary-treasurer of the
committee. The committee members were supplied with forms and
budget estimates by the commission. They received no salary nor
any compensation for traveling expenses, and no money passed
through their hands.
THE STAFF
The commission’s staff consisted of an executive secretary and
three field workers (two for Greater Winnipeg, one for the territory
outside the city). Originally the area outside Greater Winnipeg
had been divided between two field workers; but as tfye northern part
of Manitoba was inaccessible in winter and many sections of it were*
difficult of access at any time, a man probation officer residing there
was supervising the 150 mothers’ aid families in that part of the
Province at the time of the study. The executive secretary was ex
perienced in administrative work. Two field workers were college
graduates and one was a trained nurse; two had had previous train
ing in social case w ork; one had been a teacher and also had received
two months’ training in an agency administering mothers’ aid in a
city in the United States. One car was at the disposal o f the secre
tary and staff.
THE FRIENDLY VISITORS
In addition to the officially designated administrators o f the law
there were in the Province about 350 so-called friendly visitors, who
might or might not be members of local municipal committees.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
191
MANITOBA, CANADA
Nearly every local community, at least in the southern half of the
Province, had one or more of these volunteer workers. They visited
families once a month, secured school reports, assisted in providing
medical care, helped the family to weather emergencies, and gave
counsel. The friendly visitors were expected to send in monthly
reports on prescribed forms, and they were extremely conscientious
about it., A t least one such visitor had not missed a monthly*report
in five years, and many were rendering excellent service. The fol
lowing is a form for a friendly visitor’s report :
V is ito r s ’
m o n th ly
Name of family,
L.
Name of visitor,
(Mrs.) J. D. E.
report
o f
fa m ily
u n d er
a llo w a n c e
Address,
...................................
Date of visits,
Jan. 20, 1923
Municipality of
n.
D.
During month of
January
Name of school------------------- ------School
record
Names of all
children
Days
absent
Jane_______
^
W
Income
Income
Income
Income
1
Work record of children
over 15 years of age
Health record
Signature of principal____________
Cause
Not well-.
Times Grade
late
{
?
0
Prog
ress
Wages
last
month
Jsr. II
Fair...
from mother’s work, None.
from relatives, None.
from roomers, None.
from any other source except allowance, None.
Employer’s
name and ad
dress
Good
Fair
Poor
Good.
Good .
Good .
Good .
Write G, E, or B for good, fair, or bad. ,
Housing, F. Children’s clothes, G.
Mother’s appearance, G. Cleanliness, F.
Signature of visitor: J. D. E.
Total, . . . . ____
Give any further interesting or important details in writing on reverse side of this report, and return
before the 15th day of the month to 302 Parliament Building, Winnipeg.
The only organization o f these friendly visitors was in Winnipeg,
where the 120 visitors were banded into a ladies’ auxiliary that, in
addition to friendly visiting, took care of the Christmas work, sent
mothers and children to a fresh-air camp each summer, made gar
ments, and furnished a medium for publicity. The auxiliary met
every month in the Parliament Building for a discussion .of some
problem o f child welfare. Its prime object was to aid the mothers’
allowances commission, and it had rendered great service in dissemi
nating information and in maintaining adequate aid during the
government economy drive.
A member of the mothers’ aid staff was organizing the Winnipeg
friendly visitors into groups o f 30 for purposes o f case training and
discussion. They met monthly for class instruction. The following
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ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
is a copy o f the monthly report sent to the commission by the friendly
visitors o f the auxiliary :
L
a d ie s ’
A
u x il ia r y
All allowances are adjusted as conditions change and until family can become 4É
self-supporting
4»
FRIENDLY VISITOR MONTHLY PROGRESS REPORT
Name of family visited: I.
Address:-----------------
Date of visits: Jan. 15, 1924.
(important)
Housing conditions: Warm and comfortable.
Names of children seen : Two girls, one 7 and one 9.
Health : Mrs. I has not been well since having teeth extracted.
Cleanliness :____________________
Schooling: All children attending regularly.
Clothing : Mother has remade some clothing gwen her and has the children and
herself looking very tidy.
Can suitable work be planned for mother without neglecting children? Mother
can do dressmaking.
What is mother’s disposition toward your cooperation? Kindly.
Remarks : I hope the commission may be able to make some allowance for
Mrs. I. until she is well enough to do dressmaking again.
(Signed)
Mrs. L. B. R.
THE PUBLIC-HEALTH NURSES
A further help in the administration of mothers’ aid was the serv
ice provided through the 32 public-health nurses who covered 19
rural municipalities and 11 suburbs o f Winnipeg. They were ex
pected to have general oversight o f families receiving aid and to
report at least once a year on prescribed forms like the following: ^
CONFIDENTIAL
REPORT
FROM DEPARTM ENT OF PUBLIC
ALLOW ANCES COMMISSION
HEALTH
FOR
MOTHERS1
No. 836. Name of family: Mrs. J. C. Date: July 26, 1922.
M u n icip ality:-------------------------------Nurse: Miss A. M.
Names of
children
Age
School
Bessie_____ 9 yrs__
June______ 8 yrs—
Ralph___
4 yrs__
George. __ _ 2 yrs—
Remarks
Grays ville. _ The 3 younger children have bad throats.
