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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
WOMEN'S BUREAU
I
A SURVE~ ..
OF THE SHOE INDUSTRY
IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
-r•
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•
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
FRANCES PERKINS, SECRETARY
WOMEN'S BUREAU
· MARY ANDERSON , DIRECTOR
BULLETIN OF THE
WOMEN'S BUREAU, No. 121
A SURVEY OF THE SHOE INDUSTRY
IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
By
AGNES L. PETERSON
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON: 1935
For aale by the Superintendent of Documents, Waahincton, D.C.
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CONTENTS
Page
Letter of transmittaL _ _ _ _ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ ____ _ ____ _ __ _ ____
Part !.-Introduction______________________________________________
Number of plants_ _ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ _ ___ __ __ __ _ _ __ __ _
Contract shops ____ .___ ________________________________________
Time in present location_________ __ ____________________________
Union plants _______ ~------- ---------------------------------Type of shoe manufactured______ _______________ ________________
Occupations____ ______ ___ __________________ ___________________
Number of workers-pay-roll data, 1932, 1933________ _____ _______
Statistical summary___________________________________________
Importance of the industry __________________________________ ___
Part IL-Irregularity of employment____ ________ ________________ ____
Overtime______ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _
Scheduled hours_______ ___ ____________________________________
In selected week, 1933 _____________________________________
Weeks worked in 1932____________________ _______ ______________
Time with the firm___ _____________ ____ _________ __ ____________ _
Part III.-Fluctuation in the production of shoes_____________________
In the United States, 1928- 1932________________ ________________
In New Hampshire, selected plants, 1929- 1932 ___________ ________
Part IV.-Earnings_ _ _ _ ___ ___ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ __ _____ _ __ ___ __ __
Code of fair competition in boot and shoe industry________________
Earnings in the various plants_____________ _____ ________________
Median earnings, by plant_________________ ___ _________________
Distribution for selected week in 1933, by plant_____ ___ ___________
Distribution for average week in 1932_______ ___ ___ ______ ________
Earnings by type of shoe and department__________ _____ ___ _____ _
Selected week in 1933________________________ ______________
Welt shoes___________________________________________
McKay shoes__________________________________ ___ ____
Other shoes_ ______________ ________ __ _________________
Average weekly earnings for 1932___________________________
Earnings in the selected occupations_____________________________
Median earnings an3 time with firm_________ __________ __________
Welt plants ______ _______________ __ ___ __________________ __
McKay plants ____________________·________________________
Other plants ------- - ---- ---- --~---- ----- ------- ----------Part V.-Piecework and the setting of basic rates ______ _______________
Methods of fixing rates___ ___ _______________________ ________ __ _
A comparison of earnings on eight skilled operations _______ ________
Attainment of basic rate by employees selected as examples by firm_
Part VI.-Working conditions ___ _______ ______________ _____________ _
Introduction ___ _________________________________ _____ _____ ___ _
General summary_____________________________________________
Workrooms___ ________________ __ ___ ____ __________________ _
Ventilation in shoe fa ctories _______________________________ _:____
Notes on ventilation in the shoe plants______ __ ______ _____ ___
Lighting ________________________________________________ .- _ __
Natural____________________________________ ___ __________ _
Artificial______ ______ _________________ ____ _______ ____ _____
Notes from schedules______________________________________
Seating_ _________________ ____________________________ ___ _____
Toilet facilities for women______________________________________
Washing facilities____________________________________ _____ _____
Drinking facilities _______________________ ____________________ - Lunch rooms, rest rooms, locker rooms_ __________________________
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IV
CONTENTS
Page
Part VIL-Contract plants_________________________________________
Grouping by location_______________________ _______ __ _____ _____
Limitation of operations__________ _________ ___ _______________ __
Changes in processes during May and June _______ .:________________
Accepted union policies_________________ _______________________
Launching operations on a shoe string___________________________
Working conditions_________________ _______ _____ ______________ _
Part VIII.-Policies and practices of management___ _____ _____________
Introduction___________ ____ ______________ _____________________
Who determines policies _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ ___ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ _
Opinions of labor organization________________ __________________
Source of employees_________________ ________________________ __
Who hires____ __________ __________________ ________________ ____
Spread-the-work program _____ ______ __________________________ _
Stabilization of employment__ ____ _____________________________ _
Policies that the firms considered especially favorable to employees__
Shut-downs___ _____ _______________________________________ ___
Part-time employment______ __ ____________ _______ _____ ___ ______
Policies and methods in the setting of piece rates ____ __________ ____
Part IX.-Hazards in connection with the use of quick-drying solvents__
Use of benzol in New Hampshire plants_________ _____________ ____
Appendixes:
Standards for installation and maintenance of toilet facilities_______
Sanitary drinking facilities _______________________ - __ _ _ __ __ __ __ _
Occupational poisoning and hazards from certain forms of shoe dressings_______________________________________________________
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TEXT TABLES
1. Scope of earnings information, by type of shoe____________________
2. Scheduled hours of work during selected week in 1933, by type of shoe_
3. Median earnings for 1 week in 1933 and median of average earnings
for all weeks worked in 1932___ _______________________________
4. Median of earnings for selected week in 1933 and median of average
weekly earnings in 1932, by plant______________ ____________ ___
5. Earnings of men and women in 20 factories for 1 week in 1933, by
plant____ _______ _____________ ______________________________
6. Average weekly earnings of men and women in 23 factories in 1932,
by plant___ ___________ _________________ _____________________
7. Earnings in various departments in selected week in 1933 and average
for weeks worked in 1932______________ _____ __ ________________
8. Median earnings in selected occupations, 1 week in 1933 and average
for weeks worked in 1932__________ ___________________________
9. Rates of wages for 1932 set by written or oral agreement between
employers and union employees in the shoe industry for Haverhill,
Mass., and basic rates in 11 New Hampshire firms, 8 skilled occupapations____________ ______________________ ____ ____ ___________
10. Relation of basic rate to earnings in 8 skilled occupations in 11 selected
firms____________________ __ ______ __ ___ ____________________ __
11. Operators and their occupations selected by firms as fair examples of
a normal week's earnings in 1932, with supplementary data from
Women's Bureau 1932 schedules, showing year's earnings, weeks
worked, highest and lowest week's earnings, etc_________________
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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT
OF LABOR,
WOMEN'S BUREAU,
Washington, August 17, 1934.
MADAM: I have the honor to transmit the report of this Bureau's
survey of the boot and shoe industry in New Hampshire, made under
your instructions in 1933 in response to a request of the Governor.
The report covers earnings and their fluctuation, for both sexes;
working conditions, with special reference to hazard; scheduled hours;
and an inquiry into conditions in the industry in general.
I acknowledge with grateful appreciation the cooperation of the
employing firms, who courteously supplied pay-roll data and various
other types of information.
The survey was conducted by Agnes L. Peterson, at the time assistant director of the Women's Bureau, who also wrote the preliminary
report of the findings . The complete report has been written by
Miss Peterson and Harriet A. Byrne, assistant editor.
Respectfully submitted.
M~RY ANDERSON, Director.
Hon. FRANCES PERKINS,
Secretary of Labor.
T
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A SURVEY OF THE SHOE INDUSTRY IN
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Part 1.-INTRODUCTION
At the request of the Governor of New Hampshire the Women's
Bureau made a survey of wages, scheduled hours, and working conditions in shoe factories in that State during May, June, and the first
2 weeks of July 1933. In the e~rly spring strikes had occurred in the
cities and towns of Manchester, Nashua, Derry, Raymond, and Keene,
being confined largely to factories making McKay shoes, almost
wholly women's shoes. The results of the strikes varied from plant
to plant, some closing their doors and removing, · some signing with
the union before and some after the actual walkout, and others granting wage increases without signing with the union.
Number of plants
According to the census of manufactures of 1931 there were 63
establishments in New Hampshire making boots and shoes other
than rubber. 1 Twenty-eight factories in nine cities and townsClarement, Derry, Dover, East Rochester, Keene, Manchester,
Nashua, Portsmouth, and Raymond-were included in the study
made by the Women's Bureau. Four were branch factories operated
under one central management, as were 2 of the others, and 2 plants
were branches of companies not all of whose branches were surveyed;
the remaining 20 were operated under independent management.
Several of the employers interviewed stated that there were too
many shoe factories for the output required; plants making cheap
shoes had sprung up in great numbers in the past few years. Firms
that make high-grade shoes reported difficulty in keeping up to the
pace of change in style, and the business in some of these plants had
fallen off to a point that threatened extinction.
In a brief 2 prepared by Dr. Charles E. Persons it was said, in effect,
that new factories may be set up with ease, since machinery may be
leased rather than bought, and shoe-string financing can be reduced
to the brass tipping of the string. The shoe manufacturers suffer
from a prevalence of a flood of destructive competition which overrides all barriers and undercuts all standards.
Contract shops
Of the 28 plants, 6 factories reported that they operated under contract with some other plant. Only one of these contract shops made he
entire shoe. The remaining 5 had some of the operations done elsewhere. One shop engaged in making, lasting, and finishing; 1 in
1 U .S. Bureau of the Census.
Census of Manufactures, 1931. New Hampshire. Release, Apr . 20, 1933.
2 Persons, Charles E . Brief prepared in support of Labor's proposals for inclusion in the code of fair competition for t he Boot and Shoe Industry and presented by several labor representatives at the public hea.ring,
Sept. 12, 1933.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
cutting and stitching; another in cutting, making, lasting, and finishing; and the other 2 in cutting, finishing, and packing.
All the contract shops worked on women's McKay shoes and may
be considered factories in embryo. The treasurer of one of the larger
firms said: "We all began that way, without machines; cut and
packed, and let contracts for lasting, finishing, and stock fitting. We
employed 5 cutters and 3 to 4 in the packing department. Later we
rented lasting and making machines."
Time in present location
The shoe firms included in the survey varied considerably in the
length of time they had been established in business in their present
location. Only 1 of the 6 contract shops had operated more than a
year, the plant tabulated with the McKay plants. Three had
operated elsewhere previously. Of the 22 other factories, 1 had
operated for
years, another for 3, and another under the present
management for 4 years; 7 had operated from 5 to 7 years; and 12
had a record of 10 years and over, 2 of them having been in the same
locality for 30 years.
Union plants
Ten of the twenty-eight firms visited operated union plants, the
union contracts having been signed in the spring of 1933; all were
making McKay shoes. They employed more than one-fourth (26.7
pe1c :m t) of the 6,292 persons in the plants surveyed. Five were large
plants (including the largest contract shop), employing a total of
1,602 persons- 751 men and 851 women. The other 5 were the remaining contract plants-the small ones-employing a total of only
69 men and 10 women.
These 5 small shops and the 1 larger contract plant are of interest in
operating under union rates and conditions that do not permit an
individual to take a contract and hire workers at his own rates, but
require that he pay the union scale on all operations. Because together they employed 0nly 10 women, the 5 small shops are not included in the earnings figures in this report, but it is interesting that
in the week in 1933 for which pay-roll figures were secured, a date
before the strike, they paid 5 of the 10 women less than $8 and 28
of the 69 men less than $10. The sixth contract shop, having more
than 100 employees, is tabulated with regular factories in the section
on earnings, but it is 1 of 3 firms with a median for men of less than
$13 and 1 of 8 firms with a median for women of less than $9.50.
Type of shoe manufactured
The 23 factories (including the largest contract shop) that made a
complete shoe may be classified as to product as follows:
Welt shoes exclusively-men's or men's and boys' in all but 2 .
plants, one of which made children's, women's, and misses', and the
other men's, wom~n's, and children's-7 plants:
cKay shoes exclusively- women's in all but 2 plants, which made
misses' and children's shoes-14 plants. (Includes the largest contract shop.)
Women's welt and compo 3 shoes (1 plant) and women's compo
shoes (1 plant).
n~
• This term refers to the method of attaching the sole to the upper part of the shoe.
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INTRODUCTION
3
The machine for making welt shoes, so called, is used for medium
and better grades of shoes. By one operation of this machine both
the welt (a narrow strip of leather to which the outsole is to be stitched)
and the upper are sewed to the insole through the lip of the insole,
leaving the inside surface of the shoe perfectly smooth.
The McKay method is very extensively used in medium weight and
cheaper shoes for many kinds of wear. The sole is attached to the
upper by a machine that sews through the outsole, the upper, and the
insole. In this method the stitches appear on the inside of the shoe,
and for this reason a strip of lining is pasted into the bottom of the
inside of the shoe to cover up the stitches.
The compo method of shoemaking is one in which the sole is attached to the upper by cement, put on by a machine process. No
sewing or tacks are required.
According to a statement of someone in the industry, Goodyear
welt in women's footwear has been supplanted in a large measure by
the McKay shoe, and this must compete with the quicker method of
construction, namely, com po type. Fewer shoe workers are needed
because many operations on each of these types of shoes have been .
eliminated.
Occupations
In a discussion of workers employed in any industry it is well to
acquaint the reader with the occupations in which they are engaged.
Variations from plant to plant were noted in the departments as well
as in the occupations. A general classification of the departments in
the shoe industry is as follows:
1. Upper leather or cutting.
2. Sole leather.
3. Stitching or fitting.
4. Lasting.
5. Bottoming.
6. Finishing. 4
7. Treeing, packing, and shipping. 4
For purpose of tabulation in this study the following combinations
have been used, and the workers distributed in the departments as
mentioned below:
1. Cutting (including 1 of fore-
going).
2. Stitching (3).
3. Stock fitting (2).
4. Making; lasting (4 and 5).
5. Finishing; packing (6 and 7).
Upper-leather or cutting departments.- Here the leather is cut by
hand or machine into the parts for the uppers of shoes; the cloth
trimmings, parts, and linings ~re cut by machine in another section of
this department. The edges of the pieces are beveled or skived so as
to be ready for stitching. All the pieces are counted and marked with
the proper size, assembled, and sent to the stitching or fitting department. The cutting is done by men, though women are employed in
this department as skivers, counters, and markers:
Stitching or fitting department.- The pieces that make up the top of a
shoe are sewed and fitted together in this department. There are
many different sections, each with a different type of operation.
Vamping, tip stitching, and edge stitching are the most important.
Vamping is particularly important, and in some factories men are
being employed at this job. However, the major part of the operators
are women and girls, most of whom must be able to operate power
machines.
, These last two considered as "finishing " in Bureau of Labor Statistics Bul. No. 579.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
Stock-fitting derartment.-Here part of the work of the sole-leather
room, so called m some factories, is done. The soles are cut and
prepared for use by being made the proper size and thickness. The
msoles to be used in making welt shoes are channeled, i.e., a ridge is
formed around the edge of the insole for attaching it to the upper.
Counters, toe boxes, and heels are prepared in this department. The
work here is largely a man's job.
Making; lasting.-Since in some of the factories included in the
study "making and lasting" were included in one department, this
classification has been given here. The term "making" frequently is
used to cover both lasting and bottoming, but here it is used to mean
only bottoming:
In the lasting department the finished upper, the insole, the counter,
and the toe box are brought together. Here the insole is tacked to the
last (a wooden mold shaped like a human foot) and the upper, the toe,
and the counter are put in place. The next operation, done by
machine, is "pulling over" the shoe, which consists of pulling the
upper tightly into place so that it fits evenly and smoothly, and driving
temporary tacks to hold the various parts in position for the next
operation.
The work of bottoming or "making" the shoe depends upon the
type of shoe being made, as explained elsewhere.
Proportionately few women ar:e employed in either the making or
lasting departments.
Finishing; packing departments.- Although there are four distinct
processes, :finishing, treeing, packing, and shipping, before the shoe
leaves the factory, these are here considered as finishing and packing.
In the :finishing departments the edges of the soles are covered
with black or some other colored dressing and the bottoms of the
shoes are cleaned, stained, and polished. The shoes are cleaned by
the treers, ironed, and given a coat of polish. After the final inspection and the stamping of .the name in the shoes they are read,v for
packing and shipping. In the packing room the shoes are paired,
brushed, wrapped in tissue paper, and boxed for shipping.
More nearly equal numbers of men and women are employed in
these departments than in any other division of a shoe factory.
Though machines are used exclusively in the boot and shoe industry, work in a shoe factory rarely means mere machine tending. A
large part of the workers are highly skilled. Cutters, for · the most
part hand operators, are most expert workers. In the stitching
department, where chiefly women are employed, the parts must be
quickly and accurately assembled and stitched perfectly. The men
and the comparatively few women employed in the lasting departments are responsible for the fit and appearance of the shoe, and for
this reason only skilled workers are employed here. Edge trimmers
wock on a machine, and like the McKay sewers and Goodyear welters ·
they are most skilled workers.
Number of workers-pay-roll data, 1932, 1933
To secure data showing comparative ea~ings of men an·d women,
such figures were secured for all productive shoe workers in the plants
included in the survey.
Facts concerning employment in each factory for a week in 1933
preceding the time of strike activities-the various weeks selected by
the employers as representative of full employment-were secured
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5
INTRODUCTION
for 6,292 workers, 3,032 women and 3,260 ·men. Earnings week by
week for all time worked in 1932 were recorded for 10,092 persons5,094 women and 4,998 men. (See table 1.)
TABLE
1.-Scope of earnings information, by type of shoe
Number of em ployees wit hNumber E arnings reported for 1 week Earnings report'ld for all weeks
of plants
in 1933
worked in 1932
T_y pe of shoe
Women
Total I Men
_ M_en_ I!_____
____
Total
Total- N u mber __ ___ ____ _
28
Percent_ ___ _____ __ -- ---- -- - ·
Welt ___ ___
______
------ - ----McKay
______
__ _____
___ --___ -__
Other 1_ _ ___ _____ __ ____________ _
Con tract_ ________ ________ ___ __ -]
7
14
2
3, 260
6. 292
100. 0
2, 101 I
3,533
579
I
I
791
51. 8
3, 032
48. 2
1, 212
1,679
889
1, 854
300
69
279
10
10, 092
100. 0
2, 717 6,621
754
Women
4, 998
49. 5
1, 544
3. 080
374
(3)
5,094
50. 5
i---i:-m
I
3, 541
380
(1)
1 1 made compo shoes only; other compo and welt .
2 These 5 contract shops made McKay shoes; not included in tabulation on earnings because of small
numbers-only 10 women employed.
a Not reported.
In the present survey of the shoe industry in New Hampshire four
important facts stand out1. The complex division of operations, varying from factory to factory.
2. The extensive use of machines in contrast to much hand work in
earlier times.
3. The prevalence of the piece-rate system of payment, resulting in
irregular earnings for many workers.
4. Great loss in earning power due to unemployment, either partial or
complete, and to cuts in wages.
STATISTICAL SUMMARY
Date of survey: May, June, and first half of July 1933.
Scope: 28 factories in 9 cities.--Claremont, Manchester, Dover, Derry, Keene,
Nashua, Raymond, East Rochester, and Portsmouth.
Ownership: 20 plants were operated under independent management and 8
were owned by persons controlling other shoe factories.
Type of plant: .
Six plants were contract shops; 1 having all operations is tabulated with the
regular factories. These latter made: Welt shoes only, 7 plants; McKay shoes
only, 14; welt and compo and compo only, 2.
Numb er of employees: 5
Welt plants, 1,212 men, 889 women.
McKay plants, 1,679 men, 1,854 women.
Compo plants, 300 men, 279 women.
Small contract plants, all McKay (5), 69 men, 10 women.
Total, 3,260 men, 3,032 women.
Union plants: 10 firms had signed union contracts since strike in the spring.
All were McKay plants. They employed about 27 percent of the 6,292 persons
in all 28 plants. Five were large plants and 5 were the sm all contract shops.
Scheduled hours: Ranged from 8% daily and 47½ weekly in 1 plant to 9% daily
and 54 weekly in another.
• Number employed in a weeki n the spring of 1933, seep. 11.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
Median earnings in a full week, 1933: 6
7 welt plants:
Range of median8
Men ___________________________________________ $11. 50 to $23. 75
Women ________________________________________
6. 35 to 17. 40
12 .McKay plants:
Men ___________ ____ _____________________ , ______ 12. 65 to 27. 55
Women ______ ______ ____________________________
5. 90 to 13. 25
1 compo
Menplant:
_____________ _________________________ ______________ 21. 00
Women ___________________________________________ ______ 15. 25
Per~:-./i
Pe;;i::Iet
Lowest and highest earnings, 20 plants, week in 1933 :
of
Below $5 _____ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ ___ _ 0. 5 to 15. 8
0. 6 to 42. 9
$30 and over___ ___ ______ _______ __________ _ . 5 to 35. 4
. 6 to 2. 7
Average earnings for all weeks worked in 1932:
Range of medi:lns
7 welt plants:
Men ________ _________ _____________________ _____ _
80 to $21. 45
Women ________ _____________ _______ ______ ___ ___ _ $9.
5. 60 to 16. 15
plants:
14 McKay
Men ___________________________________________
_ 5. 50 to 16. 10
Women _______________________________________ _ _ 3.
30 to 11. 20
2 compo
Menplants:
____________________________ ___ __ _______ __ _ _ 9. 80 and 16. 00
Women __ __ ______ ______________________________ _ 7. 50 and 12. 20
W eeks worked in 1932:
13 weeks or less:
Percent of men, from 14.4 in welt to 44.2 in McKay.
Percent of women, from 14.7 in welt to 47.1 in McKay.
Over 39 weeks:
Percent of men, from 28.5 in McKay to 71.8 in welt.
Percent of women, from 24 in McKay to 66.2 in welt.
IMPORTANCE OF THE INDUSTRY
To better understand the importance of the boot and shoe industry,
one must consider the figures giving the number of shoe workers
employed and the amount and value of the products. Under normal
conditions the output of this industry for the country as a whole was
valued at a billion dollars annually (figures for 1923); one-quarter of
this, or 250 million dollars, was distributed in wages. These wage
payments dropped approximately one-tenth from this level in 1925
and again in 1927, and even more in 1929; they had fallen by more
than one-third, to approximately 163 million, in 1931. 7 An estimate
of wages paid in 1932 was given as about 130 million, or a decrease
from the normal of close to one-half. During the first part of 1933 a
decline at a similar rate was noted.
In New Hampshire, the State in which the present survey was made,
the value of products in the boot and shoe industry in 1927 was close
to 50 million dollars; about one-fourth of this was distributed in
wages. In 1929 the value of products had increased about one-third,
to close to 67 million dollars, and wages had increased from 12 million
to about 15 million, but for a much larger average number of wap
earners, 14,544 instead of 12,114. The number of establishments
had increased from 63 in 1927 to 73 in 1929. 8
6 See first paragraph on p. 11.
1 U.S. Bureau of the Census. Fifteenth Census, 1930.
Industries, p. 802; ibid ., 1931, Release, Dec. 30, 1932.
s Ibid., 1929, vol. II. Reports by Industries, p. 803.
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Census of Manufactures, 1929, vol. II, Reports by
7
INTRODUCTION
A decided drop was noted in 1931, when the number of establishments, wages distributed, and value of products were not unlike those
of 1927. The average number of wage earners was larger, 13,847 as
compared with 12,114, though less than that for 1929. 9
In the census of occupations of 1930 10 close to 230,000 persons
reported their occupation as in the shoe industry, approximately
210,000 operatives and somewhat less than 20,000 laborers. This
was an increase of only 1.3 percent over the number in 1920, a high
peak having been reached but not held at some time during the decade.
As wil! be seen from the s~mmary following, .about two-fifths of the
operatives and one-fourth of the laborers were women.
Shoe workers in 1930 1
Total
TotaL ________________________________________________________
Men
228,317
Women
142,024
1 - - - - 1 - - - - + - --
Operatives, ----- - ------- ----- ----- --- --- - --- ---- -------- - --- ----- -L aborers__.___ ____ ________ _______ __ ________________________ _____ _____
1 U.S . Bureau of the Census.
tions, pp . 42, 44.
Fifteenth Census, 1930.
209,928
18,389
Population, vol. V .
128,377
13,647
86,293
-81,551
4, 742
General Report on Occupa-
During the past 10 years a great deal of distress has been caused
by apparent overproduction, resulting in the sale of millions of pairs
of shoes below cost. It has been estimated that 300 million pairs
represent the highest volume of production that can be absorbed at
fair prices and permit the payment of fair wages. In a period of 5
years, 1928 to 1932, production in the United States varied from somewhat more than 304 million pairs of shoes in 1930 to about 361>~
million pairs in 1929 .11
In New Hampshire the production of shoes in this same period
ranged from 20 }~ million pairs in 1932 to about 23 million pairs in 1929.
From these figures for 1932,12 New Hampshire is found to rank fifth
among the States as regards output of shoes, and according to the
census of 1930, fourth in the numbers employed. 13
The total production of men's shoes in the country during these 5
years was over 400 million pairs, an average of 83 million a year. 14
In this same period about 600 million pairs of women's shoes were
made, an average of almost 120 million a year. Production was
much more constant in the manufacture of men's than of women's
shoes. Of the former, almost 4¾ million pairs were produced in the
slackest month (November 1930) and 9}~ million in the peak month
(October 1929), and production was within 25 percent of the average
for the 5-year period in 52 of the 60 months. In contrast to this, the
production of women's shoes varied from less than 4 million pairs
(November 1931) to over 14 million (August 1929), and production
was within 25 percent of the average in only 42 of the 60 months.
During these same 5 years production fluctuated to a greater extent
in New Hampshire than in the United States as a whole. The output
o U.S. Bureau or the Census. Census of Manufactures, 1931. Release, Apr. 20, 1933.
10 U.S . Bureau of the Census. Fifteenth Census. 1930. Population, vol. V. General report on Occupations, pp. 42, 44.
11 U.S . Department of Commerce. Press releases on "Production of Boots and Shoes in the United
States, by States and Principal Classes," 1928- 32.
121dem.
1i U.S. Bureau or the Census.
Fifteenth Census, 1930. Population, vol. IV, Occupation by States.
1' U.S . Bureau of the Census. Press releases on the "Production of Boots and Shoes in the United States,
by States and Principal Classes," 1928-32.
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8
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
of men's shoes varied from a high point of somewhat over a million
pairs in August 1929 to a low point of 415,000 pairs in December 1931,
and was within 25 percent of the average in only 43 of the 60 months.
The high and low in the production of women's shoes were respectiv·ely
over a million pairs in September 1932 and only 232,000 pairs in
November 1931, output being withih 25 percent of the average in
only 33 of the 60 months.
Though a decrease in output of both men's and women's shoes occurred in the country as a whole from 1929 to 1932, in New Hrmpshire
there was a decided increase in the outpu.t of women's shoes. From
1928 to 1932 somewhat over 42 million pairs of men's shoes were made
in the State, an average of almost 8½ million a year. In the same
period nearly 40 million pairs of women's shoes were made, an average
of almost 8 million a year. While the production of men's shoes in
1932 was only 70 percent of the production in 1928, approximately
7 million pairs as compared with 10 million, the output of women's
shoes increased by 50 percent, from about 6 million to 9 million pairs.
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Part 11.-IRREGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
Irregularity of employment has long been a problem in the shoe
industry, for workers supposedly regularly employed often are without
work for hours at a time. These enforced idle hours decrease the
earnings of shoe workers, mainly pieceworkers, to a degree far greater
than the public realizes, yet they have come to be an accepted state
of affairs by shoe management and workers. In some factories the
workers look upon the irregularity as beyond the control of management, and SQ it is tolerated without the discussion that it deserves
and that would acquaint the public with this great problem.
Sometimes the causes of irregularity are ill-balanced crews, careless
management, or changes in the character of shoes ordered. Other
causes are beyond the control of management; for example, the breaking down of machinery in one department affects the flow of work on
subsequent operations. Cutters may be working full time and overtime while the remaining factory workers wait for their work to come
through, or the cutters may be "timed out" while other sections are
still working under press of orders. Fancy stitchers may loaf 1 while
plain shoes are being made. Perforators · and other specialists may
be laid off while models not calling for their skill are produced.
Seasonal aspects of orders on some types of shoes frequently are
responsible for an intermittent flow of work.
The owner of two of the plants included has given the following as
reasons for the seasonal nature of the industry.
The principal reason for the seasonal nature of the shoe industry is that purchasers, _particularly women, buy to a large extent on basis of style, color, and so
forth. Shoes, particularly women's, are not a standardized product. Public
taste is fickle. Styles and colors, sizes and widths, cannot be told long in advance.
Between seasons, manufacturers produce stock of staple variety. It is impossible
to forecast correctly all requirements of trade, and any attempt to do so results
in errors and forces sales below cost--a condition most demoralizing to business.
A certain flexibility in production is required; for instance, production must be
stepped up to make a new style which meets popular favor, and quickly reduced
when the demand falls off and the new style is less salable.
It was claimed that regularity of employment appears more
assured in men's than in women's shoes, since for the past 3 years the
pattern makers have indulged in an orgy of constantly changing
fashions in women's cheaper shoes. One owner stated that the life
of any one type of McKay shoe (mainly women's) is about 3 weeks.
A firm th~t ·expressed regret about time wasted in waiting for work
makes a practice of giving out information in advance with regard to
thinning out, or a slowing up or intermittent flow of work, and encourages workers to go home early on these days if they choose to do
so, rather than insistmg on their staying around in case work should
come in later. This policy is followed t_o good advantage, the stitchers
1 Loaf or loafing in the vernacular of the shoe worker means enforced idleness, and must not be confused
with the meaning of the word "loafing" as used generally.
9
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
(women) especially seeming to appreciate this consideration. They
are said to' be glad of a few hours off for personal matters when their
earnings are not curtailed more than those of others.
It was said of a few firms that workers in some departments were
not allowed to leave even though there was not enough work on hand
to be divided among all. Justification for a flexibility in hours was
claimed by the manufacturer just quoted. He argued thatSince flexibility in demand due to conditions that the shoe manufacturer cannot control causes flexibility in production, there must be flexibility of hours.
Manufacturers should be allowed to operate a greater number of hours at one
time than at another. This follows not from the wishes of the shoe manufacturer
but from the fact that the public demands the kind of shoes it wants and at the
times it wants them.
Better one body of employees working on a flexible schedule a reasonably
longer day at one time and shorter day at another than a number of employees
working only during brief periods of peak load and otherwise unemployed.
In commenting on the effect of reducing hours of work to a 40-hour
·
week he said thatAdditional cost due to the reduction of hours to 40 would not only result in a
direct increase in cost of labor, but . . . more machines, lasts, dies, and patterns
would have to be procured and utilized to produce even the same number of shoes.
The attitude of the industry toward regulation was expressed by
him when he stated thatRegular hours of employment and operation tend to economy and efficiency.
The inability to achieve regulation of hours is due not to a lack of effort or desire
on the manufacturers' part, but to conditions which they have been unable to
control.
OVERTIME
Considering the year in which this survey was made, it is not surprising to find the firms ·reporting only occasional overtime, or none
at all, during the year. One company reported some overtime the
week before Easter; another firm made a practice of continuing work
until 6 p.m. daily, and sometimes on Saturday afternoon, to m~ke
up for holidays. There were various other instances, but for the most
part the firms reported undertime rather than overtime, due to poor
conditions in the industry.
SCHEDULED HOURS
No data were available on the actual hours of work of individuals for
whom wage records were secured, though one firm kept a record of
days worked. 2 In most plants data on days worked could have been
computed and in some plants an estimate of hours worked probably
could have been made, built up from production and piece-rate
records, if time had permitted an examination of the daily production
slips from which entries on the pay roll are made~a long and costly
process.
In selected week, 1933
It is especially unfortunate that data on actual hours of work were
not available, and that ~only scheduled hours of plant operation could
be recorded. However, when it is understood that these scheduled
hours-i.e., the hours that the plants operated at the time the wage
2 A law of 1933 in New Hampshire now requires that every employer of women and minor workers shall
keep a true and accurate record of the hours worked by each.
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11
IRREGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
data were taken in 1933-usually indicated the time that the average
worker was on duty in a plant, even though not actually working, it
is clear that information on scheduled hours is significant, since in
most plants the employees were expected to be on hand in case work .
turned up.
To secure a record of practically full-time employment throughout
the plant, it was suggested to each firm that if one pay period did
not cover full-time work in all departments, the week of fullest employment in each department might be selected, regardless of date.
The request was made that the weeks selected should precede the
date of the strike. Only three firms found it necessary to stagger
the weeks reported, and in each of these the weeks were consecutive
and indicated the flow of work from one department to another.
Scheduled daily and weekly hours of work for 1 week in 1933 were
reported by the 28 plants. All but 4 of the plants reported a daily
schedule of 8% or 9 hours, equal numbers of plants reporting these.
In only 1 plant were the daily hours less than 8% and in only 3 (2
McKay and 1 compo) plants were they greater than 9. Twelve of
the nineteen McKay factories-not far from three-fifths (57 percent)
of the workers were in McKay plants-had scheduled daily hours of
9 or more, as compared with only 3 of the rem·aining 9 factories.
The maximum daily schedule was 9 hours and 50 minutes, reported
by 1 plant making McKay shoes.
As would be expected from the daily hours, the scheduled week
varied. An equal number of plants, 11, reported a scheduled week of
48 and of 50 hours, respectively; Eleven of the nineteen McKay
factories had scheduled weekly hours of 50 or more, as compared
with only 3 of the 9 welt and other factories. Only 1 -plant operated
less than 48 hours a week, and 3 more than 50; 1 had a scheduled
week of 54 hours.
The code now in effect in the shoe industry provides for a 40-hour
week. Se~ page 16 for a fuller discussion of the code.
TABLE
2.-Scheduled hours of work during selected week in 1933, by type of shoe
Number of employees
Number
of plants
reporting
Type of shoe
Total
Men
Women
Plants having scheduled daily hours
of-
Plants having scheduled weekly hours
of-
Over 9
and less
48
50
51 to 51
than 10
---- ------28 2 13
12
3 3 13 412
3
8½
9
--- -----Total. ••...
Welt _____________
McKay __________
Other ____________
6,292
3,260
3,032
I
2,101
3,612
579
1,212
1,748
300
889
1,864
279
I
7
19
2
---
2
2
5
7
10
1 ------
1 Includes 5 contract shops not included in earnings tables.
2 Includes 1 plant with 8½-hour schedule.
a Includes 1 plant with a 47½- and 1 with a 48},,-hour schedule.
• Includes 1 plant with a 49-hour schedule.
86938°-35-2
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2
1
3
5
7
2
'10
1 ---- --
2
1
. 12
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
WEEKS WORKED IN 1932
For a much larger group (10,092 workers) than was reported for
1 week m 1933, data were secured as to weeks worked in 1932.
These data support the statements in the foregoing with reference to
periods of idleness and suggest heavy turn-over in some plants.
Sufficient data on which to compute labor turn-over rates were not
secured by the Women's Bureau, but it was possible to obtain from
unpublished material of the Bureau of Labor Statistics facts regarding turn-over for 4 of the plants included in this study. For these
plants-3 welt and 1 McKay-the annual net turn-over rate for 1932
ranged from 15 .71 to 41.69. This highest turn-over rate was for a
plant making McKay shoes for girls, misses, and children, and the
next, 31.05, was for a welt plant making women's, misses', and children's shoes. The net turn-over rate for this same year for all the
plants in New H ampshire cooperating with the Bureau of Labor
Statistics was 9.37, as compared with 28 .62 for all boot and shoe
plants in the United States from which data were received by that
Bureau.
Great differences were noted between welt and McKay plants, and
also between men. and women, in number of weeks worked . In all
cases women had worked fewer weeks than men had worked.