O p i n i o n is the tonsils and adenoids
require removing at once, e s p e c i a l l y
like to bring these children to the hospital
right away, as the throats are urgent.
House new and clean, provided by elderly grandparent.
healthy and family fairly happy.
Mother seems
N otk .—Please report as to health of mother and children, any necessary medical treatment needed,
and physical or mental defects; also any outstanding features, re-housing, food, clothing, care of house
and children, etc., usmg other side.
APPROPRIATION AND VOLUME OF W ORK
The entire appropriation was made by the Provincial Parliament (Ar
each year. The Government levied at large on all the municipalities
o f the Province for half the total appropriation, irrespective of the
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
MANITOBA, CANADA
193
expenditures for any one locality. The other half was met from
Provincial funds.
For the fiscal year ended August 31, 1923, $450,000 was appropri
ated. for mothers’ allowances. The administration the following year
reduced the appropriation to $425,000. The deficit was met by re
ducing administrative expense, by utilizing various resources (such
as private benevolences), by requiring mothers having two or three
children, all of whom were in school, to contribute to the family in
come, and by requiring children o f legal working age to secure em
ployment.
.
.
.
On the basis of the appropriation Manitoba obligated itself for
mothers’ aid more heavily than any State in the United States in
proportion to its population, the per capita expense for mothers’ aid
in 1922-23 being 74 cents. In November, 1923, 611 families, includ
ing 2,146 dependent children, were receiving mothers’ aid. The aver
age monthly grant for that month was $57.40 per family and $16.40
per child.
*
PROCEDURE IN MAKING ALLO W AN CES
In Winnipeg applications were made to the social-welfare commis
sion, which was the public outdoor-relief agency; it investigated and
reported its findings to the mothers’ allowances commission, which re
ceived the recommendations and forwarded them to the provincial
commission, as has been stated. The other municipal committees
made both the preliminary investigations and the recommendations.
The application blank (furnished by the commission) called for the
following information: Date, place, and cause of husband’s death
. or commitment to institution; date and place of birth, nationality,
^ and religion of the father and mother; dates and places of birth of
all children, their health, grades, and schools, or occupations and
wages; if they were not in school, the grades at which they left school
and began work; employers’ names and addresses; facts regarding
property, insurance, savings, and assets or liabilities; and an esti
mate o f the monthly budget and income. The application had to be
sworn to by the mother and the recommendation for the grant signed
by three members of the local committee.
The following items were verified: Marriage, death, or commit
ment o f father, naturalization, residence, birth o f children, owner
ship o f property or savings. A visit was made to the home of
the applicant and references were consulted. Generally in the rural
communities the families were known to the members of the com
mittee. A statement accompanied the application blank covering
the family history before and after death or commitment of the
father, financial status, housing, health, relatives, references, and
plans for the future.
USE OF A STANDARD BUDGET
^
The law set no maximum to the amount which might be given per
child and per family, and it was the intention o f the commission
that the allowance should be sufficient to ihaintain health and to
provide the essentials necessary to wholesome living. The grants
were computed on the basis o f a budget that the dietitian employed
by the public welfare commission had prepared in consultation with
the staff o f the mothers’ allowances commission and the ladies’ aux-
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194
ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
iliary, using also the Chicago standard budget for suggestions and
general standards. The following is a copy of the budget used:
Schedule of allowances, September, 1924
Actual rent, or interest, taxes, and insurance.
M AXIM UM REN T, OR IN TEREST, T A X E S, AND INSURANCE
Two or more children living at home_____________________$20. 00
Three or 4 children at home____________ ________________ 25. 00
Five or more children at home___________________________ 30. 00
Winter fuel
Operating
heat
October
6-7-room ed house _ ______________________
4^5-roomed house__________________;____ __
2-3-room ed house __ ____________________
2 -3 unheated rooms _____________________
$4.
4.
4.
3.
00
00
00
00
$9.
8.
6.
4.
00
00
00
50
Food
Adult ________________________________________________
Child 1 - 3 ______________________________________________
4^7 _ _____________________
_________________
8 - 1 1 . _________ __
__ __________________ __
1 2 -1 5 ________________ & ________________________
______________
_
15 u p .
_
__
Families of 2 or 3 children__________________________
Families of 4 or 5 children_______ _______________ _ _
Families of 6 or o v e r ______________________ __ _______
$10.
3.
4.
5.
6.
11.
50
25
25
00
50
00
November
to March
$18.
16.
12.
9.
00
00
00
00
$9.
8.
6.
4.
Clothing
Total
$4.
2.
3.
4.
4.
50
25
25
00
50
Cleaning
Recreation
$1. 00
1. 50
2. 00
$1. 25
1. 75
2. 25
Winnipeg
Water,
Water,
Water,
Water,
4-roomed
5-roomed
6-roomed
7-roomed
_
__________________________
house___
house
____
__ ___________ ___________
h o u s e _______ _________________________________
h o u s e ____________
_ _
_______ _______
April
$0.
.
.
.
$15.
5.
7.
9.
11.
11.
00
00
00
50
00
50
50
00
00
00
Light
$0. 75
. 75
. 75
St. Boni
face
56
70
82
93
$0.
.
.
1.