The summary following shows for 4,998 men and 5,094 women the
percentages working for specified periods in 1932:
Welt (7 plants)
McKay (14 plants)
1
Other (2 plants)
W eeks worked in 1932
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
- -- - - - - - - - - -1 - - - - - - - - - - - --1----1--Total-Nu mber_ _________ ___ ________
P ercent______ ___ __ ___________
4 weeks and less___ ________ ___ ___ ________ __
5 to 13 weeks __ __ ______ ___ ________ _______ __
14 to 26 weeks_______ ______ ____ __________ __
27 to 39 weeks___ - --- --------------- - ---40 to 47 weeks_________ _______ ________ ___ __
48 to 52 weeks___ ___ ___ ____ _______ _______ __
52 weeks (12 mont hs) ______ ___________ ___ __
1
1,544
100. 0
1,173
100.0
1 - - - - - t -- - +-
3, 080
100. 0
-
3,541
100. 0
374
100. 0
380
100. 0
--t-- -- t - - - - 1 - - -
7. 8
6. 6
7. 4
6. 3
10. 1
61. 7
6. 7
8. 0
8. 4
10. 7
9. 5
56. 7
25. 3
18. 9
17. 4
9. 8
13. 8
14. 7
24. 5
22.6
18. 3
10. 6
13. 2
10.8
10. 7
9. 4
12. 0
50. 3
13. 7
8. 9
9. 5
8. 2
14. 2
45. 5
10. 9
6.1
3. 9
1.6
27.0
16.1
10. 4
7. 2
E xcludes 5 con tract shops.
In McKay plants large proportions of men as well as of women
were on the pay rolls for only short periods, well over two-fifths of
the men and close to one-half of the women being employed not over
3 months. Only about one-seventh of the men and one-tenth of the
women worked 11 months or more, less than 4 percent of the men
and less than 2 percent of the women working the full 52 weeks . In
contrast to this, more than three-fifths of the men and not far from
three-fifths of the women in welt plants were on the rolls at least 11
months, and employment for as little as 3 months was reported for
only about 1 in 7 of the men and a similar proportion of the women.
More than 10 percent of the men and 6 percent of the women in
these factories had worked for 52 weeks. In the two remaining
plants, about one-sixth of the men and more than one-fifth of the
women were employed not more than 3 months, and one-half of the
men and a somewhat smaller proportion of the women were on the
rolls at least 11 months. In welt plants about 7 percent of the men
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IRREGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT
13
and of the women, in contrast to about one-fourth of the men and
women in McKay plants, were on the rolls not more than 4 weeks.
Briefly, it was probably due largely to McKay plants having taken
on extra workers for rush periods that 44 percent of the men and 4 7
percent of the women had worked less than 14 weeks. In the other
plants, with fe wer -style changes and more regular employment, the
largest proportions had \vork:ed 11 months or more.
Some plants closed for a week about Christmas or July 4th for
stock taking and to make repairs, unless business was pressing . It
is due partly to this practice that such small proportions had worked
the full 52 weeks.
That the efforts of one firm (two branch factories covered) to stabilize employment, mentioned in the section on "Earnings in various
plants", have been successful is shown by the larger proportions of both
men and women employed for 11 mnnths or more in these plants than
in all welt plants combined. Three-fourths of the 544 men and somewhat more than seven-tenths of the 362 women employed in the two
factories had worked for as long as this, in contrast to about three-fifths
of the men and less than three-fifths of the women in all the welt plants
included. The plant referred to closed for the week in which fell
July 4th.
TIME WITH THE FIRM
The time they had been with the present employer was reported for
more than four-fifths (81.2 percent) . of the men in welt factories in
1932. Of these 1,254 men, almost two-thirds (64.8 percent) had been
in the employ of the firm for 5 years or more, arid close to one-fourth
(23.9 percent) for 10 years or more. Only about 1 in 20 had worked
less than 2 years.
For about three-fourths (76 percent) of the women in these factories
time with the firm was reported. Not far from thre~-fifths (56.9 percent) of the 891 women had been employed for 5 years or more, and
more than one-sixth (17.4 percent) for as long as 10 years. A smaller
proportion of women than of men had been with the firm less than a
year.
Time with the present firm was reported for only about one-half of
the men in McKay factories. Of these 1,593 men, just over one-sixth
(17 .3 percent) had been employed as long as 5 years; close to one-third
(30.7 percent) had been with the firm less than a year. This information was reported for a similar proportion of women. Only one-ninth
(11.2 percent) of the 1,711 women had been with the employer as long
as 5 years; for almost two-fifths (37.9 percent) the time was less than a
year.
In the plants making welt and compo or compo shoes only, the time
with the present firm was reported for 309 men, more than four-fifths
(82.6 percent) of the total in these plants. More than one-half (54
percent) had been with the firm 5 years or more, and very few bad
worked less than a year. More than half the women for whom this
was reported had been with the firm 5 years or longer, and a very
small proportion had worked less than a year.
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Part III.-FLUCTUATION IN THE PRODUCTION OF
SHOES
In the United States, 1928 to 1932
Mention was made in the introduction of the great :fluctuation in the
production of shoes during the 5 years 1928 to 1932, with the average
for 5 years used as a base. In the following discussion the average for
the 12 months of 1929 has been used as the base, since this is the first
year for which figures · are available for the factories in the present
survey .
It has been stated that :fluctuation from month to month was greater
in the production of women's than of men's shoes in the 5-year period.
As may be seen from the following, the greatest variation between high
and low months in the production of women's shoes was the 84.5 points
in 1931, while the greatest in men's shoes was the 40.5 points in 1929.
The least variation in women's shoes was the 57.8 points in 1928, and
for men's the 35.9 points in 1930. Viewed from another angle, it may
be seen that the variation in the index for the production of men's
shoes in the 5-year period was less than 5 points (35 .9 to 40.5), while
for women's shoes it was almost 27 points (57.8 to 84.5).
Variation in i n dex n u mber between hi ghest an d lowest month of shoe produ ction,
Unit ed States , 1928 to 1932
Year:
1928 __ __ ____ ____ __ _____________ ____ ___ ____
1929 __________ ____ __ _______________ _ --- -1930 ____ ____________ ___________________ ___
1931 ___ __ ___ ___________ _________ __ _____ ___
1932 ____ _______________ __________ __ __ ___ __
Men's
ahoes
3a
40.
35.
3~
36.
2
5
9
7
9
Women's
shoes
57. 8
64. 7
62. 3
84. 5
74. 9
In New Hampshire, selected plants, 1929 to 1932
In this study the production of shoes over the 4-year period, 1929 to
1932,in some of the plants was obtained as an indication of the trend of
business in the shoe industry. When the production is high, employment is high also; and when production is low, employment is adversely
affect ed. For 9 plants- 4 McKay, 3 welt, and 2 others-the index of
production for this period was computed with the monthly average for
1929 as a base. In the following summary the differences betweenhigh
and low months may be seen.
Vari ation in i ndex nu mber between highest and lowest month of shoe production, 9
New Hampshir e plants, 1929 to 1932
Plant
1929
1930
1931
1932
- - -- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - 1-- - - - -- -- - - - Welt:
47. 6
44. 1
98. 9
44. 1
40. 0
37.8
50. 2
51.4
84. 4
52.9
45. 3
53. 3
6____________________
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -__- -____
- - - -______
- - - - - -___
- - -____
- - - -__- -_______
- - - - - - -___
- - -________
- - - - - - - -_I•
7
131. 4
129. 0
147. 4
244. 0
126. 2
111.8
107. 8
91.0
110.6
175. 1
153. 6
144.1
134. 7
141.9
217. 9
309. 5
Ot'!" -:-:::: :::::: :: :::: :::: :::::::::::: :::: ::: :::::::_:::_:_-I
99. 1
147. 7
118. 8
110.8
129. 2
97. 6
106. 1
57.0
l_ _ -------- - ----- -- --- - - -- -- ---- ---- - - - - ---- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
2_______ -- -- ---- -- -- -- --- -- ---- - - - - --- - -- - - -- - - - -- -- -- -- --- -
3_- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -
McKay:
4_- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - 5__ - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
14
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FLUCTUATION IN THE PRODUCTION OF SHOES
15
As was true for the country as a whole, little variation was no ted in
the welt factories making men's or men's and boys'shoes. The greatest
difference was about 100 points for one plant in 1929, while for the
other two the differences were only about half-as much.
The greatest variation in the monthly indexes in 3 of the 4 McKay
plants, all making women's shoes, was for 1932. The differences
ranged from 134.7 points in 1 factory to 309.5 points in another. Such
fhictuations in production were accompanied by like variations in
the numbers employed, the results of which will be seen in th e payroll data for 1932.
For the two other plants, conditions were between the extremes of
welt and McKay.
The shoe industry has an unenviable position as regards seasonality ,
holding fourth place in the degree of seasonal unemployment among
24 important industries whose records for a 9-year period ending in
1931 were examined. · In the degree of seasonal unemployment the
shoe industry was exceeded only by women's clothing, automobiles,
and cement.
It has come to be recognized that the peak of production in the
spring is early, close to East er, and in the fall the high point is in
September or October. In this study the production records for th e
9 McKay plants show August and September as the months of
greatest productivity, with March in third place. For the 7 welt
and the 2 other plants, February and March (pre-East er) outranked
the other months.
From the summary following may be seen the rank of the months
as regards production in 1932 in the three types of plants .
Rank of months as regards production: Pairs of shoes produced in 18 New H ampshire plants in 1932
Welt (7 plan ts)
M cKay (9 plants)
M on th
Number
of pairs
Month
N umber
of pairs
M arch __________________ _
F ebruary ___________ _____
January ______ __________ _
August_ ________________ _
April ______________ _____ _
June ____________________ _
October ________________ _
September ______ ________ _
May ____________________ _
November ______________ _
430,820
427, 610
376,167
367,691
321, 171
316,255
306, 699
294, 425
289,525
268,680
236,198
235, 961
Au gust_ ______________ _
September _______ ____ _
March _______________ _
October ______________ _
February ___________ __
April__ _______________ _
January ______________ _
June
-------------- --July ___________________
M ay ____ __ __ _______ ___
N ovem ber ___________ _
December ____ ___ ___ __ _
383,104
352, 036
313, 059
284,550
272,898
257,530
198, 356
193,096
177, 851
170,312
102, 941
63,560
July __________ _-- -- ---- - -
December ______________ _
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Other (2 plants)
Month
February ________ __ ___
March _______________ _
August_ ___ ___________ _
October ______________ _
January _________ _____ _
April _________________ _
July __________________ _
May _________ ________ _
September ___________ _
December __ __________ _
June _____ __ __________ _
November ___ ________ _
N u mber
of pairs
75,960
71,484
65,389
59,456
59,004
58,008
55,432
54, 540
47,382
37, 357
34, 387
18,540
Part IV.-EARNINGS
The pay-roll data secured in the New Hampshire survey comprise
the earnings of all persons employed on production week by week in
1932 and the earnings for a week of full employment preceding the
period of union activities in the spring of 1933. The 1932 figures,
from which average weekly earnings for each individual have been
computed, are a valuable record of fluctuation in employment and
earnings, although-to quote one of the owners-1932 was the year
of lowest ebb in the industry and for this reason a poor one on which
to base any calculation. As shown earlier in this report, the amounts
paid in wages in the country as a whole and in New Hampshire had
decreased tremendously, while the numbers employed in New Hampshire had increased.
In addition, some material on basic rates for specific occupations
was secured, from which data interesting conclusions have been
drawn.
The numbers of employees for whom pay-roll records were obtained,
with the medians of their earnings, are shown in table 3.
TABLE
3.- Median earnings for 1 week in 1933 and median of average earnings for
all weeks worked in 1932
For 1 week in 1933
Total employees
T ype of shoe
Welt . __________
McKay _________
Other 1 _________
Contract 2______
Number
of
plants
7
14
2
5
Men
For all weeks worked in 1932
Women
Total
employees
Men
Women
I
MeMedian
dian
MeMeMeof
of
Num- dian Num- dian Num- dian Num- Num- aver- Num- averearnage
ber
earn- ber
earnber
ber
ber
age
ber
ings
ings
ings
weekly
weekly
earnearnings
ings
2,101 $14. 95
3,533 12. 05
579 17. 40
79 11. 50
1,212 $17. 55
1,679 15. 85
300 20. 35
69 11. 90
889 $11. 50
1, 854
9.45
279 14. 85
(3)
10
2,717
6,621
754
1,544 $15. 20
3,080 11. 70
374 15. 10
1, 173
3,541
380
$10. 00
6.60
11.45
------- ------- ------- ------- -------
1 1 plant made compo shoes only; the other, compo and welt.
2 These 5 contract shops made McKay shoes; not included in tabulations on earnings because only 10
women employed. No report for 1932.
a Not computed; base less than 50.
Code of fair competition in boot and shoe industry
The code for the boot and shoe industry, approved October 3, 1933,
by President Roosevelt, became effective on October 13. As approved, it provides for a 40-hour week and minimum wages varying,
according to the hourly rates set, from $14 to $15 for a 40-hou:r week
for men and $12 to $13 for a 40-hour week for women, depending on
size of the community.
16
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
17
EARNINGS
These differentials in wage rates based on the size of manufacturing
centers were considered serious by some persons. One of the chief
handicaps of labor and industry has been the tendency of employers
to move their plants from relatively high-wage markets so as to take
advantage of a lower scale. In the case of the shoe industry the
tendency is particularly dangerous because of its already overequipped condition. No figures are available to show the abandonment of equipment in larger towns in the course of retreat to smaller
centers. The census figures for Massachusetts, the most important
shoe-manufacturing State, indicate what has occurred there in contrast to certain neighboring States.
In the 12 years from 1919 to 1931 the number of wage earners in the
boot and shoe industry dropped 40.5 percent in Massachusetts, 7.9
percent in Maine, and rose 12.2 percent in New Hampshire.
Average number of wage earners
State
Massachusetts ___ ---------------------------------------------Maine _______ _--------------------------------- ---- -- ---------New Hampshire ___ --------------------------------- __________ _
1919
1927
1929
80, 166
9, \J19
12, 336
55,986
9,740
12, 114
55,093
9,967
14,544
1931
47,664
9,138
13,847
Percentage change
Massachusetts _____________________ _____ ____ ______ ____________ _
Maine ___ __ _-- -------------- ----- -------------------------- ---New Hampshire ___ --------------------------------------------
1919-27
1927-29
1929-31
-30.2
-1.8
-1.8
-1.6
+2. 3
+20. 1
-13. 5
-8.3
-4.8
1919-31
-40.5
-7.9
+12.2
In New Hampshire only 4 cities have a population of over 20,000
and only 2 of these, Manchester and Nashua, are shoe manufacturing
cities. In other words, all the small cities and towns will be allowed
to base their wages on the lower rate, as given in the code.
Earnings in the various plants
As will be seen from table 4, the retail prices of the shoes made in
the factories surveyed ranged from 90 cents to $4 for McKay shoes,
mostly women's; from $1.75 to $10 for welt shoes, mostly men's;
and from $4 to $6 for compo shoes, all women's. Manufacturers say
that the type and retail price influence wages to a degree that requires
a consideration of these factors. Rates were said to be higher on
work in which a good grade of leather was used than on cheap leather
or cloth. For .neither welt nor McKay shoes, in general, however, do
the medians of earnings indicate the payment of higher rates for the
higher-priced 'shoes, which suggests the influence of other factors.
Rates ,were said to be higher on processes involved in welt manufacture than in McKay, and the earnings figures seem to support
this statement.
The cost of shoes has always figured prominently in the success of
selling, but it was stated repeatedly that for some time shoes have
been sold not according to cost of production but under what is
called a buyers' market, where the retailer sets the price of the shoes
desired and the manufacturer m~st meet that price or lose the sale.
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18
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
This situation is held to be due to the increasing demand for cheap
shoes; to the costs of selling and the competition with corporations ;
having many local branches and a centralized sales department; and
to unfair and unregulated practices in producing shoes and selling to
the retailer. Few shoes sell themselves, and successful selling on the
part of one firm often brings about unsuccessful selling for another,
r esulting in overtime in the one case and the inability to give work
to the employees in the second.
The manufacturers of shoes hold that a record of 1 week's earnings
from any factory is insufficient to indicate earnings in that factory
and even less sufficient as a sample of earnings in the shoe industry
as a whole. Nevertheless, in the absence of any definite information
on hours of work, the 1933 wage data presented for the shoe factories
of New Hampshire may be accepted as a sample of a full week in the
factory. In each instance the pay roll taken was selected because the
firm considered it the week of fullest operation before the strike
activities, and in no case was undertime reported for the week selected .
Three plants were, however, running much below normal production.
Median earnings, by plant
The medians of the average weekly earnings for 1932 and of the
week's earnings for 1933, tied up with the retail prices of shoes, are
shown in table 4.
TABLE
4.- Median of earnings for selected week in 1933 and median of average
weekly earnings in 1932, by plant
Type of shoe and range of retail p rices
Median of earnings for selected
week in 1933
Plant
no.
Men
Women
Median of average
weekly earnings
in 1932
Men
Women
- ----Welt$1.75
shoes
to (7
$10plants):
_______ _____ ______________________ ____
McKay
(14 plants):
$0.90shoes
to $4____
___________________________ ___ ___ __
55
$11. 50
---------· -$17.
-----
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
---------22
23
Not compu ted; base less than 50.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
15. 60
16. 15
8. 25
5. 60
11. 05
9. 85
7. 00
15. 85
9. 45
11. 70
6. 60
12. 75
9. 25
4.10
4.60
8.95
8.35
3. 30
4. 60
6. 25
6. 90
6.85
7. 55
7. 00
7. 00
11. 20
8. 00
---------10
11
1
$10. 00
20. 30
21. 45
13. 90
10.10
14. 90
14. 55
9.80
23. 75
23. 00
14. 55
11. 50
17. 75
16. 15
15. 30
8
9
Other shoes (2 plants):
$4 to $6___ ______ ______________ ______ ____________ _
$15. 20
17. 40
16. 60
10. 10
6.35
13. 30
9. 85
12. 75
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
(1)
(1)
12. 65
27. 55
15. 30
20. 90
14. 80
14. 75
6. 85
12.15
11.35
10. 05
9. 30
9. 05
6. 65
5. 50
12. 50
13. 30
7. 75
10. 50
10. 25
12. 15
11. 30
16.10
11.95
12. 80
15. 60
15.10
(1)
(1)
20. 45
15. 15
16. 15
16. 20
14. 00
13. 25
11. 55
5. 95
5. 90
9. 05
20. 35
14. 85
15.10
11. 45
(1)
(1)
21. 00
15. 25
9. 80
16. 00
7. 50
12. 20
19
EARNINGS
Women's earnings were much lower than men's, averaging m a
number of cases less than half. In 9 of the 20 plants medians for
women in a week in 1933 are below $10, 4 of them being below $7.
That the medians for women range from $5.90 to $17.40 and those
for men from $11.50 to $27 .55 indicates the great differences among
the firms at that time.
The figures for 1932 in the table show that the medians of the
average weekly earnings were, in all but 2 firms, lower than the
medians for the sample week for 1933.
The differences in wage levels among the plants are apparent from
the high and low medians selected from the previous t able and presented in the summary following. They show lack of any standardization of wages and the great need for legislation and attention by
the State with regard to employment conditions in the industry that
resulted in the minimum-wage law of April 1933. The two compo
plants are omitted because they afford no basis for selection.
Median earnings of
·
men
Welt shoes:
Highest amount_ _______ __________ __ _____ ____ ______ _
Lowest amount_ ___ --------------- - ------------ ---McKay shoes:
Highest amount _________________ ------ _______ _____ _
Lowest amount_ ___________ ______________________ __
Median earnings of
women
Weekly
average in
Weekly
average in
1932
1 week in
$21.45
9: 80
,$~:~g
$16. 15
5. 60
$17. 40
6. 35
16.10
5. 50
27. 55
12. 65
11. 20
3. 30
13. 25
5. 90
1933
1932
1 week in
1933
Two of the welt plants with the highest earnings for women and
for men in both 1932 and 1933 had arranged to have their orders a
month before delivery and asserted that their workers lost very little
time. A discussion of the greater degree of employment among the
workers in these two factories may be seen on page 13 iii the section
on time worked. In the case of the men in one of the two plants,
the median for those who had worked as long as 51 weeks 1 was about
one-sixth greater than that for the whole group.
Distribution for selected week in 1933, by plant
The table next presented, showing earnings distribution in the
week in 1933, again illustrates the great differences from plant to
plant. Of the 7 plants making welt shoes, 1 showed 33 percent of
its men and another 30 percent to have been paid less than $10.
The 2 welt plan ts with the high median earnings mentioned in the
preceding paragraph paid $30 and over to about 16 percent of their
men, only 2 percent receiving less than $10. Of the 12 McKay plants,
1 paid less than $10 to 37 percent of its men, another to about 31
percent, and several to between 20 and 25 percent. The best-paying
paid $30 or more to 35 percent of its men employees. Only 2 other
McKay plants paid $30 or more to as many as 10 percent.
Women's lower earnings are clear. The McKay plant with the
highest median for men, $27.55, 35 percent of its men being paid $30
or over, had a median of only $12.15 for women, 36 percent of whom
were paid less than $10 and only 4 percent of whom received as much
1
The plant was closed for 1 week during the year.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
5.-Earnings of men and women in 20 factories for 1 week in 1933, by plant
TABLE
Percent of men who earnedMedian earnings of men
Less
than $5
I
I
I
I
Percent of women who earned-
I
$6,nd
$JO than
,nd less
$15 than
and less
$20ond
$25 than
,nd
less
than less
than less
$10
$15
$20
$25
$30
I
$30 and
more
Median earnings of women
Less
than $5
I
$5and
I
$10 and
I
$15 and
I
$20 and
I
$25 snd
less than le s than less than l ess than less than
$10
$15
$20
$25
$30
II $30more
and
'(Jl
WELT SHOES (7 plants)
~
0
$23. 75 __________
$23. oo ____ ______
$17. 75 ___ ______ _
$16. 15 __________
$15. 30 __________
$14. 55 _________ _
$11. 50 __________
0.8
1. 0
1. 7
.6
9. 3
.5
7. 1
1. 2
1.0
8. 5
16. 8
20. 9
15. 2
26. 5
7.1
8.8
16. 2
27. 2
17. 4
38. 0
40. 3
20. 2
20.6
43. 6
28. 3
30. 2
34.8
19. 9
26. 2
29. 9
16. 2
16. 8
14. 0
9.8
4.1
28. 6
23. 0
11. 1
8. 7
7. 0
1. 6
1. 5
15. 9
15. 7
2. 6
1. 7
1. 2
•5
$17. 40 ___ ______
$16. 60 __ _______
$13. 30 ____ ____ _
$9. 85 __ ________
$12. 75 ________ _
$10. ]O ___ ____ __
$6. 35 ________ __
t_zj
0. 6
.9
2. 4
11. 7
10. 7
3. 4
33. 8
-
3. 0
3. 5
17. 6
39. 6
19. 6
45. 2
50. 7
17. 0
30. 1
48. 2
41. 4
46. 4
45. 2
11. 7
44. 2
44. 2
27.1
5. 4
16. 1
6. 2
3.8
27. 3
23. 5
25. 0
31. 4
38. 0
27. 1
24.8
46. 2
51. 6
46.0
30. 8
46.1
34. 3
25.8
37. 0
21. 4
14. 8
41. 9
32. 7
29. 7
26. 5
34. 2
36. 5
16. 9
25. 6
4. 1 ---- ------ ---------19. 6
3. 9 ---------- ---------9. 3
24.1
1. 9 ---------2.1 ---------- --- ------2. 1
7. 9 ---- -----.4 ---------1. 8
16. 6
. 7 ---------12. 4 ---------- ---------17. 7
12. 4
2. 1
---------10. 3 ---- -----1. 3 ---------1. 2 ------ ---- ---------3. 7
5.8
I. 9 ---------- ---------2. 2 ----- ----- ---------6. 7
37. 51
23. o
27. 3
15. 9
4. 7
1. 8
7. 1
7. 3
2. 7
0.6
2. 7
McKAY SHOES (12 plants)
$27. 55 __________
$20. 90 __________
$20. 45 __________
$16. 20 _________ _
$16. 15 __________
$15. 30 __________
$15. 15 __________
$14. 80 __________
$14. 75 __________
$14. oo ____ ______
$12. 75 __________
$12. 65 ______ ___ _
3. 4
2.8
3.8
10.4
10. 3
4. 4
6. 5
.7
2. 0
1.6
15. 8
4. 3
6.8
4.8
8. 5
13. 9
21. 2
12. 4
16. 3
12. 7
13. 3
19. 4
21.1
18. 6
6.8
1 .6
14. 2
19. 1
13. 0
31. 2
26. 0
38. 0
36. 7
37. 9
19. 3
38. 6
4.8
20. 0
19. 8
23. 5
23. 9
27. 2
26. 0
26.1
30. 7
25.8
10. 5
30. 0
16. 3
20. 7
22. 6
16. 5
21. 7
14. 4
l!J. 5
12. 0
12. 0
12. 1
19. 3
7. 1
25. 5
35. 4
22. 1
11.0
17. 9
13. 2
10. 4
6.1
8. 2
1. 6
3. 6
6.8
2. 4
3. 3
4. 2
6. 3
5. 3 ---------3. 2 --------- 14. 0 ------- - -1. 4
----------
$12. 15 ________ _
$10. 05 _________
$13. 25 _________
$5. 90 __________
$5. 95 __________
$1 1. 35 ____ _____
$11. 55 _________
$9. 30 __ ________
$9. 05__ ________
$9. 05 __ _______ _
$9. 25 __ ________
'6, 85 __ ________
.7
26.1
2.8
42. 9
38. 9
11. 9
12. 4
9. 7
10. 3
14. 9
25. 0
28.1
OTHER SHOES (1 plant)
$21. ()() _____ _____ ,
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
6.21
12. 71
23.
21
27.
51
19.
21
9. 811 $15. 25 ________ _1
9.
21
I
25. s
I
1. 5 , _________ _
EARNINGS
21
as $20. Only 4 McKay plants had any women receiving as much as
$25, and the proportions were negligible, while 8 plants paid less than
$10 to proportions of their women employees that ranged from about
50 percent to as much as 77 percent. Five McKay plants paid less
than $5 to proportions of their women employees ranging from 25
percent to 43 percent.
Of the 7 welt plants, 1 paid less than $10 to nearly 85 percent of its
women, another to 51 percent, and a third to nearly 49 percent.
The two plants with the highest medians for both men and women of
all welt factories had paid in one case considerably more than twofifths of the men, and in the other case slightly under two-fifths, $25
or more during the selected week in 1933. These same two were the
only welt plants that paid any women as much as $25. About 1 in 12
of the women in one of the factories and about 1 in 20 in the other
had received earnings in these higher brackets.
The proportions of men and w~men in the various plants who
earned less than $15 in the selected week in 1933 may be seen from the
preceding table 5. These proportions are of special interest, as
according to the code (mentioned on p. 16) the minimum wage for
men in the larger cities has been set at $15 and that for women at $13.
Proportions ranging from almost 45 percent to about 74 percent of
the men in four welt plants bad earned less than $15. In the other three
welt plants the proportions earning as little as this were considerably
less.
More of the 12 McKay plants in proportion than of the 7 welt
plants had large numbers of men earning less than $15. Five of the
plants hoo more than half of the men earning an amount below $15;
4 had between two-fifths and one-half, and the remaining 3 had
smaller proportions.
In 3 of the welt plants more than nine-tenths of the women had
earned less than $15; in 2 others about three-fourths and two-thirds,
respectively, had earned as little as this. In the other two the proportions were much smaller.
Of the McKay plants, 5 had paid more than nine-tenths of their
women less than $15, and 6 had paid from seven-tenths to ninetenths an amount below $15. The remaining plant had paid nearly
two-thirds as little as this.
Distribution for average week in 1932
· That the average weekly earnings in 1932 are lower than those for
the selected week in 1933 is due to the fact that in 1932 there were
weeks of low production, coincident with these small earnings,
whereas the week in 1933 was selected as representing full employment. In some cases the week in 1933 chosen by the employer may
have been one of more than average production, resulting in incre~sed
earnings for the men and women.
The two welt plantswithapproximatelythree-tenthsand one-third of
their men, respectively, earning less than $10 in 1933, had roughly
one-half each with average earnings of less than $10 in 1932. The two
plants that had the largest pro:;:)Ortions of men, almost one-sixth,
earning $30 or more in the selected week in 1933 also had the largest
proportions with average weekly earnings of $30 or more in 1932,
more than one-eighth and one-tenth, respectively. As would be
expected, these two were the plants in which the smallest proportions
of men earned less than $10.
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TABLE
Perrent of women who earned-
Percent of men who earnedMedian earn•
ings of men
I
I
I
I
I
$5 and
$10 than
and less
$15 than
and less
$20 than
and less
$25 than
,nd
Les$Jhan less
than less
$10
t...:)
t...:)
6.-Average weekly earnings of men and women in 23 factories in 1932, by plant
$15
$20
$25
$30
I
$30 and
Median earnings of women
more
I
I
I
I
I
16 and
$10 than
and less
$15 than
and less
$20 than
and less
$25 than
and 1 -$30
-Less th an less
than less
and
$5
$10
$15
$20
$25
$30
more
Ul
WELT SHOES (7 plants)
~
0
$21.45 ___ _______
$20.30. _ ------- $14.90 .. -------$14.55 .. ---- - -- $13 .90 •. ·------$10.10_ .• ------$9.80 . ______ ____
0. 4
1. 3
8. 6
1. 9
3. 8
7. 8
9. 8
2. 6
5. 4
18. 4
13. 3
17. 7
40. 9
41.8
14. 1
14. 8
23. 2
37. 3
3 8
4'.?. 0
31. 1
24. 7
27.1
29. 7
3'.?. 7
28. 7
7. 8
9. 8
26. 4
24. 6
15. 7
10. 6
9. 7
1.0
4. 1
18. 1
16. 4
4. 3
3. 8
1. 3
.5
2. 5
13. 7
10. 4
.4
.8
$16.15. ________
$15.()0 ___ ______
$11.05. _ ------$9.85_. -------$8.25 __ -------$6.60. __ - -----.
$7.00_. --------
t_tj
1. 4
.4
7. 8
4.1
6. 4
41. 4
23. 2
7. 2
8. 0
30. 2
48. 0
63. 9
52. 4
54. 9
28. 3
32. 6
54. 3
40. 9
24. 8
4. 8
18. 3
30. 7
13. 5
29.1
21.6
27. 0
13. 9
40. 8
25. 6
35. 1
40.1
49. 6
49. 6
43. 0
46. 2
56. 5
25. 1
47. 9
29. 1
28.4
47.1
43. 3
14. 5
14. 3
7. 0
5. 8
4. 5
1. 3
2. 4
.8
1. 4 ... ------1. 3 --- -------
1. 2
.5
1. 2 ---------- ···-------
McK_A Y SHOES (14 plants)
$16.10. _ -------$15.60 ______ ---$15.10 . _. ------$13 .30 ______ ---$12.80 _. ------ -$12.50 . __ -- ----$12.15. _ -------$11.95 __ • ---- --$11.30 • • -------$10.50. _ ----- --$10.25 . _ -------$7.75 .. --------$6.65 _. - ---- ---$5.50 __ • --------
6. 5
11.8
4. 0
9. 9
9. 2
12. 1
8. 1
8. 3
14. 6
24. 6
10. Ii
34. 0
29. 3
44. 3
12. 4
14. 9
10. 3
24.1
26. 1
24. 2
31. 9
27. 3
27. 0
23. 3
37. 6
30. 0
38. 7
28. 6
24. 4
20. 6
3/\. 3
22. 2
25. 7
28. 9
25. 9
36. 0
35. 8
20. 3
38.1
23. 7
14. 7
20. 0
31.8
28.1
29. 0
30. 5
27. 5
22. 1
23. 0
21. 8
19. 0
23. 3
11. 0
9. 1
10. 7
5. 7
19. 4
4. 1
1. 4
$7.55 .• -- ----- 7. 9
3. 1 $11.20 . _ - -----13. 6
5. 4
15. 2
.9 $8.00 .. ----- -- $8.35 ___ ___ ---2. 5
10. 3
.5
2. 1
1.1 $7.00 . ·--- ----8. 5
10.1
1. 3
1. 3 $8.95 . _ --- ----9. 6
1. 5
$6.90 . _ -------$7.00 __ _______ _
.4
5. 5
.6
2. 2
1. 5
$6.85 . --- -----2. 6
4. 7
1. 3
$4.60 . . ----- --2.8 --· ----- --- ---------- $6.25 . .. ------$3 .30 ________ __
.8
.4
1. 9
4. 0
2. 7 ------ · --- $4 .10 .• -- -----1.4 -------- -- ---- ------ $4.60 .. --------
:n.8
30. 3
25. 2
53. 3
36. 0
33. 5
5
2
53. 7
46.
21.
32.
40.
7. 971
22.
19. 71
57.
1
73.0
58. 9
2
7
22. 3
33. 0
19. 6
18. 1
16. 8
9. 9
14. 5
5. 1
6. 7
5. 6
2. 2
10. 7
5. 0
9. 0
1.1
3. 5
4. 5
4. .5
1. 5
2. 9
3. 1
•7
0. 6
2. 3
0. 6 ----------
1.8
•9
.6
. 6 --- - -- ---• 9 ---------- - ---------
. 4 ---------- -- -- - - - --2. 2 ---------- -- ------- -
OTHER SHOES (2 plants)
.;16.00. - --------1
$9.80_. _ --------
5.81
26.
6
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
11. 91
25.
0
24.81
29. 7
33. 51
15. 6
19.
41
1. 6
4. 51----------11 $12.20 __ _______ 1
I. 6 ---------- $7.50 _________ _
iii· I 1-----" •-1----- '
'- 1-- ---,. '-1 - -------
OLLEGE
23
In 1 of the 14 McKay plants the average weekly earnings for 1932
were less than $10 for almost three-fourths of the men (72.9 perce11t).
In six others the proportions whose average weekly earnings were so
low ranged from two-fifths to slightly more than two-thirds. Not one
of the McKay plants had so many as 4 percent of its men with
average weekly earnings of $30 or more in 1932.
As was found true for the selected week in 1933, women's average
weekly earnings for 1932 were much lower than those for men. In
only 2 of the 7 welt plants were the average weekly earnings for any
women as much as $25, and the proportions in these were very small,
1 .4 percent and 1.3 percent, respectively. In both these plants,
however, less than 10 percent had average earnings below $10. In
the two welt plants with the lowest median earnings, more than ninetenths and close to eight-tenths, respectively, had average earnings of
less than $10.
In only 2 of the 14 McKay plants had any women average earnings
of as much as $25, and the proportions were even smaller than in the
welt plants mentioned, 0.6 percent in each. In all but one of the plants
three-fifths or more of the women had average weekly earnings for
1932 of less than $10; almost half of these had four-fifths or more
earning so little.
The McKay plant with next to the highest median of the average
weekly earnings for men bad the highest for women. However, for
more than one-tenth (11 percent) of the men in this factory, average
weekly {tarnings were $25 and over, as compared with none of the
women.
Earnings of men and wpmen for selected week in 1933 and average for weeks worked
in 1932, by type of shoe
Percent whose earnings for selected
week in 1933 wereType of sh oe and sex of
employees
Less
than
$10
Less
than
$15
$15 and
and
less ti.an $25
more
$25
- --
Percent whose average weekly
earnings in 1932 wereLess
than
$10
Less
th an
$15
$15 and
and
less t han $25
more
$25
-- -
-
25. 0
14. 2
39. 7
50. 3
36.1
69. 6
37.4
44.1
28. 2
12. 3
19. 7
2.1
33. 6
21.1
50.1
61. 6
49.0
78.1
31. 5
39. 1
21. 5
7.0
11.9
.4
McKay shoes :
All employees ______ __ __ _
Men ______ ___ ____________
Women __ ___ __ ____ __ ____ _
37. 8
19. 8
54. 1
65. 1
44. 8
83. 5
26. 6
38. 2
16.1
8. 3
17. 0
.4
58. 9
40. 2
75. 1
82. 6
67. 7
95. 5
15. 9
29. 2
4.4
1. 5
3.1
.1
Other shoes:
All employees __________ _
Men _________ __________ __
Women _____ ______ __ _____
14. 7
14. 8
15. 4
38. 9
26. 7
52.0
46. 6
46. 7
46. 6
14. 5
26. 7
1. 4
30. 4
23. 5
37. 1
63. 5
49. 2
77. 6
34. 4
46. 8
22.1
2.1
4.0
.3
·wel t shoes:
All employees _____ ___ ___
Men ___________________ __
Women __ _____ ____ __ _____
,------- - -
- -- -
-
EARNINGS BY TYPE OF SHOE AND DEPARTMENT
In addition to wage data according to type of shoes made, welt,
McKay, and other, facts have been made available by departments
in which the employees worked, namely, cutting, stitching, stock
fitting, making and lasting, finishing and packing. (See pp. 3- 4 for
description of work by departments.)
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TABLE
7.-Earnings in various departments in selected week in 1933 and average for weeks worked in 1932
[Medians and percents not computed where base is less than 50]
Type of shoe and
departmen t
Percent who earned during selected week in 1933Percent whose average weekly earnings in 1932 wereum- Median
um- Median
berem- !~!~~s i - - - - - - - , - -- - - , - - - - - , - - ----,-- - - , - - --u berern- of the i - -- - . - - - - - - - , - - - - - , - - -- - r - - - - - , - - -- , - - f~oig~i
earnings
Less
$~~~d $lf~~d $lf~~d $2fe!~d $2[e!~d $30and
th an $5 than $10 than $15 than $20 than $25 than $30 more
$1:~d
ployed
$lp~d $lfe!~d $2fe:~d $2[e:~d $30 and
1932 a~~~ge thLess 5
in
ingsan $ than $10 than $15 than $20 than $25 than $30 more
- - - - - - - - - - 1---- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Welt shoes:
Men:
Cutting _________ _
Stitching ________ _
Stock fitting _____ _
Making; lasting __
Finishing;
pack- _
ing ____________
Women:
Cutting __ _______ _
Stitching ________ _
Stock fitting _____ _
Making; lasting __ _
Finishing; packing ____________ _
193
51
62
703
$19. 10
15. 15
15. 75
18. 15
0. 5
11. 8
203
15. 80
24. 9
11. 8
33. 9
19. 8
23. 8
17. 6
22. 6
26. 6
16. 1
11. 8
21. 0
17. 9
12. 4
21.6
8.1
15.1
14. 0
2. 7
8. 3
25. 5
11. 3
11. 0
3. 2
7.0
248
66
77
872
$14. 65
13. 40
13. 90
16. 40
3. 2
10. 6
10.4
3.1
21. 4
16. 7
13. 0
13. 8
27. 0
33. 3
33.8
26.1
21.8
15. 2
19. 5
25. 6
8.1
16. 7
16. 9
17. 7
6. 0
6. 1
6. 5
9. 9
2. 0
14. 3
25. 6
32. 5
18. 2
6.4
1.0
281
13. 35
4.3
24.9
31. 3
27. 0
9. 6
2.8
------- - -------- ---- ---- --------------26. 0
9. 1
17. 0
2.1
52
851
50
21
38 -------- ------- - -------657
13. 7
10. 70
31. 4
.6
33
14
147
13.10
2. 7
21. 8
39. 5
31. 3
4. 8 - ------- - -------
McKay shoes:
Men :
Cutting _________ _
374
16. 35
3. 5
13. 0
24. 3
22. 7
14. 4
10. 7
10. 7
Stitching ________ _
57
9. 75
21. 1
19. 3
15. 8
5. 3
31. 6
3.5
3. 5
Stock fitting ___ " __
97
15.10
5. 2
11. 3
19.
6
8. 2
33. 0
18. 6 I
4. 1
Making; lasting __ _
818
22. 2
16. 60
6. 6
12. 8
22. 7
12. 0
17. 7
5. 9
Finishing; packing ____________ _
333
15. 10
3. 3
15. 6
30. 0
24. 6
13. 5
6.9
6.0
Women:
Cutting__________
14 ___ _______________________ __________ _______________ _____ __ _____ _
Stitching __ _______ 1,494
9. 00
21.4
35.5
27. 0
12. 4
3.3
.4 _______ _
Stock fitting _____________________________________________________________________________ _
Making; lasting_ __
78
9. 00
20. 5
38. 5
25. 6
10. 3
3. 8
1. 3
Finishing; pack7.8
29. 9
42. 5 . 17. 5
1.9
ing_-------~---- 268 11. 35
. 4 -- ------
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
9. 6
14. 9
151
1,482
12. 80
7. 35
10. 75
11. 75
10. 6
32. 5
1-1. 6
15. 7
622
11. 45
17. 0
705
120
12
2,900
3. 9
--------------.4 -------2.0 --------------- -------- ----- --- ------- - -------- -------- -------- -------32. 7
10. 80
6.0
21. 6
38. 7
1.0 -------- -------9. 50
9. 65
12. 35
199
12. 5
1.5
48.1
37. 7
30. 0
32. 7
26. 0
40. 0
5.8
15. 3
24.0
20. 7
38. 3
30. 5
25.0
32. 9
16. 7
31. 8
:C.4. 7
23. 0
5.8
19. 2
23.1
8. 2
2. 5
.8
25.1
29.1
19. 1
7. 7
1.8
.2
3. 8
5. 8
4.0
8. 7
1. 7
6.40
37.1
40. 0
18. 7
3.4
.7
170
6.05
43. 5
31. 2
18. 8
5. 3
1.2
457
8. 20
27.4
34.8
31.9
5.5
2
2. 7
2. 5
1.4
2. 5
4. 0 ---- - --- --------
..
.1 --------
-------- --------
Other shoes:
Men:
Cutting _________ _
Stitching ________ _
Stock fitting _____ _
Making; lasting __ _
Finishing; packing ____________ _
Women:
Cutting __ _______ _
Stitching ___ _____ _
Stock fitting _____ _
Making; lasting __ _
Finishing; packing _- . ----------
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
66
24.00
4. 5
3.0
7. 6
21.2
16. 7
21. 2
87
19. 0
5. 2
32
190
15. 30
12.1
15. 3
21.1
28.4
17. 9
5. 3
9.8
2.0
61
15. 10
4.9
9. 8
34. 4
36.1
11. 5
3. 3 --------
26
227
3
11.30
13. 2
25.6
31. 7
26. 4
3. 1
11. 75
6. 2
22.1
63. 7
6.9
8.0
29.9
35.6
16.1
3. 4 --------
4 -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- - ------- - ---- - - -
20. 35
6. 5
9. 8
11.1
20. 3
28.1
51
16. 90
3. 9
9.8
21. 6
27. 5
25. 5
24 - --- ---- -------- - ----- -- - ------- -------- ---- -- -- ------- - --- ----4.0
174
17. 55
9. 8
17. 8
39.1
27.0
2. 3 -------3
4
74
15.40
25. 8
7
23
153
14. 05
2. 7
9. 5
64. 9
23. 0 -------- -------- --------
11
113
8. 0 -------- -------- --------
26
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
Selected week in 1933
Welt shoes.-In the cutting departments of welt-shoe factories there
was no one distinct modal earnings group for men, as about equal
proportions, approximately one-fourth, had been paid $10 and less
than $15, and $15 and less than $20. The median was $19.10. Only
one-half of 1 percent had earned less than $5, and 14 percent had
earned $30 or more. No computations were made for women in these
departments, as fewer than 50 were thus employed.
In stitching, where only a small part of the employees were men, 51
out of 708, the median of the men's earnings in 1933 was $15.15. Of
the 657 women, more than three-tenths earned $5 and less than $10;
about one-eighth (13.7 percent) earned below $5 and less than 3 percent earned $25 and more. The women's median was only 70 percent
of that for men, $10.70.
In the stock-fitting departments 95 were employed- 62 men and
33 women. The most usual earnings group f0r the men was $10 and
less than $15, slightly more than one-third falling in this class. No
men in these departments earned less than $5, and slightly more than
one-tenth earned $25 or more. The median for the men was $15.75.
Practically all employees in the making and lasting departments, 703
of the 717, were re.en. More than one-fourth (26.6 percent) had
earned $15 and less than $20. Only 2.7 percent bad earned less than
$5, 22.1 percent receiving $25 or more. The median was $18.15.
More near ly equal numbers of men and women were employed in
finishing and packing than in any other department, 203 men and 147
women. Almost one-third of the men (32.5 percent) were in the
group receiving $15 and less than $20. Two percent had earned less
than $5 and 7.4 percent $25 or more. The median was $15.80. Twofifths of the women (39.5 percent) were in the group paid $10 and
less than $15. Less than 3 percent (2.7) had earned below $5, but
none had been paid as much as $25. The median was $13.10.
McKay shoes . -A larger proportion of the employees in McKay
than in welt cutting rooms were men, 374 of the 388. Two earnings
groups had almost equal proportions of men, 24.3 percent being in
the $10 and less than $15 group and 22.7 percent in the $15 and under
$20· group. Only 3.5 percent had earned less than $5, slightly more
than one-fifth h aving earned $25 or more. The median earnings were
$16.35.
In the stitching rooms, where 96 percent of the employees were
women, the most usual earnings group for women (35.5 percent) was
$5 and less than $10, the median being $9. As many as 21.4 percent
of the women received less than $5 and only 0.4 percent as much as
$25. A considerably larger proportion (7 percent) of the 57 men had
received as much as $25, but the median for men, $9.75, was only
slightly higher than that for women.
No women were employed in the stock-fitting departments, where
97 men were reported. The most usual earnings group for men ($10
and less than $15) had 33 percent. Just over 5 percent had been
paid less than $5, and less than 12.5 percent as much as $25. The
median was $15.10.
The making and lasting departments employed men to a large extent
also, there being more than 10 times as many men as women. Two
earnings groups for men were about equal, those earning $10 and less
than $15 and those earning $15 and less than $20, with between 22
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
EARNINGS
27
and 23 percent in each. As many as 6.6 percent had received less
than $5, but practically 18 percent earned $25 or more. The median
was the highest in all McKay departments, $16 .60. Of the 78 women
in making and lasting departments, 38.5 percent were paid $5 and less
than $10. One-fifth earned less than $5, and only 1.3 percent earned
as much as $25. The median was $9, not much more than one-half
of that for men.
In the finishing and packing departments the numbers of men and
women were more nearly alike than elsewhere. For both sexes the
most usual earnings were $10 and less than $15. Only just over 3
percent of the men but close to 8 percent of the women had received
less than $5. About 13 percent of the men, in contrast to 0.4 p ercent
of the women, had been paid $25 or more. The median for men was
$15.10, but for women it was practically one-fourth less, $11.35.
Other shoes.-The earnings in the two factories making other types of
shoes were higher, on the whole, than those in welt or McKay plants.
Of the 90 employees in the cutting departments, 66 were men. Almost
26 percent of the men were paid $30 or more. Less than 8 percent ,
had earnings belo'Y $10. The median wai; $24, much the highest for
any group.
In the stitching departments, where 174 of the 181 employees were
women, the most usual earnings group for women was $20 and less
than $25, as many as 39.1 percent of the women earning such amounts.
For a few women (2.3 percent) earnings were $25 or more. Only 4
percent had been paid less than $5. The median for the women was
$17 .55, much the highest of all computed.
The small number of employees in the stock-fitting rooms does not
warrant a discussion of earnings.
In the making and lasting departments all but 4 of the 157 employees were men. The most usual earnings group was $20 and less than
$25, containing 28.1 percent of the men. Almost one-fourth had
been paid $25 and over, but 6.5 percent had received less than $5.
The median was $20.35.
In the finishing and packing departments 51 men and 74 women
were employed. The highest proportion of the men (27.5 percent)
had been paid $15 and less than $20, but almost as many (25.5 percent) had been paid $20 and less than $25. For the 74 women the
most usual earnings group was $10 and less than $15, about 65 percent receiving such amounts. Practically 4 percent of the men and
almost 3 percent of the women had been paid less than $5 . Almost
12 percent of the men had received $25 or more, but no woman had
been paid as much as $20. The median earnings were $16.90 for
men and $14.05 for women.
Average weekly earnings for 1932
In every case the medians of the average weekly earnings in 1932
were lower than for the selected week in 1933 where figures by department were available for both years. The proportions whose earnings
in 1932 averaged less than $5 a week were in all but one case larger than
those with such low earnings in the week selected in 1933, and at the
other end of the earnings scale the proportions receiving as much as
$25 were in every case smaller in 1932.
86938°-35---3
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
28
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
EARNINGS IN THE SELECTED OCCUPATIONS
In the three types of plants median earnings were computed for
men and women in selected occupations in which earnings were
reported for as many as 50. In every case but one in which medians
could be compared they were higher for the selected week in 1933 than
for the average of the weeks worked in 1932, indicating that the week
selected was, as requested, one of full employment. The accompanying table is of interest in presenting figures for more detailed occupations than are discussed elsewhere.
TABLE
8.-Median eOA·nings in selected occupatins, 1 week in 1933 and average far
weeks worked in 1982
[M edian not comput ed where base is less t han 50]
Selected week
in 1933
Selected occupations of men
Welt shoes:
Outside cutter ___
Laster_ _____ __ ____
Goodyear stitcher_
Edge t rim mer __ __
Treer. __- ----- - - McKay shoes :
Outside cu tter_ __
Lining cu tter _____
Trim cu tter_ ___ __
Block cutter ____ _
L aster __ _______ ___
Side laster __ ______
Puller-over ____ ___
Sole layer_ ____ ___
Wood heeler _____
E dge t rimm er __ __
Edge setter ___ ____
Treer ____ __ ______
Other sh oes:
Outside cutter. __
All weeks
worked in
1932
Selected ocaapations of N u m women
ber of
women reported
N um- Medi- Num- jMediber of an of ber of an of
men earn- men averreage
revorted ings ported ~~g~-
117 $21. 70
90 18. 15
40 ------49 --- ---51 15. 65 '
153 $16. 55
117 16. 25
52 20.50
62 19. 35
M 14. 35
204
49
27
352 15. 25
80 ' 11. 60
64
9. 55
52
6. 00
169 16. 25
89 15. 05
57 15. 75
54 13. 35
98 13. 65
69 17. 85
60 19. 00
252 12. 30
19. 15
-------------
28 -------
101 22. 00
40 ------40 -- ----44 -- ----71 20. ::15
54 21.45
46 -- -- -- 164 15. 15
38
-------
62
15. 65
All weeks
w orked in
1932
Selected week
in 1933
I
Welt shoes:
Skiver _______ __ ____ __
L ining m aker ______ __
Top st itcher ____ ______
Vamper ___ ___ ______ __
Fancy stitch er ____ ___
McKay shoes:
Marker _______ ___ ____
Cementer _____ _______
L in ing m ak er. __ _____
T op stitch er_ ________ _
Vamper _____ __ _______
Fan cy stitcher _______
French cord stitch er _
F ren ch cor d t urner_ __
Taper __ _____ ______ __ _
B ench worker ___ ___ __ 1
-·---1
P acker_ __- -_____
Repofro,
--- - ____
--- ___
Ot her shoe~:
F ancy stitcher __ ___ __
41
48
55
72
86
Median of
earnings
------$14~1516. 00
9. 90
40
6. 20
75
9. 70
157 13. 35
90 13. 40
376
8. 10
53 12. 90
36 ------42 - --- - -156
3. 30
77 11. 85
lll
38 - ---- --
54
Median of
aver
age
earnings
N umber of
wornen repor ted
16. 35
54
67
gi
m
$11. 00
8.80
13. 50
I 12. 40
I 7. 70
292
106
221
121
680
67
64
94
334
115
57
6. 40
3. 95
7. 45
10. 30
11. 20
7. 50
10. 05
8. 70
5. 20
3. 30
10.30
10. 35
74
10. 30
WI
MEDIAN EARNINGS AND TIME WITH FIRM
Welt plants
As previously noted, time with present employer was reported
for a large part of the men in welt factories. The medians of the
average weekly earnings for 1932 ,rose quite regularly with added
years from $12 .15 for the men who had been with the firm 1 and less
than 2 years to $23 for those employed 9 and less than 10 years.
In the case of women, time with the firm was reported for about
three-fourths; this same rise was noted, though the medians of
average weekly earnings were considerably lower. The median for
the women who had been with the same firm for 1 and less than 2
years was $7.70, while for the women who had worked for 1 firm
9 and less than 10 years was $17 .25.
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EARNINGS
29
McKay plants
Time with the firm was reported for only about one-half of the men
who worked in McKay factories in 1932. Differences in average
earnings are shown by the fact that medians varied from $6.75 for
those employed less than 3 months, to $17 .65 for those employed
4 and less than 5 years. In these plants, too, the median for the
women was lowest ($3.65) for those employed less than 3 months,
and highest ($11.10) for those employed 4 and less than 5 years.
Other plants
Among those working on other types of shoes, only for the men
and women employed by the firm 10 and less than 15 years were
there large enough numbers for the computation of medians. In
both cases these medians were higher than for the group as a whole.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Part V.-PIECEWORK AND THE SETTING
OF BASIC RATES
All authorities agreed that piece rates should be computed from a
remuneration basis that took into consideration a definite period of
time. In this connection consideration :must be given to the various
factors involved.
First among these is the fact that the shoe industry operates to
supply footwear of leather, imitations of leather, or other cloths.
The completion of a shoe requires a large number of operations,
performed generally by operators specializing on the various tasks.
Second, some of this specialized work is of a nature that requires
much skill and speed. Because of the need for skill combined with
speed, the work of some operators is largely confined to one general
type of operation, on which the individual specializes, such as cutting,
fancy or top stitching, vamping, lasting, edge setting, and so forth.
Third, the invention of machines makes it . possible to produce
standardized parts for the trimming as well as the building of shoes,
these parts to be assembled in their proper places as the shoe moves
along in the process of construction.
Operators do the same operation day after day, week after week,
if the work is plentiful. Unfortunately, earnings are controlled by
speed, and output is greater when work is confined to one part. It
is because of this that each · operator specializes on one operation,
though some are called on to do a number of things.
As in many other industries, men predominated formerly in the
manufacture of shoes. They still predominate in several departments, especially in the cutting, lasting, and making.
Cutting and lasting are considered highly skilled types of work on
which men work almost exclusively. Women now predominate in
stitching operations, except possibly on custom-made shoes, but
many men still do the stitching called vamping, or stitching the vamp
to the top. However, very few were so employed in the factories
·
visited in New Hampshire.
Styles in shoes have changed much since 1920, and now high
shoes are little used. The stitching of vamps for high shoes undoubtedly required more skill than is required for low shoes, which
together with the call for sandals and other changes in design of
women's shoes, decreased the number of vampers and increased the
number of fancy stitchers.
Though an occasional woman operates a machine in the making
department, such as u. McKay stitcher, the number of women who do
so is small and is no indication of their advancement to machine operations in these departments. In most plants all the stitching on tops
is done largely by women, and the lasting and making are done exclusively by men.
New developments in types of materials that can be used have
revolutionized styles in shoes; the invention of machines has influenced changes simplifying production; .fashions and seasons have
30
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PIECEWORK AND BASIC RATES
31
injected new ideas and suggested new types of shoes. As a result,
there has been an orgy of constantly changing patterns that have made
top stitching and fancy stitching far less routine than formerly. It is
now required that stitchers adjust their eyes and speed to a variety
of constantly changing designs and stitching without in any way
reducing their responsibility with regard to perfect spacing and
steadiness of hand or speed. Further, while perforated strips or other
trimming such as applique are pasted in place before stitching, the
parts that form the shoe itself are neither basted nor held together by
paste before stitching. The stitcher is depended upon to skillfully
hold the pieces, cut to fit each other, so that the edges are exactly
where they belong, and to operate the machine so straight and
steadily as not to deviate from a perfect line of stitching nor in any
way to produce a pucker. The combination of skill and speed is
required to do this. Obviously, stitchers must co.nstantly guard
against any slip of the needle or movement of hand that will ch~nge
a line or edge. Any slight error in spacing or in the number of stitches
will damage the article.
Since imperfect workmanship results in damaged goods, the amount
of skill required of certain stitchers-top stitchers, fancy stitchers,
and vampers-is considerable. Further, the stitching of linings requires perfect work, or the shoe causes the wearer trouble. While
lining stitching is paid at a lower rate than the three operations just
mentioned, it was considered by some producers to require skill, and
the wide difference in rates was said to be due to tradition rather than
to be based on a study of degree of skill and time required in learning.
There is, of course, a great difference in value of the material used for
linings and that used for the shoe itself.
It is difficult to see why the increased skill required of fancy and
top stitchers under present conditions in the industry has not lowered
the differential that has always existed in the rates for the skilled
work of men as compared with the skilled work of women. The shoe
code sets the minimum hourly rate higher for men than for women,
except where the two sexes do substantially the same work. The
differential of 5 cents an hour means 40 cents a day for an 8-hour
day, $2 a week, and over $8 a month, amounts of no small significance
to women workers.
Methods of fixing rates
On pages 80- 81 quotations are found on the methods used in
fixing piece rates in the plants visited that claimed to have such
methods. In a report on systems of wage payment in operation in
1928, prepared by the National Industrial Conference Board, the
following are among the statements made in regard to piecework in
various industries:
* * * 80.4 percent of the workers were employed in plants where some
form of piece rate was used.
As the plants increase in size, the proportion using piece rates in some form, or
to some extent, grows. Piece rates are represented in 43 percent of the plants
with less than 151 employees, and in 87 percent of the plants with more than
1,500 workers.
Of 1,214 plants reporting, 745 used piece rates, either alone or with other
systems.
The piece-rate system is, in general, worth while only when the volume of
output is sufficient to justify the trouble of determining the appropriate rate.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
32
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
In the measurement or estimation of the output of his workers, each manufacturer must judge for himself the degree of accuracy advisable or practicable
in his plant. For companies manufacturing a variety of products and handling
comparatively small orders, general estimates based upon past experience may
alone be possible, since the cost of making detailed studies may exceed the economies to b e expected from them. Not only must the cost be reckoned with, but
the possibility of error in setting many rates for a variety of products and processes, with the consequent necessity of cutting rates, must be duly considered in
determining the choice of a system.
Among 87 plants which furnished information as to how piece rates were
determined, 22 set their rates b y the estimate of the foreman or rate setter; 55
from analysis of t he standardized operation, including time study; 8 by combining
both of these methods ; 1 by arbitration; and 1 used the union schedule.
The quotations from interviews on the fixing of piece rates in the
present study stress the element of time and the need for a reliable
and definite system if rates are to be fair. It is important to note,
therefore, that only 11 of the 28 plants included claimed to have a
basis on which piece rates were figured. Further, though such information was furnished for practically all operations by several of these
firms, the variations in operation terminology, even in branches of
the . same firm, complicated the attempt to analyze on a comparable
basis the rates for any number of operations. As a consequence,
such analysis has been made for only eight skilled occupations. (See
table 9.) Moreover, for a number of operators the pay records at
times included work on more than one operation, requiring their
exclusion as operations not identical as to work or having a variation
in either the basis for or the actual piece rates involved.
In spite of difficulties, the data on basis of pay in these 11 plants
constitute fairly acceptable material for exploratory analysis on
adequacy of method of fixing piece rates. In each of these plants
the management was interested sufficiently to cooperate by furnishing
supplemental data that can serve as measuring sticks of a fairly
reliable nature, though they do not lend themselves to exact measurement of either time worked or its relation to rates or earnings.
Since the hour data available in New Hampshire did not show
actual hours worked, but were limited to the firm's scheduled hours,
the basic rates, taken in conjunction with so-called "full time", offer
a basis for considering time in relation to earnings. As the sample
weeks for earnings in 1933 were selected by the various firms as
representing full employment, their use in measuring the relation of
time to earnings seems justified.
To supplement the pay-roll data assembled, management supplied
the following:
First, in each of the 11 plants it made out a list of what it considered the major operations. Though the operations listed are not
identical for all plants producing the same kind of shoe, they form a
good illustration for each of the basic rates and cover a fairly good
number of identical operations.
Second, for each occupation it selected and designated one operator
considered to be sufficiently acceptable as to workmanship and speed
to serve as an example of the weekly earnings the firm expected from
the basic rate, during a week of good steady fl.ow of work but without
rush or crowding.
·
Third, to round out this picture it picked from records copied by
agents of the Women's Bureau a week in 1932 that could be used as
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PIECEWORK AND BASIC RATES
33
an uample of expected earnings under the conditions described,
namely, good steady flow of work but without rush. (For purposes
of identification, this week is referred to as "the typical week.") To
these data the Women's Bureau h as added certain other information,
transcribed from company records or computed from pay-roll figures .
The additional data are sex, years with firm, highest and lowest
week's earnings during the year; and the data computed in the
Bureau are weeks worked during the year, total year's earnings, and
average earnings for the weeks worked. Only four of the plant
tables are reproduced in this report: 1 Two for plants producing welt
shoes, and two for plants producing McKay shoes. (See table 11.)
In each case the selection of plants is based on the number of pay
weeks that exceeded and the number that fell below the amount in
the week selected for 1932 as an example of the earnings that should
be expected on that job; in other words, the plants with the most and
those with the fewest weeks in which the designated operators
exceeded the expectancy wage.
On pages 80- 81 managements in 17 plants are quoted on method
of fixing piece rates. Reference was made to the fact that patterns
change often and therefore the revision of rates in the stitching department is very frequent in some plan ts, which explains, at least in part,
the temptation to use ready-made rates rather than to go to the labor
and expense of computing new rates for each and every pattern.
The superintendent of the largest firm to welcome union organization stated that so much time was required of him for checking up on
rates that it had become very burdensome. In that plant use was
made of a measuring wheel. Every rate was approved by the union
and each operator could figure out quite easily the expectancy earnings for each day, even in the stitching room, which is not always
possible. It happened, however, that some of the rates set did not
bring the expectancy earnings, and therefore piece-rate adjustments
became necessary, and it was in connection with these frequent
adjustments that complaint was made.
The complaint was natural, since prices for orders were based on
the rate set, and any increase in rate· naturally would reduce the
margin of profit, which was said to be small because of market conditions. In certain instances the failure to earn the expectancy wage
probably was due to some variation being greater than was anticipated, always a possibility unless the new rates are worked out
independently for the particular job.
Mr. Sidney Hillman, president of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, depends on experts to fix the rates in the clothing industry. He
stated to the writer that though he has had many years of experience
as president of his union, he would not assume responsibility for the
detailed working out of piece rates, but employs persons who specialize in that work. None of the sh oe firms visited claimed to employ
such experts, though two firms stated that they had assembled much
detailed material of value in rate fixing. It is evident that fixing of
rates in the large majority of these 28 shoe factories is not done by
any system that assures satisfactory results. A summary of the
practices as regards stitching-room rates reported by the firms that
did not claim to have a definite hourly basis for fixing them illustrates
this condition. Further, the charts and tables that follow indicate
1
Similar data are available for 11 firms. The other tables will be supplied on request.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
34
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
that in the plants that were said to have basic rates they may really
have been a maximum to indicate the need to cut rates. Shoe workers
as well as others frequently made accusations to this effect. As a matter
of fact, few unions advocate the use of a basic hourly rate in computing piece rates, because the process is slow and highly technical.
The methods reported can be summarized in 3 groups: (1) To
depend on the experience of the foreman of the stitching room to fix
piece rates; (2) to follow prevailing rates (a) in Lowell, (b) in Haverhill, (c) in Massachusetts, (d) or local; or (3) to try out a group of
selected operators on three or four cases of the new work.
In connection with the first group it is possible that the foreman
or stitchers would find the design similar to an old pattern (no.
so-and-so) and decide to pay the same rate and see how it goes.
With r~gard to the second method the margin of guess is even
greater, and the reference to Massachusetts rates must be an invention, as the rates in Massachusetts vary according to city and year
of decision in arbitration cases.
The practice to try out operators as a means of fixing rates referred
to under (3) varied among plants as to number of operators and basis
for their selection. The number ranged from 2, or the fastest and
slowest, for whom the average became the rate, to 5, whose records
also were averaged for the rate. It was claimed that at least three
cases were run through, and if the increase in speed by each operator
was not fairly even, the experiment was prolonged. In at least one
plant it was claimed that only medium-speed operators were used.
Reference was made to the fact that piece rates had to be held
down to the selling price of the shoe.
In more than one instance the statements of officials in the same
plant differed on method, and therefore the conclusion drawn was
that piece rates were not computed according to any accurate measurement of the relation of time to earnings but were of a makesh~ft
nature in the 17 plants that did not claim to have a basic rate. This
is especially true in McKay plants.
In welt plants patterns do not change either so frequently or so
radically, which in itself makes the rate fixing less troublesome. One
thing definitely was clear, however: In no instance was cost of living
mentioned in relation to either basis of pay or rate.
Some of these shoe manufacturers expressed a desire to improve
their pay records by including data on time involved. All spoke of
the business deprersion as a handicap. A number referred to their
industry as being "sick", and to lessons forced home through business
conditions "that must never be overlooked again" but must be kept
in mind constantly if their recurrence is to be prevented. It was
indicated also that several firms became interested during the su1·vey
in the subject of hours of actual work, due largely to the fact that the
strikers' accusations of small pay for a week's work could not be
denied on any basis of time from plant records.
A perusal of the four tables or "special set-up" on pages 46-50
will make it clear to the reader that some weeks brought exceedingly
low returns to the workers. Since shoe operators, like other workers,
depend on their earnings for support of their families, the part-time
work and irregularity of employment that reduced their earnings in
some weeks to less than a dollar were the cause of the charges of low
pay. It is only fair to the employers to state that such pay weeks offer
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PIECEWORK AND BASIC RAT:B1S
35
no injormation on rates, but they do support the statements of workers
and illustrate the problems that shoe workers must meet. Moreover,
the pay record for the "selected week" does give an idea of rates,
since that was said to represent full employment, though actual hours
worked were lacking.
The State of New Hampshire enacted a minimum wage law in 1933
that makes it necessary for employers to keep records of the hours
worked' by women and minors. Therefore such information will be
available in the future.
Obviously, work cannot be furnished to employees in excess of
the amount involved in the firm's orders. The overhead costs of
recurring business depression, seasonal fluctuation, unstandardized
trade practices with their vicious results in unfair competition, are
more gen 3rally recognized now than formerly. Manufacturers who
expanded their production to the extent of taking on new plants and
territory, in face of the warnings of economists, probably have
learned their lesson.
A new type of competition grew up with surprising rapidity during
the years following the war because of simplification of new processes.
Another has developed rapidly in more recent years in an increase in
small producers who make shoes under the sweatshop system. It is
obvious that the practice of renting machines instead of buying them
makes it possible for persons whose credit is good to go into the shoe
business without any appreciable amount of capital. The bearing
of that condition on business practices in the industry must be given
careful consideration before anyone can properly evaluate the practices and policies in force in the manufacture of shoes, especially those
of small producers. The interviews in New Hampshire disclosed considerable thinking by some members of management along these lines.
Last but not least, the absurd multiplicity of style changes, so destructive of regularity in the industry, could be discouraged by the buying
public, chiefly women.
A COMPARISON OF EARNINGS ON EIGHT SKILLED
OPERATIONS
The piece-rate method of pay is used generally in shoe factories,
and the information on earnings in the earlier pages of this report gives
an indication of the economic status of the workers. Unfortunately,
the absence of information on the actual time worked for these earnings prevents the customary correlations. ·
In some industries occasional samples of 1 week's earnings serve
fairly well to illustrate the incomes of workers, but that is not the case
in the shoe industry, because operations are highly specialized and
changes in styles shift the load of work from one operation to another.
In addition, the earnings reported for any pay week may include back
pay or pay for work on some job with a different rate. Moreover, the
. prevalence of part-time employment on a so-called" regular job" presents complications in measuring earnings, unless the full year's record is
taken. For these reasons information about yearly earnings is of
special importance, and earnings were copied from the records for the
year 1932 for all workers employed on the production and packing of
shoes in the plants included in the survey. The records covered 4,998
men and 5,094 women, a total of 10,092. They are reported on in
section IV, pages 16 to 29.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
36
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
The data for year's earnings, week by week, offer comprehensive
material on weeks without pay during the year. Unfortunately, such
data cannot be analyzed in this report because of the volume of
statistical work required. However, the fact that over a third of the
employees in the shoe factories in 1932 were on the pay rolls not more
than 3 months serves as evidence of curtailed employment that was
acute for a large number. Though it is probable that there were cases
of employment in more than one plant during the year, this additional
work was believed not to have increased appreciably the year's
earnmgs.
9.-Rates of wages for 1932 set by written or oral agreement between etnployers and union employees in the shoe industry for Haverhill, Mass. , and basic
rates in 11 New Hampshire firms, 8 skilled occupations
TABLE
Top
Fancy
Outside
cutters 1 stitchers stitchers Vampers
Skivers
Treers
Edge
setters 2
$36
G $45
Side
!asters •
--------Weekly rates '
Haverhill, M ass.s ____
McKay firms,
New
Hampshire:
}_ ________________
$48
2 7________________
3 _________________
4 _________________
5 ________ _______ __
$36
{ $36
31. 20
$36
31. 20
} $33. 60
$48
31. 20
27. 50
24. 00
25. 00
25.00
19. 20
17. 50
13. 44
20.00
16. 50
16.80
17. 50
13. 44
20.00
12. 00
16. 80
17. 50
15. 36
20.00
18.00
19. 20
17. 50
13. 44
18. 00
13. 00
19. 20
25. 00
18. 24
20. 00
20.00
31. 20
27. 50
24. 00
25. 00
25. 00
25.00
20.00
30. 00
30. 00
30.00
45. 00
45. 00
25. 00
20.00
20.00
20.00
24.00
24.00
15.00
16. 00
16. 00
16. 00
25. 00
25. 00
15. 00
22.00
22.00
22. 00
30. 00
30. 00
23.00
15. 00
15.16
15.16
25. 00
25. 00
17. 50
25. 00
25. 00
25. 00
25. 00
25. 00
20.00
28.00
28.00
28. 00
35. 00
35. 00
30.00
23. 00
23.00
23.00
27. 50
27.50
25.00
1.00
. 75
. 75
• 65
. 75
• 65
• 70
. 75
1.00
1.00
. 35
. 35
. 28
. 42
.35
.35
. 32
.42
.37½
.40
.35
. 28
.37½
.27
.40
. 50
. 38
.42
.42
. 65
• 55
. 50
• 52
.52
.50
.55
.60
.52
.42
.48
.48
24.00
27. 50
28.80
Welt firms,
New Hampshire:
6 _____________ __ _-
-------- -------- -87________________
9 ___________ __ ___ 10_- -------------11 7------ ---------
Ilourtv rate, s
Haverhill, Ma.<;s ____ __
McKay firms,
New
Hampshire:
}_ ________________
2 ____ ___ __________
3_________________
4.. ________________
5_________________
{
. 65
. 55
. 50
. 52
. 52
.40
. 35
. 28
.42
.34½
. 25
.62½
.62½
.41%
.41%
. 33¼
.33¼
.62 ½
.93%
.93%
. 50
.41%
. 50
. 50
. 30
.33¼
. 52
. 52
. 30
'
Welt firms,
New Hampshire:
6 ________________ -
7_________________
8 _________________
9 _________________
10_________________
-------------lL
}
.46
.46
.46
.62 ½
.62 H
. 46
{
{
.3Hi
. 31 ¾ }
.33 ½
.31¾}
.33½
. 52
. 52
. 35
.52
.58½
. 52
.58¼
. 52
. 52
. 52
. 40
.58¼
. 73
• 73
• 60
. 48
· . 57~
. 573'
.50
1 Whole shoe cutting is term used in Haverhill.
2 Edge makers is term used in Haverhill.
• All !asters had same rate in Haverhill.