67
80
93
07
MAXIM UM ALLOW ANCE EXCLUDING W IN TE R FUEL
Two dependent children_________________________________ $65. 00
Three dependent children________________________________ 80. 00
Four dependent children_____________________________ .___ 90. 00
Five dependent children_________________________________
95. 00
Six or more dependent children________ _________________ 100. 00
INCOME
In estimating the amount required to care for a family the above schedule of
allowances is applied and income'from all sources deducted from total of such
schedule.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
*
195
MANITOBA, CANADA
The assumption is that the cost of living can be reduced in the larger
fam ilies:
Mother and 5 children 3 per cent off food and clothing
Mother and 6 children 4 per cent off food and clothing
Add 1 per cent for each additional child.
Estimated cost of living for earning child:
Food__________________________________________________
C lothing____________________ ._______________ ______
Sundries____ ____________________ _ ___________________
$ 11.00
12.00
5 .0 0
28. 00
Income over and above cost of living expenses for earning child must be paid
into the home on following b asis:
Until 18 years of age, 100 per cent.
Until 20 years of age, 80 per cent.
21 years and over, 70 per cent.
I f a child of earning age, single or married, is not earning or is not sup
porting his or her mother, but is deemed able to earn and support his or her
mother in whole or in part, and if a mother who is a beneficiary is not earning
but is deemed able to earn and support her family, in whole or in part, the
total allowance may be reduced by potential earnings of such child or mother,
and discontinued as soon as family can be self-supporting.
N o t e .— When earning children are unemployed for any reason other than sick
ness one-third of their average monthly wage may be taken as income, the
minimum reduction to be $11.
Income from roomers:
Furnished rooms, 75 per cent of rental.
Unfurnished rooms, 100 per cent of rental.
Income from mother with 2 children: $5 as each child attains school age.
Income from mother with 3 children: $5 when two children attain school
age.
In cases of families where there are two or three children: Not until
mother’s earnings are over $15 and $10, respectively, will the total
allowance be subject to a further deduction of 75 per cent of such
earnings.
In the case of an applicant owning an equity of $2,000 or over in her home
or other real estate and other moneys in the form of each or securities that may
be readily liquidated, such other moneys shall be handed over to the commission
and returned to the applicant in the form of a monthly allowance, excepting
$200, which may be retained by the applicant for emergency purposes.
N o t e .— Exemption from above general rulings in cases due to illness or other
exceptional conditions will be considered by the commission.
In addition to the grant the commission allowed coal, an extra
allowance for winter clothing in a lump sum of $10 to $20, and
emergency help, such as money for doctors or dentists. F ifty dollars
was allowed for funeral expenses. No provision was made for
insurance.
The mothers were not required to keep itemized expense accounts
except in some cases as a check on their veracity. Once a year in the
fall all mothers receiving aid were required to file with the commis
sion a statement on a prescribed form having special reference to
the financial status of the family and calling for data regarding all
income and expenditures on a monthly basis, together with the pres
ent assets (such as property) and liabilities. The statement also
included the names of the children; their ages and grades if in school;
and if working, wages, names of employers, and contributions to the
family. I f the family lived on a farm an exhaustive questionnaire
was to be filled out giving the names and value of farm implements,
number of livestock, amount and kinds o f crops harvested, amount o f
sales of crops, and value of farm products consumed.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
196
ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEH LOCALITIES
SUPPLEMENTING OF MOTHERS’ AID
Inasmuch as the commission was authorized by law to grant suffi
cient aid to each family to meet its needs as shown by the budget the
need of help on a large scale from other agencies did not arise. How
ever, the reduction of $25,000 in the appropriation had necessitated 41
supplementary aid, especially for clothing, and this was provided by
the ladies’ auxiliary and the friendly visitors.
VISITING
The staff visitor assigned to the territory outside Greater Winnipeg
could not make visits oftener than once or twice a year, depending
upon the locality in which the families were; but in the southern part
o f the Province, which contained more than three-fourths of the
mothers’ aid families, a friendly visitor was assigned to every family
and visited every month.4 The two case workers assigned to Greater
Winnipeg were expected to visit the families under their care once
a month, oftener if necessary; and a friendly visitor, who likewise
visited monthly, was also assigned to every family. The following
case story shows the results attained in one family through the joint
effort of the staff visitor and a friendly visitor:
Mrs. P., to whom an allowance was granted in August, 1918, for her three
children aged 11, 8, and 2, was thoughtless and untruthful, did not manage
well on the grant, and was continually in debt. The children were not regular
in school attendance and often were late. As an aid in helping to keep the
expenditures within the income part of the grant was placed as an order in
one of the department stores which included a grocery division; the store fur
nished a list of expenditures to the visitor each month. There were lengthy
discussions after the monthly bill was received and careful instruction as to
the kinds of food which were suitable for young children and how these foods ^
should be prepared. At first it was not uncommon for Mrs. P. to say that she *4^
was quite clear of debt, though when the staff worker returned to the office she
would find that some creditor was demanding a settlement. On being ques
tioned the following day Mrs. P. would merely look surprised and say she had
forgotten to ntention it but would see that it was attended t o .. This happened
so often that a new strategy was adopted. When an irate merchant com
plained thereafter the visitor made an appointment to meet him at Mrs. P.’s
home, and there an agreement would be written and signed in regard to
monthly payments, with no credit allowed. These disciplinary interviews were
followed the next day by a friendly call on the part of the visitor, who ex
pounded the advantages of a pay-as-you-go policy, especially for the sake of
the children. In the course of time Mrs. P. improved so much that she was
permitted to keep her own list of expenditures and was given her full allow
ance in cash. The same tactics were used as to school attendance until there
was no reason for complaint. The oldest child was apt with her needle and
a few hints as to how she could beautify the home were all that were needed.
The friendly visitor gave partly used clothing to the family and Mrs. P. learned
to make over clothes so as to keep the children more neatly dressed. After
four years of patient service on the part of the two visitors and of positive
striving on the part of Mrs. P. the new habits became well established and the
old attitude of fear and self-defense gave way to candor and self-confidence.
HEALTH
PHYSICAL HEALTH
No allowance was made in the budget for health needs, nor did the
commission pay physicians’ fees. Allowances were made, however,
for eyeglasses, teeth, special diet, and other health items.
4 The distribution of the mothers’ aid families was as fo llo w s: In the northern part of
the Province, about 1 5 0 ; in the southern part (not including Greater W innipeg), about
1 5 0 ; in Winnipeg, 1 5 0 ; in the suburbs of Winnipeg, 160.
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197
MANITOBA, CANADA
General procedure.
•
No physical examinations were made preliminary to the granting
of aid nor periodically after aid was granted. The records of fam
ilies receiving allowances did not generally include family medical
histories, and no attempt was made to keep a continuous record of
the physical condition o f each member of the family. The families
were assumed to be well unless they complained of ill health or there
were obvious signs of disease.
Families in Winnipeg and near-by towns could obtain excellent
clinical services at the Winnipeg General Hospital, which was sup
ported in part by provincial funds, and at the Children’s Hospital;
private physicians also gave generous service. Both these hospitals
had social-service departments, and the family visitors were respon
sible for keeping in touch with them in regard to patients who re
quired long-continued treatment. The visitors also had frequent
consultations with the examining physicians. The Winnipeg Gen
eral Hospital conducted 13 specialized .clinics, including prenatal,
nutrition, and dental clinics for adults; 25 cents was charged for
the first examination. Patients were referred by means of a steer
ing blank, and written reports were returned by the social-service
departments. A copy o f a medical report is as follows:
Winnipeg General Hospital—Social Service Department
MEDICAL REPORT
To Mothers’ Allowances Commission.
N am e: M r s . J . B .
*
0.
Diagnosis (please explain medical terms) :
Probable duration of illness?
I n d e fin ite ;
H ig h
s h o u ld
b lo o d
be
on
pressu re,
m ilk
or
P . D . 25412
— •
b u tte r m ilk
d ie t
o n ly .
When will patient be able to work? _______________________
Is his line of work injurious? _______________________
Suggestions or remarks in respect to patient’s condition: S h o u l d
o f
m ilk
D ate:
#
d a ily
fo r
tw o
h ave
2
q u a r ts
to eek s.
,
19/8/24.
(Signed)
L .
M .
T.
Outside Winnipeg there were 15 hospitals, 2 of which had clinical
service and 1 o f which had a medical social service department. Chil
dren and mothers requiring operations were taken to these hospitals,
hospital care being paid for (under the hospital aid act) at a pro rata
basis o f $1.75 a day by the municipality and 50 cents a day by the
provincial government.
The correction of serious physical defects was required by the
commission and the visitors seldom found it necessary to threaten
withdrawal of the grant to get these corrections made. Though in
tensive health supervision was carried on in Winnipeg and the sub
urbs, the great distances and lack of traveling facilities, the inade
quate hospital facilities, and the inadequate, staff made this out of
the question through the rest o f the Province. The families outside
Winnipeg generally consulted private physicians and made their own
arrangements as to fees; often only a nominal charge was made.
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ADMINISTRATION OP MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Public physicians could be secured in an emergency, and when they
did not give their services or when long trips were necessary the
municipality paid them.
Follow-up o f special types o f problems.
Tuberculosis.—It was the policy of the commission to require all m
contact cases of tuberculosis to be examined. The Winnipeg General
Hospital maintained a tuberculosis clinic, and the five city tubercu
losis nurses and the provincial public-health nurses visited tuber
culous patients. It was also the policy of the commission to insist
upon sanatorium care. Hospital and sanatorium facilities were ade
quate; a provincial sanatorium at Ninette, 15 miles from Winnipeg,
cared for incipient and moderately advanced cases, and the King
George Hospital in the city cared for advanced cases.
Venereal disease— It was the policy of the commission to have
Wassermann tests whenever there was reason to suspect venereal
disease, and treatment was required if the results of the tests were
positive The provincial department of health maintained a genito
urinary clinic in Winnipeg and in four other towns in the Province;
mothers’ aid families in need of treatment were placed under the
care o f one of these. Two nurses did genito-urmary work, one in
connection with the provincial department and one in connection
with the genito-urinary clinic of the Winnipeg General Hospital. #
Orthopedic and cardiac affections.—The only orthopedic clinics m
Manitoba were in connection with four Winnipeg hospitals. I he
clinics of the Winnipeg General Hospital were available to anyone
in the Province who could come to the hospital. The mothers aid
workers tried to secure orthopedic care for all children whom they
knew to be in need of it. Braces or other apparatus were paid tor by W
relatives or by a special grant through the mothers’ allowances com
mission. The family visitor or the social-service departments ot
the hospitals followed up the cases.