' For 48 hours except where otherwise noted.
1 M assachusetts State Department of Labor. Time Rates of Wages and Hours of Labor in Massa,.
chusetts for the Year Ending Nov. 30, 1932.
e For 45 hours.
1 For 50 hours.
s Firms reporting basic rate on hourly basis, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 11. All others reported basic rate on weekly
basis and hourly rate was computed from scheduled hours.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PIECEWORK AND BASIC RATES
37
Shoe operators spend many idle hours waiting for work. Obviously
the employer cannot supply work if he lacks orders. What he can and
should do, however, is to give more attention to regulating the flow
of work so that delay in one department cannot tie up the whole
factory. Further, if slack time is unavoidable, the workers might be
allowed to remain at home instead of hanging about the plant idle.
It would seem possible for plants to know before closing time whether
the amount of work warrants all employees' reporting in the morning
or whether some should come in the morning and others in the afternoon. Few employers visited reported such practice.
In the case of the 14 plants that furnished no information on either
hourly or weekly rates, no comparison can be made of the bases from
which piece rates were computed. Of the plants reporting rates, a
number claimed to use the local piece rates, but the dat.a on basic rates
for the 11 plants showed no uriformity. A few claimed to use
Lowell rates and two referred to Haverhill rates. Since Haverhill
rates are used by several Massachusetts shoe firms and by one union
as the basis for piece rates in McKay shoes, they are given in thA
preceding table for purposes of compariimn.
Table 9 speaks for itself. The basic rates for cutters in New Hampshire, for example, varied from $24 or $25 in 4 plants to $45 in 2,
none quite reaching the $48 rate of Haverhill; the basic rates for top
stitchers varied from $13.44 in 1 plant to $24 in 2, none approaching
the $36 rate of Haverhill; those for fancy stitchers varied from $12
in 1 plant to $25 in 2, far below the $31.20 and $36 of Haverhill. In
practically all cases the difference was great, notwithstanding the
fact that the New Hampshire rates given appeared to be top rates
for 1932 at least.
The following table, summarizing earnings for all the operators
on the 8 selected skilled operations, is offered as an example of the
fallacy of trusting to rates alone to indicate earnings. The selected
pay week for 1933 shows only 94 of the 1,018 operators, or 9.2 percent
of all in these 8 skilled operations for "the selected week '',2 to have
earned more than the basic rate.
• For explanation of term "selected week" see p. 11.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
10.-Relation of basic rate to earnings in 8 skilled occupations in 11 selected firms
C>,j
00
1932 (calendar year)
umber employed
Firm
no.
Numter employed
Weeks worked in 1932 by-
Number whose
average weekly
earnings wereProduct and retail price of shoes
1933 (1 week in spring)
Operators employed more
than 9 months
All operators
umber whose
earnings were-
t::cJ
Percent of weeks
in which earnings were-
Total
Less
than
b asic
rate
· More
than
basic
rate
Percent of weeks
in which earn- Total
ings wereNum-
Total
ber
Less
than
basic
rate
More
than
basic
rate
719
1,389
389
1, 601
429
73. 7
91.8
73. 0
89. 1
93. 2
26. 3
8. 2
27. 0
10. 9
6. 8
11
21
7
29
8
800
998
1, 511
1, 182
393
519
99.8
98. 6
95. 2
91. 9
92.1
99. 2
.2
1. 4
4. 8
8. 0
7. 9
.8
14
20
29
23
7
8
Total
weeks
Less
than
basic
Less
than
basic
rate
More
than
basic
rate
548
926
326
1, 337
396
72. 3
90. 0
73. 6
88. 6
92. 7
27. 7
10. 0
26. 4
11. 4
7. 3
16
33
8
29
7
14
33
1
28
5
659
998
1, 477
1, 159
357
398
99. 7
98. 6
95. 2
91.8
91. 6
99. 0
.3
1.4
4. 8
8. 2
8.4
1.0
18
18
23
19
21
14
8
rate
More
than
basic
rate
C U TTERS
1
2
3
4
5
M cK AY
Women's, $3 __ _______ _________ _______ __ _____ _____ ____ $31. 20
Women's, $2 ___ ___________ ____ ____ _____ _____ _________ 27. 50
Women's and children's, $0.98, $1.98 _________________ 24. 00
Women's, $3, $4 ______ ____ __________ _____ ___ _________ 25.00
Girls', misses', children's, $1.75, $1.98 ___ ____ _________ 25. 00
21
60
9
43
10
20
59
6
42
10
18
20
36
29
9
13
18
20
36
29
9
13
1
1
3
1
2
7
1
2
WELT
6
7
8
9
10
11
Women's, misses', children's, $2.50, $3 _______________
Men's, boys', little men's, $2 to $3 ________ ___________
Men's, $3.50, $4, $5 - -- --- - - ---- ----------- - --- - -----Men's and boys' , $1.75, $2.25, $3 ____ ___ ____ __ ________
Men's, $1.75, $2.25, $3 ____________ __ ___ ____________ ___
Men's, women's, children's, $3 to $lQ ___ _____ ________
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
30. 00
30. 00
30. 00
45. 00
45. 00
25. 00
~
0
Basic
rate
23
19
23
15
8
2
1
TOP STITCHERS
1
2
3
4
ti
Women's, $3 ___ ________McKAY
_________ ____________ _____ ____ $19. 20
Women's, $2 _____ ____ ______________________ __________ 17. 50
Women's and children's, $0.98, $1.98 ______________ ___ 13. 44
Women's, $3, $4 __________________________ __________ _ 20. 00
Girls', misses', children's, $1.75, $1.98 ________________ 16. 50
12
31
14
25
16
25
16
493
754
427
705
726
79. 7
93. 6
39. 3
93. 2
88. 7
20. 3
6. 4
60. 7
1. 8
11. 3
15
14
10
15
13
3
521
636
397
696
576
87
99. 2
9S. 2
98. 2
83. 2
95. 0
!)4. 3
.8
1. 7
1. 7
16. 8
5. 0
5. 7
12
31
11
10
9
8
13
14
476
407
147
575
676
79. 8
94.1
37.9
99. 3
88. 6
20. 2
5. 9
62.1
.7
11. 4
10
26
14
14
11
10
24
2
14
10
8
394
553
293
652
559
51
98. 8
98.0
100. 0
83.4
94.8
96. 1
1-.2
1. 9
19
19
11
11
16. 6
5. 2
3. 9
7
12
13
3
7
8
13
1
2
12
WELT
6
7
8
9
10
11
Women's, misses', ch ildren's, $2.50, $3 __________ ___ __
Men's, boys', little men's, $2 to $3 ______ ______ _______
Men's, $3.50, $4, $5 ________ ______________ ___ _________
Men's and boys', $1.75, $2.25, $3 _____ ____ ____________
Men's, $1.75, $2.25, $3 _______________________________ _
Men's, women's, children's, $3 to $10 ________________
20. 00
20. 00
20. 00
24. 00
24. 00
15. 00
15
14
10
15
13
3
11
6
13
11
1
4
2
1-d
1-t
t:z,j
(":l
t:z,j
~
0
FANCY STITCHERS
~
~
1
2
3
4
5
McKAY
Women's, $3 _________ ___ __ ______ ______________ _______ $16. 80
Women's, $2 ____________ ___ ___ ___ ____ ___________ ___ __ 17. 50
Women's and children's, $0.98, $1.98 _________________ 13. 44
Women's, $3, $4 ____________________________ ___ ______ 20. 00
Girls', misses', children's, $1.75, $1.98 ___ _____________ 12. 00
31
143
25
71
28
31
143
25
71
28
1,363
2,763
964
1,531
1,014
80. 8
92. 5
80.1
96. 4
87.8
19. 2
7. 5
19. 9
3. 6
12. 2
24
30
19
20
17
1, 119
1,326
896
901
829
80.3
88.1
80.1
96. 2
88.8
19. 7
11. 9
19. 9
3.8
11. 2
26
57
31
24
23
26
55
19
24
21
2
·12
2
zt:I>
t:d
>
Ul
WELT
1-t
(":l
6
7
8
9
10
11
Women's, misses', children's, $2.50, $3 _______________
Men's, boys', little men's, $2 to $3 ___________________
Men's, $3.50, $4, $5 __________________________ ________
Men's and boys', $1.75, $2.25, $3 ___________ __________
Men's, $1.75, $2.25, $3 ______________________________ __
Men's, women's, children's, $3 to $10 _______________ _
16. 00
16. 00
16. 00
25. 00
25. 00
15. 00
38
26
10
30
22
5
38
26
10
30
22
4
1,334
1,221
426
1,423
894
199
99. 6
97. 5
80. 5
94. 2
98. 5
66.3
.4
2. 5
19. 5
5.8
1. 5
33. 7
24
22
6
27
16
4
1,153
1,100
305
1,345
806
197
99. 5
97. 5
78. 7
94. 0
98. 9
66.0
.5
2. 5
21. 3
6. 0
1.1
34.0
29
20
13
6
16
9
29
20
12
6
16
9
~
>
8
t:z,j
Ul
c,.:,
co
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
10.-.llelation of basic rate to earnings in 8 skilled occupations in 11 selected firms-Continued
1933 (1 week in spring)
1932 (calendar year)
I
Number employed
Weeks worked in 1932 by-
Number whose
average weekly
earnings were-
Firm
no.
Product and retail price of shoes
Number employed
Operators employed more
than 9 months
All operators
Number whose
earnings were-
Basic
rate
Percent of weeks
in which earnings were-
Total
Less
than
basic
rate
More
than
basic
rate
T otal
Less
than
basic
rate
More
than
basic
rate
791
467
293
240
384
66. 2
73. 2
72. 7
63.8
93.0
33. 8
26. 8
27. 3
36. 3
7.0
481
676
985
1,249
737
420
100.0
97.5
94. 9
95. 3
89.0
93.8
Percent of weeks
in which earn- Total
ings wereNumber
Total
weeks
13
9
5
3
Less
t han
basic
rate
More
t han
basic
rate
8
615
421
247
137
384
62. 6
72. 0
68. 0
45. 3
93. 0
37. 4
28. 0
32. 0
54. 7
7.0
9
428
100.0
98. 7
93. 2
95. 6
89. 0
92.2
-------1.3
Less
than
basic
rate
More
than
basic
rate
VAMPERS
1
2
3
4
6
McKAY___ ___ __ _______________ _
Women's, $3 _________________
80
Women's, $2 ____ _______ ______________________________ $16.
17. 50
Women's and children's, $0.98, $1.98 __ _______________ 15. 36
Women's, $3, $4 __---- - -------'-- - - - _______ ___________ 20. 00
Girls', misses', children's, $1.75, $1.98 __________ ______ 18.00
23
13
8
9
8
20
13
8
8
8
12
16
28
30
17
10
12
16
27
30
3
--------
-------1
--------
15
9
6
4
8
14
2
2
4
1
7
4
8
---------------
9
--------
WELT
6
7
8
9
10
11
Women's, misses', children's, $2.50, $3 ______ _________
Men's, boys', little men's, $2 to $3 _____ ______ ___ ____ _
Men's, $3.50, $4, $5_ -------- - -----------------------Men's and boys', $1.75, $2.25, $3 ____________________ _
Men's, $1.75, $2.25, $3------------ -- -- ~-------- - -----Men's, women's, children's, $3 to $10 ______ ___ _______
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
22.00
22. 00
22. 00
30. 00
30. 00
23.00
16
10
--------------1
-------1
--------
-------2. 5
5.1
4. 7
11.0
6.2
11
15
24
14
7
555
724
1,189
697
334
6. 8
4. 4
11.0
7.8
9
16
15
22
14
6
16 --------
14
21
12
4
1
1
2
2
SKIVERS
1
2
3
4
5
Women's, $3 _ --------~~~~-~----------------------- $19. 20
Women's, $2 _ _ - - ------- - ----------- ----------------- 17. 50
Women's and children's, $0.98, $1.98 __ ______________ _ 13. 44
Women's, $3, $4 _______ ___ ___ __ _______ ______________ _ 18. 00
Girls', misses', children's, $1. 75, $1.98 _______________ _ 13. 00
2
5
1
2
5
1
16
3
14
3
2
71
64. 8 1 35. 2
109
5. 5
94. 5 I
46 -- - ----- ------- 65. 2
34. 8
250
78
91. 0
9. 0
47
44
46
140
47
--------'-------50. 7
49. 3
WELT
6
7
8
9
10
11
Women's, misses', children's, $2.50, $3 _______________ 15. 00
4
4
194
05. 4
4. 6
4
194
95. 4
4. 6
7
7
Men's, boy's, little men's, $2 to $3 ___ ________________ 15. 00
15
8
7
671
63. 9
36. 1
12
606
60.1
39. 9
6
6
Men's, $3.50, $4, $5 ____ ________ ___ ____________ _______ _ 15. 00
12
12
491
83. 1
16. 0
7
356
78.1
21. 9
7
5
2
Men's, boys', $1.75, $2.25, $3_ __________ ______________ 25. 00
12
12
531
93. 6
6. 4
8
406
92.1
7. 9
9
8
1
Men's, $1.75, $2.25, $3 _______ ______ ___________________ 25. 00
14
14 __ ______
401
94. 8
5. 2
5
254
92. 9
7.1
8
8
Men's, women's, children's, $3 to $IQ ____ __ _______ __ _____ _______________________ _____ ___ _____________ ___ ____ _______ __ ____ ___ __ _____________ _ ___ ___________ __ _______ _
TREERS
1
2
3
4
5
Women's, $3 ___________McKAY
____ __ ___ _____________________
20
Women's, $2 __ ___ ____ _______________ _________________ $19.
25.00
Women's and children's, $0.98, $1.98 _________________ 18. 24
Vil omen's, $3, $4 _____ _------------ - - ----------------- 20. 00
Girls', misses', children's, $1.75, $1.98 ________________ 20. 00
19
21
74
16
15
19
13
8
15
15
9
.4
13
8
14
15
9
4
22
74
17
17
1
2
653
1,429
289
617
716
55. 6
96. 6
77. 2
60.8
96. 8
44. 4
3. 4
22. 8
39. 2
3. 2
12
8
3
13
14
593
374
142
568
682
53. 6
93. 3
74. 6
58. 5
96. 6
46. 4
6. 7
25. 4
41.5
3. 4
478
358
626
764
346
132
100. 0
98. 6
95. 0
93. 3
92. 2
80. 3
1.4
5. 0
6. 7
7.8
19. 7
10
7
11
15
6
2
456
354
539
764
305
98
100. 0
98. 6
94. 2
93. 3
91. 1
74. 5
1.4
5. 8
6. 7
8. 9
25. 5
11
31
7
13
13
11
31
5
13
12
10
7
9
15
7
10
7
8
15
7
1
WELT
6
7
8
9
10
11
Women's, misses', children's, $2.50, $3 _______________
Men's, boys', little men's, $2 to $3 _________________ __
Men's, $3.50, $4, $5 ___ ____ _______ ____________________
Men's, boys', $1.75, $2.25, $3 _________________________
Men's, $1.75, $2.25, $3 _______________ _________________
Men's, women's, children's, $3 to $10 ________________
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
25. 00
25. 00
25. 00
25. 00
25. 00
20. 00
2
2
TABLE
10.-Relation of basic rate to earnings in 8 skilled occupations in 11 selected firms-Continued
1933 (1 week in spring)
1932 (calendar year),
Weeks worked in 1932 by-
Number employed
Firm
no.
rum ber whose
averaire weekly
earnings were-
Number employed
Operators employed more
than 9 months
All operators
umber whose
earnings were-
Basic
rate
Product and retail price of shoes
P ercent of weeks
in which earnings were-
Total
Less
than
basic
rate
More
than
basic
rate
Total
Less
than
basic
rate
More
than
basic
rate
206
215
187
148
221
58. 7
86. 5
83. 4
46. 6
99. 5
41. 3
13. 5
16. 6
53. 4
.5
160
145
330
638
458
149
100. 0
87. 6
85. 5
9 .4
96. 7
100. 0
12. 4
14. 5
1.6
3. 3
Percent of weeks
in which earn- Total
ings wereNumber
Total
weeks
4
4
3
3
4
2M
177
152
137
203
3
2
5
12
9
2
148
102
255
603
458
98
Less
than
basic
rate
More
than
basic
rate
58. 3
86.4
84. 9
46. 0
100. 0
41. 7
13. 6
15. 1
54. 0
Less
than
basic
rate
More
than
basic
rate
EDGE SETTERS
1
2
3
4
5
McKAY____ __________ _________ _
Women's, $3 _________________
$31. 20
Women's, $2 __________ ___ ______ ________ ___ ___________ 27. 50
Women's and children's, $0.98, $1.98 ___________ ______ 24. 00
Women's, $3, $4 ___ ___ ___ _________ ____ _____ __ ________ 25. 00
Girls', misses', children's, $1.75, $1.98_c __ ____ __ ______ 25. 00
6
8
4
5
7
6
8
4
3
7
4
6
8
15
9
4
6
8
15
9
4
4
2
I
I
3
3
5
4
4
4
1
4
4
WELT
6
7
8
9
10
11
Women's, misses', children's, $2.50, $3 _____ ___ _______
Men's, boys', little men's, $2 to $3 _________ _________ _
Mon's, $3.50, $4, $5 __ - ---- ----- ___ _______ _• __________
Men's, boys', $1.75, $2.25, $3 ______ _________ ________ __
Men's, $1.75, $2.25, $3 ____________ ____________ ________
Men's, women's, children's, $3 to $10 ________ ________
28. 00
28. 00
28.00
35. 00
35. 00
30.00
1
•
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
100. 0
89. 2
87.1
98. 3
96. 7
100. 0
10.8
12. 9
1. 7
3. 3
4
4
4
5
14
9
3
4
5
14
9
3
5
3
--------
SIDE LAS'l.'ERS
00
gc-,
cg
I
~
l
1
2
3
4
5
McKAY
Women 's, $3 _______________________________ ---- ------ $24. 00
Women's, $2 _________ ___ __ ____________ _______ -------- 27. 50
Women's and children's, $0.98, $1.98 ________________ _) 28. 0
Women's, $3, $4 ___________ __________________ __ ___ ___ 25. 00
Girls', misses', children's, $1.75, $1.98 ________________\ 20. 00
11
38
3
8
13
11
38 ------ -3
1
7
12
--------1
407
63
103
274
275
82.1
92. 2
76. 7
65. 0
83. 6
17. 9
7. 8
23. 3
35. 0
16. 4
8
5
2
5
4
401
241
102
222
196
81.8
85. 9
76. 5
61. 7
87. 2
199
353
291
367
308
52
94. 5
76. 2
90. 7
89. 4
82. 8
90. 4
5. 5
23. 8
9. 3
10. 6
17. 2
9. 6
4
7
5
7
6
1
196
353
248
356
307
52
94. 9
76. 2
92. 3
89. 0
82. 7
9J. 4
I
18. 2
14. 1
23. 5
38. 3
12. 8
7
15
3
5
4
7
15
5. 1
23. 8
7. 7
11. 0
17. 3
9. 6
10
5
5
8
6
1
10
5
5
7
6
1
-------3
5
4
--------
WELT
6
7
8
9
10
11
Women's, misses', children 's, $2.50, $3 _________ .______
Men's, boys', little men's, $2 to $3 _________________ __
Men 's, $3.50, $4, $5 ___ _______________________________
Men's, boys', $1.75, $2.25, $3 ________________ __ _______
Men's, $1.75, $2.25, $3 ________________________________
Men's, women's, children's, $3 to $10 ___ __ _________ __
23. 00
23. 00
23. 00
27. 50
27. 50
25. 00
5
7
7
8
7
1
I
General note:
Basis of selection of firms and occupations.-The 11 firms selected are those that reported basic rates . The 8 occupations are those with the largest numbers of employees for whom
b asic rates were reported by all firms. (Exception, skivers in furn 11.)
Basic rate.-Reported by the 11 firms, if on an hourly basis it was raised to a weekly basis by multiplying by fi rm's scheduled hours of work.
1932 data.-The number employed is total number on the pay roll during the calend ar year of 1932 and "total weeks" is the sum of all weeks "orked by these same operators
during the 12-month period. The average weekly earnings were computed by dividing the total earnings of the year of each operator by the number of weeks he or she worked.
Operators employed more than 9 months is the number of the total operators who worked 40 weeks and more during the year and total u·eeks is the sum of these weeks worked.
1933 data.-The total number employed is the number on the pay roll in each specified occupation for 1 week in spring of 1933, selected by tl:!e firm as a full week.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
44
SHOE fNDUSTRY IN NEW HAMSPHIRE
As it is generally believed that earnings are more regular on welt
shoes than in the average McKay plant, it is significant to find that
in the week recorded for 1933 only 22 (4.3 percent) of the 507 who
worked on welt shoes in these 8 skilled occupations earned more than
the b asic rate, while 72 did so (14.1 percent) of the 511 engaged in
these occupations in the McKay plants visited. A somewhat similar
situation existed in 1932, though even smaller proportions earned
more than the weekly basic rate, only 35 (2.3 percent) of the 1,521
workers in these 8 operations exceeding such rate. These were 23
(2.6 percent) of the 879 who worked on McKay shoes and 12 (1.9
percent) of the 642 on welt shoes. It is apparent from the column
showing the basic rates that their general level was considerably
higher for welt shoes than for McKay.
The "selected week" for 1933, as stated, offers a fairly acceptable
m easuring stick because these pay-roll records were designated by
the firms as weeks of full employment. The dates of the pay ·week
were not the same, but they were selected on a basis of amount of
work on h and . In some cases the pay dates varied from department
to department of one plant for this very reason. The strikes occurred
during good business and these pay weeks as a rule preceded the
strike except where the firm had more work later on.
Unfortunately, more detailed information is necessary for study
before conclusion can be arrived at with regard to the indications
pointed to by these figures, namely, that it is possible that the basic
rate given was a top wage rather than a basis from which piece rates
were computed. So much was said about the relation of the sales
price to the piece rates that this suggest10n seems warranted.
Assuredly a study should be made of the distribution of production
costs. If it is true, as intimated by at least one producer, that labor
was a very small part of the total production costs, this should be
disclosed, as should facts about distribution of other costs, such as
the proportions that represent materials, installation of machines ,
salaries of management and office workers, of foremen and inspectors,
selling costs, and other expenses involved in operation and increased
by unfair competition.
ATTAINMENT OF BASIC RATE BY EMPLOYEES SELECTED
AS EXAMPLES BY FIRM
As explained on page 32, various items of information were supplied by the plant officials cooperating with the investigator in the
study of earnings fluctuation. Among these was the designation of
a representative employee in each occupation whose earnings in a
specific week of 1932 might be considered typical of what the rates
could be expected to yield.
In the case of each of these designated employees there have been
added from employment and . pay-roll records for 1932 the following
information: Sex; years with firm; basic rate; year's earnings, weeks
worked, and average earnings per week; amount and date of highest
and of lowest week's earnings; number of weeks in which earnings
were, respectively, above and below those of the typical week.
.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PIECEWORK AND BASIC RATES
45
The 4 lists of employees supplied here (see table 11) were selected
from 11 available 3 lists as illustrating, for McKay and for welt firms, the
plants in which the employees designated by the officials exceeded
most often the basic rate (lists B and D) and the plants in which
such employees reached it in the fewe3t cases (lists A and C). The
figures furnish important evidence of the irregularity of employment
and earnings in the industry.
a Copies of the others may be had by applying to the Women's Bureau.
•
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TABLE
11.-0perators and their occupations selected by firms as fair examples of a normal week's earnings in 1932, with supplementary data
from Women's Bureau 1932 schedules, showing year's earni!"gs, weeks worked, highest and lowest week's earnings, etc.
A.-PLANT MAKING McKAY SHOES
Total earnings in 1932
Employees (sex)
Department
Occupation
Years
with
the
firm
Actual week's earnings, various dates in 1932
Number
of weeks
earnings
were
above
typical
Number
of weeks
earnings
were
below
typical
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
---
Basic
rate
Number Average
Amount of weeks per week
worked worked
Typical for fair average week (selected by firm)
Amou nt
Male _____ Cutting ______ _
Do ___ __ _____ do ____ _____
Do _____ ___ __ do __ _______
Do ___ __ __ ___ do ___ ___ ___
Female ___ Stitching __ ____
Do _____ _____ do ____ ____ _
Do s ____ _____ _do _____ ____
Do _____ _____ do ___ ______
Do _____ _____ do _____ ____
Do _____ __ ___ do ____ _____
Do _____ _____ do ___ ______
Do ___ __ ___ __do _________
Do ____ _ __ ___ do ___ ___ __ _
Do _____ _____ do _____ __ __
Do _____ ___ __ do _____ ___ _
Male _____ Stock ___ _____ _
Do _____ __ __ _do _____ ___ _
Do _____ Lasting and
making.
Do ___ __ _____ do ___ ______
Do _____ _____ do __ ___ __ __
Do ____ _ _____ do ___ ______
Do __ ___ ____ _do ___ ___ __ _
Do __ ___ _____ do ___ _____ _
Do _____ __ · __ do ______ ___
Do ____ _ __ ___do· ---- -- -Do _____ _____ do ___ ___ ___
Do _____ ____ _do _________
Do _____ __ ___ do ____ ____
Do ____ _ _____ do _______ __
Do _____ ____ _do _____ ___ _
Do _____ __ __ _do _____ ____
Do _____ ____ _do _______ __
Do _____ Finishing ____ _
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Die cut outside ________
16 $25. 00
$807. 32
Handle die ___ _____ ____
2
16. 50
475. 47
Cu t linings ___ ___ __ ____
1
20.00
622. 39
Sort and case ___ __ __ ___
15.
00
704.
42
5
Skive ________________ _
11. 50
4
388. 83
Marking ______ ____ ____
4 --- --- -339. 92
Make linings __ __ ___ ___
12. 50
6
385.12
Close ____ ___ ________ ___
4
13. 50
348. 62
Vamp ___________ _____ _
448. 63
18. 00
6
Top stitch ___ ____ _____ N.R.
16. 50
544. 76
Fancy stitch ___ _______
12. 00
4
328. 65
Stitch binding ________
5
12. 00
328. 42
Punch cut-outs ________
4
11. 50
455. 04
Stitch eu t-outs ________
12. 00
349. 43
5
Doubling _____ ______ __
14
10. 00
309. 01
R ounder ___________ ___
7
11. 50
779. 89
Molding ______ _______ _
17. 50
785. 35
18
Assembling _______ ____
3 --- ----396. 20
Pull over. __ _______ ____
17
25. 00 l, 051. 36
Side last_ ___ _______ ___
15
20. 00
693. 29
Bed last. ___ _______ ____
23. 50
6
760. 10
Pound toes ___ _____ ____
16. 00
8
903. 79
Pull lasts ___ _______ ___
1
18. 00
371. 82
McKay sew ____ __ __ ___
25. 00
956. 20
6
Burnish h eels __ ___ ____
4
16. 50
550. 62
Iron _____ ___ ____ ____ ___
15
15. 50
560. 25
Scour heels ____________
14
20. 00
697. 22
Heel. __ _______ _____ ___
4
24. 00
867. 33
Pull tacks ___ _________ _
4
10. 50
433. 35
Shave heels __________ _
25. 00 1,016. 27
5
Trim edges __________ __
22. 00
752. 82
8
Set edges ___________ ___
4
25. co
634. 28
Buff __ ________________
18. 00
569. 47
6
Date
Highest
Amount
Lowest
Date
49
37
50
49
47
50
49
50
44
47
43
42
51
49
49
51
51
48
$16. 48
12. 85
12. 45
14. 38
8. 27
6. 80
7. 86
6. 97
10. 20
11. 59
7. 64
7. 82
8. 92
7.13
6. 31
15. 29
15. 40
8. 25
$35. 31 Feb. 4
22. 75 Feb. 11
21. 24 Feb. 4
26. 71 Feb . 18
15. 04 Aug. 11
12. 94 Feb. 11
18. 21 ___ do ___ __
14. 39 Jan. 14
17. 80 July 14
23. 30 F eb. 18
16. 93 Feb. 11
17. 14 J an . 28
23. 45 F eb. 25
17. 58 Feb. 11
12. 10 Feb. 4
26. 81 J an. 21
26. 36 ___ do ____ _
16. 83 Feb. 11
$35. 31 Feb. 4
22. 75 Feb . 11
21. 32 Feb. 18
26. 71 ___ do ____ _
15. 04 Aug. 11
13. 26 Mar. 3
18. 21 Feb. 11
14. 39 Jan. 14
17. 80 July 14
23. 30 Feb. 18
16. 93 Feb. 11
17. 78 M ar. 17
23. 45 Feb. 25
17. 73 Feb. 4
12. 10 ___ do ____ _
26. 90 Aug. 11
26. 59 Feb. 4
16. 83 Feb. 11
51
4'.l
51
51
48
52
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
44
20. 61
14.15
14. 90
17. 72
7. 75
18. 39
10. 80
10. !l9
13. 67
17. 01
8. 50
19. 93
14. 76
12. 44
12. 94
38. 04 Feb. 4
28. 49 ___do ____ _
30. 96 Jan. 28
34. 43 ___ do _____
23. 37 Mar. 3'
34. 61 Feb. 4
21. 03 J an. 21
24. 95 Feb. 11
29. 07 Feb. 4
30. 24 Feb. 11
19. 83 Feb. 4
35. 67 Feb. 25
28. 50 Feb. 4
23. 49 Aug. 18
24. 95 Feb. 25
38. 04 Feb. 4
28. 49 ___ do ____ _
31. 14 J an . 21
35. 35 Feb. 4
23. 37 Mar. 3
34. 61 Feb. 4
21. 03 Jan. 21
24. 95 Feb. 11
29. 07 Feb. 4
30. 24 Feb. 11
19. 83 Feb. 4
35. 67 Feb . 25
28. 50 Feb. 4
23. 49 Aug.
I
24. 95 Feb.
~g
Amount
Date
$2. 51 Nov. 3
4. 71 Nov. 24
3. 11 Dec. 1
2.00 Apr. 28
2. 30 Dec. 15
1. 60 N ov. 3
1. 34 Nov. 17
1. 18 ___ do _____
2.10 Nov. 3
. 98 Nov. 24
1. 63 Nov. 3
1. 08 July 21
1. 19 June 2
. 83 Dec. 1
2. 16 July 21
3. 51 Dec. 1
3. 35 Nov. 17
1. 61 July 21
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
2
0
48
36
48
48
46
48
48
49
43
46
42
40
50
47
48
49
48
47
Sept. 29
July 21
__ _do _____
___do ___ __
__ _do ____ _
Nov. 10
Nov. 17
___ do ___ __
___ do _____
___ do ____ _
J uly 21
1\ov. 17
___ do __ ___
___ do __ __ _
___do ____ _
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
50
48
49
49
47
51
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
43
1. 91
1. 05
1. 24
1. 80
1. 12
1. 06
1. 92
2. 87
2.16
3.88
. 69
3. 43
2. 28
2. 09
1. 51
U1
~
0
l".J
H
ztj
q
U1.
t-3
~
Do __________ do ____ ____ _
Do __ ________ do _____ __ _
Do _____ Packing __ ____ _
Do __________ do ___ __ ___ _
Female _______ _do __ _______
Do ____ _ ____ _do __ ______ _
Roll and finish _______ _
8
Polish bottoms _______ _
3
Treer ________________ _
3
Dress _______ _____ ____ _
3
Repair _______________ _ N.R.
P eck __ _________ __ ____ _
2
13_ rn
653. 47
445. 56
597. 87
350. 81
491. 06
329. 93
20.00
10.50
10. 50
16. 00
Average for all cases:
Both sexe" __ _______ ___ ------------ ------- ----- -- -- -- - _________________ _
Men __ ___ ______ ______ _ ------------ ------- ----- _________ _____ ___ _______ _
Women __ ______________ ___ _____ _______ .______ ______ ___ ______ ___ _______ _
49
51
51
48
51
48
13. 35
8. 74
11. 72
7. 31
9. 63
6. 87
31.37
20.88
24.48
14. 18
22. 98
14. 47
48. 9
49. 6
47. 7
11. 71
23. 61
27. 21
. 17.18
13. 74
8.09
Feb.
Feb.
Jan.
Aug.
Mar.
Jan.
11
4
14
18
17
28
31. 37
20.88
25.98
14.18
22. 98
14. 47
Feb.
Feb.
Mar.
Aug.
Mar.
Jan.
11
4
10
18
17
28
23. 72
27. 33
17. 26
2. 81 Dec. 29
1. 35
ov. 17
1. 97 ___ do _____
1. 67 May 12
1. 53 Dec. 15
1. 73
ov. 17
1. 28
2. 24
1. 52
0
0
0
0
0
0
48
50
50
47
50
47
0. 2
0. 2
0. 2
47. 7
48.4
46.5
0
5
2
39
8
I 9
2
10
4
7
5
12
6
9
35
15
24
22
7
49
30
46
8
39
37
45
35
43
40
40
35
40
38
11
31
25
22
37
14
17
18
3
2
17
20
25
31
14
32
28
43
44
28
26
19
14
23
25
29
14
17
D.- PLANT MAKING McKAY SHOES
M 11 le _____ Cutting _______ Outside cutter knife __
Do ____ ___ __ do __ __ ___ _ . Leather lining cut_ ____
Do ____ _____ do ______ __ Cloth lining cut _______
Female ___ Stitching ______ Skiver _______________ _
Do ____ _____ do _______ _ Marker _______________
Do ____ _____ do ___ ____ _ Stitch linings ____ __ ___
Do ____ _____ do __ ____ __ Cement French cord __
Do ____ _____ co _______ _ Vamp ____ ___ __ ___ _____
Do ____ _____ do _______ _ Stitch French cord ____
Do ____ _____ do _____ ___ Turn French cord __ ___
Do ____ _____ do _____ ___ Top stitch _______ ____ _
Do ____ ____ _do _______ _ Die cut-out_ _____ _____
Do __ __ _____ do _______ _ Fancy stitch __________
Do ___ . _____ do _______ _ Tape ________ _____ _____
Male _____ Stock ____ ___ __ Flesh outer ___________
Do ____ _____ do ________ Rounding ____________ _
Do ____ _____ do _____ ___ Shank-out_ ______ _____
Do ____ _____ do ___ _____ Case-up second time __
Assembler ____________
Do ____ Lasting ar.
m aking.
Do ____ _____ do _______ _ Pull over _____ ____ _____
Do ____ __ ___do ___ _____ Side laster _______ _____
Do ____ _____ do _______ _ Bed laster. ____________
Do ____ ____ _do _______ _ Pound, scuff u ppers __
Do ____ _____ <Jo_ - ------ Sole laying _____ _____ __
Do ____ _____ cto _____ ___ Pull lasts ___________ __
Do ____ _____ <lo_ - - --- -- Cement bottoms ______
Do ____ ___ __ do ________ Nail wood heels _______
Fem ale ___ _____ do ________ Tron linings _____ ____ __
Male _____ ___ __ do ______ __ Inspecting, wet cbannel cement and size.
Do ____ Finishing _____ Edge trim ___ ________ _
Do ____ _____ do ________ Edge set_ ________ _____
See footLOtes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
4
$25
$786. 95
392. 87
3
18
4
866. 49
18
4
18 l, 107.16
12
3
390.19
4
15
581. 26
12
2
340. 02
4
20
873. 08
4 ------- 668. 88
. R. ------- 533. 37
522. 47
. R.