There was no cardiac clinic. Cardiac cases were treated at the
Winnipeg General Hospital, and patients could be accommodated at
the Convalescent Hospital, though this was rarely used for mothers
E ye ear. nose, and throat affections.—The eye clinics conducted
bv the department o f education and the Winnipeg General Hospital
were generally used. The school nurses followed up such cases very
carefully and frequently attended to obtaining the necessary treat
ment on their own initiative.
■
™ u
#
Medical work for infants and preschool children.— I he bureau ot
child hygiene of the city department of health employed 14 nurses,
who followed up the mothers of babies born in the hospitals, visiting
at regular intervals during the first year o f the baby s life. The
bureau also provided milk and formulas.
A child-health conference, primarily for children under 2 years ot
age was conducted weekly at the central office o f the IVinnipeg De
partment of Health; the commission encouraged mothers who had
babies to attend these. Outside Winnipeg the public-health nurses
conducted weekly conferences for children up to school age m 19
child-health centers. Dental clinics were conducted in connection^
with two such centers, and prenatal work was done also.
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Forty-eight child-health conferences were held at agricultural
fairs in the summer of 1923, and 2,000 children were given physical
examinations. The babies were followed up if treatment was needed.
As the nurses were expected to keep in touch with the families re
ceiving allowances, their effort could be counted on to encourage
these mothers to attend whenever a center was available. This was
not a requirement, however, and ft was not definitely known how
many mothers’ aid children were under the care of the child-health
centers.
School medical inspection.—In Winnipeg it was the practice to
give phjrsical examination to all school children once a year. For the
school year 1923-24 the children were divided into three groups
for purposes o f examination; namely, (1) those just entering school,
(2) those found defective at a previous examination and those se
lected by the nurses as being in need of medical care, and (3) all
children 10 years old and 14 years old. There were 14 school nurses
each supervising about 2,700 children. School inspections were made
once in six weeks or two months. The nurses weighed and measured
all school children once a year, and tested for vision; and if they
found a defect the physician made an examination. Six dental
clinics provided free dental care to all needy school children.
School children outside Winnipeg proper were inspected once a
year by the 32 provincial public-health nurses. The yearly inspec
tions included height and weight measurements. This provided for
about half the school population of the Province outside Winnipeg;
for the remaining rural sections there was no provision.
No plan had been developed for review o f the school medical re
ports by the case workers on the staff nor for the follow-up o f the
school examinations. The school nurses wTere very active in having
physical defects corrected, and this work was left to them unless
there was some chronic trouble.
Malnutrition.— In Winnipeg if the school nurses in their annual
inspection of school children found underweight children an entry
was made on the medical card indicating that the medical inspector
was to reweigh these children. A report was also sent to the parents.
There were no nutrition clinics in the schools, but the nurses gave
some individual instruction, and the Woman Teachers’ Club was
financing lunches o f milk and crackers in one school that had a high
percentage of undernourished children. The Winnipeg General Hos
pital and the Children’s Hospital each conducted a nutrition class
and undernourished children were referred to these.
In the 19 rural municipalities and 11 suburban sections where the
32 provincial public-health nurses were stationed the underweight
and undernourished children were formed into weekly nutrition
classes after the yearly school examinations. The nurses visited the
homes and instructed the mothers in regard to health habits and
food, as did the staff workers and friendly visitors also. I f children
were seriously undernourished the nurses communicated wrth the
commission in regard to extra diet. It was not known how many
mothers’ aid children were underweight or were attending the nutri
tion classes.
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
M ENTAL HEALTH
Available facilities.
At the time of the study a psychologist was about to take charge
o f the psychological work in the public schools, the teachers referring
children who were retarded or who seemed mentally deficient to this ^
department for examination and assignment to a grade or to a special
class. Physical examinations preceded the psychological examina
tions (the school physical inspection was sometimes considered suffi
cient). The psychological department had no social worker; the
school nurses visited the homes of deficient children and secured
family and developmental histories. It was expected that much
emphasis would be placed on behavior problems, but at the time of
the study the department had not yet undertaken this work.
Excellent facilities existed in Winnipeg for the diagnosis and
treatment o f mental defect and disease. The Psychopathic Hos
pital adjoined the Winnipeg General Hospital and each used the
facilities of the other. Both the Psychopathic Hospital, which ac
commodated 50 patients, and the clinic maintained by this hospital
were supported by the provincial government and thus served the
entire Province. Follow-up work was done by one of the two psy
chiatric social workers connected with the clinic if this seemed neces
sary; or by a staff visitor, or by a friendly visitor, or by all three
working together.
• •
.
i
There were two other hospitals for mental diseases in the Province
outside Winnipeg, also an institution for the feeble-minded. These
hospitals did not maintain clinics, nor were there any traveling
clinics in the Province.
In Winnipeg and the suburbs it was a simple matter to secure
psychological examinations and advice in regard to retarded and
subnormal children, and it was the intention of the mothers’ aid
workers in Winnipeg to obtain expert advice on all such problems.