20
56 . 51
3 ------- 4
20
668. 62
3
12
635. 59
4 ----- --914. 69
4
21
772. 91
4 -------- 1,011.47
2
12
610. 42
24
3
804. 71
50
36
49
48
48
47
48
46
48
4
46
48
47
4
47
47
50
45
45
$15. 74
10. 91
17. 68
23. 07
8. 13
12. 37
7.08
18. 28
13. 94
11. 11
11. 35
11. 84
14. 23
13. 24
19. 46
16. 44
20. 23
13. 56
17. 88
128. 79 Jan. 23
20. 18 Feb. 20
27. 29 ___ do ____
18. 56 July 16
12. !l4 Feb. 13
16. 88 ___ do ____
12. 74 Aug. 6
25. 13 Feb. 27
l . £6 Aug. 6
15. 38 Feb . 27
17. 0
Jan . 16
16. !l9 Mar. 12
20.EO Mar. 26
Jan. 16
1 .l
13. 64 Oct. 15
21. 14 Aug. 20
21. 36 Sept. 10
12. 24 J an. :::0
25. 29 Oct. 1
$28. 79 Jan. 23
25. 37 Feb. 6
29.12 July · 23
36. 04 Feb. 20
16. 53 Feb. 6
20. !l6 July 23
14. 96 Aug. 20
28.03 Feb. 20
20. 92 Feb. 13
18. 26 Sept. 24
19. 55 Feb. 13
24. 42 ___ do ____
39. 07 Jan. 30
2-3. 07 Feb. 6
29. 89 Feb. 27
31. 30 ___ do ____
34. 61 __ _do ____ _
29. 66 Sept. 24
28. 37 Apr. 9
$1. 12 Nov. 26
. 77 Apr. 23
1.84 May 21
2. 31 Dec. 31
1. 22 May 28
1. 55 Nov. 19
. 67 Dec. 24
2. 79 May 21
1. 42 ___ do ____
1. 12 ___ do ____
1.38 June 18
.62 Dec. 24
1. 55 Nov. 5
2. 29 Dec. 24
1.06 Nov. 19
. 34 May 21
1.84 June 11
.16 ___ do ____
1. 99 Nov. 19
4
25 1, 122. 15
4
25 l, 221. 57
4
25 1,453.62
1 ----- -- 778. 90
4
20
908. 73
4
15
780. 32
4
rn
817. 45
4
876. 82
l6
4
12
687. 46
4
544. 78
47
46
47
47
47
46
47
45
23.88
26. 56
30. 93
16. 57
19. 33
16. 96
17. 39
19. 48
14. [ 4
14. 34
20.13 Aug. 13
30. 49 Aug. 27
28. 37 ___ do ____
24. 91 Aug. 6
rn. 6 ___ do ____
21. 09 Sept. 17
20. 60 July 23
l . 57 Oct. 29
12. 06 Sept. 17
16. 36 Aug. 13
45. 27 ___ do ____
39. 49 Aug. 6
42. 31 J an. 16
27. 47 Oct.
1
32. 62 July 20
28. 77 Sept. 24
27. 91 ___do __ __
28. 96 M ar. 12
33. 53 __ _do ____
23. 43 Jan. 16
3. 53 May 28
12. 63 June 1
7. 21 May 28
3. 48 ___ do ____
2. 37 ___ do ____
2.85 June 18
2. 05 May 28
1. 04 June 18
1. 21 Dec. 31
.89 June 25
4
4
40
47
rn. 19
25. 03
22. 80
-------25
25
1,207. 59
1, 178. 75
46
38
25.08
July 23
July 16
45. 21
38. 79
Oct. 1
Mar. 12
,
6.42
3. 01
June 4
May 28
I
28
TABLE
•
11.-0perators and their occupations selected .by firms as fair examples of a normal week's earnings in 1932, with supplementary data
Women's Bureau 1932 schedules, showing year's earnings, weeks worked, highest and lowest wee 's earnings, etc.-Continued
1rom
B.-PLANT MAKING M cKAY SHOES-Continued
Total earnings in 1932
Employees (sex)
Department
Male _____
Do ____
Do ____
Do ____
Finishing ___ ___
_____ do ____ ____
__ __ _do ______ __
_____ do_ - ----- -
Do ____
Do ____
Female ___
Do ____
Do ____
Packing __ __ ___
___ __ do_ - ----- _____ do _- _____ _
_____ do _- ______
_____ do ________
Occupation
Buff bottcm s ____ _____
N aumkeag and dust_ __
Breast scour ________ _
Paint and polish bottoms.
Treer _________________
Dresser ______________ _
Repairer _____ ___ ___ ___
Inspect and pack ___ __ _
Heel pads and sock ___
Years
with
the
firm
4
4
3
4
3
3
4
2
4
Average for all cases:
Both sexes ____________
---- ------Men _____ ___ _________ _ - ---------- -Women _______________ -- ----- ---- ----- ----- --- -------- - - --- - ------- --- - -------
----- --
----
Basic
rate
$21
21
12
-------20
12
15
15
12
Number Average
Amount of weeks per week
worked worked
Actual week's earnings, various dates in 1932
Typical for fair average week (selected by firm)
Highest
Amount
Date
Amount
- - --
- - --
----
$879. 36
1,082. 74
854. 91
838. 30
45
47
45
46
$19. 54
23. 04
19. 00
18. 22
$25. 67
25.1 8
16. 09
22. 65
Sept.
Sept.
Oct.
Aug.
17
10
29
13
$30. 67
34. 02
32. 17
28. 65
785. 95
792. 57
564. 56
512. 74
610. 96
44
44
42
44
46
17. 86
18. 01
13. 44
11. 65
13. 28
22.06
15. 80
15. 00
15. 00
12.86
July
Oct.
Aug.
Aug.
J an.
30
22
13
6
30
28. 81
30. 27
18. 93
18. 95
21. 95
45. 9
45. 5
46. 7
17. 17
19. 53
13. 24
20. 63
23. 06
16. 57
-------- ----------------- ----------------- ----------
----------------------------
Number
of weeks
earnings
were
above
typical
Lowest
Date
Amount
Number
of weeks
earnings
were
below
t ypicaJ
D ate
- - - - - - -- - - - - - Oct.
Oct.
Jan.
M ar.
1
8
16
5
l\fa r. 12
___do ____
___ do __ __
___ do __ ___
___ do ____
---- - - -28. 93 ---------32. 08 ---------23. 68 -- --- -----
$0. 66
1. 20
2. 22
.82
Dec.
May
Dec.
May
31
28
31
28
4.08 June 4
3. 74 ___ do ____
2. 42 June 18
1. 51 July 2
1. 39 Dec. 31
2. 27
2. 69
1. 56
----------------------------
11
23
32
14
33
23
12
31
17
29
26
14
217
212
24
26
31
19
15. 4
16.8
13.1
29. 5
27. 7
32. 5
2
45
11
39
43
C.-PLANT MAKING WELT SHOES
M ale _____
Do _____
Do _____
Female ___
Do _____
Do _____
Do _____
Do _____
Do _____
Do _____
Do _____
Male _____
Female ___
Cutting _______
__ ___ do ____ _____
___ __ do _________
Stitching ______
_____ do ___ -----_____ do ______ --_____ do ________ _
_____ do _________
-- - __do ______ - -__ - __do _________
____ _do _____ ____
__ ___ do __ _______
__ ___ do _________
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cut leather linings _____
6
Cut outsides __________
11
Sort outsides ___ _______
11
Stitch French cord ____ N.R.
Stitch cut-outs ___ _____
4
Fancy stitching _______
3
4
Fold __ ------- --------Make linings __________
21
Perforate or jig ________ N.R.
Skive _________________
13
Vamp _________________
4
Eyelet ________________
6
Topstitch _____________
7
$20
30
28
--------------16
10
15
15
15
22
-------20
$458. 79
1,031.85
850. 75
333. 72
268. 40
299. 25
313. 88
372. 20
285. 46
373. 29
495. 63
400. 44
398.10
48
51
50
50
48
49
51
51
48
51
50
50
49
$9. 56
20. 23
17. 02
6. 67
5. 59
6.11
6.15
7. 30
5. 95
7. 32
9. 91
8. 01
8.12
$21.44 Feb. 4
25. 82 Mar. 24
25. 95 Jan. 28
13. 26 Jan. 21
13. 36 ___ do _____
14. 65 Feb. 18
12. 42 M ar. 3
14. 16 Feb. 11
11. 15 Feb. 4
16. 17 Mar. 10
15. 25 J an . 28
18. 69 Feb. 18
18.14 Feb . 4
$22. 87 Feb. 18
31.18 Jan. 7
31. 58 Mar. 10
13. 48 Feb. 11
16. 61 Feb. 4
16. 53 Jan. 28
13. 78 __ _do __ ___
17. 46 Feb. 4
12. 97 Feb. 18
19. 29 Feb. 11
18. 75 Feb. 18
21. 36 Feb. 11
19. 32 Mar. 3
$1. 99 Nov. 3
6. 79 June 30
1.05 Dec. 1
. 56 Nov. 24
.36 Oct. 20
.16 Nov. 24
2. 04 July 7
.45 Nov. 10
1. 27 May 12
1.88 July 7
2.01 D ec. 15
1.33 ___ do _____
1.08 July 7
6
2
1
4
2
5
5
2
10
2
1
47
46
44
48
45
42
48
39
47
47
~
Lasting _______
_____ do ____ _____
___ . _do _________
__ ___ do ___ ______
Welting or
bottoming.
Do _____ _____ do _________
Do ____ _ _____ do _________
Do ____ _ - ____ do _________
Do _____ __ ___ do ______ __ _
Do _____ Making ___ ___ _
Do _____ _____ do _________
Do _____ _____ do __ ______ _
Do _____ __ ___ do ________ _
Do _____ ---- . do _________
Do _____ ____ _do _________
Do ____ _ --- __do _________
Do _____ Finishing _____
Do __ ___ - ____ do _________
Female ___ Packing ______ _
Do _____ _____ do _________
Male _____ __ ___ do ________ _
Female ___ ___ __do ________ _
Male _____
Do _____
Do _____
Do _____
Do _____
Assemble _____________
Pull over______________
Side last_ _____________
Bed last__ _____________
Welt__ ________________
Trim inseams _____ ____
Round outer soles ___ __
Goodyear stitch _______
LeveL __________ ______
Burnish heels ___ ______
HeeL ___ ___ _________ __
Shave heels_ __________
Rough scour heels _____
Set edges _____ _________
Trim edges ________ ___ _
Loose naiL _____ ______ _
Roll and finish ________
Buffing ____ ___ ________
Dress
__ ___ --------Repair___________
_____ __Tree_. ________________
Pack ___ _______________
Average for all cases:
Both sexes ___ __ ______ _
- - ------ -- -- -- ---- -- --- Men
__--_____
---------- --Women
________
__ - - - - - - - ----------- ---- -- - - - - - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - -
3 -- -----11 -------23
20
16 -------19 --------
483. 16
597. 23
618. 31
511. 99
698. 72
--------
575. 29
582. 48
684. 17
400. 33
570. 03
770. 11
398. 52
580. 03
496. 60
712. 63
358. 94
543. 59
318. 97
334. 43
320. 56
388. 42
379. 72
9
N.R.
N.R.
----------------------
19
4 ------ -17
22
24
N.R.
22
9
15
28
15 -------N.R .
19
18
6
N .R.
22
16
4
4 -------15
25
16
4
------- -------- ---------------- -------- ---------------- -------- ----------
10. 98
12.19
13.16
10.89
13. 97
17. 44 ___ do _____
24. 42 ___ do _____
23. 41 Feb. 18
23. 94 Feb. 11
25. 58 Feb. 4
36
49
51
46
49
35
50
49
45
49
11. 28
11.42
13. 68
8.17
11. 18
15. 10
8. 30
16.11
10.13
13. 97
7. so
11.09
9.11
6. 69
6. 54
8. 63
7. 75
18. 63
25.30
25.86
15. 49
20. 38
23. 81
22. 35
25.14
22. 55
24. 62
17. 00
19. 96
15. 11
14. 01
16. 02
18. 62
13. 44
48.4
47. 7
49. 6
10.17
11.83
7. 01
19. 24
21.80
14. 34
44
49
47
47
50
51
51
50
49
51
51
48
Feb.
Feb.
Feb.
Feb.
Feb.
Jan.
Mar.
Feb.
Feb.
Feb.
Mar.
Feb.
Mar.
Jan.
Feb.
Feb.
Feb.
25
18
4
11
4
28
3
25
18
11
3
4
3
2.ll
11
18
4
----------------------------
21.07 ___ do ___
28.08 ___ do ____
24. 71 Mar. 10
23. 94 Feb. 11
32. 26 Mar. 3
4
39
.81 ___ do _____
.59 Dec. 8
1.07 July 7
4
4
0
4
44
42
46
45
___ do ____
Nov. 10
___ do ____
ov. 24
Nov. 10
___ do ____
Nov. 24
Sept. 22
Dec. 1
July 14
Nov. 10
Dec. 22
Sept. 8
Nov. 10
___ do _____
Nov. 17
Dec. 22
8
2
4
2
3
9
0
6
1
5
1
6
5
4
1
1
5
42
48
45
46
47
41
47
29
47
45
44
42
29
45
47
43
43
.97 Nov.
.99 ___ do _____
10
22. 93
28. 92
29. 67
6. 00
25. 74
33. 05
22. 35
32. 19
23. 34
26. 79
18. 00
24. 36
17. 29
16. 83
16. 81
19. 28
18. 04
___ do _____
___ do _____
Feb. 18
Mar. 3
Feb. 11
Mar. 3
___ do _____
___ do _____
Feb. 11
Feb. 18
Aug. 18
Mar. 10
___ do _____
Mar. 17
Feb. 4
___ do _____
Feb. 18
22. 20
25. 09
16. 66
----------------------------
1. 52 ---------1. 73 ---------1. 10 --- -------
3. 8
3. 9
3. 5
43. 6
42.8
45.1
$0.50 June 11
. 19 ___do ____
1.31 June 18
. 85 ___ do ___ __
. 50 June 11
6
6
21
11
7
44
39
30
40
35
22
18
11
12
9
19
11
8
18
28
32
37
25
41
32
39
43
31
1. 41
1. 61
1.40
1. 16
2. 08
1. 37
. 74
4.92
1.27
3. 32
.48
1. 76
1.30
. 70
1.46
1. 41
1. 27
---
D .-PLANT MAKING WELT SHOES
Male __ __ _ Cutting __ _____
Do ___ _ _____ do ___ ______
Do ____ ____ _do ____ ____ _
Female ___ ____ _do _____ __ _
Do ____ Stitching ______
Do ___ _ _____ do ________ _
Do ____ _____ do __ _______
Do ____ __ __ _do _________
Do ___ _ _____ do. _____ __
Do __ __ _____ do ________
Do ___ _ _____ do. ______ _
Do ____ _____ do. _______
Male _____ _____ do ____ __ __
Female ___ _____ do_. __ ____
Outside cutter_ ___ ____
Cutting leather linings.
Cutting cloth linings __
Marking ______________
Close tops and stamp
linings.
Stitch linings __________
Cement and fold ______
Vamper _______ __ ______
French cord turn __ ____
Stitch French cord ____
Top stitch ______ _______
Fancy stitching _______
Eyeleting _____________
Tip stitch and top
stitch.
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
5 $25. 00
1 ---- ---20. 00
5
3 ---- ---2
13. 50
5
5
2
1
4
5
3
5
5
13. 50
10. 50
23. 00
13. 50
13. 50
15. 00
15. 00
18. 00
15.00
$442. 65
272. 03
524. 81
313. 57
210. 99
51
46
52
52
43
$8.68
5. 91
10. 09
6.03
4. 91
$13. 62
9. 54
10. 62
8.82
7. 83
Mar.
Nov.
Apr.
Mar.
Or.t.
5
22
2
5
22
$21. 65 Sept. 3
15. 54 Aug. 27
24. 92 Feb. 27
14. 96 ___ do _____
11. 47 Sept. 3
310. 77
499. 32
454. 09
277. 02
369. 30
382. 56
347.83
558. 73
450. 25
51
51
49
38
51
52
51
52
50
6.09
9. 79
9. 27
7. 29
7. 24
7.36
6.82
10. 74
9.oi
6.58
11. 11
13. 59
9.84
11. 03
9. 12
10. 48
18. 30
12. 21
Nov.
May
Feb.
Mar.
Feb.
Oct.
Mar.
Sept.
Feb.
19
28
27
19
13
15
19
10
20
12. 22 ___ do ____
10. 49 Mar. 5
19. 21 Oct. 29
12. 24 Sept. 24
15. 96 Oct. 22
16.05 Sept. 17
19. 79 Feb. 20
26. 06 Sept. 17
18.40 Mar. 5
1. 48
1. 81
1.02
.60
1.10
.68
.33
• 77
.53
July
June
July
June
July
July
Dec.
July
Aug.
23
11
23
11
23
16
3
16
6
11.-0perators and their occupations selected by firms as fair examples of a normal week's earnings in 1932, ·with supplementary data
from Women's Bureau 1932 schedules, showing year's earnings, weeks worked, highest and lowest week's earnings, etc.-Continued
TABLE
D.-PLANT MAKING WELT SHOES-Continued
L
Employees (sex)
Total earnings in 1932
Department
Occupation
Years
with
the
firm
Basic
rate
Amount
- - - - -Male __ ___ Lasting. ______
Do ___ _ -- . __do _________
Do ____ -- -- _do ____ _____
Do ____ _____ do ____ ____
Do ____ - -__ _do _________
Do ____ Making _______
Do ____ _____ do. _______
Do ____ _____ do. _____ __
Do ____ -____ do _________
Do ____ _____ do _______ -·Do ____ _____ do._ . __ . __
Do ____ ___ __ do ______ __
Do __ __ _____ do _______ _
Do __ __ _____ do ______ __
Do ____ ____ _do. _______
Do ____ Finishing ___ __
Female _________ do ______ __
Male _____ ----_do ______ __
Do ____ ____ _do ________
Do ____ _____ do ________
Do ____ Packing _______
Female ___ _____ do ________
Do. ___ _____ do _________
Do ____ _____ do ________
Tack inner soles ___ __ __
5
Assembler _____________
3
Side laster _____________
5
Bed laster ________ _____
5
Giving out lasts ___ ___ _
5
Fill bottoms __ _______ __
5
Nail heel seat_ _______ _
3
Sole layer ____________ _
5
Welter _______________ _ N.R.
Good year stitcher _____
5
5
Leveler
__ --------~--Heeler ________
__ _____ -_
5
Heel shaver_ __________
3
Trim edges __________ __
5
Set edges __ _______ _____
5
Buffer and Naumkeag
5
Black bottoms ___ _____
5
Polish and pull lasts __
Heel finisher ____ _____ _
Stamp bottoms _____ __
Treeing ______________ _
Dress_if!g and lining ___
Repamng ______ __ ____ _
Packer ________________
4
2
5
5
5
5
3
14. 50
12.00
12. 00
12. 00
25.00
$324. 89
536. 59
827. 7R
519. 96
517. 11
484. 48
180. 91
310. 11
511. 91
35. GO
969.48
15. 00
32. 50
339. 59
579. 61
446. 71
716. 78
377. 51
423. 38
114. 93
$22. 50
25. 00
2.5. 00
------ --
------ -25. 00
30. 00
---- ------- --- { 12.
cc}
and
15. 00
15. 00
12. 00
20.00
-------18. 00
--------
A verag-e for all cases:
Both sexes. ___________
--------- -- ------Men ____ ______________ Women ______________ _ - - ------ -- -- ------ ---- - - -------
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,
1 week s pay was same as typical.
Number Number
of weekE of weeks
Typical for fair avearnings earnings
(seHighest
Lowest
erage
week
were
Number Average
were
lected by firm)
of weeks per week
above below
typical typical
worked worked
Amount
Amount
Amount
Date
Date
Date
- - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - $15. 30 Mar. 5
$0. 67 Dec. 24
$6. 81 Apr. 9
21
51
$6. 37
29
24. 39 Aug. 27
.98 Jul y 2
13. 38 Apr. 16
15
51
10. 52
35
14. 32
33. 61 ___ do ___ _
ov. 12
5.11 Dec. 29
52
16. 92
29
22
22. 55 Sept. 24
.SR July 2
12. 26 Sept. 17
10. 40
16
50
33
20. 21 Feb. 20
2.19 June 25
7. 64 Jan.
9
36
52
9. 94
15
18. 23 Sept. 17
.46 ___ do _____
11. 95 Aug. 20
17
51
9. 50
33
10.05 Feb. 27
3. 32 Apr. 23
. 54 June 18
23
3. 62
26
50
5.44 Jan. 30
1. 41 ___ do . ___
14. 57 Mar. 19
51
22
6.08
28
24.10 Feb. 27
9. 02 Apr. 30
. 97 June 4
51
10.04
29
21
25
{June
2
3.15 July
20. 79 Feb. 6
28. 98 Nov. 5
52
18. 64
22
29
2
1.00 July 2
5. 50 Jan. 16
17. 43 Feb. 27
25
51
6. 66
25
1. 41 June 18
15. 87 Feb. 13
24. 47 __ _do __ __
11.15
15
52
36
5.82 Jan. 9
1. 74 July 2
18. 61 Feb. 20
34
52
8. 59
17
2. 22 M ay 28
17. 88 Jan. 30
34. 07 __ _do ___ __
13
52
13. 78
38
1. 10 June 24
6. 47 Apr. 23
17. 28 Sept. 24
48
7. 86
28
19
6. 37 Mar. 19
18. 37 Mar. 5
1. 96 Dec. 31
31
51
8. 30
19
.83 ___ do _____
5. 26 Aug. 13
22
5. 22
10. 77 Oct. 22
9
12
}
464. 23
52
8. 93
12. 38
June 11
20.38
547. 58
613.04
960. 99
442. 83
601. 61
428. 76
49
52
51
44
52
37
11. 18
11. 79
18. 84
10. 06
11. 57
11. 59
10.30
9. 82
18. 59
9. 32
11. 70
11.48
Apr. 30
Jan. 23
Feb. 6
Aug. 27
Apr. 9
Sept. 10
23. 75 Feb. 20
23. 56 Mar. 19
28. 56 Feb. 27
19. 74 ___do. ___
18. 91 Mar. 26
16.46 Oct. 15
49.1
50.9
45.9
9.39
10.19
8. 02
10. 64
11.08
9.88
-------------------
------ ------------ ----------------- ----------- -- ---- -- ---- -- -- -- - --- ------- -------- ---------1
Actual week's earnings, various dates in 1932
----------
22
19.80
21. 94
16.12
Oct.
1
----------------------------
week s pay was same as typical.
2. 23
July
9
10
41
26
22
19
23
20
25
16
1. 27 July 2
2. 02 ___ do ____
5.40 ___ do ____
. 79 May 7
5. 03 June 16
3. 98 July 9
32
27
23
26
20
----------------------------
19. 2
21.3
15. 4
1.55
1. 65
1.40
'
--28.9
28. 6
29.5
Part VI.-WORKING CONDITIONS
INTRODUCTION
Since the health and efficiency of all workers are afiected by their
working conditions, as well as by the condition of the operating equipment provided for the production of goods, the responsibility of
management can be said only to have begun in the hiring of employees.
In other words, management must assume the responsibility of
safeguarding the interests of workers in terms of physical well-being,
including precautions against the hazards involved in the use of cert ain
materials, notably those that contain benzol, though all quickly
drying solvents are held to carry serious health hazards to those
whose work exposes them to their poisonous fumes. Therefore it
must take cognizance of the great loss involved in reduced speed,
lowered efficiency of employees, and impaired quality of work when
production policies fail to include adequate attention to the conditions
under which the product is made.
'
In any place of employment the management has the responsibility
for the equipment and its condition, or plant housekeeping. In all
States some labor laws or other regulations prescribe certain standards
in connection with working conditions, the type of condition covered
and the number of such laws or regulations varying from State to
State, but the lack of legal standard in no way reduces the moral
responsibility of empioyers. 1
In the present survey Working conditions were reported for 26 of
the 28 factories for which data on earnings were secured; of the 2
remaining plants, operated by a corporation already represented by
2 factories, 1 was closed at the time of the survey and the other was
too distant for inspection. Further, the tabulated data on working
conditions represent only 23 plants, 3 small contract shops being
omitted because of their few operations and because each occupied
only one room of a building in which a larger factory made a complete
sho~.
A number of factories were housed in buildings erected specially
for the manufacture of shoes, with enough windows to provide adequate light in most workrooms during daylight hours. Unfortunately,
in some plants the east and west exposure gave excessive light and
glare on sunny days. Awnings were conspicuous by their absence
and in some cases there were no window shades, muslin strips being
found in many of the plants as substitutes. Generally these muslin
strips hung loosely tacked from the top of the window and were dusty,
spotted, and ragged; in other places pieces of paper were tacked up.
A report of these conditions in more detail follows in the special
section on lighting, but they are summarized here as pointing to the
1 Information on laws and regulations in New Hampshire can be secured by addressing Commissioner
of Labor, Concord. For information about regulations in other States address the commissioners of labor
at the various State capitals. For standards or reports on working conditions of women address the
Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D .C.
51
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
neglect on the part of many firms to protect the workers' eyes from
glare and to practice the good housekeeping that contributes to
health and efficiency.
· 8.ince inadequacy of sanitary service facilities contributes to fatigue,
headaches, and other health problems, with constant loss of time,
the conditions found are reported on in considerable detail. (See
pp. 64 and 67 .)
Good natural ventilation is of special importance where poisons
that give off vapors are in use, and it is fortunate that it can be provided in all these plants when the weather permits the opening of windows.
However, cold and wind frequently prevent this. Since the section
on ventilation (p. 56) contains considerable detail about the need for
local artificial ventilation in all rooms where cements, pastes, or
cleaning and patent leather repairing substances are used, no further
reference will be made to ventilation at this time except to stress
the value of venetian blinds, the use of which at east and west windows,
besides preventing glare, permits a free circulation of air on days
when ordinary shades would flap as well as cut out the light.
It is possible that the long periods of slack orders in some of these
'- factories in recent years have contributed to the carelessness in
connection with housekeeping. Regular and thorough cleaning is
hkely to be discontinued at ,such times in order to cut overhead
expenses, and sometimes it is forgotten when the rush begins again,
or is neglected because of the uncertainty of orders. Such a practice
is short-sighted economy, because neglect in keeping up workrooms
and service facilities creates the need for more thorough renovating
later, an extensive :program of putting the factory in order if the
neglect of housekeepmg continues for any length of time.
Though a few of the New Hampshire factories had operated 30
years or more in one building, the majority of plants have been bought
or established only recently, and these firms had little excuse for
accepting buildings with . neglected and badly worn floors, dusty
work benches and walls, coated windows, out-of-date plumbing, and
other such conditions. vVhere the business had outgrown the building
or the factory had operated so long that it had worn out its home,
the management probably hesitated to undertake expenditures in
repairs during the years since business conditions became so uncertain.
Some of these employers, several of whom still resided in Massachusetts, had moved their plants to New Hampshire; others had come
into this vicinity from various sections of New Hampshire, supposedly
to get away from union regulation. Whatever the reason for the move,
they had shouldered a legacy of poor plant conditions that affect
housekeeping in occupying buildings in bad repair.
The Women's Bureau has made surveys of working conditions in
16 States and many other studies, several of which deal with conditions in special industries, and can assert with authority that the
experience of employers who giv~ due attention to working conditions
is that it pays in returns in output and in workmanship. When
management, in analyzing its production costs, fails to take into
account the expenses th~t are preventable and that can be traced
to careless housekeeping or neglect of the safety and comfort of
workers, its estimate of cost of production is unsound.
The acceptance of the old proverb that "Cleanliness is next to
godliness" might prove a boon to shoe factories. Certainly adequate
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WORKING CONDITIONS
53
and accessible washing facilities alone would prove a profitable
investment in this connection.
GENERAL SUMMARY
In discussing workin~ conditions it is necessary to consider all their
various aspects, includmg the provision made for the protection and
comfort of workers, and especially the lack of such provision. Therefore, each factor or subject reported upon in the following has a bearing on some important phase of the conditions under which the
employees worked in the 23 shoe factories 2 reported upon in New
Hampshire.
Workrooms
The general housekeeping in any place of employment is of great
importance because poor housekeeping invites carelessness on the
part of employees and contributes to problems that involve hazards.
This fact is emphasized because unobstructed aisles, nonslippery
floors, and orderly arrangement of work and work tables, and so forth,
are fundamental to the safety of workers. If crowded and cluttered,
the value of wide aisles is reduced if not entirely lost, and danger lurks
where the floors are wet, worn, or slippery, or the condition of the
aisles is impaired for other reasons, such as when trucks, boxes, and
materials obstruct them. Similarly, the kind and number of windows
and the type and adequacy of other equipment are affected by many
conditions that can reduce or increase the natural lighting provided.
For example, even an adequate number of clean and well-kept windows does not guarantee satisfactory natural light, for south, west,
and east windows, if unobstructed on the outside, must have equipment to protect the workers from excessive glare on bright days.
In other words, shades are needed that can be adjusted at the windows
and at a height that best suits the particular condition involved.
In this connection ordinary rolling shades are not the most satisfactory
equipment .. Dark and heavy shades may reduce the brightness of
the light too much for workers at a distance from the windows, and
even translucent shades, unless put up in two sections, cut off part of
the window that should be exposed in order to supply light. (See
section on lighting, p. 61.) Windows coated with dirt prevent glare
for some workers, but they invite poor housekeeping in other matters.
The same is true of tacking up unbleached muslin or paper strips over
the windows. Although these strips do offer protection from glare
and extreme brightness of light without seriously reducing the amount
of light for workers whose stations are away from the window, they
are not satisfactory. Usually they contribute to an unkept appearance
in the workroom, because of the dust and dirt that settle on them or
because they are ragged and worn, or both. One trouble is that they
have not the body necessary for a window curtain but are sleazy and
invite carelessness with regard to their condition. Reference is made
to this because such shades were in very general use and contributed
to the poor housekeeping for the reasons mentioned.
All windows on the east, west, and south that are exposed to glare
from the sun should be equipped with either venetian blinds or rolling
curtains in two sections-one for the upper and one for the lower half
2 Three contract shops, not included here because of the small number of operators in each, are reported
on elsewhere (see p. 70).
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54
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
of the window-the upper rolling up and the lower rolling down, so
that each can stop at a line covering the direct rays of the sun if rolling
them all the way cuts off more _light than is desirable. However,
venetian blinds are to be preferred because the slats can be adjusted
to throw the light upward and away from worktables and to cut off
brightness without preventing a free flow of air, a very important
matter in summer.
The importance of good housekeeping with regard to cleanliness and
order in places of employment and of accessible and adequate washing
facilities cannot be overemphasized. That good housekeeping in
factories contributes more to the general welfare and efficiency of
workers than is generally appreciated has been demonstrated again
and again. Obviously, satisfactory e·n vironment contributes to the
well-being and mental alertness of workers, affecting favorably their
physical health and strength. Therefore, sanitary devices that aid
in keeping both plant and person clean are of outstanding importance
because of their influence on the work done.
In shoe factories where white or light-colored material is used,
washing facilities are needed as a precaution in preventing the soiling
of such material. In addition, because of the use of sticky paste and
cement and other material that stains the hands, the provision of
accessible and adequate washing facilities is a moral as well as a financial responsibility of the_ firm. The general absence of towels, hot
water, and soap in the plants surveyed indicates that this responsibility had not been recognized.
One of the most elementary standards for good working conditions
is a clean workroom. Cleanliness not alone adds to the comfort and
health of workers, but contributes to the preservation of products and
of the plant its elf.
Although housekeeping was reported good in 8 plants and fair in 8
others, cleaning had not been systematized to a satisfactory degree
in any plant visited. Not even large firms employed a matron to
care for the toilet facilities provided for women, and the jobs of some
night watchmen involved sweeping and cleaning services. Moreover, it was a common practice to have the operators act as a janitor
force in their respective aisles, work requiring in some cases considerable time. They swept the dust and scraps to the aisle, where the
night watchmen or someone ·else gathered them up. Service facilities
were noticeably neglected, and it is not unfair to state that a watchman is not necessarily a good cleaner. In most cases cleaning should
be practically continuous. Further, not only does daylight insure
better work but scrubbing requires equipment in the way of special
work clothes, mops and pails, soap and rags, with which the operators
are not provided. And lastly, to ask pieceworkers to take time to
clean toilets obviously is taking an unfair advantage of them.
Workroom floors should be kept clean and in good condition as a
contribution to safety, but in many plants they were worn or slippery
from oil, paste, or other matter that had been dropped and not cleaned
up. The large majority of floors were not even mopped, and only a
few were scrubbed regularly; only three managers claimed to have
the floors scrubbed once a year, and some stated frankly that they
were under the impression that the floors had ·never been scrubbed.
However, daily sweeping was reported for 12, and it was said to be
carried on constantly in a few others.
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WORKING CONDITIONS
55
Many other items could be referred to, but the foregoing is sufficient to illustrate a policy of negligence in housekeeping in spite of the
fact that it needs more attention in shoe factories than in many other
industries, because of the accumulation of scraps, the flying of particles
in connection with brushing and scouring machine operations, and the
use of poisonous solvents in paste, cement, and cleaning and repairing
substances. Benzol is still used in these substances, and since it is
known to be harmful to those who inhale its vapors, depending on the
amount used and the susceptibility of workers, special caution is necessary to protect employees.
The following details on housekeeping substantiate the preceding
summary:
The housekeeping was reported good in 8 plants, fair in another 8,
and poor in 7. Of the 3 contract plants not included in the foregoing,
1 had good housekeeping, 1 fair, and 1 poor.
Crowding was evident in a number of plants, and particularly so in
five of them. In one of these the stitching room was among the best of
those visited during the survey, but the lasting room was so crowded
that it was difficult to pass between the machines.
The floors were of wood in all but 4 plants, these being of cement
in 3 cases, and of cement and wood in 1. They were reported in good
condition in 15 plants, but were in need of repair in 8. In 5 of the
latter this condition was general throughout the plant, but in 3 the
floors were in fair condition in some parts of the building.
Aisles were obstructed in 11 plants; in 10 of them all aisles were so
reported.
Extracts from the schedules include the following:
Plant 1.- Workrooms crowded with large piles of packing cases;
floors cluttere - practically no aisle space in certain places. Floors
looked as if never scrubbed; exceedingly messy and dirty. Most
windows thick with dust.
Plant 2.-Factory on second floor. Lasting and making machines
used. Floor, though swept and not covered with debris, was shaky
and in need of repair. It might be added that its size simplified the
problem of cleaning, as it was large for the number of workers and
therefore not overcrowded.
Plant 3.- Housekeeping poor throughout. Janitor sweeps about
twice a week. Workers supposed to sweep and clean around their
immediate work place. Stock and heel-base department, with a
cement floor, very dirty. Much obs ~ruction. Trucks passing or
carelessly parked in aisles.
Plant 4.-Housekeeping very bad; floor, walls, and windows dirty.
Very narrow aisles; work and debris obstructed all passageways.
One of the closed plants visited had been given a very thorough
renovating, following its closing after the strike. Machine rooms had
been cleaned; all windows had been washed; even workbenches had .
been rejuvenat ed by a thorough cleaning, and the sewing tables and
floors were shiny from scrubbing. A small hospital room, available
formerly, was more adequately equipped during the housecleaning
and made more attractive. The management of this plant had
changed following the strike, and the ownership was more centralized. It was stated that more personal interest than formerly would
be given by the president of the company to the subject of working
conditions. The housecleaning was the first result of that new policy.
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56
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
Reference is made to this fact because cleaning was not so general as
it should have been in connection with the closing of other plants, and
because the conditions· that needed correction illustrate one of the
evils that arise when owners leave the management entirely to someone who, because of ignorance or negligence, may not be equal to the
responsibility.
Another plant, whose cutting and stitching departments formerly
occupied a building at a distance, moved these departments to its
main building before the close of the survey. It planned considerable
changes in lay-out that gave promise of more practical and economic
operation, because of reduction in cost of routing work, and that were
more satisfactory in other ways, especially because it would bring the
stitching department under the closer supervision of the owners.
The last visit indicated great changes in this plant with regard to
clearing of aisles, arrangement of worktables, and so forth. Moreover, from statements made it is believed that the housekeeping was
much improved after the survey.
To women especially are surroundings of great importance in relation to their efficiency. In this connection adequate and satisfactory
ventilation and lighting should be supplied, as should provision for
bafety and comfort at work, including facilities for food and rest, since
all these are valuable assets in connection with production and efficiency in any plant.
In some States standards of working conditions with regard to these
matters and the number of sanitary facilities to be provided not only
are written definitely into the law, but are interpreted by a commission
vested with legislative powers to define the laws or regulations adopted
and vested with authority to enforce them.
Obviously, the adequacy of the provisions by which to secure enforcement becomes the important responsibility of the State authorities. It is doubtful whether the travel allowance for this purpose in
New Hampshire permits the amount of travel by inspectors necessary
to follow up inspections and check on the action taken on suggestions
or orders for compliance with the law, and it is believed that this
explains some of the inadequacies in the survey of working conditions.
VENTILATION IN SHOE FACTORIES 3
The importance of adequate artificial as well as natural ventilation
in shoe factories cannot be overemphasized, and it is given prominence
in this report under the subject of working conditions. Its importance
is due chiefly to the fact that some of the substances used in cements
and pastes and in the repairing and cleaning of patent leather and
other shoe materials, especially benzol and its substitutes, are poisonous and volatile, constituting a serious hazard to all susceptible persons who work within inhaling distance of the vapors unless provision
has been made for the control and elimination of the fumes.
The lack of adequate attention by management was noticed with
regard to the problems of ventilation and the location of operations
in which poisonous substances were used, though the investigators
had reason to believe that this was due more to a failure to understand the need than to willful negligence.' Therefore; since experi• See also part IX.
• 13 plants had exhausts on machines where operations were dusty, but none had provided any other
controlled ventilation.
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WORK.ING CONDITIONS
57
ence in other States can be used to illustrate that such conditions
result in serious health problems for workers, ana. since the use of
benzol was noticed in ·a number of plants, some experiences will be
made available to shoe manufacturers in this report, although the
original purpose of this survey did not include the study of occupational hazards. As a matter of fact, the many other duties in connection with this study prevented the assembling of data on this
subject other than of a very general nature. However, the general
information gained seemed to make it imperative to refer to the use
of benzol in New Hampshire shoe factories. All but 3 of the
surveyed firms still operating in New Hampshire at a considerably
later date were visited with this in mind and samples of cements, solvents, etc., were obtained in practically all cases. Those making
shoes on which rubber soles or rubber heels are cemented as a rule
admitted the use of benzol, and it was found that other plants also
admitted its use. It seems particularly necessary to furnish general
information about the hazards in the use of quick-drying solvents
where the ventilation of workrooms is inadequate, since so few
employers in-terviewed gave evidence of concern about this condition.
All shoe manufacturers know that quick-drying solvents are used
in connection with many operations in their line of business. Some of
them have labored to overcome the health hazards involved, but there
still are many firms not aware that all known quick-drying solvents
contain poisonous substances,6 filling the air of any room in which they
are used with their poisonous fumes, and so exposing to the hazard
of inhaling these fumes all who work in the room.
Benzol, used extensively in paste, cement, and cleaning substances,
as well as in the repairing of patent-leather finishing and other processes in shoes, is considered the most hazardous of the quick-drying
solvents. It is used by many firms, and workers who do not know of
its presence nor about the hazards its use involves often suffer impaired health unless special precautions are taken to prevent them.
Therefore, certain pertinent facts are referred to and other data are
appended pertaining to processes and poisonous substances that have
been found to result in illness and even death to shoe workers. Case
records from studies in Massachusetts and New York also are given
(see pp. 87-88).
Though the degree of seriousness depends on individual resistance
to specific poisons, authentic case records indicate the need for particular care on the part of shoe manufacturers in this connection. Some
persons are very susceptible to certain poisons such as benzol. The
very fact that this can be ascertained only through the experience of
the individual, so that neither employer nor worker is in a position to
know it in advance, increases the need to protect every person by
providing excellent natural ventilation and supplementing it by local
artificial ventilation. In fact, the operations on which poisonous
materials are used should be separated from the rest of the workrooms
by partitions, and the workers on these processes should be protected
by the installation of exhausts and apparatus that holds down the
fumes until they reach the exhausts, in this way at least retarding the
rising of vapors into the atmosphere and reducing considerably the
amount that may be inhaled. Benzol, toluol, and xylene are heavier
1 This statement was authorized by Dr. R. R. Sayers, senior surgeon, Research Division, United States
Public Health Service.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
than air and therefore the exhaust must be so adjusted as to draw
down in order to carry off those fumes.
As indicated, only a few of the employers interviewed recognized
the presence of such hazards or expressed concern about these problems, which probably explains why none of the firms visited had
supplemented the natural ventilation in their plants by installing
local artificial ventilation for the control and elimination of poisonous
fumes.
It is not sufficient to have exhausts on machines alone, if in the
tiame room benzol or other poisonous substances are used on worktables. Moreover, some employers admitted that they did not know
the contents of the material used, while some admitted the use of
benzol, and others said they thought certain cements and solvents
contained benzol. One said benzol did not make the hands as sore
as some of the other thinners. A few used small quantities at a time
for cleaning, while others used carbon tetrachloride, one of the latter
claiming that he has used it for a long time and that it is the best
cleaning substance.
In the plants visited, few containers with benzol mixtures were
labeled as to benzol content, though some carried a label to the effect
that the ·contents were naphtha or benzol. In only one plant did
one of these cans carry an extra benzol label, though the contents in
containers with a naphtha or benzol label were believed to be benzol
in other containers in this plant and in other plants.
In Massachusetts benzol labels are required by law on all containers
in which benzol is sold, which is,_of course, a great protection to both
workers and management. The labels that are found in New Hampshire, however, are due to shipping regulations, or the fact that the
Interstate Commerce Commission, under an act of March 4, 1921,
prescribes regulations for the transportation of explosives and other
dangerous articles by freight and express and as baggage for all common carriers engaged in interstate or foreign commerce. The terms
of the Massachusetts law follow:
AN ACT REGULATING THE SALE, DISTRIBUTION, STORAGE, AND USE
OF BENZOL AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Be it enacted, et~., as follows:
Chapter one hundred and forty-nine of the General Laws is hereby amended
by inserting after section one hundred and forty-two, as appearing in the Tercentenary Edition thereof, under the subtitle BENZOL AND MIXTURES
CONTAINING BENZOL; the six following new sections:
SEc. 142A. No person shall keep for sale, sell, transport or store, and no person
shall have for use in any manufacturing or mercantile estab:ishment, benzene,
represented by the chemical formula C.'6Ho, in sections one hundred and fortytwo B to one hundred and forty-two F, inclusive, called benzol, in any receptacle
other than part of a vehicle used exclusively for outdoor transportation, unless
such receptacle is marked with the word "BENZOL" and with the words "BEW ARE OF POISONOUS FUMES."
SEC. 142B. No person shall keep for sale, sell, tranport or store, and no person
shall have for use in any manufacturing or mercantile establishment, any material
containing benzol, in any receptacle other than part of a vehicle used exclusively
for outdoor transportation, unless such receptacle is marked with one of the
following combinations of words and __gures:
"CONTAINS LESS THAN 20 PERCENT BENZOL",
"CONTAINS 10 TO 60 PERCENT BENZOL",
"CONTAINS MORE THAN 50 PERCENT BENZOL",
truly indicating the proportion of benzol incorporated in the mixture as last
compounded, and with the words "BEWARE OF POISONOUS FUMES."
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WORKING CONDITIONS
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SEC. 142C. The words and figures required by the two preceding sections shall
be clear and conspicuous and shall be ·of such size and be so placed as the commissioner shall by reasonable rules or regulations designate.
SEc. 142D. The commissioner may, by reasonable rules or regulations, exempt
from the provisions of sections one hundred and forty-two A and one hundred and
forty-two B, under such restrictions as he may deem advisable, (a) closed receptacles which are in the possession of the manufacturer by whom the contents of
such receptacles were made or compounded or of a common carrier, provided in
each case that he is satisfied that such contents are to be used only outside the
commonwealth; (b) receptacles containing material used exclusively as motor
fuel; (c) receptacles containing material which, as last compounded, contained
less than 1 percent benzol by weight.
SEc. 142E. The commissioner shall, by reasonable rules or regulations, require
such reports of the manufacture, sale, receipt, possession, or use of benzol or of
materials containing benzol as he may deem advisable for the protection of persons
exposed to possible injury by such benzol or materials containing benzol.
SEc. 142F. Whoever violates any provision of section one hundred and fortytwo A, one hundred and forty-two B or one hundred and forty-two C, or any rule
or regulation made under section one hundred and forty-two C, one hundred and
forty-two D or one hundred and forty-two E, and whoever, being charged with
the duty of marking any receptacle containing benzol or any material in which
benzol is included, fails so to mark the same, and whoever wilfully removes or
defaces any mark made in accordance with any of said provisions or rules or
regulations shall be punished by a fine of not more than one hundred dollars .
-Approved June 28, 1933.
Chapter 304, pag!:) 2.
While it is true that a free flow of fresh air reduces these hazards,
and that the general use of windows in shoe factories does provide
considerable protection in summer, the fact remains that the climate
of New Hampshire will not permit of the extensive raising of windows
in winter but requires the provision of artificial ventilation in the form
of local exhausts in all rooms where poisonous volatile substances are
used and on all brushing and buffing machines. However, where
quick-drying solvents are used, if natural ventilation is to be satisfactory it needs careful regulating, even in summer, especially as to
amount and direction of intake of fresh air. To be adequate it requires
careful supervision.
It is quite usual in shoe factories to have all departments on a floor
in one large room, covering the entire area without any partitions.
Since this practice brings advantages or disadvantages according to
the processes, the precautions taken, and the type and. conditi)n of
equipment for ventilation, certain conclusions are presented, as follows:
When adequate provision for supplementing natural ventilation by
local artificial ventilation has been made, workers benefit by the
absence of partitions that prevent free circulation of air and at times
interfere with the natural lighting. However, if the artificial ventilation is of a general nature, rather than local, or for other reasons is
inadequate to control or to carry off/oisonous fumes,· or is unsatisfactory because of draft or haphazar arrangement, the workers are
exposed to other hazards as well. Moreover, if windows are closed,
general artificial ventilation can increase the spread of fumes instead
of controlling and eliminating them. Consequently, in these cases
workers suffer by the absence of partitions.
The necessity of supplementing even good natural ventilation with
adequate equipment of the best type for the control and elimination
of benzol and other poisonous fumes cannot be emphasized too
strongly. Moreover, the fumes should be carried off at the point of
escape and not permitted
to .•'penet,r~te
the
surrounding' atmosphere.
' '
. ,, '
1,,
.
86938°-35---5
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
Last but not least, it is highly important that these precautions shOlild
be the result of conscious and definite plans worked out by engineers
who specialize on air conditioning. Obviously such exhausts must
be not only local but supplemental to and based on the plant's equipment and workroom arrangements. In other words, though general
rules can be followed their full value is achieved only when worked
out to meet the specific conditions in each plant.
NOTES ON VENTILATION IN THE SHOE PLANTS
Good natural ventilation could be supplied in all plants during
moderate weather by opening the windows. In the majority of plants
the windows were placed a short distance apart. In a few · cases,
modern sectional windows formed most of the wall space, with at least
one section in each that could be opened for ventilation. N evertheless, sufficient natural ventilation was not provided in all cases at time
of survey, even on warm days. Possibly this was due to the practice
of depending on the workers to regulate the ventilation. In two plants
the air in the first-floor workroom was very heavy with the smell .of
paste and cement because of failure to make use of open windows for
air conditioning.
Provision for some artificial ventilation had been made in only 15
plants. In 13 there were exhausts on all machines where operations were dusty, such as brushing, buffing, and polishing machines.
Though paste, cement, and cleaning and repairing substances containing quick-drying solvents were used in all plants, no provision had
been made at any of the worktables to carry off the fumes by local
artificial ventilation. As a rule, cement containers on the machines
were covered. Windows offered good natural ventilation in summer, but they could not be depended on either in summer or in
winter to supply a constant flow of air sufficient to break up these
fumes to a point where all hazard would be eliminated.
While 13 plants had facilities for carrying off dust and particles
from machine processes, 10 were found to be inadequately equipped,
3 of which were in great need of exhausts on brushing and buffing
machines. In one it was claimed that an exhaust blower had been
,installed but· had not been connected.
Electric fans for the comfort of workers were available in only 7
plants, and were limited to only some of the rooms in 3 of these.
It was to be expected that fire-insurance representatives would
advise about the dangers of fire hazards, and because of this advice
containers of inflammable or other supplies that held fire hazards were
covered and kept in metal containers, and, as a rule, kept in the corner
of the room. An insurance agent also had informed at least one firm
about the po~sibility of occupational hazards from the use of paste
that contained benzol. 6 In the case of the firm advised about health
hazards, special care was given, so that only small portions of poisonous materials were exposed to the room at one time.
In one plant the toe and heel laster had been fitted up with a special
arrangement to carry off escaping steam. In another, the superintendent had had the air examined where pyroxylin cement was used ..
In a number of plants the cement was kept in fireproof containers.
6 He bad stated th&t illness arising because of its use at work was compensable in New Hampshire, but
this was an error.
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Return visits in 1934 to firmJ s
· 1933 indicated an aroused
concern about the use of benzol, and reports were made of dermatitis
cases though none were referred to during the 1933 contacts.
LIGHTING
Natural
The natural light was adequate on bright days for all workers in 21
of the 23 plants for which data on working conditions were tabulated/
and adequate for some workers in the remaining 2.
Glare from excessive natural light for some workers was reported in
9 of the 23 plants included. The absence of a problem of glare in
about half of the other 14 plants at the time of survey was due not to
adequate equipment in the form of venetian blinds or other adjustable
window shades but to muslin strips that had been hung at many
windows or paper strips that had been tacked up at the point of glare~
supplementing the service rendered by the muslin strips in reducing
the extreme brightness.
Venetian blinds are recommended for window shading by illuminating engineers (see extract on p. 63). They break or diffuse light
without interfering much with the free circulation of air when the
windows are open. If rolling shades are used they should be in two
sections, so that one may be adjusted to exclude the sun's rays, while
the other leaves exposed the part of the window not in direct line with
such rays.
Glare was absent in the three small contract plants also. This can
be attributed to the use of muslin or paper strips and to the fact that,
the employees being few, no one had to work in an unfortunate position as regards the lighting. However, an increase in business would
change the condition as to space and raise the problem of glare.
About one-half of the 23 plants reported on had provided window
shades; but very few of these had an adequate number, nor were all
in good condition. Many were supplemented by heavy cloth curtains on rods, muslin or paper strips, and one of these plants even
used burlap sacks at some of the windows. In the remaining plants
without any shades there were a few plants with draw curtains of
cloth or canvas and the remaining plants had nothing but the muslin
strips. Not only were these shades and improvisations inadequate,
but many were ragged and dirty. Though it is true that these makeshift arrangements did soften the glare, the paper and muslin frequently were heavy with dust, worn and ragged, or both. However,
the more dust the more effective were the strips in diffusing or reducing
the brightness of the light.
Obviously, the use of dusty, dirty, and ragged muslin or paper
strips shows careless housekeeping on the part of the employer, and
usually it is accompanied by other conditions that create problems
for the workers and reduce their efficiency.
Excessive light contributes to fatigue and causes eye trouble, but a
number of operations in the manufacture of shoes depend so greatly
on adequate illumination that special attention should be given both
to natural and to artificial lighting. It is especially necessary for
cutters and stitcbers to have plenty of light, but in the plants visited
it was unusual to find the stitching machines arranged to the best
7 Data
were not tabulated for 3 of the 6 contract shops, for reasons already explato.~d.- $ee I?· 51.,
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
advantage in relation to the windows. Seasons as well as weather
affect the constancy of good natural light, and the passing of hours
changes its quality and quantity. Consequently, employers are
actually obligated to provide adequate and satisfactory illumination,
something that requires constant attention, as problems may develop
at any point in the workroom, whether from an inadequate or an
excessive supply of light. This includes attention to suitable window
shading that permits diffusion of light without interfering with ventilation in hot weather, and equipment for supplementing daylight when
conditions reduce its adequacy for any or all operations in a plant.
Natural light should be supplied across the worktables instead of
from the front, except in the case of the northern exposure, where the
light usually is steady and does not involve glare or shadows unless
affected by other things. Stitchers and cutters often choose to face
the windows because of the importance of sufficient natural light on
these operations. As a rule cutters work on a north wall, if one is to
be had. Stitchers also often choose to face the windows; and as
north exposures are not always available, they suffer from a lack of
understanding as to the cause of their headaches and eye trouble.
That lighting is a contribution to efficiency of workmanship; that
cutters and stitchers especially should have adequate light without
glare; and that one advantage of daylight over artificial light is the
effect of artificial light on colors, must be recognized by all who pro' duce shoes. The failure to provide proper illumination can be attributed only to a lack of understanding of requirements in this connection.
A few plants had considered these advantages. One long narrow
stitching room stands out as an exceptional example of the possibility
to plan and organize a workroom, even in an old building, to make for
good workmanship and the comfort of operators. In this room there
was a generous supply of windows on four sides. The worktables were
placed across the room with the workers' backs to the south, so that
only those at the extreme north end faced the windows at close range.
These were the choice places, however, as north light is steady and
without reflection. The cutting was not done in this room or the
north wall certainly would have been used by the cutters. The light
from the windows had been supplemented ·by dormer windows, built
up in the middle of the ceiling, the full length of the room. The center
aisle was wide and in it had been built a table, running practically the
length of the aisle, on which rested a two-shelf arrangement open on
both sides. The work was piled on these shelves and on the table. It
was kept in order, and was convenient of access as a source of supply
as well as for depositing completed work.
Artificial
Glare from artificial light was reported a problem in 9 plants,
being a general condition in 4 of them and noted for some workers
in the others. No glare was reported in 13, and for 1 firm no report
could be made because the electric equipment was being repaired.
Local lights with shades were provided at machines in most plants.
One superintendent stated that since coming to the plant a year
before he had installed individual lights on the stitching machines
and that this had increased production 20 percent and quality 30
percent, "with general benefit to all stitchers."
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,
Notes from schedules
Sash windows on all sides of building, and natural light was adequate. Though
cloth shades provided, there was ghre. Shades not adjusted; if adjusted, would
have cut the light. Also, the placing of employees with reference to light was poor,
many stitchers on both south and west facing windows. Drop cords with shades
hung over such machines as pull-overs, bed lasters, and so forth; pan reflectors
used where only general lighting required. Stitching-room operators all had new
(6 months) goose-neck lights , No apparent glare from artificial lights, and the
number provided seemed adequate.
Sash windows on 2 or 3 sides of workroom. Natural light adequate on second
floor, but inadequate in places on first. Shades at only a few windows. A
problem of glare or reflection, because stitchers faced windows without shades.
Some had pasted paper at the windows to cut the excessive light. Artificial light
was rather haphazard, and appeared not to be adequate. Most of the lights
lacked shades and many were at eye level, with a definite glare.
CONTROL OF ILLUMINATION FROM WINDOWS
8
Control of natural illumination in interiors by means of roller shades which
cover the upper part of the window is the least desirable method. It is better to
use shades which cover the lower portion of the window, the roller being mounted
at the meeting rail of the upper and lower sash, or at the window sill, or adjustable
in height. It is best to use venetian blinds, which operate to redistribute the
light rather than to absorb it. In some cases such blinds may be adjusted so as
to render . the illumination not only better distributed but actually higher at
critical points than it would be with bare windows. The amount of improvement
of illumination depends upon a proper finish of the slats for high reflecting power
and upon a proper adjustment of their angle. In the cases tested, this angle lay
between horizontal and 30° below horizontal as we look along the slats into the
room. The effectiveness of the venetian blinds in improving the quality of illumination is due in large measure to the indirect component, which sometimes
becomes materially greater than the direct component. Further investigation is
desirable to establish the generality of these tentative conclusions under a, greater
variety of conditions.
SEATING
Before discussing the seating equipment provided for the shoe
workers in this study, a statement is here presented embracing certain
conclusions of a report by the New York State Department of Labor
on industrial posture and seating.
The conclusions reached by this report areFirst. That posture must be varied.
Continuous sitting and continuous standing are both h armful. Ideally, conditions should allow the worker to vary his position at will, because of the rest
and the enormous saving of energy that comes from· a change of position during
working hours.
Second. That work conditions should be such that correct posture is possible.
a. By pro.viding a physiologically good chair.
b. By insuring a proper relationship of the different parts of the work place.
There is no one chair that is best for all industrial processes. To determine
what chair is best for a particular process, the nature of the work to be done, the
position of supplies and finished work, the equipment at hand, i.e., the height of
bench; chair, place for foot rest, and so forth, as well as the height of the individual
worker-all these must be considered. To provide a good chair is not enough;
the important thing is to bring all parts of the work place into the best possible
relationship. 9
The first of two problems that arise in connection with seating
facilities is the type of chair for workers who must operate in a sitting
position, and the second is the provision of chairs for so-called standing
s Higbie, H. H ., professor of electrical engineering, in charge of the en~ineering courses and laboratories
for photometry and illumination, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. In a paper before the twentieth anniversary convention of the Illuminating Engineering Society, Spring Lake, N.J ., Sept. 7-10, 1926.
g New York State Department of Labor.
Special Bulletin. Industrial Posture and Seating. April
l.921, p. 6.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
jobs, either high chairs fQr occasional use at work or ordinary chairs
for a few moments' rest when operation is interrupted. A third
factor is of great importance, namely, 'that all work chairs should be
adjustable to the job and the individual, especially as to height and
the angle of the back. There are chairs that can be adjusted to 'the
position that best suits the height and figure of the worker.
Chairs were reported adequate as to number in all but three plants.
This is not surprising in view of the fact that most of the women
were engaged in work on which a chair was necessary as a tool for
its performance. Consequently, it would be expected that therewould be no shortage of chairs, but in 3 plants such shortage was
reported in other departments. Moreover, in only thrne plants
were chairs of a special type provided, and these were special stitching
chairs in the stitching department. In 10 the common kitchen chair
was used throughout and in 10 others kitchen chairs and stools were
found.
Of one plant it was reported that "No one on a standing job seemed
to have even a stool; many trucks and obstructions made it difficult
to tell. Some of the chairs provided were broken and splintered."
Of another, "Some chairs broken and badly splintered; girls on some
standing jobs-dressing and finishing chiefly-had no seats conveniently near."
One schedule reads "A very few posture chairs." The schedule for
another plant operated by the same firm indicates that no posture
chairs had been provided.
Kitchen chairs were used as a rule, and some of the workers, following a familiar practice, had tried to improve them by tying a board
across the back as an improvised support for the operator. Kitchen
chairs generally have a rounding back, or else slant at an angle too
great to permit the use of the back of the chair as a support for the
operator's back while at work. In fact, with the rounding back, the
elbows of the workers sometimes are obstructed in the moving or
arranging of their work material, and neither type of chair is satisfactory for operators on sewing machines. Some of the operators
had put cushions or other padding on their chairs. Firms that have
used a good type of adjustable work chair report them to be a practical
investment because of the returns in improved work and in speed.
Occasionally a chair was noticed on which the legs had been made
longer, or had been sawed off, to suit the height of the worker. It
was reported that 2 of the 23 firms included in the tabulation had
made arrangements to ·raise or·1ower all chairs. The use of boxes as
seats was not common, but they were in existence in some plants.
TOILET FACILITIES FOR WOMEN 10
The provision of an adequate number and an acceptable type of
toilet facilities in work places is necessary to the health and welfare
of those employed. The failure of employers to make such provision
for the comfort and protection of their workers not only constitutes
an infringement on the personal rights of these workers but is an
infringement that reflects on the community and the State of New
Hampshire.
10
See appendix, p. 93, for standards, .
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The matter of privacy in the arrangement of toilets is referred to
first because more attention had been given to that particular condition of the service equipment than to others of equal importance.
Nevertheless, 6 of the 23 firms included in the general tabulation and
2 of the 3 contract plants not so included had failed to appreciate the
value of such protection to the firm and the community in spite of
its influence as an accepted standard of human behavior and its social
significance.
A separate and entirely enclosed compartment for each toilet seat
was found in only 15 of the 23 plants included, though in 2 others a
strip of cloth was substituted for a door. In three plants the arrangement was unsatisfactory because, though the toilet room proper was
shut off from the workroom by a door, the seats were separated by
partitions and had no doors. Although in some places cloth curtains
had been hung, in most cases they were insufficient in quality and size
to provide privacy.
In one plant only some of the toilet seats were adequately screened.
In four others the toilet compartments opened directly facing the
workroom, without any partition to screen the door. In one of these
the location was particularly bad, being practically in the middle of
the room and adjoining the men's toilet. Further, the ceilings had
not been ceiled, but it was stated that this would be done and that
a screen would be placed between these doors and the workroom.
In eight plants toilet paper was not furnished by the employer.
The rooms were designated as to sex in only half of the 16 plants for
which this was reported, and in 5 plants there was a particular need for
designation because of unsatisfactory location. In three, though designated in some parts of the building, they were undesignated in others.
Only 1 of the 3 contract plants included in the t abulation had made
adequate provision for privacy.
The toilet rooms were reported clean in only 12 plants; they very
definitely were not clean in 8 plants, while in 3 others some were clean
and some were not. The condition of uncleanliness was no doubt due
to the fact that "in 18 plants the toilets were not cleaned by a woman
but were swept by a janitor or boy in 14 cases and by the night
watchman in 4 other plants. In two plants the women employees
were responsible for all the cleaning. Here the toilets were in better
condition than in the majority of plants, but it is unfair to expect pieceworkers to take time to do cleaning. In the remaining three plants
there was no report as to the responsibility for cleaning, and what is
everyone's business soon becomes nobody's business.
Very few toilets ever received a thorough scrubbing. At the best,
cleaning meant an occasional sweep-up. Of 13 plants it was said
that daily sweeping was required, of 2 that they be swept once a
week, and 8 had no standard with regard to frequency.
The experience of employers who have given thought to the housekeeping requirements of manufacturing has repeatedly demonstrated
that the cleaning of cloakrooms and toilets for women should not
be left to men but be the responsibility of some one woman. In the
first place men are handicapped as to entry during working hours,
and in the second place a good woman cleaner does better work than
the average man who accepts such a job.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
One manager decided during the survey that his company would
employ women cleaners in the future and insist on clean service
facilities.
While some employers blamed the workers for the untidy conditions
found, the fact remains that no place used by many people can be
kept clean unless some one person is responsible for the cleaning.
There was natural ventilation in all the toilets for only 15 plants;
in the others some of the toilets were ventilated and some were not.
Three ventilated into another room, two of these into the workroom. Obviously the two last mentioned had only artificial light, and
since no artificial ventilation was provided, the lack of a window meant
the complete absence of the usual means of ventilation.
One superintendent stated that he had been "fighting" with the
owner for a roof ventilator. The owner had just been ordered by the
commissioner of labor to divide the toilets from the workrooms;
formerly the partitions were only half the height of the room.
The floors were reported in bad condition throughout---of wood,
dirty and worn- in eight of the plants included in the tabulation.
They were in bad condition in some of the toilet rooms in three of
the plants. They were reported in good condition in 12 plants. The
seats were in repair in 18 plants.
To sum up, the plant schedules show that in general the toilet
facilities in the majority of the plants visited were below an acceptable
standard with regard to condition and equipment.
Adequacy of equipment.-It is obvious that ventilation, light, cleanliness, and privacy are of great importance in connection with
sanitary facilities, . but the adequacy of equipment in relation to the
number of workers is equally _important.
In this connection the director of the Division of Chemistry and
Sanitation of the New Hampshire State Board of Health, quoted
later with regard to the importance of washing facilities, has this to
say in the same letter, dated June 21, 1934:
* * * the toilet facilities in some of these shops were not at that time (1930)
what we would deem to be adequate. Certainly every shop should have suitable
toilet provisions for men and women. These should be properly constructed,
suitably located, provided with hot and cold running water and paper toweling,
and of course kept scrupulously clean.
Because the survey was made in the early summer of 1933, when
business was poor and therefore not representative in some plants of
rush periods or even normal conditions, the ratio of number of women
· per seat has been computed from two sets of figures: (1) The pay roll
selected as the 1933 week of fullest employment, giving the ratio
applying at the time of the survey; and (2) figures given by the management as representing a period of better business, that is, the numbers that had been employed before the slump in industry. The
very fact that there is considerable difference in the numbers employed at various times shows the advisability of planning the installation of toilets on the basis of maximum employment or room capacity
rather than the minimum. In fact, in a number of plants the ratio
at the time of the survey was in violation of the State regulations,
though the actual number of employees was much less than that given
by the management as representing more normal employment.
Twelve plants were within the legal standard set by New Hampshire, with a ratio of not over 25 women per seat, and 2 of these met
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WORKING CONDITIONS ..
the higher standard recommended by the Women's Bureau of not
more than 15 women per seat. Of the 11 plants that violated the
State's standard, 1 had a ratio of 28 to a seat; 6 had a ratio of from
30 to 37 to a seat, and 4 had ratios of 48, 51, 53, and 61, respectively.
Though some of these ratios were exceedingly high at the time of
the survey, the figures following show for nine plants the appalling
conditions that must exist when more women are employed. Since
some of these nine plan ts operate on more than one floor, the ratios
as computed from the employment figures referred to under (2) are
given by total and by floor. In few plants would it be practicable
for workers to leave their floor.
All but one of the ratios in the following list, based on full employment in busy times, exceed the maximum allowed by the State:
Plant
Number of women reported employed
L__ ___ ____ ____________ __ Total
Number
Number of
women
of seats per
seat
t ________________________________ ____ ___________ _ 182
First floor _________________________________________ 26
Second floor _______________________________________ 156
61
1
2
26
78
4
46
2
5
23
50
2
53
2
48
2________ _____ ___ __ ____ __ Total (third floor) ____ _________________________________ 230
3_ ·---- ___ _________ __ __ __ Total
2 _________________________________________________ 185
77
4_____ ___ ___ ___ _________ _ Total (estimate) a____________________________________ _300
First and second floors ________________________ ____ 47
Third floor ______ ____________ ____ _________________ 250
0
5_______ __ __ __ _________ __ TotaL ________________________________________________ 106
43
6__ ____________ ______ ____ Stitching room in separate building:
Total 4 _ ___________________________________________ 96
7__________________ ______ Total'- ----- ---- ------------------- , ________ .--------- 50
50
8------------------ __ __ __ TotaL ___________ ____ ____________________________ · ____ 210
4
53
Second floor_ _____ ______ ______ ________ _____________ 60
Third floor ______________________________________ __1,~0
2
2
30
75
9 ______ _--~- - - --- _____ ___ Total s________________________________________________ 100
2
50
1 Superintendent of factory conscious of fact that toilet facilities were inadequate.
Building owned by an
estate and almost impossible to get any improvements. Will force the estate to put in additional toilets.
2 Building H-shaped, and there was 1 toilet on first floor of each wing-1 servinir 6 and 1 serving 9.
3 203 women served by 5 seats off third-floor stitching room-over 40 per seat at time of survey, usually
50 per seat. 2 other toilets on first and second floors, used by 47 women, could not be assigned to use
of third-floor employees. Manager and foreman expressed regret over the situation and were considering
moving because of this fact and because other space in the building was inadequate.
4 Operators in stitching room later moved to main building, where 3 toilets available; unless new facilities
provided or staff reduced, when work is heavy ratio will be 48 per seat. Toilet rooms looked as if they had
never been scrubbed.
4 No definite idea as to cleaning; "Someone sweeps it when needed. "
6 Toilet equipment old as the building, more than 40 years. Poor maintenance and equipment acknowledged by superintendent. Would try to get new equipment. Toilets had not been cleaned "since pre·
vious week" and inspection was made on a Tuesday.
WASHING FACILITIES
Because of the materials handled, · hot water, soap, and towels
should be considered an essential part of shoe-manufacturing equipment. Instead, hot water was available in <:>nly 2 plants, and in 1
of these it was not provided for all the workers; soap was supplied
in only 3 plants; and towels were available in only 2, and even there
were limited to certain departments. Washing facilities were shared
by men and women in 12 of the plants, and in another they were
shared in certain sections of the plant. Separate washing facilities
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
for women were provided in only 10 plants. In only 10 was the
equipment reported as clean; in 3 of the others it was acceptable in
places, but in the remaining 10 it was not clean . .
Some employees provided their own towels, but as much of the
work done in the manufacture of shoes necessitates frequent washing
of the hands and in most plants there were no facilities for the care
of towels when not in use, the bringing of one's own towel could
hardly be satisfactory. In at least 1 plant the women dried their
hands on the rags provided for use on shoes, and in 1 department of
the same plant they used the thin paper provided for shoe boxes.
This not only added to the untidiness of the workroom and the
washing facilities but involved an expense to the firm, and it is
probable that the provision of towels would not have amounted
to much .greater cost than the use of this paper.
Adequate washing facilities are an essential requirement in shoe
factories because of the sticky and poisonous materials and substances used on certain processes in some plants. In fact, they are
of equal importance with ventilation.
The director of the Division of Chemistry and Sanitation of the
New Hampshire State Board of Health is author of a report on Occupational Poisoning and Hazards from Certain Forms of Shoe Dressin~s,
a reprint of which is included here (see appendix) because of its
local value and the fact that it is now out of print. He can be quoted
also from a letter of June 21, 1934, with regard to the importance of
adequate washing facilities in shoe factories:
We believe it is not unreasonable to assume that some cases of dermatitis, as
often ascribed to infections from certain materials, are more properly chargeable
to insanitary working conditions, including inadequate ablutionary facilities.
DRINKING FACILITIES 11
Sanitary drinking , fountains were reported throughout the plant
in only 2 establishments; insanitary bubblers were in use in 16, in 2
of which some of the fountains were of a sanitary type. In four plants
the only drinking facilities provided were faucets. In 6 places it
was reported that insanitary bubblers were attached to faucets, and
in 3 to tanks and faucets.
In one plant there was a cooler only. In another the treers had
put in their workroom, at their own expense, an electric water-cooling
system which they allowed others to use at a charge of 5 cents a week.
At the time of the plant visit they had a list of 24 persons allowed to
drink at the cooler.
Eight plants provided individual drinking cups; 14 had not provided cups; and no report was made for 1. In one case workers said
they brought their own glasses, but the forelady's glass was the only
one in evidence. 12
LUNCH ROOMS, REST ROOMS, LOCKER ROOMS
Cafeterias were provided in 4 plants; a lunch counter was operated
in 1; and gas plates for heating food were available in 2. Thus 7 of
the 23 plants had made some provision for the convenience of workers
at lunch, while 16 were without any such provision.
11 See appendix, p. 96, for standards.
u T~e use of ~mmon drinking cups is prohibited in New Hampshire in all places of public character,
tnclndmg factories.
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WORKING CONDITIONS
69
The contract plants were small; furthermore, in all plants but
those in Manchester, most of the workers were said to live within a
distance that made it possible for them to go home for lunch. No estimate of their number can be made, but it is probable that in all plants
some workers had to eat lunch at the factory.
_
In many plants it was the practice to hang the outdoor clothing on
walls or posts in the workrooms. Further, some of the cloakrooms
were makeshift arrangements rather than adequate facilities. However, some kind of a cloakroom had been provided in 15 plants.
Lockers were supplied in 3 of these; 12 were equipped with hangers and 11 had wall hooks. In 7 of the plants that had cloakrooms the
equipment was combined with a toilet; in 4 it was practically a part
of the workroom. Only 8 of the 15 cloakrooms were reported to be
clean and in good order, and 1 lacked artificial light. Five had no
outside windows; 8 had neither bench nor chair.