I f the difficulty seemed to be simply one of retardation the school
psychologist was consulted; if mental defect or disease seemed to be
involved the clinic at the Psychopathic Hospital was used. Children
whose fathers had been or were insane were not examined as a mat
ter of routine, but sometimes arrangement was made for examina
tion at the psychiatric clinic, especially if these children were back
ward in school or showed symptoms of mental unbalance. The
Psychopathic Hospital often knew the family histories of children
whose fathers had been committed to a hospital for the insane, as
such commitment could be made through this hospital. I f children
showed behavior difficulties an effort was made to interest them in
club activities or to get the help of a “ big brother ” or a “ big sister.”
I f such methods were not adequate it was the policy of the commis
sion to have these children examined by a psychologist or a
psychiatrist.
Outside Winnipeg the reports from the ungraded schools ren
dered it difficult to diagnose retardation and the great distances
prevented the use of the facilities of any of the hospitals for mental
diseases. The only service that could be provided was that given b y ,^
the friendly visitors, who might be helped by suggestions from a staff
visitor.
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A mentally defective child needing institutional care would be put
on the waiting list for permanent custodial care.
HOUSING
Compared with the housing problem in many cities in the United
States, the housing conditions in Winnipeg seemed excellent. The
families both in Winnipeg and in the country lived in cottage
houses with abundance o f sunshine, fresh air, light, and play space.
The wide streets and shade trees gave an impression of space and
quiet beauty. The majority o f the homes even in the city had a
small flower plot or border, and the windows were full o f blooming
plants. In the country vegetable gardens were the rule.
No family occupied less than three rooms. Generally there were
four or more. There was a living or sitting room, though some
times a pleasant kitchen did duty for sitting room as well. In
Winnipeg a few houses occupied by mothers* aid families had bath
rooms, and the others had inside toilets; but outside the city the
majority o f the toilets were outside. There was no running water,
gas, nor electricity in the Province except in the towns. Most of the
mothers cooked with coal or wood, and some used oil stoves in
summer. There was no great need o f ice; the cellars were used for
cooling.
In considering where a family should live care was given to the
character o f the neighborhood and the physical condition o f the
house. A family might be advised to move from a lonely country
house to a hamlet or town for the sake o f better educational or other
community advantages. The maximum rent allowed for a mother
and two children was $20 per month; for a mother and three chil
dren, $25 a month; for a mother and four children, $30 or $35 a
month. However, a mother might take women boarders to make up
the rent if it exceeded that allowed in the budget. There were 263
mothers who owned their homes in whole or in part and 113 others
owned their farms in whole or in part.
The following case story illustrates the efforts made in regard to
proper housing for mothers’ aid families:
Mrs. H . had five children under 7 years of age and was expecting a baby in
two months. The family was destitute because of the long sickness and previous
unemployment of the father, and Mrs. H . in her extremity had sold her furni
ture. When her husband died her neighbors took her and the children into
their homes, and all the payment she could promise was the remnant of
bedding still unsold. A t this stage the mothers’ aid worker began to help.
As it was essential that Mrs. H. have rest and special nourishment before
her confinement, a furnished room was found for her and the youngest child,
and the four older children were placed temporarily in a children’s home.
While Mrs. H . was in the hospital the ladies’ auxiliary collected furniture
and gave the mothers’ aid visitor money to buy what was necessary, so that
when Mrs. H. and her new baby were ready to leave the hospital a little com
fortably furnished cottage was ready. The cottage had been thoroughly cleaned
by two other mothers receiving a id ; good fires and an appetizing meal com
pleted the welcome home. Three days later the visitor brought home the four
older children.
94535°— 28------14
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202
ADMINISTRATION- OF MOTHERS’ AID INT TEN- LOCALITIES
EDUCATION
COOPERATION W IT H THE SCHOOLS AND FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION
Contacts with the schools.
The visitors planned to keep in close touch with the schools, and
they could do this in Winnipeg and the suburbs. Visit to the
schools were frequently made. In country districts the school
teacher often was a friendly visitor as well. The teachers sent to the
mothers’ allowances commission every quarter a copy of their quar
terly or monthly report to the parents. One of the city workers re
ceived copies of these reports monthly for each child in school under
her supervision.
Provision for handicapped children.
The physically handicapped child.—The public schools had one
sight-conservation class^but no provision for the education of deaf,
crippled, or other physically handicapped children, nor were there
any open-air classes. The Province maintained an institution for the
education and vocational training o f the blind.
The mentally handicapped child.—There were 26 special classes
in the public schools in which children were enrolled on recommenda
tion of the psychological department of the schools.
Provision for children wishing further education.
No scholarships were available except those in the four colleges,
but evidently the commission made an effort to assist and to en
courage children to obtain educational advantages and applied with
careful consideration for individual cases the ruling requiring the
equivalent of the child’s wages after he was 15 years old to be
deducted from the grant if he did not go to work.