Rest rooms had been provided in only two plants. Three plants had
hospital rooms, 2 others had small separate rooms that could be used
fo · first-aid treatment, and 16 had first-aid cabinets or kits. Two
plants had no provision of any sort for first aid.
For information on toilet and drinking facilities from Women's
Bureau bulletins · Installation and Maintenance of Toilet Facilities
in Places of Employment and Sanitary Drinking Facilities, see appendix, pages 93 and 96.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Part VII.-CONTRACT PLANTS
Six of the plants included in the survey worked for other plants
·under contract or themselves gave out work under contract; therefore,
they are referred to as contract plants. Although no plan t was largein fact, five would be classed as very small-they were of special interest
j or several reasons other than their size. All but 1 sold shoes at the
time of the survey, though only 1 wa , equipped to manufacture a
completed shoe, the others contracting for the operations they did
no ~ carry. Because of this and the fact that they furnished examples
of developments and practices that are not generally known, the fol.lowing description is submitted. ·
Grouping by location
In the second week in May 1933 five of the contract plants were
occupying one end of a very long three-story building, used before
for shoe manufacturing. The largest shop occupied about one-third
of the third floor; 3 shops occupied each a part of the second floor,
directly under; and 1 had a section of the first floor. More than half
of the building was not in use. Still another contract plant had
occupied for some months a small new building across the road.
At the clorn of the survey, in July, 4 of the contract plants were
E till in the same building: The largest, or that carrying all operations,
and 3 small shops in which the operations were restricted to (plant 2)
lasting and making, (plant 6) cutting, dressing, and packing, and
(plant 4) cutting, treeing, dressing, and packing. The other tenant
had le ft in June and was remodeling a small old building, also nearby.
This location, therefore, was convenient for their intercontracting
relations, although their business was not restricted to their own
group. However, other data of more importance, because of their
relation to economic problems, give an indication of plant policies
that should be traced carefully and evaluated in their . bearing on
trade practices, with special reference to employer-employee relations
and problems of competition.
Limitation of operations
Only i firm of the 6 made a complete shoe in its factory at the time
of the first visit by the Bureau agents. The other five can be said to
have been shoe factories in embryo, planning to develop into fullfledged factories when business permitted. In 1 the operations were
restricted to lasting and making, but the other 5 produced and sold
shoes by contracting for work that was not done in their own plants.
It was reported that all were selling shoes in August, though only
two were equipped to make a complete shoe. At the time of collecting wage data, 1 shop did not sell shoes, but it was reported to have
increased its operations shortly after the close of the survey (the
~ddle of July) and to be producing its own shoes throughout, earl~rn August.
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71
Contract plants operating on this system generally have proved to
be a source of unfair competition, and these plants no doubt were so
considered until the spring of 1933, when new policies in all lifted
them out of the class of sweatshop practices to factories cooperating
in a local union program to raise wage rates.
Since considerable business developments took place in three during
the 10-week period of the survey, reference to these developments will
be taken up next, and the subject of cooperation with the union will be
fourth in order in this summary.
Changes in processes during May and June
The number of processes handled was increased in three shops
during the survey. Three expanded to a considerable degree in number of employees and in operations carried on, one doing all operations
in June except lasting and bottoming, and another practically all
except sock-lining embossing and some stitching. A third firm changed
its policies with regard to method of handling the packing, enabling
it to include packing as an operation at the close of the survey, whereas
at the beginning and for some months before it had contracted for it.
One shop that h ad limited its operations to lasting and making during
the survey was reported to be selling hoes early in August.
These plants therefore offer information on expansion programs
executed within a few weeks, with an increase in number of employees.
A short summary of the wages reported will be found in another
section, and therefore reference will be made in this connection only
to the numbers of persons employed in March or preceding the survey, and in June after the expansion program had been achieved.
In 1 contract plant, where 17 m en and 3 women were employed in
March, as many as 45 men and 7 women were employed in June.
In another plant no women were employed in March though 6 men
were at work, but 20 women and 7 men were at work in June. .The
preponderance of men in June in the shop first mentioned was due to
the fact that stitching operations were put out on contract. In the
second plant the employment of more than twice as many women as
men in June was due to the taking of contracts on stitching in addition to that required on the shoes put out by the owner.
One shop, employing in April only 4 persons, all men cutters, employed 13 men and 2 women the last part of May.
,
In 2 contract plants data on the number of persons employed were
available only for one period, an early May pay roll_; In one, 25 men and
2 women, and in the other, 12 men and 3 women, were employed.
In the former, as stated in the foregoing, the· operations were for others
under contract and were confined to lasting and making processes;
but in August this plant also was reported to be selling shoes, although
continuing to take contracts for others in connection with lasting and
making. Therefore, records are available that indicate considerable
development during May, June, and July in four of these contract
plants.
Accepted union polices
All six contract shops operated under union policies, which was very
unusual. When contracts are arranged it is customary to make a job
agreement for a lump sum for each lot. This had been the practice
in these plants. The union agreement, however, required that those
·contracting should pay the workers who filled the orders the piece
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
rates that were paid on these operations in the largest union plant in
the city ( the first McKay plant in the State to accept th<e union,
though three other large plants followed suit later). It was stated that
"the union does not interfere in any way with contracts between
manufacturers. All we require is that they do not give work by contract to any employee in any department of their factories. This is
covered by article 10 of our general constitution, which reads: 'No
member of the Shoe Workers' Protective Union shall be allowed to
enter into any contract with any manufacturer and employ help.'"
(Statement by Mr. Johns, Shoe Workers' Protective Union, Manchester, N .H.)
These contract shops thus were operating under union regulation
because each operator was a union member and therefore could not
contract for any particular type of work but was permitted to do the
work handled by his employer providing all rules of the union were
met by such employer.
Launching operations on a shoe string
A study of the developments in five of these plants by tracing
changes and growth from their opening would off er a background of
inform~tion of considerable value with regard to the amount of
capital necessary to launch the production of shoes. These contract
shops are, in fact, good illustrations of the method by which individuals
without much capital establish themselves in the manufacture of shoes.
The rapid development in comparatively short periods is illustrated
by the statement of one employer as to his plant's small beginning and
its growth in 5 years from a shop with 9 employees to a factory employing 255 persons (115 men and 140 women) in 1933, summarized
here:
A firm that opened a shop in June of 1928 had begun with no machines and
practically no capital. At first they did cutting and packing only, arranging by
contract for all other operations. At that time they employed 5 cutters and 3
or 4 in the packing department. A year and a half later, in January 19~0, they
rented lasting a nd making machines-I laster and I McKay sewer-for which
they deposited about $150, paid $125 a month rental, and paid three-fourth-sofa
cent royalty p er pair of shoes turned out. They "pulled" by hand. Later they
rented machines to the value of $1,500, paying $400 down and the balance in
monthly payments of $50. They kept adding machines as business warranted,
and in Jul y 1933 they had $4,000 on deposit with the machine company. The
$4,000 represented money covering installation assessments required by the
machine company before the machines are installed, a sort of collateral in case
of failure, but does not include insurance costs which are carried by renters.
While renter or user also pays for any new parts that are needed, the rental
company keeps machines in repair.
Unfortunately, a comprehensive study of all the factors involved in
renting shoe machinery would require a volume of detailed information on practices and policies of the m achine company, as well as of the
difficulties of shoe manufacturers. The latter have found themselves
tied up with heavy payments for charges on idle machines or the return
charges set by the machine company on the return of machines- and
for some the return charges are large- and other complex economic
problems involved in connection with monopoly practices.
Further, the examining and analyzing of the economic handicaps or
advantages of the contract system would in themselves be a stupendous undertaking, though necessarily important in attempting any
evaluation of the practicability and effectiveness of the system
referred to.
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CONTRACT PLANTS
73
Since the outline of study in New Hampshire did not cover these
additional subjects, the foregoing is confined to a superficial listing of
possibilities that invite further consideration.
The practices in contracting for packing previous to May 1933 were
criticized by workers in at least one plant, in which case the practice
was discontinued in May 1933 to meet the objections of the union. ·
Workers claimed that contractors had exploited them, employers
having disclaimed any responsibility for pay other than the amount
agreed upon by the contractor. It was understood that in some cases
contracting for packing was continued, but under regulations specified
by the union.
Working conditions
The analysis of working conditions appearing elsewhere in this
report makes only occasional reference to the three small con tract
plants, not included because each occupied only a small space in one
large building and each employed only a few regular workers-27, 15,
and 10, respectively. Two of the three shops were on the second floor;
the third and smallest on the first floor.
The entire building was old, and the floors were very much worn in
places.
Two of the plants had windows on three sides, but one workroom
on the second floor did not extend across the building, so the windows
were confined to one side. However, they were close together, the
workroom was narrow, and the operations were few, so the natural
light was adequate except on dark days. In fact, the natural light
was adequate in all three workrooms, but in each case paper or strips
of muslin constituted the one means of reducing and diffusing excessive
light and glare. The size of the workrooms was an advantage in that
only a few operators worked close to and facing the windows that
caused the glare. Artificial light had been provided, but as most of
the bulbs were suspended from the ceiling, were without shades, and
were not adjusted as to height to prevent glare, the results were not
satisfactory.
The housekeeping in the shop on the first floor was good, but it was
less satisfactory in the other two, although better on the whole than
in some of the larger places visited.
The shops on the second floor, together employing 38 men and 4
women, shared sanitary facilities. Though the provisions were adequate for the women, it was said that as the equipment on that floor
was more worn than that on the first floor, the arrangement was not a
good one. The shop on the first floor occupied space directly under
the plant that did lasting and making on the second floor. It shared
its forelady with that plant, and the difference in housekeeping between the two probably was due, at least in-part, to the difference in
the operations: Lasting and making mess up a room more than do
cutting, dressing, and pacJring. The forelady saw to it that the toilets
were clean. · The sanitary facilities in this · building all were below
standard, but those on the first floor were the best.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Part VIII.-POLICIES AND PRACTICES OF
MANAGEMENT
Introduction
The number of employers who consciously assume responsibility for
providing satisfactory working conditions through the development of
policies and practices that promote the well-being of workers has
increased greatly since the World War. However, there are far too
many firms that still neglect to do so.
Naturally, the conduct of business reacts to the advantage or disadvantage of the workers according to the conditions that the employer's policies bring to them. Policies that promote the welfare of
workers usually serve management as really as they benefit workers.
The good will of employees has proven to be of immeasurable value to
employers in times of stress.
The disturbed relations that existed between employees and manage. ment in some of the McKay-shoe factories surveyed in New Hampshire
made it advisable to ignore assertions of persons immediately concerned as to the causes of these disturbances, which, though interesting
and important, could not be evaluated on any comparable basis except
by the data assembled on earnings and working conditions. These
data show. great differences among firms in practices and policies,
plant layout, and working conditions in general. In fact, this
material indicates the need for further study of policies in management
that are significant in employer-employee relationships, and their
influence on unfair competition, especially to small firms.
'Periodic unemployment and excessive part-time work react in a
shrinkage of earnings and create problems for society generally, but
they affect most unfairly those whose earnings are reduced in part or
are wiped out entirely.
It was decided to supplement the data on working conditions and
earnings, reported in other sections of this study, with facts as to
policies and practices of management in connection with several
general subjects important in employer-employee relationships for
which management rather than workers must assume responsibility,
and on two .not definitely under the control of management, that is,
seasonal fluctuation and shut-downs or irregularity of hours because of
loss of business. The list of these special inquiries follows. Summaries of the information optained, in some cases slight, appear in
the pages following or elsewhere in the report:
A. Plant ownership: 1. Independent firm or a branch?
2. Changes in ownership.
B. Personnel poli,cies: L Who determines?
'
2. Policies as to labor organization.
C. Employment policies: 1. Source of li;i,bor supply.
. .
.
, 2. Who hires?
· .. 3. Changes in policies in 1933.
D. Was spread-the:..work program adopted?
E. Practices as to stabilization of employment, insurance, etc.
F. Hours: 1. Irregularity in 1932.
2.. Shut-downs for 2 weeks or more.
3. Short days or part-time employment for 2 weeks or more.
G. Seasonal fluctuations.
H. Policies and methods of setting piece rates.
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POLICIES AND PRACTICES OF MANAGEMENT
75
The majority of firms appreciated the reasons for seeking this
supplemental information.
Most employers expressed regret over the irregularity of earnings
in 1932 and 1933. In some cases the spring of 1933 was said to be
somewhat worse than the year 1932. It was quite generally stated
that business conditions were beyond their control. Competition in
selling was held to be the main difficulty by most employers. Some
referred smilingly to the mistaken belief that competition is a healthy
sign of development in business, having found it impossible to meet
the acute and "unfair" competition that has developed through new
machines and processes, too frequent changes in styles, and the
multiplicity of materials used in the manufacture of shoes. Some
claimed to have stabilized employment through improved methods
and increased activity in selling; that is, centralized selling, or the
securing of a regular market, such as chain stores. On the other hand,
these more extensive selling programs on the part of large firms had
made it more difficult for others to finance the cost of selling. It was
stated in more than one interview that it was impossible for the
manufacturer to sell on a basis of cost of production, as the market in
the spring of 1933 was a "buyers' market", described as one in which
the buyer sets the price, by calling for shoes at 58 cents, 98 cents,
$1.98, $5, $10, or more. The manufacturer who cannot produce the
shoe asked for at the price set by the buyer finds difficulty in disposing
of his product. Others blamed their trcubles on large companies that
had centralized sale's offices and means of selling and displaying goods
with which the small producer could not compete.
One firm claimed to have kept out of the red in 1932 by producing a
sandal that caught the eye and sold for 50 cents. Another attributed
the slight increase in business to their having added another salesman
and reached into new territory. A few spoke of the advantage of a
standard product with a regular market. Practiqally all worried over
the possibility of continued poor business.
Who determines policies
In 7 plants the policies were said to be determined by the owner,
in 4 by the president, in 11 by the manager, in 2 by the superintendent,
and in 4 by more than one person, as the plant manager and partner,
or owner and superintendent.
Opinions of labor organization
As before stated, the origin of the Women's Bureau survey of the
boot and shoe industry in New Hampshire was a strike in a number of
plants (practically all McKay) in the spring of 1933. Of 16 plants
affected, 13 were surveyed by the Bureau and 3 were not. Several
plants signed with the union, some raised wages without signing, others
moved away, and a few continued to operate.
·
Questioned as to their opinions of the advantages or disadvantages
of a union contract, the officials interviewed expressed them freely.
A number were critical of union activities, and though conceding that
their workers had suffered in reduced earnings, they too claimed to
have had crippling losses. Some blamed union activities for much .
of the trouble in 1933, though the union quoted low wages and poor
working conditions that made their activities necessary.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
A number of employers expressed the belief that unions ·were necessary and accepted a union contract willingly. Others had come
through without recognizing the union, in some cases by an increase
in rates, in others because of the locality and the absence of union
activity, or the plant's removal from the place of such activity.
Further, McKay factories were practically the only ones involved m
the strike activities referred to.
The attitudes of the various firms toward organization were
expressed as follows:
Hope all shoe companies will organize. This would tend to stabilize prices
and market conditions, and ultimately serve to stabilize· employment.
Unionization of plants will have stabilizing effect.
Union agreement will serve to stabilize employment. Organization helps
employers, gives them strength in fighting unfair practices in setting prices.
Undercutting in prices has fed and increased unfair competition, and now the
buyers and not the manufacturers set the price of shoes. Consequently, unless
unions function, the manufacturer must produce a shoe that meets the price of
the buyers.
If all manufacturers of women's McKay shoes were organized it would stabilize
employment.
If every shoe factory signed with the union, they would build up protection for
manufacturers as well as for workers that would prevent unfair competition.
Unions will cause continual trouble. I am firmly of the opinion they are flat
failures.
Source of employees
Practically all the employees in the plants resided in the town or
immediate vicinity. A few came from other towns.
Who hires
In about two-fifths of the plants more than one person shared in
the responsibility and authority of hiring. In 1 plant the duties
were shared by the manager and foreman; the superintendent and
foreman were responsible in 5 plants; the owner and superintendent
in 2; and the treasurer and superintendent in 1. The forelady was
reported to share such authority and duties with the foreman in only
1 plant. In 1 plant the superintendent hired the foreman, who in
turn hired the other employees. The foreman alone hired in 7 cases;
the owner alone did the hiring in 3 plants; and the manager alone did
it in 3 others.
Spread-the-work program
The spread-the-work plan was held by some employers to have
contributed to the firm's problems, t~ough most of them stressed the
fact that the employees wanted to share the work rather than force
others out of employment. Some referred with appreciation to this
attitude. On the other hand, 3 firms blamed the spread-the-work
plan for dissatisfaction and the strike in 1933.
.
.
., Fourteen reported keeping all employees and dividing the work,
though several stated that there was-little work to spread; 3 kept all
but a few employees; 3 closed in November and December; 2 gave no
information and 1 was not in business in 1932; 1 said he did not try to
spread .the work because he had too little work to do so.
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POLICIES AND PRACTICES OF MANAGEMENT
77
Stabilization of employment
Fourteen plants acknowledged that they had not attempted any
stabilization program. In one case the statement was qualified by
the term "no special plan." In this plant there was a decided difference of opinion among executives as to the union's influence on stabilization of employment, but the superintendent stated that he hoped
all shoe companies would organize, as he believed it would tend "to
stabilize prices and market conditions" and ultimately serve to
stabilize employment.
Five other firms believed strongly that organization and union
contracts would serve to stabilize employment; thus officials in six
plants voiced positive opinions on this matter.
In one plant the owners said that "if every shoe factory signed up
with the union they would build up protection for manufacturers
as well as workers that would prevent unfair competition. Now
buyers claim that they can buy cheaper of X, and in this way they
will be able to force the manufacturer down to actual c:::>sts and below
if the stock has not been disposed of."
One owner thought that the unionizing of plants would have a
stabilizing effect "because the union controls the number of hours of
work within its membership, while/rior to the time of signing the
union contract, any company coul operate any number of hours,
day or week, without interference." Another stated that "a certain
union is not an asset in stabilizing employment, but another union is,
b~cause of the big men leaders." 1 Though no claim was made to the
effect that his contract helped to stabilize employment, as a matter
of fact it did give his employees considerably more work.
One firm reported that they had sought a tenant for their building
who manufactured a cheaper shoe than they did, because their own
business was bad and such an arrangement would make it possible
for their employees to work for the other firm also, adding to their
earnings in this way. They claimed that this plan actually had helped
to stabilize employment for their workers, some of whom had been
employed by the company· for many years. It was reported that
business had fallen off to a degree that the firm could not have continued without the arrangement finally made.
The problem of this firm was the high grade of shoes they made.
It was emphasized that the 1932-33 market called chiefly for cheap
shoes, and their experience demonstrated that the tenant who made
a cheap shoe could sell more shoes than be was equipped to produce,
while their own markets, according to sales, were practically closed
to them.
Two other plants sold to chain stores and had arranged that the
orders for shoes be sent in a month ahead of delivery so that management could lay out the month's work in advance. They claimed that
in this way they had succeeded in providing steady work in their
plants·: · and the pay rolls seemed to support that statement.
Four plants reported efforts to keep up production and provide
work for employees by regulating the number of workers on certain
operations so as to prevent overloading at rush times.
Another reported that they hired extras rather than carry, as so
many plants did, a larger number of workers than could be employed
full time except at busy seasons.
1
For expr~ons of opinion on organization, see p. 75.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
Policies that the firms considered especially favorable to employees
Four plants reported having launched other programs that served
employees. The scheduled comments follow:
"Foreman of stitching room always tries to keep workers posted on
work ahead; advises operators in advance of exceedingly slack periods
and permits them to go home for an afternoon if they wish, rather
than insisting on their staying should work come in." This firm also
reported, as stated under stabilization, the practice to hire extras
as needed rather than to take on a larger regular force than the
business warranted.
"Firm has tried to prevent foremen from practicing favoritism in
giving out work. Difficult for anyone to show partiality in the distribution of work; it would not be tolerated if discovered." Though
this firm owned other plants, mention of this policy was made in
only one.
Of two plants it was reported-"Special rack used for distribution
of work, thereby preventing favoritism, as well as saving much of
workers' time." As a consequence, it was not possible for a foreman
to give a job selected because of remunerative preference as compared
with some other job.
These few statements are important because any sincere program
for the stabilization of employment and wages in the shoe industry
must include consideration of the policies in hiring and in distributing
work. The statements are especially pertinent because charges of
favoritism in giving out work were among the reasons for the strike
in some of the plants visited, and the inspections indicated a variety
of practices in connection with the distribution of work, especially
as regards the condition of aisles and storage on racks. (On p. 55
reference is made to cluttered aisles.)
Shut-downs
Though 13 plants reported operating without a shut-down of as
much as 2 weeks in 1932, 3 had laid off most of their employees in
certain months. One laid them off in May, November, and December; another in May, June, September, and November; and the third
laid them off 1 week or more in June, July, and August. Two plants
gave no information on shut-downs, 2 had not been in that location,
and 4 reported shut-downs of less than 2 weeks.
Seven McKay plants and 1 compo plant reported shut-downs of
2 weeks or more, 1 of the McKay plants reporting that all departments lost 7 weeks in November and December. It was stated that
this plant could have operated if the firm had been willing to cut shoe
prices IO percent, but that cutting prices on shoes IO percent would
have necessitated cutting wages 20 percent, and the firm preferred
to close down rather than do that. In view of the fact that one of
the leading shoe manufacturers of the State is quoted to the effect
that the total cost of labor of any manufactured product, whether
shoes or yard cloth, is "so small a part of the total cost of the article
manufactured thaf it should be the last place in which to economize",
the reference to a 20-percent cut in wages in order to reduce the price
of shoes IO percent does not seem well founded, especially since it
was made by the owners of a plant that could not furnish information
as to the hourly basis for their piece. rates; "Have always followed
local pie-c e-rate prices as far as possible" was their statement, but
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POLICIES AND PRACTICES OF MANAGEMENT
79 ,
they added that union officials found their rates 3 percent higher in
general than the union rate. The manager quoted in the foregoing
to the effect that labor costs are the last point on which to cut stated
also that the same piece rates may result in high earnings in a plant
where management has arranged for distribution of work without
loss to workers and where equipment is kept in good running order,
and may result in exceedingly low earnings in a plant where these
things are neglected, working conditions contributing to earnings in
a degree not commonly realized.
Part-time employment
Part-time employment may be a more serious handicap to workers
than out-and-out unemployment. When workers are without a job,
the family and creditors know it, but part-time employment oil a
supposedly regular job does not advertise its existence as does total
unemployment, though it reduces yearly earnings to a serious degree,
especially if long continued. The large proportions of pieceworkers
suffer reduced earnings through part-time idleness during· working
hours to an extent of which the public and even Government has
little conception. Shoe workers have long been sufferers in this respect.
Unfortunately, it has not been the custom to keep a record of time
worked by pieceworkers unless required by State law. It has seldom
been done in shoe factories, though such records would throw much
light on the problems of the workers and would prove of inestimable
value in analyzing the problems of producers. Such a law was passed
in New Hampshire in 1933. (Seep. 10.)
While it is true that oome of the part-time employment is due to
fluctuation in business and market conditions, it is also true that far
too little attention has been given to the problem of part-time work
by either management or Government. Though the Federal Government has worked out indexes of wages and employment, in the past
it has not recognized sufficiently the element of time and the subject
of part-time work, nor has it studied seriously the variation in earnings
week by week, a condition that has existed for a long time and of late
years apparently to a degree in which it constitutes an industrial
economic disease. If part-time employment is due largely to poor
management, that fact should be disclosed; if it is due to overexpansion on the part of certain groups, that should be made known; and
if it is more serious in the production of certain types of shoes and in
certain geographical areas or is due to the control of patents and
methods of producing, these conditions should be analyzed.
The shoe workers themselves seem to have accepted seasonal
fluctuation and part-time employment as inevitable, even in the days
of good business. When workers spend their days in the factory,
families, neighbors, and creditors are likely to consider them as
employed and expect more of them in total earnings than the time
worked makes it possible for them to meet. This complicates life
seriously for many workers and points to the need of scientific study
of recurring part-time employment on so-called "regular jobs."
Especially does the shoe industry need such study, no matter
whether the recurring part-time employment is due (a) to carelessness
of management in routing work or in balancing it among the departments, condition of plant equipment, method of marketing, or other
managerial responsibility; or (b) to scarcity of orders, weather condi-
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMSPHIRE
tions that slow up sales, type of shoe, acute competition, or other
market or consumer conditions beyond the control of management.
Since unemployment and part-time employment h ad been serious
problems for a long time in the New Hampshire factories, probably
largely due in 1932 to acute competition and poor business, an effort
was made to find out whether any of the plants had undertaken
definite programs for the stabilization of employment. It is illuminating to find that half of the factories visited admitted that they had
made no special effort to stabilize employment, and it is probable
that few of those who reported such efforts gave conscious thought to
part-time work in that connection.
·
Policies and methods in the setting of piece rates
The comments on method of fixing piece rates disclosed that the
problems were greatest in the stitching room, and that because of the
rapid changes in styles it was more difficult-in plants making women's
shoes than in those making men's shoes.
As the fixing of rates is discussed in section V of this report (see
p. 30) only certain comments by the plant officials are quoted here. 2
Few adjustments necessary except in stitching room. In that department use
sample girl by the hour for pace setting. Take average between slowest and
fastest operators. Thirty-nine cents an hour is basic rate for stitchers, 28 cents
for benchwork.
Begins stitching with a basis of ·35 cents an hour for hourly production. Does
not use pace setter but decides and works out piece rates according to his best
judgment on basis of hourly cost of production.
Forelady computes rates from the try-outs of 4 or 5 workers on new operations,
on 4 or 5 cases each. Basis for piece rate given as 35 cents an hour in stitching
room.
Firm has basic hourly rate on operations from which piece rates computed.
Piece rates based on the time required by 5 or 6 operators to perform, by striking
average.
Few 'changes in rates except for stitching. Forelady sets t hem according to
prevailing prices in the city, and goes over them with foreman. Uses operators
to figure adjustments.
Grade of shoes made is simple and stable, with a minimum of variety of style.
Piece rates need not be adjusted very often. All rates computed on a basic
hourly rate for time and degree of skill required.
Frequent revision of piece rates in cutting and stitching departments. Set by
job and product analysis.
Styles simple; men's shoes; standardized production, so not necessary to adjust
rates very often. Cutting and stitching have some readjustment of prices each
spring and fall season when new models introduced. Prices set by job study and
analysis of product.
Style changes require relatively frequent revision of price lists in cutting and
stitching. Price set by analysis of product and past time studies.
Experience of years makes it possible to adjust rates, but sometimes uses 4 or
5 operators on a try-out. Tries to follow Brockton rates. (Could not give data
on basic rate.)
Piece rates of former owner taken over witli plant. Some changes made, and
new operations rated. Foreman works out the rate, and prevailing Manchester
rates on operations are followed. Plant bought 11 years ago.
When designs change we experiment and set up in our own minds fair returns
for days or weeks worked, and piece rates are computed from basic hourly rates
(2 plants).
J
Excludes 10 firms in which the union sets the rates.
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POLICIES AND PRACTIC ES OF MANAGE MENT
81
Follow Brockton rates; use French clock. (Furnishe d h ourly basis for piece
rates.)
Rates have not been changed for years. Product is staple stock that does not
require much change in design. Long in trade and so can adjust prices
on
experience .
Rates based on experience and former practices. Have not paid
high as
Haverhill rates. Fancy stitching based on piece rates of old patternssoprevious
to 1928.
Rates figured on their experience and knowledge of local prices. Have no
definite basis from which rates are computed .
Figure what they can pay on that job. One operator tries out new work.
Cheap shoes, little change in design.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Part IX.-HAZARDS IN CONNECTION WITH THE
USE OF _QUICK-DRYING SOLVENTS
[See also ventilation, p. 56]
Considerable evidence is at hand to prove that some operations in
connection with the manufacture of shoes involve serious health
hazards. Unless certain very definite precautions are taken by
manufacturers to safeguard their workers, even those not actually
employed on the operations involving the use of poisonous materials
may be affected by the fumes in the atmosphere if at work in the
rooms where such processes are carried on.
The following list of the poisonous substances to which women
were ·exposed in nine of the shoe factories surv~yed by the Massachusetts Consumers' League in the summer of 1928, with the numbers
of women employed, is from the report of the study Some Types of
Industrial Poisoning: 1
Number of women
in plant
PoisonoU8 substances
100 _____ __ _ Wood alcohol, ether, naphtha rubber cement, repairing dope.
18 __ _____ __ Naphtha ubber cement and repairing dope.
190 _______ _ Methyl (wood) alcohol, patent-leather repairing dope, naphtha
rubber cement.
300 _______ _ Methyl (wood) alcohol, patent-leather repairing dope, ether, shellac,
naphtha rubber -c ement.
30 _______ __ Methyl
(wood) alcohol, naphtha rubber cement, ammonia cement.
100 __ ____ __ Naphtha rubber cement, ether, carbon disulphide for cleaning shoes.
300 ___ ____ _ Methyl (wood) alcohol, acetone, naphtha rubber cement, ether,
amyl acetate and butyl acetate in cements.
125- 150 ____ Naphtha ubber cement, repairing dope.
rubber cement, benzol
rubber eement.
350_ .:. ___ __ _ Patent-leather repairing dope, naphtha
Though each substance listed in the foregoing constitutes a health
hazard to workers, special reference will be made in this report only
to the danger of benzol, because of its extensive use in pastes, cements,
and the repairing of patent leather in connection with shoe manufacture. All quick-drying solvents convey more or less of a hazard to
workers, but benzol is held to carry greater hazards than do other
poisonous substances used in pastes and cements. Moreover, the
hazards it carries are not limited to the persons using it, but extend
to anyone in the same room. It vaporizes readily and so contaminates the air. Further, general protection of all those exposed to
its poisonous influence is important because some workers are more
sensitive to it and more quickly and more seriously affected than
others.
A review of * * * chronic benzene poisoning in industry fails to throw
much light on the danger limits of benzene vapor in the air of a working room.
The men in the American fabrikoid factory died after several months' exposure
1
Consumers' League of Massachusetts. Some Types of Industrial Poisoning.
82
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Boston, 1929, p. 30.
HAZARDS IN QUICK-DRYING SOLVENTS
83
to air containing, according to the company chemists, something under 50 parts
p er 1,000. Pujtliese found only 1 part per 1,000 in an Italian factory where
fatal cases had occurred, and symptoms of poisoning appeared in an atmosphere
of 0.2 to 0.3 parts per 1,000. Legge tells us that as little as 0.2 to 1.0 part per
1,000 was present in the English balloon factory where two men contracted
fatal benzene poisoning. There is need of a great deal of close observation with
analysis of air and probably periodical examination of the blood of the men and
women employed, before this question is definitely settled. 2
Dr. Hamilton describes its effects as follows:
To summarize briefly: the effect of chronic benzene poisoning is to cause a
loss of red blood corpuscles, resulting in profound anemia; a loss of the elements
and substances in the blood which are concerned in blood clotting, resulting in
h~morrhage; and a loss of white blood cells and of the substances in the blood
serum which are concerned in defending the body against bacterial infection. 3
The discovery of harmless substitutes for benzol remains the goal
to be striven for, the United States Public Health Service reporting
that, judging by recent experiences, no substitute is known that
removes all danger of poisoning. It has been known for many years,
however, that adequate ventilation and scrupulous cleanliness aid
in the protection of workers using or exposed to benzol or other
quick-drying solvents. Drs. Kober and Hayhurst wrote the following
more than a decade ago:
Preventive measures-The prevention of poisoning from fumes of benzene
or benzine lies in good ventilation so that the fumes may be diluted down to the
point of harmlessness. E ~en allowing for an individual susceptibility such as
we have reason to think does exist in some people, the really serious cases of
poisoning have all been caused by exposure to very heavy fumes, and the r eports
of chronic poisoning come from those countries chiefly where industrial hygiene
is comparatively neglected. High ceilings, abundant ventilation, scrupulous
cleanliness are enough in cases where fumes are not heavy; artificial ventilation
with air exhaust must be installed when the danger is greater, preferably, according to the British inspectors, with a down-draft as these are heavy fumes. If a
vat or tank must be cleaned out, the men must be furnished with divers' helmets.
For the distressing skin diseases nothing but very strict bodily cleanliness will
help and in susceptible cases there is no hope of cure as long as the work is
kept up.•
Only a few employers interviewed in the New Hampshire survey
seemed informed on the existence of a health hazard in connection
with paste and cement, or referred to having taken simple precautions
to safeguard workers in this connection, such as providing free flow
of fresh air and adequate or readily accessible washing facilities ,
Further, though supplies of paste, cement, cleaning fluid, and other
materials were covered except while in use, few workers had been
cautioned about exposing to the atmosphere large quantities of these
supplies at one time or about the dangers of inhaling the fumes.
It developed that such precautions as were taken in the storing
and the exposing of substances in the workroom were due to instructions issued by the inspector from the insurance company, because
of the inflammable nature of benzol and other materials of this
nature, rather than to any conscious effort to prevent industrial
poisoning .5 One official did report that this inspector had told him
of the possibility of occupational disease in connection with the use
of paste and cement containing benzol, explaining that when illness
H amilton, Alice. Industrial Poisons in the United States. New York. 1925. pp. 474--475.
Ibid . p . 479.
• Kober and Hayhurst. Industrial Health. 1924. pp. 502-503.
6 A related incident is described on one of the schedules: In a small and almost sealed room women were
covering wood heels with celluloid. There was a hood or exhaust in connection with it. It was stated
t hat the operation was separated from the workroom because of fire hazard, not for health protection.
2
3
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84
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSIDRE
can be traced to work on a process or in a room in which benzol is
used in paste or cement, such illness is compensable under the law of
New Hampshire, so that the precautions recommended were desirable
for that reason also.
The statement as to illness being compensable in New Hampshire
is so erroneous that it cannot be overlooked and will be discussed in
the next few paragraphs. It is possible, of course, that the employer
misunderstood what was said and that the insurance agent referred
to some other State. In passing it may be remarked that the inspector's interest in this instance suggests that fire-insurance agents
could contribute much to the prevention of industrial hazard if they
were surplied with printed inf~rm~tion expl~ining that some of the t
combustible substances used m mdustry mvolve health hazards ·
that are not so readily detected as are the hazards from fire.
As a matter of fact, the New Hampshire workmen's compensation
law makes no provision for compensating employees made ill by
handling poisonous substances or breathing their fumes. The only
compensable cases of occupational disease are those caused by
accident.
Since this employer gained the impression that illness that could be
traced to benzol poisoning in employment was compensable in New
Hampshire, it may be important to explain that the provision for
the administration of the compensation law, in New Hampshire iB
wholly inadequate to handle such cases even if the wording of the law
itself specifically covered benzol poisoning.
The provisions of the New Hampshire law have been summarized
as follows by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics in a memorandum of March 30, 1934:
The workmen's compensation law of New Hampshire was enacted in 1911 by
the provisions of chapter 163 and became effective on January 1, 1912. The law
is an elective one applicable to certain dangerous employments, except factories
and shops having less than five employees engaged at labor. No provision is
made for the coverage of public employments. The law is administered by the
courts of the State and occupational diseases are excluded except such cases as
are caused by accident. In enumerating these features of the New Hampshire
workmen's compensation law it will be observed that it has many weaknesses.
At the conference called by the Secretary of Labor on February 14 and 15,
1934, the Committee on Workmen's Compensation Legislation specifically
recommended a compulsory system and administration by a commission rather
than by a court. The committee also recommended the defining of "injuries"
to include occupational diseases and that a blanket coverage of occupational diseases was preferable to a "schedule" coverage. In the United States at the
present time awards for occupational diseases are allowed in 11 jurisdictions.
In Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and Puerto Rico a schedule of
specific occupational diseases is given.
In New Hampshire all accidents are reported to the commissioner
of labor, who has other full-time work assigned to him; for example,
he directs the State's employment offices and is called on to participate in industrial disputes. In addition, though his staff is small,
he is charged with the responsibility of enforcing labor laws, many
of which require periodical inspection as to detail. Some factories
in New Hampshire are large and the time necessary for routine
inspection far exceeds the time the ftaff can give to it.
The filing of accident reports must be done by a clerk. Various
courts pass on the claims. It would be physically impossible for the
·commissioner to attempt to investigate and follow up accidents and
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HAZARDS IN QUICK-DRYING SOLVENTS
85
the settlements in connection therewith, as is done in many other
States, because of the limitation in staff and travel funds.
Experience has demonstrated the social value o well-administered
compensation laws, and 38 States have made provision to administer
their laws through agencies oth er than the courts, because of the
complexity of problems that arise in determining the facts in accident
cases and because of the volume of other work. It is obvious that the
administration and adjudication of industrial disease cases requires
medical research of a complicated nature. In most of the States
referred to the administration is by commissions. New Hampshire
is 1 of only 6 States that still administer their workmen's compensation law by court procedure.
The States that now are actively concerned about injury through
poisoning or other occupational problems are disclosing new development in hazards f om materials hand:ed. In some, especially New
· York, New Jersey, and Massachusetts, great progress has been made in
advancing programs for the preven ion of such injuries through the
research of divisions of industrial hygiene. In the three States menioned pa,rticularly agents of the State are seeking to isola · e acts that
will throw light on occupational disease problems arising in the discovery of new substances used in industry. In this way methods are
sought by which it will be possible to detect these problems early
and to reduce, if it is not possible to eliminate, the hazard involved.
The majority of the firms visited in New Hampshire gave little
if any conscious attention to the existence, and even less consideration
to the prevention, of health hazards. It seems pertinent, therefore, in
connection with a study of working conditions, to call attention to the
existence of this problem and to furnish certain authoritative facts
with regard to the cause of the hazards, the operations involved, and
the symptoms of persons affected, as reported in connection with cases
studied in Massachusetts and New York, where the State authorities
are actively engaged in programs to protect workers from the danger
of benzol poisoning.
Since the use of benzol is not confined ' o shoe factories, it may be
of interest to examine the following list of industries reported as large
users of benzol, the shoe industry ranking high among those specified:
The largest commercial users of benzene in manufacturing are the
makers of rubber cement; rubber tires and shoes; b ake linings, particularly for automobile brakes; artificial leather and fabrikoid;
lacquers; cement for sanitary food cans; paint and varnish removers. 6
The use of benzol in synthetic organic chemicals has increased
greatly during the past few years. The United States Tariff Commission has published considerable information on the subject and the
following data for 1922, 1925, 1929, and 1930 are to be found in its
"Census of dyes and of other synthetic organic chemicals", 1929 and
1930. 7 The total commercial production of benzene (benzol) is
reported as follows:
1922--13,071,288
1925--22,607,962
1929-25,119,013
1930--19,918,059
gallons.
gallons.
gallons.
gallons.
o H amilton, Alice. Industria . Poisons in the United States. New York, 1925. p. 454.
7 U .S. Tariff Commission. Census of Dyes and of Other Synthetic Organic Chemicals.
and ibid. 1930, p. 17.
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1929, p. 16;
86
SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
The decrease in output between 1929 and 1930 of more than 5
million gallons of benzol may be due in part to the use of substitutes,
but in the same period the figures show also a reduction in the output
of solvent naphtha, crude and refined including xylene:
1929- 7,886,802 gallons.
1930- 6,698,623 gallons.
These figures· indicate that the proportionate decrease in total
commercial production was appreciably greater for benzol than for
naphtha, and in both cases much of the loss probably can be attributed to the decline in manufacturing.
That such an organization as the National Safety Council delegated a special committee of experts, with Dr. C. E. A. Winslow, of
Yale, as chairman, to study the problem of benzol poisoning, is in
itself significant as an illustration of the seriousneEs of that problem.
A statement by the benzol committee of the National Safety Council
and a quotation from a report of the International Labor Offiee
indicate the importance of protecting the workers in every way possible from the fumes of benzol. The quotation from the International
Labor Office makes clear the difficulties of controlling the problem,
and that from the National Safety Council gives the further evidence
of the grave character of the hazards involved.
The first extract is from the International Labor Office.
Absorption
Absorption takes place especially by way of the respiratory tract (inhalation of
the vapor) ; this is the case with the acute and subacute forms. In chronic cases
absorption by the skin may be accepted. In the opinion of some writers this
does take place and, at any rate in part, even in the form of vapor. But this
channel really plays only a secondary role, and the quantity of vapor thus gaining
access to the system must be minimal as compared with that inhaled. Absorption
by the skin evidently is facilitated by abrasions, scratches, etc., either preexisting .
or set up by benzene itself (remember the property of benzene of dissolving fatty
substances and so altering the epidermis). In practice skin absorption is generally
very r estricted. Intoxication by way of the digestive tract can also be considered.
According to Lehmann the proportion of the poison retained by the human
system is very high, namely 80-84 percent of the benzene contained in the
atmosphere .
Elimination
Benzene is mostly eliminated unaltered by the respirat ory tract. * * *
Elimination proceeds usually very slowly.s ·
In fact, elimination is slow in respired air and in urine.
The final report of the committee on benzol of the National Safety
Council, May 1926, makes the following statements on the toxic action
and the control of benzol:
Benzol introduced into the body (which in practice ordinarily occurs as a result
of the inhalation of its fumes) exerts three more or less distinct major effects upon
the body. It plays the part of an anesthetic or narcotic leading to dizziness,
faintness, and coma. It is at the same time, however, a nerve irritant producing
characteristic spasmodic movements, and actual damage to nerve tissue. Coma
and death may also result from this neurotoxic a.c tion as well as from the narcotic
action of benzol. Above all, however, this substance possesses a definite and
specific destructive power for the blood cells and those organs which produce
these cells.9
We are forced to conclude that the control of the benzol hazard (except where
the substance is used in completely closed systems) is exceedingly difficult; that
in practice, systems of exhaust ventilation capable of keeping the concentration
s International Labor Office. Occupation and Health . Benzene (Benzol). No. 8, Geneva, 1925. pp. 4-5.
P National Safety Council.
Chemical Section. Committee on Industrial Poisons. Final Report on
Benzol. M ay 1926. p. 114.
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HAZARDS IN QUICK-DRYING SOLVENTS
87
of benzol in the atmosphere below 100 parts per million are extremely rare;
and that even when this is accomplished there remains a decreased but substantial
hazard of benzol poisoning. 10
Studies made in two States, New York (1926) and Massachusetts
(1~28)! have helped to focus attention on the danger of benzol
p01sonmg.
The fact that 6 serious cases of chronic benzol poisoning of women,
3 of which terminated fatally, were found in a hospital in Massachusetts in 1927 indicated extensive poisoning by benzol. Most workers
so poisoned are not conscious of the cause of their headaches and listlessness, and few of them see a doctor who will connect their employment with the ailments for which they seek medical care.
The study Some Types of Industrial Poisoning, made for the
Massachusetts Consumers' League by Grace Potter, should serve
shoe manufacturers who wish to know about the hazards involved in
the use of benzol.
The absence of any reference to recommended substitutes for benzol
as a solvent in the present report on the shoe industry is due to reports
that some substitutes formerly believed less harmful than benzol have
been found to carry hazards that had not been anticipated or discovered in the earlier tests applied to them.
The following from the report of the Massachusetts Consumers'
League is quoted here because it contains authentic information not
generally known with regard to the processes that need watching:
Occupations of women
Many cement together various parts of the shoe; others glue, paste, and cut
small parts for linings and trimmings. In the making of wooden heels the women
do all the covering and breasting.
Processes with hazards
In some cementing processes, in the covering and breasting of wooden heels,
and in the repairing and cleaning of :finished shoes before shipment, women are
often exposed to health hazards. Naphtha rubber cement, benzol cement,
methyl (wood) alcohol, ether, and certain repairing dopes are the principal substances known by physicians in industrial hygiene to be injurious to the h ealth of
workers in these processes.
Benzol rubber cement is used extensively for cementing crepe-rubber soles and
rubber soles on shoes. The manufacturers of rubber cements say that at present
the only commercial cements with strong enough adhesive qualities to hold either
a rubber heel or sole securely to a shoe contain a fairly high percentage of benzol.
They are continually experimenting on a non-benzol cement for these particular
processes. One cement maker who had recerit orders from a number of shoe
manufacturers in Massachusetts for a non-benzol cement for rubber heels and
soles did not even try to fill the orders. It is worthy of note when those who are
responsible for the use or discard of benzol begin to realize the dangers of its use.
Of the 11 factories visited, in only 1 was a girl found using benzol cement.
This girl worked in the crepe-sole department. It may be that she is not susceptible, for she has worked with benzol many years, looks healthy, and apparently
had none of the symptoms of benzol poisoning. There was trouble in this factory
a little over a year ago. In the rubber-heel department, where a number of girls
had been employed cementing rubber heels, one fatality had occurred, and other
serious cases of chronic benzol poisoning had developed. The use of this cement
was given up, and there was substituted a naphtha rubber cement which the firm
believes is producing as good results. The superintendent stated that he hoped
he would never have to use benzol extensively again. 11
10
11
Ibid .. p. 118.
Consumers' League of Massachusetts. Some Types of Industrial Poisonina, Boston, 1929. pp. 10-11.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
A few case records 12 are summarized here as illustrations of symptoms experienced by women using benzol cement:
1. Cementer of soles of overshoes in rubber plant; 3 years in occupation; headaches, excessive fatigue, vomiting blood.
2. Cementer of rubber heels on shoes; 2 months in occupation; weak, faint;
in hospital 15 days; unable to work 11 months; still weak, faint, tires easily,
though working in different department.
3. Cementer of rubber heels on shoes; 3 months in occupation; nervous, weak,
shaky, nauseated; lost baby because of poisoning.
4. Cementer in shoe factory for 10 years; cough and tired.
5. Cementer in rubber-shoe factory for 5 years; arthritic pains and swelling of
arms and legs.
Two cases in shoe-manufacturing establishments of New York 13
are described as follows:
1. Age 25; never seriously ill; employed 2 months cementing crepe-rubber soles
with a benzol rubber cement; since using cement has occasional headaches, sleepy
feeling at work; pale; blood pressure 110/70; over weight. (Positive case.)
2. Age 33; married; several children. Employed about 7 months cementing
crepe-rubber soles with a benzol rubber cement. About May 1, 1925, began to
feel listless and weak; nosebleed began to occur and became so severe she went to
a specialist for treatment; purpuric spots appeared on skin. Left work May 15
and was admitted to hospital June 1; temperature 100° to 104°; had one severe
hemorrhage from nose; bleeding from vagina; vomited and coughed blood;
weakness, dizziness, nausea, headache; abscess on left thigh developed early in
July; blood transfusions given; died July 31. Autopsy found blood unclotted;
fatty degeneration of liver, heart, and pancreas; free blood in stomach and intestine; general appearance of anemia. Case diagnosed as one of chronic benzol
poisoning. (Record obtained from factory medical department. Use of such
cem3nt abandoned after this occurrence. Compensation allowed.)
An important statement by Dr. Hamilton is the following:
In the course of a study of the rubber industry I found· many cases of what
seemed to be chronic naphtha poisoning in the records of the Occupational Disease
Clinic of the Massachusetts General Hospital of Boston, which city is a center of
rubber manufacture. These histories showed a loss of health which seemed to be
connected with the employment, a loss of vigor and energy, more or less headache,
or simply oppression in the head, listlessness and dullness, restless sleep, loss of
appetite, disturbed digestion, gastric pain, constipation. One man was sleepy
all day while at work but could not sleep at night. Sometimes dry throat and a
tendency to cough was the chief complaint. Less common were numbness or
paresthesias or loss of muscular power. I saw a man in an Ohio rubber factory
who had been making dipped rubber goods for 3 years. He was very anemic and
for some time he had been increasingly nervous, had ·had attacks of dizziness, and
was losing power in his right arm. 14
USE OF BENZOL IN NEW HAMPSHIRE PLANTS
The State of New Hampshire has not enacted regulations pertaining to the use of benzol in manufacturing processes as has its neighbor, Massachusetts. This lack of regulation is particularly serious
in view of two facts, (1) that benzol is used extensively in shoe
cements, cleaners, 15 and other -compounds, and (2) that New Hampshire ranks· fourth among shoe-manufacturing States in number of
. employees. The number of workers using benzol preparations or
exposed to their fumes must be large.
12 From Massachusetts General Hospital industrial clinic records, 1926--27, summarized in Some Types
<•f Industrial Poisoning, by the Consumers' League of M assachusetts, 1929.
13 New York Department of Labor.
Chronic Benzol Poisoning Among Women Industrial Workers.
1927. Special Bui. 150, p. 35.
u Hamilton, Alice. Industrial Poisons in the United States. New York, 1925. p. 405.
1• For the results of a State investigation of hazards from shoe dressings, reported on in 1930, see appendix,
~- ffl. Benzol was not found at that time in the finishes tested.
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HAZARDS ·IN QUICK-DRYING SOLVENTS
In the present study the total absence of apparatus to draw off the
fumes in operations involving the use of benzol preparations was noted
by the investigators. Not infrequently the air was heavy with such
fumes, in spite of the fact that the common practice, due to fire
hazards, was to expose only small quantities of all substances used
and keep the chief supply well covered. As explained on page 57 the
subject of health hazard from the use of benzol had formed no part of
the .original plan for the New Hampshire survey, but the presence of
such fumes in the workrooms called for an inquiry if the study of
working conditions was to be complete.
Officials in general, though apparently little aware of the dangerous
nature of the cements and other materials in use, cooperated by furnishing samples and such information as they possessed. In a few
cases the preparations were marked with such warnings as "Inflammable", "Contains benzol or naphtha", and occasionally "Beware of
fumes."
Of 34 shoe preparations on the market whose benzol content could
be ascertained or approximated the following is the distribution:
Numb er of
Percent of benzol:
.
preparationa
Under 10___________________ __ ___ ___________ ________
3
10 and under 20 ~-- - --- - -------------------------- -5
20 and under 30 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
4
30 and under 40 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
3
40 and under 50 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1
50 and under 60 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1
60 and under 70 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
5
70 and under 80 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
0
80 and under 90 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
4
90 and under 100 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1
100__________________ _____ ____________ __________ ___
7
Some solvents were 100 percent benzol. As a general rule cleaners contained less than did cements. It is possible to make these
products without the use of benzol, 16 but its quick-drying properties tempt manufacturers to employ it as a solvent. Needless to
say, a benzol-free compound should be used by shoe manufacturers
wherever available. In the absence of such voluntary action in the
direction of safety, regulation should be a matter of legislation.
16 As this report is in preparation there come to hand two addresses before the First Annual New England
Safety Conference, held at Boston, April 30 and May 1, and published in Safety Engineering for June.
The first, by a former manufacturer of solvents, says this: "There are today available, for example, rubber
cements which I believe are satisfactory for all operations, includng the cementing of crepe-rubber soles to
rubber and the heel-breasting operation, in the shoe plant, that contain no benzol." The second, by a
present manufacturer of benzol compounds, includes this statement: "For several years the research facilities of our company have been directed toward the perfection of compounds made from natural latex to
replace benzol solutions of rubber. We have been able almost entirely to eliminate the use of benzol in shoe
cements and have gone far in the elimination in other fields."-Editor.
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APPENDIXES
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86938°- 35-7
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APPENDIXES
STANDARDS FOR INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF
TOILET FACILITIES 1
There are certain principles commonly accepted as essential to the
establishment of decent and hygienic conditions that should be taken
into consideration in drawing up any law or regulation pertaining to
the installation of toilet facilities. These principles already are the
basis of numerous State laws and regulations and of the standards
set by private corporations and establishments, but a number of States
have failed to set up standards adequate for the needs of workers.
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*
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*
In the following the States are grouped according to the type of
agency concerned with the development and formulation of regulations and the enforcement of regulations or laws or both:
States in which the State labor agency is designated as the administering agency.-California, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Illinois,
Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska,
Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota,
Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina,
Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, and West Virginia.
States in which the State or municipal health agency is designated as
the administering agency.-District of Columbia, Maine, Maryland,
Montana, and Vermont.
States in which the State labor agency and State or municipal health
agency appear to have joint jurisdiction.-Arkansas, Colorado, low&,
Kentucky, Louisiana, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
States in which some other agency, such as department of child welfare
or of public welfare, is designated as administering agency.-Alabams1,
Idaho, 2 North Carolina, and South Dakota.
State in which control is shared by State labor agency and some other
organization.-Indiana.
States in which no regulations exist pertaining to the prom,sion or
equipment of sanitary facilities in work places.-Arizona, Georgia,
Mississippi, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming.
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ADEQUACY OF EQUIPMENT
First of all it is essential, in order to prevent crowding and delay,
that an adequate number of toilets in relation to the number of
workers should be provided. The importance of this hardly needs
to be argued and should be easy to accept. Failure to make such
1 From Women's Bureau bulletin, The Installation and Maintenance of Toilet Facilities in Places of
Employment. 1933.
2 The department of public welfare in Idaho carries duties in re the soldiers' home, State sanitarium11,
vital statistics, etc., and is responsible for dairy, food, and sanitary inspectiol18.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
provision not only affects the comfort _of workers but may have a
direct bearing on their health and efficiency. While the relation
that inadequate facilities bear to constipation among workers has
not been verified by objective study, it seems more than probable
that it exists, since hygienists include the regular evacuation of
the bowels as one of the main principles of personal hygiene. A
physician who not only believes that constipation brings serious
results, .but is very emphatic about the necessity of adequate toilet
facilities for workers in order to prevent this condition, makes the
following statement:
·* * * Many workmen leave home too soon after breakfast in the morning
to have been able to secure a movement of the bowels, which of course should
ta~e place daily as an absolute essential to health. Employers should have the
importance impressed upon them of the necessity for a sufficient number of toilets
for all the workmen . * * * Fatigue is often dependent upon the absorption
of toxins from the intestinal tract, and toxins are generated by retained accretfons in the bowels.
* * * A worker who delays having a movement of t h e bowels absorbs a
!urge amount of toxins, particularly indol, which reduces muscular efficiency to
a very marked degree. 3
In connection with adequacy of equipment, it is important to consider convenience of location, for adequacy is greatly affected by
th.is. Toilets should be located as near as possible to the work place
of those who use them, though it is always desirable to make the
entrance inconspicuous from the workroom.
Standards of adequacy usually are expressed in the form of a
required ratio of toilet seats to persons employed.
•
•
*
*
*
•
•
PRIVACY
Almost as essential as adequate equipment is privacy, not only
for each sex but for each individual. To insure such privacy, it
is necessary first of all to provide separate toilets for men and women.
It is desirable that the two be remote from one another, though
t:his is not always practicable. If toilet rooms for the two sexes
il.djoin one another, the separating wall should be of solid construction. Also, in cases where toilet-room entrances adjoin, employees
generally prefer having them separated by a T-shaped or an
L-shaped screen. Moreover, even when the entrances do not closely
adjoin, they should be protected in some way so that the interior
of the rooms cannot be seen when the doors are opened.
For the sake of privacy as well as to prevent contamination of
the air in the workroom, the walls of all toilet rooms should extend
to the ceiling or the rooms should be independently ceiled over. This
regulation is necessary because of the tendency to install toilets in
corners of workrooms with only dwarf partitions separating the two.
*
*
*
*
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*
*
SANITATION
A number of other points that always should be covered have, for
convenience, been grouped under the general heading of sanitation.
These concern the kinds of materials used in the walls a:i;id floors, the
a Darlington, Thomas. Health and Hygiene in I ndustry. International Clinics, vol. II. T hirtyfourth Serie.s, June, 1924, pp. 289-290.
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APPENDIXES
type of fixtures, the ventilation, heating, lighting, and maintenance
of toilet rooms and compartments * * *
Walls and floors
In the interest of sanitation, it is important that walls and floors
of toilet rooms be of material that is as nearly nonabsorbent as
possible. Wooden floors absorb moisture and their use generally is
discouraged; nor is Portland cement nonabsorbent unless treated
with a hardening process. Some States advise the use of such materials as marble, tile, or glazed brick in both walls and floors but
permit wooden walls and ceilings if these are painted with several
coats of light-colored, nonabsorbent paint. Floors may be made of
asphalt, concrete, tile, or Portland cement, if treated with a hardening process to make them more nearly impervious to moisture.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Fixtures
With the great improvements that have been made in sanitary
equipment in recent years, it has been found possible to produce
toilet fixtures that combine a number of features that make for
sanitation-material that under a very exacting test has been found
to be relatively nonabsorbent, from which toilet bowls can be cast;
flushing devices that remove all particles quickly and thoroughly;
seats constructed to prevent all unnecessary contact; and methods of
ventilation through the fixture itself helping to prevent the escape
of odors into the room. Certain standards regarding some of these
points are included in the minimum requirements for plumbing
recommended by the Bureau of Standards of the United States
Department of Commerce, though most of the recommendations have
to do with the way in which fixtures and pipes are installed. Certainly it should be possible for all establishments to have fixtures of
the type recommended by this Government agency, since they are
being manufactured by numerous firms.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Cleaning
The responsibility for the cleaning of toilet rooms should be delegated to special employees, and the cleaning should take place at
regular and frequent intervals. Hot water and soap should be used.
Frequent use of disinfectants in addition to soap is conducive to a
sanitary condition, but disinfectants alone should not be relied upon.
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SANITARY DRINKING FACILITIES•
Some arrangement for suppyling drinking water must be made in every place
of employment. A fundamental requirement for such water is that it be free
from harmful bacteria-it must be suitable for drinking. In addition it must be
served in a sanitary way to prevent its contamination.
*
*
*
*
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Sanitary service
Either bubbling fountains meeting the following standards 5 or individual
paper cups furnished free by employer.
1. Fountain shall be of impervious material, as vitreous china, porcelain,
enameled cast iron, other metals, or stoneware.
2. Jet shall issue from nozzle of nonoxidizing, impervious material set at an
angle from the vertical. Nozzle and every opening in pipe or conductor leading
to nozzle shall be above edge of bowl, so that nozzle or opening will not be flooded
if drain from bowl becomes clogged.
N OTE.-It is understood that the angle be such that the water can neither
fall back nor be forced onto the point of discharge. The Women's Bureau desires
to make this very emphatic.
3. Nozzle shall be protected by nonoxidizing guards to prevent mouth or nose
of drinker from coming in contact with nozzle.
4. Jet of water shall not touch guard.
5. Bowl of fountain shall be free from corners difficult to clean or collecting dirt.
6. Bowl shall be so proportioned as to prevent unnecessary splashing.
7. Drain from fountain shall not have direct physical connection to waste
pipe unless trapped.
8. Water-supply pipe shall have adjustable valve fitted with loose key or
automatic valve permitting regulation of rate of flow of water to fountain so that
valve manipulated by drinker will merely turn water on and off.
9. Height at drinking level shall be convenient to most persons using fountain.
Step-like elevations may be provided for children.
10. Waste opening and pipe shall be large enough to carry off water promptly.
Opening shall have strainer.
Tests of the sanitation of drinking fountains show that all types of vertical-jet
fountains are easily contaminated and retain disease germs for some time and that
many angle-jet fountains may be contaminated by improper use. The American
Public Health Association's standards for the design and construction of drinking
fountains list the features that are essential for their sanitation. The majority
of the State laws and regulations on the matter of drinking facilities do little more
than prohibit the use of the common cup.
*
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*
*
*
*
*
The Women's Bureau in all its surveys of conditions of employment has studied
the types of drinking facilities offered to employees. Of 1,506 establishments
inspected in 21 States the facilities were angle-jet fountains throughout in only 49.
Findings on drinking facilities from Women's Bureau surveys, 1923-29
Number of States surveyed ___ __ ______________________
21
Number of establishments ___ ____ ___ ________________ __
1,506
Number of employees ___ ___ __ ________________ __ ______ 266,000
'From Women's Bureau bulletin, Sanitary Drinking Facilities with Special Reference to Drinking
Fountains. 1921.
, 1J£1;,,
1 Summarized from Essential Features in the- Design of Sanitary Drinking Fountains, final report of the
Joint committee on plumbing of the public health engineering section of the American Public Health Asso
ciation and the Conference of State Sanitary Engineers, October 1930. U.S. Public Health Service,
Public Health Reports, vol. 46, No. 4, Jan. 23, 1931, pp. 170-171.
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L EGHE:
LLEGE
OCCUPATIONAL POISONING AND HAZARDS FROM CERTAIN
FORMS OF SHOE DRESSINGS 6
Cases of illness believed to be due to preparations used at a shoe shop were
brought to the attention of the board of health in March by a health officer, who
submitted for exammation a number of specimens of fluids under suspicion
of being responsible. These preparations are used in the manufacture of white
shoes. As, alm6st simultaneously with this complaint, a similar one was received
from a shop situated in another part of the State and also involving the use of
white shoe dressings, the matter was deemed worthy of a special inquiry.
In both instances the illnesses were described as involving headache, giddiness,
nausea, and in some instances the vomiting of bile, and collapse while at the bench.
Disability continued for a day or two, and upon return to work there were recurrences of the ailment. While some were but slightly affected, others were out,
off and on, persistently, in one case this being said to have continued for several
weeks. Two workers were said to have abandoned this line of employment in
consequence. All were engaged upon white shoe work. ~o disturbances of
vision were reported.
In connection with the investigation made, 23 shops, located in 6 cities and
towns, were visited. Conditions as regards ventilation were noted, the various
preparations employed were casually examined for their general character, and
21 samples were taken for analysis. Interrogations were also made as to the
occurrence of illnesses. At most of the shops there were prompt denials on the
part of the superintendent or foreman that there had been any sickness and there
was, naturally, some reluctance in evidence on the part of the employees to discuss
the matter, although a number of these did not hesitate to state that there had
been at times cases such as here described.
•
Aside from the two shops involved by the complaints, it was admitted by the
officials in a number of instances that they had occasionally had a little trouble
of this kind, but nothing apparently of serious or any extensive nature. A few
acknowledged that they had had re·ason to become suspicious of certain preparations, and in consequence had ceased using them. It was also pointed out thatas is well known-some workers have an idiosyncrasy which causes them to be
affected by the vapors of certain fluids, generally recognized as not appreciably
toxic in the atmospheric concentrations such as would exist under these conditions, and which seem to in no wise disturb the average worker.
At one of the shops it was admitted that every one of the employees engaged
in the dressing of white shoes- a dozen or more-had recently been acutely
ill with the symptoms referred to, which cases promptly ceased with the installation of a ventilating fan and the adoption of a different make of "cleaner."
At the other shop involved there had been 8 cases of this character during the
week prior to this inspection, and 7 in the week preceding that. While the
manager protested that "the same cleaner" had been used for the past 8 years,
with no trouble hitherto, the latter was not borne out by the statements of some
of the employees, and it was also pointed out by the foreman that during the
past few weeks more white shoes had been manufactured than in any similar
period hitherto.
It should be noted that these sicknesses occurred at the season of the year
when, with the wi,nter heating still on, the outside temperature had moderated
extensively, although still too cold to render working by an open window comfortable. Under the circumstances, rather high shop temperatures tended to
prevail at this time, and atmospheric conditions were not as good as they doubtless
would be either during normal winter weather or with the arrival of the summer
season. For the most part, conditions as regards ventilation were found to be
fair to very good, that of a number of the shops of modern type being excellent.
In a few, involving notably some of the older wooden buildings of nonmodern
construction, the air was oppressive, the conditions in this respect being poor.
6
Howard, Charles D . In Health, issued monthly by New Hampshire State Board of Health, June 1930.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE
In a few instances ventilating fans were found in use, and undoubtedly such
use could, with profit to the workers, be materially extended, particularly in
those rooms where volatile fluids are utilized.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
The part of the shop here concerned is what is known as the treeing room,
where the shoes are shaped, cleaned, and given their final finish prior to packing
for shipment. This work is done on special forms, the operator applying the
"cleaner" and finish with a sponge or stick, the fluids being, in a majority of
instances, contained in open basins standing beside the machine, and the face
of the operator necessarily brought rather closely to his work. In consequence
the worker gets the full benefit of the fumes evaporating, not only from the shoe
but from the open pan beside him.
The investigation showed that a considerable variety of volatile fluids is involved in this work, many of these being highly inflammable, and some of them
recognized as toxic in character. Denatured alcohol and carbon tetrachloride
are common. The latter while itself noninflammable, is generally mixed in varying proportions with one or more other fluids that are inflammable, such as
naphtha, ether, acetone, and alcohol, and occasionally carbon disulphide and
benzene (benzol). The two latter, however-the vapors of which are quite toxicare more generally employed on rubber work. No preparation containing benzene
was encountered in this investigation, and but one was found containing carbon
disulphide, although all of the samples containing volatile substances were
examined for this compound by a test found to be readily capable of detecting
as little as 1 percent. At some of the shops preparations containing amyl acetate
(banana oil) were found in use. An apparently popular combination, sometimes
mixed by the operator himself, is one involving carbon tetrachloride, naphtha,
and denatured alcohol or acetone, in equal parts. Most of the carbon tetrachloride-containing preparations encountered were, despite the presence of this
compound, very inflammable, although with a few ignition did not occur until
slightly warmed.
However, at perhaps a majority of the shops carbon-tetrachloride containing
preparations are not being used at present, which is well. Most of the combinations employed in this connection carry a white suspension, analysis showing the
latter to be in• some instances white clay, in others zinc oxide, and in many, a
mixture of zinc oxide and barium sulphate is represented. One consisted of
magnesium carbonate. All of these are harmless. Lead was absent from all
samples.
Many of the preparations contained a vegetable gum; Some involved an
emulsion which included borax and shellac, or a similar substance, with water.
A number contained sodium phosphate, and one preparation involved nothing
more than a solution of this alkali. One sample represented an alcoholic solution of soap with a little zinc white. The sample found to contain carbon disulphide, used occasionally as an "oil remover", was also heavily loaded with ether,
the base being a stringy, rubberlike substance soluble in chloroform and similar
to tire cement.
Up to a few years ago shoe dressings were quite commonly scented with oil of
mirbane (nitrobenzene). The present apparent elimination of this compound,
which is highly toxic and the inhalation of the vapors of which is known to have
been responsible for deaths and many cases of serious illness, is a fortunate circumstance. Certain aniline compounds employed in some varieties of shoe
dressings have also given serious trouble, but nothing of this character was
encountered in this investigation. At the present time the most popular "flavoring" for these preparations is oil of sassafras, but oil of citronella is also not
uncommonly employ ed. Such oils, however, were not found present in any of
the types of cleaners involving volatile solvents, their use apparently being confined to those based upon water emulsions and solutions.
Authorities recognize that the inhalation of various volatile substances, when
in substantial concentration, can serve to produce definite manifestations of
poisoning. Thus naphtha causes an intoxication not unlike that due to alcohol,
known industrially as "naphtha jag." Common ether, inhaled in quantity,
produces a similar intoxication and in those regularly exposed to its vapors there
are evidences of health impairment after a few months, particularly in women.
Amyl acetate (banana oil) tends to produce irritation of the eyes and of the
mucous membranes of the nose and throat, also headache and dizziness, but is
not regarded as seriously toxic.
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APPENDIXES
99
The vapors of carbon disulphide and of benzene (benzol) are, even in low concentrations, actively poisonous, and workers exposed to these vapors soon experience grave health impairment. Continued inhalation of undiluted methyl (wood)
alcohol by workers produces headache, nausea, and vomiting, together with the
characteristic disturbance of vision. However, what is sold under the name of
completely denatured alcohol now contains but 4 percent of methanol, and in
this concentration exposure to the vapors is not likely to have serious consequences. Acetone seems to be given a clean bill of health by the authorities,
although two workers assured the writer that they find the fumes of this compound more disagreeable than those of either naphtha or carbon tetrachloride,
and that they will not employ this if avoidable.
Carbon tetrachloride is not mentioned in the earlier works on toxicology and
occupational poisoning, and it seems to be since the war that its toxic properties
have come to be recognized. This is due largely to the fact that it is only within
the past decade that tetrachloride has come into extensive industrial use, having
now practically supplanted the much more poisonous and very highly inflammable carbon disulphide. At first it was assumed that poisonous manifestations
from tetrachloride might be due to disulphide, present as an impurity. Apparently, however, that, as now manufactured, is ·practically free from this compound. At least none of the samples examined in connection with this investigation showed any substantial traces of this contamination.
One death is known to have resulted from the use of a hair shampoo containing
tetrachloride. The latter is recognized as having a narcotic action similar to
chloroform, but in addition causes convulsions and is said to be more injurious
to the heart, as well as having a more destructive effect upon muscle. Some
experiments by Waller and Veley showed it to have double the toxicity of chloroform. According to Lehmann, workers using tetrachloride may suffer from
mental dullness, confusion, and anesthesia, but in many factories where there is
good ventilation no ill effects have been noted. It is more irritant to the respiratory tract than is chloroform and workers are said to complain of irritation of
the nose and throat, also of a tendency to nausea and giddiness.
There would seem to be little room for question that of the four solvents most
commonly employed by shoe workers-ether, naphtha, acetone, and carbon
tetrachloride--the latter is distinctly the most toxic, and the long continued
inhalation of its vapors under poor conditions of ventilation can safely be held
responsible for the manifestations cited at the beginning of this article. At one
of the shops involving a complaint, it was noted that as many as 21 employees
were engaged in the treeing room at the operation of white-shoe finishing. Windows were all closed against these men and the air was oppressive. Two days
prior to the inspection the use of the tetrachloride cleaner had been discontinued,
but the odor of this compound in the packing room, where a considerable quantity
of tetrachloride-cleaned stock was awaiting shipment, was noted as pronounced.
In conclusion, it can be stated that the illnesses referred to were directly in
consequence of the use of preparations containing carbon tetrachloride, with
poor ventilation as a contributing cause.
While the use of this compound should present some advantage as tending to
offset the fire hazard due to such substances as ether and naphtha, yet the combinations as at present actually employed are in most cases quite inflammable.
In general, the use of tetrachloride is to be discouraged, where found avoidable. In no case should preparations containing this compound be employed
in the absence of efficient ventilation. For the latter purpose the use of a fan
system would seem to be called for, and this should be provided anyway in those
shops where the natural ventilation is poor.
The use of special type closed working containers for fluids the vapors of
which are inflammable or toxic should be extended as far as practicable, and the
open pans abandoned.
Where there are occ_urrences of illness ·while at work, these should be accepted
by the management as affording ground for suspicion that the ventilation
is defective, or some other working condition faulty. Managements are liable
at law for the maintenance of working conditions which may cause health
impairment.
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SHOE INDUSTRY IN NEW HAMSPHIRE
The following quoted by the State board of health,7 has to do with
the regulation by New Hampshire of the manufacture and sale of
iiuflammable polishes:
STOVE AND OTHER INFLAMMABLE POLISHES
[Ch. 149, General Laws, 1933]
This law prohibits the mam1facture and keeping for sale, for domestic use, of
any stove polish, regardless of package size, which fl.ashes at a temperature
below 120° F., open-cut test. It also prohibits the manufacture and sale of
any other form of polish, for household use, which fails to conform to this test,
in packages of less than 1 quart. ·Inflammable polishes (other than stove polish)
' may be sold in larger packages, but these must bear the legend, DANGEROUS.
INFLAMMABLE COMPOUND. Keep from fire, heat, and lights.
1 New Hampshire Board of Health. Sanitary food laws and regulations, together with reference to
[various] laws. Concord, N.H. November 1930.
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