One of the exceptions to the ruling that all children must go to
work at 15 years or the equivalent of their earning capacity be
made up in some other way is shown in the following case story:
Mrs. L., who had been a widow for five years, was living on a farm with her
four children, the oldest of whom was 15-year-old Marie, when she applied
for aid in 1921. She had made an unsuccessful effort to support herself and
her children by selling milk to campers in the summer and raising vegetables to
live on through the winter. She wished to sell her farm, pay her debts, and
move to Winnipeg so that Marie might go to high school. When this was
done Marie obtained work in a private family to pay for her room and board
and graduated from high school. In 1923, at 17 years of age, she secured a
permit to teach in the country at a salary of $90 a month. O f this she sent
home $35 a month. In the fall she was told that the permit could no.t be
continued; and as she had sent home all the money she could spare she could
see no way of going to normal school. The mothers’ aid visitor took the
matter up with a member of the provincial department of education, who
advanced Marie’s tuition as a personal loan. The mothers’ allowances com
mission made a special concession in permitting her to take the year’s training
without contributing to the family support, and they also increased the grant
from $53 to $76. Marie, however, earned her room and board. The next year
she passed her examination and was given a school in the country with the
promise of one nearer home. She was planning to help a younger sister take
the teachers’ training course. The 16-year-old son was given special permission
to attend school to make up for time lost when he was delivering milk on the
farm. He earned his food and clothing allowance after school hours.
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Several boys and girls were taking business courses in evening
schools. Apprenticeship was not greatly encouraged except when a
child had a special aptitude, because of the small wages earned while
learning. Two boys were studying engineering in railway shops,
and two were learning printing. Six boys and girls were taking day
business courses, four in high school and two in commercial schools.
A few children were taking piano lessons which were provided free
or were paid for by money earned by the child or the mother by some
extra work. The workers were eager to find such opportunities, and
one visitor had secured free violin and piano lessons for three chil
dren in one family, all of whom played in a church orchestra.
SCHOOLING AN D W ORK OF CHILDREN 14 AN D 15 YEARS OLD
The child-labor, compulsory-education, and mothers’ aid laws.
The compulsory-education and child-labor laws5 required school
attendance from 7 to 14 years o f age. Any school board having an
attendance officer, however, might by by-law require children to re
main in school until 15 years o f age. School attendance was required
between 14 and 16 years o f age if the child was not employed in
industry, on the farm, or at household duties. Boys 13 years old
could obtain employment certificates permitting them to work in
stores not more than two hours a day on school days or eight hours
a day on Saturdays and holidays. The law did not allow boys under
14 or girls under 15 years of age to be employed in factories. In
Winnipeg school attendance was required to the age o f 14, and a
child had to remain in school until the close of the school term during
which he attained the full age of 14 years. There were no continuation schools.
The mothers’ aid law did not specify the age at which grants
should cease, but the mothers’ allowances commission had ruled that
they should be given only to the age of 15 years, regardless of the
child’s health or school grade. Until 1923 the commission had been
liberal in permitting children to continue in school to the age o f 16
years, but with the necessity for retrenchment the ruling that all
children should go to work at 15 was applied. Furthermore, it was
required that the child’s contribution to the family in wages must
be made up by some other member of the family or a relative if the
child continued in school.
Children in school and at work.
There were 111 children (56 boys and 55 girls) 14 and 15 years of
age in the families receiving aid; 76 of them were 14 years old and
35 were 15 years old. O f these 111 children 84 were attending school,
18 were working, and 9 were neither attending school nor working.
5 Manitoba, Stat., Consolidated Amendments 1924, ch. 164, sec. 3, p. 1208 ; Rev. Stat.
1913, ch. 180, secs. 19—20, pp. 2 6 4 1 -2 6 4 2 (Consolidated Amendments 1924, ch. 180 pp.
1 3 3 8 -1 3 3 9 ), Rev. Stat. 1913, ch. 70, secs. 5 -6 , pp. 1 0 5 2 -1 0 5 3 (Consolidated Amendments
1924, ch. 70, pp. 4 9 3 -4 9 4 ) .
Ü'
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ADMINISTRATION OF MOTHERS’ AID IN TEN LOCALITIES
Children in school.—Among the 84 children 14 and 15 years old
attending school were 43 boys and 41 girls. The grade and type of
school in which they were enrolled are shown in the following table :
N u m ber
o f
c h ild r e n
Ilf
and
15
gra d e
and
ty p e
yea rs
o f
o ld
in
sc h o o l;
sch ool
at
th e
M a n ito b a ,
tim e
o f
th e
stu d y,
by
C anada
Children 14 and 15 years old attending school
Total
43
Total______ _
Elementary school:
Second grade..
Third grade. . .
Fourth grade..
Fifth gradeL—
Sixth grade___
Seventh grade.
Eighth grade..
High school:
First year____
Second year__
Third year___
Business school. . . .
Girls
Boys
Total
Grade or type of school
14years 15years
34
1
1
7
9
7
11
10
4
1
41
9
1
•
8
10
1
1
7
3
3
1
Total
1
1
14years 15 years
36
1
2
6
12
2
6
12
11
1
2
9
5
5
1
5
1
2
2
The two 15-year-old girls in business school and the 15-year-old
boy in the third year o f high school had been given special permis
sion to continue in school, and an allowance was being continued for
a 15-year-old boy in the second year of high school who had just
become 15 and had not yet found work; but no allowances w ere'l^’
granted to two other 15-year-old boys in the second year of high
school and to three boys in the first year o f ’ high school, although
none of the five had yet been able to find work. The 15-year-old
boy in the eighth grade was earning $12 a month for work outside
school hours. The 14-year-old girl in the second grade was mentally
defective, and the 15-year-old girl in the fourth grade was under
the care o f a tuberculosis clinic.
Occupations and earnings o f the working children.—The occupa
tions o f the 18 working children 14 and 15 years o f age were as
follow s:
Number of
children
Number of
children
Total______________________ —
18
Girls--------------------------------------
8
B o y s _________________________
10
Delivery boy-----------------------------------Office and messenger boy---------------In printing office---------------------------Clerk in bank----------------------------------
4
8
2
1
Houseworker___________________
Factory worker____________
Clerk in store______ __________
Clerical worker__|._________________
3
2
2
1
All these working children were 15 years old except one delivery
boy, who was 14. This boy and five others had left school in the
eighth grade; another was in the sixth grade, four were in the
seventh, and six were in the high school (four in the first year, two
in the second). For one child the grade was not reported.
^
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MANITOBA, CANADA
The monthly earnings o f the working children were as follows:
Number of
children
Total_________________________________________________________
18
_____________
$20~ under $30___ :__________________________________________________
$30, under $40________________________________________
$40, under $50_____________________________________________________
$50 or over--------------------------------------------------t------------------------------------
2
8
3
1
4
This list includes, however, the earnings o f a 16-year-old boy for
whom some data were reported and does not include one o f the
14-year-old children, who was working as an apprentice in a printing
office and receiving no wages. One of the four children earning $15
a month received her board in addition, and it is probable that two
o f the other three did also, as they were employed at housework, the
fourth being a clerk in a country store. The amounts contributed
by these children to the family support varied, the majority giving
approximately half their earnings. Two o f the three girls who were
doing housework contributed $3 a month and one contributed $5 a
month. The girl who was clerk in a country store and earning $15
did not contribute anything to the support of the family.
Children neither in school nor at work.
Among the nine children who were neither attending school nor
working were two 15-year-old girls and two 14-year-old boys who
were temporarily out of work. Two 14-year-old girls were staying
at home to help their mothers, who were ill, and one 14-year-old girl
who could not attend school on account o f trouble with her eyes was
also helping at home. One 14-year-old boy had to stop work on
account o f illness. For a 15-year-old boy no further information
was obtained.
Illustrative case history.
The following case history illustrates the responsibility assumed
by working children:
Mrs. M. was granted aid from November, 1918, to May, 1923, for four children
aged 15, 12, 4, and 2. Thomas, the oldest hoy, had started to work in a garage,
and during the two years he had been at work he had not only contributed to
the family the amount required by the commission but kept up the repairs on
the house, buying the paint to repaint it and doing the work himself in the
evenings. In the year prior to the study the side of the cellar had fallen in,
so that it was necessary to rebuild it and repair the plumbing. Thomas had
been saving to buy some new clothes and have a holiday; but he went to the
bank, drew out all his money, and told his mother to call the workmen. His
savings would make the first payment, and he would pay the rest monthly.
The mothers’ allowances commission granted a special allowance, however, and
the boy started to save again for his clothes. When his wages were raised to
those of the average working man he told the visitor that the family could
manage without the grant, though there were still two children in school; and
with the boy’s promise to assist his mother until the younger children were able
to take his place the grant was canceled. The visitor telephoned to Thomas’s
employer that the whole responsibility of the home would now be upon the
boy’s shoulders. Two weeks later the mother stated that Thomas had been
given charge of a department and his wages raised. To make up for the lost
vacation the boy’s employers took him with them on a motor trip during which
he had charge of the c a r ; he had a good holiday and was treated well.
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A D M IN IS T R A T IO N
O F M O T H E R S ’ A ID
IN
TEN
L O C A L IT IE S
EDUCATIONAL W ORK FOR THE MOTHERS
A few mothers were enrolled in English or sewing classes. Very
few receiving aid could not speak English; these were encouraged,
but not required, to attend classes in English.
RECREATION
The budget carried an item for recreation, allowing $1.25 a month
for a family consisting o f a mother and three children. This had to
cover also such expenses as those incidental to health and education.
Employed minors up to 18 years of age were allowed $5 a month for
incidentals (not including clothing); those between the ages of 18
and 20 were allowed 20 per cent of their wages in addition to this $5;
and the older brothers and sisters (21 years of age or older) were
allowed 30 per cent o f their wages in addition to the $5.
Outdoor sports in winter and summer were much enjoyed. The
schools were not used as social centers in Winnipeg, though a few
community clubs met in the schoolhouses. In the country the schools
were used for all kinds of entertainment. Probably the most im
portant source of social life, especially in the country, was the church.
Every effort was made by the mothers’ aid visitors to keep the church
connections o f the families close and well knit. Some memberships
in the Young Men’s Christian Association or the Young Women’s
Christian Association had been granted by the commission. Boy
Scout and Girl Scout troops were organized in the large towns, but
not many mothers’ aid children belonged. There were not many
libraries or playgrounds except in Winnipeg. A few families owned
pianos or phonographs or had contracted for them before the father’s
death. Often the relatives would pay the balance due so that the
family could keep them.
There were a number of fresh-air camps to which mothers and chil
dren were sent from Winnipeg for a two weeks’ summer outing. The
Roman Catholic organizations conducted one camp, the Jewish group
maintained one, the Robertson Memorial Settlement had two cottages
for mothers with babies, and one camp for boys and girls was main
tained by the business men o f the city. About 50 mothers’ aid fam
ilies were sent to these camps through the help of the city auxiliary
o f friendly visitors, who raised the funds for food and traveling
expenses.
